ISSN 1362-0436
Career Development International Volume 7, Number 5, 2002
Mentoring Guest Editors: David Megginson, Bob Garvey and Paul Stokes
This issue is part of a comprehensive multiple access information service comprising:
Paper format Career Development International includes seven issues in traditional paper format. The contents of this issue are detailed below.
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Contents
258 Access to Career Development International online
292 Mentoring and motivational versatility: an exploration of reversal theory
259 Abstracts & keywords 261 Guest editorial
Section 1: Academic papers 262 Formal entrepreneurial mentoring: the efficacy of third party managed programs Leonard Bisk
Michael J. Apter and Stephen Carter
296 AIB’s learning and development programme for graduates – a case study of a strategic initiative Judy Murphy
300 A study of the mentoring scheme at Cheltenham and Gloucester College of Higher Education: issues of equity and justice Clare Hetherington
271 Mentoring at the Halifax plc (HBOS) – a small beginning in a large organisation
Section 3: Conclusion
Bob Garvey and Kevin Galloway
279 Mentor supervision and development – exploration of lived experience
305 Creating patterns of meaning: a collaborative approach to sensemaking Liz Borredon and Anthony Blake
Roger Barrett
Section 4 Section 2: Practitioner papers 310 News 284 Coaching for a change with Vodafone
312 On the Net
John Eaton and Duncan Brown
314 Events diary 288 The smarter they are the harder they fail Diane Newell
315 Awards for Excellence
Abstracts & keywords
Formal entrepreneurial mentoring: the efficacy of third party managed programs Leonard Bisk Keywords Entrepreneurialism, Mentoring Addresses the effectiveness of the matching process of third party managed entrepreneurial mentoring programs. The role of government in encouraging enterprise development has been the subject of much debate. Examines one frequently utilized component of development agency involvement in assisting entrepreneurs – matching mentors and entrepreneurs. Entrepreneurs, who were assigned mentors by Ireland’s industrial development agency, responded to a mail questionnaire. Evaluates their satisfaction with the mentoring relationship, and their perception of the effectiveness of their assigned mentors. The results suggest the entrepreneurs’ age and education are factors that impact on whether they benefited from the engagement. The initial findings also suggest that mentors need not have experience in the industry of their mentee for the entrepreneur to benefit from the interaction. Also discusses sociocultural issues in the mentoring process and how they might impact the selection of a formal versus an informal entrepreneurial mentoring program by an economic development agency.
Mentoring at the Halifax plc (HBOS) – a small beginning in a large organisation Bob Garvey and Kevin Galloway Keywords Mentoring, Large companies
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This paper offers a description of mentoring within the context of a large organisation. Mentoring is increasingly employed in many occupational settings in relation to induction, career development and change. It is becoming recognised on both sides of the Atlantic as a highly effective human resource development process. Examples of mentoring activity can be found in many diverse organisations – the voluntary sector, schools, the private and public sector, large and small businesses. The Halifax plc is one such organisation and we aim to offer a description of the beginnings of mentoring within the Halifax. We present a detailed account of how the mentoring arrangements were started, matched and developed, and attempt to draw some early conclusions from this ongoing process.
Mentor supervision and development – exploration of lived experience Roger Barrett Keywords Mentoring, Supervision, Continuing professional development The article explores the process of mentor development and the benefits that can accrue, both to the mentor and the mentee. Using personal experience, underpinned by theory, the author sets out to research the fundamental question posed – ‘‘How can a mentor effectively help another to explore their hidden behaviours and patterns of action, if they have not done that for themselves?’’ The use of supervision as a means to support mentors in their work is discussed and examined. The framework described places a value on the need for individual mentors to be able to understand their own process when working with a mentee, thus ensuring that mentees will receive the best possible support themselves.
Coaching for a change with Vodafone John Eaton and Duncan Brown Keywords Coaching, Organizational change, Organizational culture Discusses the organizational culture of Vodafone in the mid-1990s and the company’s attempts to bring about organizational change. In an attempt to change the culture from one of ‘‘command and control’’ to one of ‘‘coaching and collaboration’’, a coaching programme was designed. This coaching programme is examined in some detail and the broader implications of coaching in the cultural change process are discussed.
The smarter they are the harder they fail Diane Newell Keywords Coaching, Mentoring, Management development, Leadership A common issue in leadership development is the high flyers who reach a position where their lack of ‘‘soft’’ skills hampers their performance and proves a barrier to their continued progression to higher levels of responsibility. This paper sets out some observation and learning of my own and my colleagues, gained from our work in coaching and mentoring leaders, and incorporates the insights gained from an interactive workshop at the EMC in November 2001.
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Abstracts & keywords Career Development International 7/5 [2002] 259–260
Mentoring and motivational versatility: an exploration of reversal theory
Creating patterns of meaning: a collaborative approach to sensemaking
Michael J. Apter and Stephen Carter
Liz Borredon and Anthony Blake
Keywords Psychology, Mentoring
Keywords Mentoring, Conferences
The present paper is intended as an exploration of the relevance of reversal theory for mentoring. In principle, reversal theory would appear to offer some major strengths in this respect and these strengths are discussed. Reversal theory itself is briefly described and, finally, implications for mentoring are discussed.
The objective of the final plenary session of the 8the European Mentoring Conference was to establish a new understanding of mentoring through a collaborative approach to creating patterns of meaning about the subject. We wanted to use participants’ insights from the sessions they attended. Each insight could then be seen as an ‘‘ingredient’’ or as a ‘‘particle’’, ‘‘cell’’ or ‘‘molecule’’ of meaning that, when seen in relation to other such ‘‘molecules’’, would evoke a deeper insight into what we already recognise as a complex mentoring process. Clearly phrases such as ‘‘molecules of meaning’’ are relevant to approaching the science of making patterns of meaning and chosen because such expressions are not part of our everyday vocabulary. They have us stretch our attention and imagination, and are helpful in the stages of a methodology suggested to participants. This paper is an account of what participants did leading up to the final plenary, what we as facilitators did in preparation for this session, what happened during the plenary and what emerged as a result of collaborative sense making.
AIB’s learning and development programme for graduates – a case study of a strategic initiative Judy Murphy Keywords Human resource development, Retention, Learning, Case studies This paper describes AIB’s Learning and Development Programme (LDP) for graduates, developed in 1999. AIB saw it as imperative to ensure that the investment being made by the organization on the recruitment front was well used to ensure that graduates were developed and retained within the organisation and that the return on investment was maximised. The LDP had to be compatible with the existing culture of the organisation and support both the short-term objectives of the individual and long-term business needs of the organisation. The research into, implementation of, and outcomes following the introduction of the LDP are discussed.
A study of the mentoring scheme at Cheltenham and Gloucester College of Higher Education: issues of equity and justice Clare Hetherington Keywords Mentoring, Human resource development, Case studies This paper discusses the mentoring scheme developed at the Cheltenham and Gloucester College of Higher Education. The author, while working on her MA dissertation, was asked to join the College Mentor Scheme Working Group, which had been formed to improve the mentoring scheme. The specific questions addressed, issues raised by managers, the remit of the group and research conducted by the author are all discussed. Findings and specific recommendations are also presented and, finally, more general conclusions are discussed.
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Guest editorial
About the Guest Editors David Megginson, Bob Garvey and Paul Stokes are based at the Mentoring and Coaching Research Group, School of Business and Finance, Sheffield Hallam University, Sheffield, UK.
This special edition of CDI features papers presented at the 8th European Mentoring Conference at Cambridge University’s Robinson College Executive Development Centre, near St Neots on 15-16 November 2001. The papers give an impression of the rich range of issues that are being addressed in the mentoring community at present. This editorial will not talk about the themes that emerged from the conference as one of the other contributions does that (Borredon and Blake). As the final plenary of the conference, Liz Borredon and Tony Blake led those present through a rigorous process of identifying the issues emerging over the previous two days and articulating their meaning. You will see that many of these considerations are around the organic, holistic nature of mentoring, and that there remains a strong interest in the processes of mentoring. Among the other papers there are several case studies. Judy Murphy’s and Eaton and Brown’s papers both describe large company schemes where there are a complex range of HRD interventions of which mentoring or coaching are an integrated part. The Vodafone case explicitly draws a bridge showing how coaching integrates development processes and this presents a useful perspective for those working with career processes in organisations. Garvey and Galloway’s paper, on the other hand, focuses specifically on the mentoring intervention in their organisation – HBOS. They give full qualitative details of responses to their evaluation processes. These are then discussed and some general issues teased out. Clare Hetherington’s case from higher education mentoring is a courageous and candid account of a less than successful intervention. This relatively negative case is useful in highlighting pitfalls and principles to be observed, witnessing the value placed by readers over the years on the case study (‘‘Let the actions match the words: engineering UK’’) by Garvey in Megginson and Clutterbuck (1995, pp. 111-123). Among the shorter papers, Apter and Carter use their strong theoretical framework (reversal theory) to illuminate mentoring practice. Diane Newell examines
the issue of emotional intelligence and the difficulties of teaching smart people how to learn. This is a persistent theme of mentoring conferences – see for example Fitzpatrick (1995), Turner (1995) and Clutterbuck and Megginson (1999). This paper adds an account of explicit processes that can be used to address the issue. Barrett started as a relatively isolated voice bringing the attention of the mentoring community to supervision issues. In this paper he elaborates his earlier theoretical contributions, including insights from other fields such as counselling. He also offers data from a modest survey of mentors’ supervision arrangements, which highlights how much further we still have to go. A report of a major research project is given in Bisk’s contribution. Bisk’s survey of a large mentoring scheme for small and medium businesses in the Republic of Ireland offers findings on the tricky issues of helping entrepreneurs. He focuses particularly on the matching process, and discusses intervening variables that can influence its success. The issue of the kind of experience that entrepreneurial mentees value is specially significant. The paper also adds to debate on the important research issue of the impacts of formal and informal mentoring. David Megginson, Bob Garvey and Paul Stokes
References Clutterbuck, D. and Megginson, D. (1999), ‘‘Emotional intelligence in executive mentoring’’, Proceedings of the 6th European Mentoring Conference, Cambridge, 25-26 November, Sheffield Hallam University, Sheffield, pp. 98-103. Fitzpatrick, C. (1995), ‘‘Mentoring for tough guys’’, Proceedings of the 4th European Mentoring Conference, London, 6-7 November, Sheffield Hallam University, Sheffield, pp. 66-75. Megginson, D. and Clutterbuck, D. (1995), Mentoring in Action, Kogan Page, London. Turner, M. (1995), ‘‘Executive mentoring on purpose’’, Proceedings of the 4th European Mentoring Conference, London, 6-7 November, Sheffield Hallam University, Sheffield, pp. 181-9.
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Section 1: Academic papers Formal entrepreneurial mentoring: the efficacy of third party managed programs
Leonard Bisk University of Limerick, Limerick, Ireland
Keywords Entrepreneurialism, Mentoring
Abstract Addresses the effectiveness of the matching process of third party managed entrepreneurial mentoring programs. The role of government in encouraging enterprise development has been the subject of much debate. Examines one frequently utilized component of development agency involvement in assisting entrepreneurs – matching mentors and entrepreneurs. Entrepreneurs, who were assigned mentors by Ireland’s industrial development agency, responded to a mail questionnaire. Evaluates their satisfaction with the mentoring relationship, and their perception of the effectiveness of their assigned mentors. The results suggest the entrepreneurs’ age and education are factors that impact on whether they benefited from the engagement. The initial findings also suggest that mentors need not have experience in the industry of their mentee for the entrepreneur to benefit from the interaction. Also discusses sociocultural issues in the mentoring process and how they might impact the selection of a formal versus an informal entrepreneurial mentoring program by an economic development agency.
Career Development International 7/5 [2002] 262–270 # MCB UP Limited [ISSN 1362-0436] [DOI 10.1108/13620430210440082]
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Introduction
benefits from the government supported development agency’s random assignment of mentors. The data support the continued involvement of government and quasigovernment agencies in providing this service to emerging enterprises and established businesses. This paper should be viewed as a work in progress and in context. The plan is to engage in in-depth interviews with some of the respondents and their mentors.
National, regional and local economic development agencies use entrepreneurial mentoring as one ingredient in a wide assortment of assistance programs to entrepreneurs and small business owners. Formal entrepreneurial mentoring, where an agency engages in pairing mentors and mentees, is examined in this research. Mentors (used interchangeably here with coaches, advisers and counselors) and their prote´ge´s (mentees, mentorees) have been studied at length and in detail within the context of organizational development and human resource management, euphemistically called organizational mentoring (corporations, institutions and government) (Caruso, 1992). Within the larger organizational mentoring category, mentoring of women in business has yielded a body of research of its own (Merriam, 1983). Formal mentoring of small and medium sized business (SME) owner/managers, has been the subject of less critical analysis. Deakins et al. (1999, 1998, 1997) engaged in case study research and measured increase in revenues and payroll as an indicator of success of a program in Scotland, acknowledging that ‘‘star performers’’ distorted their findings. The Chrisman et al. (1995, 1994, 1985) studies of the Small Business Development Center Counseling Programs seek to find ‘‘a more rigorous approach that both achieves the objective of measuring economic impact and can be feasibly implemented’’. This paper reports on the results of one component of a doctoral thesis, that compares formal and informal mentoring of entrepreneurs in Ireland. Summarized here are the results of a questionnaire mailed to participants in Enterprise Ireland’s Mentor Network, of which 104 (26 percent) responded out of a sample of 400. The preliminary results suggest that Irish entrepreneurs accrued
The role of government in stimulating economic development through the encouragement of entrepreneurial effort is extremely problematic and to many may even seem counterintuitive. Governments and government agencies have tried many different approaches to enterprise development including, but not limited to: low interest loans, grants and subsidies; education programs and retraining; business incubators, networking schemes, mentoring programs; and easing government regulations (Howard, 1990). Even before entrepreneurship became a formal field of study, academics and bureaucrats sought to identify and study potential entrepreneurs (Fleming, 1999; Hull et al., 1980). The effort to determine effective devices economic development professionals might make available to entrepreneurs, and how to measure their effectiveness, has been equally challenging (Bennett et al., 1999; Binns and Kirkham, 1997). One increasingly popular component of economic development offerings has been entrepreneurial mentoring programs (Shane and Kolvereid, 1995; Birley and Westhead, 1992). In one form or another such programs have been in operation since the early 1990s. In the USA the dominant programs are the Small Business Development Centers (SBDC)
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Relevant literature
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Counseling programs and the Service Corps of Retired Executives (SCORE). In Europe the dominant programs are the UK’s Business Link – Professional Business Advisor (PBA) Programme and Ireland’s Mentor Network. The SBDC program and the PBA program have been evaluated in a variety of longitudinal and quantitative studies (Chrisman and Katrishen, 1994, 1995; Chrisman et al., 1985, Deakins et al., 1997, 1998, 1999). Remarkably, there are no studies evaluating the effectiveness of SCORE, a volunteer organization that does receive some nominal funding from the Small Business Administration (SBA). In addition to these well known and high profile initiatives, many local economic development agencies have either initiated or are contemplating entrepreneurial mentoring programs. These agencies have little or no basis for determining criteria for selection of the mentors, mentees or how to match them. On the other hand, mentoring within the organizational behavior and human resource fields (often referred to as organizational mentoring) has been researched and reported in depth (Caruso, 1992; Chao et al., 1992; Dreher and Ash, 1990; Fagenson, 1989; Kram, 1986; Merriam, 1983). In addition to the literature on organizational mentoring there is a small but growing industry of firms and organizations offering training or promoting various mentoring and executive coaching programs.
Terminology Mentoring is extremely complex and open to a diverse range of interpretations and applications. Its definition lies in Greek mythology, but modern mentoring may be viewed as a role modeling, someone who exerts considerable influence over his/her prote´ge´. Collin (1979) defines mentoring as, . . . a protected relationship in which learning and experimentation can occur, potential skills can be developed, and in which results can be measured in terms of competencies gained rather than curricular territory covered.
This would be a particularly rich definition in the context of the development of entrepreneurs. It implies a long-term relationship to allow time for experimentation and reflection, thereby allowing deep learning to occur (Graham and O’Neill, 1997). It is also worth considering one model of mentoring discussed by Stead and Wiggins (1994). This model proposes that mentoring is a generic process, in which the core process goals and transferable skills such as providing challenge and learning support may be
channeled to many different contexts. Stead and Wiggins (1994) call this type ‘‘consultant mentors’’. The appeal of this concept with regard to new firm formation is the added value that this type of mentor brings to the relationship, including providing the entrepreneur with access to the mentor’s network. Two-thirds of the respondents to the questionnaire reported businesses that were two or more years old. This response has several implications, the principal being that even firms which may not be considered ‘‘new’ benefit from mentors. The small business adviser or mentor brings a dynamic web of resources in terms of their broad business knowledge and personal and professional networks. Taken with the definition offered above, this would suggest that mentoring would be placed at the longer term, collaborative end of the advice continuum (Graham and O’Neill, 1997). The following are abbreviated definitions of frequently used terms in this paper: . Entrepreneurs. These are defined as any small or medium sized business owner/ manager receiving financial or management assistance from Enterprise Ireland. . Mentees. These are the self same entrepreneurs who are participants in the mentor programme. (Some programs use the terms prote´ge´s or mentorees, which are interchangeable in this paper.) . Mentors. These (sometimes referred to in other programs as coaches, advisers, counselors) are the individuals the mentor programme has assigned to provide advice to its clients. . Psychosocial support. In the context of entrepreneurial mentoring this refers to value systems, self-worth, personal advice, and issues of interpersonal relationships. . Career related support. In the context of entrepreneurial mentoring this deals with areas of management – finance, marketing, competition, intellectual property rights, etc. . Formal mentoring. This is the process of a third party (company, institution, agency) matching mentors and mentees. . Informal mentoring. This is the process of individuals (either the mentors or mentees) making the selection on their own, even if a third party has encouraged the process.
Formal versus informal mentoring of entrepreneurs Given that this paper reports on preliminary results of research into formal and informal
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mentoring of entrepreneurs, some time and space should be allocated for a discussion of the topic. Table I illustrates the various elements or stages of the entrepreneurial mentoring process, with columns for both informal and formal mentoring. The table begins with ‘‘awareness’’. In a socio-cultural environment such as Ireland which does not encourage entrepreneurship, views failure in highly negative terms and does not foster individuals expressing their feelings, most entrepreneurs will not seek help unless there is intervention from a third party. We might paraphrase by noting that formal mentoring is better than no mentoring at all. Ragins and Cotton (1999) note, ‘‘Many organizations recognize the important benefits of mentoring and have attempted to replicate informal mentoring relationships by creating formal mentoring programs’’. They go on to observe that the ‘‘difference between formal and informal mentoring relationships is that informal mentoring relationships develop spontaneously, whereas formal mentoring relationships develop with organizational assistance or intervention . . . and the formal relationships are usually of much shorter duration’’. The second stage of the process is contact. There is extensive literature on entrepreneurial networks. Birley (1985) reported on the extent to which entrepreneurs interact with the networks in their local environment. Birley’s research alludes to entrepreneurs not availing themselves of available resources in their community. Aldrich and Zimmer (1986) discuss entrepreneurship through social networks. Hansen (1995) discusses entrepreneurial networks and new organization growth. Birley (1985) Aldrich and Zimmer (1986), and Hansen (1995) all view entrepreneurial networks from the perspective of US society. If, however, one tries to apply network theory to the Irish perspective, the Irish culture is itself a barrier. Irish entrepreneurs have
networks but appear to be less willing to tap into their networks. Therefore, even if the Irish entrepreneur has overcome the first stage of the process, awareness, he/she may not be willing to tap into the existing or available network (Cohen et al., 1998) and therefore not move to the second stage, contact. This is where the value of the unaffiliated external mentor appointed by a third party may be beneficial. The third stage of the process is frequency, which is rarely mentioned in the mentoring literature.
The Irish economy – a brief overview In order to appreciate the context of this research, the following is a short description of the current economic climate. Ireland has been characterized as the ‘‘Celtic Tiger’’, a not so subtle effort to compare it to the ‘‘Asian Tiger’’ economies – South Korea, Thailand, Singapore and Malaysia. It is true that Ireland has the healthiest and most robust economy in the European Union. The Economic and Social Research Institute of Ireland (ESRI) noted in its Quarterly Economic Commentary, December 2000: Economic growth looks to be even stronger than last year. We estimate that real GDP growth for 2000 will be 9.9 percent moderating to a still robust 7.5 percent in 2001. In real GNP terms the respective growth rates are 8.6 and 6.6 percent in 2000 and 2001 (McCoy et al., 2000).
There are many unique circumstances that contribute to Ireland’s current economic situation. Ireland was the beneficiary of massive EU subsidies throughout the late 1970s and 1980s. In fact, 2001 was the first year Ireland became a net contributor to the EU. Ireland is one of the smallest economies in Europe and was further behind the original EU states and may have ‘‘leapfrogged’’ stages of economic development experienced by other EU members.
Table I Elements or stages of the entrepreneurial mentoring process
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Stage/function
Informal
Formal
Awareness Initiation Contact Engagement Frequency Term Comfort level Expectations Termination
Felt need for advice Approach network Network referral Informal Random, as needed Indefinite (two to ten years) Immediate Stress relief, encouragement Outgrow mentor
Felt need for advice and/or seeking assistance Approach third party agency Third party selected Formal meetings Fixed and random Definite (third party funded) Evolving Suspect, grant aid, loan(s) End of engagement
Leonard Bisk Formal entrepreneurial mentoring: the efficacy of third party managed programs Career Development International 7/5 [2002] 262–270
Ireland is one of the two EU members where English is the official language. That fact, coupled with economic incentives and the desire of US firms to have a ‘‘beachhead’’ in Europe, was certainly a contributing catalyst to Ireland’s economic growth. Additional factors were a high unemployment rate, a relatively non-confrontational workforce as well as one that is young and well educated; all of which contributed to American and other multinational companies setting up operations in Ireland (de Pillis and Reardon, 2001). The above discussion assists in explaining Ireland’s economic development. However, parallel to the development of corporate presence in Ireland there has also emerged a small, indigenous cadre of SMEs. Their emergence and growth has been sufficient to justify interest in assistance programs offered by the Irish Government to assist and encourage these enterprises. Nevertheless, all this economic activity has not yet resulted in an explosion of entrepreneurial activity. In fact, The Global Entrepreneurship Monitor (GEM) 2000 Executive Report indicates that among the 21 countries reporting, Ireland is next to last in both nascent firm prevalence and new firm prevalence. Less than one in 100 adults between the ages of 18 and 64 are engaged in entrepreneurial activity (versus the USA which has a rating of one in ten or the UK one in 33). Entrepreneurial mentoring programs, on their own, will never be the sole catalyst for growth in entrepreneurial activity, nor should they be expected to fulfil that role. The potential contribution of entrepreneurial mentoring programs is as a component of overall economic development. They are intended to reduce the failure rate and not increase the start-up rate. It is in this context that this paper explores formal mentoring in Ireland.
