Technology Developments: the Role of Mechanism and Machine Science and IFToMM

Technology Developments: the Role of Mechanism and Machine Science and IFToMM MECHANISMS AND MACHINE SCIENCE Volume 1...

Author: Marco Ceccarelli

53 downloads 1274 Views 19MB Size Report

This content was uploaded by our users and we assume good faith they have the permission to share this book. If you own the copyright to this book and it is wrongfully on our website, we offer a simple DMCA procedure to remove your content from our site. Start by pressing the button below!

Report copyright / DMCA form

DOWNLOAD PDF

Technology Developments: the Role of Mechanism and Machine Science and IFToMM

MECHANISMS AND MACHINE SCIENCE Volume 1

Series Editor MARCO CECCARELLI

For other titles published in this series, go to www.springer.com/series/8779

Marco Ceccarelli Editor

Technology Developments: the Role of Mechanism and Machine Science and IFToMM

Editor Marco Ceccarelli Dipto. Meccanica, Strutture, Ambiente e Territorio (DiMSAT) Università Cassino Lab. Robotica e Meccatronica (LARM) Via G. di Biasio 43 03043 Cassino Italy [email protected]

ISSN 2211-0984 e-ISSN 2211-0992 ISBN 978-94-007-1299-7 e-ISBN 978-94-007-1300-0 DOI 10.1007/978-94-007-1300-0 Springer Dordrecht Heidelberg London New York Library of Congress Control Number: 2011928246 © Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2011 No part of this work may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, microfilming, recording or otherwise, without written permission from the Publisher, with the exception of any material supplied specifically for the purpose of being entered and executed on a computer system, for exclusive use by the purchaser of the work. Printed on acid-free paper Springer is part of Springer Science+Business Media (www.springer.com)

Preface

This is the first book of a series that will be focused on MMS (Mechanism and Machine Science). What is better to start a new book series on MMS by describing activity on MMS by the international community referring to it? This is one of main motivations for this book that presents also IFToMM, the international Federation on the Promotion of MMS and its activity. IFToMM is the unique worldwide institution in the area if Mechanical Engineering addressing specifically to MMS. With its 44 member organizations it is present in all the continents and its activity that is ran usually in international frames but not only, is visible worldwide. Indeed this book has been scheduled also within a IFToMM Presidency program ‘Visibility + Activity’ for reinvigorating the significance of IFToMM because of its mission in collaboration and development for MMS promotion. Visibility is aimed at showing clearly the activity of IFToMM and therefore its significance in promoting MMS in all its aspects for formation, research, innovation, and professional application. Activity is linked to the Visibility aim but it is clearly focused in advancing all the fields of MMS and in facilitating international collaborations among institutions, professional entities, and individuals within the above mentioned aspects. IFToMM activity consists mainly of forums and meetings both in scientific and professionals frames, at international but also national and local levels, in editorial works reporting last advances but also disseminating fundamentals and achievements in MMS. Thus, this book can be considered in the aims both of Visibility and Activity, since its goals have been planned for presenting MMS and IFToMM to a wider public in Engineering Science. As a reader can appreciate, the content of the book gives also a view of how technical works in MMS have been and still are influential in Technology developments for Society benefits. The book is organized with contribution by IFToMM officers being Chairs of member organizations (MOs), permanent commissions (PCs), and technical committees (TCs), who have reported their experiences and views toward the future of IFToMM and MMS. In fact, the book is composed of three chapters, namely the first one with general considerations by high-standing IFToMM persons, the second chapter with views by the chairs of PCs and TCs as dealing with specific subject areas, and the third

v

vi

Preface

one with reports by the chairs of MOs as presenting experiences and challenges in national and territory communities. Therefore the book can be of interest to a wide public in order to know the status and trends in MMS both at international level through IFToMM and in national/ local frames through the leading actors of activities. In addition, the book can be considered also a fruitful source for who-is-who in MMS, historical backgrounds and trends in MMS developments, as well as for challenges and problems in future activity by IFToMM community and in MMS at large. This volume has been possible thanks to the invited authors, who have enthusiastically shared this initiative and who have spent time and efforts in preparing the papers with care and transmitting their passion for engineering science and international collaboration. I believe that readers will take advantage of the papers in this book and future ones by supplying further satisfaction and motivation for her or his work with interdisciplinary activity for engineering developments. I am grateful to the authors of the articles for their valuable contributions and for preparing their manuscripts on time. Also acknowledged is the professional assistance by the staff of Springer Science + Business Media and especially by Miss Anneke Pot and Dr Nathalie Jacobs, who have enthusiastically supported this book project with their help and advices. I am grateful to my family: my wife Brunella, daughters Elisa and Sofia, and son Raffaele for their encouragement and support with their patience and understanding, without which the organization of such a task with so many people from different fields might be impossible. Cassino, Italy

Marco Ceccarelli Editor

Contents

Part I General Considerations Activity and Trends in MMS from IFToMM Community........................... Marco Ceccarelli

3

Promoting Novel Approaches of MMS for Sustainable Energy Applications......................................................................................... Ion Visa

25

Role of MMS and IFToMM in Iberoamerican Community and Open Perspectives . .................................................................................. Emilio Bautista Paz and Justo Nieto Nieto

35

India’s Contributions over the Last 40 Years in Turbine Blade Dynamics................................................................................................ Jammi S. Rao

43

A Brief History of Legged Robotics............................................................... P.J. Csonka and K.J. Waldron

59

Part II Viewpoints by Chairs of IFToMM Technical Committees and Permanent Commissions The History of Mechanism and Machine Science (HMMS) and IFToMM’s Permanent Commission for HMMS.................................... Teun Koetsier, Hanfried Kerle, and Hong-Sen Yan

77

On the Development of Terminology and an Electronic Dictionary for Mechanism and Machine Science............................................................. A.J. Klein Breteler

95

vii

viii

Contents

The Role of Mechanism Models for Motion Generation in Mechanical Engineering............................................................................. 107 Hanfried Kerle, Burkhard Corves, Klaus Mauersberger, and Karl-Heinz Modler Development of Computational Kinematics Within the IFToMM Community....................................................................................................... 121 Doina Pisla and Manfred L. Husty Theory and Practice of Gearing in Machines and Mechanisms Science................................................................................. 133 Veniamin I. Goldfarb ThinkMOTION: Digital Mechanism and Gear Library Goes Europeana............................................................................................... 141 Burkhard Corves, Torsten Brix, and Ulf Döring Micromachines: The Role of the Mechanisms Community......................... 153 G.K. Ananthasuresh Role of MMS and IFToMM in Multibody Dynamics................................... 161 Javier Cuadrado, Jose Escalona, Werner Schiehlen, and Robert Seifried State-of-the-Art and Trends of Development of Reliability of Machines and Mechanisms......................................................................... 173 Irina V. Demiyanushko Role of MMS and IFToMM in Robotics and Mechatronics........................ 185 I.-Ming Chen Role of MMS and IFToMM in the Creation of Novel Automotive Transmissions and Hybrids............................................................................. 191 Madhusudan Raghavan Advancements and Future of Tribology from IFToMM.............................. 203 Jianbin Luo Part III Experiences and Views by IFToMM Member Organizations MMS and IFToMM in Armenia: Past, Present State and Perspectives............................................................................................... 223 Yuri Sarkissyan Role of MMS and IFToMM in Belarus.......................................................... 235 Vladimir Algin

Contents

ix

The Role of ABCM in Engineering and Mechanical Sciences in Brazil and Its Relationship with IFToMM................................................ 249 João Carlos Mendes Carvalho Contributions to the Promotion of Mechanism and Machine Science by the IFToMM Canadian Community (CCToMM).................................... 257 M.J.D. Hayes, R. Boudreau, J.A. Carretero, and R.P. Podhorodeski Some Recent Advances in Mechanisms and Robotics in China–Beijing.............................................................................................. 265 Tian Huang Development of Mechanism, Machine Science and Technology in Taiwan............................................................................... 281 Hong-Sen Yan, Zhang Hua Fong, Ying Chien Tsai, Cheng Kuo Sung, Jao Hwa Kuang, Chung Biau Tsay, Shyi Jeng Tsai, Dar Zen Chen, Tyng Liu, Jyh Jone Lee, and Shuo Hung Chang Czech Contribution to the Role of Mechanism and Machine Science and IFToMM....................................................................................... 289 Miroslav Václavík, Ladislav Půst, Jaromír Horáček, Jiří Mrázek, and Štefan Segľa Role of MMS in the Development of Mechanical Engineering Research in Georgia......................................................................................... 295 Nodar Davitashvili The Role of MMS (Mechanism and Machine Science) and IFToMM in Greece................................................................................... 301 Thomas G. Chondros MMS at University Level in Hungary Within the IFToMM Community....................................................................................................... 315 Elisabeth Filemon Developments in the Field of Machines and Mechanisms in India over the Ages...................................................................................... 327 C. Amarnath The Influence of IFToMM and MMS in Present Day Italian Culture.................................................................................................. 337 Alberto Rovetta Achievements in Machine Mechanism Science in Lithuania....................... 343 Vytautas Ostasevicius

x

Contents

The Mexican Contribution to Mechanism and Machine Science and Technology................................................................................... 353 Ricardo Chicurel-Uziel, Alberto Caballero-Ruiz, Leopoldo Ruiz-Huerta, and Alfonso Pámanes-García The Significance and Role of IFToMM Poland in the Creative Development of Mechanism and Machine Science....................................... 367 Józef Wojnarowski The Romanian Association for Mechanisms and Machines Science – Past, Present and Future................................................................. 383 Ion Visa Formation and Development of MMS in Russia with Participation of Russia in IFToMM Activity........................................................................ 395 Nikolay V. Umnov and Victor A. Glazunov Role of MMS and IFToMM in Slovakia........................................................ 415 S. Segla and P. Solek The Role of MMS and IFToMM Influence in Spain..................................... 427 Fernando Viadero, Vicente Díaz, A. Fernández, and Y.A. Gauchía Ultra-High Precision Robotics: A Potentially Attractive Area of Interest for MM and IFToMM................................................................... 439 Clavel Reymond, Le Gall Bérangère, and Bouri Mohamed Teaching and Research in Mechanism Theory and Robotics in Tunisia................................................................................... 451 Lotfi Romdhane and A. Mlika Contributions to MMS and IFToMM from USA . ....................................... 461 Kenneth J. Waldron Author Index.................................................................................................... 477

Contributors

Vladimir Algin The Belarusian Committee of IFTOMM, The National Academy of Sciences of Belarus,12 Akademicheskaya Str., 220072 Minsk, Belarus [email protected]; [email protected] C. Amarnath Department of Mechanical Engineering, IIT Bombay, Powai, Mumbai 400 076, India [email protected]; [email protected] G.K. Ananthasuresh Department of Mechanical Engineering, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore 560012, India [email protected] Le Gall Bérangère Laboratoire de Systèmes Robotiques (LSRO), Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), Swiss Institute of Technology, Station 9, CH - 1015 Lausanne, Switzerland R. Boudreau Université de Moncton, Moncton, NB E1A 3E9, Canada A.J. Klein Breteler Faculty OCP/Mechanical Engineering, University of Technology Delft, Mekelweg 2, Delft 2628 CD, The Netherlands [email protected] Torsten Brix TUI University of Ilmenau, Ilmenau, Germany

xi

xii

Contributors

Alberto Caballero-Ruiz Centro de Ciencias Aplicadas y Desarrollo Tecnológico, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Circuito Exterior s/n, Ciudad Universitaria, Coyoacán 04510, México D.F., Mexico J.A. Carretero University of New Brunswick, New Brunswick E2L 4L5, Canada João Carlos Mendes Carvalho School of Mechanical Engineering, Federal University of Uberlândia, Campus Santa Mônica, 38400-902 Uberlândia, Minas Gerais, Brazil [email protected] Marco Ceccarelli Laboratory of Robotics and Mechatronics, DIMSAT, University of Cassino, Via Di Biasio 43, Cassino 03043, Italy [email protected] Shuo Hung Chang National Taiwan University, Taipei, Taiwan and Department of Mechanical Engineering, National Taiwan University, 1, Sec. 4, Roosevelt Rd., Taipei, Taiwan [email protected] I.-Ming Chen School of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, 50 Nanyang Ave, Singapore 639798, Singapore [email protected] Dar Zen Chen National Taiwan University, Taipei, Taiwan Ricardo Chicurel-Uziel Instituto de Ingeniería, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Apartado Postal 70-472, Coyoacán 04510, México D.F., Mexico [email protected] Thomas G. Chondros Mechanical Engineering and Aeronautics Department, School of Engineering, University of Patras, Patras 265 00, Greece [email protected]

Contributors

Burkhard Corves R.-W. Technische Hochschule Aachen, Eilfschornsteinstrasse 18, Aachen D 52056, Germany [email protected] P.J. Csonka Robotic Locomotion Laboratory, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA Javier Cuadrado University of La Coruña, Ferrol, Spain [email protected] Nodar Davitashvili Georgian Committee of IFToMM, Georgian Technical University, 77, M. Kostava str., 0175 Tbilisi, Georgia [email protected] Irina V. Demiyanushko Moscow Auto-Road, State Technical University (MADI), 64, Leningradskiy prospect, Moscow 125190, Russia [email protected] Vicente Díaz Mechanical Engineering Department, Carlos III University of Madrid, Madrid, Spain Ulf Döring TUI University of Ilmenau, Ilmenau, Germany Jose Escalona Escuela de Ingenieros, Dept. Ingeniería Mecánica y de los Materiales, University of Seville, Camino de los Descubrimientos s\n, 41092 Sevilla, Spain A. Fernández Structural and Mechanical Engineering Department, University of Cantabria, Santander, Spain Elisabeth Filemon Department of Applied Mechanics, Budapest University of Technology and Economics (TUB), 1111-Budapest Muegyetem rkp. 3. Hungary [email protected] Zhang Hua Fong National Chung Cheng University, Chiayi, Taiwan

xiii

xiv

Contributors

Y.A. Gauchía Mechanical Engineering Department, Carlos III University of Madrid, Madrid, Spain Victor A. Glazunov Mechanical Engineering Research Institute, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, Russia Veniamin I. Goldfarb Department of Production Engineering, Institute of Mechanics, Izhevsk State Technical University, Studencheskaya str. 7, Izhevsk 426069, Russia [email protected] M.J.D. Hayes Department of Mechanical & Aerospace Engineering, Carleton University, 1125 Colonel By Drive, Ottawa, ON K1S 5B6, Canada [email protected] Jaromír Horáček Institute of Thermomechanics, Czech Academy of Sciences, Prague, Czech Republic Tian Huang Department of Mechatronical Engineering, Tianjin University, Tianjin 300072, P.R. China [email protected] Manfred L. Husty Institute of Basic Science in Engineering, University Innsbruck, Unit Geometry and CAD, Technikerstraße 13, Innsbruck A-6020, Austria [email protected] Hanfried Kerle Institut für Werkzeugmaschinen und Fertigungstechnik, TU Braunschweig, Langer Kamp 19b, D-38106 Braunschweig, Germany and TU Braunschweig, Peterskamp 12, Braunschweig D-38108, Germany [email protected]; [email protected] Teun Koetsier Department of Mathematics, FEW, VU University Amsterdam, De Boelelaan 1081, NL-1081HV, Amsterdam, The Netherlands [email protected]

Contributors

xv

Jao Hwa Kuang National Sun Yat-Sen University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan Jyh Jone Lee National Taiwan University, Taipei, Taiwan Tyng Liu National Taiwan University, Taipei, Taiwan Jianbin Luo State Key Laboratory of Tribology, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China [email protected] Klaus Mauersberger TU Dresden, Dresden, Germany A. Mlika Laboratoire de Génie Mécanique, Ecole Nationale d’Ingénieurs de Sousse, 5019 Monastir, Tunisia Karl-Heinz Modler TU Dresden, Dresden, Germany Bouri Mohamed Laboratoire de Systèmes Robotiques (LSRO), Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), Swiss Institute of Technology, Station 9, CH - 1015 Lausanne, Switzerland reymond.clavel@epfl,ch Jiří Mrázek Department of Textile Machine Design, Technical University of Liberec, Liberec 1, Czech Republic Justo Nieto Nieto Technical University of Valencia, Valencia, Spain [email protected] Vytautas Ostasevicius Kaunas University of Technology, Studentu st. 65, LT – 51369 Kaunas, Lithuania [email protected] Emilio Bautista Paz Escuela Superior De Ingenieros Industriales, Departamento De Ingeniería Mecánica Y Fabricación, Universidad Politécnica De Madrid, José Gutiérrez Abascal, 2, Madrid 28006, Spain

xvi

Contributors

and Technical University of Madrid, Madrid, Spain [email protected] Alfonso Pámanes-García Facultad de Ingeniería Mecánica y Eléctrica, Universidad Autónoma de Coahuila, Carretera Matamoros Km. 7.5, Ciudad Universitaria, C.P. 27276 Torreón, Coahuila, Mexico Doina Pisla Department of Mechanics and Computer Programming, Technical University of Cluj-Napoca, Memorandumului 28, 400114 Cluj-Napoca, Romania and Technical University of Cluj-Napoca, Memorandumului 28, 400114 Cluj-Napoca, Romania [email protected]; [email protected] R.P. Podhorodeski University of Victoria, Victoria, BC V8N 1M5, Canada Ladislav Půst Institute of Thermomechanics, Czech Academy of Sciences, Prague, Czech Republic Madhusudan Raghavan Hybrid Systems, Propulsion Systems Research Lab, GM R&D Center, 30500 Mound Road, Warren, MI 48090-9055, USA and 6816 Trailview Court, West Bloomfield, MI 48322, USA [email protected] Jammi S. Rao Rotor Dynamics Technical Committee, Altair Engineering India Pvt Ltd, 5th Floor Mercury Building, Prestige Tech Park, Marathhalli-Sarjapur Ring Road, Bangalore, Karnataka 560103, India [email protected]; [email protected] Clavel Reymond Laboratoire de Systèmes Robotiques (LSRO), Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), Swiss Institute of Technology, Station 9, CH - 1015 Lausanne, Switzerland [email protected]

Contributors

xvii

Lotfi Romdhane Laboratoire de Génie Mécanique, Ecole Nationale d’Ingénieurs de Sousse, 5019 Monastir, Tunisia [email protected] Alberto Rovetta Dipartimento di Meccanica, Politecnico di Milano, Via Lamasa 34, 20156, Milan, Italy [email protected] Leopoldo Ruiz-Huerta Centro de Ciencias Aplicadas y Desarrollo Tecnológico, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Circuito Exterior s/n, Ciudad Universitaria, Coyoacán 04510, México D.F., Mexico Yuri Sarkissyan Armenian IFToMM Committee, State Engineering University of Armenia, 105 Teryan str., Yerevan 375009, Armenia [email protected] Werner Schiehlen University of Stuttgart, Stuttgart, Germany Štefan Segľa Department of Applied Mechanics, Technical University of Liberec and VÚTS Liberec, Plc., Czech Republic S. Segla Department of Mechanics, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Slovak National Committee of IFToMM, Technical University of Liberec, Studentska 2, 46117 Liberec, Czech Republic [email protected] Robert Seifried University of Stuttgart, Stuttgart, Germany P. Solek Department of Mechanics, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Slovak National Committee of IFToMM, Technical University of Liberec, Studentska 2, 46117 Liberec, Czech Republic [email protected] Cheng Kuo Sung National Tsing Hua University, Hsinchu, Taiwan

xviii

Contributors

Ying Chien Tsai Cheng Shiu University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan Shyi Jeng Tsai National Central University, Jhongli, Taiwan Chung Biau Tsay Minghsin University, Hsinchu, Taiwan Nikolay V. Umnov Mechanical Engineering Research Institute, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, Russia [email protected] Miroslav Václavík Department of Applied Mechanics, Technical University of Liberec and VÚTS Liberec, Plc., Czech Republic and VÚTS, a.s., U Jezu 525/4, 461 19 Liberec 1, Czech Republic [email protected] Fernando Viadero Structural and Mechanical Engineering Department, University of Cantabria, Santander, Spain [email protected] Ion Visa Transilvania University of Brasov, Eroilor Bd., 29, Brasov 500036, Romania [email protected] Kenneth J. Waldron Department of Mechanical Engineering, Stanford University, Terman Engineering 521, Stanford, CA, 94305-4021, USA [email protected] Józef Wojnarowski Silesian University of Technology, ul.Konarskiego 18A, Gliwice 44-100, Poland [email protected] Hong-Sen Yan Department of Mechanical Engineering, National Cheng Kung, University, 1, University Road, Tainan 701-01, Taiwan [email protected]

Part I

General Considerations

Activity and Trends in MMS from IFToMM Community Marco Ceccarelli

Abstract Mechanism and Machine Science (MMS) has been the core of mechanical engineering, and indeed of industrial engineering, since the beginning of engineering practice and particularly in modern times. A short survey is presented to outline the main characteristics of mechanisms and their evolution with the aim to identify challenges and the role of MMS in future developments of Technology for the benefit of Society. The significance of IFToMM, the International Federation for the Promotion of MMS, is also stressed as the worldwide community that in the past 40 years has contributed the most to aggregate common views and developments with an important role for future improvements yet to come. Modern systems specifically with mechatronic design and operation still need careful attention from mechanism design viewpoints to properly achieve the goals of forwarding technological developments for supporting or replacing human operators in their activity.

Introduction In this survey a vision is outlined together with a brief historical perspective in order to show that, although the treatment of many new issues in Mechanism and Machine Science (MMS) can be based on fundamental concepts that were developed in the past, we are still faced with several challenging issues that need to be tackled to achieve proper solutions to new and updated MMS problems in continually evolving Technology also for the benefit of Society. New systems and updated performance are constantly being required for mechanism applications that now need special attention, starting from previously existing theoretical bases and aiming to update or conceive of new algorithms for their designs and/or operations with optimal characteristics. M. Ceccarelli (*) Laboratory of Robotics and Mechatronics, DIMSAT, University of Cassino, Via Di Biasio 43, Cassino 03043, Italy e-mail: [email protected] M. Ceccarelli (ed.), Technology Developments: the Role of Mechanism and Machine Science and IFToMM, Mechanisms and Machine Science 1, DOI 10.1007/978-94-007-1300-0_1, © Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2011

3

4

M. Ceccarelli

Two main considerations can be observed in order to claim that MMS is still a necessary discipline that continues to require a wide efforts in teaching, research, and practice, namely they are: –– Human beings operate and interact with their environment and many systems on the basis of actions of a mechanical nature; therefore mechanisms will always be an essential part of systems that assist or substitute for human beings in their actions and other operational tasks. –– There is an increasing complexity in problems facing society and in the nature of solutions to those problems. Thus mechanisms must be updated based on discovery of new knowledge, means and applications of both old and new mechanisms. A historical insight can be useful both to understand past developments and to recognize new trends and open problems as determined by changing conditions in society and technological capability. Historical backgrounds and developments have been discussed from a number of technical viewpoints (also in surveys of the History of Science) in several works that aim to track the historical evolution of Technology and Engineering, and to recognize the original paternity of machine achievements, such as for example in [1–12] just to cite a few relevant sources in reasonably accessible literature. Recently a specific conference forum has been established within IFToMM (The International Federation for the Promotion of MMS) as the HMM (History of Machines and Mechanisms) Symposium in which a number of views and studies are discussed [13–15]. Also some more specific technical emphasis has been placed on historical trends in recent research activity in papers such as [41– 44]. Even the present author has attempted to outline historical developments with the aim of tracking the past to identify directions for future work in [14, 16–19, 35– 40]. In this paper, a description of the role of MMS and IFToMM in technological developments is presented through historical outlines and general considerations based on the author’s experience. The rapid developments in Technology together with changes in Society have made it difficult to recognize the significant role that MMS has played in the past, thus calling for stronger efforts by the IFToMM community to advocate for MMS and to firmly delineate for it a more positive role in the future.

An Historical Outline of Progress Towards MMS Over time the changes of needs and task requirements in Society and Technology have required continuous evolution of mechanisms and their uses, with or without a rational technical awareness. In past evolution, technical knowledge has made possible the proposal of more and more solutions enhancing mechanisms and their uses in order to satisfy the demands with updated aspects coming from Technology and Society.

Activity and Trends in MMS from IFToMM Community

5

Mechanisms and machines have attracted attention since the beginning of Technology and they have been studied and designed with successful activity and specific results. But TMM (Theory of Machines and Mechanisms) has reached maturity as an independent discipline only in the nineteenth century. Today we refer to TMM as MMS since a wider engineering area can be identified for interest and application of the mechanism concept. The historical developments of mechanisms and machines can be divided into periods with specific technical developments that, according to the present author’s personal opinion, can be identified and characterized by referring to significant milestones such as: • Utensils in Prehistory • Antiquity: 5th cent. BCE (Mechanos in Greek theater plays) • Middle Ages: 275 CE (sack of the School of Alexandria and destruction of Library and Academy) • Early design of machines: 1420 CE (the book Zibaldone with designs by Filippo Brunelleschi) • Early discipline of mechanisms: 1577 CE (the book Mechanicorum Liber by Guidobaldo Del Monte) • Early Kinematics of mechanisms: 1706 CE (the book Traitè des Roulettes by Philippe De La Hire) • Beginning of TMM: 1794 CE (Foundation of Ecole Polytechnique) • Golden Age of TMM: 1841 CE (the book Principles of Mechanism by Robert Willis) • World War I Period: 1917 CE (the book Getriebelehre by Martin Grübler) • Modern TMM: 1959 CE (the journal paper Synthesis of Mechanisms by means of a Programmable Digital Computer by Ferdinand Freudenstein and Gabor N. Sandor) • MMS Age: 2000 CE (re-denomination of TMM to MMS by IFToMM) The historical evolution to the current MMS can be briefly outlined by looking at developments that have occurred since the Renaissance period. Mechanisms and machines were used and designed as a means to achieve and improve solutions in various fields of human activity. Specific fields of mechanisms grew in results and awareness, and the first personalities were recognized as brilliant experts, such as for example Francesco Di Giorgio Martini and Leonardo Da Vinci amongst many others, as emphasized also with social reputation in [39]. At the end of the Renaissance period the Mechanics of Machinery attracted great attention also in the Academic world, starting from the first classes given by Galileo Galilei in 1593– 1598 [20]. In the eighteenth century the designer figure evolved to have a professional status with strong theoretical bases, finalizing a process that in the Renaissance saw the activity of closed small communities of pupils/co-workers after ‘mastros’ and ‘maestros’. Academic activity increased basic knowledge for the rational design and operation of mechanisms. The first mathematizations were attempted and fundamentals on mechanism kinematics were proposed by the pioneering investigators, who were specifically dedicated to mechanism issues,

6

M. Ceccarelli

such as for example Philippe De la Hire amongst many others. The successful practice of mechanisms was fundamental for relevant developments in the Industrial Revolution during which many practitioners and researchers implemented the evolving theoretical knowledge in practical applications and new powered machines. The nineteenth century can be considered the Golden Age of TMM since relevant novelties were proposed both in theoretical and practical fields. Mechanisms formed the core element of any machinery and any technological advance at that time. A community of professionals was identified and specific academic formation was established worldwide. TMM gained an important role in the development of Technology and Society and several personalities expressed the fecundity of the field with their activity, such as for example Franz Reuleaux amongst many others. The first half of the twentieth century saw the prominence of TMM in mechanical (industrial) engineering but with more and more integration with other technologies. A great evolution was experienced when with the advent of Electronics it was possible to handle contemporaneously several motors in multi-d.o.f. applications of mechanisms and to operate 3D tasks with spatial mechanisms. The increase of performance (not only in terms of speed and accuracy) required more sophisticated and accurate calculations that became possible with the advent of an Informatics approach (involving computers and programming strategies). Technically, MMS can be viewed as an evolution of TMM having a broader content and vision of a Science, including new disciplines. Historically, TMM has included as its main disciplines: History of TMM; Mechanism Analysis and Synthesis; Theoretical Kinematics; Mechanics of Rigid Bodies; Mechanics of Machinery; Machine Design; Experimental Mechanics; Teaching of TMM; Mechanical Systems for Automation; Transportation Machinery, Control and Regulation of Mechanical Systems; RotorDynamics; Human-Machine Interfaces; and BioMechanics. The modernity of MMS has augmented TMM with new vision and means but also with many new disciplines, of which the most significant can be recognized as: Robotics; Mechatronics; Computational Kinematics; Computer Graphics; Computer Simulation; CAD/CAM for TMM; Tribology; Multibody Dynamics, Medical Devices, and Service Systems. In 2000 the evolution of the name from TMM to MMS brought also a change in the denomination of the IFToMM Federation from “IFToMM: the International Federation for TMM” to “IFToMM, the International Federation for the Promotion of MMS”, [27]. This can be considered as due to an enlargement of technical fields into an Engineering Science together with a great success in research and practice of TMM with a corresponding increase of the engineering community worldwide. Today, a modern machine is a combination of systems of different natures and this integration has led to the modern Mechatronics concept, Fig. 1. Thus, most of the recent advances in machinery are considered to be in fields other than MMS. But Mechanism Design can still be recognized as a fundamental aspect for developing successful systems that operate in the mechanical world of human beings. Tasks and systems for human beings must generally have a mechanical nature and a careful Mechanism Design is still fundamental in obtaining systems that assist or substitute for human beings in their operations. Most of those tasks are already performed

Activity and Trends in MMS from IFToMM Community

7

Fig. 1 A scheme for the concept of mechatronics

with mechanism solutions that can be seen as traditional successful ones that nevertheless could benefit from further update or re-consideration because of new operational strategies and/or new materials and components (scaled designs). Therefore, Mechanism Design can still be considered as an engineering area for current research interests. But, what are the open problems and challenges for today’s MMS? Can they be considered as new issues or should they be rediscovered from past ideas?

A Short History of IFToMM The names of IFToMM, TMM, and MMS are related to fields of Mechanical Engineering concerned with Mechanisms in a broad sense. TMM is often misunderstood even in the IFToMM Community, although it is recognized as the specific discipline of Mechanical Engineering related with mechanisms and machines, as commented even in [21] announcing the birth of IFToMM. The meaning of TMM, now MMS, can be clarified by looking at IFToMM terminology [22, 23]: –– Machine: mechanical system that performs a specific task, such as the forming of material, and the transference and transformation of motion and force. –– Mechanism: system of bodies designed to convert motions of, and forces on, one or several bodies into constrained motions of, and forces on, other bodies. The meaning for the word “Theory” needs further explanation. The Greek word for “Theory” (qewrίa) comes from the corresponding verb, whose main semantic meaning is related both with examination and observation of existing phenomena. But, even in the classic Greek language the word theory includes practical aspects of observation as experiencing the reality of the phenomena, so that theory means also practice of analysis results. In fact, this last aspect is what was included in the discipline of modern TMM when Gaspard Monge (1746–1818) established it in the Ecole Polytechnique at the beginning of the nineteenth century [2] (see for example the book by Lanz and Betancourt [24], whose text includes early synthesis procedures and hints for practical applications). Later (see for example Masi [25]) and

8

M. Ceccarelli

even today (see for example Uicker et al. [26]) many textbooks have been entitled “Theory of Mechanisms” since they describe both the fundamentals and the applications of mechanisms in machinery. The term MMS has been adopted within the IFToMM Community since the year 2000 after a long discussion (see Ceccarelli [27] in the IFToMM Newsletter), with the aim to give a better identification of the modern enlarged technical content and broader view of knowledge and practice with mechanisms. Indeed, the use of the term MMS has also stimulated an in-depth revision in the IFToMM terminology since the definition of MMS has been given as [23]: –– Mechanism and Machine Science: Branch of science, which deals with the theory and practice of the geometry, motion, dynamics, and control of machines, mechanisms, and elements and systems thereof, together with their application in industry and other contexts, e.g., in Biomechanics and the environment. Related processes, such as the conversion and transfer of energy and information, also pertain to this field. The developments in TMM have stimulated cooperation around the world at various levels. One of the most relevant results has been the foundation of IFToMM in 1969, Fig. 2. IFToMM was founded as a Federation of territorial organizations but as based on the activity of individuals within a family frame with the aim to facilitate co-operation and exchange of opinions and research results in all the fields of TMM as stressed in [21]. Many individuals have contributed and still contribute to the success of IFToMM and related activity, (see IFToMM webpage: www. iftomm.org) under a coordination of IFToMM Presidents over time. IFToMM was founded as the International Federation for the Theory of Mechanisms and Machines in Zakopane, Poland on September 29, 1969 during the Second World Congress on TMM (Theory of Mechanisms and Machines). The main promoters of the IFToMM World Federation were Academician Ivan I. Artobolevski (USSR) and Prof. Erskine F.R. Crossley (USA), whose principal aim was to bypass the obstacles of the time of the Cold War in developing international collaboration in TMM science for the benefit of the world society. IFToMM started as a family of TMM scientists among whom we may identify the IFToMM founding fathers, who signed or contributed to the foundation act with the initial 13 Member Organizations, referring to the persons: Academician Ivan I. Artobolevski (USSR), Prof. Erskine F.R. Crossley (USA), Prof. Mikail Konstantinov (Bulgaria), Dr. Werner Thomas (GFR), Prof. B.M. Belgaumkar (India), Prof. Kenneth H. Hunt (Australia), Prof. Jan Oderfeld (Poland), Prof. Jack Phillips (Australia), Prof. George Rusanov (Bulgaria), Prof. Wolfgang Rössner (GDR), Prof. Zènò Terplàn (Hungary),

Fig. 2 The foundation of IFToMM, the International Federation for the Theory of Machines and Mechanisms, in Zakopane (Poland) on 27 September 1969, (Courtesy of IFToMM Archive): (a) the foundation act. (b) A historical moment in which one can recognize: 1 prof. Ivan Ivanovic Artobolevskii (USSR), 2 Prof. Adam Morecki (Poland), 3 Prof. Kurt Luck (Germany), 4 Prof. Mikail Konstantinov (Bulgaria), 5 Prof. Nicolae I. Manolescu (Romania), 6 Prof. Erskine F. Crossley (USA), 7 Prof. Giovanni Bianchi (Italy), 8 Prof. Aron E. Kobrinskii (USSR), 9 Prof. Werner Thomas (Germany), 10 Prof. Jan Oderfeld (Poland)

9

10

M. Ceccarelli

Prof. Jammi S. Rao (India), Prof.Giovanni Bianchi (Italy), Prof. Adam Morecki (Poland), Nicolae I. Manolescu (Romania), Leonard Maunder (UK), Douglas Muster (USA), Ilic Branisky (Yugoslavia). The foundation of IFToMM was the result of an intense activity for stimulating and promoting international collaboration, more than what had been done previously, and the process started in the late 1950s, as documented by several letters that are stored in the IFToMM Archive at CISM in Udine, Italy. A first World Congress on TMM (Theory of Mechanisms and Machines) was held in 1965 in Varna, Bulgaria during which the foundation of IFToMM was planned as later it was agreed during the Second World Congress on TMM in Zakopane, Poland. The Congress series was immediately recognized as the IFToMM World Congresses and in 2007 we have celebrated the 12th event with the participation of delegates from 48 Member Organizations and from more than 55 countries. IFToMM activity has grown in many aspects, as for example concerning the number of member organizations (from the 13 founder members to the current 47 members), the size and scale of conference events (with many other conferences, even on specific topics, at national and international levels, in addition to the MMS World Congress), and the number and focus of technical committees working on specific discipline areas of MMS (currently 13, with 2 more to be established). IFToMM was founded in 1969 and today a third generation of IFToMMists is active, who can be named as those working within the IFToMM community. Knowing the History of IFToMM and how we arrived at today’s modus operandi gives a greater awareness of community identity and significance. The IFToMM community evolved in character from that of a family of a few enthusiastic pioneers/visionaries and founders into a scientific worldwide community through the following generations: • 1950s–1979 First generation: founding fathers and their friendly colleagues up to the fourth IFToMM World Congress in Newcastle-upon-Tyne in 1975 with Prof. L. Maunder as Congress Chair • 1980–1995 Second Generation: students and people educated by founding fathers and their friendly colleagues; up to the ninth World Congress in Milan in 1995 with Prof. A. Rovetta as Congress Chair • 1996-today Third Generation: educated people in the frame of IFToMM and within IFToMM activity with 47 organizations as IFToMM members. IFToMM officers (who are the Chairs of IFToMM Member Organizations, the Chairs of TCs and PCs, and the members of the Executive Council) have contributed and still contribute as leaders for the mission of IFToMM, which is stated in the first article of the Constitution as: ‘The mission of IFToMM is the promotion of Mechanism and Machine Science’. A complete list of IFToMM officers over time is available in the Proceedings of the second International Symposium on History of Machines and Mechanisms HMM2004 that was published in 2004 by Kluwer/ Springer, [14], and is now available also in the IFToMM webpage. In particular, Presidents and Secretaries General have had significant roles in guiding the growth and success of IFToMM. Their personalities are also representative

Activity and Trends in MMS from IFToMM Community

11

of the IFToMM community in terms of reputation and visibility worldwide. The Presidents were Ivan I. Artobolevsky (1969–1971 and 1972–1975) (USSR), Leonard Maunder (1976–1979) (UK), Bernard Roth (1980–1983) (USA), Giovanni Bianchi (1984–1987 and 1988–1991) (Italy), Adam Morecki (1992–1995) (Poland), Jorge Angeles (1996–1999) (Canada), Kenneth J. Waldron (2000–2003 and 2004– 2007) (USA), and Marco Ceccarelli (2008–2011) (Italy). The Secretaries General were Mikail Konstantinov (Bulgaria), Emil Stanchev (Bulgaria), Adam Morecki (Poland), Elizabeth Filemon (Hungary), L. Pust (CSSR), Tatu Leinonen (Finland), Marco Ceccarelli (Italy). Details of the History of IFToMM can be found in the first Chapter of the Proceedings of the first International Symposium on History of Machines and Mechanisms HMM2000 (that was published by Kluwer) in which all the past IFToMM Presidents have outlined their historical perspective of IFToMM in contributed papers with references, [28]. Additional references can be indicated as [3, 18, 29–33, 42]. More information on IFToMM and its activity can be found in the website: http://www.iftomm.org.

Trends and Challenges in MMS The main current interests for research in MMS as trends and challenges can be summarized in the following topics: –– –– –– –– –– –– –– –– –– –– ––

3D Kinematics and its application in practical new systems and methodologies Modeling and its mathematization Multi-d.o.f. multibody systems Spatial mechanisms and manipulators Unconventional mechanisms (with compliant, underactuated, overconstrained and other structures) Scaled mechanisms Tribology issues Creative design Mechatronic designs Human-machine interactions for user friendly oriented systems Reconsideration and reformulation of theories and mechanism solutions

Those topics and many others in MMS are also motivated by needs for the formation and activity of professionals, who will be able to conceive and transmit innovation both into production and service frames. Teaching in MMS requires attention to modern methodologies that can efficiently use computer and software means, which are still evolving rapidly. Thus, there is a need to update also the teaching means that makes use of simulations and computer oriented formulation. In addition, mechatronic layout of modern machinery suggests that mechanisms should be taught as integrated with other components like actuators and sensors since the beginning of the formation of curricula.

12

M. Ceccarelli

The academic teaching mission needs to be revitalized and better understood as a result of high expertise of teachers that can be reached also with intense research activity and links to the professional and industrial world. This requires more attention and vision not only from the academy but mainly from society as a whole that through governing leaders should give more and more support to the formation system. Activity by professionals asks for novel applications and high performance designs of machines since they are continually needed in evolving/updating systems and engineering tasks. In addition, there is a need to make understandable new methodologies to professionals for practical implementation both of their use and their results. New solutions and innovations are continuously asked not only for technical needs but also for the political/strategic goals of company success. In general, MMS activity is directed for further developments by searching for: • • • • • •

information and understanding of the functionality and impact of systems algorithms for design, operation, and evaluation of systems operation and application for full tasks, as constrained by environmental limits performance evaluation and economic merit of the systems transfer of innovation human-machine interfaces and interactions

Thus, a role of mechanisms in Mechatronics can be understood according to main aspects such as: –– Human-machine interactions –– Mechanical tasks in motion operations –– Structure design for sizing dimensions Therefore, the ‘hot’ topics of Mechanism Design for Mechatronics can be considered to be as follows: • to analyse and to investigate the motion of mechatronic systems and the loads on the component bodies during the operation and performance of a task. • to analyse and to investigate the actions against the environment and within the mechatronic system. • to focus on the safety and security issues both for the system and for its human operators • to consider the Mechanics of interactions • to evaluate situations with mechanical contacts and force transmissions • to size the system actions according to the task requirements • to achieve desired goals and proper working of the overall system • to consider complex motions such as spatial movement at high acceleration • to look at integrated systems via suitable modelling of components of other than a mechanical nature Trends in system composition can be summarized as in the examples in Table 1. Thus, mechanical components will be reduced percentage-wise but nevertheless they will still be necessary and indeed be fundamental for the use and operation of systems.

Activity and Trends in MMS from IFToMM Community

13

Table 1 Examples of evolution of system composition 1960–2000 Mechanics (%) Electronics/informatics (%) Cars 90–50 10–50 Calculators 100–10 0–90 Cameras 100–30 0–70

Fig. 3 An example of mechatronic machine: an autonomous field track

Figure 3 shows an example of a new machine design relating to fully autonomous tracks for agricultural purposes. This involves challenging aspects for MMS since the primary machine task is still focused on the motion through: • Path-planning • Power transmission • Terrain interaction The core of the machine operation still depends on: • the Gear box • the Suspension mechanisms • the Steering mechanisms but with intelligent solutions requiring integration of these mechanical components into a well balanced mechatronic design. The relevance of MMS aspects in such modern mechatronic systems can be summarized as in the scheme of Fig. 4 in which MMS features can be recognized mainly (but not only) in the transmission block for machine motion, but with strong relationships with other components of different natures and goals.

14

M. Ceccarelli

Fig. 4 A general scheme for a modern machine with mechatronic operation

An important area demanding new system designs may be recognized for service operations that can be understood in terms of sets of actions and behaviours aimed towards achieving a service task. Those service actions and indeed behaviours can be much more articulated and varied than in traditional industrial applications. However in some specific cases, simple operations can be used to obtain the desired service operation. A service task can be understood as the ultimate goal of the design and operation of a service machine, that most of the time is identified as a robot. A service task may be defined with well defined properties or by a large variety of situations. This is, indeed, the main aspect that makes service robots a challenging design problem in practical applications where they need to be efficient and successful for providing a desired service. The above-mentioned considerations can be useful to understand the multidisciplinary integration that is required to design and operate a service robot successfully, in general but also for specific applications. The multidisciplinarity is much wider than in any other engineering field, since, as indicated above, it includes technical aspects, human attitudes (of operators and/or users), human-machine interactions, and environment issues, as already outlined in the scheme of Fig. 1, whose main aim is to stress that all of the above issues are fundamentals for service robots too. Indeed, in developing and operating service robots, other than technical expertise, it is more and more necessary that competence from various other fields of human life and environmental considerations be incorporated. Thus, for example psychologists and biologists (and many others) are welcomed in the R&D teams for designing service robots. Referring to technical aspects, Fig. 5 summarizes the mechatronic character of a service robot, as a traditional robot, but with specific emphasis on those abovementioned peculiarities in terms of interactions with the environment and human beings, and in terms of a careful consideration of the environment. Those interactions should be understood not only in terms of engineering issues (mainly mechanical ones) but by looking at more general aspects, such as for example psychological attitudes and social impacts. A consideration of the environment should also address the problem of how a service robot affects or is affected by it, by analyzing and designing for the variety of conditions and situations. In addition, service robots can be considered efficient and successful when ultimately the cost, both in design and operation, can be properly sized as a function

Activity and Trends in MMS from IFToMM Community

15

Fig. 5 A general flowchart with peculiarities for designing and operating service robots

of the service task and mainly as a function of the affordable budget of users and operators. Thus, indeed, economic evaluation and management will be included both in the R&D and in the design of service robots, even from the outset with a strong influence on technical issues. Once the service robot problem is properly outlined, by using the above considerations and maybe even with specific further observations, the challenges can be understood both, in general and specifically, for given applications and service tasks. In particular, the challenges for service systems can be understood to reside in: –– operating together with (or for) human users, with suitable behaviours and careful user-friendly operation; –– operating service tasks with proper easy-operation modes at user-oriented cost. Even more challenging can be the problem of how to make acceptable both from a psychological and a technical viewpoint a service system for a novel application in a frame in which users traditionally do not work or use technical means. Thus, major challenges are faced in the design of systems that have to be acceptable to new users. This may require an adjustment to include specific features of the novel applications, even if they may be thought not essential or functional for the design

16

M. Ceccarelli

and operation of the new service system. It is also challenging to convince operators and users from those novel application areas to cooperate in developing solutions or even in identifying main problems for design and operation of a new service system. Often serious difficulties arise caused by cultural barriers that make it difficult for designers and users to understand each other. Particularly challenging is how to identify specific issues in proper engineering models which can be understood by the new operators and users, especially when the latter are not from technical fields. All the above considerations can be considered as attaining also to the process and transfer of innovation, which will be understood not only as a technical advance but more widely as an enhancement of the quality of life in all its aspects with the help and support of technical means. Ultimately, construction and validation of the prototype can be considered challenges both for engineers and for new operators/users when not only the efficiency is considered but also user acceptance and education towards a proper awareness of the use of a service system. Fig 5 summarizes these viewpoints by outlining a general approach for designing service systems with the aspects and challenges mentioned above. In particular, the main flow of design activity is indicated in the central streamline as referring to data identification in both technical and non-technical aspects, consideration of technical constraints/issues, analysis of service operation and goal, design activity and system programming, with final checks by operators and users. The care on technical design activity is indicated as system design and operation planning since much of this is strongly influenced by aspects and activities that are grouped in the two lateral blocks as concerned with interactions with human beings and the environment, respectively. Each indicated item refers to aspects that even with nontechnical concerns must be included in the development of proper models and problem formulation as synthetically indicated in the box for task features and constraints. The list of topics is not exhaustive, but is aimed at outlining the many different aspects that should be considered as guidelines. The arrow towards the block for task features and constraints can be understood as referring to activity for modelling an engineering formulation of those issues and their corresponding problems in service systems. In the left block in Fig. 5 several items have been grouped because of lack of space and a major emphasis has been given to user-oriented functionality and user education in dealing with personnel and their attitudes for machine use, as well as to safety issues and environment care in dealing with the more technical aspects of interactions that are listed in the right block. Perhaps the proposed flowchart has simplified the cross-over effects of each aspect on specific but overall peculiarities for designing and operating a service system, but the scheme can be useful in providing a general overview of multidisciplinarity in service system with aspects of very different natures. Special emphasis has been indicated relating to the acceptance by operators and users that will require reiteration of consideration of all the aspects and the design process itself. Renewed interest is also addressed to experimental activity both for validation and calibration purposes.

Activity and Trends in MMS from IFToMM Community

17

Experimental activity can be aimed at checking system features, at evaluating operation performance, and at characterising application goals. Thus, it can be considered fundamental from the first stages of design activity in order to properly identify design parameters and task characteristics. In addition, it is also instrumental in confirming a practical feasibility of a design, with proper parameter experimental identifications and behaviour calibrations. In Fig. 6 general considerations a

b

Fig. 6 Schemes for experimental activity: (a) a general strategy; (b) test outputs

18

M. Ceccarelli

are outlined by addressing the main aspects for an experimental activity with an eye to the mechanics of the mechanism operation that is the part of a mechatronic multi-body system performing a mechanical task and/or interacting with the environment and human users. Thus, in the experimental strategy in Fig. 6a each block represents an area of specific activity, and although the activities may be carried out sequentially as indicated, each one may require specific attention even in recursive procedures and implementations. It is to be noted that even an experimental activity will require multidisciplinary expertise as referring to measurements technology and technique, but also to system operation and performance analysis. It is also remarkable that in general successful experimental activity needs recursive/iterative adjustments of the experimental layout both in term of prototype features under test and sensor implementation. In addition experimental results need to be treated with statistical analysis, which require the repetition of tests in a robust procedure. Another of the main aims of an experimental activity can be recognized in the possibility to discover or to confirm parameter functionalities that are fundamental for the system. A sensitivity analysis and a check of secondary effects are also significant for a proper experimental evaluation of the test outputs. In Fig. 6b a general scheme is outlined to stress, without any intention of being exhaustive, the areas and parameters that can be used for a mechanics characterization both of the lab test and of the system behaviour. Of course, each of the reported blocks and considerations needs careful attention in designing and performing the experimental activity, even during the run of tests yet. Summarizing, since system designs are in general aimed at tasks and operations with mechanical aspects, owing to mechanisms and end-effector components (since they interact or serve with human operators in mechanical environments), experimental activity with mechanics results can be very important for the market success and user acceptance of new and old systems.

Activity and Role of IFToMM As historically introduced above, IFToMM is an international federation whose mission is the promotion of MMS through facilitating worldwide dissemination, collaboration and advances in all the fields of MMS. IFToMM’s composition relating to activities for its mission is summarized in the diagram of Fig. 7. The main bodies of IFToMM are the General Assembly (GA), the Executive Council (EC), the Permanent Commissions (PCs), and the Technical Committees (TCs). The General Assembly (GA) is the supreme body of the Federation and determines its policy. It is composed of the Chief Delegates of IFToMM Member Organizations and members of the Executive Council. It is the body that decides and outlines the activity and strategies of IFToMM through general guidelines.

Activity and Trends in MMS from IFToMM Community

19

Fig. 7 IFToMM bodies and activities

Usually the GA meeting is held every 4 years during the IFToMM World Congress. The current GA is composed of the following 47 MOs: ARMENIA, AUSTRALIA, AUSTRIA, AZERBAIJAN, BELARUS, BRAZIL, BULGARIA, CANADA, CHINA-BEIJING, CHINA-TAIPEI, CROATIA, CZECH REPUBLIC, DENMARK, EGYPT, FINLAND, FRANCE, GEORGIA, GERMANY, GREECE, HUNGARY, INDIA, ISRAEL, ITALY, JAPAN, KAZAKHSTAN, KOREA, LITHUANIA, MACEDONIA, MEXICO, MONGOLIA, NETHERLANDS, PERU, POLAND, PORTUGAL, ROMANIA, RUSSIA, SERBIA, SINGAPORE, SLOVAKIA, SLOVENIA, SPAIN, SWITZERLAND, TUNISIA, UKRAINE, UNITED KINGDOM, USA, and VIETNAM. The Executive Council manages the affairs of the Federation between the sessions of the General Assembly. It is elected every 4 years, meets annually, and is composed of the President, Past President, Vice-President, Secretary-General, Treasurer, and six ordinary members. The President has the role of Chair. The main task of the EC is to guide the activity of IFToMM as decided by the GA and to perform the necessary actions during the 4-year term. The current EC is composed by Prof. Marco Ceccarelli (President), Prof. Kenneth Waldron (Past President), Prof. Yoshihiko Nakamura (Vice President), Prof. Carlos Santiago López-Cajún (Secretary-General), Dr Joseph Rooney (Treasurer), and members: Prof. Datong Qin, Prof. Veniamin I. Goldfarb, Prof. Theodor Ionescu, Prof. Barham Ravani, Prof James Trevelyan, Prof. Miroslav Václavík, Fig. 8. The PCs and TCs are the technical bodies in which the activities of IFToMM are carried out in their main aspects for teaching and research advances. Each Permanent Commission and Technical Committee is composed of a Chairperson,

20

M. Ceccarelli

Fig. 8 EC Members, chair of TC for transportation machinery, and the Mexican delegation with Prof. Chicurel, host of the 42nd IFToMM EC meeting in 2009 in Guanajuato, Mexico

appointed by the Executive Council, together with a Secretary and members, nominated by the Chairperson and appointed by the Executive Council. A Chairperson shall not serve for more than two terms consecutively. The general goals for the work of the Commissions and Committees are aimed at promoting their fields of interest by attracting researchers and practitioners, and especially including young individuals, in order to: –– –– –– –– ––

define new directions in research and development within their technical areas; establish contacts between researchers and engineers; initiate and develop bases and procedures for modern problems; promote the exchange of information; organize national and international symposia, conferences, summer schools, editorial works, and meetings. Currently the following PCs are established as in the IFToMM Constitution:

Communications (Chair: Prof. Leila Notash) Education (Chair: Prof. Juan C. García-Prada) History of MMS (Chair: Prof. Hanfried Kerle) Publications (Chair: Prof. Edward Walicki) Standardization of Terminology (Chair: Prof. Antonius J Klein-Breteler) Current TCs working in specific scientific hot topics are: Computational Kinematics (Chair: Prof. Doina Pisla) Gearing and Transmissions (Chair: Prof. Daizhong Su) Human-Machine Systems (Chair: Prof. Karol Miller) Linkages and Cams (Chair: Prof. Burkhard Corves) Micromachines (Chair: Prof. G.K. Ananthasures) Multibody Dynamics (Chair: Prof. Javier Cuadrado) Vibrations (Chair: Prof. Marian Wiercigroch) Reliability (Chair: Prof. Irina V. Demiyanushko) Robotics and Mechatronics (Chair: Prof. I-Ming Chen)

Activity and Trends in MMS from IFToMM Community

21

Rotordynamics (Chair: Prof. Rainer Nordmann) Sustainable Energy Systems (Chair: Prof. Ion Visa) Transportation Machinery (Chair: Dr. Madhu Raghavan) Tribology (Chair: Prof. Jianbin Luo) Conferences are organized directly by PCs and TCs often in collaboration with other communities, with the aim to have international forums in which to disseminate and exchange research and professional experiences and advances. Today a large number of conferences show IFToMM patronage but many others, mainly at national and local levels, are not explicitly linked to IFToMM, although they are still mainly within the IFToMM community. A similar situation occurs for editorial works and international collaborations that are continuously being proposed/established thanks to IFToMM but that are not clearly expressed under the umbrella of IFToMM. This has motivated a Presidency plan during the term 2008–2011 for achieving a better visibility of IFToMM activities, as stressed in many messages by the current president. This better visibility can give not only proper credit to IFToMM for each activity, but can also stimulate a more widespread consciousness of the considerable influence of IFToMM in the worldwide activity in MMS with more support from funding entities (see open letter by Ceccarelli and Waldron [34]). The role of the IFToMM community can be more influential when its activities are well recognized and appreciated not only at international level (as it is already), but also in national and local frames. An important conference event for the IFToMM community is the IFToMM World Congress that is celebrated every 4 years. At the previous one in Besançon, France in 2007 there were more than 700 delegates from all the IFToMM MOs as well as from other countries, thus demonstrating the growth of IFToMM and its role worldwide. Next one will be heldi in Guanujato, Mexico on June 2011. IFToMM’s activities and its goals are emphasised synthetically in the outputs that are outlined in Fig. 7 as R&D, Innovation and professionals. The activities of IFToMM can be better understood mainly from two viewpoints, namely political and executive. From the political viewpoint, IFToMM’s role can be understood as being leadership in guiding organization and strategic activities with international coordination in order to make common frames for further developments in the world community. From the executive viewpoint, IFToMM carries out activities in organizing and coordinating several initiatives, such as conference events, meetings, and editorial works via the bodies of the member organizations (MOs) but specifically through permanent commissions (PCs) and technical committees (TCs). These initiatives are indicated with IFToMM format and patronage mainly at the international level, but the IFToMM community programs these initiatives also within national and local frames as still relevant in quality and quantity. The results of these initiatives are disseminated worldwide, even in areas that are not yet linked to IFToMM. Thus, IFToMM activities are only partially visible under the explicit IFToMM umbrella, as reported in the IFToMM webpage. Those initiatives can be considered as directly influential in the academic world, but they are related to and are effective also within professional environments

22

M. Ceccarelli

because of the consequence of formational activities and applied research with innovation transfer. However, besides IFToMM being an international institution, its role and success depend on the activities of individuals, who are enrolled in the IFToMM bodies and thereby entitled to IFToMM benefits and by those who are within the MMS community at large. Thus, the role of IFToMM may be recognized as one showing leadership and guidance to the worldwide community working in MMS with the aim to facilitate common visions for future developments but also to stimulate collaboration and organization of activities at international level. With this role, IFToMM may be understood as a reference institution both in giving identity to the international community working in MMS and in proposing direction for worldwide activity in MMS developments.

Conclusions Not everything is new or recently developed in MMS, although innovation seems to be a priority today. But this does not mean that there is no interest in, nor that there is no need to work on developing and enhancing knowledge and application of MMS. New challenges are determined for MMS in the new needs of Technology and Society both in terms of developing new solutions and of updating past systems. An awareness of the historical background can give not only a conscious understanding of past efforts and solutions, including their paternity, but even more importantly it can help to find/develop ideas for new and updated problems to be solved. But the rapidly evolving needs of Technology and Society will require a continuous re-thinking and re-conceiving of methodologies and solutions in suitable updated applications. Thus, the main challenges for future success in MMS may be recognized in the community’s capability of keeping abreast of developments in the field and therefore in being ready to solve new and updated problems with new ideas or by refreshing past solutions, as has been done successfully in the past. IFToMM plays an important role in this contest since it is an international institution of worldwide reference with the aim to lead and facilitate international collaboration in guiding future developments. Acknowledgements The author wishes to thank Prof. Adalberto Vinciguerra from ‘La Sapienza’ University of Rome, who with his mentoring guide has transmitted his interest and enthusiasm for international collaboration and particularly for IFToMM. Among many other IFToMM officers, the author is also very grateful to the past IFToMM Presidents Prof. Bernard Roth, late Prof. Adam Morecki, and Prof. Jorge Angeles, who with their advice and encouragement helped him to reach a maturity both in engineering science and in IFToMM business. Finally the author wishes to thank Prof. Carlos Lopez-Cajùn, current IFToMM Secretary General, and Dr. Joseph Rooney, current Treasurer, for their friendship and strong support with discussions and advice during these years of IFToMM Presidency. Dr. Rooney is also acknowledged for revision and comment of this paper.

Activity and Trends in MMS from IFToMM Community

23

References* 1. Chasles, M.: Apercu historique sur l’origin et le développement des méthodes en géométrie. Mémoires couronnés par l’Académie de Bruxelles, vol.11 (2nd ed. Paris, 1875) (1837) 2. Chasles, M.: Exposé historique concernant le cours de machines dans l’enseignement de l’Ecole Polytechinique. Gauthier-Villars, Paris (1886) 3. Crossley, E.F.R.: Recollections from forty years of teaching mechanisms. ASME J. Mech. Trans. Autom. Des. 110, 232–242 (1988) 4. De Groot, J.: Bibliography on Kinematics. Eindhoven University, Eindhoven (1970) 5. De Jonge, A.E.R.: A brief account of modern kinematics. Trans. ASME 663–683 (1943) 6. Dimarogonas, A.D.: The origins of the theory of machines and mechanisms. In: Erdman, A.G. (ed.) Modern Kinematics – Developments in the Last Forty Years, pp. 3–18. Wiley, New York (1993) 7. Ferguson, E.S. Kinematics of mechanisms from the time of Watt. In: Contributions from the Museum of History and Technology, Washington, paper 27, pp. 186–230 (1962) 8. Hartenberg, R.S., Denavit J.: Men and machines an informal history, Machine Design, May 3, 1956, pp. 75–82; June 14, 1956, pp. 101–109; July12, 1956, pp. 84–93 (1956) 9. Koetsier, T.: Mechanism and machine science: its history and its identity. In: Proceedings of HMM2000 – the First IFToMM International Symposium on History of Machines and Mechanisms, pp. 5–24. Springer, Dordrecht (2000) 10. Nolle, H.: Linkage coupler curve synthesis: a historical review –I and II, IFToMM. J. Mech. Mach. Theor. 9(2), 147–168 (1974); pp. 325–348 11. Reuleaux, F.: Theoretische Kinematic, Chapter 1. Fridrich Vieweg, Braunschweig (1875) 12. Roth, B.: The search for the fundamental principles of mechanism design. In: International Symposium on History of Machines and Mechanisms – Proceedings of HMM2000, pp. 187–195. Kluwer, Dordrecht (2000) 13. Ceccarelli, M. (ed.): International Symposium on History of Machines and Mechanisms – Proceedings of HMM2000. Kluwer, Dordrecht (2000) 14. Ceccarelli, M. (ed.): International Symposium on History of Machines and Mechanisms – Proceedings of HMM2004. Kluwer, Dordrecht (2004) 15. Yan, H.S., Ceccarelli M. (eds.): International Symposium on History of Machines and Mechanisms – Proceedings of HMM2008. Springer, Dordrecht (2008) 16. Ceccarelli, M.: From TMM to MMS: a vision of IFToMM. Bull. IFToMM Newsl. 10(1) http://www.iftomm.org (2001) 17. Ceccarelli, M.: The challenges for machine and mechanism design at the beginning of the third millennium as viewed from the past. In: Invited Lectures, Proceedings of Brazilian Congress on Mechanical Engineering COBEM2001, Uberlandia, pp.132–151, vol. 20 (2001) 18. Ceccarelli, M.: Classifications of mechanisms over time. In: Proceedings of International Symposium on History of Machines and Mechanisms HMM2004, pp. 285–302. Kluwer, Dordrecht (2004) 19. Ceccarelli, M.: Challenges for mechanism design. In: Keynote paper, the 10th IFToMM International Symposium on Science of Mechanisms and Machines SYROM’09, Brasov, pp.1–13. Springer, Dordrecht, 12–15-Oct 2009, ISBN 978-90-481-3521-9. DOI 10.1007/97890-481-3522-6 20. Ceccarelli, M.: Early TMM in Le Mecaniche by Galileo Galilei in 1593. Mech. Mach. Theor. 41(12), 1401–1406 (2006) 21. Crossley, F.R.E.: The international federation for the theory of machines and mechanisms. J. Mech. 5, 133–145 (1970) 22. IFToMM.: IFToMM Commission A. Standard for terminology. Mech. Mach. Theor. 26(5) (1991)

* The reference list is restricted for limitations of space to main works for further reading and to the author’s main experiences.

24

M. Ceccarelli

23. IFToMM: Standardization and terminology. Mech. Mach. Theor. 38(7–10), special issue (2003) 24. Lanz, J.M.: Betancourt, A.: Essai sur la composition des machines, Paris (1808) 25. Masi, F.: Teoria dei meccanismi. Zanichelli, Bologna (1897) 26. Uicker, J.J., Pennock, G.R., Shigley, J.E.: Theory of Machines and Mechanisms. Oxford University Press, New York (2003) 27. Ceccarelli, M.: On the meaning of TMM over time. Bull. IFToMM Newsl. 8(1) http://www. iftomm.org (1999) 28. Angeles, J., Bianchi, G., Bessonov, A.P., Maunder, L., Morecki, A., Roth, B.: A history of IFToMM, Chapter 2. In: Proceedings of HMM2004 – the Second IFToMM International Symposium on History of Machines and Mechanisms, pp. 25–125. Springer, Dordrecht (2004) 29. Ceccarelli, M.: IFToMM celebration for 40th year celebration. Mech. Mach. Theor. 45, 119–127 (2010) 30. Crossley, F.R.E.: The early days of IFToMM. In: Proceedings of 8th IFToMM World Congressm, Prague, pp. 4–9, vol. 1 (1991) 31. Maunder, L.: The progress of IFToMM. Mech. Mach. Theor. 15, 415–417 (1980) 32. Maunder, L.: Report: the scientific activity of IFToMM. Mech. Mach. Theor. 23, 329–332 (1988) 33. Morecki, A: International friendly thinkers organization (who likes) machines and mechanisms (IFToMM) – where are we going? In: Proceedings of 10th IFToMM World Congress, Oulu (1999) 34. Ceccarelli, M., Waldron, K.J.: Open letter from IFToMM. IFToMM webpage (2009) 35. Ceccarelli, M.: Preliminary studies to screw theory in XVIIth century, Ball Conference, Cambridge, CD Proceedings (2000) 36. Ceccarelli, M.: A historical perspective of robotics toward the future. Fuji Int. J. Robot. Mechatron. 13(3), 299–313 (2001) 37. Ceccarelli, M.: IFToMM activity and its visibility. Bull. IFToMM Newsl. 13(1) http://www. iftomm.org (2004) 38. Ceccarelli, M.: Evolution of TMM (Theory of Machines and Mechanisms) to MMS (Machine and Mechanism Science): an illustration survey. Keynote Lecture, 11th IFToMM World Congress in Mechanism and Machine Science, Tianjin, vol.1, pp.13–24 (2004) 39. Ceccarelli, M.: Renaissance of machines in Italy: from Brunelleschi to Galilei through Francesco di Giorgio and Leonardo. Mech. Mach. Theor. 43, 1530–1542 (2008) 40. Ceccarelli, M.: A short introduction on IFToMM officers over time. In: Proceedings of HMM2008- the Third IFToMM International Symposium on History of Machines and Mechanisms, pp. 3–10. Springer, Dordrecht (2008) 41. Bottema, O., Freudenstein, F.: Kinematics and the Theory of Mechanisms, Appl. Mech. Rev. 19(4), 287–293 (1966) 42. Morecki, A.: Past present and future of IFToMM. Mech. Mach. Theor. 30, 1–9 (1995) 43. Shah, J.J. (ed.): Research Opportunities in Engineering Design – Final Report to NSF, NSF Strategic Planning Workshop. ASME DETC, Irvine (1996) 44. Roth, B.:” Robots – state of art in regard to mechanisms theory”. ASME J. Mech. Transm. Automat. Des. 105, 11–12 (1983)

Promoting Novel Approaches of MMS for Sustainable Energy Applications Ion Visa

Abstract Sustainable product design and development has gone global by involving teams from all over the world, developing new/innovative, high-tech products, aiming to implement sustainability in our knowledge-based society. RT&D and education in product design must comply with these requirements. Mechanical Systems (MS), as product components must also comply, thus general methods for MS modelling and design are compulsory. The paper discusses the involvement of MMS in promoting sustainable energy systems; mechanical and mechatronic systems in renewables are presented along with energy efficient applications in automotives. A proposal to establish a new IFToMM Technical Committee for Sustainable Energy systems is also presented and justified.

Introduction Energy represents one of the most powerful tools for our present and future development and one of the major problems of humankind. Energy promotes global industrial development and personal comfort but, the present pattern for energy production, use and end-of-life disposal is responsible for a large share of environmental pollution and for worldwide (in)security – to mention just two of the humankind problems. Today, our common energy sources are fossil and nuclear fuels, raising significant problems due to their limited amount and the wastes that result during energy production; today’s energy consumers, both in residential and industrial applications, are wasting plenty of energy in non- or average efficient processes, equipment or buildings. Therefore, sustainable solutions for the future must be related to three aspects: (1) new energy sources, clean, and if possible inexhaustible - renewable energy sources; (2) energy efficient processes and (3) energy

I. Visa (*) Transilvania University of Brasov, Eroilor Bd., 29, Brasov 500036, Romania e-mail: [email protected] M. Ceccarelli (ed.), Technology Developments: the Role of Mechanism and Machine Science and IFToMM, Mechanisms and Machine Science 1, DOI 10.1007/978-94-007-1300-0_2, © Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2011

25

26

I. Visa

saving applications. Sustainable Energy represents the concept joining these three conceptual lines, developed in the 1990s, as an answer to the need for a concrete path of sustainable development. Seven major areas were identified as relevant to sustainable energy development, including: energy resources and development; efficiency assessment; clean air technologies; information technologies; new and renewable energy resources; environment capacity; mitigation of nuclear power threat to the environment, [1]. Implementing a sustainable energy concept and requirements needs an inter- and trans-disciplinary approach and engineering plays a key role. It is not only energy and electrical engineering that must be involved, but there are strong and concrete issues that need to be solved by mechanical, mechatronic, materials and civil engineering, along with IT or robotics. And, to unify the emerging concepts in new, optimized and efficient products there is needed a new product design concept, the Integrated Sustainable Product Design. Changing energy production and use models must be done by providing affordable, marketable solutions, accepted by both industrial companies and by end-users, therefore the already existing experience in product design and development represents an asset. The science of machines and mechanisms plays a key role in this quest for sustainability.

Sustainable Energy and MMS Large-scale hydropower and biomass combustion systems are dominating the search for renewable energy production. In addition to these systems, wind turbines, photovoltaic and solar thermal systems have grown rapidly in the past decade and together are expected to be 20% of total energy production in the EU, by 2020. The MMS contribution to reaching this target is substantial and is related to key mechanisms in the systems’ functioning (as for wind turbines and hydropower station) or to advanced solutions for increasing the conversion efficiency, as these are the tracking mechanisms for PV and PV-concentrator systems and for solar-thermal collectors, either flat or concentrating. Plenty of studies have been devoted during the past 5 years to solar energy conversion, especially for photovoltaic convertors, because of a complex of concurrent factors: (1) while wind, hydropower or tides are unevenly distributed, solar energy is quite equally available, thus representing a path for global (energy) security; (2) the state of the art of photovoltaics, based on silicon, have a limited conversion efficiency, due to the material’s physics (up to about 32%), thus research focuses on increasing the amount of solar radiation on the PV module, by using tracking systems and/or radiation concentrators. The tracking systems can be mono- or bi-axial, according to the accuracy targeted in following the sun’s path. In choosing a tracking solution, besides this accuracy, other factors must also be considered: the energy gain versus the energy consumed during tracking, the construction limitations, the price. Solar thermal collectors are usually equipped with mono-axial systems, both for flat and for concentrating collectors. The PV trackers are usually bi-axial

Promoting Novel Approaches of MMS for Sustainable Energy Applications

27

Fig. 1 Trackers: (a) equatorial; (b) pseudo-equatorial; (c) azimuthal

Fig. 2 PV tracked platform installed in the Transilvania University of Brasov

providing a daily motion and a seasonal motion. According to their order, the bi-axial trackers can be equatorial, pseudo-equatorial or azimuthal, Fig. 1. Tracking can be insured by linkages mechanisms, [2–5], gear mechanisms, camfollower mechanisms, [6, 7], by hydraulic systems – especially for big loads in large PV platforms. One example is the tracking system developed by the Transilvania University of Brasov, [8, 9], in the project PV Twin Laboratory, consisting of a tracked PV platform with bi-axial, pseudo-equatorial tracking system having an actuator and a hydraulic motor, Fig. 2. The platform acts as an out-door testing stand for four different types of PV modules and functions beginning in 2008. Many renewable energy systems require transmissions to modify the input speed. The solar systems drive trains include a speed reducer, while the wind turbines

28

I. Visa

and hydro units usually contain a gearbox to increase the speed of the input shaft to the generator. Hydropower convertors represent thus another application field for MMS; large plants, of thousands of MW are developed but the main unexploited potential lies in small rivers; developing small hydros (with installed power lower than 5 MW), using the potential of variable water sources, with minimal/null investment in dams or water storage systems (run-of-river design) represents the target of many studies and requires novel solutions for efficient mechanical transmissions and for rotor blade design, aiming for efficient running of the turbine all through the year, [10]. Wind turbines registered the most dynamic development in the past 5 years, mainly because their development gives maximal use of the existent experience in mechanical, mechatronic and electric systems, [11]. Due to the large wind turbine development (up to 5 MW), electricity cost is comparable to the production costs of power based on fossil fuels, and – in the other limit of magnitude – small or micro-wind turbines were developed, starting at very low wind speed (<2 m/s), thus being implemented in various rural or urban areas. For this last application, highly efficient speed increasers are required, with low weight and volume, along with novel rotor design solutions, involving composites with specific properties. Conversion possibilities of a planetary chain-set from speed reducer into a speed increaser, by inverting the energy flow were analyzed [12]. The transmission can be integrated in small wind turbines and hydropower stations. By inverting the energy flow, the reducer can become a speed increaser only if its efficiency is positive. Comparative analyses of the structural, kinematical and dynamic specific features of the different types of planetary speed increasers were formulated and solutions were recommended for micro-hydro systems, [13]. Implementing the sustainable energy requirements by using the knowledge developed in MMS is not limited to renewables. The automotive industry represents another field where energy recuperation (e.g., from brakes), efficient and novel transmissions or mechanical parts are expected for the “automobile of the future”. Either electric or hybrid, using conventional fuel, biofuel or hydrogen, this represents a major research topic set at national or European levels, as an answer to the real threat represented by the need for raw materials and pollution mitigation. Actually, the future development of mechanisms and machines must consider advanced functionalities but also driving energy efficiency and the cut of losses, thus, the future of MMS is intrinsically linked to sustainable energy.

Multybody System Method for Mechanisms in Renewable Energy Systems The mechanical systems are key components in many renewable energy systems and their development, according to the Integrated Sustainable Product Design concept, requires new approaches and the use of dedicated software, integrated in virtual prototyping platforms, as presented in Fig. 3.

Promoting Novel Approaches of MMS for Sustainable Energy Applications

29

Fig. 3 Integrated sustainable product design of mechanical systems

Fig. 4 Classical methods for modelling mechanical systems versus MBS

Modelling mechanical systems can be done either by following the traditional path or by using new methods as it is the Multibody System Method, MBS, [14–21], that provides a unitary model that can be applied to all mechanisms, regardless of their type (linkages type, cams, gear mechanisms, etc.), allowing the study and optimization of the dynamic behaviour for the entire product. According to Fig. 4, classical modelling without the use of specific software requires sequential steps for developing a structural model, the kinematic and dynamic models and the kinematic – dynamic study of the mechanical systems. Moreover, for each configuration of mechanical systems, the analytical equations of the positions, velocities, and accelerations must be developed, based on the specific computational programs that have been formulated.

30

I. Visa

A modelling study without using dedicated software has a set of drawbacks: –– a long time dedicated to the design of the mechanical systems; –– the functions in the model depend on the mechanism’s type and configuration; –– lack of unitary modelling for various types of mechanical systems (linkages, cams, gears), resulting in limited possibilities for integrated product design; –– strong difficulties in the dynamic modelling of the mechanical system, due to the complexity of the dynamic equations; –– when considering the elements and joints as deformable/flexible entities, complex models result, raising high difficulties in developing the explicit form; –– the need of comprehensive knowledge on the detailed analytical developments, for all the designers involved in product development; –– in the conception phase of a new complex mechanical system, specific knowledge on the conceptual design for each mechanism type is required; –– limited or no possibility for real time simulation of the dynamic behaviour of the newly developed products (automotives, aircrafts, aerospace installations, etc.); –– difficulties in integrating the control systems in the product design; –– limited use of advanced knowledge in the research for developing new products. Formulating the teaching content and methodology of the Mechanism Science without adapting them for eliminating the above mentioned drawbacks will result in a limited use of knowledge in the integrated design of new products, which may have negative effects in this subject evolution. Thus, there is a strong need to use methods based on dedicated software for promoting advances in mechanism conceptual design and in their kinematic-dynamic study. In this case, according to Fig. 4, the designer’s work implies the unitary description of the structural, kinematic and dynamic models (regardless the mechanism type) and the results’ interpretation obtained when using the adequate software followed by the mechanism optimization (if necessary) for insuring the targeted dynamic behavior of the product. This approach is particularly valid for developing novel, efficient, performant solutions embedded in renewable energy systems, [4–6, 22, 23].

A New IFToMM TC on Sustainable Energy During the large international events dedicated to renewable energy systems it became obvious that the MMS must become strongly involved in research and in providing answers for the many unsolved problems. Combining energy efficient solutions with energy saving results, the design and development of renewable energy systems involving new mechanisms and mechatronic systems represents a trend followed by research groups all over the world. Recognizing this need, the IFToMM board considered the idea of launching a new Technical Committee on

Promoting Novel Approaches of MMS for Sustainable Energy Applications

31

Sustainable Energy Systems and, during the SYROM 2009 conference, Transilvania University of Brasov took the charge to prepare this proposal. The new Sustainable Energy Systems Technical Committee will promote the strategy and values that govern IFToMM and is dedicated to advances in machines and mechanisms science, developed by respecting the sustainable energy concepts, implemented in a broad range of applications: automotives, robotics, solar energy conversion systems, wind turbines, hydro-systems, etc. Emerging applications of the mechanical systems theories are expected in new frontier research such as the Multibody System Theory applied to molecular systems. Besides research, the new TC aims to support a re-shaping of the education and training programmes, at university level, largely involving project based and problem based learning, by developing gradually complex products, using the integrated product design for sustainability with subjects focusing particularly on renewable energy systems and components. The promoter, Transilvania University of Brasov, runs a complex of diploma programs, involving Sustainable Product Design, Industrial Design and Engineering of Renewable Energy Systems, offering tailored knowledge and expertise in the field of MMS and sustainable energy systems. These courses are followed by an M.Sc. course Product Design and Environment for Sustainable Development, with a flexible curricula, opening a training path for research in doctoral programs. The doctoral and post-doc programs are run in research departments that have been restructured over the past 6 years. The entire high level research developed in the university is concentrated in 22 departments, 14 for product development and 8 for support activities, Fig. 5. Further, international cooperation represents the tool offered by this frame for a harmonized development of sustainable energy systems, and the new TC intends to develop as a forum opened for discussions and joint work. According to the IFToMM Statute, the TC Sustainable Energy will act for fulfilling the following objectives: • Promote research and development in the field of Machines and Mechanisms considering the Sustainable Energy action lines. • Broaden contacts among persons and organizations of different countries engaged in scientific or engineering work in the field of Machines and Mechanisms, designed for energy efficiency, energy saving and applied in renewable energy systems. • Promote the exchange of scientific and engineering information and experts in the field of advanced machines and mechanisms for sustainable energy. • Promote the Sustainable Energy concept in IFToMM conferences and events, in scientific journals and other special publications. • Encourage the visits of experts and students between countries, either as individuals or as teams. • Establish the necessary relationships with other international organizations and unions whose activities are of interest to the TC Sustainable Energy.

32

I. Visa High-Tech Automotive Products, D2

Renewable Energy Systems and Recycling, D1

Eco-Biotechnologies in Food and Agriculture, D6

Sustainable Forrest Development, D3 Renewable Energy Systems

Advanced Electrical Systems, D7

Wood Innovative Technologies and Products, D14

Advanced Mecatronic Products, D4

Furniture Eco-Design, Restoration & Certification in Wood Industry, D11

Advanced Manufacturing Technologies, D5

Energy Efficiency

Energy Saving

Process Control Systems, D9

Virtual Reality and Robotics, D10

Embedded Systems, D13

Advanced Welding Eco-Technologies, D12 Economic-Financial Analysis, Marketing and Management, D16

Advanced Metal Materials and Technologies, D8

Communication and PR, D19

Quality Management, D18 Life Quality and Human Performance, D22

Law and Intellectual Rights, D21

Mathematic Modelling and Software Products, D15 Innovative Medicine, Fundamentals and Applications, D22

Advanced HR Education and Training , D20

Fig. 5 Research departments in the Transilvania University of Brasov

The activities that are part of the working plan for the proposed committee can be synthesized as: • Developing a collaborative frame of working groups, active in the field of mechanical systems for sustainable energy. Networking among the research, education and industry groups is a pre-requisite for successful activities, with real impact in the economic area. • Joint development of complex projects, strengthening the resources, experience and expertise of the groups. • Joint development of education and training guidelines and courses, preparing graduates for the real needs identified in the labor market. • Organizing of thematic scientific events as part of IFToMM events and/or developing specific events in the frame of IFToMM. • Developing instruments for dissemination of the TC activities: web-site, specific publications (monographs, journal). Relevant personalities, active in the MMS field with strong links to sustainable energy, have confirmed the viability and the need for this new structure and have declared their support for its development.

Promoting Novel Approaches of MMS for Sustainable Energy Applications

33

Conclusions Implementing sustainable development requires concrete actions and engineering is one key provider for new/innovative solutions able to change our present and future. Energy production, consumption and waste disposal are part of this action complex; the past decade formulated a strategy for increasing energy efficiency, cutting losses for energy saving and adopting renewable energy systems as major energy providers, known as Sustainable Energy. The MMS is deeply involved in developing sustainable energy systems, in the concepts of Sustainable Integrated Product Design. For advances in this direction, new methods and tools must be used, such as the Multibody System Method coupled with dedicated software, which can be included in virtual prototyping platforms. Sustainable Energy Systems represent now a complex topic, and IFToMM decided to tackle the idea of a new Technical Committee, with the same name. A real consensus on this new TC was registered, and the proposal is under development.

References 1. Afgan, N.H., Al Gobaisi, D., Carvalho, M.G., Cumo, M.: Sustainable energy development. Renew. Sust. Energ. Rev. 2, 235–286 (1998) 2. Gavrila, C.: Structural analysis of the mechanisms for mobile couplings as multibody systems. In: Proceedings of PRASIC’02, vol. I, Brasov, CD Based (2002) 3. Visa, I., Ciobanu, D.: Structural synthesis of mechanisms type linkage as multibody systems. In: Proceedings of PRASIC’02, Brasov, vol. 1, pp. 228–234 (2002) 4. Visa, I., Gavrila, C.: Structural synthesis method of mobile transversal coupling type linkages as multybody systems. In: Proceedings of PRASIC02, Brasov, vol. 1, pp. 235–238 (2002) 5. Ciobanu, D, Visa, I.: Modeling and kinematic analysis of cam mechanisms as multibody systems. In: Proceedings of the 9th IFTOMM International Symposium on Theory of Machines and Mechanisms, Bucharest, pp. 21–26 (2005) 6. Ciobanu, D., Visa, I.: Structural synthesis of the cam-follower complex mechanisms considered as multibody systems with four bodies. PRASIC’06, Brasov, vol. III, pp. 141–146 (2006) 7. Ciobanu, D., Visa, I., Diaconescu, D.: Optimizing of a new tracking systems for small parabolic trough collectors, International Conference EUROSUN 2008, CD based (2008) 8. Comsit, M., Visa, I.: Structural synthesis of mechanisms for solar radiation devices. In: Proceedings, the Symposium MTM, Cluj Napoca (2005) 9. Visa, I., Comsit, M.: Tracking systems for solar energy conversion devices. In: Proceedings of the 14-th ISES International Conference EUROSUN’ 2004, Freiburg, vol. 2, pp. 143–148 (2004) 10. Anagnostopoulos, J.S., Papapntinis, D.E.: Optimizing of run-of-river small hydro plant. Energ. Convers. Manage. 48, 2663–2670 (2007) 11. Steen, H. van, Zervos, A.: Wind Energy – The Facts, European Wind Association, Brussels (2009) 12. Jaliu, C., Diaconescu D.V., Saulescu, R., Neagoe, M.: Conversion analysis of a planetary chain-set speed reducer into a speed increaser to be used in RES. In: Proceedings, the 3rd International Conference on Mechanical Engineering and Mechanics, Braunschweig, 1, pp. 767–770 (2009)

34

I. Visa

13. Jaliu, C., Diaconescu, D.V., Neagoe, M., Saulescu, R.: Dynamic features of speed increasers from mechatronic wind and hydro systems. Part I: structure kinematics. In: Proceedings, Eucomes 08, Springer, Dordrecht, Netherlands, pp. 351–359 (2009) 14. Schielen, W.: Multibody System Handbook. Springer, Berlin/Heidelberg (1999) 15. Shabana, A.: Dynamics of Multibody Systems, 3rd edn. Cambridge University Press, New York (2005) 16. Ulrich, K.T., Eppinger, S.D.: Product Design and Development. McGraw Hill, Berkshire (1995) 17. Bayo, E., Garcia de Jalon, J.: Kinematics and Dynamics Simulation of Multibody Systems. The Real-Time Challenge. Springer, New York (1993) 18. Haug, J.E.: Computer Aided Kinematics and Dynamics of Mechanical Systems. Allyn and Bacon, Needham Heights (1989). ISBN ISBN 0205116698 19. Nikravesh, E.P.: Computer – Aided Analysis of Mechanical Systems. Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River (1988) 20. Roberson, R.E., Schwertassek, R.: Dynamics of Multibody Systems. Springer, Berlin (1988) 21. Lenarcic, J., Wenger, P.: Advances in Robot Kinematics: Analysis and Design. Springer, Vienna (2008) 22. Visa, I., Ciobanu, D.: Structural synthesis of mechanisms type linkage as multybody systems. In: Proceedings of PRASIC’02, Brasov, vol. 1, pp. 228–234 (2002) 23. Visa, I., Diaconescu, D.V., Popa, V., Burduhos, B., Saulescu R.: The synthesis of a linkage with linear actuator for large angular stroke. In: Proceedings EUCOMES 08, pp. 447–454. Springer (2009)

Role of MMS and IFToMM in Iberoamerican Community and Open Perspectives Emilio Bautista Paz and Justo Nieto Nieto

Abstract TMM (now MMS) has been an important basis and a fecundus area for developing Spanish engineering overall and then extending that development to the Iberoamerican community within international frames of collaboration. The Spanish society has also been a promoter also for an Iberoamerican federation within the Iberoamerican communities, that now has a well-established presence and plays a role that is similar and indeed is linked to IFToMM.

Impact of IFToMM in Spanish TMM A summary of five decades of mutual relations between IFToMM and Spain perhaps can be better understood starting with a general view of the country during the 1960s because most of the improvements in Spanish TMM from then happened under the impact of IFToMM, acting as an engine of change without which it would probably have been at least slower. In that decade Spain lifted itself out from under an international economic blockade that generated a strong industrial autarchy, based in big companies belonging to the State. Rather slowly, foreign industry was installed and manufacturing companies appeared all over the country. Nevertheless international cooperation was scarce

E.B. Paz (*) Escuela Superior De Ingenieros Industriales, Departamento De Ingeniería Mecánica Y Fabricación, Universidad Politécnica De Madrid, José Gutiérrez Abascal, 2, Madrid, 28006, Spain e-mail: [email protected] J.N. Nieto Technical University of Valencia, Valencia, Spain e-mail: [email protected] M. Ceccarelli (ed.), Technology Developments: the Role of Mechanism and Machine Science and IFToMM, Mechanisms and Machine Science 1, DOI 10.1007/978-94-007-1300-0_3, © Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2011

35

36

E.B. Paz and J.N. Nieto

and difficult for a variety of different reasons, suffering the same troubles as in the academic world. University relations with industry were non-existent in practice, and there was no research activity in most companies. Within the scope of academic education there was another feature affecting TMM at different levels that merit some comments. First of all Engineering, in all its branches and levels, was dealt with outside university channels. Engineering Educational Centres were not under the jurisdiction of the Education and Science Ministry, but were subject to different branch Ministries such as Agriculture, Public Works, Industry and so on. This was based on the concept that engineering education is an important tool for industry policy and must be in the hands of Government, because it needs a special control to guarantee an adequate number of engineers and level of expertise needed to meet the country’s needs. Those being the main objectives of these institutions, no special emphasis was placed on research. There were no Doctorate level studies in Engineering, no incentive to teach at an advanced level or to publish research results, thus exhibiting a significant difference from a genuine university. And this was true in spite of the recognition that engineering careers were, on both social and scientific levels, as a general rule longer and harder to pursue. In addition to that, Mechanical Engineering at a higher level was not (until very recently) recognized in Spain as an independent professional title; it was considered only as a special branch of a broader career, whose official diploma, however, had for many years allowed identification of this speciality that had a significant industry demand, independent of seasonal fashions and economic conditions. One last point to be considered in the academic environment during the 1960s is that TMM was not considered to be a matter with entity enough to be separate inside the curricula, being therefore an integral part of general machinery courses. In any case, it appeared not to be worthy of consideration as a general basic technology that required only a limited theoretical and mathematical background. All these points clearly depict a country in need of a radical change, which happily came about beginning in the late 1960s. Perhaps some of the shortcomings described were in common, to a larger or smaller extent, with other countries now belonging to IFToMM, and it is possible that some of the developments set out below were similar for those countries as well.

Early Impact of IFToMM It is not crazy (at least not too crazy) to say that our Federation was born due to an explicit desire of Providence to help Spain in its problems with TMM. A sign of that is its birthday, not too early, not too late, just in time. IFToMM not only eased the path toward, but also actively promoted, personal international relations with Spanish people working in TMM. It should be recalled that at this time Spain (and unfortunately several other countries for different reasons) had strong limitations in this sense, due to a complex political world. Suddenly, at least inside the TMM area, worldwide barriers disappeared, even for

Role of MMS and IFToMM in Iberoamerican Community and Open Perspectives

37

Spain, under the influence of IFToMM. By chance, there was little strategic value to the most part of TMM science. IFToMM also provided a reference point to consider TMM as an independent curriculum subject. In the late 1960s, major Spanish engineering academic centres started to select special professors for these specific studies, officially recognizing TMM as a separate field of knowledge. This group of professors formed the core of an early Spanish Committee inside IFToMM, that gradually incorporated new TMM professors into the newly created centres. This group was also the main promoter of the Spanish Association of Mechanical Engineering (AEIM) that, although having a broader scope, proved to have a strong link with IFToMM. Periodic meetings of these two associations allowed them to deal with the fundamental changes that followed in the next decade with respect to advanced engineering education structure, gaining through their IFToMM connection an international conception of the role that TMM ought to play in engineering. All engineering education became dependent on a standard university structure. This meant changes in career preparation duration, student admission rules, official procedures for selection of professors, and position of TMM centres in the educational hierarchy, among other important aspects that also affected the TMM role. Most existing centres were integrated into specific engineering universities (called Polytechnic Universities), whose government was in the hands of engineers. But some of them, mostly the new ones, were inserted inside old universities where the TMM image was also old. In a certain sense a new research mission was created for engineering teachers, giving them positions that slowly changed them from workers integrated into industry to full dedicated professors, sometimes without any industrial experience. In addition, engineering education was required to incorporate doctorate level studies where, as formerly said, there was no engineering tradition. Academic TMM suffered all these changes to the same extent as the other engineering fields, but fortunately had IFToMM as a background reference.

Historical Perspective After these changes began, the Spanish Committee can be considered to have become fully involved in IFToMM activities. The World Congress held at Seville in 1987 was a definitive slap on the back given to the country in this sense. For the Spanish TMM people it supposed their full integration into the international academic world. It can be said without exaggeration that it was the most important academic meeting held in the country inside the engineering field up to that time, taking into account the number and level of assistants, papers presented and media impact. As always happens in this type of events, during the Congress and in the following days, several meetings in and visits to different TMM departments around the country allowed the establishment of permanent and strong personal relations that produced fruitful cooperation in many academic projects that have endured up to present days at an international level.

38

E.B. Paz and J.N. Nieto

Perhaps nowadays it is difficult to realise the significance of a meeting among people coming from China, Japan, the Soviet Union, the USA and so on. But at the time it posed a really unique opportunity for cooperation to be set up. And it obviously was significant for Spanish TMM, enabling their members to profit by the advantages that IFToMM offered over a broad range of engineering activities. To give two examples, relations inside our Federation have ever since those days been present in most professor interchanges at an international level between TMM departments, and also the first ERASMUS Programme established in Spain for engineering students profits specifically from the opportunities given by personal relations with members of the IFToMM. An additional comment is significant for the general objective of this paper. With the passage of time, the Spanish Association of Mechanical Engineering (AEIM) emulated the above splits in more specific associations inside fields covered by the general concept of mechanical engineering. Thus the scope of AEIM constituted in fact the national counterpart of our Federation, and because of that became the factual Spanish Committee. Among the countries belonging to IFToMM it is not so common to have national associations of academic (rather than professional) members dealing with TMM. This feature of Spain’s relationship brings some advantages to its position with respect to IFToMM. Under the auspices of AEIM in the early 1990s, there was created the LatinAmerican Federation of Mechanical Engineering (FeIbIM/FeIbEM) grouping the countries of Spanish and Portuguese languages, that from then has seen continuous academic activity of publications and biannual congresses, rotating among Central and South-America and Europe. FeIbIM takes as reference structure and by-laws those of IFToMM, to whom they serve as a bridge with this region through fluid relations between both institutions.

Increasing Scope of TMM Always with respect to Spain, academic education has extended the teaching field inside TMM, due to an increasing demand for professional knowledge in industry, in addition to the numerous jobs offered in relation with TMM, and besides the needs created when new technologies arise. Quantity and type of teaching obviously depend on centre location and industry environment, but as a general rule curricula include nowadays as separate subjects: Vibrations, Design, CAD, Biomechanics and Robotics at carrier level, and in some cases History, Testing, Standardisation, Security and Maintenance, always applied to Machines. At the doctorate level the scope of subjects is broader and more dependent on the centre research activity, with themes such as Tribology. The number of theses and papers published has increased notoriously in the past 2 decades due to the rules relating to options for academic jobs. But at a rough estimation something like a half of doctorate students are foreigners or come from industry.

Role of MMS and IFToMM in Iberoamerican Community and Open Perspectives

39

In parallel with that, several Research Institutes have been created in the field of TMM, mainly in order to support I + D+I activity in regional industry, and some of them can be considered as references in their specific area. A big effort has also been made in the use of information technology applied to teaching TMM subjects. Generally speaking, at country level it can be said that TMM groups are developing functions very similar to those that are usual in the European academic world, with the same types of limitations and incentives. Once again IFToMM is useful as a reference frame.

The Iberoamerican Federation of Mechanical Engineering The Iberoamerican Federation of Mechanical Engineering FeIbIM (Federación Iberoamericana de Ingeniería Mecánica) (see http://www.feibim.org/) was established legally in 1997, but its origin can be dated in 1991 when a small group of people from several Iberoamerican countries met to discuss the possibility of setting up a federation to stimulate the development of mechanical engineering in TMM in the Iberoamerican areas. The Iberoamerican area was identified as being in central and south America together with the Ibero countries (Spain and Portugal) in which a common basis is recognized not only, but mainly, by the Spanish and Portuguese languages. The aim of the FeIbIM federation is, similarly to IFToMM, to promote development of the area by facilitating collaboration among institutions and individuals in the Iberoamerican countries with respect to activity in research, formation, and profession. In fact, the members of the Federation can be both institutions (societies, universities, departments) and individuals. This mission is emphasized also in the federation logo, Fig. 1 in which two open rings indicate the connection and opening towards the two continents and two language communities.

Fig. 1 The logo of the Iberoamerican Federation of Mechanical Engineering

40

E.B. Paz and J.N. Nieto

Federation activity is focused on the support of local activities, exchanges of academic and technological results, publications, and mainly as referring to meetings and conference organizations. In particular an international journal Revista Iberoamericana de Ingeniería Mecánica (Iberoamerican Journal of Mechanical Engineering) is a specific journal for disseminating achievements and results of activity in MMS not only in the Iberoamerican world. In addition, an international congress, as mainly directed to the Iberoamerican communities, is organized every 2 years (Fig. 2): Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, España, 2009 Cuzco, Perú. 2007 Cidudad de Mexico, Mexico, 2005 Coimbra, Portugal, 2003 Mérida, Venezuela. 2001 Santiago, Chile. 1999 La Habana, Cuba. 1997 Belohorizonte, Brasil. 1995 Madrid, España. 1993 The next one will be held in Oporto, Portugal in 2011. Several other conferences are organized both locally and at international levels, even in specific fields as supported by the technical committees that are established

Fig. 2 Covers of the Proceedings of the Congresses Iberoamerican Federation of Mechanical Engineering: (a) first one in 1993; (b) last one in 2009

Role of MMS and IFToMM in Iberoamerican Community and Open Perspectives

41

within the federation. This international activity and the similarities with IFToMM has brought a strict collaboration between the two federations that has been formalized since 2005 with an agreement for mutual support. Thus, for example all the activities are advertised in both webpages and even congress activities are co-sponsored, such as for example MUSME , the IFToMM-FeIbIM International Symposium on Multibody Systems and Mechatronics.