Formal mentoring in Ireland The principle organization in Ireland engaged in matching mentors and entrepreneurs is Enterprise Ireland (EI). The Mentor Network (MN), a division of EI, has matched over 5,000 enterprises with mentors during the past decade. Entrepreneurs seeking mentors come to the MN through a variety of channels, including local and regional development agency referrals, advertising programs of the MN, word of mouth recommendations and referrals from EI field staff. Mentors are developed through the ‘‘old boys’’ network of corporate managers and through some nominal
advertising. Nearly half of the mentors are retired individuals who were involved in upper level management of Irish subsidiaries of multi-national companies, formerly government owned businesses and private institutions such as banks. Additionally, there are mentors from the free professions (such as accountants) and some mentors who are still active in business. The MN pays the mentors a modest per diem fee for up to ten meetings with their mentees. This basically covers any out of pocket expenses they may incur and would not be a financial incentive for anyone to volunteer to be a mentor. Regional MN directors manage the matching of mentors and mentees. There are no formal criteria for the matching process and mentees can request a change if they do not feel the mentor is meeting their expectations. Another mentoring program, which some mentoring purists would consider a hybrid at best, is the PLATO Programme. The participants are organized into small groups, with a group leader being provided by a local large company. Over a thousand owner managers have been processed through the PLATO Programme since its inception in 1993. PLATO has subsequently been discontinued even though some of the groups continue to meet. Shannon Development has also engaged in its own mentoring program for businesses that would not otherwise qualify for Enterprise Ireland’s Mentor Network. Shannon Development has been the regional development agency in mid-west Ireland and was engaged in economic development even before Enterprise Ireland or its antecedents.
Methodology The questionnaire consists of 44 questions. The majority of the questions (39) are multiple-choice, requiring the respondent to check boxes. Some of the multiple-choice questions involve a single answer (i.e. yes or no; no mentor, one mentor, two mentors, three or more mentors). Other multiplechoice questions involve checking off all that apply (i.e. previous business experience – managed similar business, owned similar business, worked in unrelated business or industry, etc.) Several multiple-choice questions are set up as charts of characteristics or professions on five-point Likert scales (i.e. respondents are asked to characterize frequency of seeking advice from various professional or personal contacts, such as spouse and accountant;
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very often, often, sometimes, infrequently, never). Enterprise Ireland’s MN mailed 400 questionnaires to their clients with a cover letter from the director of the program, including a self-addressed, stamped envelope to the University of Limerick, Department of Marketing and Management. The MN database consists of over 5,000 participants over the past 12 years. The MN mailing was sent to 400 of its most recent participants. The MN mailing of 400 questionnaires yielded 104 responses (26 percent). No follow up letters or telephone calls were made to any of the recipients. The author did not have access to the names and addresses of the sample. As was noted earlier, the Chrisman and Deakins studies measured increases in revenues and/or increases in reported payroll taxes to measure the effectiveness of the respective programs they were examining. There is no quarrel with this approach; although there are so many other factors, which may contribute to increase in revenues, it would be difficult to attribute the ‘‘success’’ of these mentoring programs solely on the basis of this measure. Therefore, this study relies on the responses of the entrepreneurs themselves as the principal measure of success. The presumption a mentee retains his or her mentor after the formal engagement has terminated or that the mentee compensated the mentor beyond the per diem paid to the mentor by Enterprise Ireland reflect two potential indicators that the participants perceived benefit from the engagement. More specifically, and more subjectively, the respondents were asked, ‘‘Please describe one example of a recommendation/idea that your mentor gave you, that you implemented and benefited you or your business’’. Some of the responses to this question are noted in the findings. The length of a mentoring relationship is an important control variable that should be included in comparisons of formal and informal mentoring (Chao et al., 1992). As this study does not have a control group, the retention of the mentors by the entrepreneurs after the initial engagement period could, therefore, be one measure of the mentees’ perception of the efficacy of the mentoring program or at least the need for formal mentoring programs.
Hypotheses The extensive research on organizational mentoring and the recent Waters et al. (2001) study on entrepreneurial mentoring in
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Australia suggest that mentees receive decidedly more psychosocial support than career related support. The Waters paper reported on a formal mentoring program of start-up businesses. Career related support in the entrepreneurial context refers to direct management or business operations advice and access to the mentor’s networks, rather than advancement within an organization. Psychosocial support is essentially the same dynamic in both organizational and entrepreneurial mentoring. Even regarding the networking element of a mentoring relationship, it appears that entrepreneurs have their own technical or sector specific networks but lack the general business network, such as bankers, accountants, lawyers, etc. Entrepreneurs, especially those building businesses around some proprietary technology, may actually prefer their mentor to be from an unrelated business sector to preclude any ‘‘leakage’’ of the technology. Deakins et al. (1997) reported that some of the PBA clients indicated there was a need to match mentors and mentees with regard to knowledge and/or experience in the mentees’ business sector. However, mentoring is a dynamic process, therefore the following is posited: H1. The career related advice entrepreneurs seek from their mentors is primarily of a general business nature and not industry or sector specific. Therefore entrepreneurial mentors need not be experts in the business or industry of their mentee’s enterprise. The organizational literature includes an abundance of information and research on training programs for both mentors and prote´ge´s. A small industry has emerged to provide training books, videos, courses and workshops on training (Clutterbuck and Associates in England, HRD Press in the USA as examples). Here again entrepreneurial mentoring lags behind organizational mentoring. Neither SCORE, SBDC nor MN offer any training to either their clients or their mentors. Considering that mentoring in general is not a well-known concept in many countries and specifically within the business community, it is posited: H2. The success rate of entrepreneurial mentoring relationships would increase if mentors and mentees participate in an orientation program. When engaged in research that is either cross-cultural or where the researcher is from one culture and the data sample is from another culture, care should be taken not to impose cultural biases or to draw
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conclusions based on personal perspective. Given this caveat, it may be necessary to factor in consideration of entrepreneurial mentoring programs issues, which would not be relevant in an organizational mentoring environment. ‘‘. . . Irish culture and history may contain elements inhospitable to entrepreneurship’’ (de Pillis and Reardon, 2001). This caveat may be true for many other nationalities as well. In addition, it would be useful to understand whether the age of the entrepreneur and his or her educational level have any impact on their perceptions of the effectiveness of the mentoring engagement. Finally, the question of the age of the enterprise as a variable in the perception of the effectiveness of the engagement should be considered: ‘‘Do owner/managers of start-up enterprises perceive higher value in a formal mentoring engagement than do owner/ managers of enterprises in business for several years?’’: H3. Socio-cultural conditions, age and education of the mentee and age of the enterprise have a direct impact on the perceived benefits entrepreneurs accrue from their mentors and their acceptance of assigned mentors.
Findings This study does not use objective measurements to determine the success of the engagement as does Chrisman’s and Deakins’ studies which measure the increase in reported revenues or payroll taxes. Rather, the entrepreneur mentees themselves, through their responses to the various questions, have offered their perception of the value of the relationship (see Figures 1 and 2). Responses to two specific questions offer insight here, one question asks the respondents to offer an example of a recommendation their mentor provided, on which they acted and that yielded a benefit.
Figure 1 Q. 17: Main reason you do/did not have a mentor before
The other question asks the respondents to indicate whether they continued the engagement. Only 26 of the respondents described their mentors as entrepreneurs. The majority reported their mentors were either from the free professions (principally accountants) or retired executives from large institutions, divisions of multi-national firms or government companies. Of the respondents, 36 (n = 104) replied they never had a mentor prior to being assigned one by Enterprise Ireland. Several even wrote in an unanticipated response to a multiple-choice question that they had not been familiar with the concept prior to their involvement in the EI program, Ireland does not appear to have a tradition of seeking help from peers or associates, nor is there a strong culture of volunteerism. While the research has not yet been completed to confirm or deny this hypothesis, it is believed that socio-cultural issues may inhibit Irish (and many other cultural groups) entrepreneurs from seeking out informal mentors, thereby justifying the establishment and maintenance of a formal mentoring program (de Pillis and Reardon, 2001). Waters et al. (2001) found in their study of Australian mentees that the respondents received greater psychosocial support from their mentors than career related support. The responses from Irish entrepreneurs indicate that they neither sought nor received much psychosocial support. This variance between Australian and Irish entrepreneurs may be a result of the format of the questionnaires, the fact that the Australian sample consisted of start-up businesses versus the Irish sample that contained a mix, or it may be a socio-cultural issue. Of the respondents, 79 answered referral by Enterprise Ireland adviser or a local development agency to the question of what brought you to the Mentor Network. These responses strongly suggest that these clients would not have engaged in ‘‘self-seek’’. Deakins et al. (1998) in their ISBA paper discuss this issue quoting Kram who writes, ‘‘assigned relationships through formal programmes were found to be problematical’’. They go on to suggest ‘‘forced pairing’’ violates the true spirit of mentoring. In the absence of a culture of self-seeking or an indoctrination program into the benefits of having a mentor and even teaching entrepreneurs how to self-seek, EI’s MN has provided real value for both its clients and the taxpayers footing the bill. The question, ‘‘Please describe one example of a recommendation/idea that your
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mentor gave you, that you implemented and benefited you or your business’’, revealed very interesting data. Slightly more than half the respondents did not answer this question. Of those who did not answer, a third indicated that they were still in their engagement and could not report on anything specific at the point they were responding. The respondents, who answered this question in the affirmative offered insights with their responses of the needs of EI clients for basic management advice. The following is a random sample of the responses: . cash flow plan; . recommended preparation of an article on current project for publicity; . joined IMI (Irish Management Institute); . change price structure – margins were too small, made a huge difference to profits; . adaptation of existing plastic part for other uses; . monthly accounting and P&L; . stock control and traceability; . changed a process using steam to an infrared system, very successfully; . try other products; . to ask to see and meet with someone I had been sending brochures and letters to; . better record keeping; . advice to focus on product development; and . profit margin analysis of product line.
Conclusions The responses from the mentees in this study suggest that once they overcame the anxiety of talking about their businesses with their mentors they were prepared to maintain the
Figure 2 Q. 14: Frequency of advice by category
contact beyond the formal engagement period. Of the respondents 46 percent maintained a relationship with their mentors upon completion of the formal engagement, with or without compensation. The numbers may actually be higher as some of the respondents reported they were still working within the formal engagement period. It may be that the continued interaction with their mentors is a result of the fact that the respondents are still uncomfortable seeking advice and support from their networks even after they have realized benefits from the mentoring experience. In the 1997 study of Scottish entrepreneurs reported by Deakins et al., they found ‘‘that some clients on the support programme put forward a view that there may be scope for greater matching of mentors to client; either through the mentor’s sectoral experience, or gender’’. The responses from the Irish entrepreneurs in the present study seem to indicate that most of the advice sought is of a general nature and that the lack of sectoral experience is not a material barrier. Therefore, we can conclude that H1 has been supported by the responses (see Figure 3). Referring to the previous question ‘‘If you answered none or limited, is this a problem?’’ 11 answered yes and 66 answered no. Regarding H2, this requires additional research with a control group scenario of pairs of mentors and mentees who have gone through an orientation program compared to pairs who have not. Finally, considering H3, the responses to date support this as regards age and education of the entrepreneurs and age of the enterprise, but further testing of the data is required to confirm or deny this hypothesis. Regarding socio-cultural conditions, the analysis of a comparable sample from a different socio-cultural group will have to be completed to prove or disprove this hypothesis. Two-thirds of the respondents to the questionnaire reported their businesses were two or more years old and this response has several implications for both researchers and practitioners. The principal implication is that nascent entrepreneurs are as much in need of mentoring relationships as start-up entrepreneurs.
Considerations for future research The socio-cultural impact on entrepreneurial behavior has not been studied to any great extent. De Pillis and Reardon’s research and the initial findings of this study certainly suggest that, at least within the Irish context,
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there are some unique factors to be considered. Further research into other ethnic and national groups paralleling de Pillis and Reardon ought to be pursued to expand our knowledge. Research into the socio-cultural dimension as a major factor in crafting enterprise development programs may reveal the need for different approaches not only for mentoring programs but also for many other components of local economic development programs. One area to be considered, which has not been addressed either in this paper or in other research to date, is whether the research in organizational mentoring can be applied to entrepreneurial mentoring. Are the needs of entrepreneurs for advice and support different than the needs of individuals within corporations, educational and health institutions, and government agencies? Additionally, we might ask about the needs and skills of the mentors in organizations versus mentors of entrepreneurs. Allan et al. (1997) researched mentor motives in organizations but no research has been reported to date on mentor motives in entrepreneurial mentoring programs. These questions lead to the following hypotheses: H4. The needs of entrepreneurs for advice and support are different than those of an individual working within a hierarchical organization. H5. Mentors to entrepreneurs have different motivations and require different skill sets than mentors to prote´ge´s in hierarchical organizations. Another issue to be researched is the differing needs of start-up entrepreneurs versus those who have been in business for some time from the perspective of the personality and skill sets of the mentors. Do nascent entrepreneurs have different needs
Figure 3 Q. 12: Degree of knowledge/experience of mentor about mentee’s business/industry
of their mentors than start-up entrepreneurs, whether psychosocial or career related? Finally, we ought to find out whether a positive formal mentoring experience encourages entrepreneurs to ‘‘self-seek’’ informal mentor relationships and, if not, why.
References Aldrich, H. and Zimmer, C. (1986), ‘‘Entrepreneurship through social networks’’, The Art and Science of Entrepreneurship, in Sexton, D. and Smilor, R. (Eds), Ballinger Publishing, Cambridge, MA, pp. 3-23. Allen, T.D., Poteet, M.L. and Burroughs, S.M. (1997), ‘‘The mentor’s perspective: a qualitative inquiry and future research agenda’’, Journal of Vocational Behaviour, Vol. 51 No. 1, pp. 70-89. Bennett, R.J., Robson, P.J.A. and Bratton, W.J.A. (1999), ‘‘Business link: the influence of BL structure and local context on use and client assessment of impact and satisfaction’’, paper presented at 22nd ISBA Conference, Leeds, November, pp. 99-127. Binns, J. and Kirkham, J. (1997), ‘‘Do personal business advisers ‘add value’?’’, paper presented at the 20th ISBA National Conference, November, pp. 471-82. Birley, S. (1985), ‘‘The role of networks in the entrepreneurial process’’, Journal of Business Venturing, Vol. 1, pp. 107-17. Birley, S. and Westhead, P. (1992), ‘‘A comparison of new firms in ‘assisted’ and ‘non-assisted’ areas in Great Britain’’, Entrepreneurship & Regional Development, Vol. 4 No. 4, pp. 299-338. Caruso, R. (1992), ‘‘Mentoring and the development of social capital’’, Bradley, K. (Ed.), Human Resource Management: People and Performance, Dartmouth Publishing, Aldershot, pp. 64-73. Chao, G.T., Walz, P.M. and Gardner, P.D. (1992), ‘‘Formal and informal mentorships: a comparison on mentoring functions and contrast with nonmentored counterparts’’, Personnel Psychology, Vol. 45, pp. 619-36. Chrisman, J.J. and Katrishen, F. (1994), ‘‘The economic impact of small business development center counseling activities in the United States: 1990-1991’’, Journal of Business Venturing, Vol. 9, pp. 271-80. Chrisman, J.J. and Katrishen, F. (1995), ‘‘The small business development center programme in the USA: a statistical analysis of its impact on economic development’’, Entrepreneurship and Regional Development, Vol. 7, pp. 143-55. Chrisman, J.J., Nelson, F.R., Hoy, F. and Robinson, R.B. Jr (1985), ‘‘The impact of SBDC consulting activities’’, Journal of Small Business Management, 23 July, pp. 1-11. Cohen, B.-Z., Guttmann, D. and Lazar, A. (1998), ‘‘The willingness to seek help: a crossnational comparison’’, Cross-cultural
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Research, Sage, Thousand Oaks, CA, pp. 342-57. Collin, A. (1979), ‘‘Notes on some typologies of management development and the role of the mentor in the process of adaptation of the individual to the organisation’’, Personnel Review, Vol. 8 No. 1. de Pillis, E. and Reardon, K. (2001), ‘‘Culture personality, role models, persuasion: what makes one want to become an entrepreneur?’’, paper presented at the 2001 Academy of Management Conference, Washington, August, pp. 1-45. Deakins, D., Graham, L., Sullivan, R. and Whittam, G. (1997), ‘‘New venture support: an analysis of mentoring support for new and early stage entrepreneurs’’, paper presented at the 20th ISBA National Conference, November, pp. 205-25. Deakins, D., Graham, L., Sullivan, R. and Whittam, G. (1998), ‘‘Evaluating start-up support: how new entrepreneurs and mentors view mentoring support in the west of Scotland’’, paper presented at the 20th ISBA National Conference, November, pp. 1-21. Deakins, D., Mileham, P. and O’Neill, E. (1999), ‘‘Insiders v. outsiders: director relationships in small companies’’, paper presented at 22nd ISBA Conference, Leeds, November, pp. 395-413. Dreher, G.F. and Ash, R.A. (1990), ‘‘A comparative study of mentoring among men and women in managerial, professional and technical positions’’, Journal of Applied Psychology, Vol. 75, pp. 539-46. Fagenson, E.A. (1989), ‘‘The mentor advantage: perceived career/job experiences of prote´ge´s versus nonprote´ge´s’’, Journal of Organizational Behavior, Vol. 10, pp. 309-20. Fleming, P. (1999). ‘‘Developing graduate entrepreneurs’’, unpublished doctoral thesis, University of Durham. Graham, L. and O’Neill, E. (1997), ‘‘Sherpa or sheperd: the adviser relationship in small firms mentor and/or consultant?’’, paper presented at the 20th ISBA National Conference, November, pp. 484-504.
Hansen, E.L. (1995), ‘‘Entrepreneurial networks and new organization growth’’, Entrepreneurship, Theory and Practice, Vol. 19 No. 4, pp. 7-19. Howard, R. (1990). ‘‘Can small business help countries compete?’’, Harvard Business Review, November-December, pp. 2-12. Hull, D.L., Bosley, J.J. and Udell, G.G. (1980), ‘‘Renewing the hunt for the heffalump: identifying potential entrepreneurs by personality characteristics’’, Journal of Small Business Management, January, Vol. 18 No. 1, p. 11. Kram, K.E. (1986), ‘‘Mentoring in the workplace’’, Hall, D.T. (Ed.), Career Development in Organizations, Jossey-Bass, London, pp. 160-201. McCoy, D., Duffy, D., Hore, J. and MacCoille, C. (2000), Quarterly Economic Commentary, December 2000, Economic and Social Research Institute (ESRI) of Ireland, available at: www.esri.ie Merriam, S. (1983), ‘‘Mentors and prote´ge´s: a critical review of the literature’’, Adult Education Quarterly, Vol. 33 No. 3, pp. 161-73. Ragins, B.R. and Cotton, J.L. (1999), ‘‘Mentor functions and outcomes: a comparison of men and women in formal and informal mentoring relationships’’, Journal of Applied Psychology, Vol. 84 No. 4, pp. 529-50. Shane, S. and Kolvereid, L. (1995), ‘‘National environment, strategy and new venture performance: a three country study’’, Journal of Small Business Management, April, pp. 37-50. Stead, R. and Wiggins, J. (1994), ‘‘Mentoring generic versus context specific’’, paper presented at Supporting Learning in the Workplace Conference, Leeds. Waters, L., McCabe, M., Kiellerup, D. and Kiellerup, S. (2001), ‘‘The role of career-related support and psychosocial support in a formal mentoring program designed to assist new business start-up’’, paper presented at Academy of Management Conference, Washington, DC, August.
Mentoring at the Halifax plc (HBOS) – a small beginning in a large organisation
Bob Garvey The Mentoring and Coaching Research Group, Sheffield Hallam University, Sheffield, UK Kevin Galloway Group Management Development, HBOS, Chester, UK
Keywords Mentoring, Large companies
Abstract This paper offers a description of mentoring within the context of a large organisation. Mentoring is increasingly employed in many occupational settings in relation to induction, career development and change. It is becoming recognised on both sides of the Atlantic as a highly effective human resource development process. Examples of mentoring activity can be found in many diverse organisations – the voluntary sector, schools, the private and public sector, large and small businesses. The Halifax plc is one such organisation and we aim to offer a description of the beginnings of mentoring within the Halifax. We present a detailed account of how the mentoring arrangements were started, matched and developed, and attempt to draw some early conclusions from this ongoing process.
Career Development International 7/5 [2002] 271–278 # MCB UP Limited [ISSN 1362-0436] [DOI 10.1108/13620430210440091]
Introduction We offer here a description of mentoring within the context of a large organisation. Mentoring is related to and associated with other reconceptualisations of organisations, such as the ‘‘knowledge-creating company’’ (Nonaka, 1991). It can be located within the wider concept of the learning society, which ‘‘needs to celebrate the qualities of being open to new ideas, listening to as well as expressing perspectives, reflecting on and enquiring into solutions to new dilemmas, co-operating in the practice of change and critically reviewing it’’ (Ranson, 1992, p. 75). In such a society, learning is not confined to formal learning institutions, but permeates and enriches the lives of all people at work and, by implication, enhances the host organisation’s performance, which as a consequence, enriches the wider social context. Mentoring is an enriching activity which offers the participants the potential to reflect and act through developing understanding through dialogue in a supportive and sometimes challenging relationship. Mentoring is increasingly employed in many occupational settings in relation to induction, career development and change. It is becoming recognised on both sides of the Atlantic as a highly effective human resource development process. Examples of mentoring activity can be found in many diverse organisations – the voluntary sector, schools, the private and public sector, large and small businesses. The Halifax plc is one such organisation and, until its merger with The Bank of Scotland in September, was Britain’s largest mortgage lender with 23 percent market share of mortgage business. Following the merger it is now the fifth largest bank in the UK and provides a whole range of financial services. The research register for this journal is available at http://www.emeraldinsight.com/researchregisters
Over a dinner conversation with senior managers who were attending the final dinner of The Corporate Leadership development programme last year, it became apparent that a number of them were interested in ‘‘putting something back’’ into the organisation by helping to develop the younger managers. This was the seed of the idea for mentoring within the Halifax plc.