Trends and Risks The greatness of IFToMM and also FeIbIM has been and still is in the leadership over the time by Presidents, Executive Council, and Committees that are composed of persons with great repute and scientific professional character who have offered their service to the Federation with great responsibility and dedication also for the benefit of the Society. This has been a common character: giants on the shoulders of giants. The risk for the future of IFToMM and FeIbIM and what they represent in the communities can be identified in the fact that, because of world crises over the course of time, some of the values on which IFToMM and FeIbIM are founded will disappear. One considerable risk is given by the needs of impending globalization. The so-called Bologna process in the European community should enhance mobility and employment possibility during its formation. Today, communication is almost real time worldwide and this should give benefits to the formation of frameworks with exchanges of teachers, researchers and students towards a wide variety of advantages for curricular possibilities. IFToMM and FeIbIM should stimulate a similar process as regarding specifically MMS! Trends for MMS and therefore for IFToMM and FeIbIM can be outlined from the developments in Science and Technology, and from the means that will be available for computation and experimental activities. Vision and sensibility of MMS scientists will guide interests and therefore activities and discussions for new researches and advances. There will be researchers, who will contribute to the ‘bella’ geometry, the challenging topology, the ‘fecundus’ four-bar linkage, etc., but more and more there will be activity and attention on very specific problems, on machine service in severe conditions, on intersection with other disciplines, on applications and solutions for unusual needs, on technological requirements in developing areas, on the hybridification of technology, and so on. From this viewpoint it is believed that the situation and evolution of MMS in Spain and in the Iberoamerican world will be not so much different from the rest of the world in its comparison to the developed countries. Innovation will be one of the pillars of MMS through the work of specific committees and through a differentiated interest as a source of opportunities yet to come for MMS.

42

E.B. Paz and J.N. Nieto

Conclusions Summarizing, we conclude that, in Spain, IFToMM has played an important role in putting TMM (now MMS) development on the right road, where there exist a broad range of interesting possibilities linked to science, research, technology, product development, innovation and industry, possibilities that cannot be pursued outside a multinational approach, as the only way to avoid the present obvious risks. This IFToMM inspiration has been instrumental also in the foundation and activity of the Iberoamerican Federation of Mechanical Engineering that is a unique institution linking institutions and individuals in the Iberoamerican world in an international community for common developments though collaboration and exchanges.

India’s Contributions Over the Last 40 Years in Turbine Blade Dynamics Jammi S. Rao

Abstract India is one of the founding members of IFToMM and took keen interest in its activities since its inception. It took full advantage of organizing and participating in events worldwide in various MMS areas. The contributions over the last 4–5 decades in Turbine Blade Dynamics from India are recounted here.

Introduction India emerged as an independent nation after the II World War, though an ancient civilization lost its innovative rich culture, education and research. Its occupation coincided with the Industrial revolution and the steamboat and at that time came under colonial rule. Europe was itself in turmoil during the nineteenth and first half of the twentieth century, when things began to settle down in most parts of the world. India itself was born in the turmoil of partition in 1947 and by the early 1950s it had become a stable, and the largest, democracy in the world. With this backdrop India began to recoup and develop itself into a modern country during the last 4–5 decades. At the time of independence India had two institutions worth mentioning, Tata Iron and Steel Company in Industry in Jamshedpur and Indian Institute of Science (known more popularly as Tata Institute) in Bangalore. India began seriously developing its infrastructure by setting up heavy industries in Bhilai, Bokaro, Durgapur, Rourkela, Ranchi, Bhopal, Hardwar, Hyderabad, Tiruchinapalli amongst others; agricultural projects such as Bhakra Nangal Dam, Atomic Energy establishments, CSIR laboratories such as National Aerospace laboratories, Hindustan Aeronautics Ltd., Indian Space Research Organization, Defense Research and Development laboratories J.S. Rao (*) Rotor Dynamics Technical Committee, Altair Engineering India Pvt Ltd, 5th Floor Mercury Building, Prestige Tech Park, Marathhalli-Sarjapur Ring Road, Bangalore, Karnataka 560103, India e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] M. Ceccarelli (ed.), Technology Developments: the Role of Mechanism and Machine Science and IFToMM, Mechanisms and Machine Science 1, DOI 10.1007/978-94-007-1300-0_4, © Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2011

43

44

J.S. Rao

amongst others. To sustain these industrial activities, it also set up a chain of Institutes of Technology, the first one being the Indian Institute of Technology in Kharagpur in the mid-1950s. The Indian Institute of Technology was set up with the help of UNESCO and its mechanical engineering department was headed by none other than eminent Professor Robert Kraus from Braunschweig. Under his leadership the department grew rapidly and developed its research talent. In 1957, the Institute had Professor Belgaumkar as its first Indian heading the mechanical engineering department. Amongst various areas he addressed was the need of the nation’s heavy industry for turbomachine research, and thus began research work on compressor and turbine blade vibrations and rotor dynamics. He also took the lead in bringing the department into the fold of the International Federation for the Promotion of Mechanism and Machine Science in 1969, thus getting India into the league of advanced research. One of the areas in IFToMM promoted by India was Rotor Dynamics, which enabled it to have vast exchanges amongst researchers across the nations. Here we will restrict ourselves to a discussion of the contributions from India in the field of Turbine Blade Dynamics during the last 4–5 decades.

The 1960s and 1970s Dynamic problems in Steam Turbines surfaced soon after the end of World War I, particularly with respect to critical speeds and instabilities in oil films and generator rotors. Sir Frank Whittle faced severe blade failure problems during the development of the first aircraft jet engine; together pursuit of these two problems contributed to considerable research in that period. Determination of natural frequencies became very important in both blades and rotors. The state of art at that time was in the application of energy methods from the Science revolution period to Rayleigh and Stodola. India first concentrated on developing methods of determining natural frequencies and thus critical speeds. Initially it developed methods based on assumed mode shapes similar to Duncan and established Raleigh, Galerkin, Lagrangian and Ritz approaches and Collocation methods to solve these problems. Polynomial Frequency Procedures were also developed. Simultaneously, tabular procedures using Holzer, Myklestad and Prohl approaches were developed. They addressed several aspects of blade taper, twist, rotation, disk radius and stagger angle, airfoil asymmetry, Coriolis effects and the resulting nonlinearities. While establishing these analytics, research was simultaneously concentrated on laboratory tests to validate these results. The first laboratory rotating blade test rig was established in 1972 at IIT Kharagpur, shown in Fig. 1. IIT Kharagpur and National Aerospace laboratories together designed and built the first high speed spin rig in 1973 driven by an air turbine as given in Fig. 2. Though finite element methods and the computer age was still far away at that time, the questions about stress and fatigue became paramount in research and development. The fatigue failures of QE2 ninth Stage Starboard HP Turbine Rotor on 24 December 1968, in its maiden voyage, were an eye-opener to the community.

India’s Contributions Over the Last 40 Years in Turbine Blade Dynamics

Fig. 1 Early spin rig for blade testing in 1972

Fig. 2 High speed spin rig for blade testing in 1973

45

46

J.S. Rao

Fortunately by that time Prohl had already established a method of determining the natural frequencies of packeted blades as employed in steam turbines. But this only explained the presence of resonance near operating speed but not the fatigue aspects. The practice then was to assume damping (based on tests and experience) and stimulus setting the blade to forced vibration and at critical speed into resonance. Thus research into blade excitation forces due flow path interference began by the mid-1970s. Theodore von Karman established two-dimensional thin airfoil theories for aircraft including the response from a gust. Professor Sears in Ithaca and Professor Horlock in Cambridge researched extensively the blade stage aspects. These theories were extended in India to determine the stimulus factors of compressor and turbine blades, thus allowing forced vibration analysis to become a reality. To validate these theories, a Modified Hydraulic analogy to simulate unsteady flow in a turbomachine stage was established to determine nonsteady forces, rotating stall, and flow visualization; the model was based on early suggestions from MIT. This analogy allowed compressible gas flows in a compressor or turbine stage on rotating water tables as shown in Fig. 3.

Fig. 3 A rotating water table simulating turbine stage flow

India’s Contributions Over the Last 40 Years in Turbine Blade Dynamics

47

Fig. 4 Oil whip of rotors in journal bearings

One-dimensional beam model rotor dynamics was established using transfer matrix methods for torsional and lateral bending vibrations and codes were developed. Oil film instabilities in journal bearings were studied and methods established to determine the threshold speeds for steam turbines. Unique test rigs were designed and developed to study this phenomenon; one of the test rigs developed in 1967 is shown in Fig. 4. Using transfer matrix methods that were in vogue at that time, special codes were developed for torsion and bending of rotors of railway engines and drive trains, power plant rotor dynamics, couplings and gear transmission units, ship propulsion drives; electrical faults and generator short circuit amongst various sources. These technologies were later used in various fatigue failure analyses. General purpose unbalance response codes were developed for turbine-generator rotors using transfer matrix methods. These methods included the gyroscopic effects. Also codes were developed to determine the stiffness and damping coefficients of hydro-static and hydro-dynamic journal bearings including the tilt effects and the unbalance response studies included these oil film forces. The effect of backward whirl between the split natural frequencies was studied and the instability due to negative cross-coupled stiffness is also studied.

48

J.S. Rao

The 1980s During this decade several activities started in India connected with a military aircraft engine, bladed disks, damping, and Reissner energy methods. These were finite element methods for blades and rotors and rig development. The energy methods developed using virtual displacement alone were extended to include virtual strains and stresses and they improved the accuracy in determining stress fields as well as the displacement field that gives sufficient accuracy in the determination of natural frequencies. The Reissner principle is extensively used for rotating pretwisted tapered airfoil cross-section blades. Hu-Washizu’s principle is also used in deriving the general governing equations of bars, rods and beams. Washington DC had a new State-of-Art Metro Transit System but unfortunately its braking system developed instabilities and an annoying squeal. Several quick fix methods were tried but to no avail. The Indian engineering team developed a brake squeal instability model using finite element methods for the disk and beam models for the pad, and caliper. This model was highly successful and predicted the instability threshold regimes accurately. This analysis was verified through live tests conducted by the Indo American team using the then state-of-art analog recorders and on-line monitoring and diagnostics using then new real time analyzers. This instrumentation and experience became immediately helpful in India in the blade test rigs and condition monitoring of power plants using digital data acquisition techniques. While trying to establish Stress based and Strain based methods of life estimation, the question arose of how accurately we can define damping in bladed structures. The general practice is to linearize the material and friction dampings as an equivalent viscous damping in the bladed-disk and use this in determining the peak stresses at critical speeds. In order to understand the nature of damping, several stationary and spin test rigs were developed. First 2D finite element models were developed with contact elements with centrifugal load simulated as normal loads in the contact zones. Using Coulomb friction (global macro friction model) an algorithm in explicit form was developed and decay response was determined to measure friction damping as a function of strain amplitude in the given mode of vibration. An experimental rig was developed to operate in vacuum on a pair of blades subjected to tension by using cryogenic liquids such as Nitrogen. Drop tests were conducted on the blades to determine the decay response and compare the results with finite element models. Then permanent magnets were used to excite the rotating blades in place of steam or air nozzles and to determine the blades’ natural frequencies and critical speeds. This rig is shown in Fig. 5. In order to get a better control on excitation and de-excitation, a new rig was designed with electromagnets for excitation as shown in Fig. 6. This rig allowed a precise determination of a nonlinear damping model of a rotating blade in a given mode of vibration at a given speed of rotation as a function of reference strain amplitude. This model allowed us a precise determination of

India’s Contributions Over the Last 40 Years in Turbine Blade Dynamics

49

Fig. 5 Rotating blade rig with permanent magnet excitation

Fig. 6 Rotating blade excitation with electromagnets

resonant stress field at a critical speed given the excitation pressures on the blade surface, thus helping to obtain an accurate estimate of cumulative damage when the blade crosses a given critical speed on the Campbell diagram. Receptance methods were used to determine the bladed-disk vibration characteristics and tests were conducted on an Orpheous engine bladed disk to verify these results. Forced damped vibrations were also accounted for. Bhakra Nangal Francis turbine runner blades suffered cracks in the 1980s and therefore research work was taken up to account for fluid–structure interaction and the influence of added mass effect on the natural frequencies. These frequencies were shown to be closer to the second harmonic of the nozzle passing frequency.

50

J.S. Rao

India undertook the development of an advanced military aircraft engine named GTX through Gas Turbine Research Establishment and National Aerospace laboratories with developmental projects from different Indian Institutes of Technology and the Indian Institute of Science. Blade excitation programs in accordance to 2D thin airfoil stage were developed for the interfering flow between stator and rotor row of blades. Rotor dynamic codes were developed for gas turbine and compressor rotors using beam model theories. These single spool rotor programs were then extended to two spool rotors as used in the configuration of the GTX engine. Bharat Heavy Electricals Ltd., developed full scale test rigs to study the unbalance response of turbine and generator rotors, oil film bearing studies and stability problems. The test rigs were designed with help from the Indian Institute of Technology. The test results were used to validate the codes developed for this purpose. The B2 TG Set of Electricite de France in Porcheville suffered a catastrophic failure on August 22, 1977 during its maintenance and over-speed testing. Investigations into this failure led to the suspicion that the bearings crossed the threshold speed of instability when the rotor accidentally and briefly strayed beyond the 12% over-speed. The theories at that time were limited to determining the threshold speed from linear analysis and limiting the operation to be below this oil whip region. India developed a transient analysis of rotors that can take the rotors into speeds beyond the threshold speed and determine the regions where the amplitudes can still be safe for operation before failures can take place. This analysis became very handy when India faced a similar catastrophic failure in 1993.

The 1990s During the last decade of the twenty-first century there were several major developments in Turbomachinery in the country. Liquid cryogenic engine development program for the Geo Stationary Launch Vehicles, Upgrading GTX development to Kaveri Engine for the Light Combat Aircraft, Catastrophic failure of Nuclear Powered Steam Turbine Rotors in Narora that pushed Lifing Programs and On-Line Condition Monitoring Systems for safe operation of Power Plants to keep the downtime to a minimum. These events prepared the Indian engineering community for deeper understanding of the working of rotating machinery and fracture mechanics studies. India’s space program had a major impact with the decision to develop its own cryogenic engines for the final stages of launching. The Liquid Hydrogen and Oxygen pumps were to be light and operate at very high speeds, nearly 50,000 rpm with couplings, several seals, and rolling element bearings with flexile housings. The rotor needed to be accelerated rapidly to reach full speed in just a few (2–3) seconds. The existing beam models seemed to be highly inadequate. India developed solid modeling technology for the rotors on several supports for the first time. ISRO also developed simultaneously major rotor dynamic test rigs for this purpose. The solid model rotor and casing were coupled together and internal pressure was accounted for. Seals and their stiffnesses and damping coefficients were included in the analysis.

India’s Contributions Over the Last 40 Years in Turbine Blade Dynamics

51

In 1993 31st March early morning hours at 3.31 a.m. the steam turbine and generator blew up in Narora, North India without any warning. The reasons for failure were attributed by many to an accidental fire near the TG set, turbine blade design faults … including possible sabotage. These machines were of course under operation for over a decade at that time already worldwide. Very quickly the possible reasons narrowed down to rotor bearings and blade root stress concentration in the dovetail regions. The accident coincided exactly with a possible earthquake-like signal recorded in a Seismic Station less than a kilometer away. Still the reasons for such a failure and energy release were not explained. The Indian Institute of Technology with various divisions of Bharat Heavy Electricals set up scientific investigations into this incident as given in Fig. 7.

Fig. 7 Narora catastrophic accident scenario

52

J.S. Rao

After several scenarios of failure initiation, it was scientifically shown that the grid disturbance resulted in an electrical short circuit at the generator terminal due to leaking hydrogen from the seals in the bus bar region; at this time the ensuing hydrogen from generator seals spewed blue flames visible to the control room and the few night shift personnel ran away instantaneously to save their lives (thus there was no loss of life due to the availability of a few seconds to get away from the danger zone); this set up a negative sequence of currents giving rise >10 times the rated torque in the drive train that resulted in the drive train bearing failure. This bearing failure triggered tripping of the machine and also altered the critical speeds giving rise to two new critical speeds. The rotor coasted down and passed through these two critical speeds, through the first one without much difficulty as the rotor nodal point was at the fifth stage blade location; whereas when it came to the second critical speed it hovered and rubbed with the casing for a fairly long period of a few milliseconds. At this speed there was an antinodal point at the fifth stage which triggered heavy rubs. These heavy rubs created blade tip loads due to friction and normal loads coming from the rotating blades that led to blade failure in the local plastic regions of the dovetail. At that time the machine blew up completely and the sudden rotor stop caused the earthquake-like signal with the loads transmitted through the ground alluvial soil to the recoding station. Those few milliseconds of rotor hovered at 18 Hz before the final failure of blades gave important clues and technology development in fracture mechanics and lifing. Crack initiation and propagation threshold conditions, and crack growth calculations until unstable conditions, matched so well that they clinched the failure scenario. The crack growth during the bench mark period and during the multiple crack periods of a few milliseconds due to rub measurements under an Electron Microscope is shown in Fig. 8. The match was excellent in striation spacing as well as time for travel before failure. The above exercise was all done with expertise developed internally in India with flow, structural dynamics, rotor dynamics, lifing technologies for globally elastic and locally plastic structures and fracture mechanics. This investigation led to the development of Continuous On-Line Condition Monitoring systems, On-Line Diagnostics for Nuclear Power Plants in India. The data acquisition systems and the

Fig. 8 Crack growth during normal and during rubbing conditions

India’s Contributions Over the Last 40 Years in Turbine Blade Dynamics

53

hardware was internally developed at The Bhabha Atomic Research Center and the software completely developed, tested and installed – this system monitors the TG sets continuously and are still operating in the stations. This kind of system is perhaps the first of its kind in the world. The practice of structural dynamics moved away from writing codes to adoption of commercial and rugged solvers to handle large size finite element models, thus allowing precise estimation of alternating stresses at stress raiser level locations. This allowed a precise life estimation by estimating true stress and strain conditions and a strain-based life estimation.

Twenty-First Century The end of the twentieth century saw significant changes; the most visible was the emergence of private global R&D agencies making important contributions to the development of India. Several opportunities came to the doorsteps from Indian Defense, Space and Nuclear departments besides several multinational automotive and aerospace industries. We will discuss in a brief manner these developments in Turbomachinery. In tune with the trend of reduction of design and testing time, India made an important breakthrough in analytically determining hysteresis and friction damping through a user-friendly commercial application using a HyperWorks platform in line with experimentally defined nonlinear damping models. Simultaneously, commercial CFD codes are used to evaluate pressure distribution due to flow interference, e.g., in Cryogenic Liquid Propulsion engine turbines. Precise methods with nonlinear damping models were established to determine the resonant stresses while crossing critical speeds, thus enabling life estimation as a truly simulating venture and decreasing the design cycle time as well as helping in trouble shooting. For example, the lifetime for crack initiation of Bhakra Nangal blade cracks was estimated and shown to be close to the practically observed results. Indian technologists quickly established methods of lifing of globally elastic but locally plastic structures using Neuberization and estimating true strains in the regions where strain concentration takes place. These methods were used in lifing of aircraft engines. In fact Engineers in private industry came up with designs for military aircraft engines. In Kaveri engine designs, CFD processes were successfully used to determine Heat Transfer Coefficients, Bulk temperatures in thermo-mechanical design for expansions and rubbing prevention. Conjugate heat transfer calculations when necessary were employed for thermal management of the engine. Complete stress calculations were performed under centrifugal loads, gas loads, and thermal loads to determine the mean stresses of the engine rotor and bladeddisk system. Likewise the stationary part of the engine, the supports, front and middle frames, and casing were analyzed. The Indian engineers in industry developed technologies to handle the bolted joints between the disks and seal drums and

54

J.S. Rao

Fig. 9 Twin spool aircraft engine rotor dynamics

design them optimally for durability and safety. Another specialty is development of methods to determine the stiffness of the engine at support locations for the purpose of rotor dynamics design. The solid model Rotordynamics came to perfection with the ability of coupling two solid rotors with mounted blades and flexible supports and casing and determining unbalance response. The bearing stiffnesses and damping characteristics of rolling element bearings are used to couple the rotors amongst themselves and with the casing. India is the first country to develop this capability. The unbalance response of the twin spool rotors with the casing is shown here in Fig. 9. Solid model rotor technologies are also used for misaligned shafts, shafts with asymmetry; transient analysis was developed to study the instabilities in the system. The results are verified from the literature with beam models. Technologies and software were also developed for remote condition monitoring and diagnostics and demonstrated in Cairns, Australia with a running rotor in Bangalore. With the cryogenic engine development for the fourth stage launching in Geostationary Launch Vehicle into further development (this engine is expected to be deployed in the next launch), the rotor dynamics reached another peak in the analysis. The solid model analysis for the turbine, Hydrogen Pump and Oxygen Inducer with seals between each chambers, several bearings and casing are all modeled together. Campbell diagrams were developed to determine the critical speeds from linear analysis. The response predicted did not match with tests in ISRO; then nonlinearities in the bearings were accounted by a transient analysis to pick up the speeds at which peak amplitudes occur. The rolling element bearings had significant nonlinearity that has changed the performance of rotor under unbalance. The peak amplitudes also decreased because of nonlinearity. The rotor acceleration had significant influence in carrying it through a critical period without building resonance and limiting the response. The unbalance response of the engine is shown in Fig. 10. A significant outcome of this analysis was to show spin softening effect on the backward whirl frequency which falls rapidly and disappears beyond the critical speed, unlike the so-called gyroscopic effect from a one-dimensional model.

India’s Contributions Over the Last 40 Years in Turbine Blade Dynamics

55

Fig. 10 Solid model unbalance response of a liquid propulsion engine

India has also developed solid rotor models to couple with the foundation in the analysis of TG sets affected by the foundation. The influence of test beds of aircraft engines is shown to be of importance in Hindustan Aeronautics Ltd., amongst others in understanding why the test results vary from the predicted response. This century has seen modern light weight designs; Optimization has become a commercially viable tool for topology and shape of stationary structures; e.g., OptiStruct was used to take away 500 kg from Airbus 380 wings. This technology was developed for rotating machines, aircraft engine supports and frames, blades … Morphing technology was utilized to the most advantage by the designer in saving meshing and computational time of bladed-disk structures to minimize the local strains at singularities and increase life substantially for globally elastic and locally plastic dovetail conditions. This technology is a true simulation that can bring down expensive spin rig tests. For multiphysics problems, and nonlinear analysis, HyperStudy is used in shape and weight optimization, for example in high-speed bladed-disks. Research is under way for reducing computational efforts in choosing the DOE metamodels. Shape optimization and weight optimization results are shown in Figs. 11 and 12. The analytical determination of equivalent viscous damping as a function of strain amplitude in a given mode of vibration at a given critical speed is embedded as a process manager to enable the designer to implement simulation rather than carry out tests. The experience gained and technologies developed in life are quickly utilized to develop a user-friendly commercial tool TurboManager to determine life using stress based and strain based methods, fracture mechanics and minimize the same. This tool is also expected to take away the drudgery from a skilled engineering pool and reduce the design cycle time and also help in diagnostics.

56

J.S. Rao

Fig. 11 Optimized blade root that increased life by four times

Fig. 12 Optimized blade for weight reduction

TurboManager along with OptiStruct is used in redesigning rotor blades with composite materials for a light combat helicopter. The condition monitoring and diagnostics system designed and developed for nuclear machines is recently made into a general purpose tool operating on a HyperWorks platform where the digital data acquired is recorded, retrieved, processed and analyzed in frequency and time domains, orbital domain and trend plotting in TurboManager; HiQube is used to manage the data from all bearings. User specific diagnostics can be used to supplement this system. This can be a general on-line condition monitoring system that can be called from TurboManager and combined with Rotordynamics codes to operate as future prognostics tools.

Concluding Remarks IFToMM played a key role in bringing scientists together onto a common platform and spread the literature amongst all countries. Besides the world conferences once every 4 years, IFToMM has organized several technical committees and commissions

India’s Contributions Over the Last 40 Years in Turbine Blade Dynamics

57

to plan several activities and provide a meeting place for eminent scientists and young researchers to easily understand the trends; one such early committee was Rotor Dynamics. This committee has immediately taken the task of bringing top rotor dynamics researchers together in world conferences and became one of the leading three such groups in the world. These activities are well coordinated with The Institution of Mechanical Engineers in London and American Society of Mechanical Engineers International Gas Turbine Research India. There is excellent cooperation between them, so much so that there is a major event every year around the world. India has taken to full advantage these sets of conferences through which the developments across the world are tracked and research work planned as needed by the country. This paper has outlined the outcome of such research activity in educational and research institutions, public and private industries during the last 4–5 decades. Acknowledgements The author has been one of the beneficiaries in India to receive considerable support from the Government of India, Defence Ministry, Indian Space Organization, Bhabha Atomic Research Center, several of his friends, students and colleagues from India and abroad; particularly from Altair Engineering Inc., he is deeply indebted to them.

A Brief History of Legged Robotics P.J. Csonka and K.J. Waldron

Abstract Research in the area of legged robotic systems has spanned almost the entire history of modern robotics. IFToMM has played a crucial role in this history by providing a channel of communication between East and West during the cold war period, and via its Technical Committee on Robotics in more recent years. In this chapter we have attempted an overview of what has become a vigorous field of research.

Introduction Legged robots appeared very early in the modern history of robotics. The first walking robot in the modern sense: a mechanical system coordinated by a computer, was the Phony Pony [1] which first walked in 1968. It was a simple, fourlegged machine shown on Fig. 1, with two degrees of freedom per leg that allowed it to walk in a straight line only. Leg phasing was programmed in the computer as a simple state machine. McGhee and Frank also published the first mathematical description of the leg phasing problem, namely a mathematical definition of a quadrupedal wave gait [2]. IFToMM played a crucial part in this development, primarily through its cosponsorship of the ROMANSY symposia with CISM. These symposia became a primary locus of presentation for the small community engaged in research in legged locomotion. As evidence for this, the very first ROMANSY symposium held in Udine in 1973 boasted no fewer than 11 papers on legged locomotion out of a P.J. Csonka and K.J. Waldron (*) Robotic Locomotion Laboratory, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA e-mail: [email protected] K.J. Waldron Department of Mechanical Engineering, Terman Engineering 521, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, 94305-4021, USA e-mail: [email protected] M. Ceccarelli (ed.), Technology Developments: the Role of Mechanism and Machine Science and IFToMM, Mechanisms and Machine Science 1, DOI 10.1007/978-94-007-1300-0_5, © Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2011

59

60

P.J. Csonka and K.J. Waldron

Fig. 1 The phony pony (1986)

total of 45. One reason for this was that there were leading research teams in both the U.S.A. and U.S.S.R. working during the seventies and eighties and ROMANSY was one of a very few meetings that researchers from both groups could aspire to attend. Consequently, ground-breaking results were often first presented in this forum. The famous simulation film clip sometimes referred to as “A Soviet Ant Takes a Walk” was literally smuggled out of the U.S.S.R. under one of the researcher’s coat so it could be shown at an early ROMANSY conference. Later, when it became less difficult for researchers to meet face-to-face ROMANSY continued to be an important forum for work on legged robotic systems. Until 1990, the ROMANSY Organizing Committee also functioned as the IFToMM Technical Committee on Robots and Manipulators. At that time it was decided to establish the Technical Committee as a separate entity. The second author of this chapter was its first chair. Through the technical committee, IFToMM has continued to sponsor activities in robotics including ROMANSY, ARK (Advances in Robot Kinematics) sessions in the World Congress and other meetings. There had been quite a number of earlier legged locomotion machines including an ancient Chinese walking cow and various mechanical automata. Space General Co. built a purely mechanical machine in which the eight legs were cycled by cam mechanisms, which demonstrated impressive mobility in natural terrain [3]. In the same time-frame the General Electric Quadruped was constructed (Fig. 2).

A Brief History of Legged Robotics

61

Fig. 2 GE quadruped (1968)

This was a large four-legged machine that carried a human operator who directly controlled the leg movements by means of a harness [4]. All joints were actuated by bilateral force-reflecting hydraulic systems that translated the movements of the operator’s legs and arms into movements of the machine, while reflecting the scaled down loads on the machine joints to the operator’s harness. There was no computer coordination used on any of these machines, so they were not robots in the modern sense. McGhee and his students built the OSU hexapod, a simple, six-legged walking machine. Its splayed legs made the machine resemble an ant in its configuration. It looked remarkably similar to some recent machines, and, despite its electromechanical simplicity, was capable of some relatively sophisticated behaviors [5–8]. In the same time frame, Okhotsimsky et al. also constructed a six-legged machine of generally similar geometry. Bessonov and Umnov numerically identified all the possible statically stable six-legged gaits and, more importantly, formulated the hexapedal wave gait family and demonstrated that they maximize the longitudinal stability margin [9]. Song and Waldron eventually provided a theoretical proof of this proposition [10].

62

P.J. Csonka and K.J. Waldron

A little later, Hirose constructed the first of many Titan quadrupeds. This machine was mechanically sophisticated employing three-dimensional pantograph mechanisms in the legs. It provided a very early demonstration of stair climbing [11]. The first attempts to construct and operate a bipedal robot were those of Kato and his students at Waseda University [12]. This line of development has gone through many generations of machines and was ancestral to the genre of humanoid robots [13]. The Adaptive Suspension Vehicle was a large, six-legged vehicle designed to carry an operator and a 500 lb payload [14], and intended as a mobility system for use in very rough terrain (see Fig. 3). Although the operator commanded direction and speed of locomotion by means of a joystick, coordination of the machine was completely automated with the computer controlling gait (leg phasing) and foot placement [15]. It employed a very early version of a laser rangefinder to build a model of the terrain in front of the machine that was used both to control vehicle parameters such as body height, and pitch and roll attitudes, and to select foot placement locations. The machine geometry was designed to allow both efficient walking on easy terrain and maneuvering over large obstacles [16], and a sophisticated hydrostatic drive system was used to avoid the large energy losses inherent in the use of flow metering valves for control [17]. This machine, which first walked in 1985, was designed to operate in a statically stable mode [10]. This means that, in principle, if all actuators were frozen the machine would continue to stand stably. The equivalent concept for bipedal locomotion: controlling stability by means of the zero moment point goes back a very long way to the work of Vukobratovic and Juricic [18]. Static stability was inherent in McGhee and Frank’s work on quadrupeds [2], and on the work cited above on hexapods [9, 10].

Fig. 3 Adaptive suspension vehicle (1985)

A Brief History of Legged Robotics

63

A very different mode of operation is that of machines that employ dynamically stable gaits. This line of research is associated with Raibert [19] who started with a simple, planar hopping system [20] and progressively elaborated it to a threedimensional hopper [21], then to a bipedal machine, and subsequently a quadruped [22]. All of these machines employed simple, telescoping legs with two degree of freedom connections at the hips to bodies with relatively high pitch and roll moments of inertia. This work produced a set of control laws that have been used, with minor modifications by most subsequent studies of dynamically stable locomotion, and amply demonstrated the potential of dynamically stable robots. This work included demonstration of all the symmetric quadrupedal gaits: pronk, bound, trot, pace, but not either form of gallop.

More Recent Achievements These machines were designed with specific sets of gaits in mind. Legged systems found in nature are significantly more versatile, but because of the difficulty in creating a legged system capable of both static and dynamically stable gaits, two design philosophies appeared the 1980s. One approach focused on developing robust statically stable gaits, generally through the use of precisely controllable, stiff drive mechanisms, and the other approach continued work into dynamic locomotion, often using compliant actuators. Honda’s secret development of its experimental “E” and prototype “P” bipedal legged platforms, along with their successor ASIMO, is a useful study in humanoid robot development, as they span several decades of cutting-edge legged robotics research that has large amounts of funding available to explore the newest technologies. All of Honda’s robots used stiff electric drive motors to control the joints, making precise foot placement and weight distribution possible, but not dynamic maneuvering. Following the successful 3 km/h walking speed of the E3 bipedal platform, Honda’s E4–E6 were concurrently created in 1991 to study autonomous walking over varied terrain; these 12-DOF bipeds carried onboard computers for autonomous operation. An offspring of these platforms, the first fully humanoid robot, the Honda P1 was unveiled in 1993 [23]. The P1 included 30 DOF, with autonomous operation possible for only several minutes. One of the larger influences on legged robot evolution through the 1990s was the increased available computational power, making fast control of kinematically complex machines possible in dynamic environments. Since controlling large numbers of joints through cluttered and changing environments requires searching disproportionately larger joint spaces, the computational load can be very high. ASIMO was created following the P3, with the 2005 version of ASIMO having 31-DOF not including those in the neck. ASIMO, seen in Fig. 4, is able to plan paths autonomously through dynamically changing spaces using an onboard camera and computer vision processing [24].

64

P.J. Csonka and K.J. Waldron

Fig. 4 Honda ASIMO

Although ASIMO is touted as being able to successfully execute “human-like running” [25], this is not truly dynamic running in the biomimetic sense, but is a jog, or pseudo-run. The distinction is important: dynamic running involves a significant interplay between potential and kinetic energies throughout the gait cycle, resulting in substantial energy savings as energy is stored on impact and released on thrust. It is true that there is a different interplay between kinetic and potential energy during biomimetic walking. In running by a lossless system, in theory only the kinetic energy of the foot has to be replenished by the machine [26]. In contrast, in the quasi-static run that ASIMO executes, impact energy is lost on stiff actuators. Both biomimetic and pseudo-runs involve a flight phase, but only biomimetic running is sustainable for long periods of time with self-contained, untethered robots that must carry their own power supply. The requirement for legged robots to remain untethered is an important criterion that is not purely academic, given that the primary goal of such machines is to function outside the laboratory. Kawada’s HRP-2 (1997–2010, 28–42 DOF) [27], Sony’s QRIO in 2006 [28], the 2009 Toyota humanoid [29], and a myriad of many other self-contained humanoid robots have successfully implemented robust quasi-static walking and jogging gaits, using primarily Zero Moment Point based gait generation. QRIO’s implementation includes three separate microcontrollers operating different aspects of the robot [28] resulting in simultaneous processing of visual data and motion

A Brief History of Legged Robotics

65

algorithms, allowing QRIO to become the first bipedal running robot as credited by the Guinness Book of World Records. It must be noted, though that the latter’s definition of running is simply “moving while both legs are off the ground at the same time”, ignoring any details necessary for true dynamic running. Additionally, with stiff actuators, there are strictly defined ways in which a robot can “run”, and if operation outside those realms is desired, a different approach to actuating the robots must be undertaken. The additional practical requirement for small duty factors while running calls for robots that have sufficiently long flight times (compared to contact times) to clear obstacles; this occurs naturally when potential and kinetic energies are efficiently exchanged. However, because of their stiff drive mechanisms, ASIMO and QRIO have large duty factors near 0.8, and their flight time of 80 ms causes only a few millimetres clearance from the ground [30]. Toyota’s humanoid has a 0.7 duty factor with a few millimetres clearance when at a 7 km/h velocity [29]. In contrast, humans run at 0.35 [31], and can easily clear obstacles several tens of centimetres in height. Since stiff actuators limit the dynamic behaviour of legged machines, a second branch continued work on legged systems with more naturally behaving leg systems. In animals, most transitions between gaits occur when it is energetically beneficial to switch gaits. In other words, a horse switches between a trot and a gallop, since maintaining a trot gait at a gallop velocity would require more energy than a gallop gait would. As can be guessed, due to the differing dynamics of variously sized animals, the optimal transition velocities should be different. More precisely, the dimensions of the animal, and its corresponding optimal gait transitions, are closely related. Several factors can roughly predict this velocity, most famously the Froude number. The Froude number relates the leg length to the potential energy of the system, from which it is evident that it’s worth considering the natural pendulum-like dynamics of a leg. A pendulum with a short length has a fast natural swing resonance; if an actuator drives the joint at that frequency, very little additional energy is required to maintain the swing. Likewise, a long leg has a slower natural swing frequency. With either pendulum length, more energy is required to maintain a swing faster or slower than the natural frequency. Among others, McGeer noticed this correlation with energy consumption and walking speed. His 1990 Passive Dynamic Walker used no actuators, but could walk robustly down a 3° incline by utilizing the natural swing frequency of the legs [32]. Several so-called Compass Gait bipeds were built around this philosophy [33]. In these designs, only weak motors are needed to allow the same passive system to walk on a level surface. This work continues to inspire a new generation of robots, notably Collins’ 3D Passive Walker that is able to walk on a level surface using a very simple control algorithm that simply swings the legs at appropriate times; roll and yaw compensation occurs with added arm linkages that are mechanically constrained in specific ways, instead of software control, as well as a carefully designed foot geometry [34]. This robot holds the current world record for distance travelled by a bipedal robot in one trial, at approximately 9 km (Boston Dynamics’ BigDog holds the record for quadrupedal robots, at 10 km [35]). Although passive walkers

66

P.J. Csonka and K.J. Waldron

exhibit impressively natural walking gaits, they are not equipped for truly dynamic maneuvers such as jumping and running. For this a different design of robot is needed. Static stability is a characteristic of most multi-legged robots, including many that have been applied in practice, such as the several versions of Dante [36]. These actually represent a different genre of walking machines that are in no way biomimetic. Dante is an eight-legged frame-walker in which two sets of simple, one degree of freedom legs are mounted to two sub frames that can be moved relative to each other. This is a way of minimizing the number of active degrees of freedom needed (ten for Dante) while maximizing the number of legs. Dante was operated on a tether to rappel into the cone of the active volcano Mt. Spur in Alaska to collect samples of volcanic gas. Dynamic maneuvering remains one of the last basic hurdles for legged robots. It is a complex task given the varied architectures of robots, where the particular system’s dynamics dictates the type of gait and control that may be used. Raibert’s dynamic robots required a very particular geometry in which the torso had a high moment of inertia compared to the legs [20]. Similarly, the robot Rabbit is operated by a controller based on a model optimized for that particular machine [37]. Raibert’s prismatic-legged 3D bipedal runner, shown in Fig. 5, was able to achieve unlimited stable running, limited only by practicality. This in part because prismatic legged locomotion is simpler due to the dynamics of linearly thrusting legs.

Fig. 5 Raibert’s 3D bipedal runner

A Brief History of Legged Robotics

67

All are highly successful robots and are models of aggressive research, however, some theorize that these are designed in contrast to natural systems, where very similar algorithms could be used in all legged machines, and that it’s passive mechanical stabilization that actually creates the robustness. Consider an arbitrary hexapedal dynamic gait. The system can be constructed so that if the legs freeze mid-stride, the system will settle into a stable upright position given that the Zero Moment Point (ZMP) resides within the so-called Support Pattern. Said another way, irrespective of the terrain it is traversing, whether the feet arrive later or earlier than anticipated, a statically stable machine remains upright. This is one of the advantages of hexapedal machines such as the ASV, notwithstanding the intelligence built into them. However, during dynamic quadrupedal gaits, for example during a trot, if legs are frozen at an arbitrary phase, the machine will in general settle to an unstable position and tip over when inertial forces are added into the picture. (With low inertial forces of a specifically designed quasistatic gait, a quadruped may also have its ZMP inside its support pattern at all times, even in the presence of disturbances). Similarly, by nature having only one support leg at any given time during dynamic gaits, without active compensation bipedal systems would fail to remain upright in the presence of disturbances. In contrast to the stiff actuators of quasi-static locomotion, dynamic legged locomotion can benefit greatly from compliant actuators. In the words of Gill and Jerry Pratt, “Stiffness isn’t everything”, and the bandwidth of an actuator may be a secondary consideration to the low-pass filtering of shock loads that are automatically accomplished through the use of elastic components [38]. Such an actuator could be a combination of a stiff and elastic element, such as Pratt’s Series Elastic Actuator invented in 1995, used on robots such as COG and Spring Turkey [38], and M2 [39], or an inherently elastic actuator such as pneumatic cylinders. Blackwell’s bipedal Dexter designed in 2002 uses pneumatics for all joints [40]. There is strong evidence that elasticity plays a key role in stable dynamic legged locomotion [41] as muscles and tendons are elastic by 2% and 10%, respectively (it is still unclear which effect, if not both, is dominant), lowering the cost of locomotion by storing impact energy in these muscle-tendon series elastic actuators. When selected properly, elasticity can increase the actuator’s bandwidth as well [39]. With the “Cost of Dynamics” reduced through energy capture and release [42], elastic actuators offer one potential solution to stable dynamic maneuvers. It has been shown that utilizing the natural dynamics of the system allows actuator power consumption to be minimal. One example is the 2001 Cornell 3D Biped, which consumes 3W during walking gaits; this is almost as low as the potential energy lost during a stride [26]. The same strategy can be applied to dynamic gaits. Seyfarth’s JenaWalker II uses springy tendons that couple several joints, and achieves walking gaits by driving only the two hip motors; by tuning the elasticity, small flight phases can be observed [43]. Muscle-tendon combinations in which the actuator (muscle) is mounted remotely and activates the joint by force transmission through an elastic element (tendon) reduce the energetic cost of dynamic locomotion. The moments of inertia of swung limbs are reduced. Remote actuator placement is widely utilized in legged

68

P.J. Csonka and K.J. Waldron

robotics, as it allows for smaller and lighter actuators. Rabbit used this approach for its knee actuators, and all six of Spring Flamingo’s motors were placed in the torso, and actuated the joints via cables [44]. For those biomimetic legs that use remote joint powering, questions arise: How should the force be transferred between the joints of a leg? Is it necessary that all joints be powered? In nature, there is often significant coupling between joints [45], and some designs favour driving multiple joints with one actuator. This takes the inertia reduction strategy one step further, and may eliminate the mass of an actuator altogether. Collin’s 3D Biped uses a motor actuating the ankle via a springy cable to provide toe-off torque. The KenKen series of small monopedal and bipedal robots removes the actuator, and simply uses springs coupled between the heel and quad. This arrangement allows for the storage and efficient release of impact energy [46]. In the multi-legged domain, in 2006 the dynamic KOLT quadruped used air reservoirs and valves to store impact energy from pneumatic cylinders, releasable on thrust. The knee joints were positioned via cables wound around remotely located electric motors [47]. These strategies reduce inertia, and minimize the required actuator power due to energy storage capabilities. However, passive stability is one of the keys to achieving dynamic gaits, at least in small systems [41]. Here the system’s kinematic configuration alone can result in self-stabilizing behaviour that does not require the intervention of a controller. Some intelligence can be built into the leg materials. Several robots have been constructed with material intelligence. Since elastic actuators help with passive stability, the legs of Cutkosky’s iSprawl hexapods were designed with materials with specifically tuned compliances, reducing the effects of perturbations on the system [48]. Biomimetic robot leg kinematic configurations can also be beneficial. The TRIP planar dynamic biped uses an inelastic tendon to couple the actively driven knee and passive ankle joints; the amount of coupling automatically changes with the landing position of the foot [49]. If the foot lands behind the desired point, the leg naturally swings forward on thrust into a more stable position, and vice versa if the leg lands forward of the target. Varying the length of the tendon changes the target position that the leg tends to swing towards, similar to how muscles reposition tendons depending on the gait. JenaWalker II uses small servomotors to adjust the compliance of their coupling cables; by changing the compliance, the stride frequency can be changed, a capability not found in other passive walkers that are fixed to the one stride frequency [43]. Regardless of the specific gaits of the robot, the true benefit of legged machines come from their ability to negotiate rugged terrain outside the laboratory. Cutkosky’s RiSE and Stickybot climbing robots have demonstrated the ability to climb vertical surfaces such as trees and sheetrock via dozens of biologicallyinspired claws on each foot [50], as well as vertical glass (Fig. 6) using material cohesion from thousands of miniature hairs similar to that found on a Gecko’s foot [51]. The past several years has also seen the marketing of robots suitable for realworld use. In part this is due to the maturation of actuation and battery technology, which allows for lighter machines.

A Brief History of Legged Robotics

69

Fig. 6 Stickybot ascending glass, and RiSE climbing brick (2008)

Boston Dynamics’ Big Dog (Fig. 7) is a truly rugged dynamic legged system. Created for DARPA in 2006, it is able to trot and bound through unstructured terrain, recover from including kicks and slipping on ice, and can climb steep slopes [35]. Powered by an internal combustion engine and hydraulic actuators, this system is self contained and powerful enough to carry 140 kg loads and execute dynamic gaits. One of the prime potential uses of legged machines is as assistive devices for those who are disabled or carrying heavy loads. Introduced in 2009, the 6.5 kg Personal Bodyweight Support Assist system by Honda incorporates two low-profile semi-active robot legs that the user places in parallel with their legs; using two electric motors at the hips, the system is able to assist the human’s power in static gaits in varying structured terrain including stairs [52]. After Berkeley’s BLEEX lower-body exoskeleton’s successful prototype in 2000, the company Berkeley Bionics produced several exoskeletal systems capable of carrying up to 90 kg beyond their own weight, reducing the oxygen consumption of the user by at least 15% for heavy loads [53]. The joints are powered by hydraulics, and the entire system is run on chemical batteries, soon to be replaced by a fuel cell for several-day operation times. In contrast, Cyberdyne’s 23 kg full-body HAL exoskeleton uses electric motors controlled by nerve impulses. Revealed in 2006, HAL currently runs for 5 hours under battery power, but its unique ability is to operate autonomously without a host through motions learned while operating with a human wearer.

70

P.J. Csonka and K.J. Waldron

Fig. 7 Bigdog by Boston dynamics

In 2005, Timberjack’s fully functional prototype hexapedal Walking Tree Harvester was able to traverse uneven terrain to reach trees with minimal environmental impact due to its ability to place feet carefully at desired locations [54]. The forward leg pair has forward facing knees, while the two aft pairs have their knees pointing backwards; the middle pair has flipped knees compared to the ASV. There are a number of issues which prevent legged machines from being more readily available for real-world use. Power source options are limited for small, nonpassive humanoid-scale robots, thus far making them suitable only for demonstration. The operation time for bipeds like ASIMO and HRP are 1–2 h at most. Internal combustion engines are an option where high power is required, and noise and emissions are not a restriction. Boston Dynamics’ bipedal robot, Petman, is essentially half of BigDog, and as such uses an internal combustion engine to power its hydraulics [55]. This is not acceptable for interior environments. With larger machines, operated outdoors, engines are a popular option. Timberjack, the ASV, and Bigdog all use internal combustion engines. The power densities of electric actuators and internal combustion engines are similar, but the energy density of liquid fuel is an order of magnitude greater than that of the most advanced chemical battery technologies [56].

A Brief History of Legged Robotics

71

Actuator technologies are the limiting factor in the introduction of small legged machines that seek to maneuver as mammals do. A few technologies have been developed to attempt to incorporate some of the best characteristics of mammalian muscle. Braided pneumatic actuator muscles, such as Festo’s Fluidic Muscles, attempt to mimic muscle with their powerful contraction when provided with compressed air [57]. Pleated pneumatic muscles do not suffer from the detrimental frictional side-effects or hysteresis of the braided devices [58]; this is one of the reasons Daerden’s 2005 walking biped Lucy was powered by pleated air muscles [59]. Although these actuators can accomplish high position precision with light loads, they are highly nonlinear and are difficult to accurately control.

Conclusions We have presented a brief review of what is now a voluminous literature on legged robotics. As an organization, IFToMM has played a central role in this story, a role that can be expected to continue to evolve with the field in the future. Acknowledgement The authors acknowledge the support of the National Science Foundation grant number CMMI-0825364.

References 1. Frank, A.A.: Automatic control systems for legged locomotion. USCEE Report No. 273, University of Southern California, Los Angeles (1968) 2. McGhee, R.B., Frank, A.A.: On the stability properties of quadruped creeping gaits. J. Math. Sci 3(3–4), 331–351 (1968) 3. Baldwin, W.C., Miller, J.V.: Multi-Legged Walker, Final Report. Space General Corporation, El Monte (1966) 4. Liston, R.A., Mosher, R.S.: A versatile walking truck. In: Proceedings. 1968 Transportation Engineering Conference. ASME-NYAS, Washington, D.C., (1968) 5. McGhee, R.B., Orin, D.E.: A mathematical programming approach to control of joint positions and torques in legged locomotion systems. ROMANSY 2, Warsaw (1976) 6. McGhee, R.B., Iswandhi, C.I.: Adaptive locomotion of a multilegged robot over rough terrain. IEEE Trans. Syst. Man Cyber. 9(4), 176–182 (1979) 7. Klein, C.A., Olson, K.W., Pugh, D.R.: Use of force and attitude sensors for locomotion of a legged vehicle over irregular terrain. IJRR 2(2), 3–17 (1983) 8. McGhee, R.B., Orin, D.R., Pugh, D.R., Patterson, M.R.: A hierarchically-structured system for computer control of a hexapod walking machine. In: RoManSy, Hermes, London, pp. 375–381 (1985) 9. Bessonov, A.P., Umnov, N.V.: The analysis of gaits in six-legged vehicles according to their static stability. RoManSy 1, pp. 1–10, vol. 1. Elsevier, Amsterdam (1973) 10. Song, S.M., Waldron, K.J.: An analytical approach for gait study and its applications on wave gaits. IJRR 6(2), 60–71 (1987) 11. Hirose, S., Umetani, Y.: The Basic Motion Regulation System for a Quadruped Walking Machine. ASME Paper 80-DET-34, DETC, Los Angeles, (1980)

72

P.J. Csonka and K.J. Waldron

12. Kato, I., Tsuiki, H.: The hydraulically powered biped walking machine with a high carrying capacity. In: IV Symposium on External Control of Human Extremities, Dubrovnik (1972) 13. Kemp, C.C., Fizpatrick, P., Hirukawa, H., Yokoi, K., Harada, K., Matsumoto, Y.: Humanoids. In: Siciliano, B., Khatib, O. (eds.) Handbook of Robotics, pp. 1307–1334. Springer (2008) 14. Pugh, D.R., Ribble, E.A., Vohnout, V.J., Bihari, T.E., Walliser, T.M., Patterson, M.R., Waldron, K.J.: Technical description of the adaptive suspension vehicle. IJRR 9(2), 24–42 (1990) 15. Song, S.M., Waldron, K.J.: Machines that Walk: The Adaptive Suspension Vehicle. MIT Press, Cambridge, Mass (1989) 16. Song, S.M., Waldron, K.J.: Geometric design of a walking machine for optimal mobility. J. Mech. Transm. Autom. Des. 109(1), 21–28 (1987) 17. Waldron, K.J., Pery, A., McGhee, R.B., Vohnout, V.J.: Configuration design of the adaptive suspension vehicle. IJRR 3(2), 37–48 (1984) 18. Vukobratovi´c, M., Juriˇci´c, D.: Contribution to the synthesis of biped gait. IEEE Trans. Biomed. Eng. 16(1), 1–6 (1969) 19. Raibert, M.H.: Legged Robots that Balance. MIT Press, Cambridge (1986) 20. Raibert, M.H., Brown Jr., H.B.: Experiments in balance with a 2D one-legged hopping machine. ASME J. Dyn. Syst. Meas. Control 106(2), 75–81 (1984) 21. Raibert, M.H., Brown Jr., H.B., Chepponis, M.: Experiments in balance with a 3D one-legged hopping machine. IJRR 3(2), 75–92 (1984) 22. Raibert, M.H.: Running with symmetry. IJRR 5(4), 3–19 (1987) 23. Honda Motors Co., P1-P2-P3 History of Humanoids: [online], Available from: http://world. honda.com/ASIMO/history/p1_p2_p3.html. Accessed 20 Apr 2010 24. Michel, P., Chestnutt, J., Kuffner, J.J., Kanade T.: Vision-guided humanoid footstep planning for dynamic environments. In: Proceeding IEEE/RAS International Conference, Humanoid Robotics, pp. 13–18 (2005) 25. Honda Motors Co., ASIMO Frequently Asked Questions: [online], Available from: http:// asimo.honda.com/downloads/pdf/asimo-technical-faq.pdf. Accessed 20 Apr 2010 26. Dickinson, M.H., et al.: How animals move: an integrative view. Science 288(5463), 100–106 (2000) 27. Kaneko, K., et al.: Humanoid robot HRP-2. ICRA 2, 1083–1090 (2004) 28. IEEE Spectrum Inside Technology, QRIO: The Robot That Could: http://spectrum.ieee.org/ robotics/robotics-software/qrio-the-robot-that-could Accessed 20 Apr 2010 29. Artificial Intelligence and Robotics, Toyota’s Running Humanoid robot: http://smart-machines. blogspot.com/2009/07/toyotas-running-humanoid-robot.html. Accessed 20 Apr 2010 30. Honda Motors Co., New Asimo – running at 6 km/h: http://world.honda.com/hdtv/asimo/ new-asimo-run-6kmh. Accessed 20 Apr 2010 31. Fihl, P., Moeslund, T.B.: Classification of gait types based on the duty-factor. In: Proceeding IEEE Conference on Advanced Video and Signal Based Surveillance, pp. 318–323 (2007) 32. McGeer, T.: Passive dynamic walking. IJRR 9(2), 62–82 (1990) 33. Collins, S.H., et al.: Efficient bipedal robots based on passive-dynamic walkers. Science 307(5712), 1082–1085 (2005) 34. Collins, S.H.: A three-dimensional passive-dynamic walking robot with two legs and knees. IJRR 20(7), 607–615 (2001) 35. Boston Dynamics, BigDog – The Most Advanced Rough-Terrain Robot on Earth: http://www. bostondynamics.com/robot_bigdog.html. Accessed 20 Apr 2010 36. Bares, J.E., Whittaker, W.L.: Configuration of autonomous walkers for extreme terrain. IJRR 12(6), 535–559 (1993) 37. Chevallereau, C., et al.: RABBIT: a testbed for advanced control theory. IEEE Control Syst. Mag. 23(5), 57–79 (2003) 38. Pratt, G. et al.: Stiffness isn’t everything. In: Proceedings of ISER, pp. 253–262 (1995) 39. Robinson, D.W. et al.: Series Elastic Actuator Development for a Biomimetic Walking Robot. 1999 IEEE/ASME AIM, pp. 561–568, Atlanta (1999)

A Brief History of Legged Robotics

73

40. AnyBots, Inc., About the Robots: http://www.anybots.com/abouttherobots.html. Accessed 20 Apr 2010 41. Alexander, R.M.: Elastic Mechanisms in Animal Movement, p. 47. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge (1988) 42. Tucker, V.A.: The energetic cost of moving about. Am. Sci. 63(4), 413–419 (1975) 43. Seyfarth, A., et al.: Towards bipedal jogging as a natural result of optimizing walking speed for passively compliant three-segmented legs. IJRR 28(2), 257–265 (2009) 44. Pratt, J., Pratt, G.: Intuitive control of a planar bipedal walking robot. In: ICRA, pp. 2014–2021 (1998) 45. Alexander, R. M.: Elastic mechanisms in animal movement. Cambridge, p. 37 (1988) 46. Hyon, S., Mita, T.: development of a biologically inspired hopping robot–Kenken. ICRA, pp. 3984–3991 (2002) 47. Estremera, J., Waldron, K.: Thrust control, stabilization and energetics of a quadruped running robot. IJRR 27(10), 1135–1151 (2008) 48. Kim, S., et al.: iSprawl: design and tuning for high-speed autonomous open-loop running. IJRR 25(9), 903–912 (2006) 49. Csonka, P., Waldron, K.: Static and dynamic maneuvers with a tendon-coupled biped robot. In: Proceeding RoManSy (2010) 50. Kim, S., Asbeck, A., Provancher, W., Cutkosky, M.: SpinybotII: climbing hard walls with compliant microspines. ICRA 2005, 18–20 (2005) 51. Kim, S., et al.: Smooth vertical surface climbing with directional adhesion. IEEE Trans. Robot. 24(1), 65–74 (2008) 52. Honda Motors Co., Walking Assist Device with Bodyweight Support System: http://corporate. honda.com/innovation/walk-assist/. Accessed 20 Apr 2010 53. Bogue, R.: Exoskeletons and robotic prosthetics: a review of recent developments. Ind. Robot: Int. J. 36(5), 421–427 (2009) 54. Space.com, Tech Today: Walking Forest Machine: http://www.space.com/techtoday/ tech_today_walker.html. Accessed 20 Apr 2010 55. Boston Dynamics, PETMAN – BigDog gets a Big Brother: http://www.bostondynamics.com/ robot_petman.html. Accessed 20 Apr 2010 56. Marc, Zupan, Ashby, M.F., Fleck, N.A.: Actuator classification and selection – the development of a database. J. Adv. Eng. Mater. 4(12), 933–940 (2002) 57. Festo Corp, Fluidic Muscle: http://www.festo.com/net/en-us_us/downloads/downloadcache. ashx?lnk=26780/info_501_en.pdf. Accessed 20 Apr 2010 58. Daerden, F. et al.: Pleated pneumatic artificial muscles: actuators for automation and robotics. In: Proceeding. 2001 IEEE/ASME AIM, pp. 738–743, vol. 2 (2001) 59. Verrelst, B., et al.: The pneumatic biped “lucy” actuated with pleated pneumatic artificial muscles. Autonom. Robots 18(2), 201–213 (2005)

Part II

Viewpoints by Chairs of IFToMM Technical Committees and Permanent Commissions

The History of Mechanism and Machine Science (HMMS) and IFToMM’s Permanent Commission for HMMS Teun Koetsier, Hanfried Kerle, and Hong-Sen Yan

Abstract In this paper we put machines and mechanisms, Mechanism and Machine Science (MMS) and the foundation of the International Federation for the Theory of Machines and Mechanisms (IFToMM) in the wide perspective of the economic history of the world and we devote some attention to the activities of IFToMM’s Permanent Commission for the History of MMS.

Introduction The First Industrial Revolution is synonymous with mechanization, with the replacement of human labor by machine labor. Machines had been important economically for many centuries but in the second half of the eighteenth century something dramatically changed. Before the First Industrial Revolution world wide agrarian societies had been caught in what is often called the Malthusian trap: technological advances did not lead to more wealth for the average person. During the First Industrial Revolution machines contributed heavily to the efficiency level of the industrializing societies and in these countries wealth increased immensely.

T. Koetsier (*) Department of Mathematics, FEW, VU University Amsterdam, De Boelelaan 1081, NL-1081HV Amsterdam, The Netherlands e-mail: [email protected] H. Kerle Institut für Werkzeugmaschinen und Fertigungstechnik, TU Braunschweig, Langer Kamp 19b, D-38106 Braunschweig, Germany e-mail: [email protected] H.-S. Yan Department of Mechanical Engineering, National Cheng Kung University, 1, University Road, Tainan 701-01, Taiwan e-mail: [email protected] M. Ceccarelli (ed.), Technology Developments: the Role of Mechanism and Machine Science and IFToMM, Mechanisms and Machine Science 1, DOI 10.1007/978-94-007-1300-0_6, © Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2011

77

78

T. Koetsier et al.

In the nineteenth century the theory of machines and mechanisms (MMS) developed into a coherent whole and when, during the Second Industrial Revolution, scientific technology led to a new phase of spectacular industrial development MMS played an important role. Efficiency in the industrialized nations rose to unprecedented levels and so did the sophistication of the design of machines and mechanisms. The foundation in 1969 of the International Federation for the Theory of Machines and Mechanisms (IFToMM) was an expression of the great interest that existed at the time in the theory of machines and mechanisms. In this paper we briefly put the foundation of IFToMM in a wide perspective and we devote some attention to the activities of IFToMM’s Permanent Commission for HMMS.

The Industrial Revolution In A Farewell to Alms, a Brief Economic History of the World, [1], Gregory Clark depicted the economic history of the world in one picture. See Fig. 1. The picture shows that before 1800, in spite of all the technological advances, there was no upward trend in the average income per person. Clark adds that there was no improvement on other levels either. For example, the life expectancy in 1800 was still 30–35 years, not different from the life expectancy of gatherers and hunters in 10,000 BC. This situation changed radically with the series of dramatic developments in the period 1760–1830 in England that is often called the Industrial Revolution. With the Industrial Revolution the average income per person started to rise drastically in the countries that participated in this development.

12 10

Income per person 1800=1

8 6 4 2

-1500 BC

-1000

-500

0

500

Fig. 1 The economic history of the world in one picture

1000

1500

2000 AD

The History of Mechanism and Machine Science

79

What happened during and after the Industrial Revolution? Economically something changed. What was it?

The Escape from the Malthusian Trap Before 1800 the rate of technological advance was low. According to Clarke this led to a situation in which technological progress merely led to a growth of the population. Thomas Malthus (1766–1834) had argued that a population has the inclination to grow geometrically, while the production of food grows only arithmetically. This inevitably leads to a large population living at a subsistence level. This situation is often called the Malthusian trap. During the Industrial Revolution in England an escape from the Malthusian trap took place. In the period 1870–1860 the English population tripled, while at the same time real incomes rose. This development continued until the present. Productivity has increased immensely and although there was an enormous growth of the industrial sector, for example, steelworks and cotton mills, since 1800 the productivity of agriculture has increased by as much as the rest of the economy. What happened? Why did material well-being increase so dramatically in the industrialized countries? The answer is that the past two centuries have shown an enormous increase in the efficiency of the production process. Land per person, the decisive factor in the Malthusian economy, is no longer crucial. It is the investment in expanding the stock of knowledge involved in the production. In the 1950s the economist Robert Solow developed a macro economic model for the description of economic growth that very well describes what happened, first in England and later in other countries. In 1990 Solow received a Nobel Prize for this work. See Fig. 2. The input variable land C includes all natural resources. The output is a function of C, L and K: Y = A F (C, L, K )

Land C Inputs

Labor L Capital K

Fig. 2 Production: the essential variables

Production

Output Y

80

T. Koetsier et al.

The factor A measures the efficiency level of a society. Before the Industrial Revolution A did not rise enough to get out of the Malthusian trap. During the past two centuries, however, A has grown dramatically. How come? I will argue that the introduction of the large scale use of machines was an absolutely crucial factor.

The Background of the Industrial Revolution The Industrial Revolution was a highly complex development. Let us have a very brief look at some of the aspects. Crucial factors in the development towards the Industrial Revolution were the growing role of the entrepreneur and the money economy. The discovery of the New World played an important role in this respect. This discovery was in its turn the result of technological progress. Without advances in navigation and shipbuilding the opening up and the exploitation of the new trade routes to America, India and China would not have been possible. The compass was introduced at the end of the twelfth century, which made it safer to navigate far beyond the sight of land. The sternpost rudder was introduced and replaced steering oars. Multiple masts and multiple sails on one mast were introduced. Before the end of the fifteenth century the ship had almost reached the form it retained until the nineteenth century. The steering wheel was introduced later [13]. In the sixteenth, seventeenth and eighteenth centuries we see all over Western Europe a growth of trade and technological progress (Fig. 3). The steady flow of huge quantities of gold and silver from the New World led already in the Renaissance to a considerable growth of the money economy. An economy that functions on the basis of barter is not as flexible as a money economy. The money economy, however, also led to waves of inflation. This development continued in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. Moreover, in the background of the Industrial Revolution there were ideological changes. The Protestant Reformation and the Scientific Revolution led to a different attitude towards traditions and a more positive attitude towards planning and innovations.

The Machines The growth of the production output of a country as a result of growth of the factor A that measures the efficiency of the economy is often called the Solow residual. Although much was happening in the seventeenth and first half of the eighteenth century the efficiency of the English economy only grew slowly. This changed with the Industrial Revolution in the second half of the eighteenth century. The introduction of

The History of Mechanism and Machine Science

81

Agricultural Revolution

Technological progress in the Late Middle Ages and the Renaissance: navigation, shipbuilding, printing

Discovery of the New World: New Frontiers, Gold and Silver, Trade

Appearance of the entrepreneur and the money economy

The Industrial Revolution: fast rise of the level of efficiency of the society and a high rate of technological innovation

Ideological changes: positiev attitude towards planning and innovation

Protestant Reformation Scientific Progress

Scientific Revolution

Fig. 3 Some long term lines of influence ending in the industrial revolution (Inspired by http:// www.unc.edu/~nielsen/soci111/)

large scale use of machines that were improved again and again was one of the major factors contributing to the growth of the Solow residual. The Industrial Revolution is practically synonymous with mechanization, with the replacement of human labor by machine labor. In the course of time horse power and water power were replaced by machines as well. Let us briefly consider two classical examples (Fig. 4). In 1712 Thomas Newcomen had invented a steam engine that was used to pump water out of mines. A growing demand for coal and (iron) ore had led to deeper mines and this in its turn had led to a demand for better pumps. In Newcomen’s engines the cylinder and the pump were separated. The steam was used to create a vacuum. The atmospheric pressure made the piston move. These machines were

82

T. Koetsier et al.

Fig. 4 Left Newcomen’s engine; Right Watt’s engine (Source: http://www.uh.edu/engines/epi69.htm)

often used in the second half of the eighteenth century. In 1769 Watt obtained a patent on an improved steam engine in which the condensator and the cylinder were separated. This saved energy. A patent from 1782 concerned a double-acting engine: the steam was used to push the cylinder in two opposite directions: upwards and downwards. Although Newcomen’s engines continued to be used for quite some time, Watt’s engines won in the end. Other inventions played a role in the Industrial Revolution as well. In 1733 John Kay patented the flying shuttle which made it possible for one weaver to do the work formerly done by several. The result was that spinners could not keep up with the yarn. This led to a problem: How can we make the spinning more efficient? In 1764 James Hargreaves built the ‘Spinning Jenny’, a whole line of spindles was worked by one wheel (Fig. 5). Yet the cotton yarn produced by the spinning Jenny was coarse and several new inventions were necessary before this was remedied. The result was so successful that soon the looms turned out to be too slow to process the yarn produced by the spinning machines. This led to several new improvements in looms. Originally the machines in the textile industry were driven by means of man power, water power or horse mills. The machines became heavier and in the last decades of the eighteenth century steam engines were used.

The Rise of Mechanism and Machine Science Mechanism and Machine Science (MMS) has roots that go back until the Greeks. A lovely example is the theory of the basic machines: lever, wheel and axle, pulleys, wedge and screw. This theory was born in Antiquity. However, the Ancients

The History of Mechanism and Machine Science

83

Fig. 5 Spinning Jenny: An engraving of a Spinning Jenny by T. E. Nicholson (1835) (Source: http://www.spartacus.schoolnet.co.uk/TEXjenny.htm)

did not fully understand the wedge and the screw. Galileo Galilei was the first to succeed in finishing the theory of the basic machines. Yet understanding the functioning of a steam engine requires much more than merely the theory of the basic machines and only in the nineteenth century MMS reached the level of a coherent scientific discipline. It all started with the foundation of the École Polytechnique in Paris in 1794. Before 1794 the theory of mechanical engineering consisted in fact of isolated results. After 1794, serious attempts were made to turn MMS from a collection of isolated results into a coherent subject of research. MMS was not yet viewed as a separate scientific discipline, but Gaspard Monge, who was in charge of the École Polytechnique, decided that a course on machine elements had to be included in the curriculum of the school. J. Hachette was given the task of preparing a text. The wellknown system of classification of the mechanisms (that were called ‘elementary machines’ at the time) had a central position in the course. There are four kinds of movements of the input and of the output: Continuous circular Alternating circular Continuous rectilinear Alternating rectilinear. This yields ten types of elementary machines. This system of classification, invented presumably by Monge, was first published with a full description of all mechanisms in 1808 under the title Essai sur la composition des Machines and prepared by the gentlemen Lanz and Bétancourt under the supervision of Hachette. Hachette’s own textbook, the Traité élémentaire des machines, appeared in 1811.

84

T. Koetsier et al.

Franz Reuleaux In the course of the nineteenth century the subjects covered nowadays by the terms kinematics of mechanisms and theoretical kinematics flourish. The 1970s and 1980s of the nineteenth century represent in this respect a golden age. At the same time the industrial revolution led to a continuous stream of new mechanisms and machines. In particular in Germany there was a keen awareness of the need to put the training of mechanical engineers on a better scientific basis. On the whole Germany, because of the number of its universities, its Technische Hochschulen, and its scientific literature tended in particular in the second half of the century more and more to dominate the scientific world. In precisely this period MMS emerges as a separate discipline. One of the dominating theoreticians was Franz Reuleaux, who argued that the machine is in the development of mankind the essential element that determines man’s relation with nature. He also emphasized the need for an independent, unified science of the machine. Like other sciences this science would reserve a precise place for its application. It is no exaggeration to say that Reuleaux was the first to define MMS as a separate discipline with kinematics of mechanisms at its core ([2] and [3]). Reuleaux started to develop his revolutionary ideas in the 1860s, and in 1875 his Theoretische Kinematik: Grundzüge einer Theorie des Maschinenwesens appeared in which for the first time a coherent theory of machines was developed. Reuleaux distinguishes motion as it appears in machines from the way it appears in nature. A machine is a device designed to bring about motion of an absolutely defined kind. While in nature disturbing forces usually immediately affect the motion of an object, machines are designed to resist disturbing forces and to exclude the possibility of any other than the wished-for motion. It is precisely the way in which in a machine the wished-for motion is brought about that becomes Reuleaux’ major preoccupation. He is the first to consider this problem in a general way, independent of specific machines. Reuleaux gives the following definition of kinematics: It is “the study of those arrangements of the machine by which the mutual motions of its parts, considered as changes of position, are determined” ([4], p. 40). Consequently kinematics is viewed by Reuleaux as essentially belonging to the science of machines and not to mechanics. Aiming to make the science of machinery deductive ([4], p. 22) Reuleaux attempts to reduce kinematics to simple fundamental truths. One of those fundamental truths is the following. A machine consists of parts. These parts are prevented from making any other than the required motion by other parts in contact with them. These considerations lead him to the well-known notions like pair of elements and kinematic chain. Eugene S. Ferguson wrote in 1963 about Reuleaux’ book: “Many of the ideas and concepts introduced in this book have become so familiar to us that we are likely to underestimate Reuleaux’ originality and consider him merely a recorder of the obvious”. ([4], p. v) and he added: “While the concepts are few and simple, it is instructive to note that they establish the point of view from which we contemplate mechanisms today” ([4], p. vi). Ferguson summarized Reuleaux’ contributions as

The History of Mechanism and Machine Science

85

follows: Reuleaux was the first to recognize that the fixed link is kinematically the same as any of the moving links, which resulted in the powerful concept of the inversion of linkages. Moreover, Reuleaux’ classification of mechanical components returned in many subsequent books on kinematics and machine design. Finally Reuleaux was one of the first to discuss the possibilities of synthesis: the systematic approach to the design of mechanisms to perform a given function. Yet we must emphasize that Reuleaux was not the only kinematician in the nineteenth century. Many brilliant mathematicians and engineers were involved in research concerning machines, in particular in Great Britain, in France, in Germany, in Austria, in Russia and in Italy. Reuleaux’s essentially simple ideas on mechanisms gave coherence the subject, which is what it needed because there are many different kinds of mechanisms that can be studied from many different points of view.

The Twentieth Century and the Nature of MMS The period 1880–1914 is sometimes called the Second Industrial Revolution. On the one hand, new technologies like electricity, the internal combustion engine, better steel, new alloys and chemicals and communication technologies such as the telegraph and the radio, led to greater productivity. On the other hand, machines continued to play an essential role. Moreover, mechanical engineering was becoming more and more scientific. In this period the beautiful theories developed by Reuleaux and others slowly gained importance. Germany took the lead in this respect in the 1920s. Machines had contributed essentially to the growth of the Solow residual during and after the First Industrial Revolution. The theories of machines played an essential role after the Second Industrial Revolution. MMS had become a serious economic factor. What is MMS? Let us start with some remarks on mechanical engineering. Clearly the ultimate goal of mechanical engineering is the design and the production of machines that satisfy certain requirements. In the methodology of mathematics, physics and chemistry there is considerable emphasis on methods that can be used to show that a theorem is true, or that a law of nature holds. There is less attention for heuristics. In mechanical engineering the situation is different. Criteria to determine whether a particular machine functions or will function in a reliable and efficient way are, of course, important. Yet, because the ultimate goal in mechanical engineering is the design and the production of machines, inevitably the question, “How do you, given certain requirements, design a machine”? will repeatedly be asked. Although a complete answer to this question in its general form is obviously impossible, in mechanical engineering there must be considerable attention for all kinds of methods that can be used to answer more specific design requirements. Another difference between mechanical engineering and science is that mechanical engineering is multidisciplinary. Unlike science mechanical engineering primarily deals with artifacts, entities that are man-made. New inventions and new technologies

86

T. Koetsier et al.

can lead to changes in existing machines or to the introduction of new machines. Because machines are functioning in the real world the many different aspects that they possess are in principle all important. Machines do not only have mathematical, physical and chemical aspects, but economic, legal and other cultural aspects as well. The result is that the notion ‘best possible machine’ is in principle not only dependent on new developments in the sciences, but in addition on, for example, the introduction of new laws or economic developments. The laws of nature are independent of human institutions, but yesterday’s best possible machine can easily cease to be the best possible machine today because of external developments. Reuleaux viewed MMS with kinematics as its core sub-discipline as the one and only science of mechanical engineering. Against the background of the developments in twentieth century technology it is at this moment in time more realistic to view MMS as one of several disciplines that play a role in mechanical engineering. However, MMS is different from the other disciplines that contribute to mechanical engineering in the sense that it owes its identity to a class of machines and mechanisms that dominated mechanical engineering in the nineteenth century. These machines and their descendents are still very important and MMS is flourishing. Within MMS the geometrical and kinematical aspects of machinery are still central, but as far as research is concerned the other theories that we find in MMS surrounding its kinematical core reflect twentieth century developments in mathematics, mechanics, computer science and other disciplines. In the nineteenth century the emphasis in kinematics had been on planar mechanisms. In the twentieth century a considerable interest developed in spherical and spatial mechanisms. As for methodology until after World War II graphical methods prevailed. Only with the rise of the information age and the introduction of electronic computers graphical methods were replaced by analytical methods. Nineteenth century geometry in its analytical form in combination with the power of modern computers offered a wealth of new possibilities for engineers dealing with the design of mechanisms.

IFToMM and Its Permanent Commission for HMMS In the nineteenth century books started to appear about kinematics and at universities chairs were introduced for ‘descriptive geometry and kinematics’. For some time Trajan Rittershaus even held in Dresden a chair for ‘pure and applied kinematics’. Moreover, in the first mathematical review journal, Jahrbuch für die Fortschritte der Mathematik, during its entire existence until World War II, a special subsection, first of mechanics and later of geometry, was devoted to kinematics. The institutionalization of kinematics never went further than this. Yet in the 1960s The International Federation for the Theory of Machines and Mechanisms (IFToMM), was founded. In IFToMM kinematics played initially a central role. It published a journal, the Journal of Mechanisms, which was very much oriented towards kinematics.

The History of Mechanism and Machine Science

87

It is remarkable that the foundation of IFToMM in 1969 was prepared in the years of the Cold War when the rivalry and competition between the two superpowers, the United States and the Soviet Union, was huge. IFToMM was founded by scientists from both sides working in mechanical engineering. In the 1960s the Russian Academician Ivan I. Artobolevskii organized a series of All-Union Conferences on contemporary problems in the theory of machines and mechanisms. In the same period the Americans in cooperation with the Europeans developed similar initiatives. In the Cold War engineers on both sides felt they could profit very much from each other. That is how IFToMM was born in 1969. On the institutional level the organization represents the modern version of the views of Reuleaux and like-minded other nineteenth century engineers (Fig. 6). The history of MMS is part of the history of science and technology. The word technology was coined by the German Johann Beckmann (1739–1811). He used it for a description and classification of all the existing crafts and methods of manufacture. The 1971 edition of Webster’s Third International Dictionary says that technology is “The science of the application of knowledge to practical purposes”. Definitions and distinctions are useful. However, it is difficult to draw a sharp border line between practical problems and non-practical problems. Basically a practical problem is a problem that requires some action outside of the study or the laboratory. In this context it makes sense to distinguish knowledge-how from knowledge-that. Knowledge-how is related to functionality; it concerns what should be done to reach some goal. We know how to get somewhere, how to do something, sometimes without even knowing why the method works. That is knowledge-how. Technology is or concerns always knowledge-how. Knowledge-that is related to truth; we know that something is the case, nothing more, nothing less. It may be completely useless.

Fig. 6 Bronze plaque in Zakopane (Poland) commemorating 40 years of IFToMM

88

T. Koetsier et al.

Pure science is knowledge-that. It is the multidisciplinary character of MMS in combination with the fact that it encompasses both knowledge-that and knowledgehow, which has led to a situation in which the history of MMS is not often studied in its own right. Obviously historians of science are interested in the history of machines, but only in so far as it concerns mathematics, physics or one of the other sciences. On the other hand, historians of technology tend to concentrate on the actual machines and their social and cultural impact; their focus is usually not MMS in its own right. That is where IFToMM’s Permanent Commission for HMMS is filling a gap. The activities of the commission cover all aspects of the history of machines and mechanisms and the theories dealing with them and cooperates with the IFTOMM Permanent Commission for Standardization of Terminology [5] concerning technical terms. The term Mechanism and Machine Science (MMS) has been adopted within the IFToMM Community since the year 2000 after a long discussion [6] with the aim to give a better identification of the enlarged technical content and it expresses a broader view of the knowledge and practice that IFToMM deals with [7]. The notion MMS replaced the notion Theory of Machines and Mechanisms that had been used since the founding of the Federation.

Activities of the Commission: Symposia For the activities of the Permanent Commission (PC) for HMMS until 2004 we refer to [8]. The PC for HMMS was established in 1973 because of the strong support from the first IFToMM President Ivan I. Artobolevskii and the enthusiasm of the first PC chairman, the late Jack Phillips from Australia. Between 1973 and the following years until 1997 the PC was chaired by Jack Phillips (1973–1981), Elisabeth Filemon from Hungary (1982–1989) and Teun Koetsier from the Netherlands (1990–1997). When Marco Ceccarelli from Italy took over the chair in 1998 (he held it until 2004) it was decided at the beginning of the new millennium to make also a new start in order to turn the PC for HMMS into a body functioning more satisfactorily. Marco Ceccarelli had the idea to organize HMMS symposia between the regular IFToMM World Congresses, i.e., every 4 years. In 2000 he organized at his home university in Cassino the first International Symposium on HMMS (HMM 2000) [9]. Four years later and again in Cassino there was the second International Symposium on HMMS (HMM 2004) [10]. The succeeding chairmen, Hong-Sen Yan from China-Taipei (2004–2007) and Hanfried Kerle from Germany (2007-present), followed Ceccarelli´s initiative for the sake of a better international cooperation of the PC members. So the third International Symposium on HMMS (HMM 2008) [11] took place at the National Cheng Kung University in Tainan (China-Taipei) preceded by an International Workshop on Digital Museums of Antique Mechanism Teaching Models chaired by Hong-Sen Yan. The workshop idea also goes back to Marco Ceccarelli who introduced workshop meetings of the PC HMMS community as a preparatory stage of a forthcoming

The History of Mechanism and Machine Science

89

symposium on HMMS. More information about the PC HMMS is given on the webpage http://www.webuser.unicas.it/weblarm/IFTOMMpcHISTORY/index.htm.

Book Series on HMMS and Workshops Springer Co. is publishing a series of books on HMMS. The series consists at present of eight volumes with three volumes in print. The series started in 2007 with [12]. More information is given on the webpage http://www.springer.com/ series/7481. The first workshop was held in Admont (Austria) from October 20–26 in 2002 (Fig. 7). On October 6–8, 2004, the second workshop was held in Dresden (Germany). Participants were (see Fig. 8 from left to right) Prof. Karl-Heinz Modler (Germany), Prof. Marco Ceccarelli (Italy), Prof. Kurt Luck (Germany), Prof. Alexandar Golovin (Russia), Prof. Hong-Sen Yan (China-Taipei), Prof. Francis Moon (USA), Prof. Teun Koetsier (The Netherlands), Prof. Carlos Lopez-Cajun (Mexico), Prof. Rudolf Neumann (Germany), Dr. Klaus Mauersberger (Germany), Prof. Burkhard Corves (Germany), Dr. Hanfried Kerle (Germany); not in photo: Prof. Baichun Zhang (China Beijing), Dr. Peter Plabmeyer (Germany). On May 17–19, 2005, the next workshop was held in Moscow (Russian Republic) at the Bauman State Technical University (BMSTU). Participants were (see Fig. 9) first line: Prof. Valentin Tabarin (Russia), Prof. Alexander Golovin (Russia), Acad. Prof. Konstantin Frolov (Russia), Prof. Tatyana Nevenchanaya (Russia),

Fig. 7 Participants in the first workshop of the PC HMMS in Admont (Austria). From left to right: Atsuo Takanishi (Japan), Teun Koetsier (The Netherlands), Marco Ceccarelli (Italy), Ignacio Cuadrado (Spain), Hanfried Kerle (Germany), Austrian attendee

90

T. Koetsier et al.

Fig. 8 Participants at the 2004 Dresden workshop on HMM

Fig. 9 Participants at 2005 Moscow workshop on HMMS

Prof. Vera Chinenova (Russia), Prof. Irina Tiulina (Russia); second line: Prof. Yuri Ermakov (Russia), Prof. Krystof Mianovski (Poland), Prof. Teun Koetsier (The Netherlands), Prof. Marco Ceccarelli (Italy), Prof. Olga Egorova (Russia), Prof. Baichun Zhang (China-Beijing), Miss. Nataly Maksimenko (Russia), Prof. Iosif Vulfson (Russia); third line: Prof. Vladimir Krukov (Russia), Prof. Boris Lushnikov (Russia), Prof. Manfred Husty (Austria), Miss. Ana-Marya Yeroshenko (Russia), (hidden), Dr. Klaus Mauersberger (Germany), Dr. Hanfried Kerle (Germany);

The History of Mechanism and Machine Science

91

Fig. 10 Participants at 2006 workshop at Cornell University

fourth line Prof. Hong-Sen Yan (China, Taipei), Prof. Francis Moon (USA), Mrs. Elisabeth Moon (USA), Prof. Rudolf Neumann (Germany); fifth line: BMSTU student (Russia), Mr. Nikolay Barnashov (Russia); sixth line: Miss. Dina Mkrchan (Russia). Participants not in the photo: Prof. Carlos Lopez-Cajun (Mexico) and Prof. Sergey Jatsun (Russia). On September 8–10, 2006, the fifth workshop was held at Cornell University in Ithaca, NY (U.S.A.), organized by Francis C. Moon. Participants were (see Fig. 10 from left to right): Mr. Kuo-Hung Hsiao (China-Taipei), Prof. Marco Ceccarelli (Italy), Prof. Paolo de Castro (Portugal), Prof. Hsing-Hui Huang (China Taipei), Prof. Teun Koetsier (The Netherlands), Prof. Agamenon Oliveira (Brazil), Prof. Burkhard Corves (Germany), Prof. Hong-Sen Yan (China-Taipei), Dr. Hanfried Kerle (Germany), Prof. Olga Egorova (Russia), Prof. Jörg Wauer (Germany), Prof. Hod Lipson (USA), Prof. Jian Dai (UK), Prof. Alexander Golovin (Russia), Prof. Francis Moon (USA); not in photo: Dr. David Corson (USA), Prof. Srifhar Kota (USA), Prof. Daina Taimana (USA), Mr. John Saylor (USA). The sixth Workshop on HMMS was held at the Indian Institute of Science (IISC) in Bangalore (India) in conjunction with NaCOMM 2007, the National Conference on Machines and Mechanisms of the Indian member organization. Twelve papers on HMMS were presented. The Workshop had been organized by Prof. Ashitava Ghosal from IISC. For his successful organization Prof. Goshal was given the PC Service Award 2007 from Prof. Marco Ceccarelli (President of IFToMM) and Prof. Hong-Sen Yan (past PC for History chairman). Some of the participants of the

92

T. Koetsier et al.

Fig. 11 Participants of 2007 workshop in Bangalore

Fig. 12 Participants of the PC HMMS meeting in Tainan. front row (from left to right): Marco Ceccarelli (Italy, President IFToMM), Hong-Sen Yan (China, Taipei), Hanfried Kerle (Germany, PC Chairman, Teun Koetsier (The Netherlands); Middle row (left to right): Baichun Zhang (China, Beijing), Jian Dai (UK), Francis Moon (USA), Olga Egorova (Russia); Last row: Torsten Brix (Germany), Tsung-Yi Lin (China, Taipei), Carlos Lopez-Cajun (Mexico, Secretary-General IFToMM), Manfred Husty (Austria)

Workshop were (Fig. 11 from left to right): Prof. Manfred Husty (Austria), Prof. Marco Ceccarelli (Italy), Prof. Shekar R. Narvekar (India), Prof. Teun Koetsier (The Netherlands), Prof. Jammi S. Rao (India), Prof. Francis Moon (USA), Prof. Hong-Sen Yan (China, Taipei), Prof. Baichun Zhang (China-Beijing). There was a HMMS workshop at the National Cheng Kung University in Tainan (China-Taipei) in 2008, in conjunction with the third International Symposium on HMMS, Fig. 12.

The History of Mechanism and Machine Science

93

References 1. Gregory, C.: A Farewell to Alms, a Brief Economic History of the World. Princeton University Press, USA (2007) 2. Moon, F.C.: Franz reuleaux; contributions to 19th century kinematics and theory of machines. Trans. ASME Appl. Mech. Rev. 56(2), 261–285 (2003) 3. Moon, F.C.: The Machines of Leonardo Da Vinci and Franz Reuleaux: Kinematics of Machines from the Renaissance to the 20th Century. Kluwer, Dordrecht (2007) 4. Kennedy, A.B.W. (ed.): The Kinematics of Machinery, Outlines of a Theory of Machines by Franz Reuleaux, with a New Introduction by Eugene S. Ferguson. Dover, New York (1963) 5. IFToMM: IFToMM commission a, standard for terminology. Mech. Mach. Theor. 26(5), 526 (1991) 6. Ceccarelli, M.: On the meaning of TMM over time. Bull. IFToMM Newsl. 8(1) (1999) 7. Ceccarelli, M. Evolution of TMM (Theory of Machines and Mechanisms) to MMS (Machine and Mechanism Science): an illustration survey. In: Proceeding 11th IFToMM World Congress in Mechanism and Machine Science, Tianjin, pp. 13–24, 18–21 Aug 2003 (2003) 8. Ceccarelli, M., Koetsier, T.: On the IFToMM permanent commission for history of MMS. In: Ceccarelli, M. (ed.) Proceeding HMM 2004. Kluwer Academic, Dordrecht (2004) 9. Ceccarelli, M. (ed.): Proceeding HMM 2000. Kluwer Academic, Dordrecht (2000) 10. Ceccarelli, M. (ed.): Proceeding HMM 2004. Kluwer Academic, Dordrecht (2004) 11. Ceccarelli, M., Yan, H.-S. (eds.): HMM 2008. Springer, Dordrecht (2009) 12. Ceccarelli, M. (ed.): Distinguished Figures in Mechanism and Machine Science – Their Contributions and Legacies, Part 1. Springer (2007) 13. Rupert, H.A.: Early modern technology, to 1600. In: Kranzberg, M., Pursell, C. (eds.) Technology in Western Civilization, Vol. I: The Emergence of Modern Industrial Society, pp. 79–103. Oxford University Press, London (1967)

On the Development of Terminology and an Electronic Dictionary for Mechanism and Machine Science A.J. Klein Breteler

Abstract This chapter describes the work of PC Standards and Terminology, starting with the recording of the relevant terminology. With the development of the personal computer and the internet, attention moved from a printed version to an electronic version of the dictionary. This required working methods to be adapted and the development of software to create the intended webpage. The chapter describes the principal problems, discussions and decisions in the process which eventually resulted in the current version of the electronic dictionary.

History of PC Standards and Terminology The very first official meeting of the Commission for the “Standardization of Terminology” was held on 18 September 1971 during the third World Congress on the Theory of Machines and Mechanisms in Kupari, Yugoslavia. There were five participants: Professors Bazjanac (Yugoslavia), Bianchi (Italy), Bögelsack (GDR), Davies (United Kingdom, chairman) and Keller (Federal Republic of Germany). In accordance with the Constitution & By-Laws of IFToMM, the Commission’s objective was, from the very outset, to establish a specific and unitary terminology for MMS. Previously, several national and international groups had succeeded in compiling dictionaries and glossaries in this field. Some related publications are listed in the reference section as examples: The first [1] lists 90 terms in Russian, English, French and German, but these are defined in the Russian language only. A previous academic bulletin had been published in 1938. The German glossary [2]

A.J.K. Breteler (*) Faculty OCP/Mechanical Engineering, University of Technology Delft, Mekelweg 2, Delft 2628 CD, The Netherlands e-mail: [email protected] M. Ceccarelli (ed.), Technology Developments: the Role of Mechanism and Machine Science and IFToMM, Mechanisms and Machine Science 1, DOI 10.1007/978-94-007-1300-0_7, © Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2011

95

96

A.J.K. Breteler

contains 221 terms and definitions illustrated with sketches and drawings. The dictionary [3] includes 610 terms in German, English, French, Russian and Bulgarian without definitions. Preliminary lists of terms were submitted by United Kingdom and GDR during the first meeting, and a provisional programme with responsibilities and a set of rules was drawn up (see next chapter for more details). This was the basis for the further development of terminology. Since then, Commission working meetings have been organised in various countries, with rare exceptions, every 2 years. The chairmen of the Commission have been D. Muster (1972/1976), G. Bögelsack (1976/1986), J. Prentis (1986/1990), T. Leinonen (1990/1998), T. Ionescu (1998/2005), A. J. Klein Breteler (since 2006). A more detailed overview of the work done by the Commission prior to 1996 is presented by Bögelsack [4]. The publishing format considered at that time was obviously just printed paper, but discussions on new publishing media (CD-ROM, Internet) began in 1998 during the meeting in Brno. The results can be found in the chapters that follow.

Statements for Developing Terminology The terminology includes a set of terms and their definitions. Working on the principle that a good definition should distinguish by identifying and identify by distinguishing, the Commission reached an agreement on the following rules to be observed in the methodology of defining: –– In each context, it must be possible to replace the term to be defined (definiendum) by the definition (definiens); –– A definition may neither contain nor cause any contradiction of logic; –– The term to be defined may not appear in the definition either openly or implicitly (circular definition); –– The predicate of a definition should not be negative; –– Definiendum and definiens must be identical in extent; –– A term should be neither overdefined (more characteristics in the definition than in the term) nor underdefined. Some further guidelines were later proposed by J. M. Prentis in 1989: –– Terms should be elegantly defined in the simplest possible language; –– Definitions should be concise; –– Terms should not be needlessly multiplied, e.g., (common adjective) + (old term) = (new term); –– Terms should not be included (or, even worse, invented) simply to provide a counter-point to other terms; –– A term that is easier to understand than the definition should be deleted unless a simpler definition can be found; –– When in doubt, leave it out!

On the Development of Terminology and an Electronic Dictionary for Mechanism

97

Structure and Layout of the Terminology The set of terms must be ordered in a certain way. During the early discussions, it was agreed to make an ordering/classification into five chapters that reflect the core topics of MMS: Structure of MMS, Kinematics, Dynamics, Machine Control and Measurements, Robotics, and a chapter with general terms. A sub-commission for each chapter developed the terminology in the English language. Once agreement in the whole Commission had been reached, the terms were translated into the other three languages. The resulting structure and layout, which was adopted in 1991, appears in the figure below: the printed version contains four parallel columns spread across two adjacent pages [5].

Layout detail: when a term in a definition is referenced (has a definition elsewhere), that term is printed in italics. Any synonym for a term is placed in square brackets. Search facilities for the user are supported by providing an alphabetic index list of the terms in all four languages. A comment on this method of ordering: the ordering sequence of the terms is done “from the bottom up”, which means references are made to previous terms

98

A.J.K. Breteler

where possible. This enhances the readability of a chapter or sub-chapter and is certainly an advantage while the terminology is being developed. One drawback with this system of ordering, however, is that inserting a new term or deleting an existing term may lead to extensive renumbering of the terms in the next version. In 1991, digital word-processing facilities were still very limited. ASCII-based text files were produced by one of the members of the Commission (Prentiss). Nonstandard characters, such as ü or â, were indicated by special ASCII-codes for that purpose. Referenced terms were indicated by placing them in , to be replaced with the italics by the publisher. The Cyrillic text was prepared separately.

Statements for Developing an Electronic Dictionary After 1991, the personal computer and the internet rapidly became much more widely used as means of mass communication. This meant that there was demand for an electronic version of the IFToMM dictionary, either on CD or on a webpage. All references in such an electronic version would need to be links that could be clicked on. Discussions on the functionality of this software and the electronic dictionary ultimately led to a list of user demands and developer demands [7]. The tables below shows the ways in which an electronic version would be better than the printed version (+ means “present”, – means “not present”, j means “partly present”). User demands Select set of languages Search for a term alphabetically Display explanation of a term (text) Display graphical explanation (picture) Display reference (link) Display reference list (all links within one term) Display refereed list Export of information to other channels (print) Select content (chapter) Retrieve synonyms Advanced query options for search of a term Easy access to members of IFToMM community Take part in discussion forum on terms

Paper version

Electr. version

j + – – – – – – j + – j –

j + + – + + + + j + j + j

Developer demands Effective communication means (email) Effective working method (subcommissions, standard forms) Method fits working skills (text editor) Intermediate products (files), compatibility Processing of output (book, webpage, CD)

Paper version – j j j j

j + + + +

Electr. version

On the Development of Terminology and an Electronic Dictionary for Mechanism

99

A comment on the proposals for setting up an electronic dictionary: the best solution is probably the creation of a central database and a website with two pages: one for updates and maintenance, and one which allows access for all IFToMM users. This solution did not yet appear feasible, not only because of anticipated cost, but also because of the incompatibility with a printed version. The Commission agreed to continue with the present structure (chapters and subchapters) and a text file for each chapter, for which a sub-commission could be made responsible. Such a set of text files should be created for all four languages. However, in preparation for the electronic version, a standard text editor (Word97) and file layout (table with four columns) was adopted. Non-standard characters and Russian characters no longer caused problems because of the Unicode standard. To avoid compatibility problems with other word-processing programs, no use was made of any mark-up information such as italic text and the references were kept in . The existing ASCII files into Word files were converted by means of a simple “read-in” after some layout preferences had been inputted manually. The reverse procedure, conversion to a pure ASCII file, can be done without the loss of any core information, if this should ever be required in the future. Using the working method with Word files, several new chapters were developed with the more specialised terms of sub-domains (dynamics supplement, rotor dynamics and measurement, vibrations and nonlinear oscillations, stability, biomechanics, gearing, mechatronics). With the extensions only available in English, a printed version was issued [6] showing the Word files with almost no adaptations by the publisher. The huge number of printed pages (over 500 pages, including the index sections) once more demonstrated the need for an electronic version.

Development of an Electronic Dictionary In response to the demands of users and developers, it was agreed that an electronic version should be similar to the printed book, but now with additional browsing by means of links in the alphabetic index section and between definitions. The Commission members preferred a four-column layout (with four languages), as used in the first printed edition across left and right page. Unfortunately, such a format does not match standard screen dimensions and an alternative idea was accepted of two languages appearing on the screen at one time. The electronic dictionary is thus actually a set of several bilingual dictionaries. Given that each of the four languages could be selected as “first” and “second”, 16 dictionaries were then required (including the combination of a language with itself, which appears then as a dictionary with just one column). One advantage of this approach is the possibility of expanding the dictionary to additional languages. With respect to

100

A.J.K. Breteler

manageability and maintenance, for n languages, n2 dictionary files are required. It is unlikely that a high number of languages can be managed, but in practice not every possible language combination is likely to be required. It was recognised that such a development must be supported by software that had to be designed from scratch. With the advice and practical help of a professional software developer, it was decided to use the software available in the Windows developers’ platform as far as possible. It was expected that the programming job would then be relatively small. XML files, which are standard for structured data, were chosen as the preferred file type for the dictionary files. The programming then focused on the process between the Word files and the XML files and the links to be assigned automatically. From the XML files, it was relatively easy to derive other products like PDF files (for printing) and HTML files (for websites). The software developed creates the dictionary in three stages (for more details, see [7]): Step 1: The data are collected from the individual Word files into one central database (Access). This action is necessary to allow the link search. Typically, the database has two tables: one for the definitions of the terms and one for the index lists. The tables can be inspected manually (sample part see figure below), although changes to the records are not meant to be carried out manually. In case of a modification of a Word file, the relevant language section in the database tables must be updated as a whole.

Step 2: XML files are created in which the links have been resolved. It was decided that one file for each language combination would be made and for each chapter, so there are n2 = 16 files per chapter. You can see a sample of an XML file in the

On the Development of Terminology and an Electronic Dictionary for Mechanism

101

figure below. The “links” can be recognised: it contains a reference to a file where the term number is present. It is possible to edit such an XML-file directly, although edits are not meant to be carried out in this way. The problems with automatic link resolving will be discussed in the next chapter.

Step 3: Conversion to HTML files (or other output to a different “channel”). Separately created “style sheets” determine the actual look of the result on the screen. A software tool that can perform the three steps has been written in Visual Basic. Due to the look of the user interface, it has been given the name “Transformation Panel”. The figure below shows an example of how step one can be performed for French and German.

102

A.J.K. Breteler

Having finished the software, two problems required much more time than was originally estimated: –– The inclusion of Russian language in the XML and HTML documents. This was solved completely within the software. –– The automatic link-resolving procedure. Several experiments with link search algorithms were proposed and tried out (more in next chapter). The first electronic version of the dictionary was completed in 2004 and consisted of (downloadable) compiled HTML files, to be run on the computer of the user. This version can be found in the following report [8].

Critical Problems The software also affected the role of the Word files and the way they were named. The Word files serve as input data for a computer program that has many automated functions, such as generating a table of contents (from the table headers) and matching the links (from the terms in ). A strict layout specification was required because almost any typing error would lead here to an undesired result.

On the Development of Terminology and an Electronic Dictionary for Mechanism

103

A second consequence was that the name of the Word files needed to be standardised. A language-independent name, containing the chapter number, was chosen for the files containing the definitions: 01.doc, 02.doc etc. This guarantees that the names can be extended for more chapters and languages. They are kept in a directory which contains the international country code (1,031 for German, 1,036 for French, 1,049 for Russian, 2,057 for English). Regarding the automatic link search, it was recognised that the index table in the database contains all instances of the terms. This list is therefore the preferred source for the search (the definitions tables contain just one instance and are more complicated to investigate because of the extra information on synonyms). The index file, in Word, must therefore be free of any typing errors. The text in the definitions files between the must also be error-free. The major problem with assigning links [7] is that the referenced term may contain a derived word, for instance a plural or a different case ending. Grammar rules are quite different in the four languages and it would seem impossible to integrate all these rules into a general search algorithm. However, using some form of smart algorithm, it is expected that only a limited number of unresolved links will remain. These links can be contained in an extra “missing links” file, alongside the index file, which can be created manually. This information will be used when the XML files are being created. A further strategy is that the links in the English files can be resolved first, giving the other languages access to the English search results (term number) for extended matching trials. The search algorithm finally used consists of the following match attempts, to be taken in the order shown here: • Full match of all characters (without case sensitivity), search in both the index table and the missing links table; • Full match except for the trailing character “s” (very effective for English plural nouns); • For non-English: fair match when comparing the links of the English term (the best term has the highest percentage of corresponding characters of all words to match); • Wild search with the facilities of the Access software (sometimes successful). The results of the search are reported to a file that must be inspected manually. In case of a missing or erroneous link, the referenced text must either be modified or added to the missing links file until all the links are complete. One point for discussion is the option of anticipating the search algorithm while the term is being defined. When proposing a term and its description, the editor should be aware of the procedure for search for links. It may then be possible to avoid the use of the missing links table in advance.

104

A.J.K. Breteler

Results and Conclusions When the first electronic dictionary was completed, a considerable amount of work was still underway: the translation of the Chaps. 7–12 into the other languages. During this process the “Transformation Panel” software was extended in terms of functionality for creating the webpages for a central website: –– Display the referenced links (with an open/close button); and –– Search for any text string in the whole (bi-lingual) dictionary. See the figure below for a screen dump comparable with the first figure; note that the links for term 2.2.2 have been opened.

It can be concluded that the project to create an electronic dictionary for MMSterminology has been successfully completed. Hopefully, the current version [9] will be useful for all members of the IFToMM community when reading or writing papers. It is definitely a major help for the IFToMM Commission itself to discuss improvements and the further development of terminology. Updates to the whole dictionary can be expected regularly.

On the Development of Terminology and an Electronic Dictionary for Mechanism

105

References 1. Levitskyi, N.I., et al.: Teorija Mechanizmow – Terminologija. Isdatelstwo Nauka, Moskwa (1964) 2. VDI Richtlinie 2127: Getriebetechnische Grundlagen – Begriffsbestimmungen der Getriebe. VDI Verlag, Düsseldorf (1962) 3. Konstantinov, M.S., Artobolewskyi, I.I., Hartenberg, R.S. et al.: Concise Terminological Dictionary on Kinematics and Dynamics of Machines. Sofija (1965) 4. Bögelsack, G.: Twenty – five years IFToMM commission a standardization of terminology – history, methodology, results and future work. Mech. Mach. Theor. 33(1/2), 1–5 (1998) 5. IFToMM Commission A: Terminology for the theory of machines and mechanisms. Mech. Mach. Theor. 26(5), 435–539 (1991) 6. IFToMM Commission A: Terminology for the mechanism and machine science. Mech. Mach. Theor. 38(7–10), 598–1111 (2003) 7. Klein Breteler, A.J.: On the development of an electronic dictionary for IFToMM. In: Proceedings of Scientific colloquium in Bardejov Spa, Slowakia, June 2005 8. Ionescu, T.G., Klein Breteler, A.J., Leinonen, T., Bögelsack, G.: On the progress of standardization of mechanism and machine science terminology. In: Proceedings of the 12th World Congress on MMS. Besancon , 18–21 June 2007 9. Websites of the online dictionary: www.iftomm.org, www.iftomm.3me.tudelft.nl

The Role of Mechanism Models for Motion Generation in Mechanical Engineering Hanfried Kerle, Burkhard Corves, Klaus Mauersberger, and Karl-Heinz Modler

Abstract The paper gives a historical overview of the development of mechanism or kinematic models for motion generation in mechanical engineering. Models can serve for teaching purposes and also serve as small test rigs when investigating the running behaviour and estimating the running quality of a mechanism or machine. So the development of mechanisms and machines through the last centuries since Antiquity is also coupled to the development of design of virtual and physical mechanism models.

Introduction The oldest work about mechanical systems which we know is that of the great Greek Aristotle (384–322 B.C.). In his “Mechanical Problems” he mentions the “mechanical aids” or “elementary machines” of Antiquity, i.e., the lever, the wedge, the wheel and the pulley. The screw or the worm-wheel is not mentioned explicitly, but it must have been known in those time, latest at the time of Archimedes (287–212 B.C.) whom many technical historians take for having invented the screw [1]. Archimedes seems to have been the first who attached the mechanics of elementary machines to fundamental machine components or mechanisms by looking at the kinematics and statics of a lever and a screw [2]. The Romans thereafter learned and

H. Kerle (*) TU Braunschweig, Peterskamp 12, Braunschweig D-38108, Germany e-mail: [email protected] B. Corves RWTH Aachen, Aachen, Germany K. Mauersberger and K.-H. Modler TU Dresden, Dresden, Germany M. Ceccarelli (ed.), Technology Developments: the Role of Mechanism and Machine Science and IFToMM, Mechanisms and Machine Science 1, DOI 10.1007/978-94-007-1300-0_8, © Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2011

107

108

H. Kerle et al.

adopted a lot from the Greeks, e.g., we owe the Roman Marcus Vitruvius Pollio (around 16 B.C.) the fact that a considerable part of Greek knowledge of machines and mechanisms could be preserved in his ten-volume work “De Architectura” [1, 3]. Unfortunately the figures that Vitruvius attached to his work have been lost and could only be interpreted and completed by following the text. Figures were rare in Antiquity and also during the Middle Ages the knowledge of machines was limited to very few people in a very restricted community. The change occurred in the period of the Renaissance between the fourteenth and seventeenth century when the interest in machines generally grew up with the needs of peers and sovereigns for architectonic purposes, military defences and hydraulic apparatus. The Renaissance of machines starts with a row of famous “artist engineers”, especially Italians. Filippo Brunelleschi (1377–1446) designed and used several new mechanisms. Also prominent in the first phase of the Renaissance of machines was Mariano di Jacopo – il Taccola (1382–1453) with his practical studies of machines and mechanisms. Francesco di Giorgio Martini (1439–1501) stands at the beginning of the second phase of the Renaissance of machines. He was a very gifted and creative designer of machines and wrote for example a treatise on pumps and their operations. The most known Italian artist engineer is a contemporary of Francesco di Giorgio, namely Leonardo da Vinci (1452–1519), because of his large and encyclopaedic collection of sketches and also three-dimensional drawings which have fortunately been preserved for succeeding engineers and architects. But we must point out the fact that in the field of machine design Leonardo profited considerably from the works and ideas of Brunelleschi, Mariano di Jacopo and Francesco di Giorgio [3]. At that time the majority of presented engineering models were “virtual models” represented by sketches or drawings. It took time and the appropriate technology of printing till the end of the sixteenth century to present illustrated books. Following the technical historian Eugene S. Ferguson (1916–2004), two different traditions of such “machine books” emerged [4]: The first tradition aimed at suggesting new and novel ideas to anyone who could “read” the illustrations. Books belonging to this group were also called “theatres of machines” [5]. The first “theatre of machines” was that of the French Jacques Besson (»1540–1596), published in 1578 in Lyon and titled “Théatre des Instruments mathématiques et mécaniques”. The book contained about 60 copperplates of machine drafts (machine models) and mathematical instruments. The most known “theatre of machines” is that of the Italian Agostino Ramelli (»1530–1590) which set the standard for more than 100 years. The title ran “Le Diverse et Artificiose Machine” and was published in 1588 in Paris, Fig. 1. The first two books that belonged to the second tradition of transmitting technical information in detail through illustrations were those of Vanoccio Biringuccio (1480–1538) from Siena (Italy) and Georg Agricola (1490–1555) from Glauchau, Saxony (Germany). Their books dealt with mining and refining of metals and minerals. Biringuccio’s book titled “De la pirotechnia” was published the first time in 1540 in Venice, whereas Agricola’s book “De re metallica” with over 250 wood engravings appeared in 1556 in Basle, 1 year after his death.

The Role of Mechanism Models for Motion Generation in Mechanical Engineering

109

Fig. 1 Cover page of Ramelli’s “theatre of machines” (German translation) and one of his machine models, a water-driven water pump

A last artist engineer must be mentioned who closes the cycle of Renaissance “theatres of machines” and at the same time opened the window to a new view of machines: Jacob Leupold (1674–1727) from Leipzig (Germany) published a tenvolume work between 1724 and 1739 titled “Theatrum Machinarum Generale”. Leupold dismantled a machine analytically into its single parts, described their special functions in the machine and also added critical remarks of design and efficiency. Not every machine which Leupold described was his own invention, but he collected the known “machine models” at his time and thus presented the state of the art in his books. By dismantling a machine into its parts, Leupold created lists and drawings of the basic mechanical elements of a machine, Fig. 2. In the seventeenth century models were used more and more to inform various people of the nature of available machines and devices for carrying out a wide variety of technical tasks. At the end of the seventeenth century the construction and the display of models were even standardized to some extent. For example, soon after its establishment in 1666 the Académie des Sciences in Paris employed modelmakers to develop a cabinet of models of “various widely used machines”, Fig. 3. Members of the Académie as well as non-members were encouraged to record their inventions and to contribute to the basic cabinet and thus to raise the importance of the science of mechanics in mechanical engineering.

110

H. Kerle et al.

Fig. 2 Water wheel and screw mechanisms by Leupold

Fig. 3 Copperplate of the Model Cabinet in the Académie des Sciences in Paris in 1666

Mechanisms and Mechanism Models A very important step concerning “elementary mechanisms” being basic elements of a machine came from France. In 1794 at the end of the French Revolution the École Polytechnique was founded in Paris. Gaspard Monge (1746–1818) taught kinematics as part of his subject “Géometrie descriptive”. His scholars

The Role of Mechanism Models for Motion Generation in Mechanical Engineering

111

Fig. 4 Part of the mechanism catalogue by Lanz and Betancourt

Jean N. P. Hachette (1769–1834), José M. Lanz (1764–1839) and A(u)gustin de Betancourt (1758–1824) became protagonists of a “kinematic machine science”. They classified all relevant mechanisms of their time concerning the type of elements, type of generated motion (“mechanical movement”) and direction of motion (input/ output link). These mechanisms were sorted as elements of a matrix that can be regarded from a today´s point of view as a “virtual mechanism model catalogue”, Fig. 4. The catalogue was published in 1808 [6]. By the way, a similar catalogue of so-called “kinematic models” was presented 60 years later in 1868 by the New York patent attorney Henry T. Brown, Fig. 5 [7]. Based on this catalogue the American engineer William M. Clark built in the early 1900s around 200 so-called “working models”. Today 120 of these mechanism models are housed at the Museum of Science in Boston, MA (USA) [8]. In the following part of this chapter we will try to find answers to the following questions: • Is there a difference between original mechanisms and model mechanisms? If yes, which criteria are important and must be respected for the design and construction of mechanism models? • Which basic types of mechanism models do exist? • Is it still worthwhile to deal with or even build mechanism models in a time reigned over by the computer with efficient mathematical and graphical tools? Hermann Alt (1889–1954), professor of kinematics in Dresden and Berlin, published an interesting paper in 1953 about mechanism models [9]. Among other things he wrote (translated from German into English):

112

H. Kerle et al.

Fig. 5 Part of Brown’s catalogue of kinematic models

The use of mechanism models as educational aids in technical colleges and other technical training schools, as well as in the designing offices and other departments of the mechanical and precision engineering industries, has long been realized as an important medium. It should clearly be noted that in the field of mechanisms there are technical problems which are entirely different from those encountered in other branches of engineering design. This applies particularly to mechanisms with so-called periodic motions, for instance cam and lever mechanisms, where the sequence of movements cannot be read in most cases immediately from the blueprints. If a mechanism has to be developed, the designer must be able to visualize the mechanism as a movable part of a machine. It is particularly valuable for students and engineers to be able to watch the mechanisms in motion and possibly to set them in motion themselves in order to get a feeling for the sequence of movements.

So with a mechanism model the student or engineer gets a feeling of the running quality or the reaction of the output to the input by moving the input link manually. After having designed a mechanism the designer always asks himself “Will it work?” or “Will the joints allow sufficient motion over the entire ranges?” or “To what extent

The Role of Mechanism Models for Motion Generation in Mechanical Engineering

113

will friction and wear in the joints influence the service life of the whole mechanism?” For planar mechanisms the checks can be carried out more easily than for spatial mechanisms, because analytical methods with spatial mechanisms are long and involved [10]. So the best way to find proper and reliable answers to the questions put in quotation marks just before is to build a model, not only for the sake of the designer himself, but also to “sell” his design or invention to others in his organization or professional community. Thus, mechanism models may serve as load-bearing test rigs for experimental investigations and the results gained through experiments can be calculated back to the behaviour of the corresponding original mechanisms on the base of model laws of similarity mechanics [11]. A rough classification of mechanism models can be established as follows: • Virtual models (sketches and drawings) • Real physical models (models for didactic and experimental purposes) • Artificial physical models (rapid prototyping models) The artificial models are products of modern times. The manufacturing process – sometimes also called three-dimensional printing – requires a three-dimensional CAD model and a special machine tool for processing powder or other synthetic material.

Some Historical Remarks on Mechanism Models Christopher Polhem (1661–1751), later also called the “Swedish Daedalus”, was most probably the first technician and technical teacher who used real physical mechanism models to explain the basic elements of a machine and how these elements worked in a machine generating motion(s). His “Laboratorium mechanicum” established around 1700 to promote the study of machines became after his death the core of the collection in the Royal Chamber of Models in Stockholm, founded in 1756. Of particular interest was a series of wooden mechanism models called Polhem’s “mechanical alphabet” which is still today preserved at the Technical Museum of Stockholm, Fig. 6. The continuous growth of mechanism model collections and cabinets went along with an upcoming industrialization period in the eighteenth and nineteenth century all over the world. In that time the demand for thermal and kinetic energy increased more and more and the invention of the steam engine of James Watt (1736–1819) and other engineer colleagues not only radically altered the energy situation, but also created a whole new family of mechanisms (linkages) [12]. Again, the efficiency of mechanism inventions could be proven and demonstrated to factory owners and engineers through models in the best way. One of the famous kinematicians in that time was Ferdinand Redtenbacher (1809–1863) from Steyr (Austria). He was eager to set into practice the teaching ideas developed at the École Polytechnique in Paris. In 1841 he became professor within the Mechanical Engineering Department of the Polytechnic School in

114

H. Kerle et al.

Fig. 6 Part of Polhem’s “mechanical alphabet”

Karlsruhe (Germany). He is seen today as the founder of the teaching of scientific mechanical engineering that is a symbiosis between mathematics, physics and practical engineering applications, the latter based on an extensive model collection being part of the study of engineering at the Polytechnic School, Fig. 7. His models were already manufactured following the model laws mentioned before concerning size and materials [13]. In 1857 Redtenbacher published a book and catalogue [14] that described 60 models of his collection, with a supplement of 20 models in 1861. A detailed survey over Redtenbacher and his lifework is given in [15]. Johann Andreas Schubert (1808–1870) was a contemporary of Redtenbacher in Germany. He also followed the line of teaching kinematics that was developed at the École Polytechnique in Paris. When teaching machinery to his students at the Royal Polytechnic in Dresden (Saxony), Schubert used models made of (cedar)

The Role of Mechanism Models for Motion Generation in Mechanical Engineering

115

Fig. 7 Original Redtenbacher mechanism models from Karlsruhe

Fig. 8 Five of nine preserved cedar wood Schubert mechanism models

wood, brass and iron. Schubert laid the foundation of the large model collection at the Technical University of Dresden today. But from Schubert’s original models only nine cedar wood models could be preserved, Fig. 8 [16]. Franz Reuleaux (1829–1905) from Eschweiler near Aachen in Germany was Redtenbacher´s most famous scholar in kinematics. Reuleaux is regarded as the founder of modern kinematics [17]. He started to establish design principles for mechanisms and machines and invented the “kinematic chain” – sometimes also called “kinematic train” – forming the base for mechanisms or “elementary machines”, i.e., the screw-chain, the wheel-chain, the crank-chain, the cam-chain, the ratchet-chain and the pulley-chain [18]. Within this frame Reuleaux developed

116

H. Kerle et al.

Fig. 9 Five of around 800 Reuleaux mechanism models from Berlin

methods to codify, analyze and synthesize mechanisms so that engineers could approach machine design in a rational way. Moreover, between 1870 and 1876, he compiled a collection of over 800 models at the Polytechnic School in BerlinCharlottenburg, where he was professor for machine design, Fig. 9. During World War II the Berlin collection was widely destroyed. Incidentally, the last curator of the complete model collection was Hermann Alt, already mentioned before. The Reuleaux models were also built for sale to technical teaching institutions and industrial companies worldwide. The largest collection of Reuleaux models is that at Cornell University in Ithaca, NY (USA) with 219 items. Nowadays Cornell University has established a virtual museum on the web presenting all its Reuleaux models, cf. the webpage http://kmoddl/library/cornell.edu. A very interesting historical overview of these models is given by Francis C. Moon, the curator of the Reuleaux collection at Cornell University [19]. Moreover, the reader who is interested in kinematics finds a lot of old books of kinematics on the webpage mentioned and can download them simply and immediately. A similar, but wider approach has been done in Germany since 2005 by three relevant institutes at different universities: Ilmenau, Aachen and Dresden, cf. the webpage http://www.dmg-lib.org/dmglib/main/portal.jsp [20]. This project was financially supported by the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG, German Research Foundation) and is now continued by the institutes themselves. The focus is on the collection, selection, and preservation of knowledge in the mechanical

The Role of Mechanism Models for Motion Generation in Mechanical Engineering

117

Fig. 10 Webpage with mechanism models of the German research activity “DMG-Lib”

engineering field of mechanical motion systems and therefore based on internet tools forming a central information memory. This memory includes literature, kinematic models and model descriptions, interactive animations of models, and biographies of persons who have contributed to the knowledge of kinematics, Fig. 10.

The Influence of IFToMM Activities on the Dissemination of Knowledge of Mechanism Models The IFToMM Permanent Commission (PC) for History of Mechanism and Machine Science (HMMS) was founded in 1973 with the late Jack Phillips (1923–2009) from Sydney (Australia) as its first chairman. The activities of this PC are planned and executed in order to promote the republishing of classical works of reference, to promote the collection and circulation of material and information in the field of HMMS. When Marco Ceccarelli from the University of Cassino (Italy) became chairman of the PC HMMS in 1998, he had the idea to organize meetings of its members between the regular IFToMM World Congresses every 4 years. In 2000 he started

118

H. Kerle et al.

a new initiative at his home university and called for papers to be presented at the first International Symposium on History of Machines and Mechanisms (HMM 2000). Four years later and again in Cassino on the occasion of the second International Symposium on History of Machines and Mechanisms (HMM 2004) Francis C. Moon talked about the already mentioned large Reuleaux model collection at Cornell University. Again 4 years later the interest in ancient kinematic models within the HMMS community had increased remarkably. Especially Asian country members became aware of almost forgotten model collections. So the third International Symposium on History of Machines and Mechanisms (HMM 2008) at the National Cheng Kung University (NCKU) in Tainan (Taiwan) was preceded by an International Workshop on Digital Museums of Antique Mechanism Teaching Models chaired by Hong-Sen Yan, the director of the NCKU museum. Moreover, there were more papers than ever before about kinematic models presented at the symposium [21]. We can take from these activities the following results: • There is now a complete overview of more than 600 Russian mechanism models at Bauman University in Moscow thanks to the work of Alexander Golovin and Valentin Tarabarin [22]. The collection also includes new, modern models which are intensively used for teaching students. Moreover, it seems important to us to point to the large encyclopaedic collection of virtual models published in five volumes – some volumes even existing of two parts – by the late Academician Ivan I. Artobolevsky (1905–1977), one of the founders of IFToMM [23]. • Kyoto University in Japan preserves a total of 60 machine mechanism models in the typical Reuleaux style. At least 21 of these models were imported from Germany in 1903. The rest of the models were manufactured by the Japanese company Shimadzu Corporation in 1913. The knowledge of this historical collection essentially goes back to the investigations of Sohei Shiroshita from Kyoto University [24]. • Shimadzu Corporation also manufactured the larger part of totally 119 machine mechanism models that were housed at three different universities for mechanical engineering in Taiwan, i.e., the National Taipei University of Technology (NTUT), the National Cheng Kung University (NCKU) in Tainan and the National Taiwan University (NTU) in Taipei. Under the leadership of Hong-Sen Yan a museum at NCKU was founded in 2006 to collect, exhibit and investigate all Taiwan´s antique mechanism models, cf. also the webpage http://www. acmcf.org.tw [25]. Moreover in the meantime, Hong-Sen Yan and two of his co-workers published a book showing all the 119 models in a very attractive way and gave competent explanations of their origin, function and design [26]. • The Faculdade de Engenharia da Universidade do Porto (FEUP) in Portugal owns a major collection of 113 items of Reuleaux models. Most of them were bought from the Gustav Voigt Mechanische Werkstatt in Berlin by Joaquim de Azevedo Albuquerque (1839–1912) who founded the Gabinete de Cinemática da Academia Polytechnica do Porto when he was chair of the Rational Mechanics and Kinematics Department at this Polytechnic. Nowadays the models are part of the FEUP museum, and some of them are still used for the teaching of students [27].

The Role of Mechanism Models for Motion Generation in Mechanical Engineering

119

Conclusions Kinematics is the general base of machinery, for the generation of motions and the transmission of forces and torques. All those mechanical engineers engaged on the design and construction of machines must have a thorough appreciation of mechanisms. In former times the mechanical engineer had to develop his professional skills of how to imagine motions only from drawings or blueprints. So, mechanism models were a valuable and essential tool in the training of students, technicians and engineers. But still today models give us a feeling of how a machine works and of its running behaviour. Acknowledgments The authors want to thank Prof. Marco Ceccarelli from the University of Cassino (Italy) for his kind support and scientific advice when preparing this paper.

References 1. Beck, T.: Beiträge zur Geschichte des Maschinenbaues. Julius Springer, Berlin (1899) 2. Ceccarelli, M.: Historical evolution of the classification of mechanisms. In: Ceccarelli, M. (ed.) Proceeding International Symposium on History of Machines and Mechanisms – Proceeding HMM 2004, pp. 285–302. Kluwer Academic, Dordrecht (2004) 3. Ceccarelli, M.: Renaissance of machines in Italy: From Brunelleschi to Galilei through Francesco di Giorgio and Leo- nardo. Mech. Mach. Theor. 43, 1530–1542 (2008) 4. Ferguson, E.S.: Engineering and the Mind´s Eye. The MIT Press, Cambridge (1992) 5. Hilz, H.: Theatrum Machinarum – Das technische Schaubuch der frühen Neuzeit. Deutsches Museum, München (2008) 6. Lanz, J.M., de Betancourt, A.: Essai sur la Composition des Machines. Paris (1808) 7. Brown, H.T.: Five Hundred and Seven Mechanical Move- ments. Brown, Coombs & Co, New York (1868) 8. Clark, W.M., Downward, V.: Mechanical Models: A Series of Working Models on the Art and Science of Mechanics. The Newark Museum, Newark (1930) 9. Alt, H.: Getriebemodelle. VDI-Tagungsheft, pp. 197–200. Deutscher Ingenieur, Düsseldorf (1953). Band 1 10. Torfason, L. E.: Kinematic Models of Spatial Mechanisms. ASME paper no. 70-Mech-74 (1970) 11. Kerle, H.: On the power transmission and running quality of micro-mechanisms. In: Ceccarelli, M. (ed.) Proceeding EUCOMES 08, pp. 377–385. Springer (2009) 12. Ferguson, E. S.: Kinematics of mechanisms from the time of Watt. The Museum of History and Technology, Washington, DC, pp. 185–230, paper no. 27 (1962) 13. Mende, M.: Technische Sammlungen und industrielle Entwick- lung, pp. 15–27. PrestelVerlag: Das k.k. National- fabriksproduktenkabinett, Technisches Museum Wien (Austria), München/New York (1995) 14. Redtenbacher, F.J.: Die Bewegungs-Mechanismen. Verlagsbuchhandlung F. Bassermann, Heidelberg (1857) 15. Wauer, J., Mauersberger, K., Moon, F.C.: Ferdinand Jakob Redtenbacher (1809–1863). In: Ceccarelli, M. (ed.) Distinguished Figures in Mechanism and Machine Science – Their Contributions and Legacies, Part 2. History of Mechanism and Machine Science, vol. 7, pp. 217–245. Springer, Dordrecht (2010) 16. Mauersberger, K.: Die Getriebemodellsammlung der Technischen Universität Dresden. Wiss. Zeitschrift der TU Dresden 46(3), 103–106 (1997)

120

H. Kerle et al.

17. Moon, F. C.: The Machines of Leonardo da Vinci and Franz Reuleaux – Kinematics of Machines from the Renaissance to the 20th Century. History of Mechanism and Machine Science, vol. 2 (series editor: Ceccarelli, M.). Springer, Dordrecht Washington, DC (2007) 18. Reuleaux, F.: The Kinematics of Machinery – Outlines of a Theory of Machines. Macmillan, London (1876) 19. Moon, F.C.: Franz Reuleaux: contributions to 19th century Kinematics and theory of machines. Trans. ASME: Appl. Mech. Rev. 56(2), 261–285 (2003) 20. Brix, T., Döring, U., Corves, B., Modler, K.-H.: DMG-Lib: the digital mechanism and gear library project. In: Proceeding 12th IFToMM World Congress on Mechanism and Machine Science, Besançon, June (2007) 21. Yan, H.-S., Ceccarelli, M. (eds.): International Symposium on Hi-story of Machines and Mechanisms. In: Proceeding HMM 2008. History of Mechanism and Machine Science, vol. 4 (series editor: Ceccarelli, M.). Springer (2009) 22. Golovin, A.; Tarabarin, V.: Russian Models from the Mechanisms Collection of Bauman University. History of Mechanism and Machine Science, vol. 5 (series editor: Ceccarelli, M.). Springer (2008) 23. Artobolevsky, I.I.: Mechanisms in Modern Engineering Design – A Handbook for Engineers, Designers and Inventors, vol. I–V. Mir, Moscow (1975–1980) 24. Shiroshita, S.: Technology transfer of educational machine mechanism models. International Symposium on History of Machines and Mechanisms. In: Proceeding HMM 2008. History of Mechanism and Machine Science, vol. 4, pp. 365–375 (series ed.: Ceccarelli, M.). Springer (2009) 25. Yan, H.-S., Huang, H.-H., Kuo, C.-H.: Historic mechanism teaching models in Taiwan. In: Proceeding 12th IFToMM World Congress on Mechanism and Machine Science, Besançon (France), June (2007) 26. Yan, H.S., Huang, H.H., Kuo, C.H.: Antique Mechanism Models in Taiwan. National Cheng Kung University Museum, Tainan (2008) 27. Tavares, J.M.R.S., Guedes, M.V., de Castro, P.M.S. T.: The Collection of Reuleaux Models of the Faculdade de Engenharia da Universidade do Porto, Portugal: Brief Historical Note and Current Status. In: Proceeding Workshop on the History of Mechanism and Machine Science, Ithaca, Sept 2006 (2006)

Development of Computational Kinematics Within the IFToMM Community Doina Pisla and Manfred L. Husty

Abstract With the advent of symbolic computation and the development of new methods and algorithms in numerical mathematics the classical field of kinematics has undergone a renaissance. But it was not only the new methods that caused this renaissance. Where classical kinematics studied mainly mechanisms and oneparameter motions, the emergence of robotics changed the focus of kinematics to multi-parameter motions and new topics such as workspace computations, direct and inverse kinematics and singularities of sophisticated robots and machines. Therefore it is not surprising that researchers of the IFToMM community entered the new field of robot kinematics. Consequentially the TC Computational Kinematics was established within IFToMM. In this paper we introduce the basic topics and the research methods that define Computational Kinematics and report the short history, aims and activities of the IFToMM TC Computational Kinematics.

Introduction Although machines have been used since ancient times, the first theoretical works on the basics of motion go back to Antiquity; it seems that the Greeks were the first to study the theory of basic machines, the inclined plane, the wedge, the lever, the wheel and the screw [1]. Theoretical interest in kinematics, but most the time with some practical

D. Pisla (*) Department of Mechanics and Computer Programming, Technical University of Cluj-Napoca, Memorandumului 28, 400114 Cluj-Napoca, Romania e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] M.L. Husty Institute of Basic Science in Engineering, University Innsbruck, Unit Geometry and CAD, Technikerstraße 13, Innsbruck A-6020, Austria e-mail: [email protected] M. Ceccarelli (ed.), Technology Developments: the Role of Mechanism and Machine Science and IFToMM, Mechanisms and Machine Science 1, DOI 10.1007/978-94-007-1300-0_9, © Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2011

121

122

D. Pisla and M.L. Husty

applications in mind, started again in renaissance time. Texts from Antiquity such as books from the Aristotelian school were studied and enriched by their own results from researchers and engineers like Guidobaldo del Monte or G. Galilei. T. Koetsier came to the conclusion: “During the Renaissance MMS (Mechanism and Machine Science) did not exist as a coherent discipline, but in the textbooks of the descriptive type as well as in the books about basic machines the geometric aspect is in the centre” ([1], p. 8). The important fact is that geometric and topological properties were studied to explain force input and output relations of various mechanisms. Kinematics as a subject of its own appeared in the beginning of the nineteenth century when A.-M. Ampère in 1834 coined “the word “kinematics” (“cinématique”) for a subscience of mechanics, which deals with motion independent of its causes” ([1], p. 12). This interesting history of the early development of kinematics as a science between geometry and mechanics is explained in great detail in [1]. It is shown there that in the first half of the nineteenth century kinematics consisted of two (sometimes overlapping) main research directions: “Theoretical Kinematics”, mostly conducted by mathematicians interested in the geometry of motion and “Kinematics of machines” which deals more with the topology of mechanisms and the applications. The center of gravity of kinematics research at that time was clearly France and the important developments are linked to famous mathematicians like M. Chasles, A. Chauchy or É Bobillier. In the second half of the nineteenth century kinematics developed into an independent subject thus entering the golden age of kinematics ([1], p. 15). The center of gravity of kinematics research (at least for Theoretical Kinematics) moved eastwards and is linked to the names of Franz Reuleaux and Ludwig Burmester. The content of the kinematic research at that time was mostly kinematics of planar motions. Turning to spatial motions it became soon clear that the subject, from geometric and mathematical points of view became sophisticated. But still prominent mathematicians and geometricians were working in the field. As an example we cite the Pix Vaillant in 1904, when the French Academy of science under its president G. Darboux posed the question of determining all spatial continuous motions where as many points as possible move on spherical paths. E. Borel and R. Bricard won the prize but it turned out that in long and detailed discussions they only could give partial answers and many cases were not solved.1 Paradigmatic for all of kinematics, the equations describing those motions became too complicated to allow a complete answer (see also [2]). Equations describing the motion of spatial mechanisms, even when they have only one degree of freedom, are generally systems of algebraic or functional equations. They contain most of the time many parameters encoding the topology and the design of the mechanism and additionally are nonlinear in its motion parameters. More and more it became clear that interesting questions in kinematics were not solvable by hand, although appropriate mathematical tools generally were available. The systems of equations simply were too complicated to be handled. It seems that this is the most important reason that mathematicians at the beginning of the twentieth century lost interest in kinematics; it was no longer “fashionable” for mathematicians and geometricians to study kinematics and this led to a decline A complete answer to this problem is still an open question. It should be noted that this question has become important again in the discussion of singularities and self-motions of Gough-Stewart platforms [2].

1

Development of Computational Kinematics Within the IFToMM Community

123

of theoretical kinematics. Rather few papers on kinematics (compared to the golden period) were published in the first half of the twentieth century. Nevertheless theoretical kinematics survived at some singular spots, for example in Eastern Europe and in Austria. But in the second half of this century, because of the advent of Robotics, a renewed interest in the results of classical kinematics arose. Ferdinand Freudenstein, professor at Columbia University was the one who in the USA moved kinematics from its classical roots into a new age [3]. Therefore he is known as the father of modern kinematics, ushering in the programmed, digital computation era in the kinematics of mechanisms and robots. Freudenstein’s and his students’ work mark the transition of classical kinematics into a new paradigm. The idea to use the new technologies and computational possibilities to advance in kinematics must have been the motivation to collect the classical results in O. Bottema and B. Roth’s book Theoretical Kinematics [4]. This book summarizes the main subjects of classical kinematics and treats them uniformly: Representation of Euclidean displacements, instantaneous kinematics, more position theory, continuous kinematics, spherical and planar kinematics, special motions, kinematic mapping, non-Euclidean kinematics. It also defines the subject and marks the beginning of a renaissance of this science under a new paradigm: “Formally, kinematics is that branch of mechanics which treats the phenomenon of motion without regard to the cause of the motion. In kinematics there is no reference to mass or force; the concern is only with relative positions and their changes. We have used the word theoretical kinematics in order to distinguish our subject from applied kinematics, which deals with the application of kinematics: to mechanical contrivances, to the theory of machines and to the analysis and synthesis of mechanisms. Most of what is written herein could be used to study mechanical devices. However, our aim is broader: what we give is the development of the theory independent of any particular application, a presentation of the subject as a fundamental science of its own right. By this we hope to make these results equally accessible to other fields. This is important because our science touches on many areas: everything that moves has kinematical aspects.” ([4], preface). Although the book marks a change of paradigm it is still very classic and does not reflect the dramatic change of topics and methods in kinematics that caused the real renaissance of kinematics in the second half of the twentieth century. Because of robots and manipulators, multi-parameter motions had to be discussed, which were not in the interest of classical kinematics. Classical kinematics did not go further than two and three parameter motions. But the most influential change was the use of computers for both numerical and symbolic computations. Also problems where classical kinematics had to stop could be attacked again and new questions emerged. This marks the start of a new subscience of mechanics: Computational kinematics.

Computational Kinematics Computational Kinematics is that branch of kinematics that involves intensive computations not only of numerical type but also of symbolic nature [5]. This field has developed within the last 4 decades to answer fundamental questions arising in the analysis and synthesis of kinematic chains. These kinematic chains

124

D. Pisla and M.L. Husty

are constituent elements of serial or parallel robots, wired robots, humanoid robots, walking and jumping machines or rolling and autonomous robots. The fundamental questions, going far beyond classical kinematics, involve the number of solutions, complex or real to, for example, forward or inverse kinematics, the description of singular solutions and the mathematical solution of workspace or synthesis questions. Such problems are often described by systems of multivariate algebraic or functional equations and it turns out that even relatively simple kinematic problems involving multi-parameter systems lead to complicated nonlinear equations. Numerical solutions, using for example the Newton– Raphson method, yield in general to one isolated solution heavily depending on the initial value. This is an unsatisfying situation, because a safe control needs all solutions and even more, a clear understanding of all special solutions, which are mostly called singular solutions. This situation led to the application of new methods to kinematic problems, methods that had been previously developed in mathematics: • Numerical continuation is a method coming from the field of numerical algebraic geometry that allows one to find all solutions of a set of algebraic equations. • Groebner bases are a tool from algebraic geometry that uses symbolic computation to simplify systems of nonlinear equations, preferably into triangular form. Groebner bases are just one example of methods and algorithms from algebraic geometry that have been used in kinematics. • Interval analysis is an established numerical method although it is not well known. It is able to solve relatively large systems of equations providing all solutions within a bounded domain in a guaranteed manner (i.e., no solution can be missed), taking into account numerical round-off errors. Solutions are provided as ranges that are guaranteed to include a single solution of the system, a solution that can then be computed with an arbitrary accuracy. • Numerical optimization techniques such as genetic algorithms, sequential quadratic programming, gradient-based methods, simulated annealing or Monte Carlo methods are used in different variants and combinations. A more detailed discussion on the different mathematical methods applied within computational kinematics can be found in [6]. In this paper the authors state, “that the power of advanced mathematical methods is still far from completely utilized” [in computational kinematics]… and that “it is believed that the future of computational kinematics is directly linked to the development of mathematical tools for kinematics problems”. Both observations are indeed interesting. Kinematic problems and their solutions have not only been excellent examples for mathematicians to test their methods on, but on the other hand have forced mathematicians to improve those methods and even develop new tools. An example to support this statement is the development of the so-called witness set method within numerical continuation, which was developed to describe the behaviour of pathological mechanisms where the influence of design parameters change the kinematic performance of topologically equivalent mechanisms [7]. That certain useful mathematical

Development of Computational Kinematics Within the IFToMM Community

125

methods were still not used within the community led to initiatives of the TC Computational Kinematics which will be discussed in Objectives and Activities of TC-Computational Kinematics. Nowadays kinematic questions cannot be treated in isolation. Dynamics, control and manufacturing of a device heavily interact with the kinematics. But it can be said that kinematics is the basis for all the other issues and a bad kinematic design will never be enhanced by a sophisticated control system. An exemplary selection of topics studied in Computational Kinematics is: • Analysis of robots and mechanisms –– –– –– –– –– • • • • •

Direct and inverse Kinematics Singularities Workspace Motion planning Collision avoidance

Redundant manipulators Structural synthesis of robots and mechanisms Performance analysis Compliance Calibration

This list is not exhaustive but it gives an impression of the research topics of the field. Computational Kinematics also has close links to and intense interactions with related fields like computational geometry, algebraic geometry, and numerical mathematics. But we note that it is difficult to establish exact boundaries between computational kinematics and e.g. dynamics, control, design and other subjects necessary to study robotic mechanical systems. This fact can be seen clearly from the following topics of the last Workshop on Computational Kinematics held in Duisburg (Germany) in 2009: Analysis of cable-driven parallel manipulators, motion planning, numerical methods, geometrical methods, synthesis of mechanisms and robots, biomechanics, design issues, singularities and gears.

History of TC-Computational Kinematics The IFToMM community has clearly observed the developments within kinematics and reacted in the early 1990s with the establishment of a Technical Commission on Computational Kinematics. Bahram Ravani first proposed the establishment of such a technical committee at the Executive Council Meeting of IFToMM in Sevilla, Spain on the occasion of the seventh World Congress of IFToMM in 1987. But it seems that the time was not ripe. The proposal was not approved. Bahram Ravani re-proposed the establishment of a technical committee with the name of “Technical Committee on Computational Geometry” at the executive council meeting at the occasion of the eight World Congress of

126

D. Pisla and M.L. Husty

IFToMM in Prague in 1991. This was approved with Bahram Ravani as the inaugural chair of this newly formed committee. A first workshop on Computational Kinematics was organized in Dagstuhl (Germany) by J. Angeles, G. Hommel and P. Kovacs. This workshop was the first in a series of workshops, but it seems that it was not organized under the auspices of IFToMM and the newly founded TC. The papers presented were published by Kluwer Academic Publishers [5]. In 1994, Bahram Ravani organized the first IFToMM workshop on the subject in conjunction with the fourth ARK workshop in Ljubljana, Slovenia July 4–6, 1994. The papers were published in a combined volume titled: “Advances in Robot Kinematics and Computational Geometry” co edited by Jardan Lenarčič and Bahram Ravani [8]. In 1995, at the executive council meeting at the occasion of the ninth World Congress of IFToMM in Milan, Bahram Ravani proposed the name change to “Technical Committee for Computational Kinematics” which was approved with Bahram Ravani as the chair. In 1995, the second workshop of the committee was held in Sophia-Antipolis, France on Sept. 4–6. The papers of this workshop were published in a bound volume with the title: “Computational Kinematics 1995”. It was co-edited by J. P. Merlet and B. Ravani and published by Kluwer Academic Publisher [9]. From this year on it was planned to have two conferences under the umbrella of the TC: ARK (Advances in Robot Kinematics) every even year, and CK (Computational Kinematics) every odd year. This splitting implicates that every second CK is held within the IFToMM world congress. Unfortunately these plans were destroyed already in 1997, when the scheduled CK workshop in Salford was cancelled by the organizers without clear reasons. In 1998, Jean Pierre Merlet was appointed as the chair of the Technical Committee on Computational Kinematics until 2005. Because of the cancelling of CK 1997 a long gap developed in the workshop series of Computation Kinematics. Not until 2001 did Frank Park revive the workshop series [10]. Because of the long gap and the unclear early history of this workshop it was wrongly named second workshop of CK. Following the success of this event CK was held every second year: 2003 (within the IFToMM world congress, actually held in 2004, because of SARS) in Tianjin (China), 2005 in Cassino (Italy) organized by M. Ceccarelli publishing the papers in conference proceedings on CD [11] and the best papers in a special volume of Mechanism and Machine Theory, 2007 in Besançon (France) within the IFToMM world congress and 2009 in Duisburg (Germany) organized by A. Kecskeméthy with proceedings in a bound volume [12]. It is a clear sign of gaining strength of the community and the workshop that the next two workshops of the CK series are already contracted to Barcelona (Spain) in 2013 and 2017 in Sousse (Tunisia). The conference series ARK had a much more stable history. This workshop has been held regularly since 1988 and since 1994 has been under the umbrella of the TC Computational Kinematics. Since then it was held every second year at different places. The proceedings of ARK are published by Springer in the book series Advances in Robot Kinematics [8, 13–20]. From 2005 until 2008 M. Husty was chairman of the TC and since 2009 Doina Pisla is the current chairperson.

Development of Computational Kinematics Within the IFToMM Community

127

Objectives and Activities of TC-Computational Kinematics TC Computational Kinematics was established within IFToMM as a suborganisation and therefore committed to all objectives and activities of IFToMM. Nevertheless it has some special duties and responsibilities [21]: • To support and develop research and education in Computational Kinematics; • To establish contacts between researchers and engineers; • To promote the exchange of information; • To support the celebration of events. The main activities of the Technical Committee for Computational Kinematics, as listed in [21] are: The TC for Computational Kinematics • Helps to exchange the experiences and the knowledge in the International Computational Kinematics Community (conferences, publications) and to build up international research joint collaborations; • Decides about new members for the Technical Committee; • Discusses the topics, the locations and dates of coming international Computational Kinematics conferences; • Looks for support for young delegates from poor countries to visit conferences; • Reviews the conference papers and selects best papers for awards; • Evaluates new research directions and decides the introduction of new subcommittees; • Supports and recommends education activities in Computational Kinematics (short courses, University courses, summer schools and student exchange programs). The Technical Committee has a chairperson and a secretary, who are elected by the committee members. The duties and responsibilities of the chairperson- supported by the secretary are: • Organize and coordinate the TC-meetings (usually during one of the Computational Kinematics workshops or whenever a majority of TC members meet at other conferences); • Invite for the meetings, prepare the agenda, write the minutes of the meetings and distribute them to the TC-members; • Lead the discussion during the meetings and asks the members for decisions by votes; • Report about the general IFToMM activities, e.g. results of the Executive Council meeting, IFToMM world conferences etc; • Report yearly to the IFToMM Executive Council about the annual activities of the Technical Committee;

128

D. Pisla and M.L. Husty

• Ask and negotiate with the Executive Council and the treasurer about support for the Technical Committee and for the young delegates’ program. • The chairperson and the secretary are responsible for the execution of decisions from the Technical Committee.

Conferences As already explained in History of TC-Computational Kinematics the IFToMM Technical Committee for Computational Kinematics is linked to two important conferences: 1. International Symposium - Advances in Robot Kinematics (ARK) is a series of international symposia of the highest international level organized every 2 years since 1988. The last ARK was organized in Batz sur Mer, France (2008) and ARK 2010 will be organized in Piran, Slovenia. Following the definition of the organizers of ARK 2010 [22] it provides a forum for researchers working in robot kinematics and stimulates new directions of research by forging links between robot kinematics and other areas. The main topics are as follows: Analysis of robot kinematics; Modelling and simulation of robot kinematics; Kinematic design of robots; Kinematics in robot control; Theories and methods in kinematics; Singularity and isotropy; Kinematics in biological systems; Kinematics in parallel robots, redundant, humanoid robots. The ARK papers are included in books published by Springer (previously by Kluwer). These books present the most recent research advances in the theory, design, control and application of robotic systems, which are intended for a variety of purposes such as manipulation, manufacturing, automation, surgery, locomotion and biomechanics. 2. International Workshop on Computational Kinematics (CK) The aim of this workshop is a little bit broader then ARK. This can be seen already in the title of the workshop, because Computational Kinematics is not limited to the kinematics of robots. It comprises the kinematics of all types of mechanical systems. The scope of the conference includes the following topics: Kinematic design and synthesis; Computational geometry; Motion analysis and synthesis; Theory of mechanisms; Mechanism design; Kinematical analysis of robots and parallel manipulators; Kinematical issues in biomechanics; Molecular kinematics; Computer animation and interpolation of kinematical motion; Motor learning and control; Robot motion planning; Applications of computational kinematics; Education in computational kinematics; Theoretical foundations of kinematics. It should be mentioned that none of the conferences is strict in accepting papers of topics within kinematics that are not explicitly listed. The main criteria of acceptance are the quality of the contributions.

Development of Computational Kinematics Within the IFToMM Community

129

Summer Schools Dissemination of new methods among young researchers is one of the most important issues in establishing a new scientific field. Therefore it is one of the important tasks of the TC Computational Kinematics to provide courses, textbooks and summer schools for PhD students and young scientists. In summer 2009 the TC organized a summer school on “Mathematical Methods in Computational Kinematics” in Innsbruck (Austria). For 4 weeks, intense lectures were given on methods from algebraic geometry and their application to kinematics, numerical continuation and interval analysis. In lectures and lab exercises, students learned about the foundations of algebraic geometry, e.g., ideals and varieties, term orders and Groebner bases, elimination theory, dimension of ideals and primary decomposition, numerical algebraic geometry, e.g., homotopy, solution paths, total degree homotopy, parameter continuation, numerical irreducible decomposition and the use of software packages such as HomLab and Bertini. They were introduced into interval analysis and learned how to set up and solve kinematic problems with interval methods and how to obtain certified solutions with the software package ALIAS.

Journal In 2002 the TC launched an electronic journal EJCK (Electronic Journal of Computational Kinematics. It was intended to act as a complement to classical journals while retaining their high quality and to improve the availability of scientific materials through electronic distribution [23]. The journal encouraged “the full use of the computer media [..]: this includes computer animation through the Web (possibly interactive), possibility of free software downloading, interactive use of software}” [23], and wanted to provide the possibility to an update of some previously published paper and to have a review of the updated version. This possibility should enable “evolving papers with a minimal amount of work from the authors, the reviewers and the readers” [23]. It wanted also to “encourage online discussion of articles or the submission of open problems, a process as vital to the community as the formal publication process itself”. The main topics of the journal were intended to be: • • • • • • • •

forward and inverse kinematics of mechanisms and robots advances in theoretical kinematics workspace computation singularity evaluation path planning, trajectory interpolation performance evaluation of mechanisms optimal design of mechanisms methodology for designing new mechanisms

130

D. Pisla and M.L. Husty

The first volume of the journal was published in 2002 and contained 28 papers. Unfortunately this issue was the only one published. There might be many reasons why this journal was not accepted by the community. Perhaps the time was not ripe for an electronic journal, although the format was exactly what the field needed. Papers in Computational Kinematics need some important publication in which to present electronic material, like symbolic software worksheets, computer code for algorithms, animations or high resolution figures. For many years the TC had discussions about advertising and relaunching the journal. In the TC meeting, which was held at the IFToMM world congress in Besançon in 2007, the then members of the TC decided to stop the discussion about relaunching the journal. This decision was approved by the Executive Council in the meeting in 2007. The TC should rethink this decision because times have changed and the basic fear of the authors, that an electronic journal may not be taken as seriously as a regular paper journal, has at least partly been overcome by the development of scientific publishing within the last 5 years. It seems to be clear that a scientific field that heavily uses the computer to derive results needs a publication forum that allows publication of animations, videos, long computer code, algorithms and high resolution figures.

Conclusion Since the middle of the twentieth century, kinematics has been revived because of the new possibilities the computer revolution brought, but also because of a dramatic change of the subject itself. In this paper we have tried to trace this development, which led to the establishment of a Technical Commission within IFToMM. We have tried to define the subject and list the activities the TC has put forth. Acknowledgement The authors thank Bahram Ravani for his input on the early history of the TC.

References 1. Koetsier, T.: Mechanism and machine science: its history and its identity. In: Ceccarelli, M. (ed.) Proceedings of HMM 2000, pp. 5–24. Kluwer Academic (2000) 2. Husty, M., Borel’s, E., Bricard’s R.: Papers on Displacements with Spherical Paths and their Relevance to Self-motions of Parallel Manipulators, In: Ceccarelli, M (ed.) International Symposium on History of Machines and Mechanisms-Proceedings HMM 2000, pp. 163–172, Kluwer Academic (2000), ISBN0-7923-6372-8 3. Roth, B.: Ferdinand Freudenstein (1926–2006). In: Ceccarelli, M. (ed.) Distinguished Figures in Mechanism and Machine Science, pp. 151–181. Springer, New York (2007) 4. Bottema, O., Roth, B.: Theoretical Kinematics. North Holland, Amsterdam/New York (1979) 5. Angeles, J., Hommel, G., Kovacs, P. (eds.): Computational Kinematics. Kluwer, Dordrecht (1993). ISBN ISBN-10: 904814342X ISBN-13: 978-90481434291993

Development of Computational Kinematics Within the IFToMM Community

131

6. Luo, Z., Dai, J.S.: Mathematical methodologies in computational kinematics. In: 14th Biennial Mechanisms Conference, Chong Qing, China, 2004. Also published in Journal of Machine Design and Research, 20 (special issue) (2004) 7. Sommese, A.J., Wampler, Ch W.: The Numerical Solution of Systems of Polynomials. World Scientific, New Jersey (2005) 8. Lenarčič, J., Ravani, B. (eds.): Advances in Robot Kinematics and Computational Geometry. Springer, Dordrecht (1994) 9. Merlet, J.-P. (ed.): Computational Kinematics 1995. In: Proceedings: Workshop on Computational Kinematics Held in Sophia Antipolis, 4–6 Sept 1995. Kluwer Academic, Dordrecht, ISBN13: 9780792336730 ISBN10: 0792336739 (1995) 10. Park, F.C., Iurascu, C.C. (eds.): Proceedings of the 2nd Workshop on Computational Kinematics, Seoul, 20–22 May 2001 11. Ceccarelli, M. (ed.): CD Proceedings of CK05 IFToMM Workshop on Computational Kinematics, Cassino, 4–6 May 2005 12. Kecskeméthy, A., Müller, An (eds.): Computational Kinematics. Springer, Duisburg (2009). ISBN ISBN 978-3-642-01946-3 13. Stifter, S., Lenarčič, J. (eds.): Advances in Robot Kinematics: With Emphasis on Symbolic Computation. Springer, Wien/New York (1991) 14. Lenarčič, J., Parenti-Castelli, V. (eds.), Recent Advances in Robot Kinematics. Springer (1996) 15. Lenarčič, J., Husty, M.L. (eds.): Advances in Robot Kinematics: Analysis and Control. Springer (1998) 16. Lenarčič, J., Stanisic, M.M. (eds.): Advances in Robot Kinematics. Springer (2000) 17. Lenarčič, J., Thomas F. (eds.): Advances in Robot Kinematics: Theory and Applications. Springer (2002) 18. Lenarčič, J., Galletti, C. (eds.): On Advances in Robot Kinematics. Springer (2004) 19. Lenarčič, J., Roth, B. (eds.): Advances in Robot Kinematics: Mechanisms and Motion. Springer (2006), ISBN-10: 1402049404 ISBN-13: 978–1402049408 20. Lenarčič, J., Wenger P. (eds.): Advances in Robot Kinematics: Analysis and Design. Springer (2008) 21. http://130.15.85.212/link/TCdata.html, (2009) 22. http://www.ijs.si/ijsw/IJS/ARK2010 23. http://www-sop.inria.fr/coprin/EJCK/EJCK.html, (2000)

Theory and Practice of Gearing in Machines and Mechanisms Science Veniamin I. Goldfarb

Abstract Some tendencies of theory and practice of gearing development, a bit of history with the names of outstanding scientists and engineers, the up-to-data directions of research and development activity in the field of gears are given in the chapter.

Introduction One of the greatest inventions of humanity was and remains the wheel, without which we could hardly imagine our existence. The wheel, in turn, provided civilization with many derivatives, including such a wonderful one, the gearwheel that, paired with another gearwheel, forms a gear. For over 400 years, gears have been the most fundamental and reliable mechanisms for transmission and transformation of motion. During this long period humanity did not manage to think of anything more perfect, but continued developing and improving this kind of mechanisms. It is hardly possible to find a field of technology today where gears are not used. Neither power plants generating thousands of megawatts of power, nor spindles of metal-cutting machine-tools, nor car wheels, nor hands of watches, nor platforms of huge excavators with gear rims of diameter up to 20 m, nor micromechanisms with the size of gears less than 1 mm, could rotate without them. And thus the activity of gear designers, researchers, manufacturers and consumers does not decrease, the number and complexity of problems solved by experts keeps growing, gear application domains are expanding, and world gear production and consumption keeps growing annually, exceeding today 100 billion USD.

V.I. Goldfarb (*) Department of Production Engineering, Institute of Mechanics, Izhevsk State Technical University, Studencheskaya str. 7, Izhevsk 426069, Russia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] M. Ceccarelli (ed.), Technology Developments: the Role of Mechanism and Machine Science and IFToMM, Mechanisms and Machine Science 1, DOI 10.1007/978-94-007-1300-0_10, © Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2011

133

134

V.I. Goldfarb

A Bit of History Historically, methods of geometrical analysis of gears began developing in the sixteenth century. Works of G. Cardano (1557), P. De La Hiro (1694) and L. Euler (1754) were the reference point for theory of involute cylindrical gears design. The theory of gearing appeared as an independent science in the nineteenth century due to fundamental works of T. Olivier (1842), who presented it as a section of descriptive geometry, and H.I. Gochman (1886), who generalized and developed the theory of gearing by methods of mathematical analysis. The twentieth century became an era of revolutionary changes in technology on the whole, including technology of gearing and theory of gearing. These changes are connected with the names of many remarkable scientists and engineers: E. Wildhaber (1893–1976) was the most famous researcher in the field of gear design and manufacture – he received 279 patents, many of them are in practical use even now; E. Buckingham (1887–1978) was another of the outstanding researchers who laid the foundation of modern methods of gear design; D. Dudley (1917–2003) was a scientist with encyclopaedic education, his textbooks and reference-books were published in huge amounts and were always useful in engineering practice; G. Niemann (1899– 1982) was an outstanding scientist and teacher in the field of machines and mechanisms design; D. Brown, W. Gleason, G.A. Klingelnberg are consummate organizers, who created world-wide known companies for the manufacture of gears and tooth-cutting machine-tools; H. Merrit, H. Winter, N.I. Kolchin, V.A. Gavrilenko, V.N. Kudryavtsev, M.L. Novikov, A. Seireg, G. Henriot, E.L. Airapetov and many other scientists and engineers, who left bright imprints in the science of gears and practice of their wide application, and who are carefully kept in our memory. Modern scientists Prof. F.L. Litvin – an outstanding creator of geometrical theory of gearing and one of most cited scientists, Professors A. Kubo, B.-R. Höhn, D. Qin, W. Predki, A.E. Belyaev, V.E. Starzhinsky, D. Houser and many others from all countries of the world actively keep developing the theory of gearing, which, like other sections of machines and mechanisms science, is improving together with the world progress of science and technology. It is impossible to cite here all the individuals who created and developed the theory and practice of gearing, and to give corresponding bibliographic references; I would like however to mention the unique books by Faidor L. Litvin [1, 2], H.-Chr. Graf Seher-Thoss [3], Darle W. Dudley [4], Hermann J. Stadtfeld [5], which contain the best descriptions of the developmental history of the theory of gearing. Some very important information about that history relates to the creation and activity of the Gearing Technical Committee of IFToMM. The idea of creating the Committee was proposed in 1976 by Prof. A. Morecki, who was at that time the Secretary General of IFToMM and invited a famous scientist, D.W. Dudley (USA), to head the Committee. The directions of the Technical Committee’s activity (dynamics, load-bearing capacity, efficiency, techniques of gear manufacture, differential gear mechanisms) were outlined at the first Committee meetings, which were held, as a rule, within the framework of large conferences on gears and transmissions. The first Committee was formed and it included Prof. G. Henriot

Theory and Practice of Gearing in Machines and Mechanisms Science

135

(France), Prof. M. Dietrich (Poland), Prof. Z. Terplan (Hungary), Prof. H. Winter (Germany), Dr. K. Stölzle (Germany), Prof. A. Kubo (Japan), Prof. J. Hlebanya (Yugoslavia) and other famous scientists and engineers. In 1986 Dr. K. Stölzle took the place of D.W. Dudley in the post of Chairman. Under his chairmanship the meetings were carried out in the framework of large conferences in France, China, Japan, USA and together with meetings of the Gearing Committee (TC60) of ISO. Two important directions were chosen for TC activity: (1) calculation of gear overloading that appear, in particular, during their abrupt stoppage; (2) determination and application of various factors during calculation of a gear’s load-bearing capacity. From 1993 to 1997, the Committee was headed by Prof. A. Kubo (Japan), who surveyed the members of TC, asking the question of what research activity the Committee should foster in the coming years. That survey resulted in a mission statement – to determine the most urgent needs of gear engineers and scientists and to develop recommendations and proposals for improving the quality of their scientific-technical production. During this period a program of international conferences on motion and power transmissions was developed. During these years also the Journal “Gearing and Transmissions” began publication; it was at first considered as a Journal of the Technical Committee but later became one of the official Journals of the IFToMM. V.I. Goldfarb (Russia) became the Editor-in-Chief of the Journal, and the Editorial Board was formed of many leading gear experts from many countries, including some members of TC. In 1997 Prof. V.I. Goldfarb was elected the Committee Chairman. At the first meeting in the city of Tun (Switzerland), which took place together with the meeting of ISO TC60, he proposed a program for the Committee consideration, according to which the following directions were outlined: joint realization of scientific programs and projects, carrying out conferences and scientific seminars, cooperation with national associations and other gear organizations; publishing, educational, informational activity. This program was agreed to by the Committee. The theme “Development of methods and tools of estimating the state and diagnostics of gears and gearboxes” was suggested as a priority for joint scientific research projects. Universities of Russia, Slovakia, Poland, Czech Republic, and Belarus cooperated in realization of an international program. The Journal “Gearing and transmissions” was published regularly from 1994 to 2004 under the direction of experts from 22 countries who were Committee members. In 2005, Prof. A. Dobroczeny (Hungary) was elected the Committee Chairman.

Development Trends of the Theory and Practice of Gears Let us begin with a statement by Dr. Stölzle given in the paper [6]: “Gearing is necessary evil. It is always positioned between its competitive brothers, i.e., the prime mover and working machinery. Gearing cannot be alive by itself alone, which means it can exist as a function of driving and driven machines. The development of gearing follows therefore always the development of driving and driven machines.”

136

V.I. Goldfarb

Such a humorous, but quite correct in its essence, definition of the role of gears makes it quite clear that trends of their development depend crucially on innovations in drives and actuators. These trends are as follows: increase of operating speeds and loads, reduction of dimensions, improvement of accuracy, safety and durability. New fields of gear application are emerging, setting new specific demands: inadmissibility to use lubrication, in particular, in vacuum or some aggressive medium; necessity of abrupt reduction of overall dimensions and increasing compactness during operation in a very limited space envelope, for example, when carrying out medical and biological research; necessity of adaptation to new operating conditions with memorization of the previous state; necessity of uninterruptible operation for a very long period of time and so on. The trends mentioned above were crucial determinants of the directions of gear development and research in this field of technology. In order to identify these directions, the themes of papers presented at the largest conferences on gears and transmissions for the last 15 years since 1994, were analyzed. The analysis indicated the following. The largest number of works (24.5%) is devoted to dynamics, strength and load-bearing capacity, among them the works [7–16 and many others] should be singled out. Conventionally, great attention (18.1% of reports) is paid to research into the geometry of the gearing, particularly, of the spatial one, such as spiral bevel gears, worm, spiroid and hypoid gears [17–23 and many others]. Technology, equipment, manufacturing are the theme of 18% of the reports; new design units – 11.5%; experimental research – 7.1%; CAD/CAM, simulation – 6.6%; vibration and noise – 6.2%; application – 3.7%; materials, lubrication, wear – 2.8%. Unfortunately, only 1.5% of reports consider questions of accuracy, which are of utmost importance for today’s manufacturers. Actually the number of publications annually is far from the number of reports at the leading conferences. Nevertheless, the mentioned data rather objectively reflect the existing directions of activity in the field of gears. Development of the theory of gearing is a story of the trends mentioned above and the changing requirements of gears. A great number of kinds of gears and mechanisms based on these requirements, often differing in a large number of features, have been created over these past years. New gear classifications have been developed and are being improved; methods for the synthesis of new kinds of gears with specific properties are being developed. The high degree of formalization of some synthesis problems makes computer-aided solution possible [24]. Methods of simulation and research into the geometry and kinematics of gearing, as well as evaluation of force and strength factors, are of major importance in the science of gearing. Universal simulation methods as tools for gear design and research are being developed. The task is to describe processes in the contact of active flanks that will facilitate actual gearing, i.e., taking into account inevitable manufacturing and assembly errors and the actual state of surfaces and deformations of gear elements. In recent years a new term “theory of actual gearing” has been coined, that covers the mentioned trends.

Theory and Practice of Gearing in Machines and Mechanisms Science

137

As shown above, increased attention is being paid to research into gear dynamics. At present three levels of dynamics research can be outlined: gearing dynamics, i.e., dynamic processes in the highest-order kinematic pair, which is a pair of meshing teeth; dynamics of a gear consisting of driving and driven elements with their shafts, bearing supports, casing; and, at last, dynamics of a machine aggregate, including a gear. It is not always possible to build adequate mathematical models, because theory cannot answer numerous questions such as: how do resistance forces change in certain instances with account of every factor characterizing the gearing – state of the surfaces, lubrication and many others; what is the connection between mechanical vibrations in the mesh and noise emitted by the gear; as well as many other questions. The only source that allows us to find answers to such questions is experiment. Modern techniques and methods of experimental research make possible determination with high accuracy of the quality of gears and further operational factors – load-bearing capacity and efficiency, finding reasons for damage initiation and gear failure. Today there are unique testing rigs not only with great measuring abilities, but which allow one to generate load by predefined law for the tested gears, simulating various operating conditions and motion on the driving link. Methods of gear lifetime estimation have been developed by means of integral strain gauges, which are thin metallic films accumulating information about the fatigue-stressed state of gear elements, recognition techniques for this sort of information have been developed as well [25, 26]. Methods and corresponding instrumentation for early diagnostics of gear defects by means of acoustic emission effect have emerged; they are of great importance for gears of machines, where any damage leads to huge economic losses or is connected with the safety problem [27, 28]. Gear manufacturing technology is directly linked with the theory of gearing. Technological synthesis of a gear with defined properties is one of the most difficult tasks in the theory of gearing. According to several experts’ estimation, abilities of up-to-date tooth-cutting equipment exceed not only abilities of gear researchers and designers, but sometimes also their fantasy. The task of the theory of gearing is not only to use these abilities, but also to propose new geometrical and kinematic schemes for generation of teeth flanks, not only by the methods of cutting, but by plastic deformation, electric and chemical treatment and others. Manufacturing technology also assumes methods of providing the required physical and mechanical properties of teeth surfaces that meet required strength and antifriction characteristics. At present methods for calculation gears with modified strengthened surface layer of gearwheels’ teeth and technologies, in particular, laser technologies, ensuring the required properties, are being developed. Questions of rational choice of gearwheel material and lubrication to provide required gear quality play a great, and sometimes critical, role. The information mentioned above comprises only an incomplete list of directions and trends of development of the theory and practice of gearing that appear and become refined in the light of new knowledge about machines and mechanisms.

138

V.I. Goldfarb

Conclusion I would like to quote Prof. A. Kubo [6] again, who says “Gear technology is not a frontier technology that is beautifully informed and advertised to public through masscommunication media, the feasibility of such frontier technology is although in question. Gear technology is a technology to support today’s human life. Such kind of technology is more important practically, when we want to enjoy our high level of living, because we always need physical power to cultivate land, to produce foods, to move or travel and so on.” These words need no further comment. We should advance mechanisms and machines together with the gears they constitute and carefully transfer accumulated knowledge and experience to the next generation of engineers and researchers.

References 1. Litvin, F.L.: Theory of Gearing. Nauka, Moscow (1968) (in Russian) 2. Litvin, F.L.: Development of Gear Technology and Theory of Gearing. NASA Reference Publication 1406, Cleveland (1998) 3. Seher-Thoss, H-Chr: Die Entwicklung der Zahnrad-Technik. Springer, New York (1965) 4. Dudley, D.W.: The Evolution of the Gear Art. American Gear Manufacturers Association, Washington, DC (1969) 5. Stadtfeld, H.J.: Handbook of Bevel and Hypoid Gears: Calculation, Manufacturing and Optimization. Rochester Institute of Technology, Rochester (1993) 6. Kubo, A.: Short history of the IFToMM Gearing and Transmissions TC. Gearing and Transmissions, No2, pp. 4–13 (1996) 7. Airapetov, E.L., Aparkhov, V.I., Evsikova, N.A., Melnikova, T.N., Filimonova, N.I.: The model of teeth contact dynamical interaction in the spur gearing. In: Proceedings of Nineth World Congress on TMM, Milano, pp. 459–461 (1995) 8. Kahraman, A., Blankenship, G.W.: Gear Dynamics Experiments. In: Proceedings of the 7th International Power Transmission and Gearing Conference. ASME, San-Diego, part I – pp. 378–380, part II – pp. 381–388, part III – pp. 390–396 (1996) 9. Gosselin, C., Gagnon, Ph., Vanjany, J.-P.: Loaded tooth contact analysis of spur, helical and hypoid gears based on the finite strips and finite prisms models. In: Proceedings of the 4th World Congress on Gearing and Power Transmissions, Paris, pp. 29–42 (1999) 10. Umezava, K., Matsumura, S., Houjon, H., Wang, S.: Investigation of the dynamic behaviour of a helical gear system. In: Proceedings of the 4th World Congress on Gearing and Power Transmissions, Paris, pp. 1981–1990 (1999) 11. Velex, Ph.: Some problems in the modeling of gear dynamic behaviour. In: Proceedings of the JSME International Conference on Motion and Power Transmissions, Fukuoka, pp. 45–50 (2001) 12. Höhn, B.-R., Michaelis, K., Rank, B., Steingrover K.: Investigation of the pitting resistance of worm gears. In: Proceedings of the JSME International Conference on Motion and Power Transmissions, Fukuoka, pp. 156–161 (2001) 13. Velex, Ph.: On the relationship between gear dynamics and transmissions errors. In: Proceedings of the JSME International Conference Motion and Power Transmissions, Sendai, pp. 249–254 (2009) 14. Qin, D., Wang, J., Wu, X.: Flexible multibody dynamic model of coupled planetary gear and bearing. In: Proceedings of the JSME International Conference Motion and Power Transmissions, Sendai, pp. 280–287 (2009)

Theory and Practice of Gearing in Machines and Mechanisms Science

139

15. Octrue, M.: Load capacity calculation of worm gears: at the moment and for the future. In: Proceedings of the JSME International Conference Motion and Power Transmissions, Sendai, pp. 21–25 (2009) 16. Goldfarb, V.I., Trubachev, E.S., Kuznetsov, A.S. Load capacity of heavy-loaded low-speed spiroid gears. In: Proceedings of the JSME International Conference Motion and Power Transmissions, Sendai, pp. 280–285 (2009) 17. Visa, F., Miloiu, G.: Contact sensitiveness at spiral bevel gears. In: Proceedings of Ninth World Congress on TMM, Milano, pp. 406–410 (1995) 18. Seol, I.H., Litvin, F.L.: Computerized design, generation and simulation of meshing and contact of modified involute, Klingelnberg and Flender worm-gear drives. In: Proceedings of the 7th International Power Transmission and Gearing Conference, pp. 673–678. ASME, San-Diego (1996) 19. Stadtfeld, H.: The universal motion concept for bevel gear production. In: Proceedings of the 4th World Congress on Gearing and Power Transmissions, Paris, pp. 595–608 (1999) 20. Handschuh, R.: Comparison of experimental and analytical tooth bending stress of aerospace spiral bevel gears. In: Proceedings of the 4th World Congress on Gearing and Power Transmissions, Paris, pp. 557–570 (1999) 21. Höhn, B.-R.: Modern gear calculation. In: Proceedings of the International Conference on Mechanical Transmissions, pp. 1–2. Science Press, Chongqing (2006) 22. Goldfarb, V.I.: What we know about spiroid gears. In: Proceedings of the International Conference on Mechanical Transmissions, pp. 19–26. Science Press, Chongqing, China (2006) 23. Fan, Q., Dafoe, R.S., Swanger, J.W.: New developments in computerized design and manufacturing of spiral bevel and hypoid gears. In: Proceedings of the International Conference on Mechanical Transmissions, pp. 128–133. Science Press, Chongqing (2006) 24. Goldfarb, V.I., Malina, O.V.: Computerized synthesis of skew-axis gear scheme with given specification. In: Proceedings of the JSME International Conference on Motion and Power Transmissions, Fukuoka, pp. 441–455 (2001) 25. Syzrantsev, V.N., Golofast, S.L., Syzrantseva, K.V.: Gearing serviceability diagnostic with the help of integral strain gauges. In: Proceedings of the 4th World Congress on Gearing and Power Transmissions, Paris, pp. 1845–1850 (1999) 26. Syzrantsev, V.N., Golofast, S.L.: Cyclic Strains Measurement and Machine Parts Longevity Forecasting According to Integral Strain Gauges Indications. Nauka, Novosibirsk (2004) (in Russian) 27. Singh, A., Houser, D.R., Vijayakar, S.: Early detection of gear pitting. In: Proceedings of the 7th International Power Transmission and Gearing Conference, pp. 673–678. ASME, San-Diego (1996) 28. Goldfarb, V.I., Budenkov, G.A., Nedzvetskaya, O.V.: Development of the acoustic emission wave radiation model for gear damage diagnostics. In: Proceedings of the 4th World Congress on Gearing and Power Transmissions, Paris, pp. 2337–2346 (1999)

ThinkMOTION: Digital Mechanism and Gear Library Goes Europeana Burkhard Corves, Torsten Brix, and Ulf Döring

Abstract The most important aim of the IFToMM is “to promote research and development in the field of Machines and Mechanisms by theoretical and experimental methods, along with their practical application” (see article 2.1 of the statutes [12]). This is strongly connected with access to current knowledge, experience and skills in the field of mechanism and machine science (resp. motion science). However this content is characterized by a high diversity and heterogeneity, because it is mostly scattered, represented in different forms (physical model, drawings, textbooks etc.), languages and mediums. Therefore there is a need to establish an open access, multilingual digital library in this field of techno-cultural heritage. Against this background, members of three IFToMM-Commissions initiated a joint project called thinkMOTION. In this project, which promotes the idea of open access, the techno-cultural heritage and the current developments in motion science will be widely accessible via Europeana, which is the search platform for European digital libraries initiated by the European Commission. The content is useful for a wide range of user groups, such as interested laymen, engineers, scientists, lecturers, pupils, students all over the world, in that it opens new possibilities in multilingual searching, browsing and using of information sources.

Introduction The thinkMOTION project is sustained by members of the IFToMM Permanent Commissions for the History of Mechanism and Machine Science (e.g., H. Kerle, M. Ceccarelli) and for Standardization of Terminology (e.g., A. Klein Breteler, B. Corves (*) R.-W. Technische Hochschule Aachen, Eilfschornsteinstrasse 18, Aachen, D 52056, Germany e-mail: [email protected] T. Brix and U. Döring TUI University of Ilmenau, Ilmenau, Germany M. Ceccarelli (ed.), Technology Developments: the Role of Mechanism and Machine Science and IFToMM, Mechanisms and Machine Science 1, DOI 10.1007/978-94-007-1300-0_11, © Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2011

141

142

B. Corves et al.

T. Brix, U. Döring) as well as the Technical Committee for Linkages and Cams (e.g., B. Corves, V. Petuya). All involved persons have the aim to establish a new sector in knowledge digitisation, retrieval and access with focus on technical knowledge that is stored in very heterogeneous forms like text documents, photos, videos, animations, technical drawings, calculation sheets, physical models etc. Previous digitisation projects often neglected technical, techno historical and techno cultural knowledge because non-technicians decide what content is to preserved for future generations. Thus especially technical knowledge tends to be buried in oblivion, although this knowledge is an inseparable part of mankind, which is to a great extend defined by technical developments and prosperity. thinkMOTION is a large scale project initiated by IFToMM members which allows the connection and publication of forgotten treasures of heterogeneous content to honour the creative genius of countless inventors, engineers and natural scientists, who have enabled and expedited technical progress in medicine, electrical, civil, mechanical, automotive engineering etc. Knowledge about mechanism and machine science that comes from a large variety of different countries is currently difficult to access. Historical books in mechanical engineering are of low availability. Sources such as private or educational collections of physical models are usually not open to the public. But even the existing access to public content does not comply with today’s requirements concerning rapid information retrieval. The heterogeneous sources that represent our knowledge about motion systems (Fig. 1) are widespread over a lot of institutions (museums, libraries and mainly universities) and professionals. Many of these sources are nonregistered material and hence not easily traceable. Therefore the first challenge of the thinkMOTION project is the collection of content as well as procurement of rights of use in an efficient way. For this the

Fig. 1 Examples for heterogeneous content in the field of motion systems (Brix et al. [1], Kerle et al. [2], Hüsing et al. [3], Corves and Kloppenburg [4])

ThinkMOTION: Digital Mechanism and Gear Library Goes Europeana

143

thinkMOTION project can use the experiences of the German digital library DMGLib (www.dmg-lib.org), Brix et al. [1]. To locate relevant content in each language, regional localized catalogues and lists of bibliographical references in books or from authors will be used. Additionally personal contacts will be utilized since they have proved to be very helpful. The focus is not only on textual documents, images and animations. Functional models, which exist in thousands of unique models with no or only very limited access for the public, are digitized too. This huge amount of available heterogeneous information resources in the DMG-Lib implies a key challenge of this project: the implementation of an efficient, uniform and user-satisfying information retrieval system, Rasmussen [5].

DMG-Lib as the Basis of ThinkMOTION DMG-Lib already contains a large amount of very heterogeneous information resources like books, journal publications, functional models, gear catalogues, videos, images, technical reports, etc. The original sources are procured, digitized and converted into suitable data formats. The information resources can be accessed worldwide on the DMG-Lib internet portal, Brix et al. [1]. This simplifies the access and distribution of these information resources, but does not directly enhance a goal-oriented usage and retrieval of motion solutions for technical tasks in research and industry. Rather the common storage method for knowledge, mainly in static texts and images, does not comply with requirements of an efficient and fast information retrieval. The advantages of functional models for a better understanding of complex design and functionality principles are well known. Today Computer based methods enable the generation of multimedia documents that describe the function and other relevant attributes of mechanisms and gears and make them available for a broad public. Such multimedia documents can easily be distributed and enriched with extensive additional information as shown in Döring et al. [6]. An overview of the complex production workflow for the identification, digitalization, enrichment, storage and presentation of information resources in the DMG-Lib is displayed in Fig. 2. The only way to collect, enrich and present the complex domain specific heterogeneous information sources according to user requirements is the consequent cooperation of information, computer and usability scientists as well as engineers, librarians and experts of mechanism and gear science with the following major topics:

Enrichment of the Information Resources Information sources (e.g.: literature, solid mechanism and gear models, educational material of participating departments) are digitized and integrated in the digital library.

144

B. Corves et al.

Fig. 2 Production workflow in DMG-Lib, Döring et al. [6]

Different meta-data are added to the documents such as administrative, descriptive and structural data (Fig. 3). The result of the structural and layout analysis is the identified logical structure of the document. This information can be used in further processing steps like the automated generation of links and tables of contents as well as in ranking of full text search results. For enrichment of the scanned documents an animation generator was being developed which allows simulation and variation of drawings, images and models in an easy and fast way.

DMG-Lib Online Portal The portal is the internet based communication and presentation interface between the user and DMG-Lib (Fig. 4). For a user adequate design and implementation, an evaluation of the usability was performed which is oriented on the Usability Engineering Lifecycle, Mayhew [8]. According to this method a requirement analysis and expert interviews have been carried out to develop a conceptual model of the DMG-Lib portal.

Information Access Searching and browsing are the central access ways to all information in DMG-Lib. For both possibilities the text-based search is a basic functionality to find all kinds

Fig. 3 Meta data organisation for a mechanism model, Corves et al. [7]

Fig. 4 DMG-Lib online portal (www.dmg-lib.org)

146

B. Corves et al.

Fig. 5 DMG-Lib online portal (www.dmg-lib.org)

of information from different sources. For representation of retrieved documents during the browsing and searching process, special viewers have been developed. All information about persons and metadata are represented in html pages. For working with full texts and enhanced, resp. enriched, animations, JAVA applications exist (Fig. 5).

The Importance for Users The aims of the digital library project thinkMOTION cover the goals of the European Commission defined within the Seventh Framework Program. The guiding idea is to “improve the free accessibility and usability of scientific content”, in particular addressing issues of interoperability and multilingual access which was formulated with respect to the main goal to “improve access to Europe’s cultural and scientific heritage”. The thinkMOTION project as part of Europeana (Purday [9]) will be designed to give different user groups from all over the world access to scientific and practical knowledge in the field of motion systems supporting both life-long learning and practical uses for different user groups. For this the project combines content and knowledge in the field of mechanical motion and provides public access to the whole knowledge space in several ways. The supply of videos,

ThinkMOTION: Digital Mechanism and Gear Library Goes Europeana

147

Fig. 6 From left to right Archimedes (287 v. Chr. – 212 v. Chr.), Agustin de Bétancourt y Molina (1758–1824) Ludwig Burmester (1840–1927), Kurt Hain (1908–1995), Willibald Lichtenheldt (1901–1980), Guilio Mozzi (1730–1813), James Watt (1736–1819) From: Ceccarelli [10]

technical drawings, interactive animations etc. is also an important approach that eases the understanding of movement systems for laymen as well as experts. Even for experts a deep comprehension of a quite simple movement system is only seldom possible when only a textual description is shown. There are two main reasons to build up a digital library of motion systems. The first is related to content. European mechanical engineers have a long tradition (see Fig. 6). Over the last centuries in all European countries a lot of inventions have appeared and scientific progress has been made. From the academic point of view, different schools of machine and mechanism scientists and design engineers arose and those schools mostly have a special focus on certain fields (e.g., spherical mechanisms, gear train mechanisms, compliant mechanisms, linear drives, dynamics, robotics, parallel kinematics, etc.) or different applications fields (medicine, electrical, civil, automotive engineering). That is why the content such as literature, and in particular mechanical models, are far-flung in Europe. Each nation has its own competence centers, often situated at universities or museums. This content is (if at all) only nationally accessible. Often access to the content is very time consuming for the users (e.g., interlibrary lending or travel to model collections). Therefore the content and the access rights must be collected in different European countries.

148

B. Corves et al.

The second reason to build up a European digital library of motion systems is the multilingualism of Europe. Only with the support of native language speakers with knowledge and background in motion systems is it possible to unlock the multilingual textual content and thus make it exploitable for the broad public. Furthermore the partners of different countries support the translation of common parts of metadata and in this way the project fulfils an objective of Europeana that includes availability of content for the users all over Europe. Additionally, the arrangement of the partners in different European countries has further advantages which have to be taken into account. Personal contacts as well as native language and social aptitudes ease a lot of tasks defined within the project, e.g., implementation of the dissemination plan, country specific adaptations of IPR contracts (and especially explanations for the authors), better contact to local user groups (important for adequate usability tests and collection of feedback) etc. The vision of thinkMOTION is to satisfy the thirst for scientific knowledge and technical curiosity for lifelong learning both for professionals and laypersons, independent of age and qualification. Due to the lack of resources especially in small and medium sized enterprises, it is hard for them to follow the latest scientific advances - it is often limited to the national level. This is supported by the fact that international and European conferences in this area take place almost without industrial participation, leading to an increasing estrangement between industrial, commercial users and scientific research facilities (e.g., IFToMM World Congress, bi-annual Design Society Congress). thinkMOTION closes the gap between science, industry, knowledge and education by using powerful database-technologies and metadata-based descriptions of mechanisms. Therefore the thinkMOTION library is also a valuable catalogue of design solutions and provides all necessary tools to understand and evaluate a suggested mechanism and adopt its characteristic kinematic to the desired application. Supporting dimensional analysis, the digital library also provides interactive sources like digital books, free software tools or interactive work sheets to teach and to perform necessary work steps for graphical or numerical synthesis-methods, Corves et al. [7]. The integrated mechanism search module provides a structured search form, where the motion task can be described explicitly with controlled, partially icon-based vocabulary. For easy use the search form is divided into structural and motion related criteria (Fig. 7). After submitting the query formulated within the selected search form, a sorted list of mechanisms is generated, displaying all mechanisms matching the specified criteria (Fig. 8). This list can be sorted by choosing different schemes. For each search result a thumbnail image, a brief functional description and the most essential topological information are displayed in tabular format. Each mechanism can be selected and examined in detail in a separate window. Due to the large amount of existing motion tasks, the mechanism database often provides a principle solution, which realizes a desired motion and is the base for methods and techniques for dimensional synthesis.

ThinkMOTION: Digital Mechanism and Gear Library Goes Europeana

149

Fig. 7 Mechanism search form

Conclusion and Outlook DMG-Lib and its European future project thinkMOTION represent an open access technical online library providing enriched knowledge in the domain of mechanism and machine science. The approach of the project members, to convey expert knowledge and establish a community for professionals and interested laymen, is suitable to be integrated into classical design methodology. For engineering designers it is valuable to find multiple principle solutions for a given motion task using an expert search tool, which processes the database of mechanism descriptions. Additionally basic knowledge and further synthesis methods in the field of mechanism science are provided as a one-stop source for design engineers. A further aim is the direct support of IFToMM activities. This includes the implementation of a web-based tool for the Permanent Commission for Standardization of Terminology in MMS, which allows a more productive workflow of the Commission, Brix et al. [11]. The content of the IFToMM dictionary is also an important factor in managing the utilization of knowledge in a multilingual environment.

150

B. Corves et al.

Fig. 8 Mechanism search result (excerpt of complete list)

The objective is to establish thinkMOTION as a central content platform for the IFToMM. This implies the collection of IFToMM publications, indexing for multilingual searching and linking to other knowledge collected in thinkMOTION.

References 1. Brix, T., Döring, U., Corves, B., Modler, K.H.: DMG-Lib: the digital mechanism and gear library – Project. In: Proceedings of the 12th World Congress in Mechanism and Machine Science, Besancon, 18–21 June 2007

[AU2]

ThinkMOTION: Digital Mechanism and Gear Library Goes Europeana

151

2. Kerle, H., Corves, B., Mauersberger, K., Modler, K.-H.: Zur Entwicklungsgeschichte der Getriebemodelle – Über die technikgeschichtliche Bedeutung der Getriebe-Prototypen. In: 8. Kolloquium Getriebetechnik Aachen 2009, pp. S.3–S.14. Verlagshaus Mainz, Aachen (2009). ISBN: 3-86130-984-X 3. Hüsing, M., Choi, S.-W., Corves, B.: Cabriolet-Verdeckmechanismen eröffnen neue Perspektiven. In: Konstruktion 55. 6:S.37–S.43 (2003) 4. Corves, B., Kloppenburg, J.: History and future of the IGM-mechanism collection. History of Machines and Mechanisms 2006. In: IFToMM Workshop Lectures, Ithaca, 9–10 Sept 2006 5. Rasmussen, E.: Information retrieval challenges for digital libraries. In: Proceedings of the 7th International Conference on Asian Digital Libraries (ICADL’04), Shanghai, pp. 93–103. Springer, New York, 13–17 Dec 2004 (2005) 6. Döring, U., Brix, T., Reeßing, M.: Application of computational kinematics in the digital mechanism and gear library DMG-Lib. Special issue on CK2005. In: International Workshop on Computational Kinematics. Mech. Mach. Theor. 41(8):1003–1015, Aug 2006 7. Corves, B., Niemeyer, J., Kloppenburg, J.: IGM-mechanism encyclopedia and the digital mechanism library as a knowledge base in mechanism theory. In: Proceedings of DETC2006: ASME 2006. International Design Engineering Technical Conference and Computers and Information in Engineering Conference in English, Philadelphia, 10–13 Sept 2006 8. Mayhew, D.J.: The Usability Engineering Lifecycle – A Practitioner’s Handbook for User Interface Design. Morgan Kaufmann, San Francisco (1999) 9. Purday, J.: Europeana v1.0, Annual Report, 1 Feb 2009 – 31 Jan 2010 10. Ceccarelli, M. (ed.): Distinguished Figures in Mechanism and Machine Science. Springer, Dordrecht (2007) 11. Brix, T., Döring, U., Corves, B.: Suggestion for a more productive workflow and infrastructure of the PC for Standardization of Terminology. In: 23 rd Working Meeting of the IFToMM PC for Standardization of Terminology on MMS. Minsk-Homel, Belorussia, 21–26 June 2010 12. IFToMM statues: http://130.15.85.212/const/statutes.html, (2010)

Micromachines: The Role of the Mechanisms Community G.K. Ananthasuresh

Abstract Micromachines is a mature field today, although it is usually known by other names in various parts of the world. We briefly review the genesis of this field and how mechanisms researchers became involved. The successes of the field are many and have led to creation of a number of commercial products. This success is partly due to mechanisms research but more significantly due to rapid developments in microfabrication technology. We discuss the influence of the limitations of microfabrication techniques on the mechanisms used in this field. Interestingly, the strategies that were developed for overcoming these limitations have extended the scope of mechanisms and machines and are influencing technologies beyond the realm of micromachines. Many challenges lie ahead and multi-disciplinary approaches combined with mechanisms techniques will prove to be beneficial in the coming years.

Introduction Micromachines, as the name implies, ought to be about machines with micron dimensions. The term “micromachines” was popular in Japan and it meant miniaturization of existing things. The enormous success of microelectronics and the ensuing ever-decreasing size of electronic consumer products might have been partly responsible for coining this term. With a lot of effort, one can perhaps miniaturize just about anything including a car with all its moving parts. But this type of miniaturization does not always make sense, not only for economic reasons but also due to performance related issues. When the International Federation for the promotion of Mechanism and Machine Science (IFToMM) chose this term for its technical committee—the TC on Micromachines under the founding G.K. Ananthasuresh (*) Department of Mechanical Engineering, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore 560012, India e-mail: [email protected] M. Ceccarelli (ed.), Technology Developments: the Role of Mechanism and Machine Science and IFToMM, Mechanisms and Machine Science 1, DOI 10.1007/978-94-007-1300-0_12, © Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2011

153

154

G.K. Ananthasuresh

Chair, Professor T. Hayashi in 1994—it was perhaps because of the prominence of the word “machines” in this phrase. By that time, the other parts of the world were using other names: microelectromechanical systems (MEMS) and microsystems technology (MST). North American countries embraced the term MEMS while European counties preferred MST. For a while, MEMS seemed to be the term adopted by most of the world but today there is a gradual move towards what can be called simply microsystems. What was more important than the term used to describe this important field was the philosophy of miniaturization that gradually developed in the late 1980s and matured rapidly in the years that followed. This has to do with an emphasis on seamless integration of mechanical elements with electronics. It also meant that instead of assembling mechanical and electronic elements into a system, as it is done at the macro scale, the two elements had to be made using similar processes on the same substrate. ‘Substrate’ is a term used in the semiconductor industry to refer to the base material used. A silicon wafer is a substrate. Sometimes, it could be glass. Today it can also be a polymer or a ceramic. Silicon processing, owing to its enormous success in very large scale integration (VLSI) technology, seemed a natural choice for making such integrated microelectromechanical entities. A few academic laboratories (e.g., at Stanford University [1]) and industries (e.g., Westinghouse [2, 3]) in the United States of America began to research this field as early as the late 1960s. Professor Angell’s laboratory at Stanford University developed, arguably, the first micromachined accelerometer [1] while Westinghouse investigated the possibilities of making light valves with movable mirrors [3]. This trend of making sensors and actuators, which is still sustained today, emerged at the outset in this field. A few other attempts were made to make systems with micron dimensions [4, 5] but the real impetus for the field came when movable linkages and motors were reported in 1986–1987 [6–10]. Fan, Tai, and Muller [10] developed in-plane joints, a four-bar linkage, and an electrostatic micromotor using polycrystalline silicon. They used a new process known as surface micromachining to make assembled jointed mechanisms without assembly. The key to this process was the sacrificial or fugitive layer that held the structures in place until the last step when this layer was dissolved to release the movable structures. Figure 1 illustrates the process of realizing a hinge using surface micromachining. The section-view of the early electrostatic motor is shown in Fig. 2. Other groups, notably Massachusetts Institute of Technology (Cambridge, USA) [7] and Bell Laboratories [8] were also successful in realizing movable mechanical components that can be batch-fabricated using silicon-based processes. Not only in-plane revolute joints but also out-of-plane joints can be made without assembly [11]. Intricate gear trains, racks, chain drives, etc., were also realized by developing suitable micromachining processes in silicon [12]. Cams and other higher kinematic pairs were also used in micromachines [13]. Recently, spherical linkages were also realized using silicon machining [14]. Even though electrostatic motors, pin-joint, and linkages were largely responsible for the widespread attention

Micromachines: The Role of the Mechanisms Community

155

Deposit a thin layer and pattern it. Substrate Deposit a thicker layer and pattern it.

Deposit another thin layer and pattern it.

Deposit a second thicker layer and pattern it.

Sacrifice thin layers to realize an assembled in-plane revolute joint without assembly.

Fig. 1 Cross-section views of the processing steps of surface micromachining with which an inplane hinge can be fabricated without assembly

Fig. 2 A section-view of the electrostatic micromotor that brought wide attention to the microsystems field in late 1980s

that the microsystems field received, especially from the mechanism community, these elements have not found much commercial use. There is a good reason for it—reliability. Friction and wear are quite severe at the micro scale and are found to be major causes for failure of micromachines. Thus, this field demanded novel ways to design mechanisms that do not involve joints in which parts rub against each other.

156

G.K. Ananthasuresh

Early Mechanisms Research in Microsystems Pioneers in the microsystems field were not researchers from the mechanisms and machines community. This was because this field evolved from the experts who knew microfabrication processes used to make integrated circuit (IC) chips. At the very outset, challenges began to appear in realizing movable silicon parts and making them reliable. Ingeniously conceived fabrication processes to make revolute and sliding joints were not sufficient because of the aforementioned reasons of friction and wear and ensuing failure. Another problem with joints is that the clearances are bad in micromachining processed that make released mechanical members with joints. Researchers, therefore, sought alternate techniques for realizing deterministic motion without using joints. Many novel designs were conceived. One of them is the folded-beam suspension used in an electrostatic comb-drive [9]. It is a clever substitute for a sliding joint. Shown in Fig. 3a is a schematic of a compliant slider that has no joints and has single-piece construction. It has now become an integral part of many useful micro devices including some commercial products. See Fig. 3b for one of its uses in a linear actuator. The compliant slider consists of slender beams arranged such that the floating plate has low translational stiffness in one in-plane direction but very high translational stiffness in the other in-plane direction and high rotational stiffness about the out-of-plane direction. This was the point when mechanisms researchers entered the field to offer novel solutions. Professor A. Pisano of University of California, Berkeley, reviewed some basic mechanisms that one could use in micromachines [15]. Out of necessity, instead of using jointed rigid-body mechanisms, there was a widespread development of flexible beam-based mechanism configurations in micromachines. They came known to be compliant micromechanisms [16, 17].