The aim of the paper We aim to offer a ‘‘thick description’’ (Geertz, 1971) of the beginnings of mentoring within the Halifax. We present a detailed account of how the mentoring arrangements were started, matched and developed, and attempt to draw some early conclusions from this ongoing process.
Method This is a ‘‘snapshot’’ in time. The participants in this are living in ‘‘real time’’ and inevitably thoughts and experiences ‘‘move on’’. Thick description is Geertz’s (1971) term for the systematic exploration of an interpretation of, and the search for, meaning in social action. ‘‘The world is systematically and hierarchically layered. If there is such a thing as cumulative knowledge and scientific progress, paradigmatic revolutions notwithstanding, each generation retains and sharpens its capacity to penetrate the onion-like layers of this hierarchical order. This layering, moreover, characterises all levels of reality, from the micro-world of elementary particles to the macro-organisation of dissipative social systems’’ (Reed and Harvey, 1992, p. 357). The former Halifax plc employed 37,000 people and now, following the merger, it employs 60,000 people. Its management has The current issue and full text archive of this journal is available at http://www.emeraldinsight.com/1362-0436.htm
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always attempted to live the slogan ‘‘people are our most important asset’’, and the former Halifax plc has demonstrated this through valuing training activities. In recent times, the former Halifax has started to progress towards a ‘‘development’’ philosophy and mentoring is seen as a part of this philosophy. The Bank of Scotland takes a similar view on mentoring and now, as one organisation, HBOS, development activities aimed at building management capability seem to becoming ‘‘the order of the day’’. There are several ways in which an organisation can build management capability and HBOS is focussed on several: recruiting talent from external sources including MBAs, graduate recruitment and development, and developing from within through programmes such as the corporate leadership programme. HBOS is a complex social system. In fact it is several businesses operating both separately and together under one group name. Our descriptions here are taken from a small sample of people who have voluntarily engaged in mentoring. They are part of a wider system and their behaviours, attitudes and feelings will inevitably be influenced by this. (For example, during the start of this initiative the merger with the Bank of Scotland was announced. Despite this, the participants continued to be involved.) We believe that this description makes a helpful contribution to the debate about mentoring in the workplace. It is based on our interactions with the would-be mentors and mentees as they embark on their mutual development. It takes us through the very early stages, the training, the matching and a one review of progress.
The context The Halifax has been considering making use of mentoring as a management development activity for a couple of years prior to this beginning. However, there had been little progress. This was possibly due to the need for some coordination of mentoring In recent times a new management and organisational development programme has been successfully introduced for the junior executive level. This is known as the corporate leadership programme. The first stream of the programme with 16 delegates was completed at the end of November 2000. During the final module of the programme the CEO, James Crosby, indicated that the participants on this programme should ‘‘seek out young talent to help them develop into the managers and leaders of the future.
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Mentoring seemed the way forward for this. ‘‘In my (Kevin Galloway) role as management development manager, I was aware that such potential talent already exists within the Halifax and that the business management trainees on the Halifax graduate entry scheme were the ideal candidates.’’ The graduate entry scheme has been running at the Halifax for about 15 years. The scheme has developed over the years but this year it underwent some major change. In the past, the 30-40 graduates employed each year were generally recruited into the retail sector, often as branch managers. This year recruitment was at an all-time high of 140 graduates being deployed into many parts of the organisation including treasury, IT, marketing and HR. Also, in recent years, it has become more difficult to retain the graduate intake. These changes meant that the future development of these individuals needed a completely different focus. This included the need to balance their long-term potential against their personal and individual requirements for the future, and the requirements of a rapidly changing and increasingly complex business. It seemed appropriate to put together participants from the corporate leadership programme and the business management trainees. This group of young managers were about to take on their first managerial positions after their graduate entry induction. Mentoring may help them to make the transition from trainee to manager.
Getting started Participants in the ‘‘corporate leadership programme’’ were invited to volunteer to become mentors. This resulted in nine volunteers plus Kevin Galloway (co-author of this paper) and Jonathan Wainwright, the two managers who work with the leadership programme. These volunteers agreed to participate in a two-day mentoring awareness workshop. This, we believe, demonstrated commitment to the process – managers at this level in any organisation find it difficult to find two consecutive days. Prior to the workshop, the volunteer mentors were asked to complete the questionnaire, shown in the Appendix. This questionnaire has two purposes: the first is to help the mentors orientate their thoughts towards the skills, attitudes, knowledge and behaviours they are offering to the relationship. The second is to help with the matching process. The mentee group, graduate trainees who are about to take on their first managerial
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appointment, were also asked to complete a similar questionnaire for the same purposes. One interesting response in analysing these returned questionnaires was what we have called ‘‘mentor indifference’’. When asked if they would like to play a part in the ‘‘matching’’ process, 70 percent of mentors preferred to leave the matching to the organisers. The mentees, on the other hand, took the opposite view and 70 percent of the mentees wanted to play a part in the ‘‘matching process rather than leave it to the organisers’’. This finding is supported in the ‘‘Mentoring for Export’’ programme which is being run at Sheffield Hallam University. The question ‘‘Do you travel in your job?’’ raised some practical issues that will be discussed later in this paper.
The mentor awareness workshop The workshop aimed to explore the nature and form of mentoring as a developmental process and to help mentors to understand and apply mentoring principles. The mentors’ workshop was run in the ‘‘mentoring way’’, with all participants (including the facilitators) engaging in dialogue to explore the mentoring relationship and to develop a personal sense of its implications and meanings. This, we believe, is important. In many ways mentoring activity defies neat description or definition. It is a complex process which is influenced by both the social context and the dynamics of the participating couple. During the early part of the programme it became apparent that the mentors (senior managers) were ‘‘slowing down’’. Initially the mentors saw this as a difficulty with the programme. (This is has been observed and noted on other similar two-day events.) These people are used to action, they are used to fast decision making. However, mentoring needs time; it is an activity that requires reflection and dialogue, exploration and understanding. The initial query about ‘‘slowness’’ became a discussion point and as a result we started to develop a different perspective on speed. In the feedback from the mentors at the end of the workshop this idea of ‘‘slowing down’’ was raised again, but this time its value was understood. The mentors recognised the need and the importance of ‘‘slowing down’’ and agreed that to help their mentees to ‘‘slow down’’ was also an important part of the mentoring process. The workshop involved discussions and exercises aimed at exploring and understanding mentoring. There were three main elements – discussions around
definitions, skills practice, organisational issues and matching. The skills work included ‘‘real play’’ where the mentors had ‘‘live’’ mentoring discussions with each other. We discussed video material (‘‘Mentoring conversations’’, ‘‘New chances, new horizons’’ from the Greenwood partnership) and debated organisational issues. At the end of the two days we discussed the mentees’ pre-session questionnaires so that mentors were able to identify potential mentees and express preferences. So, despite their initial ‘‘indifference’’ they became engaged in the matching process. The mentors found the skills work very helpful on two levels: first in raising their awareness of the mentoring process – explore, understand, action (see Alred et al., 2001); and second in helping some of them to work through real issues of concern which they were facing in the workplace. This, we believe, is one of the hidden benefits of ‘‘real play’’ The topic, being live, takes on special significance to the participants. Here it is not only process and skills that are highlighted and developed for the programme participants but the outcome of mentoring real play is experienced as authentic and relevant. This enables the mentors to be fully aware of the power of mentoring through personal experience.
The mentees’ workshop This was a one-day workshop. The 13 mentees also completed a very similar questionnaire to the mentors and their workshop took a similar format except the skills work was reduced. This is because the focus is not on developing mentoring skills but rather to learn how it feels to be a mentee. However, there can be little doubt that there is such a things as a ‘‘skilled mentee’’. This is where the mentee takes a large degree of ownership in the process, is prepared to ask questions, be challenged and learn. An experienced mentee is willing to take an active role in the process and not wait to be told. Being a mentee is a skilled activity (see Alred et al., 2001) The matching process for the mentees was a much more protracted discussion. They felt that the match had to be right. In practice, even with the questionnaire responses as a guide, it is not possible (especially with these small numbers) to get a ‘‘perfect’’ match. However, some mentees seemed to require a perfect match particularly in relation to the mentor’s experience and core knowledge. Perhaps this is an area to work on during the workshop discussions.
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Managing mentoring The philosophy underpinning mentoring among this group is as follows: . mentoring is a voluntary activity; . mentoring offers considerable benefits to those who willingly participate; . it is not an ‘‘initiative’’ nor is it a ‘‘scheme’’; . mentoring activity grows best if the growth is natural and organic; . mentoring needs facilitation and support rather than management; . evaluation is important but it needs to be done under the same conditions as mentoring itself – through dialogue.
The story so far . . . A total of mentors started with 17 mentees (some mentors had two mentees). All, except one pair, have been in contact with each other, even during the challenging times of the merger. More specifically, 11 pairs have met on at least one occasion and two pairs have only been in touch over the telephone. Some pairs have met on at least three occasions. Two mentors have taken on an external (to HBOS) person each to mentor. One mentee has been helped to leave HBOS through mentoring. The following comments make up some of the feedback received so far. The comments have been collated to reflect commonly held views among the mentees group rather than one person’s perspective: Q: How long have you been working with a mentor? R: Approximately 11 months. Q: How often do you speak with/meet with your mentor? R: We tend to communicate at least twice a week either by e-mail or by phone. Q: Does your mentor’s availability meet your expectations/needs? R: I have always found that my mentor has exceeded my expectations in meeting my needs. He has always been approachable and there for me when I have needed some constructive advice. In order to make sure the meetings we have are profitable and a good use of both our time, we feel that monthly meetings are about right. Of course, it has been clear since day 1 that if an issue crops up that I wish to discuss, my mentor is only a phone call away and has guaranteed his willingness to discuss any issue I might raise (if not immediately). There has been a recent change though as my mentor is now based in Halifax instead of London. Q: Why did you wish to work with a mentor?
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R: The opportunity arose last year to work with a senior manager within the organisation who could offer impartial help and support. In hindsight I think this is one of the key turning points in my career to date. It has taught me a great deal about myself. It has also been an excellent opportunity to gain an objective opinion from an experienced manager who can relate to the situations I have found myself in. I believe that having the ability to tap into a senior, experienced manager helps me to avoid the errors others might make unguided and also clarify my own thinking through use of my mentor as a sounding board. It often helps me to understand that there is a bigger picture. Q: What do you feel have been the key benefits? R: My mentor has helped me focus and rebuild my confidence. I have learnt through experiences together. We have discussed events as they have occurred; taking into account the learning I can take forward to my next role. As opposed to telling me what he thinks is the next best career move; he has questioned my motives, asking me how I will benefit from the next experience. He has always been honest and open, yet tactful and frank, making me understand without stating things in black and white. He has made me think of alternatives whilst providing me with a sounding board for ideas. My mentor has also helped me to address difficult situations at work and together we have practised different approaches. In my specific case, I have found my mentor’s knowledge of my role and department (he, until a short while ago, oversaw our department for group) to be invaluable. At times when I have been frustrated, he has been able to tell me of similar incidents in the past and guide me to a resolution which not only helps me with my issue but also helps me understand it more fully and from others’ perspectives. Q: What role has the mentor played in your relationship? R: I would describe him as an honest friend and an impartial counsellor who is very good at listening. His role has been to offer impartial advice, suggesting alternatives to solutions that I come up with. Often he has given me food for thought, which has allowed me to reflect on the decision I am about to make, rather to jump in feet first. He has helped me gain clarity in my own mind. As a careers advisor he has helped me to plan next steps. He has also shared his experiences with me and given me encouragement in my abilities. He has supported me when at times I have faced personal and emotional crisis. My mentor has been extremely effective in making me think logically and rationally before taking my career further. I have been made to think of the learning I will take forward
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and how this will aid my development. At times I have been challenged by my mentor. Q: How has your mentor contributed to your learning and development? R: I feel my mentor has been genuinely interested in me as an individual, rather then looking at my development from a corporate point of view. Having a mentor has helped me believe in my abilities and focuses on my strengths. My confidence has increased. Decisions made have been discussed at length with my mentor. I feel I am able to cope more effectively with experiences, which I have not previously anticipated. I am a more focused and determined individual. I look at things more realistically than previously. My mentor has helped me set rational goals in terms of where, I want to go with my career. Having had the opportunity of working with a mentor, I now feel more equipped to deal with setbacks in life. I have learnt not to take events as personal failings in both my work and private life. I have become more resilient. I have assessed my strengths and limitations and concentrated on how to incorporate this into a role that I enjoy. I have been made to think objectively about how my personal work style may influence the behaviours of others around me. Using MBTI gave me an invaluable insight into how I can adapt my own behaviour to gain buy in of others. Without my mentor I would have never considered this approach. He has never sought to overly influence my thinking. He has always approached the situation by adding ideas to my ‘‘melting pot’’ and then helping me think through the consequences of decisions or possible next steps. I have never felt as if I were being dictated to. I do feel that I have a clearer idea of what I want to achieve at least in the short to medium term. I specifically sought advice over how to handle the merger between Halifax Treasury and Bank of Scotland Treasury. This was a situation I had not been in before and one I didn’t want to be unprepared for. Q: What advice would you give others thinking of working with a mentor? R: It is an excellent opportunity to form a relationship with someone who can relate to what you are going through. Make sure from the outset that you are compatible to work together and that you feel comfortable discussing issues that can get very personal. You both need to be honest. There has to be a connection that will allow you to take the relationship forward. A mentor can offer assistance in many forms. Sometimes you just want to let off steam and have someone who can listen to you without judgement. Be prepared for your mentor to be open and honest with you. Above all make sure that they are
someone who you respect because I personally would find it very difficult to work with someone if I doubted their credibility. It is a very useful pursuit but make sure your mentor has time for you, is committed to the procedure, sticks by any rules you set up together, views the process as much as development for themselves as for you and has at least some understanding of the role you are involved in (even if it’s from you). Of course, the above applies equally to the mentee. Q: What more would you look for from a mentor? R: There is nothing more I can ask of him. He is always there for me. At this stage, nothing. However, that is subject to change as the relationship and both our needs progress.
Discussion Many of the above comments are consistent with other (Garvey, 1995a; Clutterbuck, 1992, 1993) case examples presented previously in the literature in terms of how mentees and mentors participate in mentoring activity. However, there are four elements highlighted in this approach to mentoring which seem to have become more significant in recent times. These include: 1 location and geographical distance; 2 mentor indifference and mentee fastidiousness; 3 the ‘‘construction’’ and ‘‘management’’ of the scheme; and 4 evaluation.
Location Distance has proved to be a problem for some mentors and mentees. If the mentor or the mentee travel as part of their job, the impact of distance is reduced as either will tend to incorporate a business trip with a meeting with the mentee or mentor. However, where travel is not part of either’s job, distance presents a problem. Despite the use of e-mail or telephone, mentor and mentee need to meet from time to time to establish and build a relationship. In an earlier organisational case study (Garvey, 1995b, p. 121) there is a similar finding when ‘‘some mentors were paired with clients 300 miles away. This created serious communication difficulties’’. Trying to define mentoring is difficult. It is ‘‘as informal as pairing, as variable as the organisations in which the mentors and prote´ge´s find themselves, and as idiosyncratic as the people involved’’ (Gladstone, 1988). ‘‘A mentor is an individual whom you trust and value and a person whom you must assume has your best
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interests in mind’’ (Missirian, 1982). ‘‘A mentor has influence and can use that influence to help you achieve your objectives’’ (Phillips-Jones, 1982). According to Bolles (1972) a mentor is the ‘‘highest level educator’’, and Colwill (1984) suggests that having a mentor is like having ‘‘a personal career development officer.’’ There can be little doubt that the company can make it more or less possible to be a good mentor by acknowledging the importance of mentoring and by providing support for it to develop. In fact, by simply taking the whole thing seriously. This is not to deny that people have personal qualities which they bring to the activity, but rather to recognise that these do not flourish in a vacuum (see Garvey et al., 1996) Mentoring is clearly a complex business involving a highly variable dynamic of the individuals, the pairs and the organisational context, but at the heart of mentoring is a learning relationship between two people. There are some things that technology cannot replace, and to attempt to replace the personal contact entirely with technology is perhaps more than mentoring can take. In HBOS, the one pair who have not yet met and the two who have only had telephone conversations are finding their relationship less satisfactory.
Mentor indifference, mentee fastidiousness This factor does seem to be becoming a trend in our research work into mentoring. It is a quite understandable finding if viewed through the lens of motivation. Many mentors are motivated by the desire to help, ‘‘generativity’’ (Erikson, 1950), to ‘‘put something back’’. In the mentor’s mind this motivation can be satisfied with anyone. The experienced person has the confidence that they will be able to help in any circumstance. Inexperienced mentees, on the other hand, are more likely to be ‘‘fastidious’’ about who their mentor is because they may have very clear ideas about what they expect from a mentor. In the Mentoring for Export programme (see Stokes and Megginson, 2000, EMC 7), mentees had specific requirements of their mentors in terms of knowledge and skill. It seems as though very few mentees consider the ‘‘process’’ of mentoring at the start but rather focus on the ‘‘content’’. Their interest in mentoring seems to be focussed on career progression or specific knowledge. Although these elements do form part of the mentoring process it is our view that mentoring is essentially about the holistic development of a mentee. The specific experience or work-based knowledge of the
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mentor often does form part of the discussion from time to time and may be of great relevance for the mentee, and the notion of patronage for career progression is always a potential option in the mentoring process. But, it is mentoring focussed on a broader concept of development that really offers the most potential benefits for both participants. If the emphasis is reversed – the mentor’s experience and position dominating the relationship – it may not be mentoring in action and moral issues of power and manipulation are inevitably raised. The evaluation process in this HBOS mentoring arrangement clearly shows that the main driver and benefits of mentoring are rooted in the developmental process of dialogue, exploration, understanding and action rather than in the instrumental concept of knowledge and skill transfer and fast-tracking. These evaluations also show that the mentee often starts with the ‘‘content’’ approach but often gives way to a broader personal development agenda. After time in a mentoring relationship, it can become clear that the ‘‘content’’ is often not what was originally expected and the ‘‘process’’ becomes the most significant part. For example, a mentee may say ‘‘I want to know about marketing so therefore I need a marketing person to tell me about it’’. Over time in mentoring the developing mentee learns a different approach which is more focussed on exploring marketing in relation to themselves, their mentor, the organisation and the wider environment. It is almost as if the mentee does not know what he or she does not know but comes to understand this themselves and their needs differently in time. This is the type of process led developmental journey described in Daloz (1986). The feedback data presented above support this view. Here it is clear that the mentees have started focusing on personal change and development, changes in the way they think and view particular situations, the way they feel and understand themselves and the way they feel their confidence growing. These are genuine ‘‘developmental’’ outcomes. Ultimately the mentee learns that there is such a thing as a ‘‘good enough mentor’’, the person who listens, supports, challenges, tells stories rather than instructs and tells. The full significance of this finding is yet to unravel but it is clear that a workshop for mentees as well as mentors is necessary so that these issues can be explored and resolved in advance. It also is further support for the idea of establishing boundaries and ground rules at the start of any relationship
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so that these issues may be discussed. Not to have a discussion at all may mean that the relationship at best may be slow to ‘‘get going’’ and, at worse, not work at all because of mis-matched expectations at the start.
It seems that ‘‘word of mouth’’ has prevailed and the ‘‘organic’’ growth mentioned earlier in this paper has gained some momentum. Watch this space for future developments.
The ‘‘construction’’ and ‘‘management’’ of the scheme
References
The ‘‘light touch’’ management approach seems to be working. Mentoring needs to be acknowledged as legitimate, appropriate and beneficial for the participants and the organisation (see EMC 5 ‘‘Approaching mentoring’’). This means offering contact details for questions and support, providing support materials in the form of books, papers, videos and arranging follow-up discussions if appropriate. Mentors need to ‘‘keep in touch’’ with each other for mutual support, story sharing and encouragement.
Evaluation ‘‘Some of your managers may wish to quantify and measure mentoring and may ask, ‘What are the outcomes? What will the pay-off be for the organisation that invests in mentoring?’ and you may feel uneasy about this. Such questions typically look only to the immediate future’’ (Garvey et al., 1996). Einstein said that ‘‘not everything that counts can be counted and not everything that can be counted counts’’. This is very much the case with mentoring. Evaluation is important but the method used is also important. There would be little point in measuring the temperature of a room with a ruler, for example! In the same way, mentoring needs to be evaluated against its own terms and therefore as a developmental process in itself. So, through evaluation discussions, the process is understood, improved and developed. This is the approach taken here and so far at least, there are some benefits. Because mentoring is such a natural human activity, people will engage in it whether or not the organisation supports it or approves. However, with support and facilitation in ‘‘the mentoring way’’, real benefit for all will inevitably follow.
The future Interest in mentoring has already started among the next corporate leadership programme cohort. New graduates have heard about mentoring and are asking if they can have a mentor. The middle management group who participate in the leadership development programme are also asking about mentoring and wishing to mentor and be mentored.