Fig. 3 (a) A compliant slider that can move vertically, (b) the compliant slider used in an electrostatic translational actuator (Courtesy: Sandia National Laboratories, USA)

Micromachines: The Role of the Mechanisms Community

157

Challenges and Opportunities Compliant designs in microsystems came about as a necessity but have proven to be useful at large sizes too. Another important consequence is that mechanisms researchers began to work in related areas such as solid mechanics. This is because kinematics in compliant mechanisms is intrinsically tied to deformation mechanics. Even though traditionally kinematics does not deal with the cause for motion, that notion is not adequate when one begins to work with compliant mechanisms. This has indeed led to innovative kinematic models where torsional springs are included at the joints. Two such examples are the pseudo rigid model [18] and the springleverage model [19]. Micromechanical components are actuated using a variety of transduction principles. Electrostatic, electromagnet-based, thermal, piezoelectric, etc., are commonly used. Because of the tight coupling among these energy domains, both modelling and design offer new challenges and opportunities in mechanisms research. Dynamics is also part of this activity. Hence, mechanisms and machine science research assumes new facets in micromachines technology. Materials also play a significant role in micromachines research. Silicon has been the choice material for micromachines until now. Single crystalline silicon is anisotropic. It is also essentially brittle. Care must be taken in designing deformable structures using silicon. A lot of other materials including polycrystalline silicon, silicon dioxide, silicon nitride, silicon carbide, metals, etc., are also used. Lately, ceramic and polymers (polydimethyl siloxane and SU8) are also used. A number of issues related to material properties and interface issues become important. Microfabrication processes continue to play a major role in micromachines. As the new materials, especially the active or smart materials, are increasingly coming into the realm of micromachines, new opportunities and challenges are faced by micromechanics researchers. Electronics and control aspects too are important. Microrobotics is another related field where all the aforementioned issues come together. Surgical tools, biomedical diagnostic devices, micro air vehicles, autonomous mobile micro devices—all come under micromachines extending its scope outside the traditional mechanisms field while retaining the fundamental roots in kinematics and mechanics. A major limitation of micromachines is that they remain primarily planar or stacked thin structures. Truly three-dimensional motion remains elusive. The problem lies in microfabrication techniques. But some also question why spatial motion is necessary. There are a few specialized micro devices that have three-dimensional motion capabilities. But much needs to be done in this regard. This is surely a challenge that is best addressed by the mechanisms and machines community. Micromechanical tools play an important role in biological studies today. The displacements and forces of micromachines match those experienced by biological cells. Hence, one has access to the “workshops” of the biological world. Mechanical response is emerging as a new biomarker. In this domain too, mechanisms of various levels of sophistication from simple micro-grippers to complex tools that can manipulate the biological molecules are under development today.

158

G.K. Ananthasuresh

All the applications and related areas mentioned in this section make one thing clear: that the mechanisms community is well poised to diversify into other areas while holding ground in its strength. It opens up avenues for multi-disciplinary research. Such collaborative activities enrich other fields as a by-product of enriching the core mechanisms field.

The Role of the Professional Organizations A number of professional organizations such as Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers (IEEE) and American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME), in addition to IFToMM, have contributed much to the microsystems field. Soon after the microsystems field began to attain an identity as an emerging field, special sessions, tutorials, and invited talks were organized in mechanisms conferences. IEEE and ASME created special committees and task forces to initiate activities in this field within their own community. IFToMM too created its Technical Committee on Micromachines in 1994, not too long after the field came into existence. In recent times, dedicated workshops were also organized in the area of micromachines by IFToMM. It will be beneficial if these efforts are further catalyzed by increased participation from other technical committees of IFToMM given the multi-disciplinary nature of micromachines research.

Conclusions Micromachines is a field initiated by mostly electronics engineers and specialists in microfabrication techniques. Mechanisms researchers entered the field to develop new techniques for joint-less mechanisms that relied upon elastic deformation. This paved the way for contributions by mechanisms researchers in numerous ways in the microsystems field. Some of these are microsensor and microactuator development, precision machines [20], micro robotics, tools for micromanipulation and micro surgery, mechanical characterization of biological cells, etc. IEEE, ASME, IFToMM, and other professional organization realized the importance of this field at its inception and nurtured it well. There are many challenges left as new and active materials have begun to appear. It is fair to conclude that, when mechanisms researchers work in the area of micromachines, a singular emphasis on kinematics or dynamics is not sufficient; one needs to take a holistic view of a machine by considering materials, manufacturing, control, reliability, and other issues all at once. It certainly enriches the mechanisms and machine science community when problems in the micromachines field are addressed. Acknowledgements The author thanks Professor Marco Ceccarelli without whose encouragement and understanding, this article would not have been written.

Micromachines: The Role of the Mechanisms Community

159

References 1. Roylance, L.M., Angell, J.B.: A batch-fabricated silicon accelerometer. IEEE Trans. Electron Devices ED 26, 1911–1979 (1979) 2. Nathanson, H.C., Newell, W.E., Wickstrom, R.A., Davis, J.R.: The resonant gate transistor. IEEE Trans. Electron Devices ED 14(3), 117–133 (1967) 3. Guldberg, J., Nathanson, H.C., Balthis, D.L., Jensen, A.S.: An aluminum/SiO3 silicon on Sapphire light valve for projection displays. Appl. Phys. Lett. 26, 391 (1975) 4. Angell, J.B., Terry, S.C., Barth, P.W.: Silicon micromechanical devices. Sci. Am. 248, 44–55 (1983) 5. Petersen, K.E.: Silicon as a mechanical material. Proc. IEEE 70(5), 20–457 (1982) 6. Fan, L.-S., Tai, Y.-C., Muller, R.S.: IC-processed electrostatic micro-motors. IEEE International Electron Devices Meeting, San Francisco, pp. 666–669 (1988) 7. Mehregany, M., Bart, S.F., Tavrow, L.S., Lang, J.H., Senturia, S.D., Schlecht, M.F.: A study of three microfabricated variable-capacitance motors. In: Proceedings of Transducers 1989. The 5th International Conference on Solid-state Sensors and Actuators and Eurosensors III, pp. 173–179 (1990) 8. Gabriel, K.J., Trimmer, W.S.N., Mehregany, M.: Micro gears and turbines etched from silicon. In: Transducers 1987, Tokyo, pp. 853–857 (1987) 9. Tang, W.C., Nguyen, T.-C., Howe, R.T.: Laterally driven polysilicon resonant microstructures. In: Proceedings of IEEE Micro Electro Mechanical Systems, Salt Lake City, pp. 53–59 (1989) 10. Fan, L.-S., Tai, Y.-C., Muller, R.S.: Integrated movable micromechanical structures for sensors and actuators. IEEE Trans. Electron Devices 35(6), 724–730 (1988) 11. Pister, K.S.J., Judy, M.W., Burgett, S.R., Fearing, R.S.: Microfabricated hinges. Sens. Actuat. A 33, 249–256 (1992) 12. Sandia National Laboratories Microelectromechanical Systems: www.mems.sandia.gov 13. Ananthasuresh, G.K.: Cams in microelectromechanical systems, chapter 15. In: Rothbart, H. (ed.) Cam Design Handbook, pp. 505–527. McGraw-Hill, New York (2003) 14. Lusk, C.P., Howell, L.L.: Components, building blocks, and demonstrations of spherical mechanisms in microelectromechanical systems. ASME J. Mech. Des. 130(3), 034503–1– 034503–4 (2008) 15. Pisano, A.P.: Resonant-structure micromotors: historical perspective. Sens. Actuat. 20, 83–89 (1989) 16. Kota, S., Ananthasuresh, G.K., Crary, S.B., Wise, K.D.: Design and fabrication of microelectromechanical systems. J. Mech. Des. Trans. ASME 116(4), 1081–1088 (1994) 17. Ananthasuresh, G.K., Howell, L.L.: Mechanical design of compliant microsystems: a perspective and prospects. J. Mech. Des. 127(4), 736–738 (2005) 18. Howell, L.L., Midha, A., Norton, T.W.: Evaluation of equivalent spring stiffness for use in a pseudo-rigid-body model of large-deflection compliant mechanisms. J. Mech. Des. Trans. ASME 118, 126–131 (1996) 19. Krishnan, G., Ananthasuresh, G.K.: A systematic method for the objective evaluation and selection of compliant displacement amplifying mechanisms for sensor applications. J. Mech. Des. 130(10), 102304 (2008): 1–9 20. Chen, S.-C., Culpepper, M.L.: Design of a six-axis micro-scale nanopositioner-mHexFlex. Precis. Eng. 30, 314–324 (2006)

Role of MMS and IFToMM in Multibody Dynamics Javier Cuadrado, Jose Escalona, Werner Schiehlen, and Robert Seifried

Abstract An important application of multibody dynamics is mechanism theory. Rigid and flexible bodies are widely applied for modeling of planar and spatial machines, for their dynamical analysis with respect to motion and strength, vibration and control, and for their optimization. Interacting machine parts result in a variety of contact problems. Some fundamentals and typical mechanism and machine problems will be presented.

Introduction The historical evolution of multibody dynamics has been reviewed by Schiehlen [1] and Shabana [2]. Multibody system dynamics is related to classical and analytical mechanics. The most simple element of a multibody system is a free particle already introduced by Newton while the essential element, the rigid body, was defined by Euler. The equations obtained using the free body principle are known in multibody dynamics as Newton-Euler equations. D’Alembert and Lagrange considered systems of constrained rigid bodies. Lagrange’s equations of the first kind represent differential-algebraical equations (DAE) while the second kind leads to a minimal set of ordinary differential equations (ODE).

J. Cuadrado (*) University of La Coruña, Ferrol, Spain e-mail: [email protected] J. Escalona Escuela de Ingenieros, Dept. Ingeniería Mecánica y de los Materiales, University of Seville, Camino de los Descubrimientos s\n, 41092 Seville, Spain W. Schiehlen and R. Seifried University of Stuttgart, Stuttgart, Germany M. Ceccarelli (ed.), Technology Developments: the Role of Mechanism and Machine Science and IFToMM, Mechanisms and Machine Science 1, DOI 10.1007/978-94-007-1300-0_13, © Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2011

161

162

J. Cuadrado et al.

Mechanism theory deals with constrained mechanical systems. However, the application of the powerful graphical methods developed in the early twentieth century by Wittenbauer was restricted to planar mechanisms. Later, in 1955 matrix methods were introduced by Denavit and Hartenberg for spatial kinematics, which formed the basis for the dynamical analysis of spatial linkages first published by Uicker [3]. The first international symposium on multibody dynamics was sponsored by the International Union of Theoretical and Applied Mechanics (IUTAM) and organized by Magnus in Munich, Germany, in 1977 (Magnus [4]). The second symposium jointly sponsored by IUTAM and IFToMM took place in Udine, Italy (Bianchi and Schiehlen [5]). Since then, many works on multibody dynamics have been presented at IFToMM conferences and symposia, and published in the IFToMM journal Mechanism and Machine Theory. In 2005, IFToMM established a Technical Committee (TC) for Multibody Dynamics to promote the activities of the international multibody community and to serve as a communication channel among its members. The TC focuses its activity on the following three aspects: coordination and support of multibody dynamics conferences, publication of selected papers from conferences in multibody dynamics journals, maintenance of a web page on multibody dynamics (www.iftomm-multibody.org). Recently, the TC has been a key element in the creation of a new series of conferences: the Joint International Conference on Multibody System Dynamics (IMSD), the first world-level event on multibody system dynamics, whose first edition was held on May 25–27, 2010 in Lappeenranta, Finland, co-chaired by Mikkola and Schiehlen. Now the achievements in rigid and flexible multibody dynamics as well as contact problems are reviewed and the influence of the discipline on MMS is described.

Rigid Body Dynamics The elements of multibody systems for machine modeling include rigid bodies which may also degenerate to particles, coupling elements like springs, dampers or force controlled actuators as well as ideal, i.e. inflexible, kinematical connecting elements like joints, bearings and motion controlled actuators. The coupling and connection elements, respectively, are generating internal forces and torques between the bodies of the system or external forces with respect to the environment. Both of them are considered as massless elements. Real mechanisms and machines are mainly subject to holonomic constraints which may be given by geometrical or integrable kinematical conditions. Their description is the task of kinematics. The position variables representing translation or orientation, respectively, of the p free disassembled bodies i read with respect to the inertial frame I as

ri = ri (x ), SIi (t ) ≡ Si (t ) = Si (x ), i = 1,2,..., p

(1)

Role of MMS and IFToMM in Multibody Dynamics

163

where x(t) means the vector of 6p dependent coordinates. By assembling the system, q constraints are added, given explicitly or implicitly, respectively, by

x = x (y , t ) or Φ (x ) = 0

(2)

where y(t) means the vector of the f = 6p-q independent or generalized coordinates. The second derivative results in the translational and rotational acceleration ∂v i ∂v y + i T ∂t ∂y ∂w ∂w i a i (t ) = w i (t ) = J Ri (y , t ) y + Ti y + ∂t ∂y

ai (t ) = v i (t ) = J Ti (y , t ) y+

(3)

where the velocity vectors and the Jacobian matrices J Ti and J Ri appear. Dynamics deals with the origin of motion, the forces and torques. Starting from the 6p Newton-Euler equations

 + k (x, x ) = q ( e ) (x, x ) − Φ Tx λ Mx

(4)

According to D’Alembert’s principle, one gets the minimal number of f ordinary differential equations by left pre-multiplication with the transposed f × 6p-Jacobian matrix J T , also denoted as equations of motion

M (y, t ) y(t ) + k (y, y , t ) = q (y, y , t )

(5)

representing an ordinary system of differential equations (ODE). Machines and mechanisms have usually a large number of joints or constraints, respectively, resulting in a small number of degrees of freedom and highly nonlinear equations of motion. The joint forces and torques are required as the dynamical loads q(r) for evaluation of the durability of the connecting elements following from Eqs. 4 and 5 as

T T q( r ) =  E − MJ( J M J)−1 J  ( k − q( e ) )  

(6)

The generation of equations of motion for multibody systems is a nontrivial task requiring numerous steps during evaluation of the fundamental relations. Beginning with the space age in the middle of the 1960s and establishment of machine and mechanism science (MMS), the generation of equations of motion was more formalized. The resulting formalisms were used for the development of computer codes for multibody systems: they are the basis of computational multibody dynamics. Twenty-five years later, there were known 20 formalisms described in the Multibody System Handbook, Schiehlen [6]. Many of them are still used today.

164

J. Cuadrado et al.

For time integration of holonomic systems, the inertia matrix in Eq. 5 has to be inverted, which is numerically costly if a system has many degrees of freedom like a robot,

 y(t ) = M −1 (y, t )q (y, y , t )− k (y, y , t )

(7)

Recursive algorithms avoid this matrix inversion. A fundamental requirement, however, is a chain or tree topology of the multibody system. For systems with closed loops, such as four-bar mechanisms, the loop may be opened and the corresponding constraint added. Then, a differential-algebraic system of equations (DAE) is obtained. The given set of nonlinear differential equations (7) can be solved by numerical time integration. However, the effort of numerical simulations is always large due to the complexity of the machines and mechanisms. Thus, the proper choice of integration methods is very important. Nevertheless, it is not possible to give general recommendations since, on the one hand, new integration methods are mostly developed by numerical mathematicians and, on the other hand, the performance of computers is increasing continuously. Often, the engineer applies an integration method at hand and performs test runs with decreasing error tolerances to see whether the solution converges to the correct one.

Flexible Multibody Dynamics A multibody system is considered as flexible if it contains bodies that deform at the time they experience large rotations and translations. In this section, the three most common approaches used in multibody dynamics for the description of deformable bodies, namely the floating frame of reference approach (FFR) (Shabana [7]), the large rotation vector formulation (LRV) (Geradin and Cardona [8]) and the absolute nodal coordinate formulation (ANC) (Shabana [9]), are briefly outlined. The FFR formulation is the natural extension of the dynamics of rigid multibody systems to the analysis of systems that include deformable bodies. Its application is restricted to small deformation problems, although the substructuring technique enables extension to large deformation cases. Finite element nonlinear formulations can also be applied to the dynamics of deformable bodies that undergo large reference motion. The most used finite element approaches in multibody dynamics are the LRV formulation and the ANC formulation. They are not as computationally efficient as the FFR approach, but they can be applied to large deformation problems. In the following paragraphs the three formulations are described using a flexible beam as a deformable body, because many deformable multibody systems can be modeled with finite element beams. In the FFR formulation the position of a point P that belongs to a flexible body, as shown in Fig. 1, is given by:

r P = R + S (θ )(u 0 + u f )

(8)

Role of MMS and IFToMM in Multibody Dynamics

165

Fig. 1 Kinematic description of a deformable body

where u f = Nq f , R and q are the reference coordinates that describe the position and orientation of the body frame <x y z> with respect to the global frame <X Y Z>, q f is the vector of elastic coordinates, and N is the shape function matrix used to describe the deformation vector u f in the body frame. N is a function of the undeformed position vector u 0 . In this approach, the displacement vector is defined in a moving frame and it is a linear function of the elastic coordinates. Due to this fact, the inertia forces obtained with this formulation are highly non-linear functions of the coordinates, but the elastic forces are in many cases linear functions of the elastic coordinates q f . The shape functions included in matrix N are static and/or dynamic deformation modes that can be analytical functions, or obtained using the finite element method. In both cases, the reference conditions, which define the attachment of the body frame to the flexible body, are considered as the boundary conditions of a linear structural problem whose solution provides the deformation shape functions. There are many methods (Kim and Haug [10]) for selection of an adequate combination of shape functions. In the finite element nonlinear formulations described here, the separation into reference motion and deformation displacement is not considered. In both formulations, the position of a point of the deformable body is a function of the finite element nodal coordinates. In the LRV formulation (also known as Cosserat rod or geometrically exact beam) the position of a point P is obtained as:

r P = r (x ) + S s (x )u0

(9)

where u 0 = [0 u h ]. The position of a point on the beam centerline r and the orientation of the cross section frame Ss are interpolated as functions of the beam longitudinal parameter x. Different orientation coordinates (Euler angles, director cosines or Euler parameters) have been used in the literature to construct Ss as a function of x. The interpolation of them is not a trivial task (Romero [11]). In most implementations of this formulation, the beam cross section is assumed to be rigid. Parameters u and h are the coordinates of point P within the crosssection.

166

J. Cuadrado et al.

In the ANC formulation the position of a point P is obtained as:

r P = Ne

(10)

where N is the shape function matrix that is a function of the parameters x, u and h that are the coordinates of the point in the undeformed configuration, and e is the vector of nodal coordinates. While the nodal coordinates in the LRV method include absolute position vectors and any family of rotational coordinates, vector e contains absolute position vectors and slopes, which are partial derivatives of the position vectors with respect to the body parameters. The main differences between these two formulations are that the ANC formulation does not include rotation coordinates as nodal degrees of freedom and the cross section is assumed to be deformable. In both formulations the inertia forces are simpler functions of the coordinates than in the FFR approach, being completely linear in the case of the ANC formulation but, on the contrary, elastic forces are non-linear functions of the nodal coordinates even in the case of linear elastic bodies. Current research in the FFR approach include a search for new methods to account for the geometric stiffening (Lugris et al. [12]) and the foreshortening effects that require consideration of second-order terms in the strain–displacement relationship. An adequate selection of deformation shape functions for particular applications, and methods to simplify the inertia forces, are also open problems. In the LRV method, the cross section can take any angle with respect to the beam centerline. In some applications, it is convenient to model Euler-Bernouilli beams in which the cross-section remains perpendicular to the beam cross-section. In this formulation, the kinematic condition produces redundancy. This problem remains unsolved. The ANC formulation explained previously is the fully parameterized version of this method. The ANC formulation that was first presented (Escalona et al. [13]) used only the longitudinal parameter x as interpolation variable. In this case, the beam theory was used to obtain the elastic forces. The fully parameterized ANC formulation can show different locking problems and it may not give accurate results in case of small deformation problems. Some researchers try to solve these problems by returning to the line parameterized method (Schwab and Meijaard [14]). One important problem that appears in this case is that torsion in 3D beams cannot be described.

Contact Problems in Multibody Systems Contact and impact problems are common in many multibody system applications, in particular for machines and mechanisms, e.g. gear trains, electro-magnetic valves, hammer drills, vibration tables, robotic pick and place tasks, joints with clearance or during the human walking motion. The smooth global motion of a multibody system might be interrupted by collisions between moving bodies characterized by vanishing relative normal distance

Role of MMS and IFToMM in Multibody Dynamics

167

gn between the bodies, also denoted as unilateral constraint. Therefore, collision detection is fundamental in contact problems representing a non-trivial geometrical problem. In the case of a contact with non-zero relative velocity in the normal direction, g n , impact occurs and impact treatment is necessary. If after impact the relative velocity vanishes, a permanent contact remains. In both cases, during impact and contact, the equations of motion (4) have to be supplemented by the contact forces,

M (y, t ) y + k (y, y , t ) = q (y, y , t ) + w n Fn + w t Ft

(11)

Thereby, wn and wt project the normal contact force Fn and the tangential contact force Ft onto the directions of the generalized coordinates. The normal contact force prevents penetration of the colliding bodies, while the tangential contact force results from friction between the bodies. A detailed description based on unilateral constraints is given in Pfeiffer and Glocker [15]. In the following, some aspects of single frictionless contacts and impacts are briefly highlighted. During permanent contact of two bodies it is gn = 0, g n = 0 . Due to contact, only compressive forces Fn ≥ 0 can be transmitted. This is the major difference between unilateral contact and bilateral constraints, found in ideal joints, where also tensile forces can occur. In order to prevent penetration, also the normal acceleration must be nonnegative. If the contact opens it is gn > 0 and the contact force vanishes. Thus at each time point the contact yields the complementarity condition,

Fn ≥ 0, gn ≥ 0, Fn gn = 0

(12)

Combining Eqs. 11 and 12 yields a linear complementarity problem, which must be solved for the contact force and system states. Impacts, as a special type of contact, have recently attracted much attention in rigid multibody dynamics. The global motion of multibody systems occurs on a slow time scale characterized by low frequencies. In contrast an impact is a high frequency phenomenon of very short duration, which requires a fast time scale. During impact, usually kinetic energy of the rigid body motion is lost. Impacts can initiate wave propagation in the bodies which absorb parts of the kinetic energy. The waves propagate in the bodies until they vanish due to material damping. During impact also high stresses might occur near the impact point, which may result in plastic deformation also contributing to the kinetic energy loss. Macromechanically, these various sources of kinetic energy loss during impact are often summarized and expressed by a coefficient of restitution. For multibody systems, two approaches of impact modeling are often used: the instantaneous impact modeling and the continuous impact modeling. The first one is based on classical impact theory known for rigid bodies and unilateral constraints. Thereby the impact duration is assumed to be infinitesimal where the velocities jump and the position remains unchanged. The impact computation, i.e. the change of velocity, occurs on velocity/impulse level, where the equation of motion is integrated over the infinitesimal impact duration. Then, the equation of motion on

168

J. Cuadrado et al.

velocity/impulse level is combined with the kinematic coefficient of restitution, well-known as Newton’s hypothesis, or the kinetic coefficient of restitution, also referred to as Poissons’ hypothesis, see Pfeiffer and Glocker [15]. These event driven approaches require interruption of the time integration at each impact. An alternative approach for handling non-smooth dynamics are time-stepping methods, whereby the multibody system dynamics including unilateral constraints is discretized in time. For details see e.g. Glocker and Studer [16]. Using continuous impact modeling, the impact computation occurs on acceleration/force level. Thereby the impact is modeled as a short permanent contact and the “impact forces” are determined from a compliance force-law, which allows small penetration at the contact point, see e.g. Lankarani and Nikravesh [17]. In order to control the kinetic energy loss during impact, these force-laws are often combined with a coefficient of restitution. Different force-laws are summarized in Seifried et al. [18]. Replacing the unilateral contact constraint, these continuous force-laws can also be used for describing permanent contact, such as in bearings with clearance as investigated by Flores and Ambrosio [19]. The impulsive approach is based on a coefficient of restitution, while the force approach may use it too. Traditionally, it is estimated from experience or measured by costly experiments. However, the coefficient of restitution may be determined by numerical simulations on a fast time scale resulting in a multi-scale simulation approach. Then, the multibody system simulation is supplemented by an additional simulation on the fast time scale, including all micromechanical elastodynamic and elasto-plastic effects, from which the coefficient of restitution can be evaluated as shown in Seifried et al. [18].

Mechanism and Machine Science Problems Multibody dynamics can be defined as computational mechanics of machines and mechanisms. In some ways, it represents the modern approach to the theory of machines and mechanisms, which makes use of numerical methods and computational tools to extract the best engineering results from the applied mechanics. A key aspect of this discipline is an efficient treatment of the kinematics of mechanisms with closed loops, a main hurdle which prevents classical mechanics from reaching the final and complete solution of kinematic and dynamic problems. The multibody approach defines the configuration of a mechanism with more coordinates than degrees of freedom, which means that m algebraic relations stand among the coordinates: such relations are called constraint equations, generally expressed as, Φ (x ) = 0 (13) where x are the dependent coordinates of the problem. The kinematic position problem implies solution of the nonlinear system of equations given by Eq. 13, with known values of the coordinates representing the degrees of freedom of the mechanism. This is usually done through the Newton–Raphson iterative method, which leads to the linearized form of Eq. 13 around some approximation x j to the solution,

Role of MMS and IFToMM in Multibody Dynamics

( )(

169

)

( )

Φ x x j x j +1 − x j = − Φ x j

(14)

where sub-index j indicates the iteration number. The iterative process is stopped when Eq. 13 is satisfied within some specified tolerance. Differentiating Eq. 13 with respect to time yields,

Φ x (x )x = 0

 (x, x )x Φ x (x ) x = −Φ x

(15)

(16)

which are the equations for the velocity and acceleration kinematic problems, both linear unlike the position problem. It must be noted that the dependent coordinates x used to define mechanisms in the multibody approach are usually related to specific families, i.e. relative, reference-point, and natural or fully Cartesian coordinates. For all three families, systematic procedures have been stated to obtain the corresponding constraints equations, which enable automatic generation of the constraints vector of Eq. 13 and, hence, automatic derivation of the velocity and acceleration equations (Eqs. 15 and 16), as explained in Garcia de Jalon and Bayo [20]. This means that the position, velocity and acceleration problems can be easily and systematically stated and solved through the multibody approach for any machine or mechanism, despite its complexity. Special attention must be paid to the Jacobian matrix of the constraints, Φ x , which appears in Eqs. 14 to 16, and plays a crucial role in the kinematics of machines and mechanisms. The null eigenvalues and associated eigenvectors of Φ Tx Φ x indicate the mechanism’s degrees of freedom and velocity fields associated to them, respectively, which can be helpful for the study of a mechanism’s mobility, singular and locking positions, workspace determination, and so on (Hernandez et al. [21]). An example of practical application of all these aspects is the kinematics of parallel manipulators, as in Fumagalli and Masarati [22]. The mentioned approach for the kinematics can find its applicability in the synthesis domain too. The described systematic procedure to state the kinematic relations at position, velocity and acceleration level, enables us to address the kinematic synthesis problem as an optimization problem (Sancibrian et al. [23]). The kinematic constraints gathered in Eq. 13 can be considered either as constraints of the optimization problem or as part of the objective function (or the objective function itself). With respect to the dynamics, the multibody approach always enables one to state the equations of motion, despite the mechanism’s complexity. If dependent coordinates have been used to define the mechanism, a basic form of the equations of motion is provided by the Lagrange equations of the first kind,

 + Φ Tx λ = Q Mx

(17)

Φ = 0

(18)

170

J. Cuadrado et al.

with λ the vector of Lagrange multipliers, which contains the internal forces due to the constraints (Eqs. 4 and 2 are these same equations when reference-point coordinates are used to define the mechanism). Moreover, the above system of differential-algebraic equations (DAE) can be always reduced to a system of ordinary differential equations (ODE) in a minimum number of coordinates (as many as degrees of freedom of the mechanism), by carrying out a velocity transformation,

x = Jy

(19)

where y is the independent set of coordinates, and matrix J (which summarizes J Ti and J Ri from Eq. 3 for reference-point coordinates) is position dependent: its columns are obtained through successive velocity analyses with a unity value of the velocity of a certain degree of freedom and null value of the velocities of the remaining ones. Differentiation of Eq. 19 and substitution into Eq. 17 leads to an ODE as in Eq. 5,  = Q My (20) The equations of motion stated by any of the described procedures can be always integrated in time by numerical integrators, as explained in the second Section of this paper. Therefore, the multibody approach enables us to perform the forward dynamics analysis of any machine or mechanism, providing the resulting motion and reaction efforts in the joints (Korkealaakso et al. [24]). Furthermore, an inverse dynamics analysis, typically required for machine design, makes use of the same equations to provide the motor efforts that generate the prescribed motion, along with the reaction efforts in the joints (Fumagalli and Masarati [22]); however, in this case, Eqs. 17 and 20 become just algebraic equations. Finally, the general and nonlinear dynamic equations described may always be linearized in order to study vibration problems, as in Negrut and Ortiz [25], or Popp and Schiehlen [26]. Machine design is based on determination of the time-varying stress and strain fields in the different machine parts, upon which failure and durability criteria are applied. In this context, an attractive use of multibody dynamics consists of modeling as flexible those bodies of the mechanism whose design is being addressed. In this way, the coupled problem of large rigid-body motion and elastic deformation is solved, as explained in the third Section of this paper, and the histories of strains and stresses are obtained (Cuadrado et al. [27]). For tribological problems, the contact techniques described in the fourth Section of the paper should be applied in order to provide the required stress and strain fields (Schiehlen et al. [28]). A practical application to railway of these concepts can be found in Kovalev et al. [29]. Recently, the power of multibody dynamics techniques is allowing us to develop detailed models of the most commonly used machine elements, which may help to provide better insight into the complex phenomena that take place within such elements than the traditional and simple models available in classical machine design books, while still being much more efficient than finite element techniques. Examples of this trend are the following: journal bearings (Flores et al. [30]),

Role of MMS and IFToMM in Multibody Dynamics

171

c am-follower mechanisms (Fisette et al. [31]), meshing gears (Ziegler and Eberhard [32]), belt and pulley systems (Kerkkanen et al. [33]), and chain-sprocket mechanisms (Pedersen et al. [34]).

Conclusions Multibody dynamics may be understood as computational mechanics of machines and mechanisms. Started in the 1970s, it progressively gained maturity during the last three decades, and can be considered today as a well established discipline, which has yielded several commercial packages able to address real industrial problems. Multibody dynamics implies several steps, which can be carried out in a very general and systematic way: mobile mechanical systems can be modeled to the desired level of detail (rigid or flexible bodies, ideal or real joints, contact and impact between bodies), dynamic formulations state the equations of motion of the modeled systems, and numerical integrators allow one to solve them in time. The mentioned tools can be used to address the kinematic and dynamic analysis and synthesis of machines and mechanisms, no matter the level of complexity they have. Also, they are helpful for failure and durability analysis, and for the development of new detailed models of classical machine elements.

References 1. Schiehlen, W.: Multibody system dynamics: roots and perspectives. Multibody Sys. Dyn. 1, 149–188 (1997) 2. Shabana, A.A.: Flexible multibody dynamics: review of past and recent developments. Multibody Sys. Dyn. 1, 189–222 (1997) 3. Uicker, J.J.Jr.: On the dynamic analysis of spatial linkages using 4 by 4 matrices. Ph.D. thesis, Northwestern University, Evanston (1965) 4. Magnus, K. (ed.): Dynamics of Multibody Systems. Springer, Berlin (1978) 5. Bianchi, G., Schiehlen, W. (eds.): Dynamics of Multibody Systems. Springer, Berlin (1986) 6. Schiehlen, W. (ed.): Multibody Systems Handbook. Springer, Berlin (1990) 7. Shabana, A.A.: Dynamics of Multibody Systems. Cambridge University Press, New York (2005) 8. Geradin, M., Cardona, A.: Flexible Multibody Dynamics. A Finite Element Approach. Wiley, West Sussex (2000) 9. Shabana, A.A.: Computational Continuum Mechanics. Cambridge University Press, New York (2008) 10. Kim, S.S., Haug, E.J.: Selection of deformation modes for flexible multibody dynamics. Mech. Struct. Mach. 18, 565–586 (1990) 11. Romero, I.: The interpolation of rotations and its application to finite element models of geometrically exact rods. Comput. Mech. 34, 121–133 (2004) 12. Lugris, U., Naya, M.A., Perez, J.A., Cuadrado, J.: Implementation and efficiency of two geometric stiffening approaches. Multibody Sys. Dyn. 20, 147–161 (2008)

172

J. Cuadrado et al.

13. Escalona, J.L., Hussien, A.H., Shabana, A.A.: Application of the absolute nodal co-ordinate formulation to multibody system dynamics. J. Sound Vib. 214, 833–851 (1998) 14. Schwab, A.L., Meijaard, J.P.: Comparison of three-dimensional flexible beam elements for dynamic analysis: classical finite element formulation and absolute nodal coordinate formulation. J. Comput. Nonlinear Dyn. 5, 011010-1 to 011010-10 (2010). doi:10.1115/1.4000320 15. Pfeiffer, F., Glocker, C.: Multibody Dynamics with Unilateral Contacts. Wiley, New York (1996) 16. Glocker, C., Studer, C.: Formulation and preparation for numerical evaluation of linear complementarity systems in dynamics. Multibody Sys. Dyn. 13, 447–463 (2005) 17. Lankarani, H., Nikravesh, P.: Continuous contact force models for impact analysis in multibody systems. Nonlinear Dyn. 5, 193–207 (1994) 18. Seifried, R., Schiehlen, W., Eberhard, P.: The role of the coefficient of restitution on impact problems in multibody dynamics. Proc. Inst. Mech. Eng. [K] J Multibody Dyn 224, 279–306 (2010) 19. Flores, P., Ambrosio, J.: Revolute joints with clearance in multibody systems. Comput. Struct. 82, 1359–1369 (2004) 20. Garcia de Jalon, J., Bayo, E.: Kinematic and Dynamic Simulation of Multibody Systems. Springer, New York (1994) 21. Hernandez, A., Altuzarra, O., Aviles, R., Petuya, V.: Kinematic analysis of mechanisms via a velocity equation based in a geometric matrix. Mech. Mach. Theor. 38, 1413–1429 (2003) 22. Fumagalli, A., Masarati, P.: Real-time inverse dynamics control of parallel manipulators using general-purpose multibody software. Multibody Sys. Dyn. 22, 47–68 (2009) 23. Sancibrian, R., Garcia, P., Viadero, F., Fernandez, A.: A general procedure based on exact gradient determination in dimensional synthesis of planar mechanisms. Mech. Mach. Theor. 41, 212–229 (2006) 24. Korkealaakso, P., Mikkola, A., Rouvinen, A.: Multi-body simulation approach for fault diagnosis of a reel. Proc. Inst. Mech. Engi. [K] J. Multibody Dyn. 220, 9–19 (2006) 25. Negrut, D., Ortiz, J.L.: A practical approach for the linearization of the constrained multibody dynamics equations. J. Comput. Nonlinear Dyn. 1, 230–239 (2006) 26. Popp, K., Schiehlen, W.: Ground Vehicle Dynamics. Springer, Berlin (2010) 27. Cuadrado, J., Gutierrez, R., Naya, M.A., Gonzalez, M.: Experimental validation of a flexible MBS dynamic formulation through comparison between measured and calculated stresses on a prototype car. Multibody Sys. Dyn. 11, 147–166 (2004) 28. Schiehlen, W., Seifried, R., Eberhard, P.: Elastoplastic phenomena in multibody impact dynamics. Comput. Meth. Appl. Mech. Eng. 195, 6874–6890 (2006) 29. Kovalev, R., Lysikov, N., Mikheev, G., Pogorelov, D., Simonov, V., Yazykov, V., Zakharov, S., Zharov, I., Goryacheva, I., Soshenkov, S., Torskaya, E.: Freight car models and their computer-aided dynamic analysis. Multibody Sys. Dyn. 22, 399–423 (2009) 30. Flores, P., Ambrosio, J., Claro, J.C.P., Lankarani, H.M., Koshy, C.S.: Lubricated revolute joints in rigid multibody systems. Nonlinear Dyn. 56, 277–295 (2009) 31. Fisette, P., Peterkenne, J.M., Vaneghem, B., Samin, J.C.: A multibody loop constraints approach for modelling cam/follower devices. Nonlinear Dyn. 22, 335–359 (2000) 32. Ziegler, P., Eberhard, P.: Simulative and experimental investigation of impacts on gear wheels. Comput. Meth. Appl. Mech. Eng. 197, 4653–4662 (2008) 33. Kerkkanen, K.S., Garcia-Vallejo, D., Mikkola, A.: Modeling of belt-drives using a large deformation finite element formulation. Nonlinear Dyn. 43, 239–256 (2006) 34. Pedersen, S.L., Hansen, J.M., Ambrosio, J.A.C.: A roller chain drive model including contact with guide-bars. Multibody Sys. Dyn. 12, 285–301 (2004)

State-of-the-Art and Trends of Development of Reliability of Machines and Mechanisms Irina V. Demiyanushko

Abstract Today Reliability is a subject of increasing scientific interest and practical application with considerable multidisciplinary issues. A survey and basic problems are outlined with the aim to stress current significance of Reliability both in engineering and education frames. IFToMM role is also discussed as focused in the activity of the Technical Committee for Reliability.

Introduction The science of reliability of machines and mechanisms (MMS) has been developed rather recently – specifically, at the end of the twentieth century. Problems of reliability, which are applicable to all areas of engineering, first appeared as the most important consideration for machines and mechanisms (MM) of aerospace engineering, nuclear power, transport engineering, and the machine-tool industry. In some cases reliability criteria determined safety; in others, basically, it supported economy at all stages of life cycles of machines. There are many treatments and definitions of the concept of reliability that do not greatly differ among themselves; nevertheless, through 70–90 years of the past century, there have been many disputes over which schools of thought had the most credibility. Today a commonly accepted definition of reliability is as a property of certain objects (e.g., machines, mechanisms and their component parts), in which have been installed limits of values of all parameters that control the abilities of a particular object, that allows it to execute its required functions within these parameters, subject as well to other given exterior conditions such as maintenance, storage and transportation [1]. The following basic properties are included in any structure of reliability of machines: failure (refusal) detection, durability, resources, maintainability and I.V. Demiyanushko (*) Moscow Auto-Road, State Technical University (MADI), 64, Leningradskiy prospect, Moscow 125190, Russia e-mail: [email protected] M. Ceccarelli (ed.), Technology Developments: the Role of Mechanism and Machine Science and IFToMM, Mechanisms and Machine Science 1, DOI 10.1007/978-94-007-1300-0_14, © Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2011

173

174

I.V. Demiyanushko

c ontrol of maintenance. A succinct statement providing for reliability of machines was given by an academician of the Russian Academy of Science (RAS) Kuznetsov N.D. [2]: “Reliability of machines lies in the design stage, is ensured by the manufacturer and adequate testing and is supported by maintenance and repairs”. In a state-of-the-art treatment of reliability, one must distinguish between reliability of unique objects, reliability of objects with a small number of components and reliability of multi-component objects. Examples and methods of operation of a reliability theory differ for these different kinds of objects. One of the central concepts of a reliability theory is failure detection – an event that is in violation of a required state of the object. In a reliability theory, failure is treated as a random event, requiring as one of its basic control parameters a probability of no-failure during the given interval of time or within the limits of the given operating time. Resources and life cycle, being parameters of durability, also belong among the basic concepts of a reliability theory. Prediction of resources (lifetime) is a particularly important constituent of a reliability theory of machines and constructions. In an elementary situation, when an object operates up to first failure, the no-failure probability of the object simultaneously characterizes also its durability. The more common case, is when rate of failure is reduced to a minimum at the expense of technical diagnostic and maintenance operations that guarantee the warning of possible failures or at least their fast elimination without durable interruptions in maintenance and other undesirable after effects; these cases however can be surveyed. Under these conditions the important concepts become a boundary state, resources and life cycle duration.

A Historical Perspective Reliability theory in a state-of-the-art view arose during a 50 years period during the past century with the beginning of rapid development of electronics engineering and computer equipment. The reliability theory apparatus at that time was developed primarily with reference to systems whose elements interact among themselves from the point of view of storing function ability on a selection of logical circuits. The basic problem of a reliability theory consisted in an estimation of parameters of reliability of systems on known parameters of separate elements. Usually these elements were the result of a mass production that had been tested in quantity, sufficient for obtaining reliable statistical estimations of parameters of reliability. A distinctive feature of such objects, serving as an appendix to a reliability theory, was that conditions of their maintenance were uniform, stationary and susceptible to reproduction under conditions of bench tests. The reliability theory of such objects has been developed rather in detail. This theory became the constituent of the common theory of big systems: it usually was called a system reliability theory. Some development also resulted from a so-called parametric reliability theory in which failure was treated as an exit of parameters of objects for some established limits describing the function ability of those objects.

State-of-the-Art and Trends of Development of Reliability of Machines and Mechanisms

175

Force and kinematic interactions of elements of MM have a more complicated character. The behavior of these objects essentially depends on their interacting with an environment, and also the character and intensity of processes of maintenance. For a prediction of behavior of MM components it is necessary to consider processes of deformation, chafing, accumulation of damages, cracking and destruction at certain variables, cyclical loads, temperatures and other external effects. For unique objects, machines and mechanisms of responsible destination reliability represents a strength concept, the term “strength reliability” is frequently used. For these objects, as already has been said above, extremely explicitly with usage of state-of-the-art methods of mechanics for a design stage and creation of machines are forecast parameters of reliability, first of all, parameters of durability, which further are checked and prove to be true during obligatory experimental inspections. While in service for unique machines of responsible destination the concept of resource on the state, based on methods of prediction of durability and methods of engineering preliminary tests is used. To judge parameters of no-failure operation and durability of objects as a whole, it is not enough to know only parameters of separate elements. Besides, for unique and small series machines we cannot calculate an accumulation of the statistical information on the basis of their bench or real tests as it is connected both to temporal expenditures, and with economic limitations. In this connection to prediction parameters of no-failure operation and durability of mechanical systems at design stages we apply basically calculation – theoretical methods, founded on statistical data on properties of materials, loads and effects. Therein lies the most essential difference of a reliability theory of machines, both from a system reliability theory, and from the parametric theory. The history of development of a reliability theory in the nineteenth century has been illustrated by Bolotin V.V. [1] with the help of the diagram shown on Fig. 1. The first elements of a reliability theory contained calculations of safety factors of elements of machines – relation of computational toughness (limit stresses, ultimate load) R to a computational operation load q and in a certain degree

Fig. 1 The diagram of a history of development of a reliability theory in the nineteenth century

176

I.V. Demiyanushko

c haracterized its reliability level. The understanding of the statistical nature of safety factors came later – to the first third of the nineteenth century. In activities of Majer M. [3], Hotsialov N.F. [4] and Streletskiy N.S. [5], the performance of reliability P measured as probability of no overflow by the parameter of load q, the parameter of toughness R was introduced. In the second half of the nineteenth century the approach received further development in calculations of building constructions, when it was offered to introduce components of a safety factor, having given everyone some statistical sense, so there was a method of calculation on limiting states, which till now is used in calculations of building constructions. At the end of 50 years of the nineteenth century, the factor of time had been introduced into reliability theory. The point of view has by degrees gained recognition that failures and limiting condition of constructions should be treated as emission V (t) of some stochastic processes from admissible areas W. It is natural, that during the writing of this article we could not get rid of some tendentious representation about development of the theory and applied problems of reliability developed in Russia, though the general direction of works in all countries went in parallel and was determined by development of techniques and technologies. So representation about development of a science of reliability of MM in USA and GB can be found in works of Mahadevan [6], Meeker [7] Martin [8]. Up to this time the basic concepts of a system reliability theory have been created so there was a necessity for coordination of these basic concepts, their nomenclatures and their labels. The parametric reliability theory developed now, in effect, represents an attempt to introduce into calculations of reliability of big systems the analyses of physical mechanical phenomena, causing failures. Thus probability of no-failure P (R) becomes a functional of some stochastic process V (t), which characterizes modifications of parameters of a system in time. Thus, two different approaches to calculations on reliability are traversed (see Fig. 1). State-of-the-art methods of mechanics of materials and constructions with the help of computers allow producing calculations of machines on the basis of complicated computational schemes, maximum approximated to real conditions. Broad usage numerical methods – such as the Finite Element Method (FEM), a Method of Boundary Elements – were introduced, which with usage of state-of-the-art universal and specialized computational complexes (programs products) allow us to decide tasks of static and dynamic behavior of constructions at loads and the external effects varying in time, including temperature tasks and simulating of cracking processes. For example the advance reached to the present time in the field of simulation of complicated space systems of MM in view of abrasion, so allowing the solution of the task of dynamics of aviation gas-turbine engines rotors bearing in mind the friction in contact places [8]. To apply these achievements to prediction parameters of reliability, it is necessary to pass from determinates calculations to probability – statistical. In particular, in this direction have been practically solved and to the present time have been inserted into practice, methods of reliability prediction of aero-engines, gas turbine rotors [9] and other parts [10, 11] of these machines at statistical simulation of loads in flight cycles. The stress-strain condition of rotor constructions is analysed by FEM in view of nonlinear deformation,

State-of-the-Art and Trends of Development of Reliability of Machines and Mechanisms

177

accumulation of faults, cracking and probabilistic performances of materials. The tendency of development of information technologies of design at maintenance of reliability with use of techniques of FEM for calculation of a statics, dynamics, linear and nonlinear behavior of objects has resulted in development of Stochastic Finite Element Analysis (SFEM) [12]. The experimental tools created to the present time and processing of the information they provide, allow us to quickly receive necessary information about behavior of structural materials and about the majority of the loads that are operational on our machines. Here new capabilities open state-of-the-art numerical methods and computer analyses. With respect to probabilistic – statistical prediction of parameters of reliability, the trend is toward usage of the method of statistical simulations (Monte Carlo), which allows us to produce estimations of parameters of stochastic processes and phenomena, giving us simultaneously an introduction to their possible and typical realizations in conditions of indeterminacy. In a reliability theory of mechanical systems, properties of materials and effects are adopted at random, therefore the behavior of objects also are random in character. Normative demands and specifications on maintenance superimpose certain limitations on these parameters. Limitations can be formulated as a condition of a determination of some random vector, object time-dependent and describing quality, in the given area.

The Fundamentals of a Statement of Reliability Estimate Problems The statement of problem of reliability prediction of complicated objects (the machine, the mechanisms, their elements) is reduced to definition of a probability of no-failure in time t * which is a random quantity P(t ) = prob.(t * > t ).

(1)

The density distribution function of failures at an instant t is f (t ) =

1 dN * , N 0 dt

(2)

where N0, N are the initial and given quantities of objects. The cumulative distribution function of time of failure occurrence is *

F (t ) = prob.(t * < t ) = 1 - P(t ).

(3)

Also it is connected to a density probability of failures t

F (t ) = ò f (t )dt. 0

(4)

178

I.V. Demiyanushko

The rate of failure describing a density probability of failures in the proximal period if failure has not taken place yet and a density probability of failures are connected by a ratio l (t ) =

f (t ) . P (t )

(5)

The basic equation of reliability allows us to determine a probability of no-failure of the machine on a passing of rate of failure

t ïì ïü P(t ) = exp í - ò l (t )dt ý . îï 0 þï

(6)

Common methods of reliability prediction today are developed for different kinds of objects and types of failures. The development of methods of a reliability theory basically goes in the direction of consideration of the physical bases of failures (simulation of accumulation of damages and processes of crack propagation at a fatigue, a low-cycle fatigue, a creep, wear-fatigue, radiation damage, etc.), simulations of processes of loading of objects in time, accumulations of experimental data and simulations of properties of materials at different kinds of loading and complicated loadings, to development of methods of simulation of accumulation of failures and damages in conditions of indeterminacy. Complicated loading of objects at a simultaneous combination of different mode of failures, for example, durable toughness and a low-cycle fatigue that occurs in high-temperature details of mobile machines, reduction in necessity of development of multiparameter criteria for an estimation of probability of collapse (in this case – low-cycle crack initiation) P1, in particular, at low cycle loading [13]

P1 = prob.[σ R > σ q ; N R > N q ].

(7)

where sR and sq are limiting and operational stresses in the detail; NR and Nq are the limiting and operational numbers of cycles of loading of the detail. There is actually a problem on connection of probability of collapse and statistical safety factors of machine components. In this case Eq. 7, will be

P1 = prob.[kσ* < 1; k N* < 1],

(8)

kσ* kN* are statistical safety factors and cyclic lifetime with accepted significance level and confidence probability.

Actual Problems of MM-Reliability and Education Taking into account the discussion above it is obvious that, with engineering progress, emersion of new concepts of creation of MM, detection of new aspects of agencies of exposures and off loadings, the question of rationing of reliability of

State-of-the-Art and Trends of Development of Reliability of Machines and Mechanisms

179

complex multilevel systems is actual.. In this direction the block diagrammes of reliability engaging structural flowcharts taking into account functional links and interacting of elements, graphical circuit designs in the form of trees of events and failures of installations, state graphs and transferring taking into account their statistical nature are explicated. Now the trend of application of methods of an artificial intellect – neural nets, illegible logic, etc. is tracked. These approaches are extremely practical for robots, representing an indicative instance of complex multilevel systems [14–16]. The reliability and resource prediction in maintenance remain as an important problem, when objects are exposed to continuous or selection check diagnostic tools. These methods of a reliability theory are directly connected to technical diagnostic methods, which development becomes one of the major conditions of a rise in reliability of machines in maintenance. Another, not less important, direction is the development of methods of optimal design in view of reliability criteria. Developments in the field of simulation of processes of loading, creation of numerical models of objects in view of their physical time behavior and accumulation of faults, and development of programming languages and the computational complexes, permitting us to pass to the parametric analysis of constructions, development of methods of a multi criteria optimization, allow us to hope for appearance of real solutions for creation of methods and systems of optimal multi criteria design in view of reliability factors. As a calculation founded on a probabilistic estimation, it is usually more correct than one that is conventionally determined: so units or details of objects can be designed with more compact levels of safety than with the determined design. These calculations are safety measures and/or more effective, as they allow reducing reserves and the mass of details thus is reduced, and loads are optimized. It is obvious that such design ensures not only reliability, but also safety. Certainly, still there is actually a problem of development of normative demands on reliability for different objects, first of all, responsible destination. Now parameters of reliability are already included in normative demands for air constructions, for objects of nuclear power, transport engineering etc. However, problems of reliability prediction and resources, development of methods and models for calculations of reliability of machines and mechanisms, accumulations of experimental data on materials and simulation of processes of a fault, experimental researches of behavior of constructions of machines at different loadings, development of methods and models for systems of optimal design, problems of preliminary treatment and prediction of resource in service time, remain the important scientific trends, requiring probes, creations and supports of appropriate scientific programs. There is a relevant question on creation of new university training courses in Reliability of MM. In particular, in connection with a progressive market economy transferring from state standards to regulations and standards of corporations, representations about definition of parameters of an operational reliability considerably vary. Emersion of unique installations of complex multilevel systems also demands creation from students of new representations about reliability, safety and risks.

180

I.V. Demiyanushko

In summary it is necessary to pay attention to direct communication of a problem of reliability of objects with a probability of originating technogeneous catastrophes. The analysis of saturation of potentially dangerous and technical complicated objects in the technogeneous sphere of all industrially developed countries point to a risk that increase of number and weight of consequence of recent technogeneous catastrophes is subject to the exponential law [17]. It is obvious that the rise of reliability and decrease of risks of technogeneous emergencies and catastrophes, as connected tasks, should be considered jointly. This demands special investigations, and it is necessary to take into account that the degree of the calculation – experimental substantiation of heavy emergencies and catastrophes has sharply decreased on a measure of growth of risks [17]. In this direction, investigations are basically carried out on results of particular cases; at the same time, in joint developments of reliability prediction and prediction of risks of originating extreme situations with a technogeneous character, essential promotion is planned, basically, for unique objects. At the same time, for transport techniques (a road and transport complex), machine-building complexes, mining engineering, etc., the solution still lies ahead. Unconditionally, the major direction is development of training courses on MM reliability theory. Such courses are given at all leading technical universities of the world and textbooks and manuals continue to be published. An example is the textbook “The Statistical Mechanics and Reliability Theory” of Prof. V.A. Svetlitskiy in MSTU of Bauman in Moscow [18].

IFToMM Influence in MM-Reliability Developments IFToMM pays much attention to support of the trends discussed above. The Technical Committee on Reliability of machines and mechanisms (TCR IFToMM) was created in 1997. A significant role in shaping the Committee, a statement of tasks and directions of its activity, was played by the National Academy of Science of Belarus with the participation of Prof. O. Berestnev. Scientific researches of scientists of Belarus in the field of reliability of machines, robots and mechanisms are presented in materials of the International Scientific and Technical Conference “Reliability of cars and technical systems”, October 2001гoдa, Minsk, in the book [19] and in a number of other publications. Since 2006, the chair-person of TCR IFToMM has been Prof. I. Demjanushko (Moscow State Automobile & Road University – MADI). TCR IFToMM carried out many activities promoting ideas of development of state-of-the-art trends of scientific investigations in the field of a reliability theory and the solution of applied problems with respect to ensuring reliability of machines, both unique objects and objects of mass production. Organization of active involvement in conferences by TMM members of the Committee, in particular, in the World Congresses on TMM, in international conferences RoManSy, international conferences on reliability in Minsk, Belarus, 2001, for the first time, a rigorous section on reliability of machines at the World Congress on TMM in Besancon, France; all these activities have

State-of-the-Art and Trends of Development of Reliability of Machines and Mechanisms

181

drawn attention to the problem of reliability of machines and have allowed us to attract young scientists and students from different countries to participate in activities in these important areas. Well-known scientists from more than ten countries have taken part in the activity of the Committee, whose structure has been extended. During the last 2 years, members of the Committee have published more than 15 monographs and 30 articles, a significant amount of lectures have been given and new training courses have been developed. Activities of leading scientists both old and young have been published in recent years, including those presented in the Section of Reliability of IFToMM World Congress in Besancon, France, demonstrating that, in the majority of countries, the greatest attention in the field of reliability of MM is now being given in the following directions: • Construction of a system of reliability in projection of complex machines. In France, A. Hahnel M. Lemaire F. Rieuneau F. Petit, propose a framework for assessing and improving the reliability of machines and mechanisms. A multidisciplinary viewpoint is adopted to develop a reliability approach based on flexible representations that benefit from a comprehensive probabilistic and physical modeling of either the performance or the failure scenarios of the considered systems. They have suggested that FORM/SORM-based analysis yields traditional reliability measures. These results are exploited to contribute efficiently to design for reliability efforts. • Working out of the theory and methods of an estimation of parameters of reliability in the conditions of noncomplex information. A significant number of works in this area is presented by the scientific schools of China, where the approaches are based on developing Hybrid reliability models, such as Fuzzy event-precise probabilistic models and others. • Investigations in the area of methods and the equipment for diagnostics on a resource and reliability of unique objects, including use of methods of detection of imperfections and flaws (Reliability Analysis of 100MN Multi Way Die Forging Hydraulic Press’s Computer Control System – Zhongwei Liu and others, China; The Practice of Applying Acoustic Emission Phenomena for Nondestructive Control and Diagnosing of Technical State of Manufactured Articles – Royzman V. and others, Ukraina; Reliability and Safety of Rail Vehicle Electromechanical Systems – Vintr Z., Vintr M., Czech Republic). • The development of standard demands on reliability in various industries These investigations were carried out in an aircraft and gas turbine engine industry – [20, 21], in atomic engineering – [22–24], in the common engineering industry [19]. In atomic engineering, a member of PCR IFToMM, Prof. Tunc Aldemir, USA, carried out investigations into modeling of passive systems in nuclear power plants, such as pipes and structures for probabilistic risk assessment (PRA) using dynamic methodologies. Limitations in conventional PRA methodology using the event-tree/fault-tree approach constrain its value as an effective tool to address aging effects and quantify risk and reliability impacts of component aging management strategies.

182

I.V. Demiyanushko

Conclusion In recent years there has appeared a significant amount of literature concerning reliability theory of machines. Numerous monographs and textbooks have been published; a wide variety of journals have included articles that deal with the subject; and many conferences have been held throughout the international scientific community. Nevertheless, success in forging a commonly accepted view of reliability theory of mechanisms and robots is still insufficient. In reality, there is not yet enough educational literature, there are relatively few reliability theory headings on the Internet that include mechanisms and robotics, etc. Some of the many difficulties that still remain in dealing with reliability problems for MM have been identified above in hope that more attention will be paid in the future.

References 1. Bolotin, V.V.: Prediction of a resource of machines and structures. M. Mech. Eng. (1984) 2. Kuznetsov, N.D.: Reliability of machines//Scientific bases of progressive techniques and technology. M. Mech. Eng. 1986, 87–97 (1993) 3. Majer, M.: Die Sicherkeit der Bauwerke and ihre Berechnung nach Grenzkraften anstatt nach zulassigen Spammungen. Springer, Berlin (1926) 4. Hotsialov, N.F.: Strengths coefficients. Build. Eng. (10) (1929) 5. Streletskiy, N.S.: Bases of the statistical account of safety factors of constructions. M. Stroyizdat (1947) 6. Haldar, A., Mahadevan, S.: Reliability and Statistical Methods in Engineering Design. Wiley, New York (2000) 7. Meeker, W.Q.: Trends in the statistical assessment of reliability. Department of Statistics and Center for Nondestructive Evaluation, Iowa State University, Ames (2010) 8. Martin, P.: A review of mechanical reliability. Proc. Inst. Mech. Eng. E: J. Process Mech. Eng. 212(E4), 281–287 (1998) 9. Pyhalov, A.A., Milov, A.E.: Contact’s problem in a FEM mathematical modeling of dynamic behavior of a rotor of turbo machines. Bull. IRSTU (5), 23–35 (2005) 10. Demiyanushko, I.V., Velikanova, N.P.: Forecasting of reliability and durability of disks of turbo machines. Bull. STU MADI 16–32 (2004) 11. Nognitskiy, Y.A. and others: Probalistic prediction of aviation engine critical parts lifetime, GT2006-91350. In: Proceeding of GT2006 ASME Turbo Expo, Barcelona (2006) 12. Haldar, A., Mahadevan, S.: Ames, Iowa 50010 Using Stochastic Finite Element Analysis, p. 344. Wiley, New York (2000) 13. Demiyanushko, I.V., Velikanova, N.P.: Probalistic assessment of the lifetime of thermal engines under thermo mechanical conditions. Modern problems of a resource of materials and designs, III-School-seminar, M. 69–74 (2009) 14. Berestneva, N.O.: Development of bases of the system approach at the analysis of reliability of complex multilevel technical systems, reliability of machines and technical systems. The international scientific and technical conference, Minsk, October 2001, pp. 91–92 (2001) 15. Riving, E.I.: Mechanical Design of Robots, p. 328. McGraw-Hill, New York (1988) 16. SRI International: Robot Design Handbook. Andeen, G.B. (ed. in-Chief), pp. 329. McGraw-Hill, New York (1988) 17. Makhutov, N.A.: Forecasting of risks of occurrence of extreme situations character. Reliability of machines and technical systems. The international scientific and technical conference, Minsk, October 2001, pp. 91–92 (2001)

State-of-the-Art and Trends of Development of Reliability of Machines and Mechanisms

183

18. Svetletskiy, V.A.: The statistical mechanics and reliability theory, P.h. of MSTU of Bauman, M. pp. 503 (2004) 19. Berestnev, O., Soliterman, U., Goman, A.: Rationing of Reliability of Technical Systems, p. 265. INDMash, Minsk (2004) 20. Nozhnitsky, Y.A., Lokshtanov, E.A, Dolgopolov, L.N., Shashurin, G.V., Volkov, M.E., Tsykunov, N.V., Ganelin, I.I.: Probabilistic prediction of aviation engine critical parts lifetime, GT2006-91350. In: Proceedings of GT2006 ASME Turbo Expo: Power for Land, Sea and Air. 8–11 May 2006, Barcelona (2006) 21. Aвиaциoнныe пpaвилa Чacть 33. Hopмы лeтнoй гoднocти двигaтeлeй вoздушныx cудoв. MAК (2004) 22. Margolin, B.Z., Gulenko, A.G., Nikolaev, V.A., Ryadkov, L.N.: A new engineering method for prediction of the fracture toughness temperature dependence for RPV steels. Int. J. Pres. Ves. Piping 80, 817–829 (2003) 23. Norms of strength analysis of the equipment and pipelines of atomic power installations. PNAE Г-7-002-86, M, ENERGOATOMIZDAT, pp. 525 (1989) 24. Aldemir, T., Siu, N.O., Mosleh, A.: Reliability and Safety Assessment of Dynamic Process Systems. NATO Asi Series. Series F: Computer and Systems Sciences, vol. 120

Role of MMS and IFToMM in Robotics and Mechatronics I.-Ming Chen

Abstract Robotics and mechatronics are multi-disciplinary subjects sharing some common fundamental knowledge and technical development. This article briefly outlines areas of works in robotics and mechatronics respectively, and explains the commonalities and differences of the two subjects. The roles of MMS in the robotics and mechatronics are explained and reflected in the current IFToMM events. With the merger of IFToMM Technical Committee on Robotics and Technical Committee on Mechatronics, this article also points out the missions and topics of the newly established Technical Committee on Robotics and Mechatronics (TC R & M) and its future role in the larger Robotics and Mechatronics community.

Introduction A robot is a machine able to extract information from its environment and use knowledge about its world to move safely in a meaningful and purposeful manner. It is also a system that exists in the physical world and autonomously senses its environment and acts in the world. Robotics is the engineering science and technology of robots, and their design, manufacture, application, and structural disposition. Thus, robotics is a multidisciplinary subject involving mechanics, electrical and electronic engineering, computer engineering, and more recently biology, zoology, physiology and even neuron sciences. From the composition of a robot system, one can find that the key enabling technology of robotics encompasses structural and locomotion mechanisms, actuators, sensors, vision, power supply, computing and communication units, intelligence and cognitive ability. Contrary to robotics starting off as the study of a new category of machines with intelligence and active degrees of freedom to react, Mechatronics is coined as the I.-M. Chen (*) School of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, 50 Nanyang Ave, Singapore 639798, Singapore e-mail: [email protected] M. Ceccarelli (ed.), Technology Developments: the Role of Mechanism and Machine Science and IFToMM, Mechanisms and Machine Science 1, DOI 10.1007/978-94-007-1300-0_15, © Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2011

185

186

I.-M. Chen

synergistic combination of Mechanical engineering, Electronic engineering, Computer engineering, Control engineering, and Systems Design engineering to create, design, and manufacture products to make possible the generation of simpler, more economical, reliable and versatile systems. French standard NF E 01-010 gives the following definition for Mechatronics: “approach aiming at the synergistic integration of mechanics, electronics, control theory, and computer science within product design and manufacturing, in order to improve and/or optimize its functionality”. Thus, the results of mechatronics research are used mostly in existing commercial products like automobiles, electronics appliances, everyday equipment and advanced complex systems like airplanes, spaceships, and medical equipment. From the above description, it is very obvious that the commonality of Robotics and Mechatronics is in the sharing of fundamental knowledge in mechanical, electrical, control, and computer engineering, and many key technologies, such as actuators, sensors, vision, and embedded computing and communication units. Integration of the engineering subjects becomes an essential part of training and education of robotic and mechatronic engineers. Through the integration and use of common technology, one can design and build complex intelligent engineering systems to cope with sophisticated operating environments. However, to distinguish the difference between Robotics and Mechatronics, the easiest way is to examine the final product obtained from the research result. Normally robotics research will end up with new types of machines with multiple degrees of freedom movement capability – be it industrial manipulators, mobile robots used in the hospital or at home, medical surgical robots, or space robots on the space shuttle and space station. Mechatronics research normally will create technologies or components embedded in the existing products by giving them new capabilities, for example, an anti-lock brake system in automobiles, servo-control system in machining centers, hard-disk drive control systems, CD/DVD reader head pick-up system, medical imaging system, etc. In other words, Robotics integrates multi-disciplinary knowledge to create new machines and products (which may bear being called a “robot”), whereas Mechatronics embeds multi-disciplinary knowledge in new components and algorithms in existing products (which normally are not called a “robot”). Of course, with different types of final products, specific components and algorithms/methods, and the overall system design approaches are also different in robotic and mechatronic systems. For example, navigation and localization algorithms for mobile robots are seldom used in a mechatronic product; machine vision used in automated manufacturing lines is very different from the 3D robot vision on a mobile robot.

Role of MMS in Robotics and Mechatronics According to IFToMM PC on Standardization of Terminology, Machine and Mechanism Science (MMS) is a branch of science, which deals with the theory and practice of the geometry, motion, dynamics and control of: machines, mechanisms

Role of MMS and IFToMM in Robotics and Mechatronics

187

and mechanism elements and systems thereof, together with their application in industry and other contexts. MMS is a crucial element in both Robotics and Mechatronics because MMS provides the basic knowledge and technology knowhow of building robots and mechatronics systems in terms of their structure design, mechanics, and actuation, and control. Recognizing this critical role in robotics, the First CISM-IFToMM Symposium on Theory and Practice of Robots and Manipulators (ROMANSY) was held on Sept. 5–8, 1973, in Udine, Italy, not long after IFToMM had been founded in 1969. The first ROMANSY, or Ro.Man.Sy., as the Symposium used to be referred to, marks the beginning of a long-lasting partnership between two international institutions, CISM, the Centre International des Sciences Mécaniques and IFToMM, the International Federation for the Promotion of Mechanism and Machine Science. The aim of ROMANSY is to bring together researchers from the broad range of disciplines included in robotics, in an intimate, collegial and stimulating environment and to share their visions of the evolution of the robotics disciplines and identifying new directions in which these disciplines are foreseen to develop. The most recent event was the 18th edition of ROMANSY successfully held on July 5–8, 2010 in Udine, Italy (www.romansy2010.org) (Fig. 1). The role of MMS in Robotics research can be reflected in the paper topics of ROMANSY: • • • •

novel robot design and robot modules/components; service, education, medical, space, welfare and rescue robots; humanoid robots, bio-robotics, multi-robot, embodied multi-agent systems; challenges in control, modeling, kinematical and dynamical analysis of robotic systems; • innovations in sensor systems for robots and perception; • recent advances in robotics.

Fig. 1 ROMANSY 2010 in Udine, Italy

188

I.-M. Chen

Fig. 2 ISRM 2009 in Hanoi, Vietnam

For people interested in knowing more about the history of ROMANSY symposia, please refer to the website: http://cism-iftomm-romansy.org/history/html/previous_ symposia.htm (Fig. 2). Likewise, according to the definition stated in IFToMM Terminology, Mechatronics includes works in actuators, sensors, control and monitoring of machines. MMS provides the fundamental design principle for actuators and sensors, and modeling of the mechanical systems for control and monitoring purposes. Intelligent control, Intelligent structures, adaptive machines all require the fundamental system modeling tools provided by MMS. Because mechatronics research supports a very large industrial basis worldwide, IFToMM started a new event - IFToMM International Symposium on Robotics and Mechatronics (ISRM) on September 21–23, 2009 in Hanoi, Vietnam. The idea is to create a new series of international symposia with emphasis on the common knowledge in mechatronics and robotics for industrial relevance. It is open to researchers worldwide in mechatronics and robotics more relevant to industrial applications. The first edition of ISRM was successfully held in the Hanoi University of Technology with more than 60 delegates from 13 countries. The paper topics in ISRM also reflect the importance of MMS in Mechatronics: • • • • • •

micro-systems – MEMS; machine vision; parallel mechanisms and PKM; mobile systems; drives and actuators; control;

Role of MMS and IFToMM in Robotics and Mechatronics

189

• mechanisms; • robot design in medicine and rehabilitation; • mechatronics education. In summary, the roles of MMS in Robotics and Mechatronics are well reflected in the TC sponsored major events: ROMANSY and ISRM. The two events are held in alternating years mainly in Europe and Asia with topics complimentary to each other in order to optimize conference participation and intellectual exchange.

Mission and Topics of TC Robotics and Mechatronics The establishment of a Technical Committee on Robotics and Mechatronics marks a new milestone in IFToMM history. The new TC aims to promote and strengthen the common research and development in disciplines like mechanics, component design, electronics, control, information processing and software development for robotics and mechatronics, and at the same time, to explore existing and niche applications with social and industrial relevance, such as green technology, new energy, and sustainable technology development. The topics of the Technical Committee on Robotics and Mechatronics shall cover the study of the fundamental disciplines in Robotics and Mechatronics as well as key technology areas in MMS context, such as • • • • • • •

design of robot systems and robot modules/components; design of mechatronics systems as embedded solutions; control, modeling, kinematics and dynamics of mechanical systems; actuators and sensors; perception and vision for intelligent systems; bio-mechatronics and bio-robotics; application system development for industry, transportation, service, education, medicine, space, welfare and rescue purposes; • new theory and practices for robotics and mechatronics in niche areas such as energy, environment, and sustainability. Recognizing the spirit of the IFToMM Constitution as well as individualism for research excellence, the new TC will take a balanced approach to reach out to both IFToMM and non-IFToMM communities to increase the awareness of IFToMM and the TC events. As of August 2010, the new TC became the largest one among all IFToMM TCs with 66 members from 26 of the 44 IFToMM Member Organizations (MO). The TC will recruit more new members from MOs that do not have any representative in the TC as well as promoting the individual observers from existing MOs to participate in the TC and IFToMM events. Currently TC R&M sponsors three other international and regional events in addition to ROMANSY and ISRM: International Workshop on Robotics in AlpeAdria-Danube Region (RAAD), International Symposium on Multi-body Systems and Mechatronics (MUSME), and International Conference on Mechatronics

190

I.-M. Chen

Technology (ICMT). Thus, the members in the new TC will have many opportunities to become actively involved in the organization and setting the topics of the events. Lastly, the new TC also has an active role in education and training for robotics and mechatronics. The concept of Summer School to be proposed and organized by TC R&M members could be new TC events to serve this purpose. The idea of Summer School is to bring together a number of reputable international experts to give lectures on new and specific topics in robotics and mechatronics to young prospect graduate students as well as industrial professionals in a short period of time (3–5 days). The students will be able develop close interaction with the lecturers and among themselves. In this way, IFToMM’s educational mission can be fulfilled.

Conclusion This article briefly outlines the commonality and differences between Robotics and Mechatronics. The roles of MMS in Robotics and Mechatronics are exemplified according to the topics presented in IFToMM related events like ROMANSY and ISRM. Finally, the aims and topics of the newly established IFToMM TC Robotics and Mechatronics after the merger of the two individual former TCs are elaborated. The new activities and prospect of new TC education events are described. It is hoped that with a balanced approach, the TC will be able to play a critical role in shaping the R&D, and education front of Robotics and Mechatronics in the near future. Acknowledgements The author would like to acknowledge Professors Bodo Heimann and Shinichi Yokota for their leadership as Chairmen of the former IFToMM TC Robotics and TC Mechatronics respectively.

Role of MMS and IFToMM in the Creation of Novel Automotive Transmissions and Hybrids Madhusudan Raghavan

Abstract Over the past few decades, mechanism and machine science has helped lay a very solid foundation for the topological representation of mechanisms and linkages. This has allowed the sorting and classification of industrial devices and machinery based on topological structure. This has been most useful for developing a sound understanding of the possible mechanism-based solutions for a given engineering problem. It has also allowed the exploration of novel solutions wherein an understanding of the degrees-of-freedom necessary to accomplish a particular set of functions has guided the search for new devices. In the present offering, we describe the use of this approach for the creation of novel gear schemes for automotive transmissions and hybrid drive units.

Introduction Graph theory has been used elegantly for the classification of mechanisms for a specified application. The classic paper by Freudenstein and Maki [1] shows how to represent a link as a graph vertex and a joint as a graph edge with a label. This approach strips the linkage of its dimensional information and enables one to focus on the essential connectivities that define its characteristics. Having accomplished this, one can then enumerate all other graphs that represent alternative linkages or mechanisms having similar characteristics as the one of original interest. Maki and Freudenstein demonstrate this process of “systematic enumeration/innovation” in

M. Raghavan (*) Hybrid Systems, Propulsion Systems Research Lab, GM R&D Center, 30500 Mound Road, Warren, MI 48090-9055, USA and 6816 Trailview Court, West Bloomfield, MI 48322, USA e-mail: [email protected] M. Ceccarelli (ed.), Technology Developments: the Role of Mechanism and Machine Science and IFToMM, Mechanisms and Machine Science 1, DOI 10.1007/978-94-007-1300-0_16, © Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2011

191

192

M. Raghavan

the context of 6-bar and 8-bar linkages that could serve as automotive engine mechanisms with variable stroke and compression ratio. Hsieh and Tsai [2] extended this concept to geared linkages with the intent of application to automotive transmissions. They used a three-step process wherein they first estimated the overall speed ratio without specifying dimensions, then compared various possible speed ratios and finally, systematically enumerated all possible clutching sequences. In the present work we show how we have adapted Tsai’s approach to complex geartrains comprised of planetary gearsets and clutches. This approach has yielded hundreds of novel transmission arrangements and in particular has led to practical designs that have gone into very high volume production world-wide. A vehicle transmission delivers mechanical power from an engine to the drive system, such as fixed final drive gearing, axles and wheels. A mechanical transmission allows some freedom in engine operation, usually through alternate selection of five or six different drive ratios, a neutral selection that allows the engine to operate accessories with the vehicle stationary, and clutches or a torque converter for smooth transitions between driving ratios and to start the vehicle from rest with the engine turning. Transmission gear selection typically allows power from the engine to be delivered to the rest of the drive system with a ratio of torque multiplication/reduction and with a reverse ratio. An electrically-variable transmission (EVT) is a mechanical transmission augmented by one or more electric motor/generators. This is currently a popular approach to “hybridizing” a vehicle. A motor/generator is a device, which uses battery power to apply a torque on a transmission member (in motor mode), or generates power for storage in the battery, while serving as a speed-controlled brake (in generator mode). Typically, an EVT uses differential gearing to send a fraction of its transmitted power through a pair of motor/generators. The remainder of its power flows through another, parallel path that is all mechanical and direct, of fixed ratio, or alternatively selectable. One form of differential gearing is the well-known planetary gear set with the advantages of compactness and different torque and speed ratios among the various members of the gear set. The battery or other device allows engine starting with the transmission system and regenerative vehicle braking, as appropriate.

Prior Work on Transmission and EVTs Much of the understanding of multi-speed transmission kinematic operation has been described in the language of lever diagrams [3]. Since the automobile industry is generally moving in the direction of larger numbers of fixed speed ratios we briefly review recent work on multi-speed transmissions. Haka [4] proposes a design with three planetary gear sets. One gear set is a dedicated gear set in that one of the planetary members (reaction member) is permanently connected to a stationary member and another is continually connected to the input drive member.

Role of MMS and IFToMM in the Creation of Novel Automotive Transmissions and Hybrids

193

The dedicated planetary gear set can be arranged to provide either an underdrive or an overdrive depending on the input and reaction members. The resulting design has at least seven forward drive ratios and one reverse drive ratio. Borgerson et al. [5] present the design of a six-speed transmission having an input shaft connectable with an engine and planetary gear unit. A single carrier supports pinions from adjacent planes of gears. Stevenson [6] presents a seven-speed concept with three planetary gear sets. The second and third planetaries are connected. The design has six torque transmitting mechanisms, engaged in sets of two to get seven forward speeds and one reverse speed ratio. Wittkopp [7] proposes a three planetary design with three brakes, three clutches, and three fixed interconnections between the gear sets. We also briefly review some recent offerings in the EVT literature. Malikopoulos et al. [8], describes the development of an Integrated Starter Alternator (ISA) for a High Mobility Multi-Purpose Wheeled Vehicle. Its primary purpose is to provide electric power for additional accessories but it can also be used for mild hybridization of the powertrain. Pagerit et al. [9] study several vehicle platform and powertrain configurations to assess the sensitivity of fuel economy to mass variation. Their conclusion is that conventional and parallel hybrid configurations are the most sensitive while fuel cell-based arrangements are the least sensitive. Suppes [10] argues that closed-system regenerative fuel cells (RFCs) are an alternative to non-regenerative fuel cells as a transition technology and mainstay of a hydrogen economy. He suggests that substantially petroleum-free automobiles can evolve from hybrid electric vehicles as fuel cell prices decrease. Tamai et al. [11], review the essential features of the hybrid system for the 2007 Model Year Saturn VUE Green Line Hybrid SUV. This concept provides the fuel economy of a compact sedan while delivering improved acceleration performance over the base vehicle. The VUE’s hybrid functionality includes: engine stop-start, regenerative braking, intelligent charge control of the hybrid battery, electric power assist, and electrically motored creep. An example of a highly successful EVT concept developed at GM is the tworange, input-split and compound-split electrically variable transmission now produced for transit buses and SUVs. This EVT was invented by Schmidt [12]. One embodiment of this idea employs three planetary gear sets coaxially aligned. The two motor/generator sets are also coaxially aligned with the planetary gear sets. Gear members of the first and second planetary gear set are respectively connected to the two motor/generators. Their carriers are operatively connected to the output member. Today’s typical single-mode systems rely on much larger electric motors than are needed in the patent-protected two-mode system. The two-mode system innovations provide performance and fuel economy improvements at highway speeds and better trailer towing ability. Packaging is more efficient than today’s single mode designs as the system’s compact and powerful electric motors are designed to fit within the approximate space of a conventional automatic transmission. This system reduces fuel consumption at highway speeds much more effectively than available single mode systems and achieves at least a 25% improvement in composite fuel economy in full-size truck applications.

194

M. Raghavan

Generation of New Concepts The steps of the process are described in detail by Raghavan et al. [13]. They may be summarized as follows. We make an upfront decision regarding the number of planetary gear sets and clutches to be used in the proposed transmission. For example, we may choose to investigate designs with three planetary gear sets and six or seven friction elements in a quest for eight-speed transmission mechanisms. We enumerate all possible kinematic combinations of these elements that could potentially serve as legitimate transmission mechanisms. To do this we utilize the transmission governing equations to identify specific configurations that yield viable eight-speed designs. We then select candidates that satisfy additional requirements, such as ratio spread, step ratios, reverse-to-first ratios, single-transition shifts, etc. There are several details to be followed in the above procedure. First we must decide on whether the input to the transmission is fixed to one of the transmission members or clutched to it. We must also decide on how many clutches/brakes we engage at any given speed ratio, as this would determine the number of constraints on the system. Typically, we select a scheme with the maximum possible number of speed ratios. This involves some combinatorics calculations. Next, we decide on the number and type of fixed interconnections between various members of the planetary gear sets. An edge-vertex representation of transmission mechanisms is most useful in this step, as it allows the sorting of designs based on graph theory [14, 15]. These decisions serve to focus our search into specific “families” of transmission mechanisms. After that, we formulate algebraic representations of the various transmission candidates, using equations to describe all of the applicable constraints, such as clutches, brakes, etc. The key enabling concepts that make this synthesis procedure work are: algebraic representation of geared kinematic systems, topological representations of mechanisms and graph isomorphism, generalized lever diagrams, which allow unified code generation and computational efficiencies, fast numerical methods to rapidly search large multi-dimensional design spaces.

The Generalized Lever It is worth taking a moment to understand the concept of the generalized lever. The basic lever used in traditional transmission analysis is shown in Fig. 1. It shows how we go from a planetary gear set to a three-node graph representation or lever, which may be used for rudimentary graphical velocity and torque analysis as illustrated in Fig. 2. Details are in Raghavan et al. [16] but the main takeaway is that if we use the mappings listed in Table 1, we may use the same lever equation to represent all possible permutations of the nodes of the lever. This effectively allows us to cycle through all topological variants of a given design as we evaluate and assess

Role of MMS and IFToMM in the Creation of Novel Automotive Transmissions and Hybrids

Fig. 1 Graph and lever representation of planetary gear set Fig. 2 The use of levers for velocity analysis

Table 1 Mappings of the standard lever equation Standard lever equation Mapping New lever equation 1  1 z = 1 +  y − x  a a

a→a

1  1 z = 1 +  y − x  a a

1 a

1  1 x = 1 +  y − z  a a

a→

a→− a→ −

a 1 + ( a)

1  1 z = 1 +  x − y  a a

1

1  1 y = 1 +  x − z  a a

(1 + a )

a→ − (1 + a ) a→ −

(1 + a ) a

1  1 y = 1 +  z − x  a a 1  1 x = 1 +  z − y  a a

195

196

M. Raghavan

candidates from a functional perspective. This approach yields several orders of magnitude improvements in computational efficiency when we are tasked with evaluating thousands of arrangements for complex multi-speed transmission applications.

EVT Hybrid Functional Operating Modes The functional requirements for EVTs may be grouped into several operating modes. The first operating mode is the “battery reverse mode” in which the engine is off and the transmission element connected to the engine is not controlled by engine torque, though there may be some residual torque due to the rotational inertia of the engine. The EVT is driven by one of the motor/generators using energy from the battery, causing the vehicle to move in reverse. The second operating mode is the “EVT reverse mode” in which the EVT is driven by the engine and by one of the motor/generators. The other motor/generator operates in generator mode and transfers 100% of the generated energy back to the driving motor. The net effect is to drive the vehicle in reverse. The third operating mode includes the “reverse and forward charging modes.” In this mode, the EVT is driven by the engine and one of the motor/generators. A selectable fraction of the energy generated in the generator unit is stored in the battery, with the remaining energy being transferred to the motor. The fourth operating mode is a “continuously variable transmission range mode” in which the EVT is driven by the engine as well as one of the motor/generators operating as a motor. The other motor/generator operates as a generator and transfers 100% of the generated energy back to the motor. The fifth operating mode includes the “fixed ratio” configurations in which the transmission operates like a conventional automatic transmission, with torque transfer mechanisms (clutches or brakes) engaged to create a discrete transmission ratio.

Graph Sorting The above concept generation/enumeration process produces a large amount of data which must be post-processed to find valid designs. This requires interpreting the data and drawing a sketch of the transmission cross-section. With potentially millions of designs, this can be a time consuming process. There are two issues: (1) a large number of the designs are not unique because the generalized method allows many representations of the same design; (2) many of the designs, while kinematically correct, are not topologically feasible. That is, when we attempt to sketch the 2-D transmission cross section we may find that there is no way to connect all of the elements (i.e., the gear sets, clutches, fixed interconnections

Role of MMS and IFToMM in the Creation of Novel Automotive Transmissions and Hybrids

197

and shafts) without interferences between connections. Several attempts may be necessary to determine that we have exhausted all of the potential ways to draw the cross-section before deciding that it is impossible and there is some uncertainty to the decision. To achieve the best efficiency in sketching designs, it would therefore be helpful to know a priori and with certainty whether or not a design is possible. Once we have our graph representation in hand for each synthesized design, we need to check the design for feasibility and uniqueness. As noted above, we only need to test that a graph is planar to decide whether or not the design is feasible. Fortunately, such a test (the Hopcroft-Tarjan algorithm [17]) exists and we use an implementation of it. Once feasibility is determined, we save the design and compare it to all remaining designs using a graph uniqueness (or isomorphism) test described by Tsai [18].

Prioritization Process To some extent key aspects of each powerflow have already been identified (e.g. overall ratio, ratio steps, element speed ratios) early in the process. Once these characteristics have been identified they can be used to initially quantify a powerflow’s merit. This allows the rough prioritization of candidate powerflows. This initial prioritization process does not typically identify a single superior candidate; rather several powerflows will have collectively similar results. At this point more detailed metrics can be developed that will further identify the merits of each of the top candidates. This type of data can be used to populate a “traffic light chart” (see Fig. 3) that will further refine the list of leading candidates. From the above chart it can be seen that PF A has the most desirable characteristics, but is not perfect. This approach can be applied to stepped ratio transmission, CVT’s and hybrid powertrains.

Powertrain Matching Power Flow Power Flow PF A PF B PF C PF AA PF AB

# of Spd

Top Gr

Top Step

OAR

5 6 5 6 5 6 7

0.53 0.69 0.49 0.64 0.51 0.6 0.64

1.23 1.23 1.38 1.24 1.23 1.18 1.15

5.4 5-6 5-6 6.22 5.39 6.67 7.5

Fig. 3 Traffic light chart

Risk Ratio Mechanic Progressi al Tech. on Level 3 1 1 3 3 3 3

Pack. Cost Fuel Econ.

Controls Tech. Level

Planes of Gears

2 2 1 3 2 2 3

2 3 2 3 2 2 3

Kinematic Cost Spin Loss Index Index Mesh Eff 17.5 19 22 19 15.5 18

4.8 4.6 11.7 8.84 6.7

98 98.85 98.3 96.7 98

198

M. Raghavan

Fig. 4 Multi-speed concept 1

Results Two representative designs have been selected for presentation here out of a candidate pool of over 1,000 designs. The details of these two designs are as follows. 1. Multi-Speed Concept 1 (Fig. 4): This transmission (see Kao et al. [19]), is a three-speed design that uses three simple planetary gear sets, two rotating clutches and three grounding clutches. There is one overdrive in this design. Features: All simple gear sets Two rotating input clutches Good ratio spread, torque ratios and steps Single transition clutching Direct drive It is worth noting that this particular arrangement has been adapted for a variety of high volume products such as the 6T40/45 series as well as the 6T70/75 series. 2. EVT Concept 1 (Fig. 5): This transmission (see Raghavan et al. [20]) is a fullfunction EVT comprised of three simple planetary gear sets, two rotating clutches, two stationary clutches, and two motor-generators, labeled MG1 and MG2.

Role of MMS and IFToMM in the Creation of Novel Automotive Transmissions and Hybrids

199

Fig. 5 EVT concept 1

It operates in Battery Reverse, EVT Reverse and Forward, Battery-charging Reverse and Forward, and has four fixed (i.e., all mechanical) speed-ratios. Features: All simple gear sets Acceptable pinion speeds Low electrical power losses Dual mode operation

200

M. Raghavan

Role of IFToMM and MMS IFToMM has played a key role in the development and dissemination of the above theory and its applications. Prof. Ferdinand Freudenstein, one of the distinguished members of the US IFToMM organization, laid the foundations of the above graphbased search for alternative mechanizations in his landmark paper [1], cited earlier, as well as in numerous subsequent applications to other automotive sub-systems [21, 22]. Subsequently Prof. Lung-wen Tsai (also part of the IFToMM USA community) continued Prof. Freudenstein’s traditions via a series of profound papers on the application of graph-based enumeration techniques for various applications, particularly in the context of automotive transmissions [23], and novel robotic systems [24]. In more recent times, the IFToMM Transportation Machinery Technical Committee [25], has continued the application of these methods to various novel sub-systems including hybrid propulsion systems and battery electric vehicles, [26, 27]. The Committee holds quarterly teleconferences and has global participation from Russia, Korea, India, China, Taiwan, Australia, Greece, Germany, Slovakia, Finland, Poland and USA. This creates a vibrant environment for discussion, innovation and application. For example, the late Prof. Frolov’s team from Russia (now led by Prof. Alexander Kraynev of IMASH) has created numerous novel eight-speed transmission concepts using mixed planetary-layshaft arrangements. Similarly, Prof. Frank Park’s team at Seoul National University (IFToMM-Korea) is developing new methods to charge plug-in hybrid vehicles with minimal user-intervention. In India, Prof. Ashitava Ghosal’s team at the Indian Institute of Science, is creating novel low-cost hybrid propulsion architectures suitable for developing markets, with emphasis on small auxiliary power units, wheel motors, and belt-based CVTs. In China, Prof. Chengliang Yin’s team at Shanghai Jiaotong University, is developing novel control systems for battery-supercapacitor energy storage systems for hybrids [28]. In Australia, Prof. Nong Zhang’s team at the University of Technology Sydney, is evaluating new approaches to rapidly synthesize interior permanent magnet motors for hybrids without lengthy finite-element computations. It is our expectation that this forum will continue to result in novel methods and applications to enhance automotive and other sub-systems. In summary, in the present offering, we have shown how graph-based and algebraic synthesis procedures originating in mechanisms and machine science have been used to generate several thousand multi-speed transmission and EVT candidate designs for large volume automotive production. Sample concepts from the set generated are shown in this paper. The procedure allows the designer to generate and assess novel designs. It often proposes unusual arrangements, which even experienced designers might overlook. The process makes use of algebraic representation of transmission gear trains, graph-based searching and sorting, and transmission powerflow analyses. The computer-based procedure complements the traditional bag of tricks of the experienced transmission designer. Furthermore, as the requirements on fuel economy and performance compel manufacturers to use transmissions

Role of MMS and IFToMM in the Creation of Novel Automotive Transmissions and Hybrids

201

with higher numbers of speed ratios, designers have to tackle increasingly complex mechanisms. Another benefit is its ability to identify minimum- content designs, wherein the emphasis is on achieving the maximum level of functionality with the fewest components.

References 1. Freudenstein, F., Maki, E.R.: Creation of mechanisms according to kinematic structure and function. Environ. Plann. B 6(4), 375–391 (1979) 2. Hsieh, H.I., Tsai, L.: A methodology for enumeration of clutching sequences associated with epicyclic-type automatic transmission mechanisms. SAE Technical Paper (1996). doi: 10.4271/960719 3. Benford, H., Leising, M.: The lever analogy: a new tool in transmission analysis. Society of Automotive Engineers, Paper No. 810102 (1981) 4. Haka, R.: Multi-speed power transmission. US Patent 6,425,841, 30 July 2002 5. Borgerson, J., Maguire, J., Kienzle, K.: Transmission with long ring planetary gearset. US Patent 7,029,417, 18 Apr 2006 6. Stevenson, P.: Seven-speed transmission. US Patent 7,014,590, 21 Mar 2006 7. Wittkopp, S.: Seven-speed transmission. US Patent 6,910,986, 28 June 2005 8. Malikopoulos, A., Filipi, Z., Assanis, D.: Simulation of an Integrated Starter Alternator (ISA) system for the HMMWV. Society of Automotive Engineers, Paper No. 2006-01-0442 (2006) 9. Pagerit, S., Sharer, P., Rousseau, A.: Fuel economy sensitivity to vehicle mass for advanced vehicle powertrains. Society of Automotive Engineers, Paper No. 2006-01-0665 (2006) 10. Suppes, G.: Roles of plug-in hybrid electric vehicles in the transition to the hydrogen economy. Int. J. Hydrogen Energy 31, 353–360 (2006) 11. Tamai, G., Jeffers, M., Lo, C., Thurston, C., Tarnowsky, S., Poulos, S.: Development of the hybrid system for the Saturn VUE hybrid. SAE, Paper No. 2006-01-1502 (2006) 12. Schmidt, M.: Two-mode, compound-split electromechanical vehicular transmission. US Patent 5,931,757, 3 Aug 1999 13. Raghavan, M., Bucknor, N., Maguire, J., Hendrickson, J., Singh, T.: The design of advanced transmissions. Paper No. F2006P277, FISITA 2006, Yokohama (2006) 14. Chatterjee, G.,Tsai, L.W.: Enumeration of epicyclic-type automatic transmission gear trains. SAE 1994 Trans. 103(6), 1415–1426 (1995) 15. Chatterjee, G., Tsai, L.W.: Computer aided sketching of epicyclic-type automatic transmission gear trains. ASME J. Mech. Des. 118(3), 405–411 (1996) 16. Raghavan, M.: The analysis of planetary gear trains. ASME J. Mech. Robot. (2010) 17. Hopcroft, J., Tarjan, R.E.: Efficient planarity testing. J. ACM 21, 549–568 (1974) 18. Tsai, L.W.: An application of the linkage characteristic polynomial to the topological synthesis of epicyclic gear trains. ASME J. Mech. Transm. Autom. Des. 109, 329–336 (1987) 19. Kao, C-K., Usoro, P., Raghavan, M.: Six-speed planetary transmission mechanisms with two clutches and three brakes. US Patent 6,932,735, 23 Aug 2005 20. Raghavan, M., Bucknor, N., Hendrickson J.: Electrically variable transmission having three planetary gear sets and three fixed interconnections. US Patent 7,238,131, 3 July 2007 21. Vucina, D., Freudenstein, F.: An application of graph theory and nonlinear programming to the kinematic synthesis of mechanisms. Mech. Mach. Theory 26(6), 553–563 (1991) 22. Tsai, L-W., Freudenstein, F.: On the conceptual design of a novel class of Robot configurations. University of Maryland, Institute of Systems Research, Technical Report 1988–1950 (1988) 23. Tsai, L.-W.: Mechanism Design: Enumeration of Kinematic Structures According to Function. CRC, Boca Raton/London/New York/Washington, D.C. (2001)

202

M. Raghavan

24. Lee, J.-J., Tsai, L.-W.: The structural synthesis of tendon-driven manipulators having a pseudotriangular structure matrix. Int. J. Rob. Res. 10(3), 255–262 (1991) 25. Link to IFToMM List of Officers and Member Organization Representatives: http://130.15.85.212/off/Officers.htm 26. Raghavan, M.: Efficient computational techniques for planetary gear train analysis. Proceedings of 12th IFToMM World Congress, Besancon, 18–21 June 2007, Paper No. 101 (2007) 27. Fenelon M.A.A., Furukawa T.: Next generation propulsion system architectures. In: Raghavan M., Bucknor N., Maguire J., Hendrickson J., Singh T. (eds.) Proceedings of NACOMM 2007, Bangalore, Paper 121 (2007) 28. Lei, W., Jianlong, Z., Chengliang, Y., Yong, Z., Zhiwei, W., Bucknor, N.: Realization and analysis of good fuel economy and kinetic performance of a low-cost hybrid vehicle for developing markets. Chin. J. Mech. Eng. (submitted)

Advancements and Future of Tribology from IFToMM Jianbin Luo

Abstract A Tribology Committee, focused on tribology in machines, was set up in 2005 as a Technical committee of the IFToMM, an organization that has historically supported tribological activities. Tribology has been developed very rapidly in the last 20 years. Several new areas have been identified, such as nano-tribology, bio-tribology, superlubricity, and surface texture. In the present and following years, these topics as well as tribology in nanomanufacturing, green-tribology, tribology in extreme conditions, surface texture, and tribology in new energy fields will play important roles in the study of machines and mechanisms. We describe here some of the major advances in these areas in recent years and project some future needs in the next 10 years

Nano-Tribology Nanotribology, particularly nano-lubrication and nano-friction has been a very hot area in the past 20 years. In nano-lubrication, the research has been mainly focused on lubrication in a nano-gap, i.e. the transition from EHL to boundary lubrication, which was one of the main problems in the lubrication theory system in the 1990s. Thin film lubrication (TFL) or extensive boundary lubrication as a new area of lubrication regime has been well studied by Spikes et al. [1, 2], Luo and Wen et al. [3–10], Hartl et al. [11, 12], Robbin [13], Hu et al. [14, 15] from 1990s. Some significant progress has been made in this area. TFL is also known as the lubrication of confined liquids which also have been well investigated by using the surface force apparatus (SFA) developed by Israelachvili and Tabor [16], Alsten [17], Granick [18], Klein [19] and so on. The effective viscosity in a nano-gap was found

J. Luo (*) State Key Laboratory of Tribology, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China e-mail: [email protected] M. Ceccarelli (ed.), Technology Developments: the Role of Mechanism and Machine Science and IFToMM, Mechanisms and Machine Science 1, DOI 10.1007/978-94-007-1300-0_17, © Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2011

203

204

J. Luo

CB/hexadecane

30

Effective viscosity h

CAL/hexadecane CA/hexadecane CP/hexadecane

20

hexadecane 10

0 5

10

15

20

25

30

Film thickness (nm) Fig. 1 Isoviscosity with film thickness with different polar molecules [7]. Concentration: 2 wt.%; Load: 0.174 GPa

to be much larger than the bulk one. As shown in Fig. 1, Shen and Luo [7] found that isoviscosities of hexadecane with or without LC remained a constant that approximately equaled the bulk viscosity when film is thicker than 25 nm. As the film thickness decreased, the isoviscosity increased with different grades for different additives. The polarity strength of these liquid crystal molecules were listed as CB > CAL > CA > CP. Therefore, the addition of polar molecules into base oil is benefit that raises its isoviscosity. Xie et al. [9] found that the fluidity of a nonpolar liquid became much weaker after it was exposed to an electric field that is confined within a nanogap between a smooth plate and a highly polished steel ball. Their experimental results indicated that a ‘freezing’ of nanoconfined fluid, or a transformation from liquid into a solidlike form takes place (Fig. 2). The tail eventually disappeared from the interference pattern when the voltage was increased from 0 V to 98 V. When the external EF was removed, the bright tail reoccurred. The Scanning Tunnel Microscope (STM), Atomic Force Microscope (AFM), and computer simulation technology as powerful tools have brought a big storm to tribology in the past 20 years, and many new phenomena of friction at the nanoscale have been found. Bhushan et al. [20] have performed many tests and found some new relations between the micro-friction force and its related factors at the nano-scale. In order to probe the origin of friction, Qian et al. [21, 22] using AFM found that the friction was related to the shape and Young’s modulus of the AFM tip, the surface topography, and humidity. By using molecular dynamic simulation (MDS), Wang et al. [7, 23] investigated the origin of friction by using a simplified

Advancements and Future of Tribology from IFToMM

205

Fig. 2 Interference patterns of the n-hexadecane film at a velocity of 76.6 mm/s with a film thickness of 12 nm under a load of 27 N. External voltage was (a) 0 V, (b) 10 V, (c) 20 V, (d) 30 V, (e) 40 V, (f) 50 V, (g) 60 V, (h) 70 V, (i) 80 V, (j) 90 V, (k) 98 V, and (l) 10 s after the removal of the electric field [9]

system containing only one atom (Fig. 3) where the atom moves in a stick–slip way (Fig. 3b). The system becomes more stable if the stiffness increases or the potential waviness decreases, which means less energy loss and lower friction [23].