Alred, G., Garvey, B. and Smith, R. (2001), The Mentoring Pocket Book, Management Pocket Books, Alresford. Bolles, R.N. (1972), What Color Is Your Parachute?, Ten Speed Press, Berkeley, CA. Clutterbuck, D. (1992), Everyone Needs a Mentor, IPM Reprint, London. Clutterbuck, D. (1993), Mentoring of Top Managers in Oxford Regional Health Authority, Oxford Regional Health Authority/ European Mentoring Centre, Oxford. Colwill, N.I. (1984), ‘‘Women and proteges, women and men’’, Business Quarterly, Summer, pp. 19-21. Collins, E.G.C. (Ed.) (1978), ‘‘Everyone who makes it has a mentor: interviews with Lunding, F.J., Clements, G.L. and Perkins, D.S.’’, Harvard Business Review, July-August, pp. 89-101. Daloz, L.A. (1986), Effective Teaching and Mentoring, Jossey Bass, San Francisco, CA. Erikson, E. (1950), Childhood and Society, Penguin, Harmondsworth. Garvey, B.(1995a), ‘‘Healthy signs for mentoring’’, Education + Training, Vol. 37 No. 5, pp. 12-19. Garvey, B. (1995b), ‘‘Let the actions match the words’’, in Clutterbuck, D. and Megginson, D. (Eds), Mentoring in Action, Kogan Page, London, pp. 111-23. Garvey, B., Alred, G. and Smith, R. (1996), ‘‘First person mentoring’’, Career Development International, pp. 10-14. Geertz, C. (Ed.) (1971), Myth, Symbol and Culture, W.W. Norton, New York, NY. Gladstone, M.S. (1988), Mentoring: A Strategy for Learning in a Rapidly Changing Society, Research Document CEGEP John Abbott College, Quebec. Missirian A.K. (1982), The Corporate Connection, Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ. Nonaka, I. (1991), ‘‘The knowledge creating company’’, Harvard Business Review, November-December, pp. 96-104. Phillips-Jones L. (1982), Mentors and Prote´ge´s, Arbor House, New York, NY. Ranson, S. (1992), ‘‘Towards the learning society’’, Educational Management and Administration, Vol. 20 No. 2. Reed, M. and Harvey, D.L. (1992), ‘‘The new science and the old: complexity and realism’’, Social Sciences Journal of the Theory of Social Science Behaviour, Vol. 22 No. 4, pp. 353-80. Stokes, P. and Megginson, D. (2000), ‘‘Mentoring for export success’’, European Mentoring Centre Conference Proceedings, Cambridge, pp. 134-48.
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Appendix. Volunteer mentors’ questions
Mentor supervision and development – exploration of lived experience
Roger Barrett Hertfordshire Constabulary, St Albans, UK
Keywords Mentoring, Supervision, Continuing professional development
Abstract The article explores the process of mentor development and the benefits that can accrue, both to the mentor and the mentee. Using personal experience, underpinned by theory, the author sets out to research the fundamental question posed – ‘‘How can a mentor effectively help another to explore their hidden behaviours and patterns of action, if they have not done that for themselves?’’ The use of supervision as a means to support mentors in their work is discussed and examined. The framework described places a value on the need for individual mentors to be able to understand their own process when working with a mentee, thus ensuring that mentees will receive the best possible support themselves.
Career Development International 7/5 [2002] 279–283 # MCB UP Limited [ISSN 1362-0436] [DOI 10.1108/13620430210440109]
Introduction This paper proposes a framework for supporting the professional development of mentors and the term supervision is used in that context. The ideas put forward in this paper derive from a belief that, from a mentee’s perspective at least, mentors have an obligation to evaluate and improve their practice. The key question that follows from this belief is ‘‘How can a mentor effectively help another to explore their hidden behaviours and patterns of action, if they have not done that for themselves?’’ The framework put forward in this paper is based on the proposition that a mentor can be more effective in supporting their mentee when they can: . Work ‘‘‘from where the mentor is’’, a simple phrase and common to those from a therapeutic background. However, the skill level and personal awareness associated with working in this way is not readily available to all and will have an impact on the mentor relationship. . Access their own experiences and use them as a resource to help deal with situations encountered when working with mentors/mentees. . Understand their own emotional response to what is happening when working with a mentor/mentee; using the meaning drawn from that understanding to help the mentor/mentee. This requires an ability to work in the present through a developed sense of awareness, and also willingness when appropriate to let go of any pre-set process for the session. . Work with truth, integrity and authenticity. The research register for this journal is available at http://www.emeraldinsight.com/researchregisters
The framework and views expressed in this text are based on a number of sources. These include: . The author’s experience of being a mentee, a mentor, training others to take up the role of mentoring and developing the professional competence of those mentors. This practical experience has been supported by research into, and drawing learning from, other professions. . Research into the personal experience and learning of others who practise or write on the subject of supervision or mentor development. . Literature referring to supervision in other ‘‘helping professions’’.
What is supervision? Supervision focuses on the processes that occur between mentor and mentee during an interaction. The supervisor helps the mentor to reflect on the mentoring relationship under discussion, helping the mentor to draw meaning from it in a way that contributes to the mentor’s improved future practice. The content of the dialogue between mentor and mentee provides the context for a supervision session. However, details of the content are only relevant insofar as they provide clarification for the supervisor. Confidentiality may be breached if the mentor is drawn too deeply into the specific content. Wright ((1989) in Butterworth and Faugier (1982)) suggests that the supervision process is a meeting between two or more people with a declared interest in ‘‘examining a piece of work’’ – this refers to the process of reflecting upon a mentoring session and being guided in that activity by another. The use of effective questioning by the supervisor enables the mentor to reach a more in-depth The current issue and full text archive of this journal is available at http://www.emeraldinsight.com/1362-0436.htm
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understanding of what happened during the mentoring session and why. Such questions may include: . What happened and why? . What was said and what was done? . How was it handled and could it have been handled better? If so how? This is valuable not only to determine why a mentor was unable to provide effective support to a mentee, but also to understand how success was achieved. As Jacobs (1996) identifies, the process of supervision allows discussion of issues in a safe and supportive context, offering a setting in which to look at work that is not going well. However, it should be remembered that learning also comes from examining successes, enabling good techniques or interactions to be recognised and built upon. Heron (1999) describes supervision as a reflective process that enables whole person learning, i.e. it integrates internal individuating functions (emotion, imagery, discrimination and action) with external participatory ones (feeling, intuition, reflection and intention). Further support for the value of these meetings is offered by Palmer et al. (1994), who define guided reflection as: . . . a process in which to explore ourselves by reflecting on our experience in order to become more self-aware and self-evaluative . . .
Similarly Hawkins and Shohet (1989) define supervision as an intensive, interpersonally focused relationship designed to facilitate the development of competence in another.
A model of guided reflection and exploration The experiential learning cycle The framework for reflection (Gibbs, 1988) was a starting point for the research/activity on which this paper is based. It is an experiential learning cycle (see Kolb, 1984), one of the many variations of the learning cycle described in current literature. It enables the user to work through a discrete experience in a way that allows for learning and development. The key to using this model effectively is to ask questions that draw out the details of the experience and the effect that it had on the individual. In this way, it is a useful basis for dialogue between mentor and supervisor, with the main aim being contained in the question ‘‘What information do I need to access in order to learn from this experience?’’ Examples of opening questions that are helpful in working through the cycle are:
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What happened? (Describe the here and now experience, what the mentor was trying to achieve; identify the factors influencing the mentor’s decision making.) What were you thinking and feeling? (What was felt and what was thought? What were the tensions between the two?) What was good and bad about the experience? What sense can you make of the situation? (Put the experience into a learning perspective.) What else could you have done? (In what ways could the experience have been improved?) If it arose again what would you do? (Putting the learning into practice.)
The importance of reframing The experiential learning cycle allows us to learn from the consequences of previous actions and amend future ones. It is a simple feedback process from action to consequence and back to action. However, it does not necessarily challenge the mental model (see Senge, 1993) within which the action is framed. To achieve this, the simple reflective practice needs to be built upon – there needs to be support and encouragement to challenge those frames of reference and underlying assumptions. In this way, the supervisor helps the mentors to make lasting changes in the way they work as mentors, and to reframe their unconscious mental models. In addition, reflection can be a tough and frustrating journey, particularly when individuals find it difficult to identify factors that limit their potential because those factors are deeply ingrained within them. As such the process of reflection should always be supervised or coached in order to support the journey (Scho¨n, 1987).
The role of co-operative inquiry Over recent months the author has worked with a small group of people interested in developing their professional competence as mentors, coaches and consultants. This activity is consistent with the notion of supervision espoused by Boyd and Fales (1983): . . . the process of internally examining and exploring an issue of concern, triggered by an experience, which creates and clarifies meaning in terms of self, and which results in a changed conceptual perspective.
The work of the group has been guided by the process of co-operative inquiry – a rich and valuable process that can be used in a small group setting to research a topic from a
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practical perspective. Reason (1988) articulates the essence of co-operative inquiry as an aware and self-critical movement between experience and reflection, where those experiences are systematically honed and refined. It is a process of doing research with other people, not on them, so that they fully participate in devising, reflectively managing and drawing conclusions from the research. The process is cyclical in that it moves from reflection at the group meetings to action between meetings and so on, with the aim that each participant research their own line of inquiry. In addition the process enables the activity and learning on a group level, enabling learning to occur at a different level. As Heron (1999) sets out, there are four main kinds of inquiry outcome: 1 Personal transformation through engagement with the process (experiential). 2 Gaining insight regarding the focus of the inquiry through a variety of expressive modes – drawing, poetry, describing personal treasures, for example (presentational). 3 Informational reports concerning the subject explored, outcomes achieved and the inquiry process (propositional). 4 Practical skills to do with transformative action within the inquiry and to do with various kinds of participative knowing and collaboration used in the inquiry.
Contracting The supervision relationship is framed within a personal contract between the parties – whether one-to-one or group based. The contract addresses issues such as confidentiality, meeting times and frequency, expectations and responsibilities. The purpose of contracting is to support the development of trust within the relationship, which in turn enables the sharing of experience. Within the group setting agreed ground rules are fundamentally important to the success of the group, as is commitment by each member to their own and others’ learning. If individuals do not turn up for a meeting this may have an adverse effect on the group or on some individual(s) within it – regular attendance is key to the success of the co-operative inquiry process, but is not always easy to achieve and maintain. Another important element in contracting is to set the boundary of the relationship. In the supervisory relationship, it is particularly important to focus on process issues rather than content because of the possibility of a breach of confidence.
As a consequence of this initial contracting, supervisor and mentor begin to develop ‘‘connection’’ or rapport. The supervisor believes and trusts the mentor’s thinking and encourages them to expand it: . . . since knowledge comes from experience, the only way we can hope to understand another person’s idea is to try and share the experience that led to that person forming that idea (Belenky et al., 1986).
By explicitly role modelling the development of connection (or other techniques), the supervisor realises and exploits the concept of parallel process as a learning medium, thus supporting the development of the mentor, providing them with real opportunities for learning and considering new methods (Palmer et al., 1994).
Keeping a diary The mentor keeping a diary of reflections can enhance the supervision process. Within the co-operative inquiry process, participants record their reflections on each meeting and share their thoughts amongst the group prior to or at the next meeting. This might also include the results of any actions that were agreed. These records also form the basis of longer term reviews of learning and development.
The process of development Most importantly, the mentors need to be aware of what is happening during their interactions with their mentees: To become aware of what is happening, I must pay attention with an open mind. I must set aside my personal prejudices or bias. Prejudiced people see only what fits their prejudices (Heider, 1985).
The most effective test, especially of how we make open and honest contact with other people, is to examine what is happening in the moment. Tools such as the Johari Window are useful for increasing awareness of what is happening when making contact with others. It is also important that supervisors lead by example and are genuine in their attitude, response and behaviours. Trust in the supervisor develops when the mentor is able to rely on their integrity. When this productive contact or rapport happens congruence is achieved (Bentley, 1994). Congruence represents the free, open and honest coming together of people. It means being fully aware, communicating thoughts and feelings, and sharing fully in the experience of the contact (Rogers, 1983). Working to improve self-awareness and the ability to be ‘‘present’’ in the relationship has been a theme throughout the inquiry group
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process of which the author has been part. This is achieved through encouraging all those involved to share openly what is happening for them in the moment, and by providing support, through the use of simple exercises, to identify unconscious behaviours and patterns of action that can block the building of rapport. As an example, through personal supervision using reflective practice as set out in the framework above (both one to one and in a group setting), the author has been able to learn from personal experiences and those of others. This has resulted in a changing pattern of behaviours, enabling a more gentle, forgiving style that shifts to meet the needs of the mentors – this is truly ‘‘working where the mentor is’’. Here taking action is suspended until the nature of the presenting problem is fully explored and understood. This can take time and there are no guarantees of success, for it is about working in a way that builds a relationship based on integrity, authenticity and trust. Part of the author’s own journey has been to become self-aware and able to make use of all life experience; to have the confidence to handle what turns up and, more importantly, to know the limits of his ability: Gentle interventions, if they are clear, overcome rigid resistance. If gentleness fails, try yielding or stepping back altogether. When [you] yield resistance relaxes. Learn to unclutter your mind and simplify your work. As you rely less and less on knowing just what to do, your work will become more direct and more powerful. You will discover that the quality of your consciousness is more potent than any technique or theory or interpretation (Heider, 1985).
Where is its value? In concluding, there can be many benefits from engaging in the process of supervision, based on reflective practice. The triangular nature of the supervision relationship enables all parties involved to benefit from the opportunity provided to reflect and learn from past actions. If there is any imbalance in the resulting benefits, then hopefully the mentee will gain the most from the process: . . . there is always some trigger for reflection, some unexpected sense of inner discomfort and perplexity (Brookfield, 1987).
The framework described here for the development of mentoring competence focuses not only on learning outcomes, but also on the process used to achieve that learning, thus providing an understanding of what was learnt and how it was learnt (Scho¨n, 1983; Palmer et al., 1994).
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The framework also places a value on the need for individual mentors to be able to understand their own process when working with a mentee, in particular in the interpersonal and intrapersonal spheres (Heron, 1999). It is often the case, as Jacobs (1996) sets out, that the behavioural dynamics occurring between the mentor and supervisor replicate those found between the mentor and mentee. Exploring this ‘‘parallel process’’ is useful in helping to develop the mentor’s self-awareness, as well as providing an opportunity for the supervisor to role model how parallel process can be identified and explored. A recognised supervision process that aids the professional development of the mentor will: . assure mentors/mentees they are in receipt of the best possible support; . help to define boundary issues within the mentor relationship; . take good practice from other professions; and . enhance the professional image of the mentor. To complement the views described in this paper and some of the views emerging from the inquiry group, a small-scale survey was conducted among a number (30) of people who mentor as part of their professional activity, or who are engaged in managing/ creating mentoring schemes. The questions were designed to illicit information concerning: . who people turn to for support when working as a mentor; . how they develop their mentoring skills; and . what the needs of mentors are and how they can be met. They were asked to respond in both quantitative and qualitative ways, and one question asked which area of personal development the mentor(s) were working on at present. The text answers included the following: . Ability to work with a mentor/mentee who is a very different personality type and managing the stressful impact of that style. . Keeping my head above water in a new and demanding job and knowing that I need to answer this question soon. . Personal development – cutting the umbilical chord. . Being fully present with mentor/mentee and developing my ability to work in the moment. . Reducing my desire to give advice and offer solutions.
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. .
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Moving to more formalised supervision. Identifying own blocks to personal and emotional growth. Dealing with anger, conflict and frustration in self and others. Swifter challenging in ways that are taken on board. Development of training programmes. Relationship between mentor and mentee. Managing the three cornered nature of the mentoring contract. Challenging whilst supporting and working faithfully. Process skills with the mentor/mentee.
The quantitative responses indicate that the use of formal and regular supervision (21 percent) is comparatively low when set against the number of respondents who engage in ‘‘personal development’’ mentoring (47 percent). Only 3 percent of respondents indicated that feedback was a reason for seeking support, yet a quarter of respondents see that their personal development is an important focus for that support (26.5 percent). There appears to be some dissonance between the responses compared to the picture that the literature paints regarding the value of the supervisory process. This may be explained in a number of ways. For example the investment in time and money are high set against the perceived benefits of supervision; however, many in the helping professions are required to undertake regular supervision by their professional bodies and costs are incurred. It may be that the patient-doctor metaphor is of use here; many of us do not visit the doctor unless there is something perceived to be wrong. Similarly, a mentor may not be aware of his or her own need for support unless there is a problem with the mentoring relationship. However, the following comments show that it is important to take the opportunity to reflect on one’s practice as a mentor: . preventing personal burn-out; . a celebration of what I do; . demonstrating skill/knowledge; . helping me focus on my blind-spot(s); . discovering my own pattern of behaviours; . developing skills as a mentor; . a quality control process; and . providing a different angle on an issue. There is justification for considering how mentors (along with coaches, consultants and
managers) can demonstrate their continuing professional development, particularly in the areas articulated in the proposition set out in this paper. Further research is required to fully understand the reasons why structured and formal development of mentors is not seen to be as important as the role they play in the personal development of others. The author would be pleased to hear from anyone wishing to further the debate or to discuss his or her own personal and/or professional development.
References Belenky, M.F., Clinchy, B.M., Goldberger, N.R. and Tarule, J.M. (1986), Women’s Ways of Knowing, Basic Books, New York, NY. Bentley, T. (1994), Facilitation – Providing Opportunities for Learning, McGraw-Hill, London. Butterworth, T. and Faugier, J. (1992) Clinical Supervision and Mentorship in Nursing, Chapman and Hall, London. Boyd, E.M. and Fales, A.W. (1983), ‘‘Reflective learning: the key to learning from experience’’, Journal of Humanistic Psychology, Vol. 23 No. 2, pp. 99-117. Brookfield, S.D. (1987), Developing Critical Thinkers, Open University Press, Milton Keynes. Gibbs, G. (1988), Learning by Doing: A Guide to Teaching and Learning Methods, Further Education Unit, Oxford Polytechnic, Oxford. Hawkins, P. and Shohet, R. (1989), Supervision in the Helping Professions, Oxford University Press, Buckingham. Heider, J. (1985), The Tao of Leadership, Humanics Limited, Atlanta, GA. Heron, J. (1999), The Complete Facilitator’s Handbook, Kogan Page, London. Jacobs, M. (Ed.) (1996), In Search of Supervision, Oxford University Press, Buckingham. Kolb, D.A. (1984), Experiential Learning, PrenticeHall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ. Palmer, A., Burns, S. and Bulman, C. (1994), Reflective Practice in Nursing – the Growth of the Professional Practitioner, Blackwell, Oxford. Reason, P. (Ed.) (1988), Human Inquiry in Action, Sage, London. Rogers, C. (1983), Freedom to Learn, C.E. Merrill, Columbus, OH. Scho¨n, D. (1983), The Reflective Practitioner, Harper Collins, San Francisco, CA. Scho¨n, D. (1987), Educating the Reflective Practitioner, Jossey-Bass, San Francisco, CA. Senge, P (1993), The Fifth Discipline, Century Press, London.
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Section 2: Practitioner papers Coaching for a change with Vodafone
John Eaton Coaching Solutions, Newbury, UK Duncan Brown Vodafone Ltd, Newbury, UK
Keywords Coaching, Organizational change, Organizational culture
Abstract Discusses the organizational culture of Vodaphone in the mid1990s and the company’s attempts to bring about organizational change. In an attempt to change the culture from one of ‘‘command and control’’ to one of ‘‘coaching and collaboration’’, a coaching programme was designed. This coaching programme is examined in some detail and the broader implications of coaching in the cultural change process are discussed.
The culture of Vodafone in the mid-1990s had its roots in the manufacturing facilities of Racal. Detailed micro-management of production processes had given a strong flavour of command and control to Vodafone as it developed first within, then away from, Racal. With a ‘‘heads down’’ focus on achieving this month’s quota little thought
was given to the growing problems of Vodafone managers and their staff. Systems and departments were simply scaled up year on year to achieve ever higher targets. Bureaucracy blossomed to retain control of old processes and each new network crisis was dealt with as it arose. The skills of fire fighting were well rewarded. Within Radio Networks division we launched (in 1998) a nine-month project to increase efficiency and accountability. It introduced simpler processes, streamlined reporting procedures, and multi-skilled, process-oriented teams replaced the previous functionally based departments. The immediate results were disappointing as the ‘‘old’’ culture continued to create inertia. Specifically, the new system called for individuals and teams to build awareness of their relationship with a fast-evolving network and its impact on themselves and other teams, plan ahead, make self-contained decisions, and deal speedily with contingencies. However, many managers continued to vet everything (in response to control from higher up), much time was wasted on reporting back on quite small decisions, and team-members were afraid to take initiatives for fear of being bawled out afterwards. The teams themselves had built up a kind of ‘‘silo’’ mentality. Given the premium placed on control rather than on learning through evolution it was more important to demonstrate that people were doing things right rather than doing the right things. When mistakes did happen mutual blame and suspicion appeared rather than constructive dialogue. This is the point at which it became obvious we needed to replace ‘‘command and control’’ with a ‘‘coaching and collaboration’’ culture. In tandem with the HR department, senior managers began to discuss those further changes needed to create cultural change:
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The drivers for cultural change In its early years Vodafone’s only competition was BT’s Cellnet. For both companies the real competition was to build their networks and organisations fast enough to meet the demand from new subscribers to the service. For the first five years or so, new radio transmitter sites had to be built at the rate of 100 a year to cope with the 300-400 new customers connecting to the network each week. By the mid-1990s competition had intensified even more; from two operators to four following the arrival of Orange and One2One and to seven with the arrival of Hutchinson, Dolphin and Virgin. The construction of new transmitter sites rose from 100 a year to a peak of 150 a month in 2000. The boom in the mobile telephone market resulted in a series of opportunities and challenges for companies in the sector. The opportunities were there to expand business, increase market share, generate new products and services, and to accrue greater revenues from a larger customer base. The challenges included: . sustained competitive pressure; . the call to keep up with fast-moving changes in technology; . the rapid expansion of the workforce; and . the requirement to put in place the infrastructure needed to service the ever-growing subscriber list.
Cultural change
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A vision and values programme was introduced, developed from staff focus groups and introduced through a cascade of workshops by managers such as myself. It asked for employees to develop new attitudes to the business (see below). A 3608 assessment and feedback system gave managers information on the opinions of peers and reporting staff as well as line managers. A first for many of them! This was the first step in building awareness of the impact on teams of old style management as a first step in focusing on new requirements. One noticeable piece of feedback showed that employees needed far more inclusion in decision-making processes and information exchange than had so far been made available. Annual performance reviews were introduced for all staff with personal objectives for the year, consistent with the needs of each team, and which implied far more forward-thinking and personal initiative than had been required in the past. Significant investment went into new IT systems to automate processes and improve the quality of information available to staff and managers. Breaking down the ‘‘silo mentality’’ also aided information exchange. Considerable investment went into formal and informal team-building activities and structured management development. In this respect Vodafone was looking for a new kind of leadership: strategic rather than tactical, and for managers to prioritize people development rather than day-by-day job processes. Finally, the introduction of 1:1 coaching and coaching skills training was used to reinforce and accelerate the move away from ‘‘command and control’’ to the target culture of ‘‘coaching and collaboration’’.
The bridge phase Senior managers had by now recognised that they were managing a transitional phase which could be graphically depicted as a bridge (Figure 1). The six elements needed to move the company from one cultural style to another comprised the changes in organisational structure noted earlier and the development of a coaching approach to management as well as the four others noted below: 1 Information exchange. Traditionally managed organisations, according to Peters (1987), have typically hoarded information from the workforce on the
premise that some types of information are the preserve of senior managers. In this view information concerning the assumptions which lie behind strategic decisions is best kept to the few whose job it is to make those decisions. This results from formerly clear-cut distinctions between ‘‘management’’ and ‘‘workforce’’. Such distinctions break down in delayered organisations in which information exchange is crucial to success between teams, and where each employee is called upon to make decisions which may have far-reaching consequences. In order to facilitate personal and corporate success information flows are required both upwards and downwards. Employees need to be informed on the strategic direction of the company and the premises that underpin its structure and operations. Similarly, senior management need timely and accurate feedback from the ‘‘coal-face’’ in order to react quickly to changes in the market, in customer preferences, and in technological conditions. 2 Team building. By the nature of its business Vodafone (particularly in the Network development area) was, and is, staffed by highly specialized personnel from radio engineering, land surveying, construction, electrical engineering and estate management. When teams were organised on a multi-skill basis with each member of the team reliant on the rest for the speedy completion of individual goals, and the teams themselves reliant on other teams for the efficient allocation of resources, improved team work became a priority. 3 Values programme. In transiting from one culture to another an educational programme is necessary in order to flag up to employees (as well as managers) what attitudes and behaviours are required from each person in order to make the new culture work. With this in mind Vodafone management launched ‘‘The Way We Work’’ programme in 1998. This listed a set of key values which set out a vision for that culture and the specific goals targeted to achieve it. The six key values were: . put customers first; . move quickly into action; . be open and involving; . work as one team; . deliver quality and innovation; . think and act like owners. This last value was particularly relevant to a coaching-style culture. As employees were assumed to be partners in the business it was imperative to offer a management style that drew out their
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ideas and solutions rather than issue instructions on delimited roles. 4 Performance development reviews. Success in creating cultural changes is notoriously difficult to measure. Too often mission statements and the values placarded in corporate reception areas can be little more than hot air. To address this problem Vodafone introduced a performance investment programme in which every member of staff received a performance review twice a year. The review was designed to ensure commitment to The Way We Work programme, develop the competencies associated with it, link individual objectives to business objectives, create personal action plans to improve performance and make links between increases in competencies and rewards.
4. The coaching programme The coaching approach to management was integral to all these priorities. Coaching was the means through which the values programme was actioned and put to work. It was a channel (amongst others) for the dissemination of information. In the form of team coaching it was instrumental in helping teams define their common purpose and to take appropriate action. It was the indispensable means through which performance reviews were carried out, ensuring that the individual objectives needed to create cultural change were actually carried out. The coaching programme which was instituted by the consultancy Coaching Solutions in May 1999 was designed to cascade the coaching approach throughout the division and involved 85 managers at each of the three levels of seniority, beginning with the six senior managers. The programme itself included three stages: 1 Coaching skills programme. 2 Follow-up one-to-one coaching with each participant. 3 Follow-up review seminars for graduates of the programme.
Figure 1 Transitional phase depicted as a bridge
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The two-day coaching skills programme was designed to equip managers with the skills necessary for effective coaching. Based on goals, reality, options, when? (GROW) coaching methods, it provided managers with a format for both informal and formal coaching work of the kind carried out in performance development reviews. It covered the arts of goal-setting, active listening, creative questioning, resource-finding, reframing and actionplanning. A video-tape demonstrating these skills was commissioned and produced by Vodafone and Coaching Solutions to be used on the courses. Prior to entering the course each participant was interviewed and encouraged to define at least two coaching goals on which they would work both during and after the programme. Emphasis was placed on learning transfer throughout: as far as possible each participant practiced the skills demonstrated using real-life scenarios on which they were involved with their teams. Assessment was carried out using the Performance Appraisal Skills Inventory (PASI) designed by Kevin Phillips[1]. A minimum of two one-to-one coaching sessions were arranged with each participant. These took place from three to six weeks after the training course. They followed up the action plans developed on the course and were designed to: . ensure implementation of the skills; . troubleshoot problems; . provide external coaching for internal coaches; and . review and ensure transfer of learning. From three to six months after review seminars were held in groups of six for all graduates of phases 1 and 2. These were principally designed to share information on coaching and the management of cultural change, and to provide further opportunities for review and assessment. Based on feedback gathered over the first two phases it was also decided to focus more specifically on the relationship between coaching and delegation. Clearly successful coaching would lead to the assignment of greater responsibility to team members and the delegation of projects followed logically from that. At the same time, for coaching to raise performance, team members would need to be empowered to take initiatives and make the decisions that followed. The Jonico Window[2] instrument designed by John Nicholls was used to assess attitudes to both empowerment and delegation on a 180º basis.
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5. Impact of coaching The coaching programme impacted on managers, their staff and of course, as intended, on the business itself.
Impact on managers For many managers the coaching resulted in the realisation that staff development was a fundamental objective of their role. For some this was a profound realisation, a delight for some but a burden for others. Consciously spending time with staff whether for formal one-to-ones or impromptu coaching sessions led to a far greater understanding of the issues facing staff and their perspective on the business. As a result many relationships improved significantly, as staff felt they could at last express their opinions and views. Mutual trust increased between staff and managers as staff felt more appreciated and managers recognised previously hidden abilities. Managers found themselves able to ‘‘let go’’ of certain tasks, improving the quality of delegation. A virtuous circle of trust, delegation and success was established. As managers found more time for management by wandering about (MBWA), relationships with more junior staff and other departments also improved. Almost without realising it, managers shifted from managing their function and processes to leading their staff.
Impact on teams
critical regain the lead. The new processes, structures and culture change in the organisation enabled Vodafone to regain that lead (in 2000), which it has retained ever since. Transmitter sites were rolled our faster and more efficiently as integrated teams and managers competed to put their patch ahead of the competition.
Discoveries A number of things were learned about the role of coaching in cultural change processes with which we conclude this paper: . The importance of building the coaching ethos from the top-down. Junior managers were more likely to acquire and implement coaching skills the more they were exposed to these by their own managers. . Concomitantly with the above point there is also a need to form peer groups for managers at each level. Skills levels inevitably varied between one manager and another, and peer group exchanges were needed for the exchange of information in making coaching work on the office floor. . Coaching work is more effective the more it is linked to the other elements in the bridge. PDRs demonstrated the potential results of coaching in improved job performance and personal advancement. Briefings on The Way We Work and on changes in policy provided internal coaches with the means to motivate team members to link their personal efforts with organisational goals. Team-building and leadership courses both encouraged the spread of value-based management and provided the backdrop for team coaching.
As trust increased with individuals, so it did likewise with teams. Their confidence improved as they found they really were allowed to get on with the job. They spent less time guarding their position or defending their actions. Team ownership of problems increased and their energy was spent finding their own solutions instead of blaming others. Teams became significantly more engaged in the running of the business, challenging how and why things were done a particular way. Expectations of how managers and the business would conduct themselves were also raised, increasing the positive challenge from staff and teams.
However, cultural change takes time. Traditional attitudes to management do not die away overnight. The use of coaching and value-based management was not evenly based across the organisation. However, as cultural changes evolve managers gradually adapt, and incoming managers and employees are introduced to the new culture de novo. In this way evolutionary change takes hold and coaching-based management has become the norm.
Impact on the business
Notes
Aggressive competition from Orange had pushed Vodafone’s network Call Completion Success Rate (the percentage of calls set up, held and terminated successfully) into third place. As the key differentiator between operators at that time was network quality it was
1 The PASI tool can be obtained from Management Learning resources. Tel: +44 (0) 1267 281 1661. 2 The Jonico tool can be obtained from Management Learning resources. Tel: +44 (0) 1267 281 1661.
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The smarter they are the harder they fail
Diane Newell Leadership Coach and Consultant, Oxford, UK
Keywords Coaching, Mentoring, Management development, Leadership
Abstract A common issue in leadership development is the high flyers who reach a position where their lack of ‘‘soft’’ skills hampers their performance and proves a barrier to their continued progression to higher levels of responsibility. This paper sets out some observation and learning of my own and my colleagues, gained from our work in coaching and mentoring leaders, and incorporates the insights gained from an interactive workshop at the EMC in November 2001.
A common issue in leadership development is the high flyers who reach a position where their lack of ‘‘soft’’ skills hampers their performance and proves a barrier to their continued progression to higher levels of responsibility. Goleman (2000) identified these soft skills[1] as: . self-awareness; . self-regulation; . motivation; . empathy; and . social skill. These are in contrast to the tough skills of: . intelligence; . analytical/technical; . determination; . rigor; and . vision. This paper sets out some observation and learning of my own and my colleagues, gained from our work in coaching and mentoring leaders, and incorporates the insights gained from an interactive workshop at the EMC in November 2001.
Smart people
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opposition to their ideas. Above all they were committed to success, both their own and that of their organisation, and were driven to do a ‘‘good’’ job.
Resistance to feedback Despite their honest commitment to success and to improving their performance, these clients demonstrated a very well constructed resistance to the feedback or assessment that had highlighted their lack of soft skills. At the start of the coaching relationship, they often voiced a lack of concern with their own skills, but considerable anger and frustration with the feedback process. They frequently expressed a concern with the validity of the process – for example that the wrong people had been included in a 3608 feedback or the wrong benchmarks used. They often felt that the process may have been politically motivated, and was not genuinely designed to create greater organisational or individual competence. When discussing this resistance in co-coaching sessions and at the AMED workshop, we came to the following conclusions: . Part of the resistance can be attributed to the content of the feedback – soft skills. As our clients do not perceive the value of these skills, they reject the idea of being evaluated against them. . The majority of the resistance has its roots in our clients’ lack of familiarity with ‘‘failure’’ and learning from failure, their lack of ability in double-loop learning[2].
The first observation that we made is that many of the clients from who we draw our learning in this case are exceptionally bright and excelled in the ‘‘tough’’ skills. They had high IQs, were often expert in a professional field, were articulate and very quick to grasp new ideas. They tended to be rational/logical in their thinking and adopted an analytical approach, believing in their ability to reduce and resolve any problem to one ‘‘right’’ and repeatable solution. They often discounted emotion or intuition, seeing them as ‘‘inappropriate’’ in the workplace, and had generally used fact-based argument in the past to convince others or override
This last phenomenon, the inability of ‘‘smart’’ people to learn from negative feedback, was discussed in Argyris (1991). In this he highlights the tendency of smart professionals to act defensively when their
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Diane Newell The smarter they are the harder they fail Career Development International 7/5 [2002] 288–291
ability to change through single-loop learning is insufficient. Because they have rarely, if ever, previously failed in anything that mattered to them, they are not practised in using failure to learn. Their paradigms are more rigid than most because they have so rarely been challenged. In the session at EMC we used our collective empathy to put ourselves into their position, to walk a minute in their shoes, and it quickly became apparent to us how frightening it is, how helpless and exposed the client will feel, especially as they are often in very visible positions in their organisation. This brings us to another point made by Argyris (1991) – the potential of the ‘‘doom zoom’’. He describes this as the ‘‘inappropriately high sense of despondency, or even despair when people don’t achieve the high levels of performance they aspire to’’. He points out that smart professionals are ‘‘brittle’’ when faced with failure. Interestingly, Welch (2001), in his recent book, Jack –What I’ve Learned Leading a Great Company and Great People describes the GEC Vortex – which would seem to have a strong relationship to the doom zoom. As coaches we aim to bring our clients to constructively examine the feedback they have been given, to lower their defences and use this as an opportunity to enter doubleloop learning. At the same time we need always to watch for the ‘‘doom zoom’’, to support our clients in coming to see that they can make successful change. In discussion with other coaches and from a mixture of coaching and brainstorming exercises at the EMC we culled the following top ten ideas on how safely to begin the learning process. 1 Pay even more attention than usual to establishing the coaching meetings as a ‘‘clear space’’. Make your role and responsibilities clear; ensure that they have confidence that you will not be reporting back to their manager or HR behind their backs. 2 Notice and reflect the emotions and defensive reactions that you see. Bringing their emotions to the fore in a safe time and space allows the clients to articulate their anger, frustration, embarrassment and fear of failure. In many cases they may not have acknowledged their emotions openly previously. This helps to lower their emotional ‘‘defences’’ and makes them more open to learning. 3 Get the client to use story telling and metaphor to explore their current reality and how they feel about it. Allowing them to look in at their situation can help them to see it more clearly.
4 Raise the individual’s self-awareness through feedback and tools such as psychometric tests so that they are more able to see themselves and appreciate the differences between themselves and others. This both increases their perception of their impact on others and gives them more understanding of their own motivation to make change. In addition, switching the focus from ‘‘their performance’’ to them as individuals reduces tension and defensiveness. 5 Use their cognitive strengths to help them. Part of their frustration is often a lack of understanding of the feedback they have been given. They are often unaware of ideas such as the Johari window or double-loop communication that would help them to understand why there is often a gap between their intentions and the impact they have on others. By using models to explain these concepts and others, I have seen that clients are then more able to start grappling with the feedback[3]. 6 Increase their sensing skills; get them to notice the impact of their emotions and behaviour on others, and their reactions to others’ behaviour. Getting clients to keep a journal, to describe important meetings, can be a useful approach. 7 Build on experiences of success – ask about times when they have demonstrated key soft skills, whether at work or outside of it. Challenge their concept of negative feedback as ‘‘failure’’. 8 Connect the idea of change to the possibilities for increased intrinsic rewards from their work. If change is currently threatening, imposed from outside, the idea of balanced change which meets both the organisation’s needs and their own can restore a sense of control, of power over their destiny. 9 Challenge their assumptions about the power of soft skills. Open questioning in coaching sessions can be used to get clients to see the power that these skills have in motivating and persuading others, in inspiring followership. 10 Give them some ‘‘quick wins’’. Once they begin to question their paradigms seek opportunities for them to see how powerful a change in their attitudes and behaviour can be.
Tuning them in Once a willingness to learn and a motivation to increase leadership skills is established, I have found that these ‘‘SMART’’ individuals
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are capable of great change, and of becoming enthusiastic disciples of the power of change in their organisations. Many of them quickly want a conceptual framework around which to build their understanding of what it means to be a good leader, in addition to their existing expertise and ‘‘tough’’ skills. I have found that Goffee and Jones (2000) provide an excellent framework. I will not try to pre´cis the entire paper here, but its main conclusions are that leaders who inspire others to follow them have the following behaviours in common: . They selectively show weaknesses in ways which are genuine but do not threaten people’s confidence in their core abilities. . They are able to rely on intuition, practising sensing, but always being equipped to check their conclusions to guard against projection and misunderstanding. . They demonstrate tough empathy, are able to recognise the emotions and feelings of others, whilst challenging them to increase their contribution to the organisation’s success. . They are able to reveal genuine differences, to show their unique personalities. In the paper the authors helpfully point out that intelligence can be overplayed as a difference, creating too great a sense of divide between the leader and others. There are many papers, books and approaches that you could use and all coaches will have their preferences. I recommend this paper as a possible approach for three reasons. First, it reflects to leaders the importance of being genuinely themselves, but with skill, rather than aspiring to be ‘‘like’’ another leader. Second, it is observational, simple in structure and easily understood – which appeals to the pragmatic approach preferred by most managers. Third, and most importantly, I have found that most executives that I have introduced it to identified strongly with the conclusions and felt empowered to create change ideas and strategies with me around it. Another important aspect of tuning SMART and successful executives in to soft skills is to keep it real. Actions and strategies committed to in the coaching sessions must be directly related to their objectives in their role. For example, a client needing to practice persuasion skills undertook actions in relation to the success of a bid for more resources for his business unit, which he could not achieve without persuading departmental functional heads, over whom he had no line power. This keeps the
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coaching relevant to the client, and guards against agreed actions and steps being ‘‘crowded out’’ by the many competing pressures these clients experience.
Managing the relationship In any coaching relationship the coach or mentor needs to be aware of the dynamics of the relationship and how it changes through time. When coaching these SMART executives, my colleagues and I have found the following to be invaluable in ensuring a healthy coaching partnership: . Establish a coaching ‘‘contract’’ quite early on in the relationship, not just the coaching contract’s length, the frequency of meeting, etc. but also the changes that the client commits to making, how they will evaluate those changes and how the coaching relationship will support them in making it. This should be revisited regularly as the client’s environment and pressures will change and coaching needs to be kept relevant to the reality of their day-to-day challenges. . Encourage them to share the content of that contract selectively with others in their organisation that can help them, and give them feedback. This helps to cement their commitment to change and starts to build a variety of coaching relationships within the organisation. In many cases these individuals have a mentor that they can involve, in others the coach can help them to build a mentor relationship with an appropriate individual. These relationships will be invaluable in helping the client to transition out of the coaching relationship and maintain support for change in the longer term. . Be prepared to assert yourself, to question the dynamics of the relationship openly quite early in the contract. These clients are often used to ‘‘fighting’’ for dominance and control, especially when they first enter into a relationship. One co-coach reports a conversation where any questions he asked were simply ignored for over an hour as the client laid out the agenda and how they would work together. . You may have to avoid becoming involved in a ‘‘chess game’’ once the relationship is established – these clients often enjoy academic or conceptual jousting and can use it as a distraction from addressing issues within their own attitudes and behaviours. Again, an open reflection of your perception of this behaviour, and a question around whether this helps them
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to reach their goals most effectively is useful. Watch for ‘‘conceptual’’ closure. These clients are used to constantly questioning the worth and validity of any activity, and they will constantly question the worth of time spent with a coach. Interestingly, there is often a ‘‘crisis’’ once they have seen the new paradigm and decided what changes to make. At this point in the relationship their lack of practise with double-loop learning can lead them to assume that the hard work is done, and that their time would be better spent elsewhere. Focusing on ‘‘What will you do?’’, developing their commitment to real and relevant actions that can be taken before the next meeting, then reported on and discussed helps to prevent a sense of false closure at this point.
Working as a coach or mentor with smart executives at this pivotal point in their development is demanding, and requires high degrees of professionalism and expertise. However, the impact that we can have is significant and exhilarating. Not only can we help individuals to find their way past what might otherwise prove to be a considerable career block, but also we can inspire them with enthusiasm for the power of change both for themselves and for their organisation. Their leadership positions and tough skill strengths make them potentially powerful change agents inside their organisation and enormously influential in improving the ways that their organisation approaches change. Their leadership can be key to increasing the potential for people working within their teams and organisations to experience positive change. There can be few more rewarding
assignments for any coach or mentor. The learning collated here is not intended to be an ‘‘answer’’ or a recipe by which we can work, but rather a sharing of experience.
Notes 1 Goleman (1995) uses the concept of EI, emotional intelligence, as contrasted to IQ to distinguish this soft skills ability from tough skills in his book Emotional Intelligence. 2 Hargrove (1995) defines single-loop learning as learning that allows people to ‘‘embody new skills and capabilities through incremental learning’’. Double-loop learning in contrast is ‘‘fundamentally reshaping the underlying patterns of peoples’ thinking and behaviour so that they are capable of doing different things’’. Hargrove also separates out tripleloop learning from double-loop – triple loop learning creates ‘‘a shift in peoples’ context or point of view about themselves’’. 3 Examples of models that I have found useful are: Johari Window; The ‘‘Zuccini Connection’’; The Circumplex Model; The Drama Triangle; Double-loop Communication; and The Ladder of Inference.
References Argyris, C. (1991), ‘‘Teaching smart people how to learn’’, Harvard Business Review, May-June. Goffee, R. and Jones, G. (2000), ‘‘Why should anyone be lead by you?’’, Harvard Business Review, September-October. Goleman, D. (1995), Emotional Intelligence – Why It Can Matter More than IQ, Bantam Books, New York, NY. Goleman, D. (2000), ‘‘Leadership that gets results’’, Harvard Business Review, March-April. Hargrove, R. (1995), Masterful Coaching, JosseyBass Pfeiffer, San Francisco, CA. Welch, J. (2001), Jack – What I’ve Learned Leading a Great Company and Great People, Warner Books/Headline Book Publishing, London.
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Mentoring and motivational versatility: an exploration of reversal theory
Michael J. Apter Apter International, Vienna, Virginia, USA Stephen Carter Apter International, Uppingham, UK
Keywords Psychology, Mentoring
Abstract The present paper is intended as an exploration of the relevance of reversal theory for mentoring. In principle, reversal theory would appear to offer some major strengths in this respect and these strengths are discussed. Reversal theory itself is briefly described and, finally, implications for mentoring are discussed.
Reversal theory is a general theory of motivation, emotion and personality that has generated interest among researchers and practitioners over the last 20 years, following the publication of Apter’s (1982) book, The Experience of Motivation. A recent volume reviewing all the research that has been carried out on the theory, and all the applications to which it has been put, has recently been published by the American Psychological Society (Apter, 2001). Twelve other books have been published on the theory, including collections of papers from some of the international conferences organized by the Reversal Theory Society. Over 300 academic papers and chapters have also been published on, or using, reversal theory.