Green-Tribology Green-tribology includes the environment-friendly lubricants, anti-environmental pollution from wear contamination, reduction of tribo-noise, etc. As known, petroleum plays a vital role in industrial development and our lives. However, the world energy demand is increasing rapidly due to excessive use of petroleum products, and researchers are looking for alternative materials because of limited reservoirs of petroleum. Another serious problem associated with the use of petroleum products is the increase in pollutants emissions. Every year about five to ten million tons of petroleum products enter into the environment from spills, industrial, and municipal waste [24, 25]. So the need to find alternative materials is inescapable. Lubricants are one of these serious problems in industry because most lubricants consist of mineral oil with different additives that are harmful to the environment. Mineral oils usually have a high degradable temperature, and can be maintained a long time without experiencing hydrolysis (e.g. harmful to water for about 100 years if it flowed into water) [26]. Therefore, the green-lubricants represent a great hope for industry in the future.

206

J. Luo

a k

x x0

b

Forward B

4

D

Force F

2

A

0

C

F

-2

E

G

-4

Backward 0

4

8

Distance X0

12

16

Fig. 3 Position and force of the moving atom as a function of traveling distance (a) system; (b) acting force [7, 23]

Vegetable Oil The increasing application of biobased lubricants could significantly reduce environmental pollution and contribute to the replacement of petroleum base oils. Vegetable oils are recognized as rapidly biodegradable and are thus promising candidates for use as base fluids in formulation of environment friendly lubricants [27]. Vegetable oil based products are environment friendly and non-toxic, and thus offer easier disposal as compared to petroleum products. There are also biodegradable synthetic oils offering improved stability and performance characteristics over refined petroleum oils, but prices for these niche products are higher than vegetable oils and significantly higher than petroleum-based lubricants [27]. Although many vegetable oils have excellent lubricity, they often have poor oxidation and low temperature stability. Vegetable oils include moringa oil, sunflower oil, cottonseed oil, rapeseed oil, canola oil, jatropha oil, peanut oil, and so on. Roegiers et al. [28] reported that the use of ionized vegetable oils significantly improves lubricity and anti-wear efficiency.

Advancements and Future of Tribology from IFToMM

207

Ionized vegetable oil film can support higher loads or heavier pressure, which can be used in running engines at dead points, bearings during cold start-up, thrust bearings of vertical turbines during start-up, railway truck axle box-guides, reduction gears, deep drawing, and so on [28]. Aloe mucilage is another kind of plant liquid which has the possibility to be a lubricant. Xu, Luo et al. [29] reported that the friction coefficient of aloe mucilage between different solid surfaces significantly decreased with the increase of velocity, but little variation with an increased normal load. The friction coefficient of aloe mucilage between WC and DLC surfaces is about 0.04 [29].

Nano-Particles as Additives The collapse of the lubrication film will induce adhesion and damage of tribosurfaces in relative motions. Usually, extreme pressure and anti-wear additives are used to improve the tribological performance of fluid lubricant for the reduction of friction and surface damage caused by severe conditions, e.g. high temperature, high pressure, high shear rate [30, 31]. In general, sulphur, chlorine, and phosphorous containing compounds are designed to cover metal surfaces chemically by forming easily sheared layers of sulphides, chlorines or phosphides, and thereby preventing severe wear and seizure. However, the usage of sulphur, chlorine, and phosphorus containing compounds has been restricted due to the environmental pollution. Therefore, new additives with less pollution potential for lubricants used in severe conditions have become targets for many tribologists [31]. Traditional solid lubricants, such as MoS2, graphite, C60, CeF3, and CeO2, have been added to lubricating oils or grease to improve their tribological properties. Many experimental results indicated that the addition of solid particles in oil was beneficial in reducing the wear rate and friction between two rubbing surfaces [30–32]. However, others showed that solid particles gave rise to an increase in wear rate and lubricant starvation [33, 34]. The reason for these phenomena is that the size and the concentration of particles have an important effect on tribological properties [35]. Nanoparticles have received considerable attention because of their excellent physical and chemical properties. However, the problem of agglomeration and adhesion of nano-particles needs to be solved, and therefore, the application of many nanoparticles is limited. In the past 20 years, nanoparticles, e.g. diamond, graphite, C60, Cu, TiO2, ZnS, CeF3, WS2, LaF3, and PbS, have been used as oil additives, and they show improved tribological properties of the base oil. Greenberg et al. [36] found about a 50% reduction in friction coefficient in the mixed lubrication regime by using WS2 nano-particles as an oil additive. SiO2 nanoparticles using hydrocarbons as surface modification agents can be dispersed stably in lubrication oils and can be used as an anti-adhesive additive [37]. Guo et al. [38] utilized tetrafluorobenzoic acid-modified TiO2 nanoparticles as a lubricant additive that also has good tribological behaviors.

208

J. Luo

Diamond nanoparticles have attracted much attention of researchers because of its more outstanding properties in wear resistance, friction reduction, oxidation inhibition, low pollution and higher thermal conductivity than other nanoparticle additives. Diamond nano-particles have been used as an anti-scuffing additive by Shen et al. [30] and Chu et al. [39]. They found that the 3 vol% concentration of nano-particles in oil is the most favorable for reducing the mean friction coefficient and mean wear loss. Shen et al. [30] found that the hard spherical nano-particles plowed the two surfaces and produced many smooth micro-grooves in the rubbing process, and the friction force decreased with the sliding distance.

Rare Earth Materials as Additives The classification “rare earth elements” consists of 17 elements; they are, La, Ce, Pr, Nd, Pm, Eu, Gd, Tb, Dy, Ho, Er, Tm, Yb, Lu. The term “rare earth” was adopted in the 18th century due to fact that the minerals containing such elements are very rare and look like earth. A rare earth element has high activity, a large diameter, and a strong adhesion force which will result in its enrichment when rubbed on a surfaces. Many oxides or fluorides of rare earth elements, e.g. LaF3, CeF3, La2O3, have a good lubricity at high temperature. The friction coefficient of LaF3, CeF3 is about 0.2 at a temperature higher than 500°C. Han et al. [40] added nanoparticles of CeF3 into Ni-W coating with a percent of 6 wt.% and got a friction coefficient of 0.18 at the temperature of 700°C. Rare earth materials are expected to increase in importance in the near future.

Summary In the near future, the following problems in green tribology will draw much attention and some new green lubricants will be successful in application: (1) How to reduce the environmental pollution from wear contamination? (2) How to reduce tribo-noise, particularly in high speed trains, fast cars, and ultrasonic air plane? (3) How to develop new kinds of lubricant instead of mineral oils, such as waterbased lubricants, plant oils, plant liquid?

Bio-Tribology and Bionics Bio-tribology, a term proposed in the 1970s, includes tribology in human body and bionic-tribology, which is related to mechanics, material science, physics, chemistry, biology, medicine, etc. Tribology in the human body is a result of relative motion of parts of the body, e.g. joints, heart, eyes, tooth, mouth, skin, hair, blood

Advancements and Future of Tribology from IFToMM

209

vessel, and so on. In bio-tribology, the physiological reactions, self-adaptive and self-rehabilitative, usually exist in the tribological process. The difference of shape, elastic modules, and surface characteristics between organic surfaces and traditional tribo-surfaces cause more difficulties for researchers. There are many problems to be solved, e.g. the friction and extrusion between red blood cells and the walls of blood vessels, the mechanism of friction and wear of skin, impacting between blood and the surface of the heart valve. Bionic-tribology is focused on learning from nature, that is, researchers see special patterns on surfaces from natural plants or animals, e.g. the self-cleaning surface of the lotus leaf, the long proboscis of a mosquito which is very narrow but can suck blood easily, and the legs of the water strider which have a hierarchical structure with large numbers of oriented tiny hairs and nano-grooves. Bio-tribology is useful in the production of artificial joints, artificial hearts, artificial teeth, eyedrops, and skin oil. As regards artificial joints, about 100 million people a year need to replace one or more of their joints including hip joint, knee joint, ankle joint, elbow joint, shoulder joint, and wrist. Ultra-high molecular weight polyethylene (UHMWPE) was introduced as an artificial joint material in 1963 and continues to play an important role in convalescence engineering. Some new joint materials, e.g. titanium based alloy, Al2O3, CoCrMo alloys, have been investigated in order to extend the life of artificial joints to more than 50years. The wear particles including metal particles, UHMWPE particles, polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA) particles, ceramic particles, etc. will cause pathological changes near the joint surfaces. Mouth tribology has become of interest in recent years because more people pay more attention to their teeth and mandible joints. Zheng et al. [41] measured the friction coefficients of different materials with a human tooth, which for Ti alloy with a lubricant of saliva is 0.15, and for stainless steel is 0.2. The eye is another typical bio-tribological system, in which the corneal thickness is about 520 mm with a roughness of 0.5 mm. In general, the load of eyelids on eyeballs is 200–250 mN, the tears usually keep a film with a thickness of 15 mm and a viscosity of 0.0013 Pas, and the friction coefficient is 0.005 during blinking with a shear rate about 15,000 1/s [42, 43]. The valve is the most important part of an artificial heart. Its reliability is directly related to the life of the person who has had an artificial heart implanted. The heart valve will sustain about 40 million impacts per year. In China, there are about 100 thousand people whose heart valves have been replaced by artificial ones a year, and only 40% of them can live for as long as 12 years [43]. Therefore, how to reduce impact wear and fatigue failure, or how to extend the life time of the artificial heart valve will continue to be a serious problem in the following years. Researcher inn bionic-tribology are working on the tribological properties and characteristics of surfaces similar to natural surfaces. In wetting bionic surfaces, more works have been focused on hydrophobic and hydrophilic surface, e.g. lotus leaf, nepenthes, feet of water strider, dung beetle, and pothead. In adhesion to bionic surfaces, many kinds of insects and animals have a stronger adhesion force between their feet and contacting surfaces because of their large number of hierarchical structures, such as the feet of mosquitoes, geckos, ants, spiders, bees, flies,

210

J. Luo

Fig. 4 Hierarchical structure of Gecko toe [45]

grasshoppers, beetles, etc. The static friction force between an ant and a glass disc is more than 100 times the weight of the ant [44]. The gecko is another kind of interesting animal; due to its special feet, it can run rapidly on walls and ceilings, requiring high friction forces (on walls) and adhesion forces (on ceilings), with typical step intervals of 20 ms. Tian et al. [45] have investigated the adhesion force between a gecko toe which has a hierarchical structure and a solid surface (Fig. 4). They think that the rapid switching between gecko foot attachment and detachment is disclosed theoretically based on a tape model that incorporates the adhesion and friction forces originating from the van der Waals forces between the submicron-sized spatulae and the substrate. High net friction and adhesion forces are obtained by rolling down and gripping the toes inward to realize small pulling angles between the large number of spatulae in contact with the substrate. To detach, the high adhesion friction is rapidly reduced to a very low value by rolling the toes upward and backward, which peels the spatulae off perpendicularly from the substrates. From these mechanisms, both the adhesion and friction forces of geckos can be changed over three orders of magnitude, allowing for swift attachment and detachment during gecko motion [45].

Advancements and Future of Tribology from IFToMM

211

Super Lubricity Appearance of the superlubricity concept [46, 47] has gained attention from researchers in the field of tribology, machinery, physics, and chemistry. In practice, it is thought that when friction is at the scale of 0.001 or lower, the lubrication condition is thought to be in a superlubricity state. Research on superlubricity and its mechanism will strongly affect an explanation of the mechanism of lubrication and origins of friction. More importantly, it benefits industrial techniques and the development of the nano-techniques that have to face stronger frictions or surface forces. Superlubricity not only reduces the conservation of friction energy, but also provides a near-wearless condition. Thus, superlubricity will help human beings in the future to become free of the yoke of friction and wear. At the beginning of the 1990s, by theoretical calculation, Hirano and Shinjo [46, 47] found that when two arranged crystal surfaces move in certain commensurate surfaces and directions, friction vanishes, or a superlubricity state takes place due to the weak mutual interaction and relaxation between molecules. However, their experimental results of superlubricity have not been accepted due to their measured precision limits. There are two kinds of materials that have superlubricity-like properties. One is solid lubricant, such as high oriented pyrolytic graphite and MoS2 which show an ultralow friction in the special direction under a high vacuum condition [48], near-frictionless DLC film [49]. Another kind is water-based materials, e.g. polymer with water [50], ceramic material with water [51]. Klein et al. [50] made a superlubricity experiment with end-grafted chain film on the surface force microscope (SFA) where an ideal atomic smooth surface of mica is always used as couple surfaces to investigate the water-based lubricants, confining them with a given gap under a small normal pressure. The ‘molecular brush’ layer is formed on the mica surface and an ultralow coefficient of about 0.001 or lower can be attained at room temperature [52, 53]. There are also other kinds of lubricants reported to have superlubricity properties [54]. Some natural lubricants have much better performance than most artificial lubricants. The fluid in the joint of an animal can protect an organa from abrasion, which induces a friction coefficient lower than 0.003 [55]. It has been indicated that hyaluronic acid is contributive to reduce the friction coefficient, and the lubricating ability of such polysaccharides was reported to come from the super hydrophilicity [56, 57]. Arad et al. [58] obtained ultra low friction coefficients lower than 0.003 by the use of polysaccharides extracted from red algae, attributing it to the spiral chain structure. Recently, Ma et al. [59] found a new water-based lubricant with a friction coefficient about 0.002 under much higher pressure than that in SFA, which created a new system of superlubricity lubricant. Superlubricity research work is just at the preliminary stage. Systematic and theoretical analyses of the mechanism of superlubricity are needed [60]. The following problems need to be solved:

212

J. Luo

1 . What is the relationship between ordered degree of molecules and superlubricity? 2. What is the mechanism of superlubricity? 3. What are the basic conditions for the transition from the non-superlubricity state to the superlubricity state? 4. Is there any other kind of lubricant with superlubricity?

Tribology in Nanomanufacturing Nanomanufacturing was defined in the web of Natural Science Found of America as encompassing all processes aimed toward building of nanoscale (in 1D, 2D, or 3D) structures, features, devices, and systems suitable for integration across higher dimensional scales (micro-, meso- and macroscale) to provide functional products and useful services. Nanomanufacturing includes both bottom-up and top-down processes, in which many are related to tribology. Nanomanufacturing brings many new challenges to tribologists. For example, in order to raise the areal density of a hard disc driver to more than 1,000 Gb/in2, how to get an atomic smooth surface and how to keep the fly height less than 2 nm are key problems [7, 61, 62]. In nanoprinting, the compactedness of space is related to nano-rheology and adhesion in solid and liquid interfaces [63, 64]. Nanomanufacturing is also very important in the manufacturing of integrated circuits (IC) where one difficulty is the planarization for the different kinds of material layers with different hardness, e.g., Cu layer, Ta layer, and SiO2 layer. The chemical mechanical planarization (CMP) is the most effective planarization tool in IC manufacturing. However, how to get a smooth surface with waviness and roughness at an atomic level is still a big problem.

Interaction of a Nanoparticle with a Solid Surface Observation of the Movement of a Nanoparticle A system of a fluorescence microscope for the nanoparticle observation has been developed by Xue and Luo [65, 66] using nanoparticles with a shell of SiO2 and the fluorescein inside with diameters about 40 ± 5 nm. The movement of these fluorescence nanoparticles in water can be observed. Xu and Luo [65] proved the existence of Marangoni flow in an evaporating water droplet through trajectories of these nanoparticles in a water droplet. Collision of Nanoparticles with Solid Surface In order to find whether a nanoparticle in collision with the worked surface in the CMP process can contribute to material removal or not, Xu and Luo[67] have

Advancements and Future of Tribology from IFToMM

213

Fig. 5 Surfaces impacted by slurry with 0.5% nanoparticles about 60 nm in diameter at a speed of 50 m/s with the exposure time of 10 min: (a) TEM images of the cross section of the surface layer and (b) AFM images of the surface after impacting

designed an experiment by using slurry including SiO2 nanoparticles impacting a solid surface adsorbing fluorescent nanoparticles and checking the variation of the images of fluorescent nanoparticles between, before and after the impacting to deduce the material removal. Their experimental results indicate that the adsorbed nanoparticles on a solid surface can hardly be removed by the hydrodynamic effect of the impacting liquid and by the collisions of the impacting nanoparticles if the impacting speed, the impacting time, and the particle concentration of the liquid are less than 7.2 m/s, 1 min, and 15 wt.% respectively. Therefore, it can be deduced that the effect of the collision between the abrasives and the wafer surface on the material removal can be negligible under the experimental condition. Xu et al. [68] used a cylindrical liquid jet containing deionized water and SiO2 nanoparticles to impact on a surface of a single crystal silicon wafer at a speed of 50 m/s with an incidence angle of 45°. Some crystal defects, lattice distortion, the rotation of grains, an amorphous layer containing crystal grains, craters, scratches, and atom pileups have been found in the surface layer of the silicon wafer after impacting (Fig. 5a) [68]. Impacting pits at nano-scale and atom pileups also were found by AFM (Fig. 5b).

Molecular Dynamic Simulation Molecular dynamic simulation (MDS) is a useful tool for the investigation of material behaviors at the atomic or molecular scale. A theoretical analysis of a nanoparticle in collision with a Si or SiO2 surface has been done by Luo, Duan, and Chen [7, 61, 69–71] by MDS. Effects of the incident angle, energy, cluster size, on the trajectory of a nanoparticle, the deformation, temperature, and pressure distribution in the damaged region, and the material removal rate (MRR) of the surface layer had been investigated by them with a system as shown in Fig. 6. Their results indicate that a successive shape change of the damaged region is created on the surface

214

J. Luo

Fig. 6 Schematic diagram of a nanoparticle impacting on a crystal silicon surface and the surface configurations after impacting at different angles

as the incident angle q changes from 0° to 75° (Fig. 6) [61, 69]. Their results also indicate that there is a best size region of particles with which the most unit area energy will transfer from the particle into the impacted surface, and a highest MRR can be obtained [61, 70, 71].

Influence of Particles on the CMP Process In the CMP process, particles take a chief role for obtaining an ultra-smooth surface. The agglomeration of nano-particles in the CMP process will result in scratches on a polished surface, and the adhesion of nanoparticles on the polished surface will make much trouble for the cleaning process [61]. The surface of a silica nanoparticle is modified by the graft copolymerization of siloxanes with functional groups such as –OH, -NH2, -COOH, and a surface of the hard disk substrate

Advancements and Future of Tribology from IFToMM

215

Fig. 7 The roughness of hard disk substrate surface before and after surface modification of particles [61]

polished by such particles is improved from roughness Rz 0.114 nm to 0.089 nm and the surface defects such as micro-scratches, pits, and particle contaminations decreased greatly (Fig. 7) [61].

Other Interesting Areas Tribology in extreme hard conditions and surface texture related theory and technique are also very important. The tribology in conditions of extreme hardness includes tribology under a heavy load, at a high/low temperature, at a very high/low speed, in a high vacuum space, under acid/alkali corrosive condition, etc. Many tribologists are focused on the development of new lubricants and materials to fit the increasing needs, e.g. multi-alkylated of cyclopentanes (MACs) for high vacuum space [72]. Research on surface texturing is a hot point in recent years, which is related to material science, tribological theories, surface machining techniques, and working conditions. The early work on surface texturing is retrospect to 1977 [73]. It has become a viable option of surface engineering resulting in significant improvement in load capacity, wear resistance, and friction coefficient of mechanical components in the last 15 years [74]. The shape, the size, the distribution and the area density of surface textures are considered to be the most important parameters influencing tribological performances of textured surfaces. Various techniques have been employed to produce surface textures, and the laser surface texturing (LST) is probably the most effective so far. Efforts have also been made to improve current production techniques and to search for new methods of producing textures [75]. In addition, the tribology in new energy areas, the tribology in deep seas, the reduction of tribological noise of high speed traveling tools, anti-environmental pollution from wear contamination and wasted lubricants etc. will also absorb more attention.

216

J. Luo

Conclusion Tribology has been well developed in the last 20 years. Some new concepts and new areas, e.g. superlubricity, tribology in nanomanufacturing, bio-tribology, etc. have been brought out in recent years, and they will absorb more attention and develop faster in the following 10 years. These questions or problems are to be solved in the development of tribology in the near future: 1 . What is the role of tribology in new energy area? 2. What is the mechanism of superlubricity and how to improve properties of superlubricity material to fit industry needs? 3. How to salve the lubrication of micro/nano-system? 4. How to solve the tribological problems of artificial organs, e.g. artificial heart, artificial limb, for the human body? 5. What can tribologists learn further from nature? 6. How to reduce the wear of machines in the deep sea, a high vacuum (<10−9 Pa), or other severe conditions? 7. How to reduce the tribology noise and tribological pollution to environmental? 8. How to improve the theoretical research and machining technology on surface textures? In conclusion, I hope the new advancements in tribology in the following 10 year swill raise the importance of tribology in the new energy area, high technology area, and human life. Acknowledgments The work is financially supported by the 973 Project, International Science & Technology Cooperation Project, and NSFC fund (50721004).

References 1. Johnston, G.J., Wayte, R., Spikes, H.A.: The measurement and study of very thin lubricant films in concentrate contact. STLE Tribol. Trans. 34, 187–194 (1991) 2. Spikes, H., Granick, S.: Equation for slip of simple liquids at smooth solid surfaces. Langmuir 19(12), 5065–5071 (2003) 3. Luo, J.B.: Study on the measurement and experiments of thin film lubrication. Ph.D. thesis, Tsinghua University, Beijing (1994) 4. Luo, J.B., Wen, S.Z., Huang, P.: Thin film lubrication, part I: the transition between EHL and thin film lubrication. Wear 194, 107–115 (1996) 5. Luo, J.B., Qian, L.M., Lui, S., Wen, S.Z.: The failure of liquid film at nano-scale. STLE Tribol. Trans. 42(4), 912–916 (1999) 6. Luo, J.B., Shen, M.W., Wen, S.Z.: Tribological properties of nanoliquid film under an external electric field. J. Appl. Phys. 96(11), 6733–6738 (2004) 7. Luo, J.B., Hu, Y.Z., Wen, S.Z.: Physics and Chemistry of Micro-/Nanotribology. ASTM International, Maryland (2008) 8. Luo, J.B., He, Y., Zhong, M., Jin, Z.M.: Gas bubble phenomenon in nanoscale liquid film under external electric field. Appl. Phys. Lett. 89(1), Art. No. 013104 (2006)

Advancements and Future of Tribology from IFToMM

217

9. Xie, G.X., Luo, J.B., Liu, S.H., et al.: ‘Freezing’ of nanoconfined fluids under an electric field. Langmuir 26(3), 1445–1448 (2010) 10. Ma, L.R., Luo, J.B., Zhang, C.H., et al.: Effect of microcontent of oil in water under confined condition. Appl. Phys. Lett. 95(9), 091908 (2009) 11. Hartl, M., Krupka, I., Poliscuk, R., Molimard, J., Querry, M., Vergne, P.: Thin film colorimetric interferometry. STLE Tribol. Trans. 44(2), 270–276 (2001) 12. Hartl, M., Krupka, I., Poliscuk, R., Liska, M.: An automatic system for real-time evaluation of EHD film thickness and shape based on the colorimetric interferometry. Tribol. Trans. 42(2), 303–309 (1999) 13. Thompson, P.A., Grest, G.S., Robbin, M.O.: Phase transitions and universal in confined films. Phys. Rev. Lett. 68(23), 3448–3451 (1992) 14. Hu, Y.Z., Granick, S.: Microscopic study of thin film lubrication and its contributions to macroscopic tribology. Tribol. Lett. 5, 81–88 (1998) 15. Hu, Y.Z., Wang, H., Guo, Y.: Simulation of lubricant rheology in thin film lubrication, part I: simulation of Poiseuille flow. Wear 196, 243–248 (1996) 16. Israelachvili, J.N., Tabor, D.: The measurement of Van Der Waals dispersion force in the range of 1.5 nm to 130 nm. Proc. R. Soc. London A 331, 19–38 (1972) 17. Alsten, J.V., Granick, S.: Friction measured with a surface forces apparatus. Tribol. Trans. 32, 246–250 (1989) 18. Granick, S.: Motions and relaxation of confined liquid. Science 253, 1374–1379 (1991) 19. Klein, J., Kumacheva, E., Mahalu, D., et al.: Reduction of frictional forces between solid surfaces bearing polymer brushes. Nature 370, 634–636 (1994) 20. Bhushan, B.: Nanotribology and nanomechanics. Wear 259, 1507–1531 (2005) 21. Qian, L.M., Luo, J.B., Wen, S.Z., Xiao, X.D.: The experimental rules of mica as a reference sample of AFM/FFM measurement. Chin. Sci. Bull. 46(4), 349–352 (2001) 22. Xiao, X.D., Qian, L.M.: Investigation of humidity-dependent capillary force. Langmuir 16(21), 8153–8158 (2000) 23. Wang, H., Hu, Y.Z., Zhang, T.: Simulations on atomic-scale friction between self-assembled monolayers: phononic energy dissipation. Tribol. Int. 40, 680–686 (2007) 24. Horner, D.: Recent trends in environmentally friendly lubricants. J. Synth. Lubr. 18, 327–347 (2002) 25. Gawrilow, I.: Vegetable oil usage in lubricants. Inform-Int. News Fats Oils Relat. Mater. 15, 702–705 (2004) 26. Shahid, E.M., Jamal, Y.: A review of biodiesel as vehicular fuel. Renewable Sustainable Energy Rev. 12, 2484–2494 (2008) 27. Rudnick, L.R., Shubkin, R.L.: Synthetic Lubricants and High-Performance Functional Fluids, 2nd edn. Marcel Dekker, New York (1999) 28. Roegiers, M., Zhmud, B.: Tribological performance of ionized oils as lubricity and fatty oilness in lubricants and fuels. Lubr. Sci. 21, 169–182 (2009) 29. Xu, J., Luo, J.B., Liu, S.H., Xie, G.X., Ma, L.R.: Tribological characteristics of aloe mucilage. Tribology 2(2), 72–76 (2008) 30. Shen, M.W., Luo, J.B., Wen, S.Z.: The tribological properties of oils added with diamond nanoparticles. STLE Tribol. Trans. 44(3), 494–498 (2001) 31. Peng, D.X., Kang, Y., Chen, C.H., Chen, S.K., Shu, F.C.: The tribological behavior of modified diamond nanoparticles in liquid paraffin. Ind. Lubric. Tribol. 61(4), 213–219 (2009) 32. Gansheimer, J.: Molybdenum disulfide in oils and greases under boundary conditions. ASME Trans. J. Lubr. Technol. 95, 242–248 (1973) 33. Wan, G.T.Y., Spikes, H.A.: The behavior of suspended solid particles in rolling and sliding elastohydrodynamic contacts. Tribol. Trans. 31(1), 12–21 (1988) 34. Cusano, C., Silney, H.E.: Dynamics of solid dispersions in oil during the lubrication of point contacts-part I: graphite. ASLE Trans. 25, 183–189 (1982) 35. Bartz, W.J.: Some investigations on influence of particle size on the lubrication effectiveness of molybdenum disulfide. ASLE Trans. 15, 207–215 (1972)

218

J. Luo

36. Greenberg, R., Halperin, G., Etsion, I., et al.: The effect of WS2 nanoparticles on friction reduction in various lubrication regimes. Tribol. Lett. 17(2), 179–186 (2004) 37. Li, Z., Zhu, Y.: Surface-modification of SiO2 nanoparticles with oleic acid. Appl. Surf. Sci. 211(4), 315–320 (2003) 38. Guo, X., Zhang, Z., Dang, H., Ye, W., Cheng, T., Ye, Q.: Preparation and tribological properties of tetrafluorobenzoic acid modified TiO2 nanoparticles as lubricant additives. Mater. Sci. Eng. 359(1), 82–85 (2003) 39. Chu, H.Y., Hsu, W.C., Lin, J.F.: The anti-scuffing performance of diamond nano-particles as an oil additive. Wear 268(7–8), 960–967 (2010) 40. Han, B.L., Lu, X.C.: Effect of nano-sized CeF3 on microstructure, mechanical and tribological properties of Ni-W composite coatings. Surf. Coat. Technol. 203, 3656–3660 (2009) 41. Zheng, J., Zhou, Z.R., Zhang, J., et al.: On the friction and wear behavior of human tooth enamel and dentin. Wear 255, 967–974 (2003) 42. Liu, L., Tiffany, J., Dang, Z.X., et al.: Nourish and nurture: development of a nutrient ocular lubricant. Investig. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 50(6), 2932–2939 (2009) 43. Meng, Y.G., Tian, Y., Qian, L.M., Zhu, M.H., Ge, S.R., Lei, M.K., Zhang, J.Y., Yao, P.P.: The problems of surface & interface in mechanical engineering. In: Strategic Report on the Development of Mechanical Engineering (2011–2020), Science in China Press, Beijing, 2010 44. Federle, W., Baumgartner, W., Holldobler, B.: Biomechanics of ant adhesive pads: frictional forces are rate- and temperature-dependent. J. Exp. Biol. 207(1), 67–74 (2004) 45. Tian, Y., Pesika, N., Zeng, H.B., Rosenberg, K., Zhao, B.X., McGuiggan, P., Autumn, K., Israelachvili, J.: Adhesion and friction in gecko toe attachment and detachment. Proc. Natl. Acad.Sci. U S A 103(51), 19320–19325 (2006) 46. Hirano, M., Shinjo, K., Kaneko, R., et al.: Observation of superlubricity by scanning tunneling microscope. Phys. Rev. Lett. 78(8), 1448–1451 (1997) 47. Hirano, M., Shinjo, K.: Atomistic locking and friction. Phys. Rev. B 41(17), 11837–11851 (1990) 48. Martin, J.M., Donnet, C., Le Mogn, T.: Superlubricaty of molybdenum disulphide. Phys. Rev. B 48(14), 10583–10586 (1993) 49. Erdemir, A., Eryilmaz, O.L., Fenske, G.: Synthesis of diamond-like carbon films with superlow friction and wear properties. J. Vac. Sci. Technol. A 18(4), 1987–1992 (2000) 50. Klein, J., Kumacheva, E., Mahalu, D., Perahia, D., Fetters, L.J.: Reduction of frictional forces between solid-surfaces bearing polymer brushes. Nature 370(6491), 634–636 (1994) 51. Zhou, F., Wang, X.L., Kato, K.J., et al.: Friction and wear property of a-CNx coatings sliding against Si3N4 balls in water. Wear 263(2), 1253–1258 (2007) 52. Raviv, U., Giasson, S., Kampf, N., Goh, J.F.Y., Jerome, R., Klein, J.: Lubrication by charged polymers. Nature 425(6954), 163–165 (2003) 53. Chen, M., Briscoe, W.H., Armes, S.P., Klein, J.: Lubrication by biomimetic surface layers at physiological pressures. Science 323, 1698–1700 (2009) 54. Erdemir, A., Martin, J.M.: Superlubricity. Elsevier, London (2007) 55. Scherge, M., Gorb, S.N.: Biological Micro- and Nano-tribology. Springer, Berlin (2001) 56. Tadmor, R., Chen, N.H., Israelachvili, J.N.: Thin film rheology and lubricity of hyaluronic acid solutions at a normal physiological concentration. J. Biomed. Mater. Res. 61(4), 514–523 (2002) 57. Chang, D.P., Abu-Lail, N.I., Guilak, F.: Conformational mechanics, adsorption, and normal force interactions of lubricin and hyaluronic acid on model surfaces. Langmuir 24(4), 1183–1193 (2008) 58. Arad, S., Rapoport, L., Moshkovich, A., et al.: Superior biolubricant from a species of red microalga. Langmuir 22(17), 7313–7317 (2006) 59. Ma, Z.Z., Zhang, C.H., Luo, J.B., Wen, S.Z.: A new way to obtain superlubricity from green water based lubricant under macro load. SKLT news (2010)

Advancements and Future of Tribology from IFToMM

219

60. Luo, J.B., Lu, X.C., Wen, S.Z.: Developments and unsolved problems in nano-lubrication. Prog. Nat. Sci. 11(3), 173–183 (2001) 61. Luo, J.B., Guo, D.: Tribology in nanomanufacturing-interaction between nanoparticles and a solid surface. In: Luo, J.B., Meng, Y.G., Shao, T.M., Zhao, Q. (eds.) Advanced Tribology, pp. 5–10. Tsinghua University Press/ Springer, Beijing (2009) 62. Yang, M.C., Luo, J.B., Wen, S.Z., et al.: Investigation of X-1P coating on magnetic head to enhance the stability of head/disk interface. Sci. China 44(Supp), 400–406 (2001) 63. Shen, M.W., Luo, J.B., Wen, S.Z., et al.: Nano-tribological properties and mechanisms of the liquid crystal as an additive. Chin. Sci. Bull. 46(14), 1227–1232 (2001) 64. Wang, H., Hu, Y.Z., Guo, Y.: Molecular dynamics study of the interfacial slip phenomenon in ultrathin lubricating film. Lubr. Sci. 16(3), 303–314 (2004) 65. Xu, X.F., Luo, J.B.: Marangoni flow in an evaporating water droplet. Appl. Phys. Lett. 91(12), 124102 (2007) 66. Xu, X.F., Luo, J.B., Yan, J.: A PIV system for two-phase flow with nanoparticles. Int. J. Surf. Sci. Eng. 2(1/2), 168–175 (2008) 67. Xu, X.F., Luo, J.B., Lu, X.C., Zhang, C.H., Guo, D.: Effect of nanoparticle impact on material removal. Tribol. Trans. 51(6), 718–722 (2008) 68. Xu, J., Luo, J.B., Lu, X.C., et al.: Atomic scale deformation in the solid surface induced by nanoparticle impacts. Nanotechnology 16, 1–6 (2005) 69. Duan, F.L., Luo, J.B., Wen, S.Z., Wang, J.X.: Atomistic structural change of silicon surface under a nanoparticle collision. Chin. Sci. Bull. 50(15), 1661–1665 (2005) 70. Chen, R.L., Luo, J.B., Guo, D., Lu, X.C.: Energy transfer under impact load studied by molecular dynamic simulation. J. Nanopart. Res. 11, 589–600 (2009) 71. Wang, Y.G., Zhao, Y.W.: Modeling the effects of cohesive energy for single particle on the material removal in chemical mechanical polishing at atomic scale. Appl. Surf. Sci. 253, 9137–9141 (2007) 72. Ma, J.Q., Bai, M.W.: Effect of ZrO2 nanoparticles additive on the tribological behavior of multialkylated cyclopentanes. Tribol. Lett. 36(3), 191–198 (2009) 73. Barwell, F.T., Roylance, B.J., Odiowei, S.: Some implications of surface texture in partial elastohydrodynamic lubrication. ASLE Trans. 20(2), 177–182 (1977) 74. Etsion, I., Burstein, L.: A model for mechanical seals with regular microsurface structure. Tribol. Trans. 39(3), 677–683 (1996) 75. Zhou, Y.Q., Shao, T.M., Yin, L.: A method of micro - laser surface texturing based on optical fiber focusing. Laser Phys. 19(5), 1061–1066 (2009)

Part III

Experiences and Views by IFToMM Member Organizations

MMS and IFToMM in Armenia: Past, Present State and Perspectives Yuri Sarkissyan

Abstract A brief overview of the genesis and evolution of TMM and other MMS related research fields in Armenia is given and the main achievements are underlined. Based on this overview, present trends and critical problems in the development of MMS are identified in the context of social-economic transition. The role and influence of IFToMM on the development of MMS are highlighted. The paper concludes with an outline of possible ways for promoting the further development of MMS and its active involvement in revitalization and restructuring of industrial machinery in Armenia.

Introduction Armenia has developed one of the most advanced science and technology systems in the former Soviet Union which served with distinction the interests of the Union. Science in Armenia has been strongly affected by generic transitional problems inherited partly from the Soviet model of science organization. As a result, S & T capacities of the country have declined, due to the drastic reduction of state investments and slow and inadequate restructuring of the sector accompanied by heavy brain drain and worsening of material conditions for research [1]. As a part of the Armenian science system MMS also passed through Soviet and post Soviet periods in its history and has suffered much from the transition hardships. On the other hand, the history of MMS in Armenia cannot be considered independent of its Soviet context. Similar to every major field of the Soviet science complex, TMM once had a centralized organizational framework, including regular all-Union conferences on contemporary problems of TMM and related areas of

Y. Sarkissyan (*) Armenian IFToMM Committee, State Engineering University of Armenia, 105 Teryan str., Yerevan 375009, Armenia e-mail: [email protected] M. Ceccarelli (ed.), Technology Developments: the Role of Mechanism and Machine Science and IFToMM, Mechanisms and Machine Science 1, DOI 10.1007/978-94-007-1300-0_18, © Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2011

223

224

Y. Sarkissyan

MMS, a year-round central TMM seminar with an extensive network of its regional branches, MMS oriented state R&D programs with their coordinating bodies, official journals and other periodicals and finally a unified Soviet Committee of IFToMM regulating international activities of MMS all over the Union. Most of these activities were planned and organized by the Moscow Machine Science Institute of the Soviet Academy of Science. Meanwhile, all Soviet technical universities had their specialized chairs providing teaching of TMM (MMS) which had rather high status in all engineering curricula as one of the fundamental disciplines in the formation of future engineers. In this paper we intend to give a historical overview of MMS in Armenia, identify its present trends and critical problems and outline some perspectives for the future. Another aim of the paper is to evaluate the role of IFToMM in the development of MMS.

Historical Overview The first attempts of MMS scientific activity in Armenia can be referred to the early 1950s when at the two leading Armenian HEIs – Yerevan State University and Yerevan Polytechnic Institute, investigations started in kinematic synthesis of spatial linkages [2] and design of mechanisms with optimum force transmission characteristics. Soon the first Armenian digital computers “Gohar” were effectively used in the approximate synthesis of path generating four-bar mechanisms [3]. In 1971 the Armenian Branch of the all-Union TMM Seminar was established at Yerevan Polytechnic Institute, reorganized and renamed later (1991) as State Engineering University of Armenia (SEUA). Since then this institution has become the main center of MMS research and educational activities in Armenia. The most active research area of TMM in the starting period has been synthesis of mechanisms. Armenian scientists – mostly followers and co-workers of Professor N. Levitski – developed and popularized his method which was based on least square approximations and used as deviation functions in approximations problems residual errors of design equations transformed into linear polynomials with respect to new sets of variables connected by nonlinear compatibility equations. Approximations to the given motions were determined by minimizing the squared sum of residual errors over an unlimited number of design positions. In attempting to provide a rational basis for this method, N. Levitski and Y. Sarkissyan [4] proved that the absolute values of the Lagrange multipliers associated with the compatibility equations are expected to be sufficiently small whenever a solution to the kinematic approximation problem has a small error of approximation. This property allows one to assume Lagrange multipliers equal to zero and to linearize design equations as the first iteration in computation of the desired approximations. The results of [4] have been later referenced and developed more than once with some misinterpretations. In [5] the concept and numerical techniques of constrained

MMS and IFToMM in Armenia: Past, Present State and Perspectives

225

multiparametric optimization were first introduced in least square synthesis, thus broadening considerably the scope of potential applications of the method. Due to these first publications in international journals and growing internationalization process in the field initiated by IFToMM, in the early 1970s cooperation links were established between researchers from Soviet Armenia – followers of Chebishev’s algebraic approach and their American colleagues who followed a classical geometrical approach based on the Burmester theory. A collaborative research work implemented at Stanford University in 1971–1972 resulted in “cross fertilization” of two traditionally opposite directions in mechanism synthesis and a new synthetic approach combining the algebraic methods of the least square synthesis with the geometrical notions of the Burmester theory [6] was proposed. The geometrical theory developed may be regarded as a generalization of the Burmester theory to an unlimited number of design positions. In [7] planar kinematic geometry associated with the least square approximations developed in [6] was extended to spatial and spherical motions. In a follow-up paper [8] a general theory for Chebishev (or minimax) approximations of coplanar finite point sets by circles and lines was developed by the same authors with applications to planar kinematic synthesis. This work, which was honored with the Best Paper Award at the 11th ASME conference on mechanisms in 1968, was extended to three dimensions in two further companion papers. While the first one [9] dealt with Chebishev approximations of spatial point sets by spheres and planes, the second [10] considered line congruencies which in a minimax sense best approximate ordered sets of lines. Chebishev kinematic approximations studied in these works were used as a tool to synthesize different types of binary links in spatial linkages. By these studies, a theoretical foundation was laid for a new branch in kinematic geometric-approximational (approximation based) kinematic geometry which has become an active area for further investigations in Armenia and abroad. A systematic description of the theory, computational tools and design applications of approximational kinematic geometry can be found in [11]. A review of approximation problems in 3D kinematic synthesis with the analysis of their intrinsic relationships with general approximation theory was presented in the keynote lecture [12] at the 8th World IFToMM Congress in 1991. Further developments in this area have been connected with extensions of the developed methods to spherical motions [13], approximations by second order curves and surfaces [14], minimax problems with bound variables in mechanism synthesis [15], computational aspects of approximational kinematic geometry [16, 17] and applications of Chebishev approximations in dynamic synthesis of mechanisms [18, 19]. In what follows, we present the local situation in some other research areas of MMS which are beyond the traditional domain of TMM studies. In parallel, and in connection with mechanism synthesis since the late 1970s, extensive research has started in robot-manipulator theory and practice with a wide range of investigations including synthesis of open looped chains based on kinematic approximations [20], structural synthesis of translational parallel manipulators [21]

226

Y. Sarkissyan

and discrete modular manipulators [22], geometrical kinematics and singularity analysis of manipulators [23–25], dynamic synthesis of manipulators [26] and reconfigurable manipulation systems [27]. Another research area which emerged in the late 1970s was precision vibromechanics and microsystems design. Investigations carried out in cooperation with research centers in Lithuania and Germany were addressed to the dynamics and design of piezoelectric transducers [28, 29], micromanipulators with elastic and piezoelectric components [30] and the study of related physical effects [31]. In the early 1990s the first biomedical research projects were initiated in SEUA in collaboration with Yerevan Medical University, Rennes University of Applied Sciences (France) and some specialized medical centers in Armenia. Among research subjects of biomedical studies were orthodontic devices [32, 33], rehabilitation systems [34, 35] and computer modeling of biomedical systems. Reliability studies of machines and machine components in Armenia started in the 1960s by the joint efforts of researchers from SEUA and the Armenian Academy of Science. The main direction of the research in this area was the study of fatigue resistance and durability of machine components based on statistical estimation methods of fracture mechanics [36–38]. The beginning of tribological research in Armenia goes as far back as the early 1950s when investigations on wear resistance and durability of cutting tools were set up in SEUA. One of the fruitful directions of tribological studies established later has been the development of new friction materials and friction nodes on the basis of self-lubricating polymer composites [39]. Current research subjects in this area include investigations of tribomechanical and physical mechanical processes of mineral – filled polymer composites [40], development of new self-lubricating composites with the use of Armenian minerals as fillers [41], tribological study of plastic lubricants with bentonite thickeners [42] and other issues. Tribological studies and related international activities in Armenia have been coordinated by the Armenian Tribology Committee established in 1974.

Achievements in Research and Education The preceding overview and evaluation of the present state of MMS permit us to point to some achievements of MMS in Armenia. Sound traditions, research structures and an extensive network of international collaboration have been established based on respective constituencies of SEUA (formerly Yerevan Polytechnic Institute); National Academy of Sciences (NAS), Armenian Agrarian University and some R&D institutes specialized in industrial research. The main research activities have been implemented within a series of state supported projects and international cooperation programs. As shown in the overview above, some of the results of the implemented research have opened new areas for studies or can be qualified as considerable contributions to progress in the established research areas of MMS. On the whole, today MMS is one of the most

MMS and IFToMM in Armenia: Past, Present State and Perspectives

227

active and high ranked fields in technical sciences of Armenia which has a steady share in state research investments and presence in NAS (Y. Sarkissyan, A. Pogosian) and Science Policy bodies of the country as well. MMS has also a rather high status in the higher education system of Armenia. In 1995, a MMS based program “Dynamics and Strength of Machines” was established in SEUA at Bachelor’s, Master’s and Researcher’s (PhD) levels renamed recently as “Applied Mechanics” which has produced over 300 graduates in mechanical engineering. In the same period, over 40 graduates with ME degrees have defended their doctoral dissertations in MMS. On the other hand, MMS has been and still remains as one of the fundamental courses in Mechanical Engineering programs, while a general Applied Mechanics course based on MMS is incorporated in all engineering curricula. A large amount of MMS research during the Soviet times was influenced by the demands of industrial machinery and implemented through research contracts with industry. Interaction with industry also promoted broad scale technical innovation and inventive activities in all main areas of MMS. Over 150 inventions (some of them with patents) were registered for new devices, automation systems, research methods and new materials. The lack of financial resources and protective patent regimes prevent so far the use of these results in developing and marketing of new products.

IFToMM in Armenia Since its foundation IFToMM has been an important driving force for developing MMS in Armenia, being a unique “window” to the west and a rare opportunity for the internationalization of research activities and establishing contacts with western scientists. In the Soviet period, involvement of representatives of Armenian MMS in IFToMM activities was regulated by the central Soviet IFToMM Committee. Forms of participation in IFToMM activities have included: • Participation in the IFToMM World Congresses beginning from the 4th Congress in 1975 and IFToMM sponsored conferences (Syrom, Romansy, etc.); • Publications in IFToMM official journals and editions; • Involvement in the IFToMM Executive Counsel and Soviet IFToMM Committee (Y. Sarkissyan, 1991–1995); • Membership in PC for Standardization of Terminology (Y. Sarkissyan), TC of Gearing (H. Darbinyan), participation in the development of IFToMM terminology (Y. Sarkissyan). Since 1998 Armenia is an IFToMM member country and has its IFToMM National Committee which coordinates MMS research and educational activities in Armenia, provides information to the local MMS community on the activities and events organized by IFToMM. From the latest initiatives of the Armenia IFToMM Committee, it is worth noting publication of an English-Armenian-Russian

228

Y. Sarkissyan

IFToMM dictionary [43] with its e-version installed in the SEUA Web-site (www. seua.am) and creation of the web-site of IFToMM, Armenia (www.iftomm,armenia. seua.am)

Development Trends and Critical Problems We consider the last decade as the modern period for the MMS history in Armenia, which begins under the new name adopted by IFToMM. This period was marked by economic stabilization of the country and some positive developments in the science sphere. Three main trends are characteristic for the present state of MMS: • Natural experiments requiring expensive modern instruments and equipment are substituted often by computer simulations and virtual experiments. On the other hand, most of the MMS research today is implemented with the use of information technologies and computer oriented approaches while the doctoral dissertations are concluded as a rule by developing application software packages. • Growing internationalization of research activities influenced greatly by IFToMM is another major trend in the MMS development. International cooperation is playing and has to play a role of cardinal importance for Armenian MMS as a key to sound adaptation with international standards and a rare source of non-statutory funding. Mechanisms and channels used are many, including bilateral and multilateral programs, individual grants, joint projects and publications. • New targets and non-traditional applications for MMS research have emerged, such as medical devices, Microsystems and new friction materials, all of which require interdisciplinary studies, integration of concepts and methods from different fields. There are some critical problems and preventive factors for the further development of MMS in Armenia which are mainly common for the whole science sector, being direct consequences of the transition period. • Continuing outflow of young researchers from MMS takes place for the lack of job opportunities and appropriate conditions for research. The brain drain process takes two forms. The first is the external brain drain of scientists – generally of a high level – who leave the country to work abroad in better conditions. The second is the internal brain drain of those who leave their academic/research careers to work elsewhere. MMS has suffered from both forms although the former can be a way to establish links with the international scientific community which has been used to some extent. Since the most talented graduate students are no longer attracted by the possibility of a university career, MMS faces a serious problem how to renew its scientific potential. • Lack of state support and other funds for academic mobility restricts strongly the participation of the Armenian MMS scientists in international conferences and

MMS and IFToMM in Armenia: Past, Present State and Perspectives

229

their more active involvement in IFToMM activities. Moreover, in some MMS areas, publications of Armenian authors are mostly in Russian which prevents popularization and dissemination of the published results at the international level. • Research infrastructure of MMS-facilities, equipment and scientific instruments are outdated and need urgent modernization. This is a precondition for the competitiveness in the areas based essentially on experimental studies. • Another problem that MMS encounters today is its disconnection from industry, because industrial machinery, once a powerful branch of national economy, was disintegrated mainly in the transition period. Lack of industrial research projects has a negative influence on the development of practical aspects of MMS.

Expectations and Perspectives Expectations for a sustained and predictable future of MMS in Armenia depend essentially on how and to what extent the above-mentioned problems will be solved. Some possible ways of solution are presented below. • Further internationalization of research and educational activities in MMS is a good resource to be used. A key issue is to establish efficient financial mechanisms for benefiting from international cooperation. It should be accepted that most of cooperative actions have to take place not for entire disciplines or institutions but rather at the level of research groups and individual scientists. In this respect, IFToMM offers a unique possibility for establishing research partnerships and developing proposals for joint research projects. But to use this opportunity, consolidation and active involvement of the local MMS community in the IFToMM activities are needed, including possible organization of international conferences in Armenia. Publication of the best results of scientific research in the IFToMM official journals and other editions should be also encouraged. • It is important to initiate the development of proposals for the organization of research labs with core institutional funding from state budgets in such areas as robotics, tribology, biomechanics that will open job opportunities for early researchers and doctoral students and help renovation of the scientific potential of MMS. • At the same time, there is a need to promote the development and implementation of joint degree programmes at doctoral level with EU universities through Erasmus Mundus, Tempus and other schemes to support international mobility of local MMS scientists and doctoral students and establish technology transfer. • The MMS community has to contribute to the process of revitalization of industrial machinery in Armenia. Coordinated efforts are required for the commercialization of research results and support for the development of innovation oriented small enterprises. Building efficient research activities in the existing enterprises is also necessary. It cannot take place overnight, as the enterprises

230

Y. Sarkissyan

need first to become operational and profitable to find then an opportunity and interest for developing industrial research. • Meanwhile, changes are also necessary in the educational field to train a new generation of mechanical engineers with innovatory skills, who are able to transform new research results and concepts into marketable products. In this context, MMS based study programmes and courses need to be brought into line with the demands of a potential employment market. A competency-based curricular modernization is necessary to solve this task. It is advisable to establish in the frames of IFToMM a thematic network of universities offering MMS oriented programs and courses aimed at developing a list of subject-specific competencies required from the graduates.

Conclusion We have presented a brief historical overview of TMM and related research areas united today under the term MMS. The main contributions of Armenian scientists in different fields of MMS have been underlined. Armenia used to have one of the most advanced and internationally recognized activity centers of MMS in the former Soviet Union, integrated into the centralized Soviet system for this field. Since its foundation IFToMM has played a significant role in the development and internationalization of Armenian MMS which has increased with the collapse of the Soviet Union and dissolution of all Union coordination structures of MMS. The research capacity of MMS has been strongly affected by the transition situation in Armenia which caused a radical decline of investments in science, a heavy brain drain, worsened material conditions for research and disconnection from industry caused by the disintegration of industrial machinery. The paper focuses on the development trends and critical problems that MMS faces today in Armenia. Renewal of the scientific potential and reorientation to the new economic and social needs of the country are the main challenges for Armenian MMS community. They require further internationalization of research activities and competency based modernization of existing programs for preparing mechanical and mechanism engineers which will increase the role of MMS in revitalization of industrial machinery in Armenia. Specific programs directed towards young scientists to prevent brain drain can usefully be operated as a priority area. At the same time, some mechanisms for supporting long term linkages with those who work abroad and facilitating their return should be established.

References 1. Sarkissyan, Y.L.: Guidelines of science policy and research management in Armenia. NATO ASI Series 4, vol. 2, pp. 165–171. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht, the Netherlands (1995) 2. Levitski, N.I., Shahbazian, K.K.: Synthesis of four-element spatial mechanisms with lower pairs (translated from Russian original, 1954). Int. J. Mech. Sci. 2, 76–92 (1960)

MMS and IFToMM in Armenia: Past, Present State and Perspectives

231

3. Edilyan, M.B.: Application of digital computers to the synthesis of path generating mechanisms (in Russian). Proc. Armenian Acad. Sci. Phys. Math Ser. XIV(5), 12–20 (1961) 4. Levitski, N.I., Sarkissyan, Y.L.: On the special properties of lagrange’s multipliers in the least square synthesis of mechanisms. J. Mech. 3(1), 3–10 (1968) 5. Levitski, N.I., Sarkissyan, Y.L., Gekchyan, G.S.: Optimum synthesis of four bar function generating mechanism. Mech. Mach. Theor. 7, 387–398 (1972) 6. Sarkissyan, Y.L., Gupta, K.C., Roth, B.: Kinematic geometry associated with the least square approximation of a given motion. ASME J. Eng. 95(2), 503–510 (1973) 7. Sarkissyan, Y.L., Gupta, K.C., Roth B.: Spatial least square approximations of a given motion. In: Proceedings of IFToMM International Symposium Linkages and Computer Design Methods, Bucharest, 7–13 June 1973, vol. B, pp. 512–521 (1973) 8. Sarkissyan, Y.L., Gupta, K.C., Roth, B.: Chebishev approximations of finite point sets with application to planar kinematic synthesis. ASME J. Mech. Des. 101(1), 32–40 (1979) 9. Sarkissian, Y.L., Gupta, K.C., Roth, B.: Chebishev approximations of spatial point sets using spheres and planes. ASME J. Mech. Des. 101(3), 499–503 (1979) 10. Sarkissyan, Y.L., Gupta, K.C., Roth, B.: Chebishev Approximations on Finite Line Sets as a Tool in Kinematic Synthesis. In: Proceedings of 5th World Congress on the Theory of Machines and Mechanisms, Montreal, 8–13 July 1979, pp. 13–16 (1979) 11. Sarkissyan, Y.L.: Approximational Synthesis of Mechanisms (in Russian). Nauka, Moscow (1982). 304p 12. Sarkissyan, Y.L.: Approximation problems in kinematic synthesis of spatial mechanisms. In: Proceedings of 8th IFToMM World Congress on the Theory of Machines and Mechanisms, Prague, 26–31 Aug 1991, vol. 1, pp. 13–17 (1991) 13. Sarkissyan, Y.L., Shahparonyan, S.S., Gupta, K.C., Roth, B.: Some geometrical problems of Chebishev approximation with application to the synthesis of spherical mechanisms (in Russian). Mech. Mach. 60, 57–66 (1983) 14. Sarkissyan, Y.L., Stepanyan, K.G., Shahparonyan, S.S: Some problems of the approximation by curves and surfaces of the second order in kinematic geometry of 2 and 3D Motion. In: Proceedings of 6th World Congress on Theory of Machines and Mechanisms, New Deli, 15–20 Dec 1983, vol. 1, pp. 303–307 (1983) 15. Sarkissyan, Y.L., Stepanyan, K.G., Shahparonyan, S.S. Minimax problems with bound variables in synthesis of mechanisms. In: Proceedings of 7th World Congress on theory of machines and mechanisms, Sevilla, vol. 1, pp. 151–154 (1987) 16. Sarkissyan ,Y.L., Djavakhyan, R.P., Stepanyan, K.G., Shahparonyan, S.S.: To the theory of nonlinear minimax problems in synthesis of mechanisms (in Russian). Mashinovedenie (1), 52–60 (1983) 17. Sarkissyan, Y.L., Stepanyan, K.G., Shahparonyan, S.S., Karapetyan G.P.: Computation algorithms for the approximation problems of mechanism synthesis with bilinear deviation functions. In: Transactions of the 4th IFToMM International Symposium on Theory and Practice of Mechanisms (Syrom-85), Bucharest, vol. I-2, pp. 397–404 (1985) 18. Sarkissyan, Y.L., Stepanyan, K.G., Martirosyan, A.O.: Approximate dynamic synthesis of linkages with elastic links. In: Proceedings of 9th World Congress on Theory of Machines and Mechanisms, Milan, vol. 2, pp. 1571–1574 (1995) 19. Sarkissyan, Y.L., Stepanyan, K.G., Ohanjanyan A.: Chebishev approximations in dynamic synthesis of mechanisms. In: Proceedings of the 11th World Congress on Mechanism and Machine Science, 1–4 Apr 2004, Tianjin, vol. 2, pp. 609–611 (2004) 20. Sarkissyan, Y.L., Aslanyan, K. G., Stepanyan, K.G.: On the approximational synthesis of open looped mechanisms (in Russian). Mashinovedenie (3), 56–63 (1980) 21. Sarkissyan, Y.L., Parikyan, T.F.: Construction principles for spatial translational mechanisms (in Russian). Mashinovedenie (4), 12–20 (1988) 22. Sarkissyan, Y.L., Egishyan, K.M., Kharatyan, A.G.: Synthesis of discrete manipulators with minimum number of DoF (in Russian). In: Proceedings of Polish Conference of TMM, Warsaw, pp. 357–362 (1984)

232

Y. Sarkissyan

23. Sarkissyan, Y.L., Parikyan T.F.: Direct position problem for 5 (SPS) linkage and associated synthesis problems. In: Proceedings of 5th IFToMM International Symposium on Theory and Practice of Mechanisms (Syrom-89), Bucharest, vol. II-2, pp. 543–550 (1989) 24. Sarkissyan, Y.L., Parikyan, T.F.: Direct position problem for Stewart platform and multiple points of 5 (SS) linkage Coupler curves. In: Proceedings of 9th World Congress on Theory of Machines and Mechanisms, Milan, vol. 2, pp. 1614–1618 (1995) 25. Sarkissyan, Y.L., Parikyan T.F.: Analysis of special configurations of parallel topology manipulators. In: Proceedings of 8th CISM-IFToMM Symposium on Robotics (Ro Man Sy 8), Cracow, 2–6 July 1990, pp. 156–163 (1990) 26. Stepanyan, K.G., Arzumanyan, K.S., Harutyunyan, G.: Synthesis of manipulators for the maximum value of acceleration radius. In: Proceedings of 9th World Congress on Theory of Machines and Mechanisms, Milan, vol. 3, pp. 1957–1960 (1995) 27. Sarkissyan, Y.L., Kharatyan, A.G., Egishyan, K.M., Parikyan T.F.: Synthesis of mechanisms with variable structure and geometry for reconfigurable manipulation systems. In: Proceedings of ASME/IFToMM International Conference on Reconfigurable Mechanisms and Robots (ReMar - 2009), London, pp. 195–199 (2009) 28. Kochikyan, A.V., Harutunyan, M.G., Sarkissyan, M.G., Sahahparonyan, C.S.: Bimorphous piezoelectric finite element in an electrical field with an arbitrary boundary. Vibration Eng. 2, 483–491 (1988) 29. Harutyunyan, M.G., Shwesinger, N.: Optimization of the shape of Piezo - electric microstructures. In: Proceedings of International Conference on Micro, Electro, Opto, Mechanical Systems and Components (Microsystems Technologies 94), Berlin, 19–21 Oct 1994, pp. 19–21 (1994) 30. Harutyunyan, M.G., Keoschkaryan, R.: Dynamics of precision manipulators with the flexure and piezoelectric elements with thermal effects into account. In: Proceedings of 9th World Congress on Theory of Machines and Mechanisms, Milan, vol. 3, pp. 1998–2002 (1995) 31. Keoshkaryan, R., Harutyunyan, M.G., Wurmus, H.: Analysis of the self-heating phenomenon of piezoelectric microelements actuated harmonically. Microsystems Technol. 9, 75 (2002). Springer 32. Harutyunyan, M.G., Mayilyan P.: Ertwicoklung der Feinwerktechnik für Orthodontia. In: Proceedings of 41th International Wiss. Koll (IWK), Ilmenaw, pp. 474–479 (1996) 33. Harutyunyan, M.G., Mayilyan, P., Prazyan I.: Forces analysis of spring-frame orthodontic appliance with functional components. In: Proceedings of 44th International Wiss. Koll. (IWK), Ilmenaw, pp. 267–272 (1999) 34. Harutyunyan, M.G., Karoyan, A.: Analysis of the biomechanical system of the arm rehabilitation device. In: Proceedings of 50th International Wiss. Koll. (IWK), Ilmenaw, pp. 523–524 (2005) 35. Arakelyan, V., Ghazaryan, S.: Improvement of balancing accuracy of robotic systems: application to leg orthosis for rehabilitation devices. Int. J. Mech. Mach. Theor. 45(5), 565–575 (2008) 36. Stakyan, M.G., Galechyan, N.A.: Complex investigation and diagnosing of fatigue fractured shafts (in Russian). Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. Ser. Technol. Sci. 54(2), 325–333 (2001) 37. Stakyan, M.G., Manukyan, M.A., Ramazyan, A.G.: Statistical estimation of factors influencing crack development in shafts (in Russian). Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. Ser. Technol. Sci. 58(3), 420–425 (2005) 38. Gasparyan, S.H.: Determination of residual stresses in metallic composites. J. Mater. Process. Technol. 178, 14–18 (2006) 39. Pogosian, A.K.: Tribology in Armenia. In: Proceedings of the First World Congress of Armenian Engineers, Scientists and Industrialists, Los Angeles, 3–5 Aug 1989, pp. 195–197 (1989) 40. Pogosyan, A.K., Bahadur, S., Hovhannisyan, K.V.: Investigation of the tribochemical, physicomechanical processes in sliding of mineral-filled formaldehyde copolymer composites against steel. Wear 260(6), 662–668 (2006)

MMS and IFToMM in Armenia: Past, Present State and Perspectives

233

41. Cho, M.H., Behadur, S., Pogosian, A.K.: Observation on the effectiveness of some surface treatments of mineral particles and inorganic compounds from Armenia as the fillers in polyphenylene sulfide for tribological performance. Tribol. Int. 39(3), 249–260 (2006) 42. Pogosian, A.K., Martirosyan, T.R.: Tribological properties of bentonite thickener-containing greases. J. Friction Wear 29(3), 205–209 (2008) 43. Sarkissyan, Y.L., Hovumyan, N.G., Petrosyan, H.T.: English-Armenian-Russian Terminology of the Theory of Mechanisms and Machines, p. 390. SEUA, Yerevan (2009)

Role of MMS and IFToMM in Belarus Vladimir Algin

Abstract The chapter reviews the system of scientific support for designing modern and competitive machines in the Republic of Belarus, comprising state programs, academic institutions and universities, scientific and technical centers within various types of enterprises. The main international forums in the field of mechanics and machines science that are hosted in Belarus, its leading periodicals and the websites of its participating organizations are described. Furthermore, the chapter illustrates the basic tendencies and results of investigations in Belarus, reflected in publications for the period from 2006 to 2010, and discusses its prioritization of directions of fundamental and applied scientific research for 2011–2015.

Introduction Belarus does not have an overabundance of natural resources of energy and metals. However, a mighty complex of automobile and tractor manufacturing has grown continuously over the years in Belarus: it was formerly referred to as the “assembly shop of the Soviet Union”. The products of Belarusian manufacturers are wellknown on the world markets: Minsk Tractor Works (has a 10% share of the world market of agricultural tractors), Belarusian Automobile Plant (holds one-third fraction in the world market of mining dump trucks), Minsk Automobile Plant, Minsk Wheel Tractor Plant, and others. To preserve their competitive position in the world markets, Belarusian machine manufacturing requires appropriate scientific support. In the Republic of Belarus this problem is being addressed specifically through programs supported by the Government.

V. Algin (*) Joint Institute of Mechanical Engineering, National Academy of Sciences of Belarus, (Member of IFToMM Technical Committee for Multibody Dynamics Chairman of Belarusian Committee of IFToMM) 12 Akademicheskaya Str., 220072 Minsk, Belarus e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected] M. Ceccarelli (ed.), Technology Developments: the Role of Mechanism and Machine Science and IFToMM, Mechanisms and Machine Science 1, DOI 10.1007/978-94-007-1300-0_19, © Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2011

235

236

V. Algin

The Scientific Infrastructure in the Field of Mechanism and Machine Science in Belarus The organizational structure of the Government supported programs is presented in Fig. 1. “Mechanics” is the State Program of Fundamental and Applied Research (SPFAR), “Engineering” is the State Scientific and Technical Program (SSTP), and “Automobile and Tractor-and-Harvester Production” is the State Complex Target Scientific and Technical Program (STSTP). SPFAR “Mechanics” is the scientific source of innovations for the SSTP “Engineering”, which designs and develops prototypes and pilot machines, guiding them up to the beginning of the manufacturing phase. Mass production of those machines is a responsibility of the STSTP. The Program “Mechanics” involves 73 organizations, including 10 institutions of the National Academy of Science of Belarus (NASB) and 13 universities. More than 30 enterprises in the Republic are working partners. The NASB [1] is a State Customer of the Program (the NASB is the primary organizer and coordinator of all scientific research included in the Program). The organizations leading the Program are the Joint Institute of Mechanical Engineering (Director General: Acad. Mikhail S. Vysotski) [2] and the V.A. Biely Metal-Polymer Research Institute (Director: Acad. Nikolai K. Myshkin) [3]. Acad. Mikhail S. Vysotski is the Scientific Program Supervisor. The results of the SPFAR “Mechanics” from 2009: 81 protection documents for objects of industrial property, including 32 patents for inventions, 2 patents for design, 47 useful model patents, 4 certificates of registration for software tools; 16 monographs; 4 textbooks and learning aids; 22 collected papers; 408 research papers, and so on. The results of investigations have been published in a wide variety of national and international scientific and technical journals. The leading national journals are: “Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of Belarus. Series of Physical-Engineering Sciences” [4], “Mechanics of Machines,

Fig. 1 System of state programs in Belarus

Role of MMS and IFToMM in Belarus

237

Mechanisms and Materials” [5], “Friction and Wear” [6]. Besides that, some universities publish series of journals (Heralds) dedicated to the problems of mechanical engineering [7, 8 and so on]. At the last 12th IFToMM World Congress (2007), Belarusian scientists presented papers from the following areas: Multibody dynamics [9], Reliability of machines and mechanisms [10], Gearing and transmissions [11], Terminology [12]. A number of international forums have been hosted in Belarus. The Joint Institute of Mechanical Engineering of NAS of Belarus is the coordinator and cocoordinator of several international scientific conferences, symposiums, seminars and meetings. Traditionally, the Institute holds international scientific and technical conferences in Mechanics – “Mechanics of Machines on the eve of the III Millennium” (2000) [13], “Mechanics of machines. Theory and Practice” (2003) [14], “Mechanics for Mechanical Engineering” (2005) [15], III Belarusian Congress of Theoretical and Applied Mechanics “Mechanics-2007” (2007) [16], IV Belarusian Congress of Theoretical and Applied Mechanics, “Mechanics-2009” (2009) [17]. Two international forums in the field of MMS will be hosted in Belarus this year (2010): the International scientific and technical conference “Innovation in Mechanical Engineering-2010”, joined with the International Symposium on Tribo-Fatigue ISTF 2010, Minsk, October 26–29 [18] and the XXIIIrd working meeting of the IFToMM Permanent Commission for Standardization of Terminology on MMS, June 20–26, 2010, Minsk-Gomel, Belarus [19].

Typical Trends and Research Results in the Field of MMM in Belarus Theory of Superlong Highway Multilink Trucks Means to increase the perspective cost-performance of highway trucks with the aid of modular principles in their design are shown [20]. The offered method of preliminary optimization allows us to ground the general-arrangement scheme and to make its optimizing. The mass and geometric parameters of a multilink truck when normal axial loadings to the road do not exceed the admissible normative values, but providing the desirable tracking characteristics and maneuverability for the truck, are founded [21]. The characteristics of curvilinear movement of the multilink truck are described, and the typical trajectories of curvilinear movement are mapped. A mathematical description of curvilinear movement and a computer model of the multilink truck in the MSC.ADAMS environment are given. The experimental results received by means of testing the multilink truck at the Republican automobile proving ground (Fig. 2) prove the efficacy of the computer model [22, 23]. The paper [23] received an Outstanding Paper Award at the FISITA 2010 World Automotive Congress.

238

V. Algin

Fig. 2 Model sample of the superlong highway multilink truck. Testing at the Republican automobile proving ground (Belarus, 2010)

Investigations in Modelling and Simulation of Mobile Machines and Their Unit as Multibody Systems (MBS) for Driving and Braking Modes The approach in [24–28] is based on the representation of a vehicle as a mechanical system including rotational, translational, rotational-translational dynamic constructs and coupling devices for the inertial parts of constructs. The proposed system of regular constructs allows a detailed vehicle schematization to solve various problems of dynamics within the chain “Mechanical Object (System) – Mechanical Model – Regular Dynamic Scheme – Mathematical Model”. Particular attention is given to the regular dynamic schemes formed from regular constructs, which formalize different devices having the same mathematical models. The corresponding mathematical models cover: (1) Algebraic equations to find the torques acting on the rigid components of a mechanical model, (2) Differential equations describing the dynamics of subsystems, which contain inertial, elastic (deformational) and dissipative parts, (3) Logical equations describing the states of clutches and brakes as well as the driving wheels/road interaction. Figure 3 displays the MBS wheel model proposed as a basic substantial sample with a reasonable degree of complexity. This pattern is suitable to reproduce the modes of elastic and non-elastic slipping of a wheel. In the method under consideration the dynamic equations are auto-created via dynamic schemas. The proposed method is especially useful for vehicles in early design stages and by a conceptual analysis when the general structure of an object is defined but there is no detailed information about the unit’s design [9, 24–28]. In addition, the approach is being developed with respect to braking modes of various vehicles. A Brake Assistant classification has been proposed, which covers existing and perspective directions of Brake Assistant development [28]. One direction

Role of MMS and IFToMM in Belarus

239

Fig. 3 Dynamic wheel scheme with brake system elements and unsprung mass subsystem

Fig. 4 Dynamic scheme of a vehicle power unit with mechanical gearbox and clutch

under investigation consists in using additional subsystems opportunities (in particular, transmission) to increase braking efficiency in critical situations. For example, the concept of a Brake-Transmission Master Assistance (BTMA) has been devised. The BTMA is based on the transmission gear switching “down”, which allows unloading of the basic brake system [28]. A dynamic scheme for braking processes simulation is represented in Fig. 4. Figure 5 shows the braking process simulation under ABS and BTMA operation. In the BTMA operation, this assistant system shifts gears, step by step, from the fifth till the first and after that transfers the engine to the brake mode by mean of this switching.

240

V. Algin

Fig. 5 Braking process under ABS and BTMA operation

Investigations in Advanced Vehicle Control Using Multibody Dynamics Methods and Software Up-to-date complex mechanical objects for mobile machine applications are becoming more and more embedded electronic systems. The most important cluster of these systems relates to integrated vehicle dynamics control. They make a substantial positive impact on performance, safety, and reliability. Within this area, activities of the national IFToMM committee cover challenges of vehicle dynamics control with special emphasis on problems of objective mechanical vehicle models and their subsequent application to the procedures of Model- and Hardware-in-the-Loop-Simulation. In particular, one crucial problem is predicting possible changes in the driving environment and sequentially devising a strategy for pre-emptive vehicle control. These issues are closely connected with the reliable estimation of tire-road friction parameters [29]. The performance of vehicle dynamics control can be substantially improved with better forecasting and monitoring functions for road conditions. Most modern systems use correlation dependencies obtained by preliminary tests of different tires on diverse road surfaces. Another approach is based on fuzzy set theory and corresponding fuzzy controllers allowing high accuracy by estimation of actual road conditions through identification algorithms [30]. The general structure of the Model- and Hardware-in-the-Loop (MIL/HIL) complex created for validation of this strategy is shown on Fig. 6. It has been developed at Ilmenau University of Technology (Germany), in cooperation with the Joint Institute of Mechanical Engineering. The proposed test rig concept has an important enhancement connected with direct embedding fuzzy logic procedures [29–33]. The research results given in [29–33] demonstrate that a good prerequisite for application of fuzzy methods in the analytical part of vehicle active safety systems

Role of MMS and IFToMM in Belarus

241

Fig. 6 Structure of MIL/HIL complex

information is adequate tyre/surface interaction parameters. These methods can then be used for various intelligent tasks: identification of road or soil conditions, monitoring of road surface state, as well as forecasting current road conditions via environmental parameters. One of the distinctive features of the proposed MIL/HIL complex is the integration of intelligent control methods on the basis of fuzzy logic for road friction estimation and determination of the necessary brake pressure for the control effort. These research works are also important for abstract science. The concepts of fuzzy and intelligent control cover more and more of the domain of state of the art technology, not only in engineering sciences. The prospective attempt to connect the foregoing area of knowledge with such an, at first glance, utilitarian system like ‘tyre – surface’ not only may result in new traffic techniques but also may be effective in adjoining fields of research. Such scientific and engineering solutions can help in overcoming two main problems of the present-day automotive active safety systems. Theoretical problem: The change-over from information processing post factum (i.e. tracing the kinematics and force parameters of vehicle motion) to the predictive and pre-extreme control. Practical problem: The regulation of sensor fusion processes, with the result that the system will make the most efficient use of the available informational area while the vehicle is being driven. The results of this research were awarded the CADLM Intelligent Optimal Design Prize 2010. The objective of this prestigious award is to promulgate advancement of intelligent multidisciplinary robust optimal design by disseminating knowledge of sciences and technologies among industries.

242

V. Algin

Investigations on Automobiles with Hybrid Power Units Nowadays, the questions of fuel economy and environmental concerns are becoming more and more critical issues that OEMs face daily. One of the ways to reduce the fuel consumption and CO2 emissions of a vehicle is to employ a hybrid power unit instead of a conventional internal combustion engine (ICE). The architecture of a hybrid drive train should be decided and characterized according to typical operational conditions and requirements. It was shown that, in the case of a middle-load truck, the optimal decision should be a two-shifted configuration of parallel hybrid drive train architecture which gives an optimal output characteristic of the hybrid power unit for low moving speeds, the most usual ones in urban environments, and allows recuperating a higher amount of energy during a braking phase [34]. A power flow management strategy for a hybrid power unit was investigated with the intention to enhance the overall performance of the hybrid drive train through a holistic optimization of the hybrid power unit elements (ICE, electromotor, battery, and gearbox) considering the overall improvement approach based on a criteria of fuel consumption and emissions minimization [35]. The strategy was consolidated to a hybrid power unit management system which comprises a developed algorithm with fuzzy logic controllers. The simulations of the middle-load truck going on the European urban drive cycle in MATLAB/Simulink environment (Fig. 7) demonstrate that the proposed management system yields a superior performance comparatively to the existing algorithms (take as a reference US 2007/0207892 A1 Method for operating a parallel hybrid drive train of a vehicle). The use of fuzzy logic gives an opportunity to filter biased input and output signals, thus improving the overall reliability and effectiveness of the management system. An accurate assessment of hybrid power unit output characteristics stands to be one of the most critical aspects for the estimation of longitudinal dynamics and fuel economy of a hybrid vehicle. A novel methodology for calculating the output characteristics of the hybrid power unit for full acceleration mode was developed. Significant differences were observed between the instances of charged and discharged battery [36]. Summing up, the research results contribute to a fundamental basis of successful implementation of the hybrid power units within the range of the vehicles produced by the Belarusian trucks and buses manufacturers.

The Theory and Calculations of Mobile Machines: Load Modes, Life-and-Functional Computation, Reliability Calculation, Life Expense of Machines and Their Units Classification of calculations in a system “Driver—vehicle—road — Mechatronics/ Adaptroniks — Driver assistants” is suggested [37]. The calculations are separated

Role of MMS and IFToMM in Belarus

243

Fig. 7 Computational model of a hybrid vehicle in MATLAB/Simulink

into three groups—“Life—and—functional calculations” (LFC), “SIL/HIL— technologies” (SHT), and “Virtual tests” with the focus on SHT and LFC. Multilevel calculations of loading modes (from elementary modes to the general operation conditions) and design lives corresponding to them are described. Design life approximators are entered as a new calculating tool for representation and formation of calculation results under various operational conditions. Fundamental issues of reliability specification and calculation for the mobile machine as a system are analyzed [37]. The paper [38] presents the problem of determination of vehicle load modes and lives of its units, taking into account a driving style and operation conditions. The background of methods for determination of vehicle load mode is analyzed, suggesting their classification. The calculating and statistical method that was developed covers typical operational conditions. The load mode component

244

V. Algin

connected with use of free traction is considered in detail. Load calculation in a system “engine—transmission—wheeled mover—vehicle mass” is based on a quasistatic two-mass model with an intermediate link simulating transmission. The concept of driving style from the point of using free traction and classification of driving styles by degree of free traction realization demonstrate the relationship between driving style and the lives of transmission parts [38]. The dependent behaviors of elements are the basic problem in calculating complex systems. The developed techniques [39] allow us to reproduce real connections with elements loadings and to avoid tending to zero for reliability in calculating systems with many loaded elements. The next important aspect in calculating units is the description and consideration of a complicated logic of their limiting states. The choice of lifetime test mode depends on the initial information about the object and its operation conditions. A method based on calculating extents of damages at several typical points of the loaded system has been presented [39]. The work introduces basic concepts for the life expense of the car [40] analyzing different approaches and methods for estimating the physical wear (life expense) of technical objects and presenting calculation examples using various techniques. A variety of treatments for physical wear (life expense) of technical objects is shown. A novel concept of the life expense for a car as a weightaverage value for the life expenses of its basic parts resulted in a nonlinear model of life expense determination for the basic part of the car depending on its run and age [40].

The Priority Directions of Fundamental and Applied Scientific Research for 2011–2015 Direction “Mechanical engineering. Systems and a set of agricultural machineries. Monitoring and diagnostics in mechanical engineering” consists of the following items: 1. Mechanics, reliability, safety and environmental sustainability of machines; friction and wear in machines; methods of calculation, simulation, design, engineering and testing machines, aggregates and units. 2. Operation processes of machines and mechanisms, mechanical, hydraulic, gas, and biomechanical systems; electronic control system for the units and aggregates of mobile machines. 3. Theory, methods for calculation and design of mechanical, hydraulic, electrical and combined transmission systems. 4. Mobile machines and systems of the machines and engineering tools for agricultural purposes. 5. Methods and means of nondestructive testing, technical diagnostics, monitoring and testing in production and operation of machines.

Role of MMS and IFToMM in Belarus

245

6. Equipment for the production of very large-scale integration (VLSI integration) new technological level and micromechanical systems, methods and means of control technology and parameters for semiconductor devices and integrated circuits. 7. Theory, models and methods for motor transport logistics.

Conclusion Mechanism and Machine science and the scientific community supporting it play key roles in the development of Mechanical Engineering in Belarus. Activity within IFToMM is an excellent foundation for international cooperation and promoting MMS in the World.

References 1. http://nasb.gov.by/eng/ 2. http://oim.by 3. http://mpri.org.by 4. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of Belarus. Series of Physical-Engineering Sciences, Presidium of the National Academy of Sciences of Belarus, Jan 1956, Belaruskaya Navuka, Minsk. ISSN 0002–3566. http://nasb.gov.by/eng/publications/vestift/index.php (2010) 5. Mechanics of machines, mechanisms and materials: International Scientific and Technical Journal. The Joint Institute of Mechanical Engineering of the National Academy of Sciences of Belarus, Oct 2007, Minsk. ISSN 1995–0470. http://oim.by/en/Journal_en (2010) 6. Friction and Wear: International Scientific Journal, Institute of Mechanics of Metal-Polymer Systems of the National Academy of Sciences of Belarus, Jan 1980, Gomel. ISSN 0202–4977. http://www.springerlink.com/content/120669/ (2010) 7. Vestnik BNTU: Scientific and technical. Journal, Belarusian National Technical University, Jan 2002, Minsk. ISSN 1683–0326. http://www.bntu.by/ru/scientwork/journals/ (2010) 8. Herald of PSU. Series C. Basic sciences, Polotsk State University, Novopolotsk. http://www. psu.by/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=4958:-q-q&catid=205:-new (2010) 9. Algin, V., Ivanov, V.: Kinematic and dynamic computation of vehicle transmission based on regular constructs. In: Proceedings of 12th IFToMM World Congress, Besancon (France), 18–21 June 2007, Paper 14, 6 pp. http://130.15.85.212/proceedings/proceedings_WorldCongress/ WorldCongress07/articles/article_cd.htm 10. Berestnev, O., Antonjuk, W.: The efficiency of dynamic stabilization of frictional disks nonflatness. In: Proceedings of 12th IFToMM World Congress, Besancon (France), 18–21 June 2007, Paper 601, 4 pp. http://130.15.85.212/proceedings/proceedings_WorldCongress/ WorldCongress07/articles/article_cd.htm 11. Starzhinsky, V, Ishin, N, Goman, A, Soliterman, Y.: Investigations of dynamics and vibroacoastic activity of gears with the nickel coating. In: Proceedings of 12th IFToMM World Congress, Besancon (France), 18–21 June 2007, Paper 86, 6 pp. http://130.15.85.212/ proceedings/proceedings_WorldCongress/WorldCongress07/articles/article_cd.htm 12. Raikhman, G., Starzhinsky, V., Bartov, M.: Terminology and classification of geometrical parameters of facial gears, their processing methods and modes. In: Proceedings of 12th

246

V. Algin

IFToMM World Congress, Besancon (France), 18–21 June 2007, Paper 153, 6 pp. http://130.15.85.212/proceedings/proceedings_WorldCongress/WorldCongress07/articles/ article_cd.htm 13. Mechanics of Machines on the eve of the III Millennium: Proceedings of the International Scientific Conference, Minsk, 23–24 Nov 2000, Editorial Board, M.S. Vysotski, Minsk, 504 pp. ISBN 985-6637-04-X (2001) 14. Mechanics of machines. Theory and practice: Proceedings of the International Scientific and Technical Conference, Minsk, 10–11 Feb 2003, Editorial Board, Y.M. Pleskachevsky, Minsk, 480 pp. ISBN 985-6637-07-4 (2004) 15. Mechanics for engineering: Proceedings of the International. Scientific and Technical Conference, Minsk, 25–27 Oct 2005, Editorial Board: M.S. ysotski, Minsk, 116 pp. ISBN 985-6637-14-7 (2005) 16. Mechanics-2007: Proceedings of the Belarusian III Congress of Theoretical and Applied Mechanics, Minsk, 16–18 Oct 2007, The Joint Institute of Mechanical Engineering of the National Academy of Sciences of Belarus, Editorial Board: M.S. Vysotski, Minsk, 416 pp. ISBN 978-985-6637-17-2. http://oim.by/ru/k_k?id=81 (2007) 17. Mechanics-2009: Proceedings of the IV Belarusian Congress of Theoretical and Applied Mechanics, Minsk, 22–24 Dec 2009, The Joint Institute of Mechanical Engineering of the National Academy of Sciences of Belarus, Editorial Board: M.S. Vysotski, Minsk, 512 pp. ISBN 978-985-6637-19-6. http://oim.by/ru/k_k?id=86 (2009) 18. http://oim.by/en/new_url_840954710 19. http://oim.by/en/IFToMM_1 20. Vysotski, M.S., Pozhitok, V.N., Kochetov, S.I., Kharytonchyk, S.V.: Modular principles realization for perspective highway trucks. Mech. Mach. Mech. Mater. 3(4), 5–8 (2008). (Paper in Russian. Summary in English). http://oim.by/en/Journal_en/2008/ 21. Vysotski, M.S., Kolesnikovich, A.N., Kochetov, S.I., Pozhitok, V.N., Kharytonchyk, S.V.: Preliminary optimization of general arrangement parameters for multilink trucks. Mech. Mach. Mech. Mater. 4(5), 6–11 (2008). (Paper in Russian. Summary in English). http://oim. by/en/Journal_en/2008/ 22. Vysotski, M.S., Kalesnikovich, A.N., Kochetov, S.I., Susha, S.A., Kharytonchyk, S.V.: Dynamics of a curvilinear motion of multilink cargo linehaul train: Computational and physical modeling. Mech. Mach. Mech. Mater. 4(9), 5–15 (2009). (Paper in Russian. Summary in English). http://oim.by/en/Journal_en/2009 23. Vysotski, M., Kalesnikovich, A., Kharytonchyk, S., Kochetov, S., Susha, S.: Multibody simulation of curvelinear dynamics while engineering superlong highway multilink trucks. In: Proceedings of the FISITA 2010 World Automotive Congress, May 30–June 4 2010, Budapest, Hungary, 10 pp. F2010B012 24. Vysotski, M.S., Algin, V.B.: Calculations of kinematics, dynamics and lifetime for multibody systems of mobile machines: the basic directions and future trends. Mech. Mach. Mech. Mater. 1(2), 17–23 (2008). (Paper in Russian. Summary in English). http://oim.by/en/ Journal_en/2008/ 25. Algin, V.B., Drabyshevskaya, O.V., Sorochan, V.M., Uspenski, A.A.: Schematization and dynamic analysis of mobile machine: variable-structure systems. Mech. Mach. Mech. Mater. 2(3), 16–24 (2008). (Paper in Russian. Summary in English). http://oim.by/en/Journal_en/2008/ 26. Algin, V., Ivanov, V.: Kinematic and dynamic computation of vehicle transmission based on regular constructs. In: Jean-Pierre, M., Marc, D. (eds.) Proceedings of 12th IFToMM World Congress, Besançon (France), 18–21 June 2007, Besançon, 6 pp., Paper A14 (2007) 27. Algin, V., Ivanov, V.: Application of regular rotational and translational constructs to vehicle dynamics problems. In: Brennan M.J. (ed.) Proceedings of the 7th European Conference on Structural Dynamics. Institute of Sound and Vibration Research, University of Southampton, Southampton, UK, 7–9 July 2008, 12 pp. 28. Algin, V., Tretsiak, D., Drobyshevskaya, O.: Investigations in advanced brake assistant systems. In: Proceedings of 12th EAEC European Automotive Congress, Bratislava, Slovak Republic, 29 June–01 July 2009, 14 pp.

Role of MMS and IFToMM in Belarus

247

29. Ivanov, V., Shyrokau, B.: Fuzzy architecture of safety-relevant vehicle systems. In: Proceedings of 4th International Workshop on Reliable Engineering Computing (REC 2010), Singapore, 3–5 March 2010, pp. 57–75 30. Ivanov, V., Shyrokau, B., Augsburg, K., Algin, V.: Fuzzy evaluation of tyre-surface interaction parameters. J. Terramech. 47(1), 113–130 (2010) 31. Ivanov, V., Shyrokau, B., Augsburg, K., Gramstat, S.: Advancement of vehicle dynamics control with monitoring the tire rolling environment. SAE 2010 World Congress, Jun 2010, 18 pp. 32. Ivanov, V., Shyrokau, B., Augsburg, K.: Model- and hardware-in-the-loop-simulation for problems of bus dynamics control. In: Proceedings of 12th EAEC European Automotive Congress, Bratislava, Slovak Republic, 11 pp. 33. Ivanov, V., Shyrokau, B., Augsburg, K.: Handling tyre parameters by uncertain conditions. In: Proceedings of 21st IAVSD Symposium on Dynamics of Vehicles on Roads and Tracks, Stockholm, Sweden, 2009, 20 pp. 34. Sabaleuski, A.K.: Improvements on longitudinal dynamics and fuel economy of the middleload hybrid truck. Master’s thesis, Specialization 1–37 80 01, “Transport”—BNTU, Minsk (in Russian) (2009) 35. Sabaleuski, A.K., Algin, V.B., Pirch, A.I.: Enhancement of the middle-load truck fuel economy by using a hybrid power unit and optimization of the control system. Mech. Mach. Mech. Mater. 4(9), 16–22 (2009). (Paper in Russian. Summary in English). http://oim.by/en/ Journal_en/2009/ 36. Pirch, A.I., Algin, V.B., Sabaleuski, A.K.: Determination of output characteristic for hybrid power unit of a vehicle. Mech. Mach. Mech. Mater. 3(4), 37–41 (2008). (Paper in Russian. Summary in English). http://oim.by/en/Journal_en/2009/ 37. Algin, V.B.: Calculation of mobile machines in variable operational environment. Mech. Mach. Mech. Mater. 1(6), 7–15 (2009). (Paper in Russian. Summary in English). http://oim. by/en/Journal_en/2009/ 38. Algin, V.B., Verbitski, A.V.: Determination of vehicle load modes and lives of its units taking into account a driving style and operation conditions. Mech. Mach. Mech. Mater. 1(10), 6–11 (2010). (Paper in Russian. Summary in English). http://oim.by/en/Journal_en/2010/ 39. Algin, V.B., Kim, H.-E.: Reliability and lifetime of mechanical units in operation and test. Key Eng. Mater. 326–328, 549–552 (2006) 40. Algin, V.B., Verbitski, A.V.: The life expense of the car. Part I: the basic concepts. Mech. Mach. Mech. Mater. 2(7), 17–21 (2009). (Paper in Russian. Summary in English). http://oim. by/en/Journal_en/2009/

The Role of ABCM in Engineering and Mechanical Sciences in Brazil and Its Relationship with IFToMM João Carlos Mendes Carvalho

Abstract This paper presents a historical record regarding ABCM – Brazilian Society of Engineering and Mechanical Sciences, its relationship with IFToMM and its important role in engineering and mechanical sciences in Brazil.

Introduction From the beginning of civilization, human beings have dreamed of transforming the environment in which they live for their pleasure and welfare. This has been done, often, with the design of machines to simplify life, promoting the concept that we call “progress” and “development”. Consequently, technological inventions, scientific findings and advances in all areas of science have been fundamental for the creation of new disciplines. Many philosophers and scientists have attempted to define the concept of “science” (a term whose origin is Scientia from the Latin and Scire from the Greek that means “to learn”, “to know”). Their conclusions, in general, are not sufficient to distinguish clearly scientific knowledge from other kinds of knowledge (such as popular knowledge – or vulgar; theological knowledge – or religious, etc.). However, it seems reasonable to say that science is a constantly evolving procedure with some well-defined goals: (a) formulating questions; (b) constructing problems and, (c) developing more effective forms (methodologies) of answering those questions and solving those problems. Regarding the different sub-divisions proposed by various authors to classify science, one will always find the mechanical sciences within the area of applied sciences. Thus, mechanical engineering is a member of a family of mechanical sciences.

J.C.M. Carvalho (*) School of Mechanical Engineering, Federal University of Uberlândia, Campus Santa Mônica, 38400-902 Uberlândia, Minas Gerais, Brazil e-mail: [email protected] M. Ceccarelli (ed.), Technology Developments: the Role of Mechanism and Machine Science and IFToMM, Mechanisms and Machine Science 1, DOI 10.1007/978-94-007-1300-0_20, © Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2011

249

250

J.C.M. Carvalho

In almost any environment of human life, one finds that numerous elements that compose this environment, directly or indirectly, were produced as a result of knowledge from mechanical engineering. For this reason it can be said that mechanical engineering is possibly the broadest and most diverse of all engineering areas. The entire field of mechanical engineering has become so wide that universities cannot cover it efficiently in a timely manner. The consequence is that mechanical engineering programs must be focused on specific emphases, since the complete area would not fit into any formal curriculum [1]. This diversity is reflected in the structure of professional associations that are focused on mechanical engineering, all of which have subdivisions through technical committees and, in some cases a formidable array of subcommittees. Due to the importance of this discipline, various associations have been founded around the world whose goal is the development of mechanical sciences, regardless of political divergence, ideological, racial and cultural differences among peoples. Proof of this was the conference organized by Theodore Von Karman and Tulio Levi-Cevita, in Innsbruck, Austria, 1922, entitled “1st World Conference on HydroAerodynamics”. Since then, many other conferences have been held successfully, as cited by Frota [2]. Interestingly, several associations were founded on the basis of these scientific meetings with decisive participation of interested people and idealists who share belief in the sum of joint efforts being a condition for social improvement and scientific development, as Plato had already stated in an inquisitive manner in The Republic: “Can be no greater evil than discord and disunity, that causes a city to be many instead of one? And it may be greater benefit than the bond of unity?” [2]. In this spirit of congregation, the IFToMM – The International Federation for the Theory of Mechanisms and Machines, in 1969, during the Second World Congress on Theory of Mechanisms and Machines, held in Zakopane, Poland, (IFToMM web site: http://130.15.85.212/indexa.html) was founded. In 1971 the process of founding ABCM – The Brazilian Society of Mechanical Sciences (Associação Brasileira de Ciências Mecânicas) began during the I National Symposium on Mechanical Engineering (I Simposio Nacional de Engenharia Mecânica), held in Florianópolis SC, Brazil, back in July 1971. After promoting other similar events and scientific meetings, ABCM was finally officially founded in April 1975, as a nonprofit scientific organization [6].

Historical Evolution on MMS in the ABCM Community As stated by Ceccarelli “in the last decades new fields of expertise and application have enlarged considerably the field of TMM (Theory of Machine and Mechanisms) by including other engineering aspects that involves not only mechanisms” [3]. In the year 2000 the name TMM was changed to MMS (Mechanism and Machine Science) (IFToMM web site: http://130.15.85.212/indexa.html).