Relevance to mentoring
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replaced by more sophisticated and dynamic concepts. It also believes that it is more helpful for people who need to change, such as those being mentored, to see themselves as changing all the time anyway, so that there is no ‘‘change inertia’’ to overcome. The theory brings to bear a set of concepts that have already proved useful in other applied settings, such as child guidance and adult therapy (Lafreniere et al., 2001), health counselling (Svebak and Apter, 1997) and sports coaching (Kerr, 2001). And it has been used with success in other organizational applications, including leadership development and team building (Carter, 1999; Apter and Carter, 2001). Apter International has been set up specifically to apply the insights of reversal theory to organizations. Various psychometric instruments have been developed by those working with the theory, and these could be used immediately in a mentoring context. This is particularly true of the Apter Motivational Style Profile that uses an expert system (available over the Internet) to feedback narrative reports to respondents in a way that raises issues to be discussed between a respondent and his/her counsellor – or mentor – or for personal reflection. Further, since the AMSP provides a ‘‘snapshot’’ of the individual at a given moment it can be administered on a number of occasions during mentoring to document change.
The present paper is intended as an exploration of the relevance of reversal theory for mentoring. In principle, reversal theory would appear to offer some major strengths in this respect: . The time element is central to the reversal theory approach, since it looks at the way in which states succeed each other over time. In this respect it potentially provides a certain ‘‘fit’’ with mentoring, since mentoring is essentially a process that takes place over extended periods of time – unlike some other kinds of intervention (workshops, inspirational talks, one-off counselling interviews, etc.). . Reversal theory emphasizes changeability, since it regards personality as a pattern of change over time rather than as a static position on some dimension or in some category. It suggests that ‘‘traits’’ and ‘‘types’’ are simplistic ways of looking at people that need to be
The theory is a complex one, but at its heart is a set of oppositions representing four pairs of opposing fundamental motives. Each of these motives represents a basic value, leads
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Reversal theory
Michael J. Apter and Stephen Carter Mentoring and motivational versatility: an exploration of reversal theory Career Development International 7/5 [2002] 292–295
to the world being seen in a certain way, expresses itself through a particular style, and is associated with its own range of possible emotions. In each pair, only one member of the pair can be active at a given time, but under various circumstances postulated in the theory a reversal can occur – meaning that the opposite state takes over at that moment. (This is not unlike the situation with respect to perceptual reversals, like the Necker cube, that all students of psychology will be familiar with.) Over time, two kinds of change will occur in normal people: alternation between the members of each pair, and changes in focus between the pairs themselves so that different aspects of the world come to the forefront of attention at different times (even though four motivational states, one from each pair, will be active simultaneously at any one moment). Here are the four pairs: 1 The serious/playful motivational state: . The serious motivational state. Here achievement is the basic value. Orientation is towards the future, and satisfaction is gained from feelings of progress. . The playful motivational state. Here enjoyment is the basic value. Orientation is towards the present moment, and satisfaction is gained from fun and stimulation. 2 The conformist/challenging motivational state: . The conformist motivational state. Here fitting in is the basic value. Orientation is towards duty and virtue, and satisfaction is gained from feeling that one is doing the right thing. . The challenging motivational state. Here freedom is the basic value. Orientation is towards breaking rules and restrictions, and satisfaction is gained from feeling that one is rebelling. 3 The mastery/sympathy motivational state: . The mastery motivational state. Here power is the basic value. Orientation is towards control and strength, and satisfaction is gained from feeling that one is mastering people, objects or situations. . The sympathy motivational state. Here affection (even love) is the basic value. Orientation is towards kindness, and satisfaction is gained from feeling that one is in a close and caring relationship. 4 The self-oriented/other-oriented motivational state:
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The self-oriented motivational state. Here individuality is the basic value. Orientation is towards one’s own needs, and satisfaction is gained from feeling that one has personally gained from the situation. The other-oriented motivational state. Here transcendence is the basic value. Orientation is towards the needs of others with whom one identifies (people, groups, causes), and satisfaction is gained from feeling that these others have gained from the situation.
People will have innate tendencies (referred to in the theory as ‘‘dominances’’) to spend more time in one rather than the other of each pair (e.g. to be more conforming or rebelling), but they will nevertheless in the normal way of things move backwards and forwards within a pair. Their tendencies over all the pairs provide a personal profile, representing the relative importance in their lives of the eight underlying values. (This can be measured by such instruments as the AMSP.) It should be noted that dominance can also change over time (for example it is often the case that people become more serious-dominant as they age). To be psychologically healthy and effective, people need to be motivationally versatile (to use a term coined by Dixon (1994)). That is, they need to avoid getting stuck in one state in a pair, in this way becoming overdominant. Another way of putting this is that they need to be ‘‘psychodiverse’’. They also need to be able to be in the right state at the right time. And they need to have a repertoire of suitable life skills related to the needs of each state. Psychologically healthy teams and organizations also, like individuals, need to be psychodiverse: they need to be able to harness all eight motivations for different purposes at different times. In other words, all eight states have potential strengths that an organization will need to draw on over time. Measuring such organizational profiles has been made possible through the Apter Work Impact System (AWIS).
Implications for mentoring Carter (1994) has discussed the four bases of successful mentoring: 1 an organizational basis – having the power and contacts to support the mentee; 2 an interpersonal basis – being able to build and maintain open, trusting and emotionally rich relationships;
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3 a development basis – being motivated and having the ability to facilitate the development of another; and 4 a contextual basis in which a mentor ensures that the expectations and purpose of the relationship are maintained. It is easy to see that a wide variety of motivational values and styles will need to be employed to ensure that the relationship is fruitful. Mastery coupled with both self and other clearly impacts upon the organizational and development basis. Conforming will be required to facilitate contextual basis, the sympathy state will underpin a successful relationship basis. The serious state will ensure that mentoring continues to have purpose and direction – challenge the fresh thinking that will be fundamental to a mentee’s impact at work. Here are some specific implications that can be drawn from reversal theory for the practice of mentoring: . The mentor himself or herself must be in the other-oriented state while mentoring. That is, when acting with or on behalf of the mentee, they must be genuinely concerned with the good of the mentee (rather than of themselves), both in technical mastery terms and in sympathy psychosocial terms. If they are, instead, just going through the motions in the selforiented state, they are likely to be frustrated in terms of the needs of that state, they will miss out on the satisfactions of the other-oriented state, and they may be regarded by the more perceptive of their colleagues as inauthentic. As a result of all this they may be less effective in helping their mentees. This may be one reason why mentoring which occurs naturally rather than imposed through some sort of scheme seems to be more effective (i.e. the difference between ‘‘essential mentoring and ‘‘instrumental mentoring,’’ as proposed by Collin (1988)). . The best mentors are probably otheroriented dominant. But a mentor cannot be expected to be in the other-oriented state all the time, and therefore it is unwise to expect people to be ‘‘professional mentors’’. Having to pursue other-orientation too much of the time can lead to burnout – a common problem in such helping professions as psychiatry, teaching, nursing and social work. Again, ‘‘essential mentoring’’ is likely to be more successful than ‘‘instrumental mentoring’’.
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At the same time, everyone in an organization needs to be other-oriented some of the time, if for no other reason than that self-orientation can also lead to a kind of burnout, but in any case in order to increase psychodiversity in the organization. One way of helping to assure this is to encourage everyone to be involved in mentoring. This also applies to mentees! It is often the case that when the mentor and mentee are interacting together, that the playful state is the most appropriate one for them both to be in, and certainly for the mentee. This is because in the playful state it is easier to think about and face up to problems in a detached, non-anxious way than in the serious state. It is also easier to experiment, and to contemplate change in this state. More generally, in order to have a good relationship, mentor and mentee will need to be in the same states at the same time (with the exception of the self-oriented and the other-oriented states). Any good relationship (including marriage, teaching, doctor-patient, etc.) needs the partners to the relationship to carry out a kind of ‘‘dance’’ in which their states, and changes of state, are coordinated. Without this, there will not be the necessary ‘‘good vibrations’’. There are basically two ways in which the mentor can do this – through being sensitive to the mentee’s motivational states, or through ‘‘climate setting’’ so as to induce certain states in the mentee. One of the things that the mentor should try to do, among others, is to help the mentee experience all the states in the work situation, and in this way to display motivational versatility and psychodiversity, especially since organizations tends to privilege the serious, conformist and mastery states. The good mentor will be adept at spotting deficiencies in this respect, but can be helped through the use of a psychometric instrument like the Apter Motivational Style Profile. Reversal theory also provides a way of helping mentees to understand and deal with the essential paradoxes of working life: that individuals need to think of both themselves and others, that they need to fit in and at the same time challenge and seek new approaches, that they must take tough competitive decisions and yet maintain the best possible relationships with all stakeholders, and that they should focus on the future whilst also
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ensuring that the here and now is exciting, rewarding and productive. Fostering this motivational versatility may be one of the central tasks of a mentor. The mentor may also spot discrepancies between the mentee’s values and the values of the organization as displayed in its cultural climate. Both of these sets of values can be understood (and measured) in terms of the reversal theory framework of motivational states. Provided these do not substantially reduce the mentee’s psychodiversity, the mentor can help the mentee to bring his or her values more into alignment with those of the organization.
What reversal theory does is to provide a systematic way of looking at the task of mentoring, and a way of assessing its success, at least in psychosocial terms. It does this through understanding personality through the psychological motives that structure the way that both the mentor and the mentee see the world. It also recognizes the way that both parties to the mentoring process may be continually changing – and indeed need to be changing in order to be both fulfilled and effective in the work situation. Finally, it provides a compelling insight into why mentoring can be on occasion one of the most rich and rewarding of work-based relationships.
References Apter, M.J. (1982), The Experience of Motivation: A Theory of Psychology Reversals, Academic Press, Chichester and New York, NY. Apter, M.J. (Ed.) (2001), Motivational Styles in Everyday Life: A Guide to Reversal Theory, American Psychological Association, Washington, DC. Apter, M.J. and Carter, S. (2001), ‘‘Management and organizations’’, in Apter, M.J. (Ed.), Motivational Styles in Everyday Life: A Guide to Reversal Theory, American Psychological Association, Washington, DC. Carter, S. (1994), An Essential Guide to Mentoring, Institute of Management, Corby. Carter, S. (1999), Renaissance Management, Kogan Page, London. Collin, A. (1988), ‘‘Mentoring’’, Journal of Industrial and Commercial Training, March/ April. Dixon, M. (1994), ‘‘The benefits of a switchable personality’’, Financial Times, 24 January, p. 13. Kerr, J.H. (2001), Counselling Athletes: Applying Reversal Theory, Routledge, London. Lafreniere, K.D., Ledgerwood, D.M. and Murgatroyd, S.J. (2001), ‘‘Psychopathology, therapy and counselling’’, in, Apter, M.J. (Ed.), Motivational Styles in Everyday Life: A Guide to Reversal Theory, American Psychological Association, Washington, DC. Svebak, S. and Apter, M.J. (Eds) (1997), Stress and Health: A Reversal Theory Perspective, Taylor & Francis, Washington, DC.
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AIB’s learning and development programme for graduates – a case study of a strategic initiative
Judy Murphy AIB Bank, Dublin, Ireland
Keywords Human resource development, Retention, Learning, Case studies
Abstract This paper describes AIB’s Learning and Development Programme (LDP) for graduates, developed in 1999. AIB saw it as imperative to ensure that the investment being made by the organization on the recruitment front was well used to ensure that graduates were developed and retained within the organisation and that the return on investment was maximised. The LDP had to be compatible with the existing culture of the organisation and support both the short-term objectives of the individual and long-term business needs of the organisation. The research into, implementation of, and outcomes following the introduction of the LDP are discussed.
AIB Bank is Ireland’s largest financial services organisation. It employs over 31,000 people worldwide across locations in Ireland, the USA, Singapore, the UK, and Poland. In 1999, AIB developed a Learning and Development Programme (LDP) for graduates recruited in Ireland and the UK, to help graduates to develop their full potential and equip them for the future. The main objective of this programme is to attract, develop and retain graduates within the organisation.
Introduction The programme, known internally as the LDP, was developed over 12 months. The programme was then piloted with graduates recruited in 1999 (‘‘class of 1999’’). This programme was introduced into AIB in the Ireland Division at a time when the graduate intake had significantly increased. Retention rates were falling and AIB did not have any formal graduate development programme. There was also a strategic requirement to develop a high quality talent pool to ensure our leadership capability to deliver on our business strategy into the future.
# MCB UP Limited [ISSN 1362-0436] [DOI 10.1108/13620430210440145]
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Research
The economy in Ireland at this time was very strong. The labour force had increased by 34 percent from 1987 to 1998 and unemployment had fallen to 4.3 percent (ESRI, 2000). Retention was becoming a major issue in many organisations in Ireland due to a very strong economy, in particular within financial services. AIB had adopted a graduate recruitment policy in 1994 and in 1999 intake increased significantly. Going forward, it was imperative to ensure that the investment
As part of the research and development of this programme qualitative and quantitative research was undertaken in the whole area of retention. It involved interviews with a sample of the organisation’s executive population, line managers, graduates, and examination of outputs from the staff attitude survey and benchmarking best practises. One aspect that was very important to the success of the programme was ensuring that whatever was developed was ‘‘culturefriendly’’. The added value to the business far outweighed the cost of developing a graduate programme. The resulting proposal was the recommendation in the report: . To develop and implement a two-year learning and development programme.
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Background
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being made by the organization on the recruitment front was well used to ensure that graduates were developed and retained within the organisation and that the return on investment was maximised. One of the key objectives was to develop a programme that would be compatible with the existing culture of the organisation and support both the short-term objectives of the individual and long-term business needs of the organisation. In 1994 AIB began recruiting business and technology graduates. Over the next few years the numbers continued to increase, but from 1998 to 1999 they increased by 100 percent. In 1999 over 200 graduates were recruited into the organisation. In anticipation of this surge in new graduates and to address the requirements of the existing graduates and the business owners, research into formalising a programme for the class of 1999 commenced.
Judy Murphy AIB’s learning and development programme for graduates – a case study of a strategic initiative Career Development International 7/5 [2002] 296–299
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To concentrate on short-term training and long-term development. To appoint a programme manager.
The purpose of the programme was to increase the profile of AIB as a graduate employer and to attract, develop and retain graduates. It was also a good opportunity to provide management with a further opportunity to develop coaching and mentoring skills and provided a base for succession planning. The underlying principals of the LDP for graduates were: . Focus – short-term training and long-term development. . Incorporate our leadership framework. . Graduates and the line would have ownership of the programme. . Flexible structure to meet the needs of the business. . Activities would be timed to maximise effectiveness.
The programme AIB is committed to helping graduates to develop to their full potential and to provide them with the skills to equip themselves for the future through providing a structured, two-year development programme. This incorporates practical development of business skills through challenging work in conjunction with the line manager as well as the opportunity to develop leadership ability for the future. The main objectives of the programme were to: . accelerate the pace of learning and encourage the graduates to take ownership of their own learning and development; . provide management with an opportunity to develop mentoring and coaching skills further through facilitation of learning groups; and . organize the graduates into crossfunctional learning groups with mentors. Our approach to learning was as follows: . structured on-the-job learning experiences; . personal development planning with line managers; . workshops based on our leadership framework; . set up peer learning groups; . learning logs; and . group projects. The Learning Bank and a newly appointed programme manager would support this. The
LDP, supported by the programme manager, involved: 1 Short-term training: . placement; . induction; . formal skills training (technical); . learning through work; . personal development plan; and . learning and development template. 2 Long-term development: . leadership workshop; . peer learning groups; . development facilitators (mentors); . business projects; and . learning log.
Short-term training In designing the programme, it was decided that the line managers and graduates owned the short-term training aspect. The benefit of this is that each training plan is relevant and appropriate to the individual graduate. This was fundamental to the success of the programme as it gained commitment from the line manager. This ensured that any local requirements for training the individual were implemented in the local design. It also gave each manager the opportunity to take the individual’s skill level and qualification into account. It was an important aspect of the programme that the ‘‘centre’’ did not dictate local training requirements and gave local ownership of the programme. Any placement that took place over the two-year period was also determined locally by the line manager and had to be relevant and appropriate to assist the graduates’ understanding of their role. There was no formal rotation aspect within the design of the programme, therefore this aspect had to be designed locally, if required.
Learning and development template/ personal development planning The advantage of this template was that it aided the line manager in the design of programme locally and also promoted communication between the line and the graduate. Each manager is encouraged to meet early on with the graduate and discuss his or her training plan for the two-year period. This has a very positive impact on the new graduate. The training plan was written onto the learning and development template. This template is basic and has a timeline and five sections: placement; training; development; projects; and self-education. The local line manager has responsibility in deciding what training and placement is appropriate to help the new graduate to train to do their current job and was designed specifically to give the line manager the support and structure required when
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designing the local training plan for their graduate. It also responds to the needs of the graduate in giving them a ‘‘line of sight’’ for their training over the two-year period. This has had a very positive impact on the graduate.
Long-term development The responsibility of long-term development was the programme manager’s. The long term incorporated workshops, becoming a member of a peer learning group, completing a live business project and completing a learning log throughout the two-year development journey.
Leadership workshops These workshops are designed to develop the graduates’ leadership potential and skills and prepare them for future management roles through a series of planned workshops. These workshops are highly participative and interactive and will also provide graduates with an opportunity to meet with their peer group. A broad range of leadership topics is covered, for example, developing potential, communicating and influencing in a team environment, managing change, etc. Inputs are included from some leading international speakers and from senior AIB executives.
Peer learning groups Each learning group comprises of graduates who share common learning and development needs. These learning groups are cross-functional and are set up at the first workshop. As part of a small learning group the graduates have access to a network of graduates who work in a diverse range of business areas in AIB. An experienced manager, who is also a trained mentor and facilitator, is available to each learning group to provide support and guidance and to share their knowledge and experience. Groups may also use the extensive range of learning materials in our state of the art learning resource center, the Learning Bank. A total of 19 learning groups were set up for the class of 1999. Learning groups have full discretion on the direction of their learning. The approach adopted has been a ‘‘hands-off’’ approach but with full support from the programme manager, as required.
Mentors (development facilitators) The mentors appointed to each group were nominated by senior executives and the criteria for nomination were that each potential mentor must have displayed an interest in personal development, have excellent interpersonal skills and be
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prepared to commit time for training, workshops, meetings. Each group of mentors attends one day’s training prior to the first workshop when the learning groups are set up. Mentors meet their groups at an early stage of the programme and attend all workshops together. This process is reviewed quarterly and all mentors come together and share best practice with each other.
Projects As part of the learning group process, groups are asked to complete a business-related project. Business executives provide these projects and the findings feed directly back into the business. The groups are given a nine-week window from selection of project to completion. Findings are presented to a group of executives, line managers and peers and the presentation lasts 20 minutes. There is full support from the programme manager and mentor throughout this process. This part of the programme is the most personally challenging for the graduates and provides the most concentrated growth and development during this time.
What we have achieved The main objective of the LDP was to attract, develop and retain graduates. The achievements of this programme are outlined below.
Retention Bearing in mind that the ‘‘Celtic Tiger’’ peaked during 2000 it would be fair to expect retention to have dropped significantly, as it had been falling during 1997 and 1998 within AIB. However, retention increased during the two-year programme by 12 percent. Our highest attrition in the years preceding this programme was in retail banking and in this area retention improved by 17 percent.
Learning groups relationships In terms of the learning groups, 74 percent of the groups worked very well, with 47 percent being excellent. This would have been in areas where the groups were well managed and supported by mentor, activities were relevant and appropriate and well paced. Groups that were more effective engaged in open discussion and the group was mutually supportive. A good rapport was built up and good networks were established. Of the 26 percent of learning groups that were not effective the main issues that were identified were fear of failure and lack of people management skills on the part of the mentors. Meetings were not well attended
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and in some cases the line did not support the process. Interestingly some mentors worked really hard to get the groups to work and it was during the project phase that everything came together.
Succession/talent pool At the end of the programme, a large number of graduates were short-listed for interview for management positions. This resulted in 24 percent of graduates from the class of 1999 being promoted to first line management positions.
Accreditation The programme was nationally accredited.
Cost/return of investment This programme was very cost effective and received the maximum exposure within the organisation. In terms of return on investment the retention aspect was examined and if only this aspect is taken into account there has been a significant return to the organisation. Another positive outcome is that other divisions are interested in joining the programme based on graduate feedback.
What we have learned In the interest of equality, staff who had been supported by the organisation to complete a degree were invited to participate in the programme. There were six possible candidates, however only one person took up the offer. Research indicated that the graduates wanted a challenge and as a result the mentors adopted a hands-off approach with the learning groups as the feedback from the graduates had been that they wanted to be challenged. However, this approach proved not to be totally effective as a number of groups did not rise to the challenge (20 percent). This approach was changed for the class of 2000, and the mentor at the outset adopted a more guiding/coaching role. As the group became more confident with the organisation this role will take on the more self-reliant approach. It was obvious that the learning groups needed more guidance and support in the early days.
An interesting factor was that although there was strong support for the programme, in some cases the same people were having difficulty attending various activities. It was difficult to establish if this was due to lack of interest on the part of the graduate, lack of support on the part of the line manager or genuine business constraints. The line manager is key to the success of this or any programme in an organisation and it is very important to have them on side from an early stage. One of the spin-offs of this programme was that it helped increase people’s awareness of personal development within the programme. A number of the mentors were also promoted during this time. A number of mentors used this opportunity to develop their people skills. In 2000 a number of managers volunteered for the role of mentor.
Learning and development programme summary This programme has been very successful from an organisational point of view. The organisation succeeded in building loyalty and commitment, thus retaining graduates at the height of the Celtic Tiger boom (retention up 12 percent). A talent pool was created for succession and at the end of the two-year programme a large percentage of graduates competed for management positions and 24 percent of graduates were promoted. The programme also provided management with an opportunity to further develop their coaching and mentoring skills through their role as line managers or as mentors. Feedback from the executive sponsors and the graduates has been extremely positive. All feedback is taken on board and the programme modified accordingly. The return on this investment for the LDP for graduates in AIB has been significant and demonstrates how a simple model which can succeed in creating a sense of loyalty, belonging and commitment can be achieved in a very cost-effective way.
Reference ESRI (2000), The Economic and Social Institute Web site, available at: http://www.esri.ie
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A study of the mentoring scheme at Cheltenham and Gloucester College of Higher Education: issues of equity and justice Clare Hetherington University of Gloucestershire, Cheltenham, UK
Keywords Mentoring, Human resource development, Case studies
Abstract This paper discusses the mentoring scheme developed at the Cheltenham and Gloucester College of Higher Education. The author, while working on her MA dissertation, was asked to join the College Mentor Scheme Working Group, which had been formed to improve the mentoring scheme. The specific questions addressed, issues raised by managers, the remit of the group and research conducted by the author are all discussed. Findings and specific recommendations are also presented and, finally, more general conclusions are discussed.
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Background The author was approached in November 2000 to join the College Mentor Scheme Working Group that was being established. The aim of this group was to review the scheme that had been in operation since 1996 for all newly appointed staff to the college. A formal evaluation of the scheme had not been conducted previously, and there was a feeling that the scheme was not working as well as it could. The author agreed to conduct research into the scheme and how effective it was for newly appointed support staff, this would feed into the work of the group and her MA dissertation. The focus of the mentor review group was to look at the answers to the questions listed below (these were sent to faculty and other managers in the college): . Do we need such a scheme? . Should all staff in college be a part of such a scheme? . Should the college be operating one scheme for all or should there be separate schemes for academic staff, support staff and managers? . Should the scheme operate as part of the induction process (i.e. for six months approximately) or on a more long term basis? . Should the mentor be an equal or more senior colleague in terms of grading/ length of experience, etc.? . Should the relationship be that of a ‘‘buddy’’ or with a view to supporting professional development in the mentee?
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We need to avoid the deficiency model of mentoring – i.e. it is only for those in their first year or those with problems? We need to ensure credibility with senior people – in some instances mentors from outside the institution might be acceptable. I am aware of developments of on-line and distance mentoring using telephone links, etc. and these might also be considered for people in senior positions. It was felt that the mentoring scheme should continue, with a clarification of the role, training that would set boundaries to the role (e.g. exclude counselling), regular meetings of mentors for refresher training, and regular publication of a list of trained mentors. A ‘‘buddy’’ scheme was not seen as useful. The approach to mentoring is more important than seniority, or lack of it. The mentor must have an understanding of the work of the mentee. Whether or not the mentor is within the same faculty/ department as the mentee is not seen as important, although in some cases they should be in the same faculty. Mentoring should include an element of professional development. Is the college aiming to be a ‘‘learning organisation’’? What do the individuals who have mentors want out of the relationship? How does mentoring relate to other forms of development? What is the potential for more than model? How skilled are the mentors in helping to support whatever kind of relationship is appropriate within a particular mentoring partnership (e.g. mentoring/coaching/buddying)? How have you selected the current relationships?
The following are some of the issues that were raised by respondents:
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What training are mentors offered . . . and how effective has it been? What are the recognised benefits to the mentors? What are the recognised/sought benefits to the organisation? Why should mentoring be restricted to induction? People often need as much help moving on and exiting from different stages in their career.
Remit of the group The group agreed that its purpose would be to clarify the desired outcomes of the college mentor scheme – and in view of these: . review the current policy and scheme, including the documentation of the scheme and training available for the mentors; . review the policy and process in terms of how it sits with the responsibilities of the line manager and the induction process; . decide if it is appropriate to run with one model for all staff and if not what different models are needed; and . discuss and make recommendations that address the needs of more senior staff.
Current arrangements of the scheme Among the current arrangements of the scheme, the following were of particular significance to the work of the group. The College’s mentor scheme provides that: . Newly appointed staff and staff who significantly change their role in the college are assigned a mentor. . All new staff should receive an induction pack that is worked through by the new employee with the manager, this includes a mentoring resource pack. . The individual’s line manager is responsible for assigning the mentor to the mentee. . There are regular training workshops for mentors. . The personnel and staff development department keep a record of mentors and mentees and a register of appropriately trained mentors.
Research conducted by the author As part of the work of the group and in connection with her MA in HRM, research was conducted to look at the efficacy of the scheme for support staff. A literature review
was undertaken to identify the possible benefits and value that mentoring could have for new staff in terms of job performance and personal development. This led to the identification of a series of areas to be explored by the use of a structured interview, to ascertain if the mentor scheme at CGCHE was fulfilling the benefits such schemes can have on workplace and individual performance. The author identified from information provided by the personnel and staff development department (PSD) those newly appointed support staff and approached a random sample of these staff, with a view to discussing with them the benefits of mentoring. It soon became apparent that not all new staff, contrary to the expected operation of the scheme, had been appointed a mentor. The author then contacted all new support staff and asking them if they would participate in the research. This led to the interviewing of 23 staff in March 2001 out of a possible 77 support staff appointed in the last 12 months. The author also interviewed a small number of mentors to gauge their experience of acting in this role. The interviews were centred around a series of questions, in particular exploring the possible benefits to mentees of having a mentor.
Findings The interviews found that only 52 percent of those interviewed had been appointed a mentor. Of those who were assigned a mentor only 41 percent had an active relationship. Some of the main issues that arose from the interviews were: 1 Lack of information on the mentor scheme or misinformation. Many new staff thought mentoring was a good idea but did not really understand the possible benefits to them. The concept was not one that they were familiar with. Some met their mentor once but did not bother again as no clear agreement was drawn up. 2 In some cases mentors were assigned but the mentor did not contact the mentee so they never met. 3 One person thought her mentor lacked the right skills and possibly had not been trained so did not pursue the relationship. 4 One individual felt that using a mentor was a failing on your part, other colleagues thought you needed remedial help. 5 Poor induction by some managers, individuals are given the new staff pack but no one goes through it with them. The
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mentoring scheme is not discussed and no mentor is appointed. 6 Misinformation, mentoring is only for academic staff, you can have a mentor if you really want one, you have to meet outside work time. One individual mentioned having to ask her manager three times about having a mentor before one was reluctantly appointed. 7 The lack of a mentor for some staff meant that there was no third party, the confidential sounding board for the new person to talk to when things went wrong. The examples below are taken from interviews with staff: . I really could have done with a mentor; I found the college environment quite hostile not welcoming. . I did not have any proper sort of induction to my job or the college. I have decided to leave. . The manager told me all about my colleagues on my first day, i.e. the good and the bad guys, I did not have a chance to make my own mind up. I wondered what sort of a place I had come to. Mentoring was never mentioned. No one in my department has had a mentor. I would have liked a mentor. 8 Mentoring is viewed by nearly all the staff as good idea; individuals who had a mentor welcomed the confidential support provided by the mentor the examples below show some of the benefits for individuals: . My mentor has been really helpful, made a point of telling me she had been trained. . We meet regularly; she has helped me with work projects, careers advice, interviewing skills – really helpful. . Having a mentor has helped me settle in quickly, I had no previous experience of higher education so there was a lot to find out about the organisation. . My mentor has introduced me to other people in the organisation which has helped me with my job. Table I outlines the benefits that those interviewed responded to in a positive way Most of those interviewed trusted their mentor and also felt that a mentor needs to have knowledge of their work.
Mentors’ experience A small group of six mentors was also interviewed to find out about their
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experience. Examples of the issues raised were: . I like being a mentor, makes you reflect on your skills, I have improved my listening skills, it is good to feel wanted. . I have watched new staff grow and develop in the organisation. I hope that I have made this easier for them. . Meeting new staff and helping them settle into the College is very rewarding, it is an important role but one that I enjoy. . I am not always sure if I am doing it right, being a mentor is a bit lonely – it would be good to meet with other mentors. . The training was a long time ago – it was more awareness rather than skill development, more training would be useful. Table II outlines the benefits that mentors identified from acting in the role. All mentors viewed the experience as a positive one and would be happy to continue in the role. It was interesting to note that those mentors who were all involved in active relationships all had over six years’ service in the organisation and the average was nine years.
Issues to address Issues to address include: . Lack of ownership at the local level. In some departments no mentors are appointed. The induction checklist and pack are not worked through systematically. . Some managers do not appear to welcome the scheme or have limited knowledge of mentoring and the benefits to the individual and the organisation. This lack of buy in from some managers raises clear issues of procedural justice, and issues of equity and fairness for new staff. The College has a clear policy that all new staff are appointed a mentor, a lack of this confidential third party support is then clearly in many ways an infringement of the rights of that individual. This may lead in turn to a poor psychological contract between employee and manager. The lack of a mentor for some staff meant that there was no third party, the confidential sounding board for the new person to talk to when things went wrong. . Some people are appointing mentors who have not been trained. A list of trained College mentors should be widely available. . The scheme needs evaluating on a regular basis to ensure it is operating effectively. . Lack of awareness on the part of new staff on what they should expect in terms of
Clare Hetherington A study of the mentoring scheme at Cheltenham and Gloucester College of Higher Education: issues of equity and justice
Table I Benefits that those interviewed responded to in a positive way
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Personal support mechanism Induction to new job and culture Confidential sounding board Career guidance Access to a second opinion Help in solving problems Advice and encouragement Help in identifying staff development opportunities Help in discovering coping strategies to deal with formal and informal organisation structures Access to other people, e.g. profile raising, meeting other colleagues Ideas sharing Encouragement to own your own learning I would like to act as a mentor to others in the future Work related help Increased sense of belonging Insight into your own performance (critical friend) Increased confidence Counselling
Number of respondents
Benefit
7 5 5 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 3 3 3 2 2 1 1 1
Table II Benefits that mentors identified from acting in the role Number of respondents
Benefit Satisfaction of developing colleagues Professional/personal development Improved IP skills Develop reflective practice New perspective, fresh ideas Improved knowledge of the organisation Improve management skills Enhanced status Improved confidence
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induction and support. If the manager has not mentioned mentoring then it is unlikely to happen. Mentors would welcome more opportunities to meet, a mentor support mechanism should be established.
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Recommendations from the working group The group, after meeting and reviewing the research undertaken by the author and an academic colleague, made the following recommendations: . That the mentor scheme documentation is updated and that the scheme is re-energised. . That the role of the mentor is recognised by the line manager both in terms of time commitment and as part of the individual’s personal and professional development.
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The introduction of a new induction workshop for small numbers of newly appointed staff. This would be run by PSD and cover a number of topics relevant to new staff. The introduction of an induction questionnaire routinely sent to staff shortly after the end of the six-week induction period. This will enable monitoring of the recruitment process, induction processes and mentoring arrangements. There could also be a sample of in-depth interviews each year to ascertain if the benefits of mentoring to all parties are being achieved, bearing in mind issues of confidentiality. The introduction of exit interviews to pick up, albeit retrospectively, any weaknesses in the processes. That the staff development workshops should be expanded to cover skill development of the mentors. Mentees
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should also be invited to participate in the workshops. . That mentors participate in other staff development workshops as appropriate to their own development and that are relevant to the role and skills of the mentor. . That a mentoring network is established for mentors to meet on a regular basis and share experiences and good practice. . That the group continue to work on the role of the mentor in the College with a view to expanding the scheme to include career mentoring for established staff. . That senior management support the above recommendations and ensure that mentors are allocated to newly appointed members of staff and staff who significantly change their role.
Conclusions The aim of this research was to investigate the effectiveness of the mentoring scheme at CGCHE in relation to support staff induction. In drawing on the findings, the conclusion is
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reached that there is very mixed practice across the institution. The variation is such that the procedural rights and psychological contract of new members of staff is in some cases undermined. The common elements that have been identified as problems are; a lack of awareness of the scheme by some managers, a lack of assigning of mentors and providing a supported induction for all staff, an insufficient pool of trained mentors, a need for further support for mentors and the need to evaluate the scheme on a regular basis. In some areas the scheme works well; this is more likely where there is a strong culture of personal and professional development. The effectiveness of the scheme seems to be largely dependant on the manager’s skills and understanding of the benefits of mentoring. A re-launch of the scheme and the retraining of College mentors should help in raising the profile of the scheme and ensuring an adequate number of trained mentors across the College. The monitoring of the induction and mentoring arrangements by the PSD should enable deficiencies of the scheme to be picked up at an early stage, and ensure an ongoing evaluation of the scheme.
Section 3: Conclusion Creating patterns of meaning: a collaborative approach to sensemaking
Liz Borredon EDHEC School of Management, Lille, France Anthony Blake Centre for Management Creativity, Settle, UK
Keywords Mentoring, Conferences
Abstract The objective of the final plenary session of the 8th European Mentoring Conference was to establish a new understanding of mentoring through a collaborative approach to creating patterns of meaning about the subject. We wanted to use participants’ insights from the sessions they attended. Each insight could then be seen as an ‘‘ingredient’’ or as a ‘‘particle’’, ‘‘cell’’ or ‘‘molecule’’ of meaning that, when seen in relation to other such ‘‘molecules’’, would evoke a deeper insight into what we already recognise as a complex mentoring process. Clearly phrases such as ‘‘molecules of meaning’’ are relevant to approaching the science of making patterns of meaning and chosen because such expressions are not part of our everyday vocabulary. They have us stretch our attention and imagination, and are helpful in the stages of a methodology suggested to participants. This paper is an account of what participants did leading up to the final plenary, what we as facilitators did in preparation for this session, what happened during the plenary and what emerged as a result of collaborative sense making.
Introduction to gathering ‘‘molecules of meaning’ (MMs) On day one of the conference, before any session had started and when all participants had assembled in plenary, we asked those attending to think forward to the final plenary, the purpose of which was to create patterns of meaning from insights gained into mentoring that arose as a result of the conference sessions. The question we wanted to address was ‘‘What are we getting to know about mentoring?’’ and statements would be in response to this question. We explained that without such insights there would be no material with which to seek patterns of meaning. Participants were asked to write down such insight statements that would, in the final session, be positioned as ‘‘molecules’’ of meaning. A place for depositing the statements was arranged and suitable cards distributed. There were no questions around the issue, those attending indicated agreement and appreciation for undertaking the task. We noticed that people encouraged each other to write down their statements and as the day went by the box filled up. New delegates arrived for the second day of the conference. This allowed us to explain the gathering process again and served as a reminder all round. At the end of the first day, we transferred each statement onto magnetic hexagons called MagNotes. There were 65 ‘‘MMs’’. Some statements were very long and needed abbreviating but no changes were made to the message they carried.
# MCB UP Limited [ISSN 1362-0436] [DOI 10.1108/13620430210440163]
The plenary session
On a magnetic MagNote board we wrote the question we were addressing (What are we
The room was set up to accommodate participants in plenary as well as five small groups. The small groups were centred around the board with the 27 MMs displayed and ready for work to begin. Initially we reminded those attending of our objective and the work that had been done by them (and those who had left) in gathering their statements. We also repositioned the objective for the final plenary, namely to ‘‘see’’ the meaning of mentoring as a process or, put differently, to discover another layer of understanding as a result of collaborative thinking and search for patterns of meaning. There were 45 participants present. They had just attended all or one day of the conference. We were all familiar with the need for establishing a climate of trust so it was not necessary to elaborate on essentials for working together in the ‘‘mentoring mode’’. The fact that we, as facilitators, would need to keep to a very rigorous schedule in order to finish on time was explained. We told delegates what we had done with the 135 statements or MMs, and that this was a first stage out of three in a methodology that we were going to take further. Thus,
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getting to know about mentoring?) and around the outside of the board we arranged the hexagons with their insight statements, leaving space for these to be moved around in the final plenary. By lunch time of day two, we had a total of 135 statements, an additional 70 to be transferred onto hexagons. We had assembled five boards, each with 27 statements or ‘‘molecules of meaning’’ on them. Each board had the initial question to which we sought a response collectively.
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there were two aspects to the plenary, the first was to become more familiar with a methodology that contributed to a thinking process, the other was to focus on the mentoring content. We asked participants to go to one of the boards and sit with others. There would need to be nine people working together. They could, in these small groups, choose to observe or take an active part. There would need to be at least four people actively engaged, the remainder were to choose their role. This could be to walk around and see what work was going on elsewhere. The task was to familiarise themselves with the MMs then to intuitively cluster MMs that they considered grouped together because of a common thread of meaning. They could, at this stage, be uncertain as to what that meaning actually was. Having clustered the MMs, they were asked to attribute a statement of meaning to each of the clustered MMs. This statement should be of greater insight to them than the initial MMs. For logistic reasons, the groups were asked to select the three most significant clusters and put the statement of meaning onto a larger hexagon which would then be used in plenary. The groups had 20 minutes for this work. The clustering and finding a title completed, the groups nominated a spokesperson who would present the insight statements to everyone in plenary. There were five groups, each with three key insights. The spokesperson presented the group’s work and the large hexagons were displayed on a common board. By the end of this stage we had 16 hexagons displayed. The smaller boards were placed in full view to one side of the room. As facilitators we observed a high degree of involvement and considerable focus on the work participants had agreed to undertake. In spite of there being such large numbers, those attending were very engaged and there was little to no disengagement. In plenary, we next explained that we had now completed two stages in this methodological process. The first was to gather the MMs, the second to assemble the MMs and allow a new, deeper meaning to emerge and to then write this down as a title to the cluster. These titles conveyed a new order of meaning. We were ready to move on to the third stage, which we call design. We could, we explained, use the same method for design as we had used previously at the assemble stage. That is, we could have grouped the 16 insights into mentoring and identified another layer of insight. We had not chosen to adopt this possibility. Instead, we
asked those who saw a pattern emerge to say so. At this moment in the plenary, we had 45 participants attentively considering the process and the emerging meaning that was coming into focus. Individuals suggested moving the statements so that one related to another. One of the facilitators took the initiative of continuing this design until a story emerged from the way the statements related one to another. The story is presented later in this overview when we explain the result of collaborative thinking. Before concluding we discussed how this methodology could be used. The facilitators had used this for writing and for planning training programmes or for research. They had also used it in mentoring where the client was helped to gather their thoughts and feelings, assemble them and seek patterns of meaning in order to see what was needed in their present or future scenario. The method had been used in teams where vision was to be established or shared, or where having the group or individual change their pattern of thinking or taking action was sought. We explained that the MagNotes were not essential, neither was the software Visual Concept[1] that provided similar methodology support. What mattered was to find our own tools that enabled this degree of insight to be gained. In the figure we summarise the insights gained at the design stage of the process. The initial MMs gathered throughout the conference are shown in the Appendix.
What emerged as a result of collaborative sensemaking In the time available, we could no more than produce a rough sketch of the patterns latent in the material. The general method in this third stage of the LVT1 process is to arrange all the cluster titles in a circle and then look for cross-connections that reveal tensions, relationships and other forms of meaning between them. In our session, we were forced to reduce the number of elements from the 16 we had to a smaller number by clustering the clusters, as shown in Figure 1. In our circle, there were now five elements, with two others attached to the top item (‘‘conscious opening’’) and an approximate ‘‘story’’ could be told. Starting top right, we have the elements specifically to do with the role and state of the mentor. These elements state that the mentor herself should embody the principles. This is the authentic ‘‘starting point’’ of the process, or what can give it authenticity.
Liz Borredon and Anthony Blake Creating patterns of meaning: a collaborative approach to sensemaking Career Development International 7/5 [2002] 305–309
Without this, the process is shallow and even perhaps misguided. At the bottom right of Figure 1 we have the elements to do with understanding the process. These emphasised setting goals but in an organic way that was in tune with the natural processes unfolding in the mentee. We then leapt across to the left-hand side (bottom) where we looked at the issue that mentoring is not a neutral process. This was a needed caution and implied that the mentor could not possibly anticipate fully the consequences of what she does. The top left group of items expresses the feeling that mentoring deals with the experience of the whole person that can include ‘‘transcendental’’ aspects. In this sphere, mentoring leads us into new domains, which we may not have been conscious of before. The top central element deals with the concept of creating a conscious opening. This is to some degree a ‘‘summary’’ of all that has gone before and leads naturally back to the starting point. It is this conscious opening that should inform the mentor.
In this summary description, we have minimised the significance of the mentoring community as a network of meetings. However, we introduced a central component in the idea of a space that enables learning. Such an idea is to be found for example in Nonaka’s concept of ‘‘ba’’, or place of meeting where knowledge can be co-created. It turned out that we had another item to do with providing a safe and supportive environment that served to underpin this central idea of a creative place. The result was a vertical column of three items across the circle, in which the top element of ‘‘conscious opening’’ served as the ‘‘head’’. The vertical column can then be seen as representing the whole human being of head, heart and body! Looked at in this way, we could add to our descriptive story that the place that enables learning is really in the heart.
Discussion Every one of the possible cross-connections can be reflected on to suggest new ideas and
Figure 1 The result of clustering the cluster titles to form a circle
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evoke new questions. It is also possible to position our own current concerns on this special kind of ‘‘map’’. Most useful of all would be for everyone to have the elements to play with for themselves. We have a link between the central item and the bottom left, but this should have been extended up to the top right group. What this does is to suggest that the mentor has a big role in ‘‘containment’’, possibly akin to what comes into play in psychotherapy. This containment includes the principle that a mentor should herself be a participant in a mentoring community that affords mutual support. We could extract various ideas from the patterns we have been exploring and put them into a list of propositions but we feel that this would lose much of value. By having this kind of pictorial arrangement, we are always in touch with the whole and can be fully conscious of when we focus on particular aspects. It also makes us aware of alternative ‘‘stories’’ we could tell. By having a group work out many stories we might become aware of some underlying deep understanding that we all share and can work together to articulate. This method is designed to bring our tacit knowledge to the surface without reducing it to simplistic formulae. We can remain conscious of the ‘‘roughness’’ and approximate nature of our ideas while creating intelligible and practical meaning.
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Note 1 Those wanting to experiment with this type of thinking can download a trial version of Visual Concept from http://www.visualconcept.co.uk/download.htm which permits ample opportunity for creative exploration of the method used during the conference.