The Role of ABCM in Engineering and Mechanical Sciences in Brazil

251

The new areas of engineering, together with the necessity of involving people from industry, motivated the ABCM community to rename the society by incorporating the word “engineering”, however keeping the ABCM logo unchanged. The new name is then Brazilian Society of Mechanical Sciences and Engineering (Associação Brasileira de Engenharia e Ciências Mecânicas). To establish this new name, a plebiscite was organized in July 2002. The new name was chosen to indicate that the Association has not only a scientific character, i.e., engineering applications are also welcome and should be incorporated into the various activities of the society. At the ABCM web site (www.abcm.org.br) [4] one can get the Statutes and other information about the society. The objective of ABCM is to join individuals, scientific institutions and industry, interested in contributing to the development of Mechanical Sciences and Engineering in order to: • Promote research and the exchange and diffusion of knowledge within the field of Mechanical Sciences and Engineering. The area of interest includes science and technology in Mechanical Engineering itself, and in the related areas of Mechatronics, Bioengineering, Civil, Electrical, Chemical, Naval, Nuclear, Aerospace, Petroleum, Materials Science, as well as applications of Physics and Mathematics, among others, as far as they interface with Mechanical Engineering. • Foster knowledge exchange among Universities, Research Institutes and Industry. Although most of its approximately 1,000 ABCM members come from academia, the Society is also committed to expand the technical interaction of University and Research Centers within Industry, especially with those sectors involved with relevant technology and innovation. • Promote knowledge exchange with other technical and scientific institutes and associations in Brazil and abroad. ABCM has signed agreements of cooperation with the main local and international societies in Mechanical Sciences and Engineering. These agreements allow members to participate in conferences, buy publications and participate in joint activities at reduced costs. ABCM is also the Brazilian representative Society for the major international organisms in its field. • Promote knowledge diffusion of Mechanical Sciences and Engineering through technical/scientific congresses, symposia, conferences, courses and meetings. For this aim, ABCM promotes a number of regular events, such as: COBEM – International Congress of Mechanical Engineering; ENCIT – Brazilian Congress of Thermal Sciences and Engineering; DINAME – International Symposium on Dynamic Problems of Mechanics; CONEM – National Congress of Mechanical Engineering; CREEM – National Congress of Mechanical Engineering Students; COBEF – Brazilian Meeting on Manufacturing Engineering, and EPTT – Spring School on Transition and Turbulence. • Promote the knowledge of Mechanical Sciences and Engineering by publishing textbooks, scientific journals, treatises and other means of communication. The following scientific journals are sponsored by ABCM: Journal of the Brazilian Society of Mechanical Sciences and Engineering – JBSMSE; and Thermal Engineering. There is another publication, ABCM Engenharia, which contains technical papers that are presented in a welcoming discursive manner, so that students and practitioner engineers may be motivated to get involved with the society.

252

J.C.M. Carvalho

ABCM is organized according to the following Technical Committees that support all activities related to Editorial work and organization of events of a specific technical area: Bioengineering; Thermal Sciences; Combustion and Environmental Engineering; Dynamics; Aerospace Engineering; Manufacturing Engineering; Offshore and Petroleum Engineering; Product Engineering; Nonlinear Phenomena; Fluids Mechanics; Fracture, Fatigue and Structural Integrity; Solid Mechanics; Mechatronics; Uncertainty Quantification and Stochastic Modeling; Refrigeration, Air Conditioning, Heating and Ventilation; Rheology and Non-Newtonian Fluids; and Technical Committee on Undergraduate and Graduate Education. The following Technical Committees will be organized: Materials Engineering; Micro-Systems Engineering; Computational Mechanics; Design and Mechanical System Optimization; Heat Mass Transfer. Besides the regular events, ABCM promotes several other conferences in cooperation with other societies. As examples, one can mention ECOS 2009 – 22nd International Conference on Efficiency, Cost, Optimization, Simulation and Environmental Impact of Energy System, and BOILING 2009 – 7th ECI International Conference on Boling Heat Transfer . There are two particularly significant meetings sponsored by ABCM: (a) COBEM – International Congress in Mechanical Engineering is the main scientific event in Mechanical Science and Engineering in Latin America, covering all areas of knowledge related to Mechanical Sciences and Engineering. This event is presently the former Symposium that gave birth to ABCM and its history. Table 1 shows the evolution of COBEM along the years and the number of published papers. (b) CREEM – National Congress of Mechanical Engineering Students, where undergraduate students present their works encompassing all different areas of mechanical engineering. This presents an opportunity to exchange views, opinions, and experiences on the various aspects of mechanical engineering and technology. Normally, invited lectures from academia and industry enrich the technical program of CREEM. It occurs on a yearly basis, since 1994 with an average of 300 registered participants and 200 published papers. In order to encourage personal participation, the organization of this meeting is under the responsibility of a number of students supervised by a professor (ABCM member) from the hosting university.

IFToMM and ABCM Relationships Although several members of ABCM participate in events organized by IFToMM, this participation over time has been very discrete. Only during the last 10 years, with the appointments of ABCM members to the various Technical Committees of IFToMM, has this participation increased; however growth has shown to be very slow and on a rate that is much below the enormous potential of ABM. The integration between members of the two societies (IFToMM and ABCM) is a challenge to be overcome to promote jointly the MMS. An interesting activity

The Role of ABCM in Engineering and Mechanical Sciences in Brazil Table 1 COBEM evolution Event Date COBEM 71 Nov 19–24, 1971 COBEM 73 Nov 5–7, 1973 COBEM 75 Dec 9–11, 1975 COBEM 77 Dec 12–14, 1977 COBEM 79 Dec 12–15, 1979 COBEM 81 Dec 15–18, 1981 COBEM 83 Dec 13–16, 1983 COBEM 85 Dec 10–13, 1985 COBEM 87 Dec 7–11, 1987 COBEM 89 Dec 5–8, 1989 COBEM 91 Dec 11–13, 1991 COBEM 93 Dec 7–10, 1993 COBEM 95 Dec 12–15, 1995 COBEM 97 Dec 8–12, 1997 COBEM 99 Nov 22–26, 1999 COBEM 2001 Nov 26–30, 2001 COBEM 2003 Nov 10–14, 2003 COBEM 2005 Nov 6–11, 2005 COBEM 2007 Nov 5–9, 2007 COBEM 2009 Nov 15–20, 2009

Venue Florianópolis – SC Rio de Janeiro – RJ Rio de Janeiro – RJ Florianópolis – SC Campinas – SP Rio de janeiro – RJ Uberlândia – MG S. José dos Campos – SP Florianópolis – SC Rio de janeiro – RJ São Paulo – SP Brasilia – DF Belo Horizonte – MG Bauru – SP Águas de Lindoia – SP Uberlândia – MG São Paulo – SP Ouro Preto – MG Brasilia – DF Gramado – RS

253

No. of published papers 12 85 106 133 169 162 197 239 443 350 401 521 631 744 1,024 856 800 1,238 1,196 1,278

deserving of encouragement consists in organizing together events under the auspices of IFToMM, such as the IFToMM Workshop on History of Machines and Mechanisms Science that was held during COBEM 2009, in Gramado RS. The relationship involving members of IFToMM Brazil is beginning to have other common interests not only with the ABCM community but also with other scientific societies in Brazil. An example is the event organized by ABM – Brazilian Association for Metallurgy, Materials and Mining, and IFToMM: First International Brazilian Conference on Tribology – TriboBr-2010 and ITS – 2nd International Tribology Symposium of IFToMM. Presently ABCM has representative members serving in the following IFToMM Permanent Commissions and Technical Committees: Education, History of Mechanisms and Machine Science, Mechatronics, Computational Kinematics, Multi-body Dynamics, Nonlinear Oscillations, Robotics, Rotordynamics, Tribology, and Micromachines.

Research, Development and Education on TMM The engineering and mechanical sciences in all times have presented new important challenges for the sciences, technology, and innovation. In our days the biggest challenge for engineers and scientists in this field is to contribute to solve urgent technological problems, improve life quality, and promote peace on Earth.

254

J.C.M. Carvalho

But if we analyze the technological and scientific evolution in the last 100 years, we note an increase of new products that would have been unthinkable 30 years ago or even less. Then, the immediate question should be: what do people need in the near future? It is not so simple to answer this question. Bevilacqua [5] succinctly explained our condition: “We are simultaneously observers and former users of objects displayed in a Science and Technology Museum”. Engineering schools and universities have a major responsibility to organize their educational curriculum so that citizens in the years to come will be able to take advantage of the velocity of technical development. In general terms, the challenge for the engineering curriculum is to prepare young engineers, simultaneously, in the following areas: physics, mathematics, computer sciences, environment and humanities. Special attention must be paid to the educational process; the curriculum should not be devoted to solving specific industrial problems nor to preparing the professional to be a simple user of existing technology. In the case of emerging economies, Brazil included, this is an important issue. The problem seems to be how to acquire the most relevant information about engineering over a limited time period. To cope with this difficulty the engineering curriculum has to consider cultural, national and institutional features. Howell [1] says that an engineering educational curriculum “may differ on the relative importance of strong fundamentals vs. innovation and problem solving; individual excellence vs. team interactions; preparation for academic vs. industrial careers; research vs. application; solution of “traditional” vs. open-ended problems; and others. The best curriculum for one institution or country may be very different from another, depending on the perceived relative importance of these factors”. Despite the necessity of taking into account the general needs of society and industry in the design of engineering curricula, specific problems of a given industry should not be decisive in this process. Young engineers must be molded in such a way that they will be capable of working in multidisciplinary disciplines, developing creative ideas and ready to face new complex and interdisciplinary problems. And teamwork will continue to be an increasing requirement of our engineering workplaces. ABCM plays an important role in both research and educational systems in Brazil. The Technical Committee on Undergraduate and Graduate Education organizes in various ABCM conferences a special symposium on engineering education where not only the curricula are discussed but also other aspects such as the interaction between academia and industry, teaching techniques, political directions to engineering education, etc. The role of mechanical sciences and engineering as related to the society is so important for the ABCM community that the following themes have been chosen for the past editions of COBEM: COBEM 2001: Engineering for a New Millennium; COBEM 2003: Engineering and Society; COBEM 2005: Integration Challenge; COBEM 2007: University and Enterprise: The Necessary Engineering; COBEM 2009: Engineering for the Future.

The Role of ABCM in Engineering and Mechanical Sciences in Brazil

255

Challenges and Expectations Based on the above comments, the challenges of mechanical sciences and engineering are strongly related to education programs, research and technical development in which IFToMM, ABCM and other scientific societies have an important role. We can list some of them: • Promote discussions about the curricula programs for mechanical engineering and correlated areas. • Increase the synergy between academia and industry. • Implement mechanisms in order to enable the actuation of interdisciplinary groups of engineers and scientists. • As scientific nonprofit organizations, financial resources to promote the activities of IFToMM, ABCM and other societies seem to be an important issue to be considered.

Conclusion The challenge of all scientific societies on mechanical sciences and engineering around the world are immense regarding education, scientific development, technology and innovation. However, the most significant objectives of the scientific societies, as presented in this contribution, require the enthusiastic participation of all the members of these societies. Acknowledgements I would like to thank Prof. Valder Steffen Jr for his valuable suggestions, and ABCM for providing most of the historical data used in the present contribution.

References 1. Howell, J.R.: The cloudy crystal ball and engineering education. 20th International Congress of Mechanical Engineering – COBEM 2009, Gramado (2009) 2. Frota, M.N.: ABCM: 20 Anos Promovendo e Desenvolvendo as Ciências Mecânicas no Brasil. Ed. INMETRO – National Institute of Metrology, Standardization and Industrial Quality, Rio de Janeiro, 25 pp. (In Portuguese) (1995) 3. Ceccarelli, M.: From TMM to MMS: a vision of IFToMM. Bull. IFToMM Newsl. 210(1). IFToMM web site: http://130.15.85.212/indexa.html (2001) 4. ABCM – Brazilian Society of Engineering and Mechanical Sciences. Site: www.abcm.org.br 5. Bevilacqua, L.: The university in times of cultural Shock. 20th International Congress of Mechanical Engineering – COBEM 2009, Gramado (2009) 6. Frota, M.N.: Associação Brasileira de Ciências Mecânicas: Memórias e Perspectivas. IX Brazilian Congress on Mechanical Engineering – COBEM 87, Florianópolis, pp. 67–87 (In Portuguese) (1987)

Contributions to the Promotion of Mechanism and Machine Science by the IFToMM Canadian Community (CCToMM) M.J.D. Hayes, R. Boudreau, J.A. Carretero, and R.P. Podhorodeski

Abstract The Canadian Committee for the Theory of Machines and Mechanisms (CCToMM) has been a committee member of the International Federation for the Promotion of Mechanism and Machine Science (IFToMM) for almost 40 years. This article summarizes CCToMM’s contributions to the promotion of mechanism and machine science both within Canada and internationally. Despite its mercurial beginnings, membership has grown to be stable, and has seen a steady growth in the past few years. CCToMM has organized its own successful technical symposium biennially since 2001, as well as a symposium within another forum. Prior to that, CCToMM sponsored annual theory of machines and mechanisms (TMM) symposia within other forums. Members of CCToMM regularly participate in IFToMM sponsored conferences. CCToMM also vigorously promotes student membership. An elected student representative sits on the Executive Council. CCToMM has thus fulfilled its mandate by being successful in promoting Canadian interest in, and the visibility of, mechanism and machine science.

M.J.D. Hayes (*) Department of Mechanical & Aerospace Engineering, Carleton University, 1125 Colonel By Drive, Ottawa, ON K1S 5B6, Canada e-mail: [email protected] R. Boudreau Université de Moncton, Moncton, NB E1A 3E9, Canada J.A. Carretero University of New Brunswick, New Brunswick E2L 4L5, Canada R.P. Podhorodeski University of Victoria, Victoria, BC V8N 1M5, Canada M. Ceccarelli (ed.), Technology Developments: the Role of Mechanism and Machine Science and IFToMM, Mechanisms and Machine Science 1, DOI 10.1007/978-94-007-1300-0_21, © Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2011

257

258

M.J.D. Hayes et al.

Fig. 1 CCToMM logo

Introduction The Canadian Committee for the Theory of Machines and Mechanisms (CCToMM) was formally recognized as a national committee member of the International Federation for the Theory of Machines and Mechanisms (IFToMM) at the Third World Congress on the Theory of Machines and Mechanisms, held in Dubrovnik in 1971. Since then, the acronym IFToMM has evolved to mean International Federation for the Promotion of Mechanism and Machine Science. CCToMM, as a national committee member of IFToMM, shares the objectives of the latter, namely, the promotion of research and development in the field of Machines and Mechanisms by theoretical and experimental methods, along with their practical applications [1]. CCToMM was incorporated as a non profit organization in 1993 and is identified with the logo shown in Fig. 1. The field of interest to CCToMM is very broad, including various subfields of special interest to IFToMM, namely: Computer-Aided Design Methods; Dynamics of Machine Systems; Gears and Power Transmissions; Robots and Manipulators; Mechatronics; Micromechanisms; Control of Robots and Manipulators, to name a few. CCToMM produces an annual Newsletter, which is intended as a channel of communication between the Executive Council (EC) and CCToMM members, in addition to serving as a forum for all those interested in the field. The Newsletter is electronically distributed to members and is made available on the CCToMM website. The main advantage of a CCToMM membership is networking, which is enabled through access to information on technical issues and, most important, through access to other persons with the same technical interests. Moreover, CCToMM is actively involved in organizing a technical symposium called the CCToMM Symposium on Mechanisms, Machines, and Mechatronics (also referred to as the CCToMM M³ Symposium). Since 1999, the CCToMM M³ Symposium has been held every year.

History Since its inception in 1971, CCToMM has grown to become an important part of the fabric of Canadian research in mechanisms and machine theory. CCToMM was founded by M.O.M. Osman, Professor of mechanical engineering at Concordia

Contributions to the Promotion of Mechanism and Machine Science by the IFToMM

259

University in Montreal. The committee was fully formed and operating on time for the ASME DETC 1976, which took place in Montreal, basically under the auspices of Concordia’s Department of Mechanical Engineering. CCToMM was initiated with great enthusiasm, but the committee was unsuccessful in gathering a Canadian critical mass to sustain it. Moreover, they never stressed the need for membership dues to be paid so CCToMM could in turn pay its annual IFToMM subscription fee. Indeed, although affiliated to IFToMM by 1979, when the WC took place in Montreal, CCToMM failed to pay its regular dues to IFToMM. CCToMM was nearly expelled from IFToMM in 1987 due to arrears in membership fees. Rather than cause its demise, this state of affairs motivated the EC and membership to take quick action and in relatively short time finances were sorted out. CCToMM finished paying off its arrears in 1996 and has been an organisation in good standing since. In the early 1990s membership in CCToMM quickly grew to the point where it reached steady state. For years, CCToMM had around 60 members but, due largely to active promotion, in the last few years this number has grown to 84, which represents an increase of 40%. Currently these 84 CCToMM members are from industry, academia and some provincial and federal government agencies. Although this may seem like a relatively small number, a deeper look into the Canadian university educational system may provide some insight. Consider that in Canada there are about 30 universities offering a fully accredited undergraduate degree in mechanical engineering. In Canada, the practice of engineering is highly regulated by provincial associations. To ensure the highest education and ethical standards are followed while training engineers, all engineering programs in Canada are required to have their curricula reviewed on a regular basis by the Canadian Engineering Accreditation Board (CEAB) which is a branch of Engineers Canada. Through this review, CEAB accredit engineering programs that provide the academic requirements necessary for licensure as a professional engineer in Canada [2]. Graduates from accredited engineering programs can register as engineers in training (or EIT), and following an apprenticeship period (normally of no less than 4 years) in which valid engineering experience is acquired, they can become fully registered with the professional association within their jurisdiction. A registered professional engineer is a fully licensed engineer allowed to practice the engineering profession in the province(s) in which they are registered. Approximately 25 of the universities with accredited mechanical engineering programs have graduate programs leading to Master’s and Ph.D. degrees. This means research in mechanisms and machines in general in Canada has a small population to draw upon. Maintaining a steady population of over 80 active members is a strong indication of the viability of the Theory of Machines and Mechanisms (TMM) in Canada. In turn, this indicates that CCToMM has consistently fulfilled its mandate. The vibrant Canadian Committee has proudly served the TMM community in both Canadian official languages. For example, presentations at CCToMM symposia are welcome in both the French and English languages. Moreover, the current EC is reflective of the cultural and linguistic diversity inherent to Canada. Indeed, it is also reflected in the succession of CCToMM Presidents:

260

• • • • •

M.J.D. Hayes et al.

Professor M.O.M. Osman (1971–1992), Concordia University; Professor Jorge Angeles (1992–1996), McGill University; Professor Louis Cloutier (1996–1999), Université Laval; Dr. Jean-Claude Piedboeuf (1999–2003), Canadian Space Agency; Professor Ronald Podhorodeski (since 2003) University of Victoria.

CCToMM and Its Relationship to IFToMM Canadian participation in IFToMM sponsored conferences has been quite strong in the past few years, particularly at the World Congress, Advances in Robot Kinematics (ARK), and RoManSy. For example, CCToMM members contributed 5%, or 23 full papers to the proceedings of the 12th World Congress in Besançon, France in 2007; and approximately 15% of papers in the proceedings of ARK 2008 in Batz-sur-Mer, France. Many CCToMM members actively participate in IFToMM committees. Professor Jorge Angeles, a Past-President of CCToMM, was President of IFToMM from 1996 to 1999. He is presently a Member of the Technical Committee (TC) for Computational Kinematics. Moreover, Professor Angeles is one of nine IFToMM Honorary Members. Professor Leila Notash, who had previously served as CCToMM’s Communications Officer, is presently Chair of the Permanent Commission for Communications, a Member of the TC for Robotics, and an observer on the TC for Computational Kinematics. Professor John McPhee, also a former CCToMM Communications Officer, is Secretary of the TC for MultiBody Dynamics. Professor József Kövecses is a Member of the TC for Nonlinear Oscillations. Professors Clément Gosselin and Marek Kujath are members of the TC for Computational Kinematics and of the Permanent Commission for Education, respectively, and are both members of the Permanent Commission for the History of Mechanism and Machine Science. Professor Gosselin additionally acts as an observer on the TCs for Gearing and for Linkages and Cams.

CCToMM Sponsored Events The Canadian Society for Mechanical Engineering (CSME) has existed since 1972. Curiously, CCToMM is 1 year older. The mission statement for CSME is to foster excellence in the practice of mechanical engineering for the benefit of Canada and the world, and to serve and support its members [3]. Hence, it is natural to expect a strong connection between the two organizations. Every 2 years since its inception, CSME sponsors a national forum to promote the communication and transfer of technology between mechanical engineering experts. At these forums, which are hosted by different universities across Canada, CCToMM has negotiated a symposium to be held as a parallel session during the forum. One of the difficulties

Contributions to the Promotion of Mechanism and Machine Science by the IFToMM

261

of holding each symposium was that negotiations concerning profit/loss sharing, paper submission and review management had to be conducted every 2 years with the local organizing committee. At the CSME Board of Directors meeting in October 2009, a memorandum of understanding between CSME and CCToMM was mutually agreed to, ratified, and accepted by both parties for future symposia. All papers submitted to the Symposium are peer reviewed by at least two referees. In addition to the symposia held within the CSME Forum, CCToMM began organizing its own biannual M³ (Mechanisms, Machines, and Mechatronics) symposia in alternating years (the odd-numbered years). In 1999 the first CCToMM M³ symposium was held as a stand-alone 1-day event, but has grown into an event requiring 2 days. For years, the symposia have underscored the strong connection between CCToMM and the Canadian Space Agency (CSA) whose headquarters are in Saint-Hubert, Quebec. The first five symposia were hosted by CSA, while the last one in 2009 was hosted by the Laboratoire de Robotique at the Université Laval in Sainte-Foy, Quebec (this is the laboratory directed by Professor Clément Gosselin). In addition to the technical presentations, invited speakers, generally from industry, present topics of general interest to the CCToMM community. The stand-alone CCToMM M³ symposia attracts well over 60 attendees and are now typically held over 2 days with serial (i.e., single track) presentations of typically 30 full-length papers. The proceedings are produced digitally and distributed to all attendees. More recently, the proceedings of the CCToMM M³ are placed in CCToMM’s website free of charge for the entire community to access. In an effort to highlight the high quality of a number of the works presented in the symposia, the CCToMM EC has established the practice of publishing selected papers from the symposia in a special edition of the Transactions of the Canadian Society for Mechanical Engineering [4], an archival journal dedicated to the broad field of mechanical engineering published quarterly by the CSME. In these cases, selected papers are subjected to a second rigorous review process managed by an EC member of CCToMM acting as invited editor for the special issue of the Transactions of the CSME. Until recently, the Transactions of the CSME were only produced in paper. Fortunately, since early 2009 the transactions from 2006 (Volume 30) on are available electronically to subscribers through the Transactions of the CSME website.

Technical Contributions The most exceptional scientific impact on the international TMM community by members of CCToMM has undoubtedly been made by Professors Jorge Angeles and Clément Gosselin. They have each gained an enviable reputation internationally for their valuable contributions. Professor Jorge Angeles is the founder and director of the Robot Mechanical Systems Laboratory within the Centre for Intelligent Machines at McGill University.

262

M.J.D. Hayes et al.

His research interests focus on design theory and methodology, besides the theoretical and computational aspects of multibody mechanical systems for purposes of design and control. Research achievements conceived by Professor Angeles have lead to a significant body of literature. Publications include five very famous and scientifically influential books on kinematics, synthesis and robotics. He has also authored or co authored more than 180 refereed technical papers in research journals, nearly 300 full-length papers in refereed conference proceedings, as well as numerous chapters in books, invited papers, and edited books, in addition to several patents. Many of the students graduated under Professor Angeles’ supervision have forged their own successful research careers and have also earned international renown. Perhaps the most well known of these is Professor Clément Gosselin. Professor Clément Gosselin has been a pioneer in many areas related to robotics, mechanism and machine design. More specifically, he has brokenground in areas related to parallel manipulator modelling, analysis, and design. He currently holds 7 patents, has nearly 150 journal publications and over 250 conference papers. He has co-authored 2 books and 4 book chapters, and, although it is hard to count the exact number of citations to his work, a quick assessment revealed well over 2000 of them. In fact, it is hard to find a paper on parallel manipulators that does not contain references to at least one of Prof. Gosselin’s works. Amongst his most recent and visible contributions is the design, together with his graduate students, of the end effector (i.e., hand) to be installed on the Space Station Remote Manipulator System (i.e., on Dexter, the extension of the Canadarm2). Still, there is much more to the strength of TMM in Canada. Independent research groups in universities, government agencies, and industry are spread across all ten provinces and three territories of Canada. Many of these groups have, and continue to yield scientifically influential work, and have produced many innovations in TMM. These groups continue to make important contributions in areas which include: parallel manipulator synthesis; actuation and kinematic redundancy; calibration of serial and parallel manipulators; geometrical methods for analysis and synthesis; parallel kinematic machines; and motion simulators, to name but a few.

CCToMM Website In December 1998 the CCToMM website was created by Leila Notash, the Communications Officer for CCToMM at the time. The original domain was redirected to a university server. However, in 2003 the EC voted to obtain a unique Canadian domain name. Hence the URL: www.cctomm.ca The website is frequently updated and CCToMM membership has access to important news and information. For example, there is a list of the EC positions and occupants, as well as a comprehensive membership list including contact information. In addition, the CCToMM Newsletter is posted and archived along with proceedings from CCToMM M³ symposia starting from 2001. Recently the website has been

Contributions to the Promotion of Mechanism and Machine Science by the IFToMM

263

enhanced to provide on-line membership applications, as well as on-line payment of annual membership dues.

Student Activities At the 1996 CCToMM Annual General Meeting (AGM), Professor John Hayes, who is now the Communications Officer, was appointed to found the first Student Chapter of CCToMM. At the time he was a Ph.D. candidate at McGill University in Montreal. Since that time student membership has steadily grown and there has been at least one EC student representative to promote CCToMM student membership and activities for students studying in fields of interest. Now several Canadian universities have CCToMM student chapters. Since the 2008 Annual General Meeting, CCToMM has allocated a budget to the student representatives towards the organisation of invited talks or seminars. Furthermore, CCToMM has considered the use of funds to create a prize, scholarship or bursary. In order to do this, the finances of CCToMM first need to guarantee the continuity of this prize. In 2009, the annual membership fee for regular members was raised from the historically low C$30.00 to C$50.00. Student membership dues remain at C$10.00.

The Future As mentioned previously, membership has grown and is now large enough to generate sufficient revenue to cover the organization’s expenses and to start promoting student activities. Membership and activities are at present mostly concentrated in a small number of universities. One of the challenges for CCToMM is to increase membership to include both faculty and students from all universities across Canada. The biannual CCToMM M3 Symposium has grown from a 1-day to a 2-day event. The vast majority of participants are from Canada. Efforts need to be made to increase international participation.

Conclusions Since its founding in 1971, CCToMM has been nurtured into a strong presence for the promotion of mechanism and machine science in Canada. The activities of CCToMM have steadily grown, in particular over the last decade. Strong working relationships have been forged with industry and with CSA and other Canadian government organizations. Membership had been steady but recent initiatives have led to a significant increase of 40%. Moreover, the financial status of the organiza-

264

M.J.D. Hayes et al.

tion is healthy. The annual CCToMM M3 Symposium is consistently very successful and attracts most Canadian researchers involved in mechanism and machine science. Calls for papers to M3 that are posted on www.cctomm.ca will hopefully attract the participation of more researchers from outside Canada in the future. CCToMM has continued to fulfil its mandate by being consistently successful in increasing the visibility of mechanism and machine science in Canada. CCToMM vigorously promotes student participation at the symposia and within the committee itself. Of equal importance, its members make significant contributions to research at the international level as well as to the administration and operation of IFToMM. Acknowledgments The authors wish to acknowledge the assistance of Professor Jorge Angeles for information pertaining to the early history of CCToMM.

References 1. IFToMM (n.d.): Constitutions and by-laws. http://130.15.85.212/indexa.html. Retrieved 3 May 2010 2. Engineers Canada (n.d.): Canadian Engineering Accreditation Board. http://www.engineerscanada. ca/e/pr_accreditation.cfm. Retrieved 3 May 2010 3. The Canadian Society for Mechanical Engineering (n.d.).: Mission statement. http://www. csme-scgm.ca/. Retrieved 3 May 2010 4. Transactions of the Canadian Society for Mechanical Engineering (n.d.): http://www.tcsme. org. Retrieved 20 May 2010

Some Recent Advances in Mechanisms and Robotics in China–Beijing Tian Huang

Abstract Mechanisms and robotics are two long-lasting and most popular areas in the community of mechanical science and engineering in China. On the basis of a brief review of the historical evolution of the fields and communities, this article reports some recent advances in mechanisms and robotics in China–Beijing, covering a wide range of topics closely in connection with theoretical developments and practical applications in terms of lower mobility parallel mechanisms, micro-robots and compliant mechanisms, metamorphic mechanisms, humanoid robots, dexterous hands, surgery robots, underwater vehicles and special service robots. The future challenges and trends in the fields are also addressed.

Historical Perspectives Mechanisms and machine science has a long history in China. This statement can even be traced back to 235 BC when the Southard Pointing Cart was invented by means of fundamental principles of gearing transmissions. Since 1978 when PR China opened its door to the world, it was seen that research activities in the field had bloomed thanks to substantial support from both governmental and nongovernmental bodies. This can be exemplified by the foundation of a number of technical committees closely related to mechanisms, transmissions and robotics in 1982 and 1986 under the umbrella of the Chinese Mechanical Engineering Society (CMES), the Chinese Automation Association (CAA), and in affiliation with the IFToMM organization in 1983. Also, “Intelligent Robots” has been supported since 1986 as a major research field by the National High-Tech Development Programme (“863” Programme). Mainly sponsored by the National Natural Science Foundation of

T. Huang (*) Department of Mechatronical Engineering, Tianjin University, Tianjin 300072, P.R. China e-mail: [email protected] M. Ceccarelli (ed.), Technology Developments: the Role of Mechanism and Machine Science and IFToMM, Mechanisms and Machine Science 1, DOI 10.1007/978-94-007-1300-0_22, © Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2011

265

266

T. Huang

China (NSFC), the Ministry of Science and Technology (MOST) and the Ministry of Education (MOE) amongst others, over 20,000 individuals from colleges, universities, technical institutes as well as industries are currently engaged in research on mechanisms and machine science in PR China, achieving an abundance of fruitful results in theoretical developments and industrial applications. In 1983 the RP China joined the IFToMM community and since then Chinese scholars have enthusiastically participated in many IFToMM activities via playing important roles in the Executive Council and Technical Committees, regularly attending IFToMM sponsored technical conferences, seminars and workshops, and hosting domestic and international conferences in mechanisms and machine sciences; the 11th IFToMM World Congress in 2004, and the International Conference on Mechanical Transmissions in 2006 are typical exemplars.

Achievements in Research In this section, some recent advances in mechanisms and robotics in RP China will be briefly reported, though many others cannot be included due to space limitation.

Lower Mobility Parallel Mechanisms Lower mobility parallel mechanisms having fewer than six degrees of freedom (DOF) have drawn continuous interest in industry and academia in PR China from fundamental theoretical research to industrial applications. Research in the theoretical development mainly focuses on mobility analysis, structural synthesis, and kinematic/dynamic modelling and optimal design. Prof. Huang with Yanshan University and Prof. Yang with Nanjing Jinling Petrochemical Corporation proposed respectively two general and unified mobility criteria [1–4] that indeed has brought a breakthrough with respect to concepts proposed by Chebychev, Grübler and Kutzbach amongst others, and thereby enable solution of an issue that has been open for over 150 years. Extensive and fruitful investigations by Chinese scholars on topology analysis and synthesis have been carried out, leading to proposal of several methods such as the constraint screw method [3], the characteristic matrix method [4], the geometric method [5], and the generalized function set (GF set) [6, 7]. It is claimed that amongst these methods the geometric approach based on vigorous mathematical ground for of lower mobility parallel mechanisms. Mainly drawing on linear algebra and screw theory, the team led by Prof. Huang with Tianjin University presented an approach for the formulation of the generalized Jacobian of the lower mobility serial/parallel kinematic chains [8]. It is claimed that this approach has a potential to enable kinematic, kinetostatic and dynamic modelling to be integrated into a unified framework. In addition, Prof. Gao with Shanghai Jiaotong University and Dr. Liu with Tsinghua University proposed several useful

Some Recent Advances in Mechanisms and Robotics in China–Beijing

267

performance indices [9–13] for the evaluation and optimization of payload capability, rigidity, and accuracy of parallel mechanisms using a geometric model for the determination of bounded solution space of the normalized link lengths. Strongly supported by Chinese governmental bodies and industries, great efforts have been made towards the promotion of parallel kinematic machines in a wide array of applications, pick-and-place operations, heavy duty manipulations and CNC machining, for example. Prof. Gao and his team with Shanghai Jiaotong University proposed a 6-DOF heavy-duty forging manipulator (see Fig. 1a) with elaborately designed redundant actuations. The team also designed a huge excavator (see Fig. 1b) using the properties of a parallelogram strut, allowing the payload capacity to be dramatically increased. Also, they proposed a novel servo press [14] using a redundant parallel planner mechanism (see Fig. 1c). These heavy-duty devices are being built by China’s No. 1 Heavy Machine Group and other machine tool builders. Having strongly linked with the machine tool sector in China, the team led by Prof. Wang with Tsinghua University has proposed a number of parallel kinematic devices for use as machine tools. Currently, a 5-axis gantry-like hybrid machine tool (see Fig. 2a) has been developed by Qiqihaer No. 2 Machine Tool Group Ltd. for machining large components of power generators, and two 3-DOF spindle heads (see Fig. 2b, c) with PPaS and PSP architectures have been developed respectively by Shanyang Machine Tool Group Ltd. and Qiqihaer No. 2 Machine Tool Group Ltd. to form a 5-axis high-speed manufacturing cell for machining large aluminium alloy components. In order to meet demands from the

Fig. 1 Heavy-duty machineries designed by Shanghai Jiaotong University, (a) a 6-DOF heavyduty forging manipulator; (b) a huge excavator, (c) a heavy-duty servo press

Fig. 2 PKMs designed by Tsinghua University; (a) a 5-DOF hybrid PKM (b) a 3-DOF spindle head with 3-PPaS architecture, (c) a 3-DOF spindle head with 3-PSP architecture

268

T. Huang

Fig. 3 Two and three DOF high-speed pick-and-place robots for (a) lithium battery sorting, (b) injection bag packaging, (c) beverage packaging

Fig. 4 5-DOF hybrid robots for (a) steel pipe flame cutting, (b) polymer mould making of network node of large steel structures

packaging industry, the team led by Prof. Huang, with Tianjin University has developed a series of high-speed pick-and-place parallel robots [15]. Currently, a number of such robots have been integrated into automated production lines for packaging and sorting of beverage bottles, injection bags and lithium ion batteries (see Fig. 3). Meanwhile, in collaboration with a robot manufacturer, the team developed a novel 5-DOF hybrid robot with large workspace/machine volume ratio [16]. Two robots have been used to form a work station (see Fig. 4) for flame cutting of large steel pipes and for mould making of network nodes in huge steel structures, Sunny Valley in 2010 Shanghai Expo and Guangzhou TV tower, for example. In addition to these successful applications, the team also developed a 3-DOF spindle head with RPS architecture for high-speed machining of large structural components (see Fig. 5) [39].

Micro Robots and Compliant Mechanisms Micro robots for manipulating small objects at micro-scale level play important roles in micro-system manufacturing, micro-medical, biomedical, optical lens

Some Recent Advances in Mechanisms and Robotics in China–Beijing

269

Fig. 5 A 3-DOF spindle head with 3-RPS architecture

Fig. 6 Compliant mechanisms and micro robots; (a) a 6-DOF micro Stewart platform with PZT drives, (b) a micro robotic system for MEMS assembly, (c) a 3-DOF compliant mechanism based micro-positioning stage

manufacturing, etc. Several micro-robotic systems have been developed in China in recent years. The teams with Nankai University, Beijing University of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Shenyang Institute of Automation of Chinese Academy of Sciences have built a number of micro-robotic systems for microinjection and batch transgenic injection of biological cells. In addition, the team led by Prof. Sun with Harbin Institute of Technology has developed a series of stages for precise positioning using ceramic-drives, a 6-DOF micro-parallel mechanism (see Fig. 6a) [17] and a compliant mechanism having large travelling range, for example. These devices have been used for optical adjustment and interstellar communication. Integrated with micro-vision, positioning stage and operating tools, the team has also developed a device for assembly of high-temperature MEMS pressure sensors and micro-accelerometers (see Fig. 6b) [18]. Compliant mechanisms with flexure hinges are particularly applicable to micromanipulation and precise positioning thanks to the high dynamics and friction/ backlash free design. The team led by Prof. Zhang with South China University of

270

T. Huang

Science and Technology has been working on the design and development of compliant mechanisms for many years. The particular research interests are placed on the system modelling using pseudo-rigid-body model (PRBM), and topology optimization by considering the geometrical nonlinearity [19, 20]. A 3-DOF parallel compliant mechanism (see Fig. 6c) for micro-positioning has been built as a test bed to verify the theoretical results.

Metamorphic Mechanisms The concept of metamorphic mechanism was firstly proposed by Dai and Jones in 1998 on the basis of decorative carton folds. This kind of mechanism enjoys the capability to change sequentially from one topological structure to another in accordance with various working requirements. This breakthrough idea is extremely useful in the development of reconfigurable robots. Initiated by Prof. Dai, a couple of teams from Beijing University of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Dalian University of Technology and Tianjin University are currently working together on the fundamentals of metamorphic mechanisms with particular interests in topological synthesis and reconfigurability analysis. They have proposed a theoretical package of compliant metamorphic mechanisms on the basis of biological principles, by which the type synthesis can be converted into the configuration synthesis associated with multiple stages. The current outcomes in this phase can be exemplified by the design of a vibratory bowl feeder with three spatial compliant legs, a metamorphic wheel-legged robot (See Fig. 7) [21], and an operating metamorphic mechanism for

Fig. 7 A novel metamorphic wheel-legged robot

Some Recent Advances in Mechanisms and Robotics in China–Beijing

271

Fig. 8 An operating metamorphic mechanism for a spacecraft hatch

a spacecraft hatch (see Fig. 8) [22]. The last two mechanisms were developed by Prof. Ding’s team with Beijing University of Aeronautics and Astronautics.

Humanoid Robot A humanoid robot is one having an overall appearance and functions like human beings. The team, led by Prof. Huang with Beijing Institute of Technology amongst other colleagues in China, has been carrying out an on-going and fruitful work in the field since 2000. The team has developed two generations of commercialized products, named BHR-1 in 2002, and BHR-2 in 2006 [23–25]. It is claimed that the robots are able to perform straight and sideways walking, stair stepping, and martial art playing. Also, the third generation, BHR-3 humanoid robot is being built for investigating autonomous capabilities. A number of humanoid robots have been used as demonstrators in the provincial and national museums of science and technology, and applauding responses have been received from the audiences. Figure 9 shows the roadmap of humanoid robots developed by the team since 2000.

Dexterous Hand and Prosthetic Hand A multisensory dexterous robot hand and a prosthetic hand are the representatives of mechatronics and biomechatronics, and have important values for theoretical study and practical application. The dexterous robot hand and prosthetic hand have

272

T. Huang

Fig. 9 Evolution of BHR humanoid robots in China

more degrees of freedom, more dexterity and perception ability, which play a key role for improving the level of robot operation and intelligence. Two teams led by Prof. Liu with Harbin Institute of Technology (HIT) and German Aerospace Centre (DLR) have jointly studied the multisensory dexterous robot hand and prosthetic hand [26–28]. HIT-DLR I 4-finger and HIT-DLR II 5-finger dexterous robot hand (see Fig. 10a, b), and its theory of control, grasp and teleoperation were successfully developed in 2004 and 2006. Currently, the team enjoys a leading position in the field of dexterous robot hands worldwide. From 2002 to 2009, four prototype models of a prosthetic hand and a multi-DOF prosthetic hand control system based on the signals of EMG, EEG and acoustics were established. Especially in the EMG control system, by using six surface EMG electrodes, 19 gesture patterns of the human hand can be recognized. This method is also effective for embedded EMG control of a prosthetic hand. Apart from HIT, the team led by Prof. Zhu with Shanghai Jiaotong University has made an extensive investigation into bio-signal processing and human-machine interfacing with applications to the development of biomechatronic devices. A variety of algorithms including SLEX evolutionary spectrum, recurrence plots and recurrence

Some Recent Advances in Mechanisms and Robotics in China–Beijing

273

Fig. 10 Dexterous robot hands, (a) HIT/DLR Hand I (b) HIT/DLR Hand II

Fig. 11 A prosthetic hand and handwriting recognition test

quantification analysis, high-order spectrum, and vectorized time series models, etc., are proposed for electromyography (EMG) feature extraction and hand motion recognition. Their results show that the performance of the EMG decoder is sensitive to the feature parameters that describe the non-stationarity, non-linearity, and spatial coherence of EMG signals. An EMG decoder is developed and embedded in the human-machine interface of an EMG-controlled prosthetic hand. It has been found that the EMG decoder can achieve average accuracy rates up to 98–99% for discrete hand motions, 96–98% for real-time recognition of sequential motions, and 80–90% for handwriting character recognition, respectively. In addition, a prototype of a five-fingered prosthetic hand with multi-degrees of freedom has been developed (see Fig. 11). The prosthetic hand, which has 15 revolute joints and actuated by four independent motors, is capable of manipulating objects similarly to the human hand.

274

T. Huang

Surgery Robots As early as 1995, a team led by Prof. Wang with Beijing University of Aeronautics and Astronautics started the research and clinical test of a frameless neurosurgery robot in China, an emerging technology in medical and health care business. The team has developed a remote-controlled neurosurgery robot (see Fig. 12a) [29] with positioning accuracy of 1 mm. Now, the robot has already qualified with a license for clinical use and more than 5,000 neurosurgery operations have been successfully completed with significant time reduction, including 177 remote-controlled ones. These achievements were reported by China Central Television (CCTV) and other news agencies in China and by Popular Science magazine in the USA. In addition, the team has developed orthopedic trauma (see Fig. 12b), spine surgery and vascular interventional surgery robots. The team led by Prof. Wang with

Fig. 12 Surgery robots developed in PR China (a) a remote-controlled neurosurgery robot, (b) a dual-plane orthopedic robot (c) a surgeon console (master manipulator and 3D image system) (d) a slave manipulator (e) a set of multiple DOF slim end-effectors

Some Recent Advances in Mechanisms and Robotics in China–Beijing

275

Tianjin University has also been engaged in this field for over 10 years. The team has developed a master-slave surgery robot system known as “Micro Hand A” [30]. Figure 12c shows the surgeon console that includes a 6-DOF master manipulator having the position and orientation decoupling and weight self-balancing capabilities, and a 3D vision system providing a clear image of the surgical field. Figure 12d shows the slave manipulator with three teleportation arms: the endoscope arm in the middle for controlling the stereoscopic laparoscope, and two instrument arms at each side for manipulating surgical instruments. Elaborately designed multi-DOF detachable end-effectors (see Fig. 12e) with slim finger tips have also been developed for clamping, suturing and knotting. It is claimed that the overall system can achieve a positioning repeatability of ±0.5 mm.

Underwater Vehicles Mainly based upon bio-inspired mechanics, the fish-like biomimetic underwater vehicle and bio-locomotion of an air-fluid striding vehicle (see Fig. 13a) have been developed by the team led by Prof. Wang with Beijing University of Aeronautics and Astronautics. The robotic fish was employed in the archaeological exploration and water quality monitoring of several large lakes in China, Tai lake for example. The “fly fish” developed in 2009 boasts the first vehicle that enables travel both under water and in air [31, 32]. Meanwhile, the team led by Prof. Wang with Tianjin University has developed a winged hybrid-driven underwater glider (see Fig. 13b) [33]. It is claimed that the vehicle is selfrechargeable by tide and temperature differences at different underwater levels. In the thrust mode the vehicle performs level flight with propeller propulsion and rudder steering, whereas in the glide mode it penetrates the water in a dolphin glide path directed by ballast trimming and internal mass displacement. The dual propulsion architecture allows the vehicle to manoeuvre in even wider circumstances.

Fig. 13 Underwater vehicles: (a) robotic fish, (b) winged hybrid driven glider

276

T. Huang

Fig. 14 Special service robots for: (a) explosive disposal, (b) high voltage transmission wire inspection and maintenance

Special Service Robots Special service robots for security, defence, maintenance, accident rescue and exploration, etc. are hot research topics in China in recent years. Supported by Shenyang Institute of Automation of the Chinese Academy of Sciences, a Chinese company developed a series of robots called “Smart lizards” (see Fig. 14a) with complex locomotion mechanism integrated with wheels, tracks and legs, having the capability of climbing stairs or slopes of 40°, traversing obstacles of 400 mm in height and 500 mm in width. The robots are also equipped with water-cannon, large mechanical grippers and an X-ray detector, as required by the police forces. The Institute of Automation of the Chinese Academy of Science has also developed a number of inspection robots with biomimetic tribrachiation, rotatable bi-brachiation and side-sliding bi-brachiation architectures for 110–220 kv power transmission wire maintenance (see Fig. 14b) [34–38]. The robot has the capability of crossing stock bridge amperes and suspension clamps by manual mode or semi-autonomous mode. It is reported that a number of such robots have been employed to render daily service for the State Grid and its local agencies.

Challenges and Trends in Mechanisms and Robotics Developments in China The National Natural Science Foundation of China (NSFC) is going to release a roadmap of mechanical science and engineering for the next 5 years. In the roadmap, five fundamental research topics in mechanisms are likely to be placed. 1. Topology and parameter integrated design of modern mechanisms with multiple DOF, including innovation of useful mechanisms, investigation into underlying relationships between topological structures and geometrical/physical parameters in terms of functionality and performances, exploration of novel and comprehensive performance indices for optimal design.

Some Recent Advances in Mechanisms and Robotics in China–Beijing

277

2. Design and development of mechanisms working in extremely severe environments in terms of payload, gravity, cleanliness, temperature, etc. for use in the aerospace industry, in heavy-duty, high-precision and high-speed machineries, as well as in medical and bio-manufacturing. 3. Design and development of micro and compliant mechanisms for super precision manipulations in semiconductor and optical industries. 4. Design and development of biomimetic mechanisms with high power density, high dexterity and high dynamics for military purposes. 5. Design and development of metamorphic mechanisms with reconfigurability and foldability in terms of size/volume and mobility. Apart from the fundamental research topics being released by the NSFC, it is definitely signalled that other funding bodies such as the Ministry of Science and Technology and Ministry of Industry Information will pay more attention to the development of competitive industrial robots, components and automated production lines for use in automotive, aircraft, nuclear power and logistic industries in order to meet the ever increasing demands from these sectors. Meanwhile, a certain amount of funds are most likely to be allocated to the development of service robots in aging/disabled/health care businesses amongst others.

Conclusions In recent years, Chinese scholars have played and will take more and more significant roles in the IFToMM community. They have produced an abundance of fruitful achievements in theoretical developments and industrial applications in the field of mechanisms and robotics. However, their remains plenty of room for improvement to enhance research qualities at an international level and to bridge the gap between the theoretical outcomes and a wide array of needs from industries, an ultimate goal we are pursuing. Acknowledgements The author would like to express appreciation to the colleagues who provided the valuable information included in this article. Alphabetically, they are: Prof. X.L. Ding, Beijing University of Aeronautics and Astronautics Prof. F. Gao, Shanghai Jiaotong University Prof. Q. Huang, Beijing Institute of Technology Prof. Z. Huang, Yanshan University Prof. Z.X. Li, Hong Kong University of Science and Technology Prof. H. Liu, Harbin Institute of Technology Dr. X.J. Liu, Tsinghua University Prof. L.N. Sun, Harbin Institute of Technology Prof. M. Tan, Institute of Automation, Chinese Academy of Science Prof. J.S. Wang, Tsinghua University Prof. T.M. Wang, Beijing University of Aeronautics and Astronautics Prof. S.X. Wang, Tianjin University Prof. T.L. Yang, Nanjing Jinling Petrochemical Corporation Prof. X. M. Zhang, South China University of Science and Technology Prof. X.Y. Zhu, Shanghai Jiaotong University.

278

T. Huang

References 1. Huang, Z., Li, Q.C.: Type synthesis of symmetrical lower-mobility parallel mechanisms using constraint-synthesis method. Int. J. Robot. Res. 22(1), 59–79 (2003) 2. Huang, Z., Liu, J.F., Zeng, D.X.: A general methodology for mobility analysis of mechanisms based on constraint screw theory. Sci. China E 52(5), 1337–1347 (2009) 3. Huang, Z., Zhao, Y.S., Zhao, T.S.: Advanced Spatial Mechanism. Higher Education Press, Beijing (2006) 4. Yang, T.L.: Topology Structure Design of Robot Mechanisms. China Machine Press, Beijing (2004) 5. Meng, J., Liu, G.F., Li, Z.X.: A geometric theory for analysis and synthesis of sub-6 DOF parallel manipulators. IEEE Trans. Robot. 23(4), 625–649 (2007) 6. Yu, F.G., Gao, F., Shi, Q.S.: Type synthesis for forging manipulators based on GF set. Chin. J. Mech. Eng. 44(2), 230–237 (2008) 7. Gao, F., Li, W.M., Zhao, X.C., et al.: New kinematic structures for 2-, 3-, 4-, and 5-DOF parallel manipulator designs. Mech. Mach. Theory 37(11), 1395–1411 (2003) 8. Huang, T., Liu, H.T., Chetwynd, D.G.: Generalized Jacobian analysis of lower mobility manipulators. Mech. Mach. Theory 46(6), 831–844 (2010) 9. Gao, F., Liu, X.J., Chen, X.: The relationships between the shapes of the workspaces and the link lengths of 3-DOF symmetrical planar parallel manipulators. Mech. Mach. Theory 36(2), 205–220 (2001) 10. Liu, X.J., Wang, Q.M., Wang, J.S.: Kinematics, dynamics and dimensional synthesis of a novel 2-DoF translational manipulator. J. Intell. Robot Syst. 41, 205–224 (2004) 11. Liu, X.J., Wang, J.S.: A new methodology for optimal kinematic design of parallel mechanisms. Mech. Mach. Theory 41(10), 1210–1224 (2007) 12. Liu, X.J., Wang, L.P., Xie, F.G., et al.: Design of a three-axis articulated tool head with parallel kinematics achieving desired motion/force transmission characteristics. ASME J. Manuf. Sci. Eng. 132(2), 021009-1-8 (2010) 13. Wu, C., Liu, X.J., Wang, L.P., et al.: Optimal design of spherical 5R parallel manipulators considering the motion/force transmissibility. ASME J. Mech. Des. 132(3), 031002-1–03100210 (2010) 14. Guo, W.Z., He, K., Du, Y.R.: A new type of controllable mechanical press: Motion control and experiment validation. ASME J. Manuf. Sci. Eng. 127(4), 731–742 (2005) 15. Huang, T., Li, M., Li, Z.X., Chetwynd, D.G.: Conceptual design and dimensional synthesis of a novel 2-DOF translational parallel robot for pick-and-place operations. ASME J. Mech. Des. 126(3), 449–455 (2004) 16. Liu, H.T., Huang, T., Mei, J.P., Zhao, X.M., Chetwynd, D.G.: Kinematic design of a 5-DOF hybrid robot with large workspace/limb stroke ratio. ASME J. Mech. Des. 129(5), 530–538 (2007) 17. Dong, W., Sun, L.N., Du, Z.J.: Design of a precision compliant parallel positioner driven by dual piezoelectric actuators. Sens. Actuator A Phys. 135(1), 250–256 (2007) 18. Chen, T., Chen, L.G., Sun, L.N., et al.: Design and fabrication of a four-arm-structure MEMS gripper. IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron. 56(4), 996–1004 (2009) 19. Wang, H., Zhang, X.M.: Input coupling analysis and optimal design of a 3-DOF compliant micro-positioning stage. Mech. Mach. Theory 42(4), 400–410 (2008) 20. Zhang, X.M., Hou, W.F.: Dynamic analysis of the precision compliant mechanisms considering thermal effect. Precis. Eng. 34(3), 592–606 (2010) 21. Ding, X.L., Yang, Y.: Investigation of reconfiguration theory based on an assembly-circles artefact. In: Proceedings of ASME/IEEE International Conference on Reconfigurable Mechanisms and Robots (ReMAR 2009), UK, pp. 448–455 (2009) 22. Wei, G., Ding, X.L., Dai, J.S.: Mobility and geometric analysis of the Hoberman switch-pitch ball and its variant. ASME J. Mech. Robot. 2(5), 031010 (2010) 23. Huang, Q., Yokoi, K., Kajita, S., et al.: Planning walking pattern for a Biped robot. IEEE Trans. Robot. Automation 17(3), 280–289 (2001)

Some Recent Advances in Mechanisms and Robotics in China–Beijing

279

24. Huang, Q., Nakamura, Y.: Sensory reflex control for humanoid walking. IEEE Trans. Robot. 21(5), 977–984 (2005) 25. Huang, Q., Yu, Z.G., Zhang, W.M., et al.: Design and similarity evaluation on humanoid motion based on human motion capture. Robotica 28(5), 737–745 (2010) 26. Li, J.W., Liu, H., Cai, H.G.: On computing three finger force-closure grasps of 2-D and 3-D objects. IEEE Trans. Robot. Automation 19(1), 155–161 (2003) 27. Liu, H., Meusel, P., Hirzinger, G., et al.: The modular multisensory DLR-HIT-Hand: hardware and software architecture. IEEE ASME Trans. Mechatron. 13(4), 461–469 (2008) 28. Liu, H., Meusel, P., Seitz, N., et al.: The modular multisensory DLR-HIT-Hand. Mech. Mach. Theory 42(5), 612–625 (2007) 29. Liu, D., Zhang, D.P., Wang, T.M.: Overview of the vascular interventional robot. Int. J. Med. Robot. 4, 289–294 (2008) 30. Li, J.M., Wang, S.X., Wang, X.F., He, C.: Optimization of a novel mechanism for a minimally invasive surgery robot. Int. J. Med. Rob. Comput. Assisted Surg. 6(1), 83–90 (2009) 31. Li, W., Wang, T.M., et al.: Fuzzy logic vorticity control of oscillating foil UUV. In: Proceedings of IEEE/RSJ International Conference on Intelligent Robots and Systems (IROS 2009), USA, pp. 1019–1024 (2009) 32. Wang, T.M., Li, W., Liang, J.H., et al.: Vorticity control of biomimetic robotic fish using flapping lunate tail based on St number. J. Bionic Eng. Accepted (2010) 33. Wu, J.G., Chen, C.Y., Wang, S.X.: Hydrodynamic effects of a shroud design for a hybriddriven underwater glider. Sea Technol. Accepted (2010) 34. Fu, S.Y., Liang, Z.Z., Hou, Z.G., et al.: Vision based navigation for power transmission line inspection robot. In: Proceedings of IEEE International Conference on Cognitive Informatics (ICCI 2008), USA, pp. 411–417 (2008) 35. Wang, L.D., Wang, H.G., Fang, L.J.: Obstacle-navigation control of power transmission lines inspection robot. In: Proceedings of IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Biomimetics (ROBIO 2007), China, vol. 2, pp. 706–711 (2007) 36. Wu, G.P., Xiao, X.H., Xiao, H., et al.: Motion planning of non-collision obstacles overcoming for hinge-voltage power transmission line inspection robot. Springer, pp. 1195–1205 (2008) 37. Cai, L., Liang, Z.Z., Hou, Z.G., et al.: Fuzzy control of the inspection robot for obstaclenegotiation. In: Proceedings of IEEE Conference on Networking, Sensing, and Control (ICNSC 2008), China, pp. 117–122 (2008) 38. Liang, Z.Z., Li, E., Tan, M.: Design and control for a tribrachiation mobile robot for the inspection of power transmission lines. In: Proceedings of International Conference on Instrumentation, Control and Information Technology(SICE 2005), Japan, pp. 504–509 (2005) 39. Li, Y.G., Liu, H.T., Zhao, X.M., Huang, T., Chetwynd, D.G.: Design of a 3-DOF PKM module for large structural component machining. Mech. Mach. Theory 45(6), 941–954 (2010)

Development of Mechanism, Machine Science and Technology in Taiwan Hong-Sen Yan, Zhang Hua Fong, Ying Chien Tsai, Cheng Kuo Sung, Jao Hwa Kuang, Chung Biau Tsay, Shyi Jeng Tsai, Dar Zen Chen, Tyng Liu, Jyh Jone Lee, and Shuo Hung Chang

Abstract We give a brief historical perspective of IFToMM China-Taipei activities in mechanism and machine science and its involvement in the IFToMM World Congress. The systematic generation of all possible mechanisms for required topological characteristics with design requirement and constraints was proposed by H. S. Yang in 1980 by the so-called “Methodology for the Conceptual Design of Mechanisms”. The gearing machines, such as CNC hobbing, shaving, grinding, and hypoid gear generator have been developed in Taiwan with aid of IFToMM China-Taipei community. For classification of

H.-S. Yan National Cheng Kung University, Tainan, Taiwan Z.H. Fong National Chung Cheng University, Chiayi, Taiwan Y.C. Tsai Cheng Shiu University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan C.K. Sung National Tsing Hua University, Hsinchu, Taiwan J.H. Kuang National Sun Yat-Sen University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan C.B. Tsay Minghsin University, Hsinchu, Taiwan S.J. Tsai National Central University, Jhongli, Taiwan D.Z. Chen, T. Liu, and J.J. Lee National Taiwan University, Taipei, Taiwan S.H. Chang (*) Department of Mechanical Engineering, National Taiwan University, 1, Sec. 4, Roosevelt Rd., Taipei, Taiwan e-mail: [email protected]

M. Ceccarelli (ed.), Technology Developments: the Role of Mechanism and Machine Science and IFToMM, Mechanisms and Machine Science 1, DOI 10.1007/978-94-007-1300-0_23, © Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2011

281

282

H.-S. Yan et al.

geared mechanisms, a methodology is developed using concept of kinematic fractionation. Finally the tendon drive mechanism and nanometer positioning mechanism are included.

A Historical Perspective As recorded by Prof. Hon Sen Yan (National Cheng Kung University), Taiwan joined the IFToMM as an organization member in Nov. 1983 at the 6th World Congress in New Delhi, India. At that time, the operation regarding mechanism and machine theory was conducted as an official committee under the Chinese Society of Mechanical Engineering, Taiwan. The Chairman of the committee was Prof. Chun Hung Chiang (National Taiwan University) and Deputy Chairman was Prof. Hong Sen Yan. With 6 years efforts after 1983, the Chinese Society of Mechanism and Machine Theory was formally born in March 24, 1990. The first chairman was Prof. Chun Hung Chiang and the succeeding chairs were Ying Chien Tsai, Chung Biau Tsay, Hong Sen Yan (two terms), Chung Kuo Sung, Jao Hwa Kuang, Dein Shaw, Shuo Hung Chang (two terms) and Zhang-Hua Fong (current), respectively. The society organizes all activities of the society which include an annual assembly meeting, academic conferences and publication of a bi-monthly magazine. The annual Taiwan academic conference publishes an average of over 100 technical papers. As an IFToMM organization member, Taiwan has actively participated in the IFToMM World Congress in 1979, 1983, 1987, 1991, 1995, 1999, and 2007. In the 2007 IFToMM World Congress, Besançon France, Taiwan contributed a total of 34 papers. To further prompt interaction between Taiwan and China, the Bi-annual Cross Strait Conference was first started in 2003 in Hu-Wei, Taiwan. Since then till now, the Cross Strait conference continues to be held alternately in China and Taiwan. To further prompt interaction within Asian communities, IFToMM has authorized Taiwan to organize the first Asian Conference on Mechanism and Machine Science in Oct. 21–25, 2010, Taipei, Taiwan.

A Glance at Achievements in Research The IFToMM China-Taipei has active members of over 100 university faculty members. It covers all aspects of mechanism and machine science. In the following, we only present a glance at development of mechanism and machine science in Taiwan, which covers conceptual design methodology, gear generator machines, geared mechanisms, tendon drive mechanisms and nanometer scale positioning mechanisms.

Development of Mechanism, Machine Science and Technology in Taiwan

283

Conceptual and Reconstruction Design of Mechanisms Dr. Hong-Sen Yan has since 1980 focused his research on “Methodology for the Conceptual Design of Mechanisms”, which studies systematic generation of all possible design concepts of mechanisms with required topological characteristics subject to design requirements and constraints [1–10]. Dr. Yan started this research on mechanisms with closed chains in 1980. He has over the years presented a complete study regarding generalization of mechanisms. He is a pioneer in kinematic number synthesis for applying and bridging the theory of graphs/hypergraphs to the kinematic chains of mechanisms. And, he derived original mathematical expressions for counting a number of specialized mechanisms based on combinatorial theory and Polya’s theory. Dr. Yan aimed in 1900 at the same purpose with respect to mechanisms with open chains, and had a major breakthrough in 1997, especially for applications in the configuration synthesis of automatic tool changers of machining centers. In 2000, he further focused on developing a design methodology for creating mechanisms with variable chains. In recent years, he provided original contributions on the representations and topological structures of variable joints of mechanisms and chains with variable topologies. Dr. Yan is the author of the book “Creative Design of Mechanical Devices” (Springer, 1998). Based on his “Methodology for the Conceptual Design of Mechanisms”, Dr. Yan has developed since 1990 a unique “Methodology for the Reconstruction Design of Lost Ancient Mechanisms” for systematically synthesizing the mechanisms of lost ancient machines. This methodology converges and transforms specific knowledge and divergent ideas obtained from the study of various ancient literatures into design specifications, structural characteristics and design constraints in modern mechanism design to generate complete atlases of generalized chains and specialized chains. Then, it applies the mechanical evolution and variation method to have all possible reconstruction design concepts that approximate the records of ancient literature and technological standards of the subjects’ time period. This methodology has been successfully applied for the reconstruction synthesis of the lost mechanisms of Zhang Heng’s seismoscope, Su Song’s waterwheel steelyard-clepsydra device, south pointing chariots, the odometer, and even Lu Ban’s walking horse carriage. And, Dr. Yan became the author of a unique book “Reconstruction Designs of Lost Ancient Chinese Machinery” published by Springer in 2007. Before new literature and/or hardware evidence is found, this approach provides a novel direction and a unique tool for studying the lost machinery in ancient China and around the world.

Gearing Technology In the past decades, the gear industry in Taiwan has relied on imported gear making machines from Europe, US, and Japan to produce qualified gears. However, the huge demand from an emerging Chinese vehicle market implies the need for cheaper and

284

H.-S. Yan et al.

Fig. 1 All direct-drive hypoid gear generator (Left) and form grinding machine developed in Taiwan with the aid of the IFToMM China-Taipei community (Right)

faster gear making machines. Professor Zhang-Hua Fong (National Chung-Cheng University) and professor Cheng-Kuo Sung (National Tsing-Hua University) helped Taiwan’s machine tool companies to build up a series of gear making machines including CNC gear hobbing, shaving, and grinding machine, Cartesian-type hypoid gear generator, single flank tester, and gear coordinate measuring center. These machines in Fig. 1 strengthen the competition of Taiwan gear makers by reducing their production costs and increasing their tooth profile crowning flexibilities. Professor Ying-Chien Tsai (Cheng-Shiu University) developed micro gear design and a fabrication method and these gears were used in the micro fluid pump and mini gear head. Professor Chung-Biau Tsay (Minghsin University of Science and Technology) developed innovative cylindrical gears with curvilinear shaped teeth generated by hobbing. Professor Jao-Hwa Kuang (National Sun Yat-Sen University) has been developing a novel gear train transmission mechanism to overcome the wind turbine speed fluctuation and provide a nearly constant speed input to the shaft of an electrical generator. Professor Shyi-Jeng Tsai (National Central University) developed a novel concept of approximate line contact and also a tooth profile modification methodology to enhance the surface durability of conical gear drives for power transmission. The research results are very suitable to apply for the gear transmission of wind power turbines. Prototypes of these wind power turbines are now under development and will be announced soon.

A Universal Face Hobbing Hypoid Gear Generator A universal hypoid generator mathematical model for face hobbing spiral bevel and hypoid gears has been developed using the theory of gearing and differential

Development of Mechanism, Machine Science and Technology in Taiwan

285

g eometry by Prof. Z. H. Fong [11]. The model can be used to analyze the existing face hobbing processes, such as Oerlikon’s Spiroflex© and Spirac© methods, Klingelnberg’s Cyclo-Palloid© cutting system, and Gleason’s face hobbing nongenerated and generated cutting systems. The proposed model is divided into three modules that include the cutter head, the imaginary generating gear, and the relative motion between the imaginary generating gear and the work gear. With such a modular arrangement, the model is suitable for development of object-oriented programming (OOP) code. In addition, it can be easily simplified to simulate face milling cutting and includes most existing flank modification features. A numerical example for simulation of the Klingelnberg Cyclo-Palloid© hypoid is developed which can be used as a basis for developing a universal cutting simulation OOP engine for both face milling and face hobbing spiral bevel and hypoid gears.

Classification of Geared Mechanisms Using Kinematic Fractionation Based on the concept of kinematic fractionation, Prof. D. Z. Chen developed a methodology for kinematic characteristics and classification of geared mechanisms [12]. Structurally non-fractionated geared mechanisms can be considered as the combination of kinematic units (KUs). Each KU is the basic motion transmission module inside a geared mechanism. Admissible connections of KUs are identified according to the structural characteristics of one- and two-degree-of-freedom geared mechanisms of up to four KUs. Graphs in the atlas of the geared mechanisms are classified based on the configurations of KUs. Such configurations are then used to construct possible propagation paths of motion via the assignments of input and output links. Since the propagation paths can be modeled by control block diagram problems, the kinematic relations between input and output links are formulated to gain matrices. According to the types of entities in a gain matrix, various kinematic behaviors are disclosed. It is believed that such kinematic characteristics can be readily transformed into functional requirements, and the synthesis of geared mechanisms of up to four KUs can be accomplished much easier.

Tendon Driven Mechanisms Several topics on the articulated type of tendon-driven robotic mechanisms have been studied by Prof. Jyh-Jone Lee. Dated back to the early 1990s, a systematic methodology for the kinematic analysis of tendon-driven robotic mechanisms was developed by Lee and the late professor Lung-Wen Tsai [13]. In early 2000, Lee and Lee [14, 15] further presented a systematic methodology for the dynamic analysis of tendon-driven robotic mechanisms. Those studies focus on formulation

286

H.-S. Yan et al.

of the mathematical equations that are applicable to the dynamic analysis of such mechanisms including rigid and compliant tendons. Compliance of tendons is an interesting but difficult issue in the research into tendon-driven manipulators. Prof. Lee [16] proposed a method for the kinematic and compliance analysis of tendon-driven robotic mechanisms with flexible tendons. The displacement of such mechanisms that take tendon compliance into account can be quickly determined from the kinematic structure. Dynamic characteristics such as resonant frequencies and mode shape can also be obtained through this approach. Synthesis of tendon-driven robotic mechanisms was also studied. In the early 1990s, a methodology for the structural synthesis of tendon-driven manipulators was proposed by Lee and Tsai [17]. Recently, a fast yet systematic means of determining the dimensions of tendon pulleys was presented by decomposing the kinematic structure into singular-value matrix form [18]. This work provides the designer with wider settings in determining the kinematic structures of tendon-driven manipulators. As to the platform type tendon-driven mechanisms, a unified approach for analyzing the kinematics and kinetics of these type mechanisms was developed by Dr. Y-L Lin and Prof. Tyng Liu [19]. Using the systematic approach, which includes the screw-based Jacobian, the static and dynamic equilibrium of wires and platform, and the singularity analysis, the displacement and tension and the posture of each wire can be easily expressed in an integrated screw representation, and the characteristics of tendon-driven parallel platform mechanisms, therefore, can be more efficiently identified. The dynamics and the control algorithm of the tendon drive mechanisms were also evaluated, and the motion planning strategy based on the position and velocity were proposed. This work provides designers with better understanding in determining the kinematic structure and kinetic parameters of tendon-driven platform mechanisms.

Parallel Compliant Nanometer Scale Positioning Mechanism A nano-positioning mechanism to displace its end effector in nanometer resolution has been developed by Prof. Shuo Hung Chang [20] who uses a 6-prismatic- sphericalspherical parallel (PSS) linked compliant mechanism. The drive power is delivered by six multilayered piezoelectric actuators (PZT). Compared with a traditional Gough-Stewart platform in which each actuator was installed between the end effector and the base, the presented nano-positioner installed the PZT directly on the base to achieve a much tighter mechanical loop, higher stiffness, faster response, and improved compactness. This nano-positioner consists of one fixed plate; three 2-PSS compliant mechanisms; and one end effector. The kinematics characteristics of the nano-positioner were analyzed through the pseudo-rigid-body model. The end effector is supported by six limbs which contain one prismatic joint (P) and two spherical joints (S). The prismatic joint provides relative translation motion and the spherical joint allows three relative rotation motions. Combining all these

Development of Mechanism, Machine Science and Technology in Taiwan

287

joints and links, the positioning mechanism synthesizes a six-degree-of-freedom mechanism. The attitude of the end effector is determined by the inclination angle of the six limbs which are controlled by six PZT actuators, respectively. The length of each limb is kept unchanged during the operation positioning. The top six spherical joins are three ternary spherical joints. The attitude of the end effector is determined by the spatial end positions of each limb. The relation between the input electric voltage{V j } , j = 1~6, and output displacements Dx, Dy, Dz, Dqx, Dqy, and Dqz of the end effector can be formulated using the 6 × 6 Jocobian matrix. The change of attitude or the displacements of the end effector can be calculated. Due to the smaller mechanical loop in this design, this nanopositioner has higher stiffness and faster response. The circular motion of the end effector can be synthesized by two 90° phase difference sinusoidal motion. We had demonstrated tracking a circle of 5 nm radius using the 15 × 15 × 5 cm3 positioner using a dual probe laser interferometer. The measurement results showed the nano-positioner achieved 8 mm travels with 5 nm resolutions, and 200 mrad rotation range with 0.7 mrad resolutions. The nanometer positioner can be used to manipulate, assemble and operate nanometer scale machines.

Conclusion The community of mechanism and machine science (MMS) in Taiwan has been a tight family since 1980s. The annual domestic conference in Taiwan has always been held with approximately 100 technical papers. We always actively contributed the IFToMM activities, such as the World Congress and many Technical Committees. The research scope reaches a wide range of MMS, from a general theoretical approach, mechanism synthesis, design and experimental studies. We have significantly contributed to Taiwan’s industries, such as gearing, automation and high precision machines. Acknowledgements Authors acknowledge the support of the National Science Council, Taiwan.

References 1. Yan, H.S.: Creative Design of Mechanical Devices. Springer, Singapore (1998). ISBN 9813083-57-3 2. Yan, H.S.: Reconstruction Designs of Lost Ancient Chinese Machinery. Springer, Netherlands (2007). ISBN 978-4020-6459-3 3. Harary, F., Yan, H.S.: Logical foundations of kinematic chains: graphs, lines graphs, and hypergraphs. ASME Trans. J. Mech. Des. 112(1), 79–83 (1990) 4. Yan, H.S., Hwang, Y.W.: The specialization of mechanisms. Mech. Mach. Theory 26(6), 541–551 (1991)

288

H.-S. Yan et al.

5. Yan, H.S.: A methodology for creative mechanism design. Mech. Mach. Theory 27(3), 235–242 (1992) 6. Chen, F.C., Yan, H.S.: A methodology for the configuration synthesis of machining centers with automatic tool changer. ASME Trans. J. Mech. Des. 121(3), 359–367 (1999) 7. Yan, H.S., Kuo, C.H.: Topological representation and characteristics of variable kinematic joints. ASME Trans. J. Mech. Des. 128(2), 384–391 (2006) 8. Yan, H.S., Kang, C.H.: Configuration synthesis of mechanisms with variable topologies. Mech. Mach. Theory 44, 896–911 (2009) 9. Yan, H.S., Chen, C.W.: A systematic approach for the structural synthesis of differential-type South Pointing Chariots. JSME Int. J. C 49(3), 1–10 (2006) 10. Yan, H.S., Hsiao, K.H.: Reconstruction design of the lost seismoscope of ancient China. Mech. Mach. Theory 42, 1601–1617 (2007) 11. Shih, Y.-P., Fong, Z.-H.: Mathematical model for a universal face hobbing gypoid gear generator. Trans. ASME J. Mech. Des. 129, 38–47 (2007) 12. Chen, D.-Z., Shieh, W.-B., Yeh, Y.-C.: Kinematic characteristics and classification of geared mechanism by the concept of kinematic fractionation. ASME J. Mech. Des. 130, 082602 (2008) 13. Tsai, L.W., Lee, J.J.: Kinematic analysis for tendon-driven manipulators using graph theory. ASME J. Mech. Transm. Automation Des. 111(1), 59–65 (1989) 14. Lee, J.J., Lee, Y.H.: Dynamic analysis of tendon-driven robotic mechanisms. J. Robot. Syst. 20(5), 229–238 (2003) 15. Lee, Y.H., Lee, J.J.: Modeling of the dynamics of tendon-driven robotic mechanisms with flexible tendons. Mech. Mach. Theory 38(12), 1431–1447 (2003) 16. Chang, S.L., Lee, J.J., Yen, H.C.: Kinematic and compliance analysis for tendon-driven robotic mechanisms with flexible tendons. Mech. Mach. Theory 40–6, 728–739 (2005) 17. Lee, J.J., Tsai, L.W.: Structural synthesis of tendon-driven manipulators having pseudo- triangular structure matrix. Int. J. Rob. Res. 10(3), 255–262 (1990) 18. Sheu, J.-B., Huang, J.-J., Lee, J.J.: Kinematic synthesis of tendon-driven robotic manipulators using singular value decomposition. Robotica 28(1), 1–10 (2010) 19. Lin, Y.-L., Liu, T.: A unified approach for the kinematic and force analysis of tendon-driven platform mechanisms. J. Appl. Mech. 20(3), 211–217 (2004) 20. Wu, T.L., Chen, J.H., Chang, S.H.: A six-DOF prismatic-spherical-spherical parallel compliant nanopositioner. IEEE Trans. Ultrason. Ferroelectr. Freq. Control 55(12), 2544–2551 (2008)

Czech Contribution to the Role of Mechanism and Machine Science and IFToMM Miroslav Václavík, Ladislav Půst, Jaromír Horáček, Jiří Mrázek, and Štefan Segľa

Abstract In the paper, the history of Czechoslovakia’s involvement (later that of the Czech and the Slovak Republics) in the IFToMM organization was depicted. Moreover, the contribution of the so-called “Czech School” MMS to the development of this science discipline is described. An important event in MMS is a regularly arranged conference about MMS at the Technical University of Liberec. That conference is very popular among specialists from MMS and has become an important place of meeting and exchange of experience. The history of the Slovak IFToMM National Committee is given. Further, the prospects of the branch in the Czech Republic were presented.

Introduction Czech scientists were active in IFToMM from its foundation. Czechoslovakia was among the countries that were represented at the Inaugural Assembly held on 27th September 1969 during the 2nd International Congress for the Theory of Machines and Mechanisms held in Zakopane. The preliminary membership of Czechoslovakia M. Václavík (*) Department of Applied Mechanics, Technical University of Liberec and VÚTS Liberec, Plc., Czech Republic and VÚTS, a.s., U Jezu 525/4, 461 19 Liberec 1, Czech Republic e-mail: [email protected] L. Půst and J. Horáček Institute of Thermomechanics, Czech Academy of Sciences, Prague, Czech Republic J. Mrázek Department of Textile Machine Design, Technical University of Liberec, Liberec 1, Czech Republic Š. Segľa Department of Applied Mechanics, Technical University of Liberec and VÚTS Liberec, Plc.,Czech Republic M. Ceccarelli (ed.), Technology Developments: the Role of Mechanism and Machine Science and IFToMM, Mechanisms and Machine Science 1, DOI 10.1007/978-94-007-1300-0_24, © Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2011

289

290

M. Václavík et al.

in IFToMM was then dealt with by the Czechoslovak Ministry of Foreign Affairs and the Czechoslovak Academy of Sciences and agreed so that IFToMM Czechoslovak National Committee was officially established on the IFToMM General Assembly in September 1971 in Dubrovnik-Kupari. The first chairman elected to the CS National Committee was Academician Jaroslav Kožešník, and secretary Prof. Vladimír Brát. The National Committee worked under the auspices of the Czechoslovak Society of Mechanics for its first 2 years and later belonged to the Czechoslovak Academy of Sciences and the seat of the Czechoslovak (from 1993 Czech) National Committee was designated to be the Institute of Thermomechanics ASCR in Prague, where still remains. Since the foundation of the CS National Committee, many of our scientists and technicians have participated in IFToMM scientific meetings, conferences and symposia and particularly they were active in the IFToMM Permanent Commissions and Technical Committees. Let us mention also the Commission for Standardization of Terminology, Constitution Commission, Technical Committees for Robots and Manipulators, Rotordynamics, Gearing, Linkages and Cams, etc. Nowadays, in all Committees there are active Czech members, sometimes they served as chairmen, e.g. Prof. M. Václavík was chairman of TC Linkages and Cams in years 1999–2006, Dr. L. Půst held the chairmanship of TC Nonlinear Oscillations in 1995–2003. In years 1988–1995, Dr. L. Půst was Secretary General of IFToMM during two terms. Prof. M. Václavík was elected as a member of Executive Council for years 2007–2011. Two Czech scientists, academician Jaroslav Kožešník and Prof. Aleš Tondl, were rewarded by “IFToMM Honorary Memberships” and Dr. Ladislav Půst by “IFToMM Dedicated Service Award” as appreciation of their professional activity in the field of mechanisms and machine theory and for essential contribution to this branch of sciences. In January 1993 Czechoslovakia split into two independent countries and also IFToMM Czechoslovak National Committee split into two independent Member Committees: Czech and Slovak. The first Chairman of the Czech Committee was Dr. Ladislav Půst up to year 1998, followed by Dr. František Peterka till 2004, and since 2005 by contemporary chairman Dr. Jaromír Horáček, who organized the increasing IFToMM activity in our country. Czech representatives are working in 15 of IFToMM Technical Committees, three national conferences on mechanics – Dynamics of Machines, Computational Mechanics and Engineering Mechanics are every year co-organized by Czech National Committee and in the period of 4 years, the International Conferences on the Theory of Machines and Mechanisms (the Xth Conf. was in 2008) were organized in Liberec TU. One of the main activities of the Czech National Committee was organizing of the Eighth World Congress on the Theory of Machines and Mechanisms connected with General Assembly and Executive Meeting in 1991 in Prague. Besides the large participation of Czech engineers and scientists in many IFToMM conferences in other countries and publications in IFToMM Proceedings let us mention the activity in the field of terminology: The list of terms in TMM

Czech Contribution to the Role of Mechanism and Machine Science and IFToMM

291

published in IFToMM journal Mechanism and Machine Theory in four main world languages was translated into Czech and is prepared for publication in the Czech Bulletin CSM and on the Web.

Achievements in Research and Education In the 1950s and 1960s, the MMS Czech School was established by Asst. Prof. J. Charvát at the College for Mechanical and Textile Engineering in Liberec and it was connected closely to the German MMS School (Prof. W. Lichtenheld). The school was engaged mainly in the geometric analysis and synthesis of linkages. This work was followed by the work of Dr. Z. Koloc and Prof. M. Václavík who elaborated the theory of cams and combined mechanisms. They published the results of their work in monograph [1]. On the authority of the Czech National Committee for the Theory of Machines and Mechanisms, the then College for Mechanical and Textile Engineering took charge of the task to organize an international conference on the theory of machines and mechanisms. The first conference took place in 1973 in a relatively small setting but with the participation of such prominent researchers in the theory of mechanisms as Prof. N.I. Manolescu, Prof. Dr.-Ing. habil. Kurt Luck, Prof. Karl Wolhart, Prof. Tatu Leinonen, and many others. Organization was taken over by the then Head of the Department of Engineering Mechanics Ass. Prof. Dr. Jaroslav Charvát, for the Czech National Committee for the Theory of Machines and Mechanisms by Dr. Ladislav Půst and their colleagues. The conference found early favor among scientists in the Soviet Union, Poland, German Democratic Republic, Bulgaria and Rumania, who were the main participants in the first five annual conferences. Organizers of conferences on the theory of machines and mechanisms aimed at presenting new scientific knowledge derived from experience with the processing industry and from textile engineering in particular. The papers from both conferences were subjected to reviews which were carried out by the members of the Steering Scientific Committee and other specialists from Central and Eastern Europe. In 2008, the 10th annual conference took place. During its existence, the conference has acquired a considerable popularity among the specialists from MMS and has become an important place for their meeting and exchanging experience of new findings from the field. The professional program of the conference consisted of a broad field of problems of both theoretical and applied character. Namely, it concerns the following problems: – Analysis and synthesis of planar and spatial mechanisms – Dynamics of rotors – Vibrations and noise of machines – Friction in mechanisms and machines – Cams and cam mechanisms – Mechatronics – Biomechanics – Micromechanics – Checking and controlling machine systems – Accuracy and reliability of machines and mechanisms – Mechanisms of machines for the textile and making-up industries – Industrial robots and manipulators – Up-to date education methods – Experimental systems.

292

M. Václavík et al.

Within the conference, accompanying activities were performed regularly. Scientific debates on the importance und application of the general theory of machines and mechanisms in technical branches and the development of textile engineering were discussed. Moreover, a number of excursions to research institutes and plants in Liberec were organized. Recently, collaboration with the National Committee was deepened. In the frame of the conference, regular sessions of the Czech National Committee for the Theory of Machines and Mechanisms and the Technical Committee Linkages and Cams sessions took place.

The Slovak IFToMM National Committee Chairmen of the Committee: 1993–2005 Dr. Vladimír Oravský, Institute of Materials and Machine Mechanics, Slovak Academy of Sciences, Bratislava 2005–2009 Ass. Prof. Štefan Segľa, Ph.D., Technical University in Liberec 2009–present Prof. Dr. Peter Šolek, Slovak University of Technology in Bratislava. The National Committee is currently represented in the following standing commissions: • Permanent Commission for the History of Mechanism and Machine Science (Dr. Štefan Havlík, Institute of Informatics, Slovak Academy of Sciences, Banská Bystrica) • Permanent Commission for the Standardization of Terminology (V. Oravský, Š. Segľa) and Technical Committees: • Technical Committee for Multi-body Dynamics (Š. Segľa) • Technical Committee for Computational Kinematics (Ass. Prof. Dr. František Palčák, Slovak University of Technology in Bratislava) Among the most important activities of the National Committee there are: • Management of the Sub-Commission for the Dynamics in the Standing Commission for the Standardization of Terminology (V. Oravský, Š. Segľa). Co-authorship in the Terminology Thesaurus for the Mechanisms and Machines published in special issues of IFToMM’s magazine Mechanism and Machine Theory in 1991 and 2003 and also in the electronic version of this Thesaurus (available in the web sites of IFToMM) • Organizing the 21st working meeting of the Standing Commission for the Standardization of Terminology in Bardějovské koupele, 27th June–2nd July 2005 Auspices under the organizing international conferences: 1 . Dynamics of Machines and Aggregates 2. Dynamics of Gear Drives

Czech Contribution to the Role of Mechanism and Machine Science and IFToMM

293

Trends in MMS Developments and IFFoMM Influence The contemporary research in the MMS field in the Czech Republic is focused on the following areas [2–6]: (a) Reducing the energy demand of machines and mechanisms.

The aim is to design machines with high-tech parameters at lower energy consumption.

(b) Lowering noise and vibrations. It is an important environmental aspect. (c) Applying new materials in machines and mechanisms. Here, it means a close collaboration with material engineering. (d) Applying mechatronics. This mainly concerns the use of directly controlled drives and the so-called electronic cam. A number of workplaces are involved in the dynamics of machines and mechanisms and the development of simulation and optimization methods. The research work is mainly focused on the sphere of machines for processing industry (i.e., glass-making machines, jewellery, packing, textile, food-processing, various single-purpose machines, such as assembly machines, further, working and shaping machines, transport systems). Several workplaces are involved in various fields of biomechanics. Considerable attention is paid to experimental mechanics and measuring. Research in MMS in the Czech Republic is carried out in faculties for mechanical engineering of colleges, institutes of the Academy of Sciences and in several research institutes. Education of MMS subjects is ensured at the departments of applied mechanics of five mechanical engineering faculties of colleges. The topics of their research are the following: • Mechanics and Mechatronics_ Computational and experimental mechanics, Kinematics and dynamics of multibody and mechanisms, Vibration of mechanical systems, Elastoacoustics, Control of mechanical systems, Controlled vibration suppression, Mechatronics, Adaptronics, Robotics, Machine tools, Redundant measurement and calibration of mechanisms, Parallel kinematical machines, Vehicle dynamics, Control of combustion engines, Knowledge based systems for engineering design • Biomechanics: Biomechanics of the musculoskeletal system, Clinical biomechanics, Joint replacements, Dental biomechanics, Biomechanics of the cardiovascular system, Properties of biomaterials, Biomedical image analysis, Nanobiomechanics. Most research and education workplaces have a close collaboration with industrial enterprises for which they investigate particular technical projects. Scientific

294

M. Václavík et al.

and research workers of those workplaces regularly report on the results of their work at national and international conferences inclusive of IFToMM world congresses.

Expectations and Critical Problems A critical problem is a lower interest of the younger generation in the study of technical specializations. The majority of the MMS National Committee members are of the older generation. It is necessary to find ways how stimulate the interest of students in technical branches and above all in studying MMS. In the future, we would like to be involved more in international collaboration in MMS within the European Union and IFToMM organization. It is necessary to use programmes for research and development support within the EU – 7th and 8th Framework Programmes and international collaboration programmes, such as EUREKA.

Conclusions In thi paper, the contribution of Czechoslovakia, and later that of the Czech Republic, to the IFToMM organization is given. The importance of regularly organized international conferences about MMS is pointed out (in 2008, the Xth annual meeting was already held). In addition, the main contemporary activities of Czech scientific and research workers in MMS are presented.

References 1. Koloc, Z., Václavík, M.: Cam Mechanisms. Elsevier, Amsterdam (1993) 2. Balda, M.: Optimum Balancing of Flexible Rotors. IFToMM 7th International Conference on Rotor Dynamics, pp. 1–10. Technische Universität Wien, Wien (2006). ISBN 3-200-00689-7 3. Peterka, F.: Vibro-impact systems. In: Braun, S., Ewins, D., Rao, S. (eds.) Encyclopedia of Vibration, pp. 1531–1548. Academic, London (2001). ISBN 0-12-227085-1 4. Peterka, F., Tondl, A.: Phenomena of subharmonic motions of oscillator with soft impact. Chaos Solitons Fractals 2004(19), 1283–1290 (2004) 5. Pust, L.: Weak and strong nonlinearities in magnetic bearings. Mech. Mach. Theor. 39, 779–795 (2004) 6. Pust, L., Peterka, F. (eds.): Proceedings of the 2nd European Nonlinear Oscillations Conference, vol. 1–3. CTU, Prague (1996). 972 pp. ISBN 80-85918-19-6

Role of MMS in the Development of Mechanical Engineering Research in Georgia Nodar Davitashvili

Abstract In this paper we discuss the influence of Mechanisms and Machines Science in the development of Mechanical Engineering in Georgia. The historical perspective of the beginning of MMS in Georgia and its affiliation as an IFToMM member country is outlined and we explore the scientific and educational progress of MMS research fields in Engineering Science. The development of novelties in MMS is described and the influence of IFToMM on scientific research in Georgia is acknowledged. We also indicate the critical problems of MMS development that Georgia will be addressing.

A Historical Perspective The Georgian school of MMS made its first contributions in the 1940s with works of Tavkhelidze [1, 2], in which the author considered questions of kinematic analysis [1] and synthesis [2] of four-bar spatial mechanisms. Since 1947 D.S. Tavkhelidze has held the chair of “Applied Mechanics and Machine Elements” of the Georgian Polytechnical Institute. Further Prof. Tavkhelidze created a chair of “Machine Elements” and renamed the basic chair “Theory of Machines and Mechanisms” which functions up to the present time. Under his direction, one chair was intensively devoted to methodical scientific work. He himself headed one specific scientific direction – “Research and Study of Spatial and Spherical Joint Mechanisms”. Methodical management of practical and laboratory researches, and collective tasks relating to courses and to examinations were developed. In 1950 the textbook “Theory of Mechanisms and Machines” in Georgian was published.

N. Davitashvili (*) Georgian Committee of IFToMM, Georgian Technical University, 77, M. Kostava str., 0175 Tbilisi, Georgia e-mail: [email protected] M. Ceccarelli (ed.), Technology Developments: the Role of Mechanism and Machine Science and IFToMM, Mechanisms and Machine Science 1, DOI 10.1007/978-94-007-1300-0_25, © Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2011

295

296

N. Davitashvili

MMS in Georgia began to develop more effectively and creatively after the founding of the “International Federation for Mechanisms and Machines” (IFToMM). Presentations of the problems of MMS during congresses of the IFToMM have strongly affected the development of this area in Georgia. More than 50 theses by candidates for a doctoral degree in different scientific directions of this science have been defended. A Georgian Committee of the IFToMM was established at the beginning of 1998. Based on the results of a Postal Ballot, the Georgian Committee was admitted as a member of the IFToMM at the EC Meeting on July 4, 1998, in Paris, France. The IFToMM General Assembly confirmed the result on June 23, 1999 at their meeting in Oulu, Finland. Thus Georgia became a member of IFToMM as an independent state. Since then, the influence of the IFToMM more effectively supported the development of MMS in Georgia.

Achievements in Research and Education To further the development of Machines and Mechanisms Science in Georgia and to exert its influence on Engineering Science, which constituency it represents, a significant step was made by the newly founded Georgian Committee of the IFToMM. On June 23, 2000, the Committee founded the scientific journal “Problems of Applied Mechanics” to be published in the Russian and English languages. The scientific directions of this new journal, besides addressing problems of MMS, includes general problems of Mechanics; Theory of Strength of Materials and Elasticity, Theory of Plasticity and Machine Elements; it connects with general problems of Mechanical Engineering, irrespective of the branch accessory and special-purpose designation of machines; Theory of Friction; Research on wear of components in machine units; Research on optimal engineering processes of machine production, etc. Formation and functioning of the journal was determined on the basis of consultations and instructions of Professor Terry Shoup. Thus on July 6–7, 2001, in Italy, by a decision of the IFToMM Executive Council, the journal “Problems of Applied Mechanics” achieved the status of an IFToMM journal. Consequently the president of the IFToMM, Kenneth J. Waldron wrote the following letter to the Editor-inChief of the journal (November 20, 2001) [3]. “Dear Professor Davitashvili: On behalf of the Executive Council of IFToMM, the International Federation for the Promotion of Mechanisms and Machines Science, and particularly the Chair of the Permanent Commission on Publications – Professor Vincenzo ParentiCastelli, I extend best wishes for the success of “Problems of Applied Mechanics”. We, the members of the Executive Council, are very excited by this new partnership, which gives us an opportunity to segment of the professional community in

Role of MMS in the Development of Mechanical Engineering Research in Georgia

297

mechanism and machines science to which we do not presently have good access. The interface between the Russian and English speaking technical communities has always been in important focus for IFToMM, and your journal provides us with a new way to address that interface that is needed because of the effects of changes in the political and economic landscape that have made some of our established activities less effective. We thank you, and your editorial board, for your interest in pursuing sponsorship by IFToMM. We trust that our partnership will also help to strengthen the regulation and subscription base of the journal, and provide you with access to high quality contributions from our community”. “Problems of Applied Mechanics” subsequently began to publish results of both Georgian and foreign researchers in MMS as well as in other branches of Mechanics. Thus by decision of the Executive Council (August 30–31, 2003, Chicago) the journal was renamed “Problems of Mechanics”. According to the Memorandum of Understanding among the journal’s publisher, the Editor-in-Chief and the IFToMM, “Problems of Mechanics” (December 22, 2008, Cassino, Italy) from the year 2009 is an official journal of the IFToMM. Researchers in Georgia have made considerable scientific achievements in all branches of MMS, Mechanical Engineering, Theory of Elasticity and in general Machinery. In this respect it is necessary to note the scientific works of N. Davitashvili in Mechanisms and Machines Science [4–10], in which are stated fundamentals of the theory of error and precession of joint-lever mechanisms [4], foundations of dynamic investigation of joint-lever mechanisms with regard for friction [5], dynamics of spatial mechanisms taking friction into account [6], bases of dynamic analysis of a lever system for the braking of railcars [7], kinematics and dynamics of the linkage mechanisms of sewing-machines [8], theory of hinged lever mechanisms with two degrees of freedom [9], dynamics of joint mechanisms with elastic links [10]. These works made a considerable contribution to a generation of young researchers in training and were influential in the presentation of ten PhD theses. Another considerable contribution to the training of a new scientific generation is the work of N. Davitashvili [11] “Georgian-English and English-Georgian dictionary of standard terminology for Mechanisms and Machines Science”. Some specific problems of Mechanisms and Machines Science are considered in the works of Gogilashvili [12] and Medzmariashvili, Gogilashvili and others [13] in which are described modeling of dynamics of performance with regular elasto-frictional units [12] and structure and kinematics of reflector’s transformed mechanical systems [13]. Dynamical modeling, research and new methods of modern machines and driving systems analysis and synthesis are given in the works of Mchedlishvili [14–17]. In the monograph [14] are given the scientific basics and applied tasks of the theory of synthesis of non-linear drive systems by given transients; in the work [15] are considered the dynamics and regulation of multi-links mechanisms; in the work [16] are given a mathematical modeling and dynamical synthesis of industrial robot drive systems; in the work [17] are considered some practical problems and technical solutions of protection of human-operators from vibration and noise.

298

N. Davitashvili

In the joint monograph [18] of G. Kipiani and B. Mikhailov are given calculation methods on deformity with the account of geometrical nonlinearity and stability of plates and lamellar spatial systems. In the works of Bardzimashvili, Chelidze [19, 20] and Bardzimashvili [21] are stated materials on perfection of the basic units of transport vehicles. In the work of Turmanidze and Dadone [22] research on airscrews of changeable geometry is given. Other works deal with the study of and basic research into real Machines and Mechanisms, applied in Mechanical Engineering, Instrument-making Industry, Agriculture, Shipbuilding, Aircraft Construction, etc., as well as in the technical objects – structures, robotic systems, construction site, hydraulic and transport engines, etc., MMS and accordingly – Machinery.

Trends in MMS Development and IFToMM Influence In the development of MMS, a considerable contribution has been made by Georgian scientists in mechanics, which in their wide researches have carried out the development and investigations of new generation manipulators and robots and control processes on the basis of modern microprocessor machinery. Other developments and investigations include: a device for cutting lubrication grooves on spherical surfaces; a device for processing lenses with a spherical surface; a device for processing details of spherical surfaces and others. The influence of MMS on Mechanical Engineering is considerably demonstrated in the development of practical problems of theory of friction and wear as well as in Machine dynamics, providing operational safety of railway and aviation transport, strength of materials and theory of elasticity, machine elements, and development of new methods of investigation.

Expectations and Critical Problems In Georgia, the influence of MMS and IFToMM on Mechanical Engineering during the last year, 2009, was considerably weakened due to the slackening of technical discipline training in the country, a decrease in educational syllabuses and financing and by quite insignificant participation of researchers in this field’s direction. A considerable problem is presented with respect to the training of a younger generation by the requirements that are nowadays connected with their everyday living problems. Working in the MMS branch, young scientists should have corresponding financing programs that will support education in modern technology requirements and preparation of highly skilled mechanical engineers in educational institutions.

Role of MMS in the Development of Mechanical Engineering Research in Georgia

299

We wish to express the hope that IFToMM and other institutions will make such plans, which would promote the continuation of MMS development in Georgia as well as in other member countries of IFToMM for whom this help is required.

Conclusion Considering the influence of MMS on Machinery development in Georgia, we may conclude that, despite some shortcoming in MMS, all fields of Machinery have carried out investigations and achieved some certain progress. The scientific journal of IFToMM “Problems of Mechanics” regularly issues articles by researchers of mechanical sciences, in which are considered practical problems of MMS and Machinery. The Georgian committee of IFToMM will maximally urge the IFToMM to promote extension and improved functioning of MMS.