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Appendix. The initial MMs gathered throughout the conference
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Means someone there for you as neither family or manager can be. We can become physically aware of suspending judgement. Positive attitude transforms conflict into positive outcome. Mentors need forums for exchange. It brings young talent up to being tomorrows leaders. We need to see mentoring as a process. Mentors must be aware of their own personal orientation. Is about slowing people down. It identifies young talent
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It is an enabler of transformational learning. Is about adult development. Is about changing people’s goals. Ensures care and support while inviting conflict within mentoring relationship. Intention is important. The sand around the pearl is the challenge. Fulfils need for giving and receiving. Works best if growth is organic. Helps make transitions. Give guided help in matching process. Encouraging conflict within MR can lead to deeper learning. Enables double-loop learning. Mentor is troubled advisor. Enables trust in institution to be strengthened. Life wide learning links holistic nature of Memory to learning society. Inadequacy becomes OK once reflected upon. Everyone engages some of the time. Playfulness builds mentoring relationship. Purpose of sharing mentees’ experience is to take away self-blame. No class of financial boundaries. Process not content. No need to be an expert. Mentor represents possibility not actuality. A chameleon which adapts to society. Relationship manages diversity and differences. Confusion between mentor and coach. The importance of having people think. Importance to move forward. It helps prioritise. Is grains of sand around pearl of wisdom. About helping people to think. Is about discovering oneself. That seeds are sown and fruit might come much later. It is sometimes a matter of keeping score. A thinking space for mentor and mentee. It broadens understanding. It helps people make choices. The quality of the mentor is important. Mentor’s own learning is vital. About providing space to think. It is not the truth. Mentoring has many levels. Mentor knows when to be absent. It is a matrix of premises and exemplification. Mentors are developmental facilitators. Conservative view: reproduction of the elite. Has a significant impact on retention. Mentor gives attention, not just time. A relationship between context, environment and participants. Leads to transformation for the learner.
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A vast network of interlocking material. A matrix of abstract tautologies. Mentor gives permission to be more yourself. Increased need for mentoring and being together for finding meaning. It should deal with people as dancers, not structures. Is an enabling process. Needs to develop into developmental networks.
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Can only go as far with client as we have gone ourselves. Turns around the meaning of failure. Recognise that a perfect human being is flawed. Important to think about the end at the beginning. May be surprised at others’ perceptions of the relationship. A person centred network. We need to jointly manage our expectations. Deals with paradigms we have about ourselves. Identify the ‘‘cost’’ to us of our beliefs. Both parties may or may not share same perception of ending. It satisfies a generativity need. Needs to develop into developmental network. A matrix of abstract tautologies. Relatively small factors indicate what we do in all situations. It is time based. We work in very different contexts. Changes are aspects of a mature learner. It releases potential. It involves passion. Success without struggle in third tier thinking. Mentoring programmes should be conducted in mentoring way. Means different things to different people. Allows us to stand back and see challenges in wider context. Putting yourself in someone else’s shoes. Provoking stroking from a wide perspective. Work at level of guiding assumptions. About what mentee thinks is important. Overlaps with coaching.
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Concerns relationship between context, environment and participants. Mentor knows when to be absent. Confusion between coaching and mentoring. Leads to transformation for the learner. Major financial support in many places.
Can be useful for everyone. Taking new forms in the e-realm. Question of whether it moves from consciousness incompetence or low confidence. Many worlds of interpretation involved. Should be aware that MR will end. Contributes to change for mentee. Reveals connection between work and personal issues. Involves taking on many roles. It is possible to coach ‘‘content free’’. A vast network of interlocking material. An enabling process. Relationship manages diversity and differences. A chameleon which adapts to society. Can become more aware of our limiting paradigm. Helps see link between distress and selfimposed constraint. Enables breaking free of personal dogmas Need to refine listening. Need to check out effectiveness at each stage of the process. Be aware of how mentor and client perceive ending the MR. Mentors need to have been mentees. Mentor gives attention not just time.
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It involves daring to learn. The importance of having people think. Networks of conferences should be established. Repeated attendee conference should be encouraged. A mentor does not have to be in the flesh. Question of whether mentor has to believe in mentee to be effective. It is capable of being without limit. Use different mentors for different needs. It is about making meaning together. Organisations are willing to release for training. It involves will more than skill. Procedural issues not dealt with easily. A spectrum of relationships. Mentor’s own learning is vital. A revival of ancient practice. Help transcend cultural barriers. Possible to learn to mentor oneself. It helps make transitions. It is not the truth. Seeds are sown and the fruit might come much later. Philosophy in action. Recognise that a perfect human being is flawed. Recognise that there is a cost in our beliefs. Ensures support while using conflict.
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News Commission proposes to simplify rules on recognition of professional qualifications Keywords European Commission, Professional qualifications The European Commission has put forward a proposal for a directive to clarify and simplify the rules on the recognition of professional qualifications in Europe. The directive would replace 15 existing directives and constitute the first comprehensive modernization of the EU system for recognizing professional qualifications since it was conceived 40 years ago. Among the changes proposed are greater liberalization of the provision of services, more automatic recognition of qualifications and increased flexibility in the procedures for updating the directive. The Commission also proposes to develop co-operation with member states to keep people better informed about their rights and offer them more help in getting their qualifications recognized. The proposal covers the three existing systems for recognizing qualifications across Europe: 1 the automatic recognition of qualifications on the basis of co-ordinated minimum training – for lawyers, doctors, nurses, dentists, veterinary surgeons, midwives, pharmacists and architects; 2 the automatic recognition of qualifications attested by professional experience – for a series of industrial, craft and commercial activities; and 3 the general mutual recognition system – for the other professions, which leaves one state the right to require additional testing or training when the training required in another European state differs substantially from its own. The draft directive specifies the list of documents and certificates that may be required by the relevant authorities of the host member state. These
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authorities must send an acknowledgement of receipt within one month, and point out any missing documents. The authorities should take a decision within three months. If the decision is a refusal of the right to practise, they should give the reasons. Lawyers’ qualifications will continue to be subject to the existing rules. This is because lawyers’ training differs substantially in the different member states, due to the differences in legal systems. The European commissioner for the internal market, Frits Bolkestein, said: ‘‘The free movement of qualified people contributes to the development of the knowledge-based economy, the flexibility of labour markets and improved public services. The purpose of this proposal is to ensure a clearer and simpler system to benefit the workers concerned and to step up our efforts to create in Europe, by 2010, the world’s most dynamic and competitive economy’’.
New Certification Security Council tackles IT test piracy Keywords Information technology, Certification A new industry group representing many of the global IT certification providers will address some of the most pressing issues in IT – in particular those that affect the identification and hiring of skilled IT workers. The IT Certification Security Council (ITCSC) will tackle key issues such as test security, test-content protection and test-procedure management, which are crucial to the continued growth and success of the IT sector. By maintaining stringent controls in test administration and fostering high standards of ethics, the council hopes to ensure the continued integrity of IT examinations and their value to individuals and the companies that hire them. ‘‘With the ever-increasing demand for skilled IT professionals, certifications are critical to the industry as a means of validating professional skills when making hiring and promotion decisions,’’ said Robert
Stewart, general manager of Microsoft training and certification. ‘‘The members of the ITCSC will help to ensure that certification remains a reliable method for employees, IT managers and channel partners to make sound hiring decisions and continue to bolster the high-tech industry.’’ ‘‘IT certifications are highly valued and therefore sometimes a target for piracy,’’ said Fran Linhart, director of certifications for the Computing Technology Industry Association (CompTIA). ‘‘The ITCSC is committed to protecting these credentials, for individuals and employers, and to promoting industry best practices in IT-certification security worldwide.’’ ITCSC members create, publish, deliver and support approximately 96 per cent of all secured IT examinations delivered around the world. Initial participants of the ITCSC, who will lead the way to preserve the long-term value of certifications, include the Association of Test Publishers, the Chauncey Group International, Cisco Systems, CompTIA, EMC Corp., Galton Technologies, Hewlett-Packard, IBM, Lotus, Lucent Technologies, Microsoft, Novell, Oracle, Prometric Thomson Learning, ProsoftTraining, Sun Microsystems and VUE. The ITCSC regularly meets representatives from the certification and testing industry to define and promote procedures and practices within the industry. Through this collaborative process, even among competitors, ITCSC can establish new and improved practices and guidelines to ensure that IT-certification credentials are delivered securely for the benefit of certification candidates and the organizations that certify them. Established in 2001, the ITCSC is a collaborative organization dedicated to protecting the value of IT certification examinations through antipiracy and educational campaigns. The organization offers a wide range of services to both the IT-certification test-publisher and test-delivery organizations. More information is available at http:// www. certsecurity.org.
A total of 11 of India’s top 25 employers are information-technology companies, according to a survey conducted by Mumbai-based consultant Hewitt Associates and Business Today. They include Hewlett-Packard (HP) India, Compaq, Oracle and Microsoft and, in the No. 1 spot, the Indian company Infosys. The fast-moving consumer-goods sector featured four companies – Procter & Gamble, Colgate Palmolive, Gillette India and Johnson & Johnson. The public sector also features in the survey, with Bharat Heavy Electricals at No. 7, Indian Oil at No. 17 and the joint venture Maruti at No. 20. The survey included 204 firms across 15 industry groups, and 52,000 employees were interviewed. Hewitt says companies were selected on the basis of several factors, including the degree of employee satisfaction.
industry’s best-practice standards as recognized by the BCS. CDA also demonstrates the organization’s commitment to its business, the individuals it employs and the wider IS industry. CDF seeks to apply structured and objective quality control to the training and development of individuals. It has been developed and refined over many years, to be used as an internal training and development programme or to support and add value to an existing programme. Successful accreditation of either the CDA or CDF will allow the organization to qualify and use the ISQW standard. Malcolm Sillars, BCS professional director, said: ‘‘The standard enables organizations to meet and maintain best practice, leading to improved quality and reduced operating costs. Companies that achieve the standard are in a stronger position to retain and attract staff as their commitment to employee development and high training standards is proved’’.
British Computer Society launches new standard
European companies claim shortage of capable managers
Keywords Information technology, Standards
Keywords Managers, Executives
IT firms are best employers in India Keywords Information technology, India, Employers
The British Computer Society (BCS) Information Systems Quality at Work is a new standard designed to promote training and development within the IT industry. The standard enables employers to demonstrate publicly their commitment to IT staff development and best practice. It has also been designed to support the recruitment and retention of employees. Companies working towards the IS Quality at Work (ISQW) standard can achieve it in two ways: by seeking accreditation for their existing development scheme via career-development accreditation (CDA), or by purchasing and implementing the BCS’s off-the-shelf solution, the career-development framework (CDF). CDA is for companies with existing training and development programmes and is designed to provide organizations with the knowledge that their existing schemes meet the IS
Top European companies increasingly have to look outside their organizations – and even outside their industry – to find senior executives of the right calibre. A report entitled ‘‘The flow of senior executives in Europe’’ shows that the number of senior executives being sourced from outside top companies – as opposed to promotion from within – has more than doubled over the last two years. The report also reveals an increase in executive ‘‘reshuffles’’ at board level, with recruitment up nearly 40 per cent and those quitting the boardroom up by 35 per cent. While three-quarters of senior appointments are still made from within the organization, the sharp rise in external recruitment highlights a shortage of capable top managers, says Andrew Simpson, European president of TMP Worldwide Executive Search, which commissioned the report.
‘‘One of the main problems companies report is a shortage of top managers, highlighting their need for a resourcing policy which looks beyond their own companies and even industry. Companies need to combine this with key-staff retention, coaching, mentoring and development, to keep valuable skills in house.’’ Researchers surveyed blue-chip companies in France, Britain, Belgium, Germany, The Netherlands, Spain, Switzerland and Italy. Companies in the financial-services sector have the highest level of external recruitment (38 per cent in 2001) and those in the consumer sector the lowest (15 per cent). Technology, media and telecommunications emerged as the sector embracing change most readily, with the highest rates of increase. The report also confirms the growing internationalization of divisional and country boardrooms. Britain and France top the league of countries, with some 30 per cent of board-level executives having international experience, ahead of Belgium with 20 per cent. Much of this demand is attributed to greater EU integration, and growing appreciation of the need to understand local markets and their business practices. Technology, media and telecommunications, and financial services show the highest level of internationalization, with 36 per cent and 31 per cent respectively. The technology, media and telecommunications sector has been marked by acquisitions and restructuring on a pan-European level, while the situation in financial services reflects recent mergers and corporations with many divisions in multiple countries. Copies of the report are available on the Internet, at http://www.tmpsearch. com/executiveflows
Careers and motherhood still do not mix Keywords Careers, Children Only 10 per cent of first-time mothers maintain continuous full-time employment during the 11 years following the birth of their baby, according to research funded by the UK Economic and Social Research Council.
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The research, carried out by the School of Social Sciences and Law at Oxford Brookes University, England, casts new light on previously held notions about working mothers. Data on mothers’ working hours, employment status and continuity collected at three points in time were used to create a work-history typology. ‘‘The mothers fell into four categories,’’ explained Professor Susan McRae, author of the report, ‘‘those who worked continuously full time, continuously part time, or mixed full and part-time work, and women who had not been employed since the birth of their first child’’. Four main stereotypes of modern motherhood can be drawn from these differing work histories. The first is the ‘‘I want a career and children’’ type. These mothers typically return to work within 12 months of their first child and stay in full-time jobs thereafter. ‘‘What was interesting about these mainly professional women was that many had experienced marital disruption and, of those with partners at the birth of their first child, only 73 per cent remained with the same man,’’ said Professor McRae. The second stereotype is the ‘‘I want children and a job’’ mothers who also returned to work within a year of their first child and stayed employed subsequently, but worked part time in order to balance work and family. ‘‘Of these, 90 per cent were married and their marriages were more stable and 92 per cent of those with husbands or partners were still living with the father of that child,’’ she added. The third group includes the ‘‘my family comes first’’ type mother. They have work histories that mix part time and full time and spending time at home. These mothers were less likely to return to work within a year of having their first baby, and their spells in the labour market were more intermittent. ‘‘These mums included some of the youngest in the study who did not have quite such stable partnerships. They also achieved much less in the labour market than other mums,’’ said Professor McRae. Finally, there is the ‘‘my family is my job’’ type mother, who gave up paid employment when she became a mother. ‘‘Surprisingly, given their subsequent economic inactivity, one
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in five of these mums had expected to return to work soon after the birth of their first baby. The fact that they did not subsequently do so was often related to difficulties finding work or affordable childcare. These women had the largest families and 84 per cent remained with the husbands or partners of their first child,’’ said Professor McRae. The report highlights the fact that, although there has been a near doubling in the numbers of mothers with children under the age of five in paid work, mothers are still reluctant or unable to mix full-time jobs with motherhood. The results of the study show that the extent and continuity of women’s full-time employment after they become mothers has been overstated by previous research. ‘‘Longitudinal data now indicate that more than ten years after the birth of a first baby, fewer mothers are actually in full-time employment than there had been within the first 12 months of that birth,’’ commented Professor McRae. ‘‘The results of this study strongly suggest that a complete explanation of the women’s labour-market choices after childbirth depends as much on understanding the constraints which affect women as it does on understanding their preferences,’’ she concluded.
European Forum of Technical and Vocational Education and Training Keywords Education, Training, Vocational training The European Forum of Technical and Vocational Education and Training (Efvet) is a European-wide professional association for vocational education and training. It has been created by and for: providers of initial and continuing technical and vocational education, training and guidance for young people in preparation for their future employment and place in European society; workers and managers needing to update their skills and further their knowledge; and those disadvantaged through long-term
unemployment, disability or special learning needs. Through its member institutions, Efvet is committed to promoting a vocational-education and training system across the EU that is flexible and responsive to changing economic and social needs, engenders a culture of lifelong learning among individuals and organizations, provides equity of access and sensitivity to the learning needs of all European citizens, regardless of race, gender, religion or age, and enables all participants to reach their full potential. Members in each country are organized in national bodies and each country has a national representative on the steering committee The organization’s Web site, at http://www.efvet.org, has an area where members publish their projects, as well as documents from the steering-committee meetings. Efvet also publishes an electronic newsletter.
On the Net Keywords Europe, Internet, Career development This edition of ‘‘On the Internet’’ focuses on European career-development Web sites, and draws on information kindly provided by the European Centre for the Development of Vocational Training (Cedefop).
VCVO – Flemish Centre for Adult Education http://www.vcvo.be/index.htm VCVO is a study and support centre for organizations in the Flemish sector of Belgium. The Ministry of the Flemish Community – Division Adult Education provides funding and infrastructure for the VCVO to carry out research on issues of interest to participants in non-formal adult education.
DigitalThink http://www.digitalthink.com/ company/index.html DigitalThink helps organizations to develop e-learning programmes. It
supports strategic knowledge and skills development in different organizations.
European Association for the Education of Adults – EAEA http://www.eaea.org The EAEA is an international, nonprofit association whose purpose is to link and represent European organizations, directly involved in adult learning. The Web site contains a list of member organizations from more than 30 countries. The results of EAEA projects can be ordered from the Web site.
Ce´req – Centre d’Etudes et de Recherches sur les Qualifications http://www.cereq.fr The Centre for Research on Education, Training and Employment, founded in 1971, is an autonomous public institution placed under the dual authority of the French ministries of education and labour. It cooperates with a wide variety of research institutions as well as professional groups and local governments. It has a growing network of associated regional centres and is continuously expanding its activities at European level. The Web site includes information on Ce´req’s departments, services, publications and discussion forums.
ICPD – Institute of Continuing Professional Development http://www.icpd.co.uk The Institute of Continuing Professional Development is a UK-based professional body for all those committed to their own continuing professional development, and to helping others through coaching and mentoring. The Web site contains articles on continuing professional development, lifelong learning and related matters, as well as news and links to other relevant sites.
EurEta – European Higher Engineering and Technical Professionals’ Association http://www.eureta.org The Swiss-based European Higher Engineering and Technical Professionals’ Association (EurEta) was established in 1993 to set training standards for engineering and technical professionals across Europe. The Web site contains news, reviews and articles and links to other sites, including those of EurEta’s national member organizations.
Scienter http://www.scienter.org Scienter, a non-profit organization, is a research centre and service provider. It is interested in innovation in education and training systems, with a particular emphasis on open and distance learning, and organizational learning. It covers Italy, Spain, Belgium, France, the UK and Hungary. The Web site includes a directory of the centre’s staff and a list of the projects in which they are involved.
Uni-C, the Danish IT Centre for Education and Research http://www.uni-c.dk Uni-C is a government institution under the Danish Ministry of Education using know-how in the field of education, research and business. The Web site includes information on education networks, Web sites, courses and material, and a ‘‘business and research’’ section with resources on statistics, usability, virtual reality and e-learning.
Skillsbase – Labour Market Information Database http://www.skillsbase.dfes.gov.uk The Skillsbase Web site is divided into four main sections. The database section is a comprehensive source of labour-market information, education and skills data aimed in particular at
users who analyse statistics and interpret data regularly. The narrative section gives non-specialist users insight into skills trends without the need for carrying out analysis themselves. Inforum provides a chatroom and bulletin board to promote discussion about labour-market and skillsrelated information. The reference section includes a library page with many skills-related reports, available to download.
HOS Adapt http://www.hosadapt.net The HOS Adapt Web site hosts a database of innovative, EU-funded training products related to working life. The products address themes such as equal opportunities, lifelong learning, entrepreneurship, human resources and vocational training.
The Dutch Alliance http://www.dutchalliance.nl The Dutch Alliance: Foundation for International Co-operation in Adult Education and Vocational Training is a strategic alliance between eight regional training centres in The Netherlands. The centres represented provide mainstream education and training courses in various sectors of vocational and adult education, including business, technology, personal and social services, health care, catering, tourism and education.
National Institute of Technical and Vocational Education in Prague http://www.nuov.cz The National Institute of Technical and Vocational Education in Prague, run by the Ministry of Education, Youth and Sport of the Czech Republic, is a professional, research and educational consultancy which seeks to solve problems related to vocational education and training in the context of lifelong learning. It also contributes to international co-operation projects.
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TAFE NSW – Access Division http://www.lg.tafensw.edu.au TAFE NSW – Access Division develops programmes and strategies to enable equity of access to vocational and further education for all. The areas that the division covers include workplace learning, entry-level training, English-language and literacy programmes, learner support, retraining programmes and outreach programmes.
K2 – knowledge sharing services for education and training projects http://www.know-2.org K2 offers opportunities for faceto-face knowledge sharing, information packs to support projects in
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their efforts to share and disseminate knowledge, and Web repository that contains valuable knowledge resources, specifically for projects supported by the European Commission.
Edumed News http://groups.yahoo.com/group/ edumednewsletter Edumed News is a free online newsletter for news and events on distance education in medicine and health and other topics related to information-technology applications in education, such as telehealth and telemedicine. It is an official publication of the Edumed Institute for Education in Medicine and Health.
Events diary Conference of the European Association for International Education 11-14 September, Oporto, Portugal Details from the EAIE Secretariat, PO Box 11189, 1001 GD Amsterdam, The Netherlands. Tel: +31 20 525 4999; Fax: +31 20 525 4998; E-mail:
[email protected]
Employment Week 19-21 November, Brussels, Belgium The event deals with, among other topics, employment creation, equality in the workplace, help for the disabled and freedom of movement. Details from Gillian Pattison, Communications Department, Tarsus Touchstone, on +44 20 8846 2700 (http://www.employmentweek.com).
Literati Club Awards for Excellence Margaret Linehan Cork Institute of Technology, Ireland, and
Hugh Scullion University of Nottingham, UK
are the recipients of the journal’s Outstanding Paper Award for Excellence for their paper
‘‘Selection, training and development for female international executives’’ which appeared in Career Development International, Vol. 6 No. 6, 2001
Margaret Linehan is a Lecturer in Human Resource Management at the Department of Adult and Continuing Education, Cork Institute of Technology, Cork, Ireland. Women in international management is her main area of research. She is the author of Senior Female International Managers: Why So Few? (Ashgate, 2000), which was translated into Slovenian in 2001. She has authored/edited six other books and has published over 30 refereed journal articles. She has presented her findings in numerous international academic conferences. She has guest lectured at the Swedish School of Economics, Helsinki, Finland; The University of Nottingham, England; The University of Vienna, Austria; The University of Ljubljana, Slovenia; The Erasmus University, Rotterdam; and Dublin City University, Ireland. Hugh Scullion is Professor of International HRM at the Department of Human Resource Management at the University of Strathclyde, Glasgow, Scotland. His main research interest is in international human resource management. He has published widely in various academic journals on this topic and has presented his research findings at many international conferences. He is a Visiting Professor at the University of Grenoble.
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