References 1. Tavkhelidze, D.S.: Kinematical investigation of four-bar spatial mechanisms. Proceedings of the Georgian Industrial Institute, vol. 12, pp. 69–74. Tbilisi (In Russian) (1940) 2. Tavkhelidze, D.S.: For question of existing of crank and two cranks in spatial mechanisms. Trans. Workshop TMM Acad. Sci. USSR III(9), 5–17 (1947) 3. Waldron, J.K.: From the president of the IFToMM (20, November, 2001). Prob. Appl. Mech. Tbilisi 1(6), 9–10 (2002) 4. Davitashvili, N.: Fundamentals of Theory of Errors and Precision of Joint-Linkage Mechanisms, 266 p. Technical University, Tbilisi (1999). In Russian 5. Davitashvili, N.: Foundations of Dynamic Investigation of Joint-Lever Mechanisms with Regards for Friction, 352 p. Georgian Committee of IFToMM, Tbilisi (2002). In Russian 6. Davitashvili, N.: Dynamics of Spatial Mechanisms Taking Friction into Account, 236 p. Georgian Committee of IFToMM, Tbilisi (2003) 7. Davitashvili, N., Sharashenidze, G.: Bases of Dynamic Analysis of a Lever System for the Braking of Railcars, 264 p. Georgian Committee of IFToMM, Tbilisi (2004). In Russian 8. Davitashvili, N.: Kinematics and Dynamics of the Linkage Mechanisms of Sewing-Machines, 464 p. Georgian Committee of IFToMM, Tbilisi (2007). In Russian 9. Davitashvili, N.: Theory of Hinged Lever Mechanisms with Two Degrees of Freedom, 372 p. Georgian Committee of IFToMM, Tbilisi (2009). In Russian 10. Davitashvili, N.: Dynamics of Joint Mechanisms with Elastic Links, 680 p. Georgian Committee of IFToMM, Tbilisi (2010). In Russian 11. Davitashvili, N.: Georgian-English and English-Georgian Dictionary of Standard Terminology for Mechanisms and Machines Science, 300 p. Georgian Committee of IFToMM, Tbilisi (2008). In Russian 12. Gogilashvili, V.: Modeling of dynamics of performance with regular elastofrictional units. Prob. Appl. Mech. Tbilisi 1, 32–41 (2000). In Russian 13. Medzmariashvili, E., Gogilashvili, V., et al.: Structure and kinematics of reflector’s transformed mechanical systems. Prob. Mech. Tbilisi 2(32), 23–33 (2008) 14. Mchedlishvili, T.: Scientific Fundamentals and Applications of Theory of Synthesis of Actuator Systems by Given Transients, 272 p. Technical University, Tbilisi (2008). In Russian

300

N. Davitashvili

15. Mchedlishvil, T. et al.: Dynamics and adjustment of actuator systems with multi-link mechanisms. Georgian Committee of IFToMM, 268 p. Tbilisi (2009) (In Russian) 16. Mchedlishvili, T. et al.: Mathematical modeling and dynamical synthesis of industrial robot’s actuator systems. Technical University, 250 p. Tbilisi (2008) (In Russian) 17. Mchedlishvili, T. et al.: Some actual problems and technical solutions for operator’s protection from vibration and noise. Georgian Committee of IFToMM, 270 p. Tbilisi (2009) (In Russian) 18. Mikhailov, B.K., Kipiani, G.O.: The Spatial Lamellar Systems with Discontinuous Parameters Deformity and Stability, 442 p. Stroyizdat SPB, St. Petersburg (1995). In Russian 19. Bardzimashvili, N., Chelidze, G.: About maneuverability of transport vehicles with biaxial wheeled chassis. Trans. Georgian Tech. Univ. 1(429), 116–119 (2000) 20. Bardzimashvili, N., Chelidze, G.: Maneuverability of motor vehicle chassis. J. Transport Mech. Eng. 1, 174–179 (2009). In Russian 21. Bardzimashvili, N.: Balanced piston internal combustion engine with increased resource. Trans. Georgian Tech. Univ. 4(462), 72–74 (2006). In Russian 22. Turmanidze, R., Dadone, L.: Variable Geometry Propellers, 166 p. Technical University, Tbilisi (2003). In Russian

The Role of MMS (Mechanism and Machine Science) and IFToMM in Greece Thomas G. Chondros

Abstract Based on the results of a postal ballot among the Chairs of the International Federation for the Theory of Machines and Mechanisms (IFToMM) members in 1999, Greece was accepted for membership by the National Member Committee. With addition of this new membership, IFToMM had 45 members all over the world. The late Professor A. Dimarogonas (1938–2000) had advocated for the establishment of a Greek Section of IFToMM since the 1980s. The historical evolution of the Greek committee of the Greek Section of IFToMM and its influence on the structure of the courses of Machine Design, Synthesis of Mechanisms and the History of Technology in the Mechanical Engineering Department is presented here. The contribution of IFToMM to the development of Engineering Design and the Theory of Machines in Greece is also described.

Introduction On February 17, 1998 Professor Tatu Leinonen, the Secretary General of the International Federation for the Theory of Machines and Mechanisms (IFToMM) in a letter to the author reported the approval of the Federation for the candidacy of Greece for becoming a member. Based on the results of a postal ballot among the Chairs of IFToMM members, the acceptation of the National Member Committee was admitted in 1999. After this new membership, IFToMM had 45 members all over the world [1]. Since then, Greece belongs to the IFToMM and the author was appointed from the local National committee as the National Representative. The members of the first local National Committee were Prof. A.D. Dimarogonas, Prof. S.A. Paipetis, Prof. G. Massouros, Prof. P. Drakatos, Assistant Professors: S.D. Panteliou, N. Anifantis, C. Papadopoulos, A. Dentsoras, T. Chondros, Assoc. T.G. Chondros (*) Mechanical Engineering and Aeronautics Department, School of Engineering, University of Patras, Patras 265 00, Greece e-mail: [email protected] M. Ceccarelli (ed.), Technology Developments: the Role of Mechanism and Machine Science and IFToMM, Mechanisms and Machine Science 1, DOI 10.1007/978-94-007-1300-0_26, © Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2011

301

302

T.G. Chondros

Professor N. Aspragathos (most of them Professors today), the professional Engineers: R. Xarchakou member of the Steering Committee of the Technical Chamber of Greece, T. Pafelias, practicing mechanical engineer formerly in GE, and A. Ekonomou technical director of the Greek Industrial Reconstruction Organization. The motivation for the establishment of the IFToMM Greek committee was due to the late Professor A. Dimarogonas (Fig. 1) since 1975. Andrew D. Dimarogonas (1938–2000) [2] was widely recognized as a distinguished authority in various specialities of mechanical engineering. He made important contributions to the science of mechanical design and vibrations. His last appointment was as W. Palm Professor of Mechanical Design and the Director of the Manufacturing Program in the School of Engineering and Applied Science at Washington University, St. Louis, MO. His books on computer-aided machine design [3] and computer programs for mechanical engineers [4] won him international acclaim as a leading expert in the field of mechanical design. His books in 1976, 1992 and 1996 on Vibration Engineering [5–7] and in 1983 on Rotor Dynamics [8] study the behaviour of cracked structural members and rotating machinery. In his books on design he introduces systematically computer-aided methods in design and integrates strength of materials with the kinematics and the dynamics of machines and mechanisms.

Fig.Â€1â•… Professor Andrew D. Dimarogonas (1938–2000)

The Role of MMS (Mechanism and Machine Science) and IFToMM in Greece

303

Andrew D. Dimarogonas worked in Greek Industry and the Public Power Corporation (PPC) of Greece as a distribution network design engineer, 1962–1967, and was a lecturer at the National Technical University in Athens (NUT). By the C and IZ decrees of the military junta he was dismissed in 1967 from the PPC and the NUT together with many other democrats-faculty members or government employees- as dangerous to the “social establishment” of the dictatorship. He then decided to immigrate to the United States in 1967 and worked for the Turbine Department of the General Electric Company as design engineer and later was promoted to technical leader of dynamics and technical leader mechanical development of the Large Steam Turbine Division, Schenectady, New York, 1967–1974. He was a consultant in the manufacturing sector since then, dealing with such diverse products as balancing machinery, automotive fuel pumps, intelligent equipment design and non-destructive testing, industrial automation, engine rotor dynamics and the development of a 500-t railroad car. In parallel, he was a graduate student at the Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute (RPI) (1968–1970), was awarded a Ph.D. in Mechanical Engineering (ME) in 1970 and was appointed adjunct assistant professor of ME there (1970–1972). In 1972, he was appointed Associate Professor of Mechanical Engineering at Lehigh University, Bethlehem, Pennsylvania. In 1974, the junta in Greece fell and he was reinstated to the NUT and PPC retroactively. He was then elected Chaired Professor of Machine Design at the University of Patras in Greece and, subsequently was elected by the faculty as Director, Design Division, Chairman ME, and Dean, School of Engineering at the UP (1974–1983). He also served as national trustee of the Greek Council of Peace, member of the governing board of the Technical Chamber of Greece and chairman of the Mechanical Engineering Accreditation Board. During his career, a strong interest in history continually manifested itself in chapters of various books, technical papers, lectures, and a particularly notable twovolume History of Engineering (published in Greek) [9]. In his book Vibration for Engineers, [7] his historical sketches of great engineers and scientists include those of Pythagoras, Galileo, Newton, Euler, Gauss, Lagrange, Laplace, Hertz, Stodola, and Timoshenko. As an engineer-historian, Professor Dimarogonas scrutinized many major scientific libraries in the United States and Europe for source material. He documented that the fundamental axioms of design were discovered during the middle of the last century in Europe and traced the origin of vibration theory to Archimedes and others of that period by unearthing obscure documents in continental libraries. He brought to light certain important historical developments in the field of dynamics and vibrations that were either glossed over or not fully understood. Andrew D. Dimarogonas received the 1999 ASME Engineer-Historian Award for his many works on integrating the history of mechanical engineering. His historical research often challenges current claims on innovation today [10, 11]. Greek academic members of IFToMM commissions are: Prof. Constantinos Mavroidis, Department of Mechanical, Industrial and Manufacturing Engineering, Northeastern University, also a member of the USA national committee, Prof. Evangelos Papadopoulos, Dept. of Mechanical Engineering, National Technical

304

T.G. Chondros

University of Athens, and T. G. Chondros, Department of Mechanical Engineering and Aeronautics, University of Patras, members of the IFToMM Permanent Commission for History of MMS (Mechanism and Machine Science). The author is the national representative of the Transportation Machinery technical committee, serving also as IFToMM Greek Section national representative. The historical evolution of the Greek committee of the Greek Section of IFToMM and its influence on the structure of the courses of Machine Design, Machines and Mechanisms Theory, Synthesis of Mechanisms, and the History of Technology will be presented here, through the evolution of the Mechanical Engineering and Aeronautics Department of the University of Patras.

Achievements in Research and Education Prof. Dimarogonas was the founder of the Design and Manufacturing Section of the Mechanical Engineering Department of the University of Patras. He taught a variety of courses to both the newly founded in 1972 Mechanical Engineering Department and the Civil Engineering Department. Courses taught include among others: Strength of Materials, Machine Design, Machine Elements, Numerical Methods for Engineers, Vibration for Engineers, Analysis and Synthesis of Mechanisms, Heat Transfer, and the History of Engineering. He decided to develop the Design Laboratory involving students attending his courses. Thus, third-grade students of the Mechanical Engineering Department in 1974–1975 designed and built models of machines and mechanisms under the supervision of Prof Dimarogonas that are still in operation as laboratory devices for teaching and demonstration purposes, as well as for research. Some other devices were built by post-graduate students in the frame of their PhD theses. The Design Laboratory is equipped with a large number of mechanisms models and laboratory equipment including a full set of planar mechanisms, cams, gears, robotic arms, solar panels orientation mechanisms, automatic and pneumatic control devices. A lay-out of an automotive drive-train consisting of a 1970 1,000 cc OPEL petrol engine with a 4-shift gearbox, a drive axle with a differential and brakes in operation. A Watt-governor provided stable engine revolution through a linkage connected with the throttle. Two opposing gearboxes with the primary and secondary axles connected in series were used to calculate friction losses under full load. A torque was introduced in the series connected axles of the gearboxes simulating full load. A 10 kW electric motor was used to drive the gearboxes while the power consumed was recorded and the temperature rise of the lubricating oil was measured. The principle of operation of the device was used in shipyards in Japan in the 1970s for the evaluation of the efficiency of the propellers speed reducers. A wear-friction machine incorporated two HANOMAG 2 t trucks gearboxes connected in series for constant speed ratios in the rotating disk, while the friction force for the specimens was achieved through a pair of compressed air actuators used in bus-automatic-doors mechanisms. Sophisticated devices were developed

The Role of MMS (Mechanism and Machine Science) and IFToMM in Greece

305

for the study of bearings wear and lubrication operating at different loading, and temperature and lubrication conditions. A brake-power measuring device, incorporating a Mercedes 122 80 kW dieselengine with a 4-shift gearbox, and a rotating disk revolving into a sealed cylinder containing water, and restricted from revolution with a weight balance, was used for power and torque measurements. An apparatus for the evaluation of speed and oil characteristics on pressure distribution for a model of a Mitchell bearing used in ship propellers-axles applications was used extensively both for demonstration and research. A 12 t 322 Mercedes truck differential was used to support and drive the vertical axis of a heavy solar panel for automatic orientation. A Savonius-type wind-mill driving a 5 kW electric generator was in operation for many years. Again, a light Opel-Blitz truck differential was used as a speed increaser and vertical axis bearing. Models of machines and mechanisms of historical importance were designed and constructed by students. Ancient machines models and mechanisms models are exhibited in the Design Laboratory. A digital library of graduate theses concerned with the design of mechanisms models also exist. In the 1980s, Professors A. Mavromatis and S. Katsaitis were elected to the Chairs of Machine Theory and Machines and Mechanisms, and the teaching of Machine Theory and Machines and Mechanisms was separated from the Design and Manufacturing Chair. Professors A. Mavrommatis and S. Katsaitis were formerly professors in the USSR and the DDR respectively. They adopted teaching procedures and methods of analysis that were familiar among the academics of the USSR and the DDR. The courses related to the analysis and synthesis of machines and mechanisms, and the design of machines were based on analytical and graphical methods. Courses assignments for the analysis and the synthesis of mechanisms were a prerequisite for the students to pass the exams. In 1990 professors A. Mavrommatis and S. Katsaitis retired and the author was elected as an Assistant Professor at the Department, and was appointed to the Laboratory of Machine Theory, and the teaching of the courses 24324 Kinematics of Machines and Mechanisms, and 24411 Dynamics of Machines and Mechanisms. A two-volume book Kinematic and Dynamic Analysis of Machines and Mechanisms (in Greek) was published from the author in 1991. Apart from the analytical methods and graphical methods, numerical methods were incorporated for the analysis and simulation of planar mechanisms. A wealth of mechanism configurations were analyzed and simulated with the aid of a computer-aided algorithm written in Quick-Basic 7.0 that was developed by the author in 1992. Additional reading for the students includes many books available in the University Library [5, 9, 12–16]. Textbooks from Mir Publishers, textbooks in Russian translated in English, gave the opportunity to the students of the Department to have access to important series of books in Design, Machine Theory and Kinematics, Strength of Materials and Vibration, Elasticity Theory, and Computational Methods in Engineering [12–24]. The series of Prof. Artobolevski books [16] in mechanisms were of great help for students to design and prepare their homework assignments for the synthesis of mechanisms.

306

T.G. Chondros

During the last 10 years, after a proposal by Prof I. Ardelean, from IFToMM Romania, there has been an effort to establish a network of academics involved in the subjects of IFToMM. In Greece a network of Professors from all over the country has been established with the participation of the following academics: Professors Mrs. S. Mitsi, K. Bouzakis, S. Natsiavas, A. Michaelides, K. Eustathiou, and J. Tsiafis from the Aristotelian University in Salonica, Mechanical Engineering Department; Professors N. Aravas and K. Papademetriou from Thessaly University in Volos, Mechanical Engineering Department; Professors K. Spentzas, E. Papadopoulos, D. Manolakos, C. Provatides, A. Michaelides, J. Antoniades and T. Kostopoulos from the National Technical University, Athens, Mechanical Engineering Department. In the frame of IFToMM and the various PCs, a correspondence among academics in Greece and abroad is facilitated. It appears that the influence of IFToMM may be useful in the development of the structure of educational programs as well as for a better orientation of research activities among IFToMM members. The structure of a series of courses related with the IFToMM activities will be presented here, mainly as a basis for discussion, and the beginning of a correspondence among academics of different Sections and Universities. Kinematics of Machines and Mechanisms, Dynamics of Machines and Mechanisms, Vehicle Dynamics, and the History of Technology tare aught today in the Mechanical Engineering and Aeronautics Department, in Patras, while similar courses exist in other Greek Institutions. Course 24324 Kinematics of Machines and Mechanisms is taught in the third year. A short syllabus contains: Fundamental theories of kinematics, vector and matrix algebra, numerical methods for use in computational mechanics, computer programs for analyzing the response of simple and complex mechanical systems, cams, gears, gear trains, synthesis of mechanisms. Kinematic analysis, mobility and range of movement – Kutzbach and Grubler’s criterion, number Synthesis, Grashof’s criterion, displacement analysis of plane mechanisms – graphical and analytical methods, velocity and acceleration analysis, kinematic elements, fixed and variable speed kinematic pairs – closed loop linkages, the four-bar linkage, the slider-crank linkage, coordinate transformations, robot arms and manipulators, variable speed kinematic pairs – cams and followers, kinematics of gears, design of gear trains, simple, compound and epicyclic gear trains, sliding gear boxes and synchronous gear boxes dimensional synthesis of mechanism; motion, path and function generation. The students have to complete the design of a series of mechanisms. The software to be used can be found in the textbook Computer Aided Design, A CAD Approach by A.D. Dimarogonas [8]. The students have the option of a choice of assignments among which are: kinematics of a series of planarmechanisms from Artobolevski [17], a cam profile design, kinematics of gear trains, design of compound and epicyclic gear trains, kinematic design of a metal planner-shaper, kinematics and dynamics of a steam-powered road-roller, kinematics of a reflex-camera, the design of a 4-shift gearbox, and a light truck rear axle with 4:1 differential. For further reading books [10–25] are proposed. The students have access to the Cornell Kinematic Models Digital Library (kmoddl.library.cornell.

The Role of MMS (Mechanism and Machine Science) and IFToMM in Greece

307

edu), the Bauman University collection in Moscow, the Ilmenau collection in Dresden, and other collections from individuals and libraries all over the world, to get mechanisms configurations and digitized historic books on kinematics, machines and mechanisms. Course 24441 Dynamics of Machines and Mechanisms, is taught in the fourth year. A short syllabus for this course follows: Basic concepts in dynamics, dynamics of rigid bodies, numerical methods for solving the differential equations of motion, computer program for planar dynamic analysis, balancing of rotating machinery and linkages, work and energy, power transmission, power flow analysis, force transmission, sources of forces in machines, general 3-dimensional dynamic behavior of mechanisms and machine elements, dynamics of internal combustion engines, power flow in gear trains, foundation of heavy machinery. The students have the option of a choice of assignments among which are: design of a balancing machine, design of a 2 L internal combustion petrol engine, calculation and analysis of machine forces, efficiency, the indicator diagram, dynamics of a combination heavy vehicle on a turn, safety and maintenance of heavy machinery in a paper-mill from vibration signatures, Additional reading proposed includes [7, 16, 25–29]. Course 24441 Vehicle Dynamics is taught in the fifth year of studies in the Department. The course will present students with the opportunity to learn the basic theoretical principles in Vehicle Dynamics and Design combined with a practical approach using computer aided techniques for analysis and design. A short syllabus for this course follows: Basic concepts in vehicle dynamics, tires, drive train and gear boxes in ground vehicles, suspensions and steering mechanisms, fundamental approach to modeling, automotive design, acceleration and braking performance, road loads, energy balance, drive train, trucks and buses, accident reconstruction. Computer models and simulation of vehicle collisions and rollovers, failure analysis, finite element models (FEA). Emphasis is given to the application of codes and standards in automotive design and engineering, and the homologation process. The students have to select an assignment that may be a review of existing technology in the automotive sector, the design and calculation of a complete automotive system, energy and power calculations for the selection of drive-trains for different automotive configurations, accident reconstruction of real-world accidents, dynamic analysis of specific vehicles. For further reading the students have the choice among others of a series of textbooks available at the Laboratory and the University Library: [29–41]. Courses 114 and 124 History of Technology I and History of Technology II are integrated in the curriculum of the Mechanical Engineering and Aeronautics Department of the University of Patras to be taught during the first and second semester every year. The course belongs to the cultural and civilization core of courses offered by the Department. Students have the opportunity to select those courses among other courses, namely: The Language and Civilization, Language and Technology, Art and Technology, and other similar. As a mean, 110 students out of 120 registered in the Department each academic year have as a first choice the History of Technology courses. The course was first introduced in 1974 in the newly founded (1972) Mechanical Engineering Department of the University of Patras by Professor Andrew

308

T.G. Chondros

Dimarogonas after his election as a Professor in the Department. The author was in the third year in the Department attending this course. Courses and students’ homework were integrated to identify important, not strictly technical, aspects of engineering and engineering design, such as the emergence of engineering societies, engineering ethics, engineering aesthetics, the view of philosophers, artists and poets on engineering. The history of engineering was also viewed for its cultural, economic and political impact on society. A textbook History of Engineering (2 Vols. in Greek) [9] appeared after the handouts distributed by Prof. Dimarogonas during his first lectures in 1974. The history of engineering is broadly reviewed from the earliest records to modern times. The social, cultural, and economic effects of developments in engineering on contemporary events is examined. The course goal is to introduce the student to the history of engineering and its cultural, economic and political impact on society. To identify important, not strictly technical, aspects of engineering and engineering design, such as the emergence of engineering societies, engineering ethics, engineering aesthetics, the philosophers, artists and poets view of engineering. As an outline the following areas are highlighted: What is Engineering. Technology, invention and engineering. The primitive societies. The hand, the primitive tools. Production and the human society. The role of the domestication of animals and agriculture in the emergence of technology. Engineering as technology of scale. Early engineering. Mythology and the Bible. Irrigation and Potamic civilizations. Mesopotamia, Asia Minor, Egypt, India, China. The Great Empires. Pyramids and public works. The first engineers: Amenhot.ep and Gudea. Early sources on Engineering. Mythology and the Bible. The emergence of Reason. Natural Science. Ionian School of Natural philosophy. Thales and electromagnetism. Pythagoras and vibration. Democritus and atomic physics. Engineering Science. Aristotle. Mechanical Engineering. The Pythagorean and the Alexandrian Engineers. Civil Engineering and Architecture. Roman Engineers. Chinese Enqineering. Arab Engineering and Design Methodology. Middle Ages. Time reckoning and fluid power. Leonardo da Vinci. Alchemy, Chemistry. Renaissance. Galileo and Newton. Engineering Science. The Industrial Revolution, 1750–1830. The Age of Steam and Iron, 1830–1900. Modern Technology, twentieth century. The engineering professions. The professional societies. Engineering ethics. French Engineering. The Ecole Polytechnique and Napoleon Bonaparte. Mechanics. German Engineering. Solid and Fluid mechanics. The engine. American Engineering. The ways in which technology, broadly defined, has contributed to the building of American society from colonial times to the present. The West Point. The largescale project. The Automobile. Electronics and Computers. Aircraft and Spacecraft. Bioengineering. The course introduces the student to the development of each of the major branches of engineering (e.g., CE, ChE, EE, ME, etc.) and its history. Each student is expected to research a particular engineering subject (e.g., James Watt, Leonardo da Vinci, the building of the pyramids, bridges, electric machines, plastics, the development of the digital computer) and write an essay or a paper tracing its history and its political, social, cultural and economic impact on society. Alternatively, he/she will design and build a model of an engineering aspect of

The Role of MMS (Mechanism and Machine Science) and IFToMM in Greece

309

Fig. 2 Reconstruction of ancient lifting devices of the fifth century BC. From left, the monokolos, the dikolos, and the Deus_Ex_Machina

historical importance (Fig. 2). A list of projects follows: Mythology and the Bible. The first engineers: Amenhotep and Gudea. The Pythagorean and the Alexandrian Engineers. Design and Reconstruction of Deus Ex Machina. The railroad. History of the Car. History of Aviation. Naval architecture from ancient times. The Rio – Andirio Bridge. The Wright Brothers and the airplane, the Apollo Project, the tunnel under the English Channel, the Challenger disaster, the case of the DC10 design, the Hyatt.-Regency Hotel failure in Kansas city, the Bhopal disaster. Suggested books for further reading [12, 42, 43–50].

Kinematics – Machine Design and the Role of IFToMM Kinematics and the design of machines and mechanisms have a distinct place in the history of engineering because they comprise a rational step-by-step logic to receive further a mathematical foundation [42, 44–45]. In classical times concrete principles upon which design is developed as a science using mathematics and reason were established. The philosophical foundation of knowledge, aesthetics and ethics and their implications in engineering design are discussed in the works of Dimarogonas [9–11, 51–53]. Reuleaux [54] suggested as the earliest machine the twirling stick for starting fire and discussed further other early machinery such as water mills. The lever and the wedge are a technology heritage from the paleolithic era. The first known written record of the word machine appears in Homer (ca. 800 BC) and Herodotus (ca. 484–425 BC), to describe political manipulation (Dimarogonas, [51–53]). The word was not used with its modern meaning until Aeschylus ca 450 BC used it to describe the theatrical device used extensively in the ancient Greek theatre as a stage device to lift actors, chariots or flying horses in the air, as though flying, portraying the descent of gods from the sky and similar purposes. The mechane is also known with the Latin term Deus Ex Machina. Mechanema (mechanism), in turn, as used by Aristophanes (448–385 BC), means “an assemblage of machines.” Crank and follower mechanisms were widely used in antiquity for many uses, including the foot operated sharpening wheel [4].

310

T.G. Chondros

Basic scientific principles discussed and explained by Archimedes in the third century BC formed the instrument upon which engineering was established as a science distinct from crafts and unrelated empirical rules. Ctesibius, and his students Philo and Heron, and Pappus of Alexandria have introduced analytical methods for the study and design of advanced machines and mechanisms, not always driven by practical needs. The nature of Mechanics and furthermore Mechanical Engineering was recognized as a science and an art, as well as the need for specialization and experimentation. Design methodologies appeared in gear sizing, screw threads, weight lifting, catapult engineering, pneumatic machines, and hydraulics. The idea that principles continue to work even with large changes in size was introduced followed by the proposition that mechanical power can be transferred from “toys” and laboratory work to practical applications. Then a rational, step-by-step logic was involved in solving mechanical problems and designing equipment [42, 44, 45, 55–57]. The contribution of Leonardo Da Vinci, Galilei and Newton, the redefinition of classical physics and mechanics, the separation of the study of kinematics and the study of machinery in the eighteenth century, the early mechanization and the progress during the Industrial Revolution yielded the development of engineering design as a systematic process in the modern era. The works of Willis, Chebyshev and Reuleaux constituted the basic scientific trends that later became the essence of the science today termed as the theory of mechanisms and machines, which has greatly contributed to and enhanced engineering design [40, 41]. Artobolevski in 1981 in a paper entitled Some Problems in Mechanics and Machine Control [58] presented a brief history of the development of the theory of machines and mechanisms. He quotes the words of the outstanding physicist and creator of quantum mechanics, W. Heisenberg, writing: “To grasp the progress of science as a whole, it is useful to compare contemporary problems of science with the problems of the preceding epoch and to investigate the specific changes that one or another important problem has undergone over decades and even centuries”. However, in describing the history of machines, it is necessary to establish at least approximately the point of its origin as a science. This is particularly difficult and this process is confined to the machines and mechanisms which were designed in a systematic way and not arrived at empirically through a process of long evolution. This is a point that separates engineering science from technology and crafts. Considerable contribution to the development of engineering design and the science of machines is being made in different countries thanks to the International Federation for the Theory of Machines and Mechanisms (IFToMM) and the ASME Design Engineering Division.

Conclusions The implication of analysis being an integral part of design in engineering has been ameliorated based on the development of mathematics and mechanics. Design and building of machines have been aided by the theory of mechanisms. Besides the

The Role of MMS (Mechanism and Machine Science) and IFToMM in Greece

311

traditional methods of kinematics, dynamic analysis and synthesis of machines and mechanisms, fundamentally new approaches to the theory of machines are in evidence. Forecasting the future in any science is not easy, particularly in the present age of such rapid development in science and technology. The history of technology can be approached not only as a chronology of machine development, and a study of artifacts, but also as a study of economic and social development, the relationship of technology to politics, economics, science, the arts, and the organization of production, and with the role it plays in the differentiation of individuals in society, and how society shapes science and technology, and how in turn science and technology shape society and the environment. As the complexity of machines and mechanisms built today increased, engineers heavily rely on science to predict the behavior of not-yet-built designs. The predictive ability for the behavior of new designs is now indispensable in engineering [50, 51]. Considerable contribution to the development of engineering design and the science of machines is being made in different countries thanks to the International Federation for the Theory of Machines and Mechanisms (IFToMM) and the ASME Design Engineering Division (Artobolevski, in [58, 59]). The development of the theory of mechanisms and machines requires the closest possible association of scientists and practical workers. Actual practice constantly confronts theory with new problems, and theory in turn finds in practical work a basis for its scientific research. A considerable contribution to the development of engineering design and the science of machines is being made in different countries thanks to the International Federation for the Theory of Machines and Mechanisms (IFToMM) and the ASME Design Engineering Division.

References 1. IFToMM: Minutes of the general Assembly Meeting, Appendix 3. In: 9th General Assembly of the International Federation for the Theory of Machines and Mechanisms, Oulu, 23 June 1999 2. Chondros, T.G.: J. Sound Vib. 244(1), 21–23 (2001). In Memoriam A.D. Dimarogonas (1938–2000) 3. Dimarogonas, A.D.: Computer Aided Machine Design. Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs (1988) 4. Dimarogonas, A.D.: Computer Programs for Mechanical Engineers. Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs (1993) 5. Dimarogonas, A.D.: Vibration Engineering. WEST Publishers, St. Paul (1976) 6. Dimarogonas, A.D., Haddad, S.: Vibration for Engineers. Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs (1992) 7. Dimarogonas, A.D.: Vibration for Engineers, 2nd ed. Prentice-Hall, Upper Saddle River (1996) 8. Dimarogonas, A.D., Paipetis, S.A.: Rotor Dynamics. Elsevier-Applied Science, London (1983) 9. Dimarogonas, A.D.: History of Engineering, 1st ed. Symmetry Publications, Athens (1976) 10. Dimarogonas, A.D.: The origins of vibration theory. J. Sound Vib. 140(2), 181–189 (1990) 11. Dimarogonas, A.D.: A brief history of rotor dynamics. Keynote Address: Rotordynamics 92, Venice, pp. 1–9. Springer, Berlin (1992) 12. Dimarogonas, A.D.: Machine Design: The CAD Approach. Wiley, New York (2001) 13. Hartenberg, R., Denavit, J.: Kinematic Synthesis of Linkages. McGraw-Hill, New York (1964) 14. Shigley, J.E., Uicker, J.J.: Theory of Machines and Mechanisms. McGraw-Hill, New York (1981)

312

T.G. Chondros

15. Shigley, J.E., Mischke, C.R., Budynas, R.G.: Mechanical Engineering Design. McGraw-Hill, New York (2004) 16. Norton, R.: Design of Machinery. McGraw-Hill, New York (1994) 17. Artobolevski, I.I.: Mechanisms in modern engineering design. A Handbook for Engineers Designers and Inventors (English Translation). MIR, Moscow (1975) 18. Bakhvalov, N.S.: Numerical Methods. MIR, Moscow (1977) 19. Chemilevski, D., Lavrova, E., Romanov, V.: Mechanics for Engineers. MIR, Moscow (1984) 20. Feodosyev, V.: Strength of Materials. MIR, Moscow (1973) 21. Movnin, M., Goltziker, D.: Machine Design. MIR, Moscow (1975) 22. Muškis, A.D.: Advanced Mathematics for Engineers. MIR, Moscow (1975) 23. Orlov, P.: Fundamentals of Machine Design. MIR, Moscow (5-volumes English Translation) (1976) 24. Targ, S.: Theoretical Mechanics, A Short Course. MIR, Moscow (1976) 25. Reshetov, L.: Self-Aligning Mechanisms. MIR, Moscow (1982) 26. Ginsberg, J.H.: Advanced Engineering Dynamics. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge (1996) 27. Greenwood, D.T.: Principles of Dynamics. Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs (1988) 28. Timoshenko, S., Young, D.H., Weaver Jr., W.: Vibration Problems in Engineering, 4th edn. Wiley, New York (1974) 29. Williams, J.H.: Fundamentals of Applied Dynamics. Wiley, New York (1996) 30. Artamonov, M.D., Ilarionov, V.A., Morin, M.M.: Motor Vehicles, Fundamentals and Design. MIR, Moscow (1976) 31. Böhm, F., Willumeit, H.P. (eds.): Tyre Models for Vehicle Dynamic Analysis. Swets and Zeitlinger, London (1997) 32. Brach, R., Brach, M.: Vehicle Accident Analysis and Reconstruction Methods. SAE International, Warrendale (2005) 33. Clennon, J.C., Hill, P.F.: Roadway Safety and Tort Reliability, 2nd edn. L&J Publishing Company, Inc., Tucson (2004) 34. Ellis, J.R.: Vehicle Handling Dynamics. Mechanical Engineering Publications, London (1994) 35. Elvik, R., Vaa, T.: The Handbook of Safety Measures. Elsevier, Amsterdam (2004) 36. Evans, L.: Traffic Safety. Science Serving Society, Bloomfield Hills (2004) 37. Gillespie, T.D.: Fundamentals of Vehicle Dynamics. SAE International, Warrendale (1992) 38. Lukin, P., Gasparyants, G., Rodionov, V.: Automobile Chassis Design and Calculations. MIR, Moscow (1989) 39. Milliken, W.F., Milliken, D.L.: Race Car Vehicle Dynamics. SAE Press, Warrendale (1995) 40. Newton, K., Steeds, W., Garrett, T.K.: The Motor Vehicle. Butterworth-Heinemann, Oxford (1997) 41. Wong, J.Y.: Theory of Ground Vehicles. Wiley, New York (2008) 42. Chondros, T.G.: Archimedes (287–212 BC). In: Ceccarelli, M. (ed.) Distinguished Figures in Mechanism and Machine Science, Their Contributions and Legacies, Part 1. History of Mechanism and Machine Science, vol. 1, pp. 1–30. Springer, Dordrecht (2007). ISBN ISSBN 978-1-4020-6365-7 43. Ceccarelli, M.: Screw axis defined by Giulio Mozzi in 1763 and early studies on helicoidal motion. Mech. Mach. Theory 35, 761–770 (2000) 44. Chondros, T.G.: A World Conference on THE GENIUS OF ARCHIMEDES 23 Centuries of Influence on the Fields of Mathematics, Science, and Engineering 8–10 June 2010, Syracuse, Sicily (Italy). Archimedes Influence in Science and Engineering. History of Mechanism and Machine Science II, The Genius of Archimedes-23 Centuries of Influence on Mathematics, Science and Engineering, Proceedings of an International Conference held at Syracuse, Italy, June 8–10, 2010 Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2010 S. Paipetis and M. Ceccarelli (Editors) 411–425 (2010) 45. Chondros, T.G.: Archimedes life works and machines. J. Mech. Mach. Theory 45(11), 1766–1775 (2010)

The Role of MMS (Mechanism and Machine Science) and IFToMM in Greece

313

4 6. Dowson, D.: History of Tribology. Longman Group Ltd, London (1979) 47. Lancaster, J.: Engineering Catastrophes – Causes and Effects of Major Accidents. Abington Publishing, Cambridge (1996) 48. Schroedinger, E.: Nature and the Greeks. Cambridge University Press, London (1954) 49. Sih, G.C.: Survive with the time o’clock of nature RRRTEA 04 [Restoration, Recycling, and Rejuvenation Technology for Engineering and Architecture Application]. In: Sih, G.C., Nobile, L. (eds.) Proceedings of the International Conference, pp. 3–22, Cesena, Aracne (2004) 50. Vitruvius, M.P.: 1st Century AD. De Architectura, v. 7. 51. Dimarogonas, A.D.: The Origins of the Theory of Machines and Mechanisms. In: Proceedings 40 Years of Modern Kinematics: A Tribute to Ferdinand Freudenstein Conference, pp. 1–2 to 1–11, Minneapolis (1991) 52. Dimarogonas, A.D: Mechanisms of the Ancient Greek Theater. American Society of Mechanical Engineers. In: Mechanisms Conference, Phoenix, pp. 229–234. ASME Design Engineering Division (Publication) DE 46 (1992) 53. Dimarogonas, A.D., Chondros, T.G.: Deus Ex Machina design and reconstruction. In: International Conference on Ancient Greek Technology, SPS Olympia, Greece (2001) (In Greek) 54. Reuleaux, F.: Theoretische Kinematik, (Translated in English by Kennedy, B.W.) (ed.) Macmillan & Co, London (1876) 55. Papadopoulos, E.: In: Ceccarelli, M. (ed.) Distinguished Figures in Mechanism and Machine Science, Their Contributions and Legacies, Part 1. History of Mechanism and Machine Science, vol. 1. Springer, Dordrecht (2007). ISBN ISSBN 978-1-4020-6365-7 56. Chondros, T.G.: EUCOMES 08 Second European Conference on Mechanism Science. In: Ceccarelli, M. (ed.) Proceedings of EUCOMES 08 Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2009, Cassino, 17–20 Sept 2008, Archimedes and the origins of mechanisms design 57. Chondros, T.G.: The development of machine design as a science from classical times to modern era. Invited lecture. In: HMM 2008 International Symposium on History of Machines and Mechanisms, Tainan, Taiwan, 11–14 Nov 2008. Proceedings Published by the Springer, the Netherland, ISBN 978-1-4020-9484-2 58. Ishlinsky, A., Chernousko, F.: Advances in Theoretical and Applied Mechanics. MIR, Moscow (1981) 59. Erdman, A., Sandor, G.N.: Mechanism Design, Analysis and Synthesis. Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs (1984)

MMS at University Level in Hungary Within the IFToMM Community Elisabeth Filemon

Abstract This paper gives an outline of the history of Hungarian higher technical education to show how it developed, in spite of the different obstacles it faced, and to show how its growth was always determined by economic and social conditions. (Strandl, A history of the machine, A&W Publishers, Inc., New York, 1978; Varga, The Technical University of Budapest, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Centenary Memorial Volume, Akadémiai Nyomda, Budapest, 1972; Moon, The Machines of Leonardo Da Vinci and Franz Reuleaux, Springer, The Netherlands, 2007; Ginsztler, The impact of globalization on engineering education and practice, J Ideas, 6, Logod Bt, Budapest, 1999). Soon after IFToMM was created, it became a leading Federation of the World, operating in a nurturing atmosphere for the sake of both academic science and industrial practice. This paper gives an outline of this history, as well.

Introduction The laws of physics, mechanics and good engineering practice are universal and no respecter of national boundaries. A reality today is that the university faces a permanent challenge in searching for new knowledge and new ways of transmitting it within a totally different communication environment from those that characterize currently existing systems. A key element in meeting this challenge is adequate education of engineering professors. The history of machines is not only about the machines themselves, how they work and what their uses are, but also a chronicle of the individuals who invented, improved, manufactured and applied them.

E. Filemon (*) Department of Applied Mechanics, Budapest University of Technology and Economics (TUB), 1111-Budapest Muegyetem rkp. 3. Hungary Pf. 91. 1521- Budapest, Hungary e-mail: [email protected] M. Ceccarelli (ed.), Technology Developments: the Role of Mechanism and Machine Science and IFToMM, Mechanisms and Machine Science 1, DOI 10.1007/978-94-007-1300-0_27, © Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2011

315

316

E. Filemon

In many countries in Europe, including Hungary, the demand for technical higher education appeared around the middle of the eighteenth century. In that period there had been hardly any industry in Hungary, with the exception of a highly developed mining industry. The development of mines could not happen without trained technicians, so in 1735 an Institute for the training of mining officers was established at Selmecbánya, by Maria Theresa (1717–1780, Archduchess of Austria, Queen of Hungary and Bohemia, 1740–1780). This Institute had been reorganised into a High School in 1763 and in 1770 was elevated into a Mining Academy. The beginning of Hungarian technical education falls within the time of unfolding of the industrial revolution in England. The development of mechanization was characterised by the interaction between science and practical application. In Hungary, cotton processing and cloth weaving factories were set up in the 1760s. The Hungarian steel industry had been established when foundries and iron smelters were put into operation in the early 1770s. Papermills, glassworks, later tanneries and sawmills, were established at several locations in the country. The development was irresistible. A spreading transport network and new branches of industry (such as the milling industry and shipbuilding) set new demands on the training of engineers. The first step for higher technical education in Hungary was the “Institutum Geometricum-Hydrotechnicum” (Engineering Institute), established by Joseph II (1830–1916, Emperor of Austria, King of Hungary 1848–1916) in the year 1782 and it worked as a unit of the Royal University of Buda. Obviously, both its organisation and name have been changed several times. From the academic year 1857/58, the “K. K. Joseph Polytechnicum” began to function. In 1861 it received the “Royal Joseph Technical University” status, allowing it to grant diplomas that were not subject to state examinations. Finally, in the year 1871 the “Joseph Technical University”, a university of technical sciences, with full autonomy in a new organisational form, started on a career that has brought it prestige at home and abroad. The Faculty of Mechanical Engineering was also established in 1871. In 1882 the curriculum of the Faculty of Mechanical Engineering contained among others: Mechanics, Machine Drawing, Machine Structures I, II, Theory of Machines I, II. Archival researches prove [1] that in the academic year 1871/72 the compulsory subjects Theoretical Machine Design and Mechanics devoted great attention to teaching basic rules of MMS (e.g.: Kinematics, the laws of motion of Machines and Mechanisms, dynamics, – with special regard to Mechanisms, flywheels and balancing masses, theory of steam engines and regulators, e.g.). In 1901 the University was granted the right to confer the engineering doctoral degree, the “Doctor Renum Technikum”. The most important principles of the University were to keep the theoretical level high, to teach inductive and deductive thinking, to develop imagination in terms of time and space that would make students capable of independent work

MMS at University Level in Hungary Within the IFToMM Community

317

in both theoretical and practical fields. In 1905 the rector said in his inaugural address: “In our educational system, we set out from the strictly scientific concept which forms the basis of engineers’ training in France and Germany; I hasten to add that neither are we averse to the more practical trend represented in technical education by England and America. The way we intend to follow in education of the strictly professional knowledge is to give them first of all a general survey of the whole field, teach the scientific principle on which they considerable detail; then elucidate the way in which the theory prevails”. The school-year 1909/10 began in new buildings on the bank of the Danube, which have been so utilized ever since. The new Campus of the University was festively inaugurated in the presence of King Joseph II. In the same year the right to grant doctoral degrees “Sub Auspiciis Regis” was also conferred on the University. Immediately after moving into the new Campus, the Senate began to work on a thorough revision of the Statutes of the University. This work was accomplished in the academic year 1911/12. The University rose to the level of technical universities of the time and the diplomas it issued were accepted everywhere. Under the severe conditions of the World War I, the University could hardly develop. The members of the academic staff wrote textbooks during the hard years of the war to provide the students with duplicate notes, the quantity of which began to approximate the stock of a whole library. At the end of World War II, the Habsburg Monarchy collapsed. The ensuing difficulties were further aggravated by existing economic and industrial policies. Obstacles in the way of improving education at the technical university were the shortage of equipment and teaching staff with industrial practice. Thus it happened that high level theoretical training became the mainstay of education, which saved the university from losing its reputation even in later years in the period between the two world wars. Theoretical education reached a very high level in these years, increasing the value of the diplomas granted by the Faculty. A wider specialization was not desirable for a Hungarian economy grappling with serious difficulties; it needed engineers of such training as would enable them to work in many different, sometimes very widely varying fields. The high qualification of the teaching staff was proved also by the fact that the prestige of the technical university was preserved intact, making up for the lack of economic means by instilling students with intellectual values, thus maintaining the standard of education. World War II turned the Country into a battlefield and reduced the University to ruins. Its campus became a military base. The damage to buildings amounted to over 20%; destruction of equipment was over 60%. The reform that brought changes in education was put into effect in 1948/49. Revision and adaptation of the curriculum placed more emphasis on automation, the application of plastics, and the teaching of nuclear techniques.

318

E. Filemon

Period 1949–2009 This period covers 60 years: 20 years without, 40 years with IFToMM.

Period 1949–1969 Under Decree No. 15–1949 of the Presidential Council of the Hungarian People’s Republic, the organization of the “Joseph Palate Technical and Economical University” ceased to function. From the former sections, new independent higher educational institutes had been formulated. The Sections of Forestry Engineering, Agriculture, and Veterinary Science were separated at first at Sopron. Then the Faculty of Economics was replaced by the newly established “Marx Károly University of Economics at Budapest”. The legal successor of the Section of Mining and Metallurgy was to be the “Technical University of Heavy Industry” in Miskolc, established in 1949. After these organizational changes the University continued functioning as “The Technical University of Budapest”, with six faculties, including the Faculty of Electrical Engineering. One of the results of these reforms was that the “Theory of Mechanisms” as an independent subject was introduced in 1952/53 as a compulsory subject in the field of Hungarian higher technical education. There were two bases for it at that time: the Technical University of Budapest, and the University of Heavy Industry at Miskolc. The subject “Mechanisms” was read by Professor L. Buzás in Budapest, and in 1954 Assistant Professor E. Filemon was invited to teach the subject. In Miskolc Professor Dr. Z. Terplán and Professor Dr. I. Sályi Jr. introduced the subject. The main task for the first few years was the organisation of teaching. In addition to the subject-matter of instruction collected from books written in Russian, German and English, some special topics on “Mechanisms” and various other subjects were already being taught. The textbooks of the Russian Professors I. I. Artobolevskii and Sz. N. Kozsevnikov, already translated into Hungarian, constituted a great help. At the Department of Applied Mechanics in Budapest, a small collection of pedagogic kinematic models had been used in the class-rooms. One had to appreciate the University’s successful effort to obtain these pedagogical aids. The existence of such models is clear evidence that the “Joseph Technical University” kept abreast of the times. Unfortunately the documents covering this period have perished, but the conjectured time frame is the end of the nineteenth century. Most of the models are Straight- Line linkages, the scientific background of which was one of the most popular subjects to study, for decades at the end of the nineteenth century. Each of the models belongs to the famous collection of the Jacob Peter Schröder Company of Darmstadt, Germany, founded in 1837. The Schröder Catalogs of 1870–1902 listed models copied after the kinematics and machine engineering books of Professors Ferdinand Redtenbacher (1809–1869) of Karlsruhe University and his former students Franz Reuleaux (1829–1905) of the Technical

MMS at University Level in Hungary Within the IFToMM Community

319

Fig. 1 Straight-line linkages from the Schröder collection

University of Berlin and Carl I. Moll from Riga [2]. These historical models demonstrate special geometric constraints caused by a kinematically unnecessary bar and sliding joint. (In a recent paper of Karsai [3] on “Discrete Kinematic Systems: Basic relations of Combinatorial Kinematics”, the author proposed an exact way that is appropriate to handle this kind of structures, as well.) Six of these models are to be seen in Fig. 1. In a short time both universities mentioned above printed their own lecture notes, written by L. Buzás in Budapest and Professor Z. Terplán in Miskolc. The first textbook was published in 1958 with the title “Mechanisms” written by

320

E. Filemon

Professor Z. Terplán. The first Symposium on the subject of the Theory of Machines and Mechanisms (TMM) was organised by the University of Heavy Industry of Miskolc in 1960, later, others in 1961, 1963, 1966, (and so on), on gears and mechanisms, with more and more foreign participants (from USSR, German Federal Republic, German Democratic Republic, Poland, Rumania, Bulgaria, Yugoslavia, USA, Switzerland). Since 1960 the number of experts dealing with the TMM in Hungary began to grow. So, when the establishment of the International Federation for the Machines and Mechanisms, “IFToMM” was first discussed in 1965 in Varna, Bulgaria, Prof. Dr. Z. Terplán and Prof. Dr. I. Sályi Jr. took part in the discussion. In 1966 a Hungarian Delegation (Professor Zeno Terplan, Professor Istvan Salyi Jr. and Assistant professor Elisabeth Filemon) attended the 25th Anniversary “Getriebetagung” in Dresden. In 1967 a Kinematic-Kinetic Committee was founded within the Hungarian Academy of Sciences. This Committee, chaired by Professor Zeno Terplán, assumed the management of Hungarian affairs of IFToMM.

Period 1969–2009 In 1969 in Zakopane, (Poland), Hungary was one of the countries that signed the foundation documents of IFToMM. The Chief Delegate from Hungary was Professor Zeno Terplán, who signed the document; Professor Istvan Sályi Jr., Professor Ádám Bosznay and Assistant Professor Elisabeth Filemon were members of the delegation. In 1970 the Hungarian Academy of Sciences (HAS) reorganized its committees and from that time the Academic Committee (AC) for Machine Design (ACMD) has been responsible for the Hungarian Member Committee (HMC) of IFToMM. From the very beginning, the subscription fee has been paid regularly by the Hungarian Academy of Sciences. The first president of the governing body of the HMC of IFToMM was Professor Zeno Terplán, who relinquished his chairmanship to Associate Professor Elisabeth Filemon in 1996. Since 1970 the HMC has taken part in the activity of IFToMM. A Hungarian member was sent to all of the Permanent Commissions (PC) of IFToMM, some of which held its yearly meeting in Hungary, in Miskolc: in 1972 the “PC for Cooperation with Industry” (chaired by Professor Zeno Terplan); in 1980; the “PC for Standardization of Terminology” (organized by Professor Istvan Salyi Jr.); and in 1983 the “PC for History of MMS” (chaired by Associate Professor Elisabeth Filemon). More and more Hungarian experts became members of the Technical Committees (TCs) of IFToMM. In 1973 another textbook was published, the title of which is “Mechanisms” written by Professor Istvan Sályi Jr. To establish still closer scientific links by personal contact, the HMC of IFToMM invited experts from foreign countries. Dr. Academic Professor I. I. Artobolevskii, First President of IFToMM, visited Hungary in June of 1977. It was his last visit

MMS at University Level in Hungary Within the IFToMM Community

321

abroad before his tragic death in the autumn of 1977. Professor A. Morecki (Secretary General of IFToMM) in 1977, and Professor J. Phillips (Member of the Executive Council of IFToMM) in 1978, also visited Hungary. Besides the Hungarian participants, experts from Australia, Czechoslovakia, Egypt, The Netherlands, Japan, Canada, Poland, GDR, GFR, Romania, Italy, Switzerland, U.S.S.R. and U.S.A. participated in the “6th Symposium on Mechanisms and Gears” in 1978, organised by the HMC in Miskolc. Since the 1980s an extensive Hungarian involvement in IFToMM at a high level has been recognizable. Examples include: Executive Council Members (Professor Elisabeth Filemon, Professor Gabor Stepan), Secretary General (Professor Elisabeth Filemon), Chair of PC for the History of MMS (Professor Elisabeth Filemon), Chair of TC for Nonlinear Oscillations (Professor Gabor Stepan), Chair of the TC for Gearing (Professor Adam Döbröczöni), Members of the General Assembly Nominating Commission (Professor Elisabeth Filemon, Professor Gabor Stepan) served IFToMM from Hungary. Professor Gabor Stepan, Member of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences is a Member of the Editorial Board of the Journal “Mechanism and Machine Theory”. There were Hungarian members of almost all of the PCs and TCs. The active participation of Hungary has been widely recognised by IFToMM. In 2009 the Federation came to the 40 years anniversary of its foundation. IFToMM celebrated the venerable event on 16 January, 2010, in Zakopane – with solemnization of it by a memorial tablet.

Achievements in Research and Education The Faculty of Mechanical Engineering adapted itself to international challenges and, which is more important, it influenced new trends and developed new technologies and design methods, under the leadership of Academic Gabor Stepan, Dean of the Faculty, and Head of the Applied Mechanics Department. Members of the staff of the Department of Applied Mechanics also aspired to stand in front of classes of students as examples to be followed. Numerous doctoral students (a lot of them became IFToMM experts) had been guided to study and carry out research on a wide-ranging basis of applied mathematics and mechanics. On the stability and nonlinear vibrations of dynamical systems with time delay, the Department achieved scientific results recognised worldwide. Some of these are: construction of a stability chart for the parametrically excited delayed oscillator; theoretical and experimental stability analysis of high-speed milling processes; life expectancy estimations for transient chaotic motion; dynamic modelling of balancing; instability and vibrations of computer controlled machines; stability analysis of rolling elastic tyres; dynamical analysis of tubes conveying pulsative flow. A part of an EU5 project (REHAROB) was development of a force control system on ABB industrial robots for human rehabilitation therapy. Another EU project had been just finished: Autonomous Collaborative Robot to Swing and Work in Everyday Environment (ACROBOTER).

322

E. Filemon

A significant contribution was made to the field of MMS at the University of Miskolc, as well. The Machine- and Product Designing Department is traditionally very strong on Gearing in any respect of both its theory and practice. Their international respect is proved by the fact that the Chair of the TC Gearing used to be from this Department. The Head of the Machine Tools Department, with a strong mechanical background, led his staff to the creation of up-to-date, scientifically based, constructions. The best of their constructions are patented on both national and international levels. Both of these Departments carry out successful scientific activity, operate strong doctoral schools and maintain good contact with Industry. In 1985, by the request of UNESCO, the Faculty of Mechanical Engineering of the Technical University of Budapest organised the “First International Postgraduate Course on Industrial Robots and Robotics”, with contributions of experts from the Faculty of Electrical Engineering and the Research Institute of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences for Computer Sciences. The 70 h program was sponsored and overseen by UNESCO. As a result of the accepted level of the course, UNESCO sponsored new courses year by year until 1991. The participants were mostly university staff members from different countries of Europe, Asia, Africa and USA. Based on this experience the course on “Robotics”, including the subject “Robot mechanisms”, had been introduced into the program of the Faculty of Mechanical Engineering in 1986. From that time, different aspects of Robotics have been studied and taught in the Technical University of Budapest [4]. It must be mentioned here, that the name of the University changed again in 2000, to “Budapest University of Technology and Economics” (TUB). Today it operates with eight Faculties: Civil Engineering, Mechanical Engineering, Architecture, Chemical- and Bio-Engineering, Electrical Engineering and Informatics, Transportation Engineering, Economics and Social Engineering. The Faculty of Mechanical Engineering has aspired to a leading position in technical innovation. This continuous effort also influenced the structure of the Faculty. There are five Universities in Hungary that received the “Researcher University” qualification in 2010 and the Budapest University of Technology and Economy is the only Technical University among them.

Trends in Developments in MMS and IFToMM Influence The Hungarian Member Committee of IFToMM has been represented in the Hungarian Academy of Sciences by the Academic Committee (AC) for Machine Design (MD). The AC Machine Design organises the regular activity of experts both from universities and industry. About 3–5 times yearly a workshop has been organised on different subjects where a scientific lecture has been presented for discussion. For young PhD degree applicants, AC Machine Design offers an opportunity to speak about their Theses that they are ready to submit to a University. The role of AC Machine Design in the procedure for obtaining the DSc degree from the Hungarian Academy of Sciences, is significant. For the requests of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences, the AC Machine Design makes reports on specific subjects.

MMS at University Level in Hungary Within the IFToMM Community

323

The AC Machine Design has six Subcommittees, covering the field of MMS, one of which is for “Mechanisms”. All the subcommittees regularly organise Scientific Meetings with presentation and discussion, thus providing publicity for all university teachers, researchers and experts from all over the Country. In the frame of this activity, a great number of experts carry out regular and continuous discussions, and meet each other to get an up to date picture of new scientific and educational results. There are some young doctoral students and postdoctoral fellows who are interested in the events of IFToMM, and some of them were supported by the IFToMM Young Generation Program. It is stated in IFToMM Constitution art.2.1. that IFToMM has a mission to promote and facilitate international collaboration. The Journal of Mechanism and Machine Theory is a perfect help, by means of which their ideas are spread all over the world. A specific kind of help offered by IFToMM is demonstrated in the paper [5]. It is written in the Introduction: “… proposed a graphical construction to eliminate the defects in 1967 [Józsefné Filemon: Négycsuklós mechanizmusok pontgörbéinek néhány geometriai tulajdonsága. (in Hungarian Nehézipari Műszaki Egyetem Közleményei, III. Sorozat. Gépészet 22. 3.1976. füzet. 115–137. old. (Received in 1976.)]. Since then no year went without the publication of a paper on defects. In 1960s about 25, in 1970s about 41, in 1980s about 54 whereas in 1990s as good as 40 works were reported. Thus the major study has been stretched over 40 years by more than 70 researchers all over the world and recorded in the form of papers, M.S. and Ph.D. theses, reports, patents, bulletins and other publications numbering more than 170 in all graphical, numerical and computational methods. The constant growth of the subject shows its importance in the field of synthesis …”. By rapidly spreading new scientific results, IFToMM stimulates researchers who become exposed to a wide range of subjects that need further study. The role of IFToMM in the improvement of educational and research programs could be greater not only by effecting collaboration at the international level, but by supplying a kind of quality control for it. The present Hungarian Officers and Member organisation representatives are: Chair of Member Organisation (Prof. Elisabeth Filemon), General Assembly Nominating Commission (Prof. Gabor Stepan), PC for the History of MMS ( Prof. Elisabeth Filemon and Prof. Balint Laczik), PC for the Standardization of Terminology (Prof. Istvan Biro), TC for Gearing (Prof. Adam Döbröczöni, Prof. Vilmos V. Simon), TC for Multi-body Dynamics (Dr. Gabor Erdos, Prof. Gabor Stepan), TC for Nonlinear Oscillations (Dr. Laszlo L. Kovacs secretary, Prof. Gyula Patko, Prof. Gabor Stepan), TC for Reliability (Prof. Istvan Sipos), TC for Robotics (Prof. Elisabeth Filemon, Mr. Andras Toth), TC for Rotordynamics (Prof. Laszlo Forrai).

Expectations and Critical Problems The spectrum of talents in countries all over the world is wide and varied. The scientific and technical innovation potential lies in the density of talent, behaviour, and characteristics of the people in these different countries. This will continue to

324

E. Filemon

be the source of power in the future if the people involved do not forget the principles of work – and working together. The reputation of Hungarian education and science owes much to scientists like John von Neumann (who developed the principle of the computer); for the technical education those who were students of the TUB, like Leo Szilárd (known chiefly for his work on nuclear chain reactions in physics), Edward Teller (in nuclear physics), Theodore Kármán (in fluid mechanics), Dennis Gábor (the creator of holography), George Hevesy (a pioneer of nuclear analytical chemistry), the last two of which were Nobel Prize Winners. There is every reason to believe that engineers educated and trained to appropriate standards in Hungary should be deemed competent to practice in other parts of the world. The European Committee organized a series of Conferences devoted to the problem that there are only a few excellent Universities in Europe with some at medium level and a lot that can only be called shoddy. One of the proposed solutions was to classify the existing Universities into four groups, as Researcher- and Educational Universities, Regional- and Local Institutes. At the same time a new financial assistance system ought to be worked out to avoid each University getting the same state financial support, independently of its quality of operations.

Conclusions From ancient times, people have been device mechanisms: “A system of elements arranged to transmit motion in a predetermined fashion”. James Watt (1736–1819) seems to be the first to apply a coupler curve to solve a motion problem: he created Straight-Line linkages (patented in 1784), to guide the very long stroke piston. Watt inspired by his invention a robust economic and technical development. Two hundred and twenty-six years had elapsed since Watt invented his approximate straight-line mechanisms and the beginnings of technical higher education in Hungary go back over the same period of time. Watt’s invention did not satisfy mathematicians because the coupler point traced only an approximate straight-line. Arising from Watt’s results, one important mathematical question was whether it was possible for a set of links and joints to trace a point of an exact straight line. Famous mathematicians tried to prove that it is not possible, until the appearance of the exact planar straight-line linkage of Charles Nicolas Peaucellier (1832–1913) in 1864. This exact straight-line mechanism was announced 146 years ago and the technical education at university level goes back about the same length of time. The Theory of Mechanisms became a compulsory subject in the Faculty of Mechanical Engineering only 58 years ago. The whole of my professional life (56 years) has been related to MMS. I was present in Zakopane when IFToMM was born, I attended its first nine Congresses; I attended the RoManSy and SyRom Symposiums until the year 2001; and I shared 40 years of IFToMM together with the Federation – which means: together with the IFToMM Family.

MMS at University Level in Hungary Within the IFToMM Community

325

This is my answer to the question: What is the benefit of the existence of IFToMM? That you have names, faces, friends all over the world! That you understand them! You know what they are doing, what they are thinking! From this point of view, IFToMM was never more important than it is right now. The number of the world’s population is increasing rapidly and continuously. According to statistics, there are currently more than 6 billion (maybe near to 7 billion) people on our planet. That compares with only 2.5 billion in 1950. This dramatic increase illustrates the rapid development mankind is facing in terms of co-existence and meeting basic needs. The task facing us can no longer be solved by a single nation or country. Nations must be able to communicate with one another. Scientists and professionals, including engineers, must work together and must be able to function as part of an international team. They must be able to speak the same language. The reputation of engineers depends on their efficiency and experience. Education and training has to be an individual, continuous long-term process that never ends. IFToMM offers us an umbrella, under which this international activity can be successful. In Zakopane, 16 countries signed the Foundation Document and by now there exist 44 Member Organizations. I wish to express my sincere thanks to IFToMM for its friendly atmosphere all during its history. This is why IFToMM is so unique among the scientific federations. I have pleasant memories of the 40 years of IFToMM. I resign myself to all deceased members of the IFToMM Family worldwide, with grateful respect. The community shall respect and preserve their memory.

References 1. http://www.omikk.bme.hu/main.php?folderlD=1233 2. Schröder. J.P.: Catalog of Reuleaux Models: Polytechnisches Arbeit-Institutes. Illustrationen von Unterrichts- Modellen und Apparaten, Darmstadt (1870–1902) 3. Karsai, G.: Discrete kinematic systems: Basic relations of combinatorial kinematics. Mech. Mach. Theory 43(12), 1519–2519 (2008) 4. Kulcsár, B.: Robot-Technika,LSI Oktatóközpont. OLION KFT, Budapest (1998) 5. Balli, S.S., Chand, S.: Defects in link mechanisms and solution rectification. Mech. Mach. Theory 37(9), 851–876 (2002) 6. Strandl, S.: A History of the Machine. A&W Publishers, Inc., New York (1979) 7. Varga, J.: The technical university of Budapest, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering. Centenary Memorial Volume. Akadémiai Nyomda, Budapest (1972) 8. Moon, F.C.: The Machines of Leonardo Da Vinci and Franz Reuleaux. Springer, Amsterdam (2007) 9. Ginsztler, J.: The impact of globalization on engineering education and practice. J. Ideas 6, Logod Bt, Budapest (1999)

Developments in the Field of Machines and Mechanisms in India over the Ages C. Amarnath

Abstract In this article we examine the growth of MMS in India. The earliest machines were powered by humans or animals. Subsequently there has been a long era during which machines were imported and later built based on reverse engineering. As the economic conditions began improving there has been a spurt in MMS and the same continues today and is likely to grow significantly during the next decade.

A Historical Perspective Although ancient Indian texts mention several devices and implements very few are extant today. Examples and descriptions of ancient instruments used for astronomical observations and land surveys are available in several museums. Many of the traditional human or animal powered machinery used for lifting water (Fig. 1), extracting oil, crushing limestone or sugar cane are still used in remote parts of the country. Capability to produce quality textile products existed long before the industrial revolution and some of the traditional textile machinery (Fig. 2) are still in use. India began to import machinery soon after the industrial revolution began, the earliest ones being textile machinery, machine tools, and power generators. As demand grew many Indian entrepreneurs began manufacturing machines in collaboration with foreign companies. This continued for long and soon after the country gained independence several of these companies began attempting “reverse engineering” to reduce costs. Demand not being large and profits being marginal there was no incentive to improve the components, sub-systems and the product itself. Productivity of these machines was not comparable to the imported ones but cost was relatively low. Serious efforts to undertake R&D began in the 1960s

C. Amarnath (*) Department of Mechanical Engineering, IIT Bombay, Powai, Mumbai 400 076, India e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] M. Ceccarelli (ed.), Technology Developments: the Role of Mechanism and Machine Science and IFToMM, Mechanisms and Machine Science 1, DOI 10.1007/978-94-007-1300-0_28, © Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2011

327

Fig. 1 Traditional water lifting device

Fig. 2 Traditional weaving

Developments in the Field of Machines and Mechanisms in India over the Ages

329

primarily by large industrial houses and public sector units established by the government. These efforts however were sporadic and hampered by the unavailability of trained manpower and instrumentation. Many units turned out special purpose machinery for the growing needs in packaging, printing, textiles, press tools, and for sundry manufacturing tasks. Low cost automation was the order of the day. With the opening up of the economy in the late 1980s, western machinery manufacturers began marketing sophisticated machinery in India and a few years later many began locating their manufacturing activities in the country. With the increasing availability of trained manpower the next step was to shift R&D activities to India, a process that is continuing today. Modern engineering education in India began with establishment of the Roorkee College of Engineering in the year 1847, followed by the establishment of Guindy Engineering college soon after. Established primarily for Civil Engineering, these and several other institutions established around 1900 began offering Mechanical Engineering courses several years after inception. The “Indian Institutes of Technology” were later established in the mid-1950s and joined the already existent “Indian Institute of Science” at Bangalore as institutions of higher learning. The Regional Engineering Colleges (now known as National Institutes of Technology) were also established soon after and thus today there are a large number of engineering institutions in the country offering programs in Mechanical Engineering.

Achievements in Research and Education MMS in Academic Institutions MMS education has for long been part of most undergraduate programs in the country, specifically in the disciplines of Mechanical and Aeronautical Engineering. Most of the post-graduate programs were initiated by the IISc and later the IITs. The 1960s witnessed a surge in the award of doctoral degrees in the area, a trend that has continued ever since not only at these institutions but also the National Institutes of Engineering and the older institutions at Roorkee, Guindy, Mumbai, and other engineering departments at reputed universities like Jadavpur. Academic Institutions have been largely active in theoretical developments in MMS for several decades. The work covers almost the entire range of areas under IFToMM. The IITs and IISc have largely been in the forefront as they have traditionally been well endowed. Other institutions like the NITs have however not lagged behind and their contribution has been proportional to their strength. IIT Delhi has a strong team working on Machine Dynamics, Multi Body Dynamics, Vibrations, Kinematics and Robotics and has been responsible for numerous developments in Robotics including ornithopters, Textile Machines. Recently, IIT Delhi initiated a 5-year programme on Autonomous Robotics, drawing faculty and students from Mechanical, Electrical, and Computer Science departments to develop technologies for nuclear and other industries. Over the years this institution has contributed significantly to Rotor dynamics, vibration measurements and so on.

330

C. Amarnath

IIT Kanpur has a long history of work on Kinematic Synthesis, Cams and Mechanism and Machine Dynamics followed later by significant contributions to Robotics. IIT Kanpur students have successfully built robotic devices that include autonomous aircraft. IIT Kanpur has also undertaken a program to develop robotic kits. The first Indian textbook on Mechanism and Machine Theory, widely adopted all over the country, was written by faculty members from IIT Kanpur. IIT Kharagpur was instrumental in the awakening of the area in the country in the sense that the Indian Society of Theoretical and Applied Mechanics was established by the IIT organized sessions on MMS long before the birth of AMM. Faculty from IIT Kharagpur played a significant role in popularizing MMS in India and could claim to be the first generation of researchers in MMS. IIT Madras was one of the strong centres in Kinematic Synthesis and Theoretical Kinematics. It also has several laboratories catering to Machine Dynamics and Material Handling Systems and has significantly contributed to experimental research on gears and other power transmission systems. There has lately been extensive experimental work on Robots and their applications at this IIT. More recently IIT Madras has initiated an exclusive program on Engineering Design, that aims at preparing students for a career in design of mechanical and mechatronic systems. IIT Bombay has had a group working on Kinematic Synthesis, Circuit Breaker Dynamics, Robotics, Programmable Linkage Mechanisms, Textile Mechanisms, Mechanical Logic Systems and MEMS. IISc at Bangalore has a long history of contribution to Kinematic Synthesis, Type and Number synthesis, Robotics, Manipulator Kinematics, Stewart Platforms and more recently on theory and experimentation on Compliant Mechanisms. IIT Roorkee (earlier Roorkee University) has also been instrumental in promoting the area. At the Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, several faculty and a large number of graduate students in the mechanical, aerospace engineering and the Centre for Product Design are involved in research activities involving analysis, design, modeling and simulation, and fabrication of mechanisms and machines. These range from development of robots capable of autonomously traversing uneven terrain, analysis and use of singularities in parallel kinematic manipulators, design and fabrications of improved laparoscopic surgical devices, MEMS, compliant mechanisms, and mechanisms for space applications. The contributions of several engineering institutions in the country are too vast to be captured here. The former Regional Engineering Colleges now renamed as National Institutes of Technologies, and several universities and private institutions have made significant contributions.

Student Activities In order to encourage young students and draw them towards engineering design and practice, a national robotic competition is being organized by India’s national

Developments in the Field of Machines and Mechanisms in India over the Ages

331

Fig. 3 Robotics competition

television network Doordarshan (Fig. 3). Student teams from numerous engineering institutions participate in this annual competition which is broadcast live across the country. Colleges are known to provide adequate funding for such activities as well as competitions organized by ASME, IEEE. Technology festivals organized by students consist of exhibitions and competitions in the area of MMS. AMM has also begun to organize student competitions to encourage students in the area of design of mechanical and mechatronic systems. At these competitions students are required to demonstrate well designed working models.

R&D Laboratories The Government of India had established several research laboratories under the Council of Scientific and Industrial Research, Defence Research and Development Organization, Indian Space Research Organization, Aeronautical Development Establishment, Department of Atomic Energy and several others. These organizations encouraged research in MMS and numerous product design teams benefitted from these efforts. Some of these technologies were licensed to other industries, the earliest and notable one being in agricultural machines the Swaraj Tractor (Fig. 4) developed by Central Mechanical Engineering Research Institute at Durgapur. CSIR Laboratories (CMERI, MERADO) and laboratories under the Atomic Energy Commission, Defence Laboratories and Aerospace Laboratories have been active in this area and have developed numerous devices. At the Centre for Artificial Intelligence and Robotics, various kinds of robots, stationary and mobile, are being designed and fabricated for surveillance and disaster management.

332

C. Amarnath

Fig. 4 Swaraj tractor

The Atomic Energy Units have strong groups for R&D in Mechatronics. The Bhabha Atomic Research Centre has developed most of the robots and remote handling systems required by the agency. Indian Space Research Organization (ISRO) and the ISRO Satellite Centre (ISAC) are involved in the analysis, design, fabrication and testing of a large number of mechanisms used in a variety of spacecraft. Some of the important ones are deployment mechanisms for solar panels, long booms, communication and other antennae, and hold down and release mechanisms for such deployable mechanisms. One recent example is a dual gimbals antennae mechanism used in the successful maiden Indian moon spacecraft Chandrayaan I. Large unfurlable antennae (more than 6 m diameter) to be used by spacecrafts from large distances are being designed, fabricated and tested at ISAC-ISRO. Public and private sector companies had begun with technologies obtained from their collaborators but several have their own R&D units addressing this area now. There are a large number of start-ups catering to the automation requirements of the country, and most cater to special purpose machine development. Manpower in these start-ups gather skills on the job and in a few instances move back to academic institutions for acquiring advanced skills. In a parallel effort industrial organizations, both private and government owned, had also initiated R&D in MMS and had developed several indigenous machinery. Indian industry depended and continues to depend on these efforts.

Indian MMS in 2010 The earlier closed economy permitted indigenous development but a combination of low market volumes and scarce capital resulted in lower outlays for R&D in all sectors. Additionally technical advances elsewhere were far more rapid and the

Developments in the Field of Machines and Mechanisms in India over the Ages

333

local industry was unable to penetrate international markets when the economy was opened up in the 1990s. The local industry had to contend with imported electronically controlled machines providing flexibilities in operation and far more energy efficient and productive than the earlier ones. To meet this rising trend and with the hope that local industry would take up the manufacture of such automatic machines, a large number of educational institutes began offering programs in Mechatronics and allied fields such as Robotics, Flexible Manufacturing and so on. R&D institutions around the country also initiated R&D efforts in these areas, but R&D outlays continue to remain low. A few enterprising individuals have forayed into the commercial development of computer controlled machinery and robotics and several national research organizations have undertaken development of advanced machinery for example in niche areas like nuclear plants, underwater and space exploration. These projects have been funded by government departments under the Ministry of Science and Technology, Department of Space, Atomic Energy and the like. This has resulted in considerable “capacity building” in terms of R&D capabilities. With the opening up of the economy in the 1990s there has been a sea change in the scenario. Taking advantage of the open-door policies several foreign companies began to establish manufacturing units and once it was realized that a talented pool of engineers is available they have been shifting their R&D divisions to India.

Trends in MMS Developments and IFToMM Influence The Association for Machines and Mechanisms (AMM) was established at the First National Conference on Machines and Mechanisms (NaCoMM), at IIT Bombay, in 1981 (Fig. 5) and was soon followed by the IFToMM World Congress at New Delhi in 1983. Prior to the establishment of AMM work on MMS was being presented at ISTAM conferences in the country, and publications were and continue to be in the Journals of The Institution of Engineers (India). NaCoMM conferences are held every odd year and during the even years AMM organizes IPRoMM (Industrial Problems in Machinery and Mechanisms). While the NaCoMM series addresses the science, the IPRoMM series of conferences address sectoral problems in the area. So far AMM has organized 14 NaCoMM conferences, the latest being at NIT Durgapur in Dec. 2009. An almost equal number of IPRoMM conferences were held with ATIRA, Ahmedabad and addressed issues in Textile Machinery. This was apt since the textile industry was perhaps the earliest organized sector of all Indian Industrial sectors. The most recent one organized by IIITDM, Kancheepuram and held at IIT Madras, Chennai, addressed issues in the Automotive Industry, once again apt as this sector is now growing rapidly within the country and also at Chennai. AMM has both individual and corporate members numbering a total of 250. Apart from organizing NaCoMM conferences and IPRoMM workshops AMM has

334

C. Amarnath

Fig. 5 Prof. J. S. Rao, Prof. Bedford, Mr. D.L. Shah (Chief Guest), Prof. Belgaumkar, Prof. S.P. Sharma, and C. Amarnath at the first NaCoMM Conference

promoted and promotes workshops, some of which receive IFToMM sponsorship. Several researchers from India are members of and chair IFToMM commissions and committees. Additionally, AMM has made provision to partially fund young researchers’ travel to IFToMM conferences and workshops.

Expectations and Critical Problems Globalization has drawn many technologies into India. As stated earlier Indian industry is also investing in R&D in MMS to a greater extent than earlier. Engineers passionate about R&D in MMS can be found in the national labs, academic institutions and large industrial units. A critical problem of adequately skilled manpower remains but is expected to improve as the manufacturing sector, hitherto dormant, takes off. With several career avenues open to youngsters, the manufacturing sector is unable to attract the best talent. Industrial Machinery development is one of the drivers for R&D in MMS. The market for machinery is not large in India and consequently there have been no efforts to develop state-of-art machines, machine components and sub-systems using advanced materials and technologies. Component and sub-system manufacturers do not possess the funds and capacity to undertake R&D, and consequently young engineers are not drawn into the area. With several generations of engineers not opting for machinery development there could be huge vacuum later on, as markets open further – and what would then keenly be felt is the absence of experienced design engineers. There is hence a big challenge here.

Developments in the Field of Machines and Mechanisms in India over the Ages

335

Conclusions Several researchers in India have been active in MMS over the years leading to the establishment of AMM and affiliation to IFToMM. Economic conditions however have dictated the practice in the area. With the current high growth of the economy the demand for automation and consequently work in MMS is likely to grow.

Bibliography Journal of the Institution for Engineers, India, Mechanical Engineering Division. Proceedings of Aerospace and Related Mechanisms Symposia, (ARMS). Proceedings of AIMTDR Conferences. Proceedings of National Conferences on Mechanisms and Machines (NaCoMM), 1981 onwards. Proceedings of VI World Congress on TMM, New Delhi, 1983. www.aicte.ernet.in/ApprovedInstitute.htm www.roboconindia.com/ www.ammindia.org/

The Influence of IFToMM and MMS in Present Day Italian Culture Alberto Rovetta

Abstract IFToMM activity in Italy has scored many successes, as evidenced by the strong development of Mechanics in Italy and the applications that Italian industries have created in mechatronics and its technologies. The Federation and its cooperating Institutions have had positive results in connecting with people in the forefront of other cultures. My own experience extends from the first years of IFToMM, in the early 1970s, through the International Congress of IFToMM in 1995, in Milan, up to today when science and technology have become interpreters of a globalized world. Regrettably, support for scientific research has decreased in Italy in recent years due to a lack of funds, a fact that effects above all the younger generation. It is necessary for IFToMM programs to take strong steps now to alleviate this situation.

Introduction The spirit of IFToMM is above all one of Friendship, a feeling that epitomized the atmosphere of all the days I spent in IFToMM, in Italy, Spain, Russia, Kazakhstan, France, USA, Mexico, Brazil, and many other countries. This spirit embraces both the emotions and mental activities that are fostered by the main characters in our story, the many members of IFToMM/MMS.

IFToMM, MMS and Their Trends in Action The major activities of IFToMM began in Italy in 1972, after the Congress of Kupari, with many Italian participants. The main protagonists of the theory of mechanisms and machines worked to prepare many volumes of proceedings through which the A. Rovetta (*) Dipartimento di Meccanica, Politecnico di Milano, Via Lamasa 34, 20156, Milan, Italy e-mail: [email protected] M. Ceccarelli (ed.), Technology Developments: the Role of Mechanism and Machine Science and IFToMM, Mechanisms and Machine Science 1, DOI 10.1007/978-94-007-1300-0_29, © Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2011

337

338

A. Rovetta

expertise of senior professors connected easily with the interests of young researchers who came from all over the world. Representatives of all the best Universities of the world were present, in particular many famous Professors from USA, USSR, Europe, Australia, and Asia who were among the founders of IFToMM, in Zakopane, and they represented a great dissemination of influence in their fields. Among the founders from Italy were Prof. G. Bianchi and Prof. A. Sobrero from the Udine CISM, which has always supported IFToMM. For many years IFToMM prepared important Congresses and workshops and supported many local activities, such as seminars and special courses. A main result was the development of kinematics and dynamics towards a significant robotics that had been supported strongly by IFToMM. Everyone remembers the yellow books of the first RoManSy in Udine, in 1972, with the best authors on this new, as yet unknown, field. Included also were reports of activity in several fields covering other items and subjects commensurate with the statutes of IFToMM.

IX Congress of IFToMM in Milan, Italy My personal recognition of the importance of IFToMM occurred during the IX Congress in Milano, at the end of August 1995, for 1 week. The participants represented 51 (fifty-one) countries, many with new flags, because the world was changing and new Countries had changed their flags. The 28th Executive Council Meeting took place in Milan on August 29th. The EC highly appreciated the work of Profs. A. Rovetta and G. Bianchi in the preparation of the 9th World Congress on TMM. It was a record of 581 participants from 51 countries registered. Four volumes of Proceedings containing 665 papers in 3,224 pages were published, which shows the growing activity in modern TMM all over the world. It is noteworthy that 33 complimentary fees (at 300 US $ each) were offered to delegates from a variety of countries. The final version of the IFToMM Constitution was published and distributed during the General Assembly, which took place in Milan, on August 31st 1995. It was our hope that this version and By-Laws would be the basic document of our Federation for the next 4 years. Looking back in 1969, when IFToMM was founded with only 9 members, the current membership of close to 40 countries shows an impressive growth over these 20 years. In this period, IFToMM became a strong and relevant organization. Political aspects arose immediately, but everything was well performed, in front of more than 900 participants. The feeling emanated from the spirit and expertise of the speakers, who had the opportunity to meet each other and start many cooperative projects. The country of Italy began to become familiar to them and the spirit of a deep cooperation filled everyone. The concluding event, on Saturday morning, August 28th, was the telecontrol of a shower of flowers in a garden in California, at UCLA, where George Bekey supported the action of a robot controlled from Milan. A special event was a surgical prostate operation on a patient, by means of a robot, controlled from the Congress

The Influence of IFToMM and MMS in Present Day Italian Culture

339

meeting room. Dr. E. Pisani, the surgical urologist, had strongly advocated for robotics for surgery, and the acceptance was positive in Italy. Preparations for the conference had been built step by step, and the happy atmosphere created by interested professors and active researchers meeting in relaxed circumstances offered a great opportunity also to the City of Milan. Among other amenities, the City gave to the participants a dinner in Castello Sforzesco, close to the works of Leonardo da Vinci, in a wonderful evening with stars and moon, and a red Alfa Romeo in the courtyard. The science discussed at this meeting demonstrated a common cultural interest, and the papers reflected the possibility of science being dedicated to a better quality of life, with widespread knowledge of the real world, from theory to everyday practice. Here I report on the event of the first telesurgery on a human patient, held in Milan, during the IXth IFToMM World Congress in Fig. 1 and Table 1 from ‘Safety on robotic telesurgery with reference to EU (European Union) normative’, Author: Prof. Alberto Rovetta N. AP-1 Proceedings of the IXth IFToMM World Congress, Vol.3, Milan, 28 August–1 September, 1995.

New IFToMM Results in Italy A great feeling for new developments is a characteristic of IFToMM. An example, strongly involving Italian research, was the publication in the IFToMM Journal in 2001 of a special paper devoted to Ancient Egypt. The author, Alberto Rovetta, examined and studied in depth the mechanics of ancient chariots in 1337 B.C. used by Pharaoh Tutankhamen. King Tutankhamen, the pharaoh who ruled Egypt more than 3,300 years ago, rode full speed over the desert dunes on a Formula One-like chariot, according to new investigations into the technical features of the boy king’s vehicle collection. Of the six chariots, one made its longest ride yet last week when it traveled outside Egypt for the first time in three millennia to the “Tutankhamen and the Golden Age of the Pharaohs” exhibit in New York’s Discovery Times Square Exposition on August 2010, presented by Discovery Channel, an important USA TV channel for science and technology. Discovered in pieces by British archaeologist Howard Carter when he entered King Tut’s treasure-packed tomb in 1922, the collection consisted of two large ceremonial chariots, a smaller highly decorated one, and three others that were lighter and made for daily use. “They were the Ferrari of antiquity. They boasted an elegant design and an extremely sophisticated and astonishingly modern technology,” Alberto Rovetta, professor in robotics engineering at the Polytechnic of Milan, told Discovery News. The chariot, Fig. 2, which is usually on display at Luxor museum, represents the high level of engineering sophistication reached by the Egyptian chariot builders in King Tut’s time, according to Rovetta. “These vehicles appear to be the first mechanical systems which combine the use of kinematics, dynamics and lubrication principles,” Rovetta said.

340

A. Rovetta

Fig. 1 Telesurgery experiments during the IXth IFToMM World Congress

Further studies, in collaboration with Nasry Iskander at the conservation department of the Egyptian Museum in Cairo, showed the unique interplay of form and function in King Tut’s chariots. These technical underpinnings involve the design of the wheels, the naves, the bearings, and the pole between the cart and the yoke. “The wheels feature a real tire, made of a flexible wood rim, which adapts to soil irregularities. Moreover, the six-spoke wheels are made from elastic wood. This absorbs uniformly the loads transmitted by soil irregularity, so that the vibrations are damped by the wheel itself like the intelligent suspensions in modern cars,”

The Influence of IFToMM and MMS in Present Day Italian Culture

341

Table 1 From paper by A. Rovetta at IXth IFToMM World Congress Objectives – The use of surgical telerobotics for a human patient on 1st September 1995, during the Sessions of the IXth World Congress of IFToMM on Theory of Machines and Mechanisms, during a session on robotics, in front of 600 scientists from 51 Countries, authorized by Ethical Committees and by Italian Ministry of Health, opened the problem of acceptance of surgical robotics and surgical telerobotics on human patients. Contents – The robotic system of the project is constituted by an operating theatre equipped with a robot, its controller, the control computer, the surgical process processing computer and the overall control computer, plus a remote station in which the surgeon performing the operation uses a keyboard, mouse or virtual glove to impart commands to the computer which transmits the operative data to the operating theatre, actuating the robot. The first experiment in telerobotic surgery carried out between the Jet Propulsion Laboratory in Pasadena, California and the Telerobotics Laboratory of the Politecnico di Milano on 7 July 1993. An Italian robot in the Telerobotics Laboratory was remotely controlled by an Italian surgeon in the USA. The robot’s task was to perform a surgical operation on a model containing a pig’s organs, involving execution of a biopsy, aspiration of organic material and two incisions in preparation of laparoscopy. Transmission was effected by means of a double satellite link with three transceiver stations one in Italy, one close to New York and one in Pasadena – and two geostationary satellites, the first over the Atlantic and the second over the United States. The route length of the signals was 150,000 km in each direction and the two centers are 10,000 km apart. After this, the telerobotic system was successfully used to telecontrol a robotized system during the execution of a prostate biopsy on a human patient on 1st September 1995 with optical fibers. The realization of the first prostate biopsy involving the use of a robotic and telerobotic system, designed in Politecnico di Milano, on a human patient, took place on 7th April 1995 in the Hospital Policlinico in Milan, Italy for the robotic operation, and on 1st September 1995 for the telerobotic operation, on human patients. The reliability and safety have been assessed by a series of experimental tests, aimed at guaranteeing working efficiency. The problems that emerged and was subsequently solved, concerned: – mechanical behavior of the human body, which varies between one person and another; – the presence of a certain nervous tension due to the novelty of the experiment; – the stability of the patient’s position, who on account of being under an anesthetic, did not move during the operation; – the presence of magnetic and electric fields, caused by other machinery for surgery, which did not, however, influence the robot’s behavior, or that of his controller or the computer. Results – The EEC Directive indicates which conditions must be respected in order to obtain the required safety. The directive of EU requires that it is compulsory to observe the “necessary qualification”of safety. Technical standards are not included in the Directive, because the quick change of technologies could make them obsolete, and are changed, according to new technologies. EU also provides a “Good Manufacturing Practice” (GMP) which referees to the suggestions that must be observed in design and production, even if no detailed standards are included in GMP. Future possible developments The list of requirements to be respected before that the robot may be introduced in surgical room for a biopsy is of 42 elements; after the certification about 42 elements, the robot is ready for tests in the pre-surgery room, before it is accepted in the surgery room. Telesurgery with robots became with IFToMM Congress a new methodology for medical use. Its use must be adopted in the world and it requires the accomplishment of many conditions, rules for practical and ethical reasons. The European Normative is very clear and requires many efforts tin order to follow them with the most complete prevention in front of mistakes and damages.

342

A. Rovetta

Fig. 2 The chariot on display at Luxor museum

Rovetta said. The result is a remarkable level of softness and comfort. Even at speeds of about 25 miles per hour on Egypt’s irregular soil, King Tut’s chariots were efficient and pleasant to ride. But there was more. “The bearings are built exploiting the modern principle of a hard material against a soft material and by applying animal grease between the surfaces. The grease reduces friction and increases running duration,” Rovetta said. The result is a remarkable level of softness and comfort. Even at speeds of about 25 miles per hour on Egypt’s irregular soil, King Tut’s chariots were efficient and pleasant to ride. IFToMM Journal was the first scientific Journal to present a full paper with all the formulas and technological details. Now it is easy to find there the real explanation of the role of technology in ancient Egypt. This characteristic of flexibility allowed IFToMM in Italy to represent a sure step for young and less young professors to present their new researches, new ideas, and developing activities. It is a very important role to be continued always.

Next Steps Towards the Future The future of IFToMM is bright; Italy has always accepted this organization’s feelings and ideas as continuing support for science and culture. Globalization now puts Italy in the centre of the cultural world and opportunities can be found in this friendly and cooperative world. IFToMM is the Institution where friendship and knowledge go together towards the best quality of life.

Achievements in Machine Mechanism Science in Lithuania Vytautas Ostasevicius

Abstract Lithuania – one of the Baltic countries – has deep roots in mechanical engineering. The famous seventeenth century scientist Kazimieras Simonavicius wrote the first book on the art of artillery. The educational material related to TMM studies in the Applied Mechanics course was first read in Vilnius University at the end of the eighteenth century. In the beginning of the twentieth century mechanical sciences were studied in the Vytautas Magnus University – in Kaunas, temporal capital of Lithuania. From 1950 Kaunas Polytechnic institute became the leader of engineering studies; when the biggest research center in the former Soviet Union, dedicated to “Vibroengineering”, was established, the MMS related to IFToMM activities were the main priority of the research.

Historical Perspective Looking back at the Lithuanian history of mechanical sciences one may first note Kazimieras Simonavicius who was a well – known creator of rocket theory. Kazimieras Simonavicius (Kazimierz Siemienowicz), (1600–1651), born in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania was a General of artillery, gunsmith, military engineer, artillery specialist and pioneer of rocketry (Fig. 1). In his dedication, he refers to himself as a Lithuanian nobleman. Simonavicius was educated in the Academy of Vilnius, capital of Lithuania. He was fascinated by artillery since childhood, and he studied many sciences to increase his knowledge. Simonavicius served as an engineering expert in the field of artillery and rocketry in the royal artillery forces. In 1650 Simonavicius published his famous work Artis Magnae Artilleriae pars prima (Great Art of Artillery, the First Part). This work, also known as “The Complete Art of Artillery”, was first printed in

V. Ostasevicius (*) Kaunas University of Technology, Studentu st. 65, LT – 51369 Kaunas, Lithuania e-mail: [email protected] M. Ceccarelli (ed.), Technology Developments: the Role of Mechanism and Machine Science and IFToMM, Mechanisms and Machine Science 1, DOI 10.1007/978-94-007-1300-0_30, © Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2011

343

344

V. Ostasevicius

Fig. 1 Multi-stage rocket, from Kazimieras Simonavičius Artis Magnae Artilleriae pars prima

Fig. 2 Building in Kaunas, where Higher Courses in 1920 were established, that later became University of Lithuania

Amsterdam in 1650, was translated into French in 1651, German in 1676, English and Dutch in 1729 and Polish in 1963. For over two centuries this work was used in Europe as a basic artillery manual. The book provided the standard designs for creating rockets, fireballs, and other pyrotechnic devices. It discussed for the first time the idea of applying a reactive technique to artillery. It contains a large chapter on caliber, construction, production and properties of rockets (for both military and civil purposes), including multistage rockets, batteries of rockets, and rockets with delta wing stabilizers (instead of the common guiding rods). Simonavicius’ inventions were used in many battles.

Early Achievements in Research and Education The material related to MMS studies in the Applied Mechanics course started to be read in Vilnius University at the end of the eighteenth century .The department of Applied Mechanics and Mechanism Model Cabinet was established there in 1806 although engineers were not prepared at this university [1, 2]. The first high school in which mechanical engineering was taught was Vytautas Magnus University (VMU) in Kaunas (Fig. 2). The university was founded in 1922

Achievements in Machine Mechanism Science in Lithuania

345

during the interwar period as an alternate national university. Initially it was known as the University of Lithuania, but in 1930 the university was renamed to Vytautas Magnus University. In the University’s faculty of technical sciences, the department of Mechanical technologies (later on called the Department of Metal technologies) was established in 1924. In the laboratory of Materials resistance a new hydraulic test machine with 50 t of power, bought from Amsler, was established in 1926 and is still working nowadays. Later yet, a hydraulic press of 200 t of power was bought, together with Shenk type fatigue apparatus. In 1930 the laboratory was fully equipped. It satisfied the needs of the University, as well as took orders from civil engineering and other companies. During this time it was the best laboratory in the whole Baltic region.

Trends in MMS Developments and IFToMM Influence The fundamentals of terminology in Lithuanian were laid in the beginning of the twentieth century. After incorporation of Lithuania into the USSR, the Lithuanian language remained in usage in the country’s higher schools: three widely used textbooks on MMS have been written in Lithuanian up to now. In former USSR technical universities (including Lithuanian ones) MMS course programs continue to hold very strong positions. It has been studied during two semesters and included 64 h. of lectures, 48 h of lab work and practice. The course project has been carried out and consisted of five parts (kinematics, dynamics, force analysis, gears and cams). In the Kaunas Polytechnic Institute (Kaunas University of Technology now), the largest technical university in the Baltic States, the entire department of MMS has been established with staff up to 10 lecturers. The greatest influence on Mechanical sciences at Kaunas Polytechnic Institute, which was established in 1950, after reorganization of Vytautas Magnus University, was exerted by the Vibroengineerings centre, established in 1960. In the long run this centre became the biggest centre of the kind in Soviet Union. The activities of the Vibroengineering research centre influenced greatly the level of research and education in the field of MMS. A strong scientific school was formed here, which made an impressive contribution to science and practical experience, investigating mechanical vibrations and developing its practical applications. The contribution to ultrasonic motors development was pioneering – the main principal schemes of action were systematized, the first monograph in the world on the topic was published and a lot of practical motors and devices applying them developed, including the first manipulator based on application of ultrasonic motors. Many high level experts and professors were educated here, being main contributors in different fields of MMS up to now including educational activities. Academician Kazimieras Ragulskis [3] was head of the centre and coordinated all it’s activities. In 1952 K. Ragulskisa became a doctoral student in the institute of Machine Building of the SU Academy of Sciences in Moscow. His supervisor

346

V. Ostasevicius

was a famous scientist in the field of MMS – I. Artobolevski. From this time, Lithuanian relations with IFToMM became very stable and close. K. Ragulskis created a perspective scientific school – precise vibromechanics and vibroengineering. He developed the theory of self organization effects of nonlinear vibrating systems (among them essentially nonlinear combined dynamical synchronization, dynamically formed system structure and trajectories of motion, self resonance, transformation of vibrations and waves into continuous motions) and revealed some their qualities. On the basis of principles derived from this research, new mechanical systems were constructed: original precise microrobots, micromanipulators, mechanisms, machines and technologies, vibromotors, vibrostabilizers, vibrodosators, separators, which were implemented in the field of aerospace, IT, precise mechanics and electronics. K. Ragulskis was an academician of the Lithuanian Academy of Sciences and a Corresponding member of the Russian Academy of Sciences. He is the author or coauthor of 26 monographs, editor of more than 160 books and issues of journals, author of more than 700 scientific articles, more than 1,700 patents and inventions, and scientific supervisor of more than 300 doctoral and doctor habilitus theses. K. Ragulskis’ scientific accomplishments and his scientific school are highly valued. His former and recent scientific works are significant for modern science and they continue together with his younger colleagues – R. Bansevicius, V. Ostasevicius, T. Tolocka, A. Fedaravicius, J. Gecevicius and many others. Ramutis Bansevicius [4–7] was elected rector of Kaunas University of Technology (2000–2007), director of the Institute of Piezomechanics as well as chairman of the Technical Division of the Lithuanian Academy of Sciences (1997–2005). Recently he became director of Mechatronics Research, Studies and Information centre. He has written over 150 scientific papers, 300 USSR inventions, 12 patents in Precision Mechanics and Robotics, and five books, written with co-authors. His works related to piezomechanics, which has deep research traditions: developing the method of vibrations conversion into continuous motion (1969); traveling wave vibromotors of linear and rotary motion (1970); piezoelectric magnetic tape actuators (1971); autonomous linear and rotary piezoelectric motors (1974); piezoelectric motors with several degrees of freedom (1979); piezoelectric motors with flexible links (1982); piezoelectric actuators with separated power and control systems (1983); piezoelectric laser scanning devices; piezoelectric robots (1984); concept of vibrational energy dissipation by piezoelectric material with additional electric circuits (1985); the concept of composite piezoelectric/magnetostrictive transducers; application of liquid crystals for visualization (1987); the concept of active bearings, slides and guides (1995); visualization of magnetic fields by composite piezoactive/liquid crystal layers (1996); the concepts of Piezomechanics and Adaptive Mechanics (1996); composite piezoelectric/electrorheological fluids damping elements (1997); porous piezoactive flexible material PVDF/electrorheological fluid damping composites (1998); the application of piezotransformers for rheology characteristic’s measurements (2001); new applications for Mechatronics devices: SPA, Smart Composites, ITACTI, POLECER, MINUET, Magic Glasses (2003–2008). Some of original patented piezomechanical devices are presented in the Figs. 3–5.

Achievements in Machine Mechanism Science in Lithuania

347

Fig. 3 Applications of Piezomechanics

After Lithuania regained its independence, the development of our universities’ study programs was directed to incorporate a western system of education and to create the necessary premises for student exchange and staff cooperation. Such tendency and further humanitarisation of universities, followed by new special

348

V. Ostasevicius

Positioning on the plane (2 DOF)

Controlling the position of laser beam in space (mass of the mirror –40 kg)

Piezotransducer with the superposition of resonant longitudinal (first form) and in-plane bending oscillations(2nd form) Basic schematics of piezomotors

Two active eements in the contact zonel

Configuration of sectioned electrodes to effect controlled elliptical oscillations of piezoplate

Fig. 4 Piezomotors

The first translational motion piezoelectric motors(1974)

Achievements in Machine Mechanism Science in Lithuania

349

Transforming the longitudinal (first form) and in-plane bending oscillations (second form) of the piezoceramic plate into continuous motion

Elastic slider performs the function of the spring

The main advantage –simple superposing of resonant frequencies of both transducers

Piezoceramic cylinder with sectioned electrodes

In a contact zone two oscillations are being summed up, leading to the displacement of the slider

Devices with separated power and control functions

A case of statically non-determined system

Fig. 5 Applications of Piezoceramics

subject expansion, led to a contraction of the MMS. Now in KTU we have six ECTS credit MMS course (3 h theory, 1 h practice and 1 h labwork per week) for Mechanical Engineering direction study programs. In the field of education there are two leading universities in Lithuania – Vilnius Gediminas Technical University and Kaunas University of Technology, in which different courses of MMS are included in the programs of different faculties. The research topics of V. Ostasevičius [8–12], who is now Professor, Doctor Habilitus, and Chairman of the IFToMM Lithuanian National Committee, are related to elastic systems and increase of their effectiveness in macro and micro scales, related to the possibility of control of their dynamic characteristics. New findings of the significant increase of energy dissipation and frequency in elastic links are related to: Placement of structural elements at particular points; Application of optimal configurations; Division by different cross sections;

350

V. Ostasevicius

Proper selection of the structural elements’ stiffness and placement; Supplementary high frequency excitation; Selection of the ratio of natural frequencies of joined structural elements. These revealed new effects of nonlinear mechanics are related to the design and optimization of different machines and mechanisms. More precise explanation of these enumerated applications could be the following: The minimization of rebound amplitudes of impacting structural elements is achievable when they are located in their third mode particular points. Based on the fact that vibro-impact process of elastic structure is largely effected by the first three vibration modes, we are able to markedly shorten the transient processes of commutating devices or cutting tools and at the same time to reduce post-impact link rebound amplitudes. The predominant frequency and mode of vibrations of an optimal configuration elastic structure coincide with the frequency given during optimal design. The interacting structural elements with optimal configurations obtained for the second and third natural frequencies could be applied for stable high frequency commutation. The amplitudes of vibrations of an elastic structure with different cross sections decreases in the case when natural frequencies of parts that are divided by different cross sections differ by twice and increases when they are equal. This vibro-impact system identification method could be used for the diagnostics of defective structures. A structural element becomes vibrostable if it is supported in the nodal point of the second transverse vibration mode. At certain stiffnesses of the supporting element the elastic structure attains few higher modes, when the first mode under these conditions disappears. This phenomenon could be useful for increasing the vibrostability of kinematically excited structures. Supplementary at its own higher frequencies, an excited elastic structure becomes a vibration and chatter absorber in contact with other links. For example, parametrical excitation of the higher vibration mode of a cutting tool increases the magnitude of internal energy dissipation inside the tool material and thereby makes the tool a more effective damper, which positively influences the quality of the workpiece, providing the possibility to reduce chatter. The vibration amplitudes of an elastic structure composed from few elastic links could be decreased if its natural frequencies differ twice. This phenomenon could be useful for amelioration of the commutating devices dynamics such as speed of operation or vibrostability.

Conclusions One may note that Lithuania has many achievements not only in MMS but also in its applications. Most of the applications are related to high precision mechanism structures for different high – tech equipment. The School of Mechanics in

Achievements in Machine Mechanism Science in Lithuania

351

Lithuania is a primary leading influence among other fields of studies and research. Due to this, it is possible to create innovative products in Lithuania and to participate in various projects abroad.

References 1. Jankauskas, P.: Applied Mechanics I Part (1926) 2. Čiurlys, J.: Machine Theory (I and II parts) (1941) 3. Science and Arts of Lithuania, Academicaian Kazimieras Ragulskis and his scientific school, Institute of Science Development, 726 p. (2006) 4. Bansevicius, R., Ragulskis, K., et al.: Vibromotors for Precision Microrobots, 310 p. Hemisphere Publishing Corp, New York (1988). ISBN 0-89116054905 5. Ragulskis, K., Bansevicius, R.: Vibromotors, 193 p. Mokslas, Vilnius (1981). (In Russian) 6. Bansevicius, R., Ragulskis, K., et al.: Vibrational Transformers of Motion, 64 p. Mashinostrojenije, Leningrad (1984). In Russian 7. Ragulskis, K., Bansevicius, R., et al.: Robots for Miniature Parts, 264 p. Mashinostrojenije, Moscow (1985) 8. Ostasevicius, V., Ostasevicius, V., et al.: Contact Systems, 280 p. Mashinostrojenije, St. Petersburg (1987) 9. Ostasevicius, V., Gaidys, R., Dauksevicius, R.: Numerical analysis of dynamic effects of a nonlinear vibro-impact process for enhancing the reliability of contact-type MEMS devices. Sensors 9, 10201–10216 (2009) 10. Ostasevicius, V., Dauksevicius, R., Gaidys, R., Palevicius, A.: Numerical analysis of fluid– structure interaction effects on vibrations of cantilever microstructure. J. Sound Vib. 308, 660–673 (2007) 11. Ostasevicius, V., Dauksevicius, R., Gaidys, R.: Study of natural frequency shifting in a MEMS actuator due to viscous air damping modeled by nonlinear Reynolds equation. J. Vibroeng. 10, 388–396 (2008) 12. Dauksevicius, R., Ostasevicius, V., Gaidys, R.: Research of nonlinear electromechanical and vibro-impact interactions in electrostatically driven microactuator. J. Vibroeng. 10, 90–97 (2008)

The Mexican Contribution to Mechanism and Machine Science and Technology Ricardo Chicurel-Uziel, Alberto Caballero-Ruiz, Leopoldo Ruiz-Huerta, and Alfonso Pámanes-García

Abstract An overview of current activity related to mechanism and machine research and development in Mexico is presented. Examples of some significant accomplishments are described to illustrate this activity. Historical trends and events that have been influential in promoting work in this area are identified. These include the creation of the National Council for Science and Technology, the implementation of post graduate educational programs, the creation of the Mexican IFToMM Commission, and the establishment of a considerable number of government and private research centers.

Introduction and Historical Background During the colonial period, coinciding approximately with the sixteenth through the eighteenth centuries, interest in mechanical technology in New Spain, as Mexico was known at that time, centered in mining equipment, which is not surprising considering Spain’s eagerness to exploit the vast mining resources of the New World.

R. Chicurel-Uziel (*) Instituto de Ingeniería, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Apartado Postal 70-472, Coyoacán 04510, México D.F., Mexico e-mail: [email protected] A. Caballero-Ruiz and L. Ruiz-Huerta Centro de Ciencias Aplicadas y Desarrollo Tecnológico, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Circuito Exterior s/n, Ciudad Universitaria, Coyoacán 04510, México D.F., Mexico A. Pámanes-García Facultad de Ingeniería Mecánica y Eléctrica, Universidad Autónoma de Coahuila, Carretera Matamoros Km. 7.5, Ciudad Universitaria, C.P. 27276 Torreón, Coahuila, Mexico M. Ceccarelli (ed.), Technology Developments: the Role of Mechanism and Machine Science and IFToMM, Mechanisms and Machine Science 1, DOI 10.1007/978-94-007-1300-0_31, © Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2011

353

354

R. Chicurel-Uziel et al.

The focus on mining equipment persisted through the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. After the Mexican Independence in 1810, some attempts were made to develop textile equipment. 1857 marked the arrival of the railway in Mexico which brought a massive introduction of machinery and in the early 1900s the Monterrey Foundry was founded; by 1910 it was sufficiently efficient and capable of meeting the international requirements for its products, and to satisfy the Mexican needs as well as some export demands. Some decades later, there were some attempts to produce machine tools, locomotives and goods in order to fulfill the necessities of the oil, mining and rail industries [1–3]. The Second World War brought the reali zation that Mexico’s almost total dependence on imported manufactured goods, mainly from the United States, was a fundamental barrier against progress. Miguel Aleman, president of Mexico from 1946 to 1952, initiated a vigorous and quite successful program to industrialize the country. Although production was based mostly on imported technology, it offered an inducement for many young people to study mechanical, electrical, chemical and industrial engineering and inspired a few to be innovators in those areas. This interest was reinforced by the need to build some production machinery with whatever resources were available and to take advantage of laws introduced to protect the Mexican industry. The Mexican educational effort related to mechanical engineering began with the Military College, founded in 1822, during the Porfirio Diaz period. It was in this college where the first handbook of mechanical engineering in Mexico was written; the principal areas on which it focused were war related subjects, hydraulics engineering, bridge and road engineering, and building construction engineering. In 1915 the Practical School of Mechanical, Electrical and Mechanical-Electrical Engineering (EPIME-ME) derived from the Arts and Trades National School, was founded; over time, this school would take the name of Superior School of Mechanical and Electrical Engineering (ESIME). In 1937, the National Polytechnic Institute opened and absorbed the ESIME. The history of engineering in the National Autonomous University of Mexico (UNAM) started with the seminar on mining developed from the necessity of efficiently exploiting the mines of the New Spain (1792). During President Benito Juarez’s government, the National School of Engineering and the majors of Civil, Mining, Mechanical, and Electrical engineering were created. In 1910, the National University, currently known as UNAM, opened its doors. The 1970s brought about two government actions that have been very significant in promoting scientific and technological pursuits: the creation of the National Council on Science and Technology and a decree that established regional technological institutes which opened up a new, more viable option to study engineering for many young people throughout the country. Post graduate programs in mechanical engineering, fundamental to the advancement of mechanism and machine science and technology, were nonexistent until 1969, when such a program was created at UNAM, the National Autonomous University of Mexico. It is noteworthy that professor Jorge Angeles, ex-president of IFToMM, earned the first master’s degree within that program. At present, there are more than 15 educational institutions offering degrees at the master and doctoral level in mechanical engineering.

The Mexican Contribution to Mechanism and Machine Science and Technology

355

The Role of Educational and Public Research Institutions Educational institutions have given much of the impetus in the search for innovative ideas related to machines and mechanisms. No doubt that this is due in good part to a dramatic increase during the past few decades in the number of academics that hold master’s and doctor’s degrees, many obtained in prestigious institutions in various countries. The number of research papers and other technical publications being produced by this group grew considerably over the years; however, not much interaction with industry had been taking place. This situation is changing as colla boration with and transfer of technology to the productive sector is becoming more common. An outstanding example of this activity is that of the Center for Mechanical Design and Technological Innovation (CDMIT) of the Engineering School of UNAM, founded in 1976 by Professor Alberto Camacho-Sanchez. Since its creation, the Center has designed and developed many processes and special purpose machines for various industries, such as equipment to manufacture surgical needles, machines for packaging plastic bags, for producing bricks, for handling and counting medicine tablets, and for canceling mailing stamps. A number of research centers associated with federal agencies and/or state governments are embarking on projects in areas within the interests of IFToMM. Among these are the Center for Research and Technical Assistance of the State of Queretaro (CIATEQ), the Mexican Petroleum Institute (IMP), the Institute for Electrical Research (IIE), and the Center for Engineering and Industrial Development (CIDESI).

Contribution of Industry The industrial sector in Mexico has been largely dependent on processes and designs brought in from abroad. However, starting in the late twentieth century, a clear trend to generate technology locally has emerged. This is quite evident, even though it is difficult to assess the extent of research and development work in industry for the obvious reason that much of it must remain secret. A few of the larger companies, such as Grupo Vitro, Delphi, Tremec and Condumex, have added research and development divisions. Also, it is becoming more and more common for industrial companies to seek the assistance of educational institutions in the solution of technical problems and in the development of new products.

Some Recent Contributions (Last 30 Years) Following are short descriptions of a few examples of research or development projects related to mechanisms and machine science and technology carried out in Mexican institutions

356

R. Chicurel-Uziel et al.

Corn Tortilla Machine Corn tortilla is one of the basic food products in Mexico and other countries of Central America. It is a disc-shaped flat bread made of corn dough (masa) 160 to 250 mm in diameter and 1–2 mm thick. Tortillas, which were produced in Mexico even before the colonial period, must be oven baked at between 280°C and 300°C and should be consumed at between 20°C and 35°C. This product is made nowadays by means of automatic machinery, capable of taking a small lump of dough, shaping it, baking it, and placing the resulting tortilla in a stack. Different kinds of devices were developed to help in the tortilla making-process, but the first automated machines did not appear until 1956, when the continuous ovens where incorporated into the process. These devices bake the tortillas as they are transported on a metallic conveyor arrangement [4, 5]. A schematic diagram of this arrangement is shown in Fig. 1.

Optimum Balancing of a Three- Piston Reciprocating Machine A one degree-of-freedom planar linkage mechanism having 7 moving links (one crank, three connecting rods and three reciprocating pistons) representing an air-compressor was kinematically and dynamically analyzed. The results of such analysis were applied to find the mass moment of the required balancer counterweight. Then an optimization process was carried out to design the counterweight of minimum mass. Constraints associated with the available space in the machine

Fig. 1 Diagram of the main components of Celorio type machine (Figure from reference [5])

The Mexican Contribution to Mechanism and Machine Science and Technology

357

were taken into account during the optimization process in order to obtain a realistic solution. The machine was developed by the ITSA Company in Torreon, Coahuila, Mexico. The whole study was developed by A. Pamanes in La Laguna Institute of Technology (ITLag). It was the thesis subject to obtain the master’s degree in mech anical engineering at the National Polytechnic Institute (IPN) in 1984. Preliminary results were published by A. Pamanes and J. García [6]. An approximate second approach to find the mass moment of the balancer counterweight was presented by V. Gutierrez et al [7].

Sprocket Rotary Pump This is a positive displacement hydraulic pump that originated in a concept patented by R. Chicurel in 1988 [8]. The applications are similar to those where gear pumps are used, with certain advantages: (1) a simpler geometry requiring only plane or circular cylindrical machined surfaces; (2) ripple free flow; (3) all the hydraulic power transmitted directly to the fluid by a drive disk, avoiding power flow between mechanical components. After a development period carried out jointly by DYFIMSA, a company located in Mexico City and the Engineering Institute of UNAM, the National Autonomous University of Mexico, the pump reached the production stage in the early 1990s. Figure 2a is a schematic diagram of the original version, which is the one that has been produced so far. Recently, an improved version for which a patent has been applied for, was developed under a new agreement between the Engineering Institute and DYFIMSA. A diagram of the new version is shown in Fig. 2b, and a photograph of a prototype in Fig. 3. The advantages of the new version are discussed in detail in ref [9]. These include: improved performance, and simplified manufacturing and maintenance. Other papers on the sprocket pump are references [10–12].

Fig. 2 Sprocket pump. (a) original version, (b) improved version

358

R. Chicurel-Uziel et al.

Fig. 3 Prototype of the new version of the sprocket pump

Positioning Robot for the Secondary Mirror of the Large Milimetric Telescope The GTM (Spanish initials for Large Milimetric Telescope) radio telescope is an instrument that will be capable of detecting low energy, sub-milimetric wavelength radiation, known as cold radiation waves, that were generated when the universe was created during the “big-bang”. It is the largest of its kind in the world. Its primary mirror is a dish 50 m in diameter. A secondary mirror, located at the focus of the primary mirror, has a diameter of 2.6 m. It reflects the radiation to a tertiary flat mirror. The positioning robot, designed and built at CIATEQ, must adjust the position and alignment of the secondary mirror with an accuracy of less than 2 mm under extreme environmental conditions at an altitude of 4,600 m. The positioning robot, shown in Fig. 4, is a hexapod with six specially designed linear, high precision actuators, incorporating a closed loop control system with ultra precise linear encoders. An external calibration method requiring electronic compensation was developed to achieve the accuracy required. The members of the team responsible for this project are: Juan Carlos A. JáureguiCorrea, Oscar M. González-Brambila, Jesús Eduardo Villagómez-Orozco, Alejandro García-Arredondo, Carlos S. López-Cajún, and Victor Iván De Anda-Flores.

“Electrovira”, Vehicle with 180° Steering Interval A prototype of a highly maneuverable electrical vehicle, expected to be used as a delivery van, is now being promoted among potential manufacturers. The proportions of the steering mechanism were determined by an optimization program so as to minimize the error referring to the Law of Steering or Ackerman Geometry, which requires that, while turning, all four wheels should have concentric circular arc trajectories. The maximum computed error was 0.6%. The steering system includes

The Mexican Contribution to Mechanism and Machine Science and Technology

359

Fig. 4 Positioning robot for the secondary mirror of the Large Milimetric Telescope

Fig. 5 The Electrovira with steering mechanism in straight ahead position, and in 90° left turn position

two gear sets that amplify the steering angle so that the wheels sweep an angle of 180°. [13], Fig. 5. The vehicle is equipped with two drive units, each mounted on a steering frame. Each unit is made up of an electric motor, two chain reducing drives, and a drive wheel. The motors are series type, 16 kW @ 6500 rpm, 115 VDC continuous service and 60 kW on peaks. Each motor is equipped with a chopper type controller. There is no mechanical differential because the controllers perform electronically the equivalent function. There is no gearbox because the motor characteristics are such that it is not required. The brakes are drum type. The vacuum pump of the booster is driven by an electric motor.

360

R. Chicurel-Uziel et al.

Members of the team responsible for this project are: Enrique Chicurel-Uziel and Filiberto Gutiérrez-Martínez.

Automatic Filler and Sealer for PVC Ampoules The filling, capping and sealing of bottles or ampoules are technologies that move rapidly today. Pharmaceutical, food and cosmetics companies are constantly deve loping new products and new ways of packaging their articles using innovative geometries and materials. Machine designers therefore face the challenge of investigating new mechanisms and production processes to efficiently fill and seal new plastic containers that enclose novel liquid compounds. To mention one example, if we consider the fact that over four million ampoules are produced monthly within only one of the numerous facilities established in Mexico, and also the circumstance that the physical and chemical properties of the liquids being bottled periodically change, it is possible to estimate the importance of designing and developing automatic filling-sealing machines that fulfill the needs of this very dynamic environment. The CDMIT carried out research work to determine the basic process steps, process cycle times, temperature ranges and air pressure operation values required to successfully seal PVC ampoules that contain cosmetic fluids. The results of this work were used in the design, fabrication and testing of an automatic system that can fill and seal ampoules at a rate of 240 pieces per minute. The prototype machine developed uses two rotary heads to accomplish liquid feeding and sealing operations, Fig. 6. The innovative sealing head comprises 12-conforming rotary dies and a circular heating system. The machine is currently operating in the

Fig. 6 Filler and sealer systems. From left to right: Ampoule feeding screw, filling rotary head and sealing head

The Mexican Contribution to Mechanism and Machine Science and Technology

361

production line of a manufacturer established in Mexico; see Refs. [14–18]. Members of the team responsible for this project are: Alejandro Ramírez-Reivich, Marcelo Lopez-Parra, Gustavo Olivares and Vicente Borja.

Micro Machine Tools (MMT) The Micromechanics and Mechatronics Group (GMM) at UNAM, founded in 1999, developed its first prototype of a Micro Machine Tool (MMT) in 2000 (Fig. 7a). This prototype has an overall size of 130 × 160 × 85 mm and 1.8 mm of resolution. One of the principal goals of GMM in Mexico is to keep a low cost production for micromechanics devices by applying simple but efficient solutions to substitute expensive components in the development of hardware. In order to improve some

Fig. 7 (a) First prototype of a Micro Machine Tool (MMT) (b) Most recent prototype of MMT (c) Ghost view of the most recent prototype

362

R. Chicurel-Uziel et al.

features such as resolution, precision and accuracy, this research group has developed sophisticated control systems to reduce some hardware problems [19]. In the last 10 years, the GMM has developed three new prototypes, increasing the resolution, reducing the backlash, simplifying the design and reducing the number of components, and taking advantage of the new infrastructure of CNC machines to achieve better components. The most recent prototype of a MMT was developed by the research group in 2010; its overall dimensions are 110 × 110 × 110 mm, and achieves 140 nm of resolution (Fig. 7b, c). With this type of equipment, the group is able to manufacture small parts such as shafts 50 mm in diameter and 650 mm in length.

Microdrive for Extracellular Neural Studies To investigate the neural activity in small animals like birds or rats by means of microelectrodes, it is necessary to introduce them into some regions of the brain to register multiple neurons simultaneously without disturbing the animal’s behavior. The microdrive developed is a novel automated system to aid extracellular neural studies in rats. The system allows relocating a microelectrodes array along the zone of interest of the animal’s brain when the loss of signal takes place due to the natural animal’s movements. The microdrive is based on a novel stepping micromotor based on the Lorentz force coupled to a mechanism that allows employing an open-loop control system in order to automate the system. This microdrive has overall dimensions of 20 × 25 × 24 mm, weighs 10 g, has a resolution of 5.5 mm and a stroke of about 3 mm. The displacement has a linearity of 0.9999 with a standard deviation of about 3.19 mm. This system, shown in Fig. 8, represents a low cost alternative to perform long time extracellular studies in rats [20].

Fig. 8 Microdrive for extracellular studies in rats

The Mexican Contribution to Mechanism and Machine Science and Technology

363

Trends in MMs Developments and IFToMM Influence Creative activity in Mechanism and Machine Science (MMS) and technology in Mexico has been steadily growing during the past few decades. One measure of this growth is the trend in the number of papers presented nationally. Before the foun ding of SOMIM in 1994, the usual forum for paper presentations in MMS was the once-a-year congress of ANIAC. The average number of papers that were presented in each of the four congresses, during the period 1979–1982, was 68, most of them within the areas covered by IFToMM. By comparison, the average number presented at the SOMIM 2008 and 2009 congresses is 153. The areas that are growing more vigorously are robotics, mechatronics, micromechanics, bioengineering and energy related investigations, much in line with trends observed globally. Not only has there been a healthy growth in activity related to MMS, but more of it is being channeled to practical applications thanks to a more receptive industrial sector to the work of educational and research institutions. A fruitful connection between Mexican researchers and IFToMM was established early on. A particularly interesting example is the long standing connections that Prof. Marco Ceccarelli, IFToMM’s President for the term 2008–2011, has made in Mexico over the years. These connections have been aimed at, on one hand, streng thening graduate programs oriented to MMS, and on the other, establishing durable working liaisons between MO’s. Mexico was admitted as member of IFToMM in 1977. This has stimulated quite visibly the activities of researchers and engineers in the country. During many years, IFToMM symposia were included as part of the congresses that the Mexican National Academy of Engineering (ANIAC) used to hold every year. The role of ANIAC was transferred to SOMIM in 1994, the year that Society was founded. It is significant that the Mexican presence in IFToMM World and Regional Congresses has steadily grown. In fact, in 2002 the first IFToMM sponsored conference on Multibody Systems and Mechatronics (MuSMe) took place in Mexico City. This conference, held at Universidad Panamericana (UP), was promoted by Prof. Ceccarelli and Prof. Mario Acevedo (from UP). Moreover, the Mexican commitment to IFToMM’s objectives and events is highlighted by the fact that the proposal, by the Mexican delegation to host the 2011 World Congress won approval by the General Assembly at its meeting during the 2007 World Congress in Besançon, France.

Expectations and Critical Problems The future of MMS in Mexico will be defined in great measure by guidelines established by the Federal Government because it is the source of most of the funds available for research. These guidelines are becoming quite clear and reflect an emphasis on priority areas such as water availability, energy conservation, health, and protection of the environment. The potential gravity of the problems envisioned

364

R. Chicurel-Uziel et al.

in relation to these areas cannot be overemphasized, and many researchers in the Country have voiced concern that very little funding has been available to look for solutions. A concrete statement on this situation is found in [21]: “In the year 2000, the Mexican government made it known that it was interested in increasing the investment in Science, Technology and Innovation, from 0.22% of its GNP (Gross National Product) to 1.2%. At that time, China was investing 0.64% of its GNP in those areas. However, by 2006, Mexico’s corresponding investment had risen to 0.64%, whereas China’s had advanced to over 1.42%” (Authors’ translation). Additionally to this economic limitation, there is very little collaboration among researchers, which sometimes is a handicap to reach the desired results in projects where teamwork is the appropriate operating form. This lack of cooperative effort may be directly related to rating standards and methods that reward the individual’s direct achievements, discriminating against work done jointly with other colleagues. Some researchers feel strongly that existing government policies to provide financial support to Mexican industries for research and development are not consistently oriented towards diminishing in a significant way their dependence on foreign technology, particularly in sectors that are economically important such as machine tools, energy, automotive and aeronautical. Technological development in these areas could be based largely on the participation of academic groups working in mechanism and machine science in Mexico. To this end, policies consistent with providing stimuli to the industrial and academic sectors should be implemented.

Conclusions Creative activity in mechanism and machine science and technology in Mexico can be traced back at least four centuries; however, for most of that time, it had been focused on mining and military applications. A rather fast transformation occurred during the second half of the twentieth century, undoubtedly driven in great part by actions such as government stimuli to create industries, increasing greatly the number of educational institutions, and giving a high priority to post graduate studies. Ambitious research and development projects in a wide variety of topics of modern interest were launched. Although the momentum has been sustained in the twenty-first century, it is generally recognized that Mexico should channel considerably more resources to research and technology. IFToMM is recognized as being a positive force in generating interest in mechanism and machine research and in the interaction of Mexican researchers with their counterparts in other countries. Acknowledgments The authors acknowledge with thanks the advice and direct assistance of Professor Carlos López-Cajún, IFToMM Secretary General, 2008–2011. Likewise, the authors want to acknowledge the contributions of Juan Carlos Jáuregui-Correa and Marcelo López-Parra. The microdrive and the latest development of a micromachine tool were financially supported by the grants CONACyT CB-2006-1-60895 and PAPIME PE105909. The Electrovira project was partially supported by grant PAPIIT–UNAM IN118008.

The Mexican Contribution to Mechanism and Machine Science and Technology

365

References 1. Sánchez Flores, R.: Historia de la tecnología y la invención en México (History of Technology and Invention in Mexico), p. 643. Fomento Cultural BANAMEX, (1980) 2. Gómez Galvarriato, A.: El primer impulso industrializador en México. El caso de Fundidora de Monterrey (The first industrializing attempt in Mexico. The monterrey foundry case), Bachelor’s thesis, Instituto Tecnológico Autónomo de México, Ciudad de México (1990) 3. Gómez-Galvarriato, A.: (1997) Definiendo los obstáculos a la industrialización en México: El desempeño de Fundidora Monterrey durante el Porfiriato (Defying the obstacles to industria lization in Mexico). In: Marichal, C., Cerutti, M. (eds.), La Historia de las Grandes Empresas en México, pp. 201–243. Fondo de Cultura Económica y Universidad de Nuevo León, México D.F. (1850–1913) 4. Cruz Marquez, M.A.: Diseño Industrial de las Máquinas Tortilladoras hasta 1921 (Industrial design of the corn tortilla machine until 1921), Bachelor’s thesis, Philosophy School, UNAM, México (2007) 5. Figueroa, J.D.C., Lozano G.A., López-Cajun, C.S., González-Hernández, J.: Evolution of the Machines for the Corn Tortillas Production, International Symposium on History of Machines and Mechanisms Proceedings HMM 2000. Kluwer Academic (2000) 6. Pamanes, J.A., Garcia J.: Balanceo optimo de un compresor de tres pistones en disposicion radial (Optimum balancing of a three pistons reciprocating machine). In: Proceedings of the 9th ANIAC (National Academy of Engineering) Congress, pp. 94–98, Leon, Gto (1983) 7. Gutierrez, V., Medrano, J.A.: Balancing of a three pistons reciprocating machine (in Spanish). In: Proceedings of the 9th ANIAC (National Academy of Engineering) Congress, pp. 99–101, León, Gto (1983) 8. Chicurel, R.: Bomba rotatoria de desplazamiento positivo (positive displacement rotary pump), Mexican patent no. 155, 565, 24 March (1988) 9. Chicurel, R., Gutiérrez, F., León, J.: Una nueva versión de la bomba de estrella (A new version of the sprocket pump). In: Proceedings of the XIV Congress Mexico Society Mechanical Engineering, Cholula, Puebla, pp. 547–553. 17–19 Sept (2008) 10. Chicurel, R., Reséndiz, R.: Optimized design of a new positive displacement pump, Paper no. 82-DE-18 de American Society of Mechanical Engineers (1982) 11. Chicurel, R., Leon, J., Resendiz, R.: Applications and perspectives of a novel sprocket type pump. In: Proceedings of the International Conference Positive Displacement Pumps, Chester, pp. 1–4 Oct (1986) 12. Chicurel, R.: Improved Design of sprocket Pump. In: Proceedings of the 11th World Congress in Mechanism and Machine Science, IFToMM, Tianjin, China, pp. 322–324, April (2004) 13. Chicurel, E.: A 180° steering interval mechanism. Mech. Mach. Theory 34, 421–436 (1999) 14. Lozada-Bastida, R., Borja-Ramirez, Ramirez-Reivich, A., Lopez-Parra, M.: Válvula para llenado de recipientes con orificio de entrada y base reducida (Valve for filling containers with inlet orifice and reduced base), Mexican patent pending, Filing no.: PA/A/2006/014361 Int. CL. 5a: B65D83/14 (2006) 15. Olivares, Vázquez, C., Ramírez, A., López, M.: Investigación de esquemas paramétricos de diseño conceptual para el sellado de ampolletas plásticas (Investigation of parametric schemes of conceptual design for the sealing of plastic ampoules). In: Proceedings of the XIV International SOMIM Congress, Puebla, 17–19 Sept (2008) 16. Ojeda-Escoto, P.A., López-Parra, M., Ramírez-Reivich, A.C., Borja-Ramírez, V., GonzálezVillela, V.J.: Análisis por computadora de un sistema mecánico para la dosificación de líquidos (Computer análisis of a mechanical metering system). In: 8th Congress of the Iberoamerican Mechanical Engineering Federation, Cusco, Perú, 23–25 Oct (2007) 17. González Sosa, Jesús Vicente: Diseño conceptual de un sistema para verificar el sellado correcto de ampolletas de plástico (Conceptual design of a seal verification system for plastic ampoules), Master’s thesis, Engineering School, UNAM, 4 Dec (2006)

366

R. Chicurel-Uziel et al.

18. Mancilla-Alonso, H.: Máquina rotatoria llenadora y selladora de ampolletas plásticas (Rotary machine for filling and sealing plastic ampoules), Master’s thesis, Engineering School, UNAM, March (2010) 19. Kussul, E., Baydyk, T., Ruiz, L., Caballero, A., Velasco, G., Kasatkina, L.: Development of micromachine tool prototype for microfactories. J. Micromech. Microeng. 12(6), 795–812 (2002). UK 20. Caballero-Ruiz, A., Ruiz-Huerta, L., Silva López, H., Herrera-Granados, G.: Sistema de micro posicionamiento para el estudio de actividad neuronal en ratas (Micropositioning system for neural activity studies in rats). In: 9th Congress of the Iberoamerican Mechanical Engineering Federation, Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, Spain. pp. 10/165–10/171. (2009) 21. Informe general del Estado de Ciencia y Tecnología (General report on the status of Science and Technology), CONACYT, Mexico (2004–2008)

The Significance and Role of IFToMM Poland in the Creative Development of Mechanism and Machine Science Józef Wojnarowski

Abstract Machines are motors of the economy. This domain of the theory of machines and mechanisms may be regarded to be a determinant of the development of technology. The developed study of mechanisms and machines is characterized as an interdisciplinary science with the possibility of motion-controlled programming. The dynamic development of many disciplines of technical sciences and nanotechnology has led to activities inspired by various bases of knowledge. Such an interaction has led to creating in the past neomechanics, the present mechatronics and in the future may be neuromechanics. Mechatronics, which was first created out of mechanical engineering as a theory of controlled motion, can be regarded as a discipline, the paradigm of which is apparent from the imposition of formalism, rights and principles of scientific disciplines, in particular principles of the science of mechanisms and machines. In this meaning the science of mechanisms and machines is dominant in formulating and solving engineering problems, and this is a key factor formulating twenty-first century civilization. Intelligent machines operate on the principle of the synergistic interaction of mechanical subsystems, hydraulic, electronic and optical computing. The IFToMM Poland -the Polish Committee of the Theory of Machines and Mechanisms (PC TMM) has taken upon itself to solve problems of importance for the development of technology and the creation of new mechanisms. Thanks to the activity of IFToMM Poland our country is one of the most important links of the International Federation for the Promotion of Mechanism and Machine Science.

The Theory of Mechanisms and Machines – A New Discipline It is difficult to trace the historical moment that is the beginning of a new scientific discipline. This is also the case in the development of the theory of machines and mechanisms – a discipline which was established on the basis of techniques that J. Wojnarowski (*) Silesian University of Technology, ul.Konarskiego 18A, Gliwice 44-100, Poland e-mail: [email protected] M. Ceccarelli (ed.), Technology Developments: the Role of Mechanism and Machine Science and IFToMM, Mechanisms and Machine Science 1, DOI 10.1007/978-94-007-1300-0_32, © Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2011

367

368

J. Wojnarowski

developed over many centuries. In particular one should mention the theoretical works of Girolamo Cardano in the fifteenth century, of Leonhard Euler in the eighteenth century and James Watt dating back to the first technological revolution, the inventor of the steam engine (1769) and the centrifugal adjuster forming the ground for emerging theories dealing with the mechanics of machines. These deve lopments were possible thanks to establishment of the first polytechnic schools: the Technical University of Prague in 1792, École Polytechnique in Paris in 1794 and the Vienna Technical University in 1815. Andre Ampère (1806) first took up the survey of the structure of mechanisms. In Paris, J. Poncelet’s works concerned the examination of gears fundamental for the control of machines (1829). Robert Willis in “Principles of Mechanisms designed for the use of students in universities and for engineering students in general” presented in 1841 the theory of mechanisms as a new discipline. The further dynamic development of this new discipline is identified with the following creators: G. Giulio (1847), Ch. Laboulage (1849), P.L. Czebyszew (1854), F. Reuleaux (1875), L. Burmestra (1888), M.I. Żukowski, N. T. Mielcarow, L. Assur, W.W. Dobrowolski, I.I. Artobolevski, N. G. of Brujewicz. Polish scholars and researchers already in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries contributed to the development of technical thought in the field of machines and mechanisms. Professors Kochański, Solski and Tylikowski from the so-called Jesuit school of mechanics described a number of interesting mechanisms in their works. In Solski’s paper “Polish Architect” from 1690, which was a textbook of technical mechanics, such concerns were addressed as mining and well pile-driving block and tackle, toothed gear transmission, screw press, cart jack and others. The development of the theory of machines and mechanisms started in Poland in the year 1870. At the Polytechnic School in Lvov a department was created explicitly for development of the theory of mechanisms of machines The year 1919 saw the next step. In the development at the school of mining engineering in Cracow both the Department of the Theory of Mechanical Engineering and Durabilities of Materials were established. The contemporary TMM development started only in 1938 at the Lvov technical university; studies of Mechanical Theory of Machines were included in the program. This objective, implemented by Prof. Witold Aulich, was at this time to establish a widely based Theory of Mechanisms. Conventionally 1938 was accepted as the beginning of teaching the new discipline Theory of Machines and Mechanisms (TMM) in Poland But the years from 1939 to 1945, i.e. the period of World War II (when the invader closed down the universities), research was stopped and official teaching occurred only in underground classes that operated in occupied Poland. In 1945, immediately after the end of the war, colleges resumed their activity. At the Warsaw Technical University, Professor Wacław Moszyński delivered the first postwar lectures; he was an outstanding scholar, author of many books developing TMM scientific work. Other pioneers of the theory of machines and mechanisms were Robert Szewalski, Wacław Moszyński, Jan Oderfeld, Adam Morecki and others.

The Significance and Role of IFToMM Poland in the Creative Development

369

The Significance and Role of PC TMM in Creating MMs The Polish Committee of TMM (PC TMM) comprises a large group of experts in the widely conceived domain of mechanics of machines, and acts within the framework of the Polish Committee of Mechanical Engineering. According to the principle of continuity, the PC TMM maintains all useful and verified elements of programs of previous terms of office, details of which become the subject of plenary discussions and discussions of the Presidium. PC TMM cooperates with the national Committee for Cooperation with IFToMM. Being a section of the Committee of Mechanical Engineering at the Polish Academy of Sciences, the Polish Committee of TMM: • comprises 59 members appointed by the fourth Section of the Polish Academy of Sciences as well as 15 Surveyors, • popularizes the domain of TMM and Mechatronics, • coordinates the syllabi of TMM subjects at Polish academic schools, • promotes young researchers, dealing with problems belonging to TMM, among others by evaluating their progress and applying for waivers for congress fees, • represents scientific and didactic conferences in the domain of TMM, • participates in the organization of conferences concerning investigations and didactics, • held every other year, • cooperates with the International Federation of Theory of Machines and Mechanisms (IFToMM), taking part in the activities of the Executive Council, the Technical Committees, Commissions and Congresses, • in cooperation with the National Committee presents the proceedings of the Polish Academy of Sciences.

Scientific and Didactic Conferences of the Polish Committee of TMM In the course of the past 55 years of the Polish Committee of TMM, 22 scientific and didactic conferences have been held. The subject matter of these conferences, generally organized every 2 years, comprised problems of the classification, analysis and synthesis of mechanisms, the dynamics of machine systems, investigations concerning self-excited vibrations, the stability of the systems, the control of machines and biomechanics. The numbers of submitted papers and participants justify the need for organizing such conferences, validate their importance, and encourage the activity of the Polish Committee of TMM for the purpose of creating a platform for the presen tation and discussion of new research methods in the domain of mechanisms and machines.

370

J. Wojnarowski

A Short Survey of These Conferences From 19th to 21st November, 1954 a didactic and scientific conference was organized by the Chair of Machine Elements and Theory of Mechanics. The conference was devoted to the methodology of planning and lecturing classes, concerning both machine elements and the theory of mechanisms and machines. The second meeting took place on the 9th and 10th of December, 1955, organized by Prof. Robert Szewalski at the Technical University of Gdańsk. It was devoted to problems connected with mechanisms and an attempt to realize a uniform subject plan. In the time of 15th–23rd June, 1956 a meeting was organized in Rogów, sponsored by the Chair of the Theory of Machines and Mechanisms, considered to have been the 1st Scientific and Didactic Conference TMM. It was devoted to didactics, research programs and scientific problems concerning the Theory of Mechanisms and Machines. The second Scientific Conference was organized by the Academy of Mining and Metallurgy in Cracow. It was held from 23rd to 27th November, 1957. At this conference papers from 11 Polish academic technical schools were presented. The third Conference on TMM was organized by the Theory of Machines and Mechanisms at the Technical University of Warsaw. It was held from the 8th–16th July, 1961 and drew 80 participants, 32 of which presented papers. Among the participants were also the heads of Chairs of Machine Elements from other technical universities. Also the fourth Scientific Conference was organized at the TMM at the Technical University of Warsaw, this time in Zegrzynek. It was held September 26th–28th, 1963 with participation of 50 persons, including scientists from abroad dealing with the theory of machines and mechanisms. 24 papers were presented at this conference. The fifth Scientific Conference was organized by the Chair of the Theory of Mechanisms and Machines at the Technical University of Łódź. The conference took place in Łódź from 28th June to 1st July, 1965. The number of participants amounted to 82, including 13 foreigners. 86 papers were presented dealing with investigations run both in Poland and abroad. At this conference Prof. Oderfeld wished its participants on behalf of the Rector of the Technical University of Warsaw successful proceedings. Prof. Parszewski delivered a lecture on “Trends of researches in the domain of TMM in Poland in the years 1963–1965”. Among the guests from abroad there were Prof. G. Boestad from Stockholm, M. Konstantinov from Sofia and R. Bogdan from Bucarest. The latter delivered a lecture on “The influence of changing the gear ratio on characteristics of an articulated pentagon”, presenting this topic clearly from the scientific point of view. The sixth Scientific and Didactic Conference on TMM was held in Świeradów Zdrój on 15th–17th September, 1975. It was organized by the Institute of Design and Exploitation of Machines at the Technical University of Wrocław. 48 authors submitted their papers, representing all technical universities in Poland.

The Significance and Role of IFToMM Poland in the Creative Development

371

The conference material was published in the proceedings of the Institute of Design and Exploitation of Machines in 1975. This conference was organized 10 years after the fifth conference organized in Łódź. The Chairman of the organizing committee was Dr. Stefan Miller. The seventh Scientific and Didactic Conference on TMM took place during 15th–18th December, 1977 and was organized by the Agricultural Academy in Lublin together with the Polish Committee of TMM in Kazimierz on the Vistula. The number of participants amounted to 125. The Chairman of the organizing committee was Dr. Zdzisław Rotter. The eighth Conference was held in May 1980 at Kozubnik, sponsored by the Academy of Mining and Metallurgy together with the Polish Committee of TMM. 6 plenary and 56 session papers were presented. The Chairman of the organizing committee was Prof. Karol Tomaszewski. The ninth All-Polish Scientific and Didactic Conference on TMM took place in Cracow on the 2nd and 3rd December, 1982. Prof. A. Morecki and Jan Oderfeld presented the “Actual State of Investigations and Teaching of the Theory of Machines and Mechanisms”. This conference was preceded by the 6th International Congress on TMM in New Delhi from 15th to 20th December, 1983. The tenth Scientific and Didactic Conference on TMM was held in Warsaw on 3rd to 5th December, 1984. The conference material comprised a set of 51 papers, published in the Scientific Fascicles of the Technical University of Warsaw (362 pages). The Chairman of the Organizing Committee was Prof. Adam Morecki. The 11th Scientific and Didactic Conference on TMM was held in Zakopane in 27th–30th April, 1987, organized by the Institute of Mechanics and Fundamentals of Machine Design of the Silesian Technical University together with the Polish Committee of TMM. 88 papers were published in two issues of the Scientific Fascicle of the Technical University of Silesia, viz. Mechanics No. 85 and also in the fascicle of the Institute of Mechanics and PKM. Besides the conference materials a fascicle was issued containing abstracts in English. The Chairman of the Organizing Committee was Prof. Józef Wojnarowski. The 12th Scientific and Didactic Conference on TMM was held in Bielsko-Biała from 22nd to 24th November, 1989, organized by the branch of the Institute of Mechanical Design at the Technical University of Łódź. 50 papers were published in the “Conference Proceedings” (463 pages). The Chairman of the Organizing Committee was Prof. Marek Trombski. The 13th Scientific and Didactic Conference on TMM took place in Koszalin and Mielno on 19th–21st September, 1992. 53 papers had been submitted, 36 of which were presented. The number of authors amounted to 82. There also were participants from the Ukraine (Lvov, Kiew and Vinnica 10 papers), Monilev (Byelorussia) and Mr. Sobhy M. Ghoneam from Egypt. 88 papers were submitted and published in Scientific Fascicles of the Academy of Engineering in Koszalin (328 pages). Previous to the conference the abstracts had been published as one volume in English (136 pages). The Chairman of the Organizing Committee was Dr. Jerzy Milanowski. Prof. Adam Morecki was elected as the President of the Polish Committee of TMM.

372

J. Wojnarowski

The 14th Scientific and Didactic Conference on TMM was organized by the Institute of Fluid-Flow Machines at the Polish Academy of Sciences on 23rd–26th November, 1994 in Gdynia (Gdańsk). 75 papers were published in the Scientific Fascicles of the Institute of Fluid-Flow Machines at the Polish Academy of Sciences (507 pages). The Chairman of the Organizing Committee was Prof. Wiesław Ostachowicz. The 15th Scientific and Didactic Conference on TMM was organized by the Faculty of Mechanical Engineering at the Technical University of Białystok in the time of 17th–21st September, 1996 at Białowieża. 75 papers were submitted, published by the Publishers of the Technical University of Białystok. The members of participants amounted to 76, representing 26 Polish research centers and four from abroad (Byelorussia, Bulgaria, Switzerland and the Ukraine). The Chairman of the Organizing Committee was Dr. Franciszek Siemieniako. The 16th Scientific and Didactic Conference on TMM was held in RzeszówJaworze in the time of 22nd to 25th September, 1998, organized by the Chair of the Technical Mechanics at the Faculty of Mechanical Engineering and Aviation, Technical University of Rzeszów. 81 papers had been submitted, 17 of which were presented as posters. The proceedings were published in two volumes: vol. 1: 344 pages, vol. 2 – 339 pages. The Chairman of the Organizing Committee was Dr. Wiesław Żylski. The 17th Scientific and Didactic Conference on TMM was held on 6th–8th September, 2000 at Jachranka near Warsaw. It was organized by the Institute of Aviation and Applied Mechanics in cooperation with the Polish Committee of TMM. 71 papers were presented under the title “Proceedings of the Scientific and Didactic Conference on the Theory of Machines and Mechanisms”, ed. By A. Morecki, K. Kędzior and C. Rzymkowski (510 pages). Of particular note was a 68 page treatise on the “Theory of Machines and Mechanisms in Poland in the years 1938 and 1945–2000”, the authors of which are A. Morecki, K. Kędzior and C. Rzymkowski. The Chairman of the Organizing Committee was Prof. Krzysztof Kędzior. The 18th Scientific and Didactic Conference on TMM was held in Lądek Zdrój on 18th–20th September, 2002. The number of the participants amounted to 96, which presented their papers in five plenary sessions and two poster sessions – 63 papers, all of which were reviewed and published as Scientific Investigations of the Institute of Design and Exploitation of Machines at the Technical University of Wrocław, No, 85, series Conferences No. 25 (ISSN 0324–9646). The conference was organized by the Institute of Design and Exploitation of Machines at the Technical University of Wrocław in cooperation with the Polish Committee of TMM. The Chairman of the Organizing Committee was Dr. Antoni Gronowicz. Prof. Józef Wojnarowski was elected as Chairman of the Polish Committee of TMM. The 19th Didactic Conference on TMM was organized in Cracow in the time of 12th–16th September, 2004. This conference was organized under the auspices of His Magnificence the Rector Prof. Ryszard Tadeusiewicz by Chair of Robotic and Dynamics of Machines, Academy of Mining and Metallurgy in Cracow with the Committee of TMM. The published papers were contained in two volumes, vol. 1

The Significance and Role of IFToMM Poland in the Creative Development

373

containing 43 papers (324 pages) and vol. 2 38 papers (293 pages). The problem paper devoted to the designing of machine and mechatronic systems, entitled “Human Scale Intelligent Systems” was delivered by Prof. Delbert Tesar from University of Texas in Austin. The Chairman of the Organizing Committee was Prof. Tadeusz Uhl. The 20th Scientific and Didactic Conference on TMM was held on 18th–19th September, 2006 in Zielona Góra, organized by the Faculty of Mechanical Engineering at the University of Zielona Góra in cooperation with the Polish Committee of TMM. Prof Marco Ceccarelli, secretary general of IFToMM and Prof. Andres Kecskemethy, chief editor of “Mechanism and Machine Theory” who gave a lecture in a plenary session at the 20th TMM Conference. The Chairman of the Organizing Committee was Prof. Mirosław Galicki. The 21st Conference on TMM was organized in Szczyrk by the University of Bielsko-Biała in the days of 22nd–25th September, 2008. 91 papers were submitted but only 52 papers published in conference proceedings. The Chairman of the Organizing Committee was Prof. Iwona Adamiec-Wójcik. The 22nd Conference on TMM was organized in Augustów by the Technical University of Białystok in 27th–30th June, 2010. The number of the participants amounted to 56, which presented their papers in five plenary sessions and one poster session. 58 papers were submitted. 33 papers were published in the Journal of Applied Mechanics and Engineering and 25 in the Scientific Papers of the Białystok University of Technology. The Chairman of the Organizing Committee was Prof. Franciszek Siemieniako. The scientific and educational conferences organized by PC TMM in cooperation with various Centers of Science in Poland as a rule precede the IFToMM congresses and in a way serve as a preliminary forum, where the best research works on the theory of machines and mechanisms are selected. Also this year, the 22nd Conference of the PC TMM precedes the 13th IFToMM World Congress to be held in Mexico. Nowadays it is hard to imagine engineering work in the technical sphere that does not take into consideration the theory of mechanisms supported by the forma lisms of mechanics, hydraulics, electrical engineering electronics and information technology in the design and construction of machines. This very fact justifies the need for the TMM conferences held in a 2-year cycle, which provide an important forum for the development of interdisciplinary theories and their applications in designed thematic areas. Owing to the broad participation in plenary sessions, poster presentations and discussions, one can directly become familiar with the issues on which scientific specialist centers work both in Poland and elsewhere is incomplete, which can be due to continuous changes and complements of the Platonic world of mathematical objects as defined by Roger Penrose. The evolving base of knowledge on constantly changing technical means defines the methodological criteria of progress in science and technology, and thus determines an evolutionary style of thinking in formulating the tasks of machine design, construction and manufacture. In fundamental research, old theories are included in new ones, in which the paradigm is an extended decretive model defined by

374

J. Wojnarowski

the duration of reality registered by the models. Moreover, the ethos of science and ethos of participants, who use fair play rules in their struggle for scientific truth, have a decisive effect on the presentation and explanation of reality, e.g. in representation of mechanism and machine models of representations of mechatro nics systems. It can be stressed that the Participants in all the cyclic TMM Conferences organized every 2 years through PC TMM, as defined above, evaluated, assessed and discussed theories, paradigms, models, mechanisms processes and experiments, and finally, methods being presented and described, as important tools in scientific research and development of mechanisms and machines science. In consequence, in the subject matter of the conference on TMM, a certain feedback is a fountainhead for formulating machine and mechanism models, while the fact that TMM conferences are organized by various scientific canters in Poland allows exerting continual development of technical means and new design methods, mechanisms and machines, complemented with experimental investigation. The number of papers sent and the significant number of participants in every Scientific and Didactic Conference on TMM provides evidence of the need for and the importance of the PC TMM conferences. Only direct contacts and meetings during the sessions and open discussions can provide a common platform for getting familiar with the TMM research methodology employed at various scientific centers, for critical arguments and also for developing a creative atmosphere which the opinions by the participants during plenary sessions and poster presentations can generate. We do hope that the subsequent Scientific and Didactic Conferences on TMM shall be another step in the growth of the mechanisms and machines sciences.

40th Anniversary of the Establishment of the International Federation of the Theory of Machines and Mechanisms – IFToMM The development of mechanisms and machines inspired the establishment of national committees in many countries and also the organization of the first international TMM Congress in Varna/Bulgaria/in the year 1965. Due to the initiative of the Polish Committee of the Theory of Machines and Mechanisms in the time of 26th–29th September, 1969 the 2nd international Congress TMM was held in Zakopane, at which representatives of 16 National Committees established the international Federation of the Theory of Machine and Mechanisms – IFToMM. Then 16 national committees constituted the Executive Council of this federation and the Academician Ivan Artobolevski was elected to be its first president. After him, in the years 1987–1995, Adam Morecki assumed this honourable function. At present, 40 years after creating IFToMM the number of national committees grew up to 47. The discipline of the theory of machines and mechanisms, called also mechanics of machines, at present – Mechanism and Machine Science (MMS) has become the

The Significance and Role of IFToMM Poland in the Creative Development

375

joint property of a multitude of nations and is a part of learning all over the World, a proof of its importance is organization of international World Congresses every 4 years. Recently, since 2000 the International Federation of the Theory of Mechanisms and Machines has been called the International Federation for the Promotion of Mechanism and Machine Science. The 40th anniversary of the existence of IFToMM induces the desire to specify data concerning 12 international Congresses, organized every 4 years by the Executive Council of the Federation, each time in a different country, in order to promote researches and the development of the theory of mechanisms, mechanical engineering and mechatronics by developing theoretical methods and experimental investigations, including their practical implementation. So far 12 congresses have been held. Polish scientists, members of the Polish Committee of TMM participated actively in the congresses, in the proceedings of the commissions and technical committees of IFToMM. In the years 1992–1995 Prof. Adam Morecki from the Technical University of Warsaw was the President of IFToMM, and Krzysztof Kędzior was from 2002 to 2007 a member of the Executive Council. Prof. Oderfeld was distinguished with the title of honorary member of the IFToMM. On the occasion of the 40th anniversary of establishing IFToMM, Prof. Marco Ceccarelli suggested in agreement with the Executive Committee to commemorate this anniversary by installing a plaque. On January 26, 2010 a ceremony took place at Hyrny Hotel in Zakopane, Poland, for unveiling a bronze plaque, Fig. 1, commemorating the 40th anniversary of the foundation of IFToMM that has been founded on September 27, 1969 during the first IFToMM Congress in a hotel resort that does not exist any more. The ceremony was held under the auspices of IFToMM Poland during the international conference on Development of Heavy Duty Machines. The ceremony

Fig. 1 Bronze plaque in Zakopane (Poland) commemorating 40 years of IFToMM

376

J. Wojnarowski

was organized thanks to the support and interest of Mr. Janusz Majcher (B.Eng.), Mayor of Zakopane; Prof. Jerzy Tomczyk, Conference Chair; Mgr Marek Dziedzic, Director of Hyrny Hotel and Prof. Józef Wojnarowski, Chair of IFToMM Poland. The bronze plaque (Fig. 1.) has been fixed in Zakopane at the entrance of Hyrny Hotel that is usually the venue of international conferences. On the occasion Prof. Marco Ceccarelli presented a lecture on ‘The role of IFToMM in MMS development’ with a historical but technical perspective. In addition, Prof. Wojnarowski presented a publication on “Polish Committee of TMM on the 40th anniversary of the foundation of IFToMM” with history of IFToMM, that will be included in the material for the IFToMM archive. The plaque unveiling was performed by the IFToMM President together with the Chair of IFToMM Poland and City Mayor of Zakopane. On the occasion wishes were expressed by several personalities, namely Prof. Józef Gawlik, Chair of Mechanical Engineering Committee of Polish Academy of Sciences; Dr. Joseph Rooney, IFToMM Treasurer; Prof. Ion Visa, Chair of IFToMM Romania and Prof. Valentyn Kovalenko from Kharkov Polytechnic Institute and others. Prof. Antoni Gronowicz, Vice Chair of IFToMM Poland read congratulations received from: Prof. Jan Oderfeld, Prof. Tadeusz Kaczorek, Prof. Jorge Angeles, Prof. Carlos S. Lopez-Cajun, Prof. Victor Starzhinsky, Prof. Elizabeth Filemon, Prof. Adam Döbröczöni, Prof. Juriy Kondratienko, Prof. James Trevelyan, Prof. Bodo Heimann, Prof. Antoni Tajduś Prof. Henryka Komsty, Prof. Tomasz Krzyżyński, Prof. Vytautas Ostasevicius. On this occasion the Polish Committee of TMM received many congratu lations, among others from Prof. Barbara Kudrycka, Minister of Science and Higher Education, who had written to extend most cordial congratulations on occasion of the 40th anniversary of the International Federation for the Promotion of Mechanism and Machine Science, whose activities serve intensively both the development of the discipline and the integration of scientists. Prof. Kudrycka has added that she acknowledged the achievements of experts cooperating with the Polish Committee of TMM, who had been honored by many highly esteemed awards. The results of their investigations constitute a considerable contribution to the development of science and the Polish economy. In addition, the Chairman of Technical Sciences, Sect. 4, of the Polish Academy of Sciences, Professor Władysław Włosiński in a letter of 1st March 2010 addressed a letter to the Chairman of PC TMM: “The theory of Machines and Mechanisms still plays a significant role in the development of technical sciences related not only to mechanical engineering. Due to a broad range of research conducted within this theory, important significant specializations have developed and emerged, such as for instance robotics and biomechanics, which nowadays contribute to substantial progress and the advance of technology and civilization. Without their evolvement, science would not develop values which are enjoyed by all of us. (…)”. The bronze plaque is in memory of the long duration of IFToMM pride, a recog nition of IFToMM founding fathers, a visibility of IFToMM past, and a message for future activity.

The Significance and Role of IFToMM Poland in the Creative Development

377

Neomechanics – The Herald of Mechatronics Historically, the first results of the pre-modern TMM have been obtained by a diverse type of machines and classes of technical devices (Fig. 2). Description of an appropriate model is one of the most important elements in solving the problem. A calculation model of interest arises when the characteristics of the machine mechanism is expressed by the figures and the relationship between the two values can be approximated with sufficient accuracy in the mathematical relationships of known executions in the form of efficient algorithms and operations. Comparisons of issues that have been investigated in our country with analogous ones studied at similar foreign centres and scientific skill-sharing between such institutions, is of great importance for further development of the theory of mechanisms and machines. Shared discussions undoubtedly bring together many inspiring themes and help to solve more than one scientific or industrial problem. For these reasons, besides the inspection of results in scientific works, which are being developed fruitfully, all-Polish TMM scientific conferences serve in departments of universities dealing with the theory and machines. Mechatronics regards Machines as objects whose action consists in sending energy from a drive through a selection of the machines components and kinematic chains, to an executive element. From the point of view of transmitting energy to

Fig. 2 From the water wheel to mechatronic machines

378

J. Wojnarowski

the machine, we distinguish subsystems: mechanical, electrical, plumbing, air. The transmission of energy has been analyzed by George Constantinesco from this point of view. In the analysis of transmitting energy Prof. Constantinesco in his work “Transmission of Power – The Present, the Future” published in London in 1926, formulated the principles of the flow of energy, i.e. mechanical, fluid and electrical energy. The domain dealing with the synergy of these arrangements is called neo mechanics. Constantinesco predicted then that this new discipline would play a significant role in the description and engineering design of mechanical systems. Neomechanics, based on a theory of regulations, contributed to the development of theories of the mechanics of machines and became the herald of mechatronics The discipline Mechatronics may be briefly defined, as the theory of controlled movement of links of machines. In the formalism of graphs of a unit construction machine mechatronics describes a choice of an idealized model that, depending on the class of examined phenomena, leads to a description of the configuration that gives dynamic characterizations. This means that mechatronics has become a new theory of machines, generally speaking, the science of machines and mechanisms, in which intelligent systems controlling force and motion play an important role. In the design and construction of such machines their level of “intelligence” will vary from adaptive control systems up to advanced systems processing knowledge, based on fuzzy logic, neuron networks or evolution algorithms.

PC TMM in the Creative Development of Mechanisms and Machine Science (MMS) The Polish Committee of the Theory of Machines and Mechanisms (PC TMM), all through its more than 40 year history, has always attached an important role to the generalization of research results obtained by Polish scientists dealing with Mechanism and Machine Science (MMS) at universities. PC TMM has for a long time been promoting the science concerning mechanisms and machines (MMS) and now fulfils the mission of promoting MMS co-operations with authorities of IFToMM. Studies in the field of MMS provide a conceptual layer, which is the knowledge and the study of mechanisms and machines, permitting the manufacture of new machine designs, assuming that the market economy must cope with competition, which is a big challenge in the twenty-first century. It should be established in what sphere MMS is most competitive and which new challenges of the twenty-first century should be met. And what are the challenges that will confront students as future graduates. One of these challenges is the possi bility of conducting experimental examinations and numerical experiments, and it

The Significance and Role of IFToMM Poland in the Creative Development

379

will depend on competent funds subsidized by the state budget for the development of research, learning and higher education, in particular for developing theories about mechanisms and machines. The Polish Committee of the Theory of Machines and Mechanisms, by orga nizing plenary meetings in different centers of education, is shaping attitudes of creative applied science degree courses in the discipline of the Theory of Machines and Mechanisms. This means that Polish students and graduates in this discipline can contribute more easily to new mechanisms in the space of the technique of western states. From a basis in the teachings of MMS, a host of activities, like the following random selection, is possible: to skillfully change the actual settings of kinematics chains, to deal with real technical systems in the form of mechanisms and machines: from watches, escape mechanisms, recorders, gauges, engraving and lever mechanisms, mechanisms for closing and opening bus doors, and for producing energy; to deal with problems relating to plumbing, vibrating mechanisms, pantographs, mechanisms for moving undercarriages of airplanes, automatic weapons, mechanisms for packaging and for starting the production lines of other mechanisms such as gigantic aerials and kinematics chains for transmitting power in technological, textile, heavy working and energy machines, etc. PC TMM through its publications and the organization of plenary meetings at different academic centers, combined with presentation of the latest developments in the field of mechanical engineering, plays a creative role and projects a multimedia image as a modern discipline, so that it arouses the interest of young students of science.

Trends in the Developments of MMS and the Influence of IFToMM The growing importance of the theory of mechanisms and machines is demonstrated by the world congresses, numerous scientific conferences and seminars, which result in publications, new theories, and technical implementation. The Theory of Mechanisms and Machines (TMM) and at present the Mechanism and Machine Science (MMS), are scientific products of what Karl Popper meant by the name “open society”, that is a society that is in a consecutive phase of dynamic transformations and susceptible to technical and technological novelties of all kinds. Even though MMS addresses only some of the issues of mechanical engineering, these are its principles. The formalism and applications have already been developed and strongly applied by the civilization of the twentieth century and, according to harmonious predictions, it will become the basic factor in the further development of machine technology by the civilization of the twenty-first century. Extremely important is the issue of opening PC TMM to ideas of IFToMM, realized by means of regular seminars and meetings of technical committees, and more than anything else by debates at world IFToMM congresses, where presentation of the newest

380

J. Wojnarowski

achievements in mechanics of machines and in open discussions improving and developing new ideas for education in the field, will further the goals of Mechanism and Machine Science (MMS). Thanks to sessions organized in Poland for TMM conferences, a defined scope of the theory of mechanisms and machines as a scientific discipline has provided directions toward experimental examinations. Extremely important is the participation of foreign guests in the Polish TMM conferences, thanks to which personal close contacts are increasing and have fostered the free exchange of ideas that is so essential for developing technical novelties. The program of national scientific departments is pointing at the domination of issues in the dynamic range of machine systems and automatic steering and a distinct formation of five lines of enquiry i.e.: –– –– –– –– –– ––

modern methods of the structural synthesis of mechanisms, problems of dynamics of machines and oscillation of machines, examining arrangements of vibro-impact, problems of the dynamics of rotor machines, research on multifunctional prosthetic manipulators, mechanisms design of alternative energy sources serving in constructing machines and devices for their production.

Apart from elaborating issues in the scope of the classical structure and the kinematics of mechanisms these are also extremely important: – problems of the synthesis of mechanisms and machines; – issues of dynamics of machines including the susceptibility of their elements; – examinations in the surveying of dynamic sizes extended to issues of automatic steering; – constructing mechanisms for mechatronic systems.

Priorities in Research Concerns of Mechanisms and Machines Science – MMS The development of strategy and research priorities in technical theories is a prime priority. Correct development of strategies and preferences in technical theories must be closely associated with the long-term conception of the economic development of each country and the individual branch of economics. The choice of a preferred direction of development should primarily take into account the already mentioned research directions using existing technical potential and taking into account the developing society. Besides general principles it is possible to plan the development of a technique: –– adapting developmental plans to energy possibilities with stress on alternative sources of renewable energy (e.g. wind turbines); –– putting emphasis on the development in the fields of economics directly satisfying the actual needs of the population; –– growth of industry including local raw material resources.

The Significance and Role of IFToMM Poland in the Creative Development

381

They should comprise the preferred lines of enquiry: –– new energy sources, the streamlining of processing and uses; –– development of mechanics of mechanisms with particular emphasis on the development of issues connected with the structure and kinematics; –– development of the materials engineering with a view to increasing the reliability and the durability of devices; – development of automation, robotics and mechatronics; –– development of biomedical engineering; –– improving the means of transport. In particular, the process of choosing research priorities makes clear to us how wide the range of possible research problems is, including MMS education. Thus the essential task of PC TMM is relating to the appointment of modern directions in the implementation of new projects both in the technical universities as well as in scientific research units of industrial engineering based on statute tasks.

Mechanics of Machine Sciences as the Object of Penrose’s Third World In the book “Shadows of the Mind” Roger Penrose shows with reference to the conception of the third world of Popper his own version of three worlds: – the – Physical World – (of objects, of physical phenomena, e.g. planets, clouds, flowers, human minds, people); – World of our Conscious Perceptions – (understanding, feeling of happiness and pain, love, memories from childhood, perception of colours, etc.); Platonic World of Mathematical Forms – (natural numbers, Pythagoras’ theorem, noneuclidean geometry, functioning of the Turing machine, of putting Newton on the same level, electro-magnetic equations of Maxwell, of putting Einstein on the same level paradigm as MMS, and other ideas) . The Third World constitutes an artefact, so to say with a considerable degree of autonomy. The significant contribution in creating this Third World is connected with the activity of universities and the development of technique and technology and Mechanisms and Machines Sciences. The question arises of how and in what way these worlds are linked. This Penrose issue determines the problem of three secrets.

Conclusion The evolving data base of science with constantly changing technical means determines the methodological criteria of progress in science and technology, involving the style of thinking in researches, and the design of mechanisms and machines.

382

J. Wojnarowski

Based on investigations carried out so far, old theories are included in new ones, thanks to which idealized models and new paradigms become interchanged. Therefore, the National Committees, and thus also the Polish Committee of TMM, have developed an adequate feedback, leading to an evolution of the theory, the models of mechanisms, machines and processes, the design of prototypes, as well as modern means of investigations and new methods of calculation. The establishment of IFToMM and active share of Polish scientists in its establishment and activities was of much importance; it permitted us, in spite of numerous restrictions, to cooperate internationally in the domain of mechanisms and machines. The Polish contribution to the world-wide development of the theory of mechanisms and machines was and still is appreciated. At present our representatives more and more often take part in the activities of the Commissions and Committees and also in the Congresses of IFToMM. Acknowledgments I wish to express my heartfelt thanks to Professor Marco Ceccarelli for his cooperation with the POLISH COMMITTEE of the THEORY of MACHINES and MECHANISMS. I wish to express my gratitude to all the members of the Polish Committee for their creative activity within the discipline of the theory of mechanisms and machines and for their participation in the proceedings of IFToMM World Congresses and the Polish Committee of TMM. Last not least, to the hands of Prof. Władysław Włosiński, chairman of the fourth Department of Technological Sciences PAN I wish to express my thanks to the Polish Academy of Sciences for supporting our endeavor.

Bibliography 1. Constantinesco, G.: Transmission of Power – The Present, the Future, Newcastle – upon – Tyne, pp. 1–66. North East Coast Institution of Engineering and Skipbuilders, Bolbec Hall, London (1926) 2. Kajitani, M.: A concept of mechatronics. J. Robot. Mechatron. 1(1) June (1989) 3. Oderfeld, J.: Introduction to the Theory of Mechanical Engineering. WNT, Warsaw (1962) 4. Penrose, R.: Shadows of the Mind. A Search for the Science of Consciousness. Oxford University Press, Oxford (1994) 5. Stecki, S., Wojnarowski, J.: Modelling and design of neuromechanic systems. ZN Pol. Śl. s.Mechanika, z 122, 289–303 (1995) 6. Viitanen, P., et al.: Modelling and simulation of mechatronical devices. Mechatronics 2(3), 231–238 (1992) 7. Wojnarowski, J.: Application of bond graph in modelling and design of mechatronic systems (in Polish). Mat. Konf. TMM Białystok s. 36–51 (1996) 8. Wojnarowski, J.: Fiftieth anniversary of the polish committee for the theory of machines and mechanisms 1956–2006 (in Polish). Warszawa-Gliwice, 186 p (2006) 9. Wojnarowski, J.: PC TMM on the 40th anniversary of the foundation of IFToMM. PC TMM of the CME PAN, Gliwice-Warszawa-Zakopane, 40 p (2009/2010)

The Romanian Association for Mechanisms and Machines Science – Past, Present and Future Ion Visa

Abstract The Romanian Association for the Mechanisms and Machines Science, ARoTMM celebrates, in 2010, 40 years of activity. Developed with the contribution of the Romanian academic groups working in the field, ARoTMM represented a forum for joint cooperation, supporting high level research and education. The leading names that founded and contributed to the ARoTMM development are presented in this paper, along with the significant outcomes: scientific events, publications, international networking. The future, targeting intra-and transdisciplinary integration of mechanisms science into the high-tech product design and development, is also discussed.

The Beginnings In March 1970, the Romanian National Committee for the Theory of Machines and Mechanisms (CRoTMM) was founded under the presidency of Professor Nicolae I. Manolescu (1907–1993), gathering representatives from 11 Romanian academic institutions, active in this field. Following the IFToMM foundation in 1969 (Zakopane), the CRoTMM activated for promoting, in a joint effort, the progress of mechanism and machines theory in Romania. It was again Prof. Manolescu who proposed, in 1990, to transform this committee into the Romanian Association for the Theory of Mechanisms and Machines with the acronym ARoTMM. Under his coordination, ARoTMM branches were developed in the main universities, validating a longstanding and valuable experience. The Romanian schools for mechanisms and machines were led by professors with extensive research activities, dedicated to the development and support of this science.

I. Visa (*) Transilvania University of Brasov, Eroilor Bd., 29, Brasov 500036, Romania e-mail: [email protected] M. Ceccarelli (ed.), Technology Developments: the Role of Mechanism and Machine Science and IFToMM, Mechanisms and Machine Science 1, DOI 10.1007/978-94-007-1300-0_33, © Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2011

383

384

I. Visa

The school at the Politechnica University of Bucharest was founded by Professor Nicolae I. Manolescu; in 1970 he presented his Ph.D. thesis “Numerical, structural and kinematical synthesis of the ASSUR groups for kinematic chains in planar linkages mechanisms and driving mechanisms”, which was highly appreciated by leading experts of that time: Acad. I.I. Artobolevski, Prof. Mayer Capeller, Prof. B. Dizioglu, Prof. K. Hain, Prof. V. Botema, etc. His research continued on fundamentals in numerical, structural and kinematical synthesis of mechanisms and in kinematic and dynamic mechanisms analysis with worldwide recognized results. In 1991, Prof. Manolescu became a correspondent member of the Romanian Academy of Science [1]. Due to its international recognition, in 1969, in Zakopane, Prof. Manolescu was one of the IFToMM founders. After 40 years, the anniversary was marked by unveiling a symbolic plaque, holding the names of all the IFToMM initiators, Fig. 1. During the ensuing years, the Bucharest school involved also other important names in mechanisms and machine science, such as Prof. Radu C. Bogdan, Prof. Christian Pelecudi, Prof. Iosif Tempea,and Prof. Paun Antonescu. It is also important to mention the name of Acad. Prof. Radu Voinea (1923–2010), who widely supported the progress in mechanical engineering, being a leading expert of the past 50 years. The holonome and non-holonome systems, the relative movement of rigid bodies, the method of independent cycles, synthesis of kinematic couples and positional analysis of mechanisms are only a few of his significant contributions, along with his dedicated work in advancing young scientists, through 40 Ph.D. programmes, [2]. As president of the Romanian Academy of Science (1984–1990) and founding member of the Romanian Academy of Technical Sciences, he

Fig. 1 The IFToMM founders. Anniversary plaques, unveiled in Zakopane, 2009

The Romanian Association for Mechanisms and Machines Science

385

continuously contributed to and supported the science of mechanisms and machines, being an extraordinary example for all of us. Starting in 1973, in Bucharest there were organized, each 4 years, the SYROM Symposia on The practice of Mechanisms (editions 1977, 1981, 1985, 1989, 1993, 1997, 2001, 2005), the first four chaired by Prof. N.I. Manolescu, the next three, under the presidency of Prof. Iosif Tempea (ARoTMM Chairman during 1993–2001), [3], and the 2005 edition was chaired by Prof. Paun Antonescu. In Cluj-Napoca, Professor Dezideriu Maros (born 1920) worked with and was the leader of another Romanian group of excellence in the science of mechanisms and machines. In 1971, his Ph.D. thesis “The fundamental general law of gear with applications in the kinematic calculation of the helicoidal geared flanks” was published in Paris, [4], and was the beginning of his international activity. The monographs “Gears Kinematics”, [5] and “Worm gears”, [6] are now references in the field. An outstanding fundamental researcher, Prof. Maros focused on advanced applications, up to technology and product development and 18 patents applied in industry are the proof. Together with his co-worker, Nicolae Orlandea, he brought major contributions to the dynamic modelling of spatial mechanisms with more degrees of freedom, which were the core of the worldwide used software ADAMS (further developed by N. Orlandea at Michigan State University and the Mechanical Software Inc. Corporation). For these remarkable results, and for his entire activity, Prof. Maros was awarded the Doctor Honoris Causa degree of the Transilvania University of Brasov, in 2005. Professors Viorel Handraluca, Imre Szekely, Vistrian Maties and Doina Pâsla continue to make the Cluj-Napoca school one of the most important in Romania (Fig. 2).

Fig. 2 From left to right: Nicolae I. Manolescu Dezideriu Maros and Radu Voinea

386

I. Visa

Fig. 3 In the first row, from left to right: Francisc Kovacs and Christian Pelecudi

The Technical University of Timisoara was a university centre that supported the development of mechanisms and machines science within the group coordinated by Professor Francisc Kovacs (1929–2009) (Fig. 3). With his Ph.D. thesis, “Unitary mechanisms synthesis” he opened a new direction based on “connections” as the basic element in developing any mechanism. Further on, beginning with 1979, he started to work in robotics and is one of the founders of this field in Romania. The Timisoara groups are now stimulated in advanced research on mechanisms by Prof. Dan Perju and Prof. Erwin-Christian Lovasz. The Gheorghe Asachi Technical University of Iasi represents a strong point in the mechanisms and machines science on the Romanian map. Beginning with the reference name of Professor Dumitru I. Mangeron (1906–1991), theoretical mechanics found its first applications in mechanisms studies, e.g., the theory of superior order accelerations and the matrix-tensor method applied to mechanisms. His expertise was internationally acclaimed. He became a member of the scientific committee for the “Mechanisms and Machine Theory” journal, “Journal de Mechanique Theoretique Applique”, “International Mathematical News”. The monographs “Mechanics, Fundamentals” (1962), “Rigid bodies mechanics” (1978–1981) and “The Theory for Structures Optimization” (1980) were the bricks on which the Iasi School was founded, [7], further supported by leading names like Prof. N. Irimiciuc, Prof. V. Atanasiu and Prof. V. Merticaru. The Mechanisms and Machines School in the University of Craiova was developed under the coordination of Professor Iulian Popescu (born 1939). He was one of the first who introduced information technologies into mechanisms studies (1976) and developed a complex work, synthesized in the monograph

The Romanian Association for Mechanisms and Machines Science

387

Fig. 4 Iulian Popescu (left) and Amedeo Oranescu (right) at SYROM 2005

“Planar Mechanisms Design”, [8]. His continuous work was linked with permanent openings. In 1997, his group publishes under his supervision the monograph “Biological Mechanisms” which applies mechanisms science to biological structures. He and his co-worker D. Nicolae are further developing this approach. In the Dunarea de Jos University of Galati, Prof. A, Oranescu (1925–2007), a former Ph.D. student of Prof. Mangeron, developed a group that made contributions to kinetic modeling and computer simulations of mechanisms, mainly for nondesmodrome and quasi-desmodrome mechanical structures (Fig. 4) [9]. Last but not least, the Brasov School must be mentioned, as one of the most important groups that contributed to the development, progress and advances of mechanisms and machines, with international resonance. The initiator was Professor Florea Dudita, with scientific contributions presented in over 150 papers, 11 books and 45 patents, referring to the structure, kinematics and dynamics of Cardan transmissions, [10], the structure and kinematics of homokinematic mobile couplings, structural optimisation of mechanisms, structure and kinematics of roboto-mechanisms, and linkage history in a phylogenetic approach. During the past years, the Brasov group has included nationally and internationally recognized personalities, such as Prof. Petre Alexandru, Prof. Aurel Jula, Prof. Dorin Diaconescu and Prof. Ion Visa who developed integrated research and education, answering to the needs of advanced industrial products (Fig. 5). In education, the broad application potential of mechanism science was sensed as early as the 1990s when new study programs were launched (Industrial Design) followed later by the Engineering of Renewable Energy Systems (2007) and Product Design Engineering (2010). Research openings were created both in fundamentals (by promoting the Multibody System method) and in applications, targeting the development of optimized, efficient Renewable Energy Systems.

388

I. Visa

Fig. 5 From left to right: Prof. A. Jula, Prof. P. Alexandru and Prof. F. Dudita during Prasic Symposium

The Developments When founded, ARoTMM represented a path to follow in gathering and jointly using the experience in the field that had accumulated in these schools, developed in the main academic centres in Romania. The aim was to develop a cooperative framework, both in education and in research. Professionals acting in the field of mechanisms and machine sciences, found in ARoTMM a place for harmonizing the curriculum for the appropriate disciplines, eventually for the entire engineering course, for experiencing exchange of teaching methods and tools, a place for communication on the latest research and innovation projects. Being entirely dedicated to research and education, non-political and non-governmental, ARoTMM could well develop after 1989. As result of the developments, in 2005, the association changed the name to The Romanian Association for Mechanisms and Machines Science, and kept the same acronym, ARoTMM. To fulfil the objectives stated by the founders of the ARoTMM, regular events were scheduled and developed. Yearly, the Machine and Mechanisms Seminars are open to specific topics of interest for the ARoTMM community. Organized on a rotational basis by each academic institution, the seminaries grew in consistency year by year. In 2006 the first Seminar was hosted by the Transilvania University of Brasov, and represented an opportunity for a serious discussion on the need to restructure the content and teaching methods of the Mechanisms and Machine courses delivered to engineering students. The need to harmonize teaching and research, to focus on practical, complex examples included in high-tech products, was recognized by all the participants. The following edition (2007) was held in the Technical University of Cluj Napoca and was dedicated to research, especially project-based research and the future openings of the inter-and trans-disciplinary approaches of mechanisms in relations with other engineering and non-engineering subjects. The 2008 edition was developed in the University of Craiova and the 2009 edition was

The Romanian Association for Mechanisms and Machines Science

389

held in the Technical University Timisoara and represented fruitful occasions for debating the structural changes needed in education and research on mechanisms. One task ARoTMM formulated from the beginning, as an IFToMM, branch was to contribute to the dissemination of research results during scientific events. One example is the Mechanisms and Mechanical Transmission Conference, organized in Timisoara and Resita, starting with 1972 (the latest edition being in 2008). The Brasov University organized PRASIC (Computer Aided Design Conference), starting with 1974 and having the latest edition organized in 2006. The major event of ARoTMM is the Symposium on Machines and Mechanisms Science, SYROM. The first editions gathered participants from all the Romanian academic centres where the science of mechanisms and machines was taught. The quality and complexity of the papers had an ascendant trend and the scientific level constantly increased, thus SYROM developed during the 1990s as a Romanian symposium with international participation and, in 2009, it became a true international Symposium. For the first time outside the Politechnica University of Bucharest, SYROM was hosted in 12–15 October 2009 by the Transilvania University of Brasov. Keeping track with the scientific development, the SYROM topics enlarged during time by including novel trends and research directions, therefore the areas addressed included, besides Mechanisms and Machines, also Command and Control, Applications in High-Tech Products along with Current Trends in Education. Considering the needs of a knowledge-based society, special attention was given to high level applications of concepts and models, and to contributions in development of integrated virtual prototyping platforms. The participants at SYROM 2009 came from Germany, France, Italy, Poland, Spain, USA, Russia and Romania (Fig. 6). The plenary and oral presentations focused on current research in this area combining techniques such as modelling - Digital modelling - Virtual Prototyping in the sustainable development concept, thus enabling the simultaneous evaluation of the shape, mounting / assembly, functionality and sustainability of the systems and their impact on the environment. The symposium proceedings were published by Springer, after an international peer review process. The symposium hosted a special event of Transilvania University of Brasov: the awarding ceremony of the Doctor Honoris Causa distinction to Prof. Marco Ceccarelli, IFToMM president, for his contribution and continuous support of the Romanian Association for the Mechanism and Machine Science ARoTMM. Also, during SYROM there were honoured IFToMM members with exceptional results in mechanisms science, for the year 2009: the Award of Merit (Florea Dudiţa, Transilvania University in Brasov), the Dedicated Service Award (Tian Huang, Tianjin University of China) and the Honorary ARoTMM Diploma (Paun Antonescu, Polytechnic University of Bucharest and former ARoTMM President). Beginning 2002, ARoTMM publishes, every 6 months, the journal Mechanisms and Manipulators (in Romanian), opened to the latest results obtained at an international level. Leading experts, such as M. Ceccarelli, K.H. Modler, K. Luck, E. Dikksman, and W. Rehwald are among the authors of recent numbers (Fig. 7). The ARoTMM members are active in IFToMM, and its technical committees and the events organised in the past 2 years (SYROM 2009, IFToMM awards)

Fig. 6 SYROM 2009 proceedings volume

Fig. 7 Syrom 2009; from right to left: V. Maties, F. Dudita, N. Orlandea, B. Korves, P. Alexandru, D. Tarnita, M. Ceccarelli, P. Antonescu, V. Ardelean, D. Perju, K.H. Modler, N. Dumitru, E. Lovasz

The Romanian Association for Mechanisms and Machines Science

391

represent a confirmation. The latest event, the International Conference on Mechanical Engineering (Craiova, April 2010) was also the occasion when, Prof. Marco Ceccarelli was awarded the Doctor Honoris Causa Degree for its support in promoting the science of mechanisms and machines. The ARoTMM members were active participants in the IFToMM World Congresses (Oulu - 1999, Tianjin - 2004, Besancon - 2007) and in the EUCOMES Conferences, for the latest, the 2010 edition being hosted in Cluj Napoca.

The Mechanisms and Machine Science Today Switching from an industrial-based economy to a knowledge-based society represented a step that allowed Europe to become the frontrunner in the economic growth competition, during the 1990s. The “triple helix” governing the knowledge-based economy involves universities (research and education), industry (manufacturing) and governments (decision making) and, proving to be functional, this concept that emerged in Europe was largely adopted by all the developed countries, [11, 12]. Economic growth mainly results from new products and technologies, developed through interdisciplinary research, adopted by advanced industrial manufacturing processes, with new or strongly improved quality, that are cost effective and competitive in the market. The time needed for an optimized research result to be implemented in an up-scaled process represents another feature of this novel approach. The results are new high-tech products that give a rational and efficient use of materials and energy that can fulfil complex requirements (multifunctional) at advanced functional standards. For developing this type of products all the engineering knowledge must be integrated and the design process must be reconsidered, [13]. The new approach, Integrated Product Design considers the functionality and performance of the entire complex product resulting from component optimization, aesthetics, end of life disposal and marketing. Advantages include shorter product cycles and delivery times, decrease in system and products costs, while improving quality. The customer focused products result from a set of key characteristics, [14], among which the most essential are: Concurrent development of products and processes; Early, continuous lifecycle planning; Flexible design and improved process capability; Multidisciplinary approach. Mechanisms science quickly adapted to these ideas and the design, simulation and optimization of simple or complex mechanisms represents an integrated part of larger virtual prototyping platforms (Fig. 8). Sustainability represents a major issue that must govern high-tech products. Therefore, we consider that Integrated Sustainable Product Design represents a concept for the future that must be formulated today (Fig. 9). Minimal intervention in nature’s order, during product manufacturing, use and after disposal, implies a deep understanding of nature’s mechanisms, thus the development of future products requires a trans-disciplinary approach.

392

I. Visa

Fig. 8 Mechanisms science in integrated product design

Interdisciplinary Approach

Energy Materials Control Product Design Mechanism Science

Fig. 9 The role of mechanisms science in integrated sustainable product design

Quality of Life Environment

Transdisciplinary Approach

Energy Materials Control

Market

Product Design Mechanism Science Quality Management

To get a “common ground” for integrated product design, new, compatible instruments must be developed and used in different steps of the engineering process: conceptual design, product development, virtual prototyping, optimized product prototyping, prototype optimization. Machines and mechanisms are integrated in high-tech products thus their design must be integrated in a complex product design. The use of software instruments becomes a prerequisite. The teams working in this field must adapt to the new design process and instruments, therefore specific changes in education are compulsory, [15].

The Romanian Association for Mechanisms and Machines Science

393

An integrated curriculum is necessary when developing computational and CAD knowledge that must be included in the curricula in a logical order, with wellselected case-studies and project themes. The first cycle could be thus dedicated to understanding the fundamentals and to describing them using specific software, while the master courses must develop skills for using professional design software. The use of engineering software, the ability of integrating and developing software platforms is further used in research, for virtual prototyping and optimization.

The Future Developed 40 years ago, ARoTMM is an active association, with active groups, working for promoting the science of machines and mechanisms in todays’ world. Current research and education trends, aiming to contribute to a future of economic growth, imply the need to sense the new fields where mechanisms have a significant contribution to make. The science of machines and mechanisms has to respond to the new challenges for developing high-tech products, which strongly implies the need to develop, analyze and optimize mechanisms, considering the reduction of energy consumption during driving (Energy Efficiency), the decrease in energy losses during functioning (Energy Saving) and the development of novel solutions for Renewable Energy Systems with high conversion efficiency, maximizing the use of renewable energy sources (solar radiation, wind, water flow, biomass and biofuels, tides, geothermal energy, etc.). This also complies with a strong need for developing, in an interdisciplinary approach, novel concepts and results for high-tech applications, able to be transferred to industry. Research on mechanisms of increasing complexity is needed, along with solutions for large systems that include these mechanisms. The development of complex, virtual prototyping platforms is required, including advances in the conception, design and optimization of the mechanical systems, complementary with their energy analysis, as single systems and as part of complex applications. Research and development is further mirrored in new subjects included in the Higher Education curricula, at all three study levels: diploma, masters and doctoral programs. The application fields are broad, including: automotives, robotics, solar energy conversion systems, wind turbines, hydro-systems, etc. Emerging applications of the mechanical systems theories are expected in new frontier research as exemplified by the Multibody System Theory applied to molecular systems. During the last SYROM conference, the idea of a new IFToMM Technical Committee emerged and was embraced by the participants. The new TC should focus on advanced applications of mechanisms in sustainable energy systems and ARoTMM, mainly the Brasov branch, along with Prof. Ceccarelli is currently acting for organizing and launching this structure. This is one of the answers ARoTMM is preparing to the question of what requirements we need to fulfill for future development.

394

I. Visa

References 1. Antonescu, P.: 100 years from the birth of Nicolae I, Manolescu. Mecanisme şi Manipulatoare 6(1), 1–4 (2007) 2. Antonescu, P.: Academician Radu Voinea at 85. Mecanisme şi Manipulatoare 7(2), 1–2 (2008) 3. Tempea, I., Antonescu, P.: IFToMM – SYROM Symposia on TMM: an historical overview. International symposium on history of machines and mechanisms, Proceedings HMM-2000, pp. 223–239, Kluver Academic Publisher, Dordrecht (2000) 4. Maros, D.: The fundamental general law of gear with applications in the kinematic calculation of the helicoidal geared flanks, SEIE, vol. 62, (1971) 5. Maros, D.: Gears Kinematics. Ed. Tehnica, Bucharest (1958) 6. Maros, D.: Worm Gears. Ed. Tehnica, Bucuresti (1966) 7. Irimiciuc, N.: D.I. Mageron – A Professor among professors, Iasi technical University Press, Iasi (1995) 8. Popescu, I.: Planar Mechanisms Design. Scrisul Romanesc Press, Craiova (1977) 9. Irimiciuc, N., Ibanescu, I., Condurache, D., Ibanescu, R., Oranescu, A.: Nondesmodrome and quasidesmodrome mechanical structures. Mecanisme şi Manipulatoare 7(1), 1–6 (2008) 10. Duduta, Fl: Kardangelenkgetribe und Ihre Anwendungen. VDI – Verlog GmbH, Dusseldorf (1973) 11. Gordon, R.J.: Two centuries of economic growth. Europe chasing the American frontier, Economic History Workshop, Northwester University, Atlanta (2002) 12. Leydersdorff, L.: The Knowledge Based Economy, Modeled, Measured, Simulated. Universal Publishers, Florida (2006) 13. Zha, X.F., Sriram, R.D.: Platform based product design and development: A knowledge-intensive support approach. Knowledge-Based Systems 19, 524–543 (2006) 14. DoD Guide to Integrated Product and Process Development, Version 1.0, 5 February 1996 15. Traylor, R.L., Heer, D, Fiez, T.S.: Using an integrated platform for learning to reinvent engineering education, IEEE Trans. Edu. 46(4), 409–419 (2003)

Formation and Development of MMS in Russia with Participation of Russia in IFToMM Activity Nikolay V. Umnov and Victor A. Glazunov

Abstract The participation of Russian scientists in the development of the theory of mechanisms and machines is considered. The most attention is paid to the efforts of scientists working in the Mechanical Engineering Research Institute of the Russian Academy of Sciences.

Introduction The role of academician I.I. Artobolevski in development of IFToMM is well known. This scientist was one of the founders of the theory of mechanisms and machines. Nevertheless we would like to note that in Russia there exist many other scientists who applied their efforts in the area of machine science. Of course it is impossible to make exhaustive analysis of their results. Therefore we consider mostly the results obtained by the scientists who worked in the Mechanical Engineering Research Institute or had relations with this institute because of academician Artobolevski who founded the department of machine mechanics and established control of this institute and was the head of this department. Accordingly, the references [1–25] mostly correspond to these authors.

Formation of MMS in Russia The thorough development of mechanisms science as a part of applied mechanics began in Russia in the nineteenth century. Let us dwell on the most outstanding scientists in this area, and on their results.

N.V. Umnov (*) and V.A. Glazunov Mechanical Engineering Research Institute, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, Russia e-mail: [email protected] M. Ceccarelli (ed.), Technology Developments: the Role of Mechanism and Machine Science and IFToMM, Mechanisms and Machine Science 1, DOI 10.1007/978-94-007-1300-0_34, © Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2011

395

396

N.V. Umnov and V.A. Glazunov

P.L. Chebyshev (1821–1894) developed a structural formula of plane mechanisms, and also stated the principles of mechanism synthesis (Photo 1) [24]. N.E. Zhukovsky (1847–1921) is known not only for his work in the area of aerodynamics, but also in the area of mechanisms science. Thus, he proposed

Photo 1 (a) Chebyshev P.L., (b) Chebyshev’s mechanism, (c) Chebyshev’s walking machine

Formation and Development of MMS in Russia

397

Photo 1 (continued)

“Zhukovsky’s lever”, interpreting the general dynamics equation for plane mechanisms in graphic-analytical form (Photo 2). L.V. Assur (1878–1920) along with Franz Reuleaux developed the theory of structural groups (Assur’s groups), the degree of mobility of which is equal to zero. This notion became fundamental for a structural synthesis and a synthesis of mechanisms (Photo 3). The followers of these researchers were Professors V.P. Goryachkin, N.I. Mertsalov, A.P. Malyshev, G.G. Baranov, V.V. Dobrovolsky, L.N. Reshetov and many others, who made great contribution to investigation of structure, kinematics and dynamics of mechanisms. Thus, A.P. Malyshev developed theory of structure for space mechanisms, and L.N. Reshetov studied questions of gearing geometry and later – problems of redundant constraints.

Efforts of Soviet Scientists in the Area of MMS An important event in the development of mechanisms and machines science in Russia in 1939 was creation of the Mechanical Engineering Research Institute in the system of the Academy of Sciences. This Institute became a coordinating centre of all the investigations in the area of mechanisms and machines science in Russia (Photo 4). Academician E.A. Chudakov (1890–1953) became the Head of the Institute; he made great contributions to development of the theory of strength and reliability, and also theory of automobiles. Mechanisms and machines science, friction and wear of machine parts, dynamical strength of machine parts, and metal cutting

398

N.V. Umnov and V.A. Glazunov

Photo 2 (a) Zhukovsky N.E., (b) Lever of Zhukovsky (from the book of Artobolevski I.I. [1])

became the development trends of machines science. The main problems of mechanisms and machines science were (and in many aspects remain) classification of machines and mechanisms, synthesis of mechanisms according to different criteria, development of effective techniques of kinematical and dynamical analysis, taking into account possible variable and impact loads, accuracy problems of mechanisms and measuring systems. Later these development trends were supplemented with a number of new problems. We will indicate only some of fundamental results,

Formation and Development of MMS in Russia Photo 3 (a) Assur L.V., (b) Assurs’ groups (from the book of Kraynev A.F. [16])

399

400

N.V. Umnov and V.A. Glazunov

Photo 4 Chudakov E.A

obtained by Soviet and Russian scientists in the area of mechanical engineering, and only the most known scientists among them. Great contributions to development of Soviet mechanical engineering were made by the second Head of the Mechanical Engineering Research Institute, Academician A.A. Blagonravov (1894–1975). His works belong to the area of automatic systems dynamics and ballistics of spaceships. He was a chairman of the Committee on cosmic space investigation of the Academy of Science of USSR and was an active participant of international conferences on disarmament. Afterwards the Mechanical Engineering Research Institute was named after A.A. Blagonravov (Photo 5). The theory of mechanisms accuracy was developed by Academician N.G. Bruevich (1896–1987) and his followers. The linear theory of accuracy is based on the idea of a transformed mechanism, in which real input links are fixed [7], but there are fictitious input links, corresponding to errors of the mechanism. The analysis of the output link location errors can be carried out by relations, typical of velocities and infinitely small displacements. Further non-linear theory of accuracy was also developed together with V.I. Sergeev (Photo 6). Soviet and Russian scientists made great contributions to the area of gearing science formation, development of new gears and mechanisms on its basis. It is sufficient to mention the founder of analytical theory of gearing, Russian scientist H.I. Gohman, who published in 1886 “Theory of gearing, generalized and developed by means of analysis”. The names of M.L. Novikov, who proposed a new type

Formation and Development of MMS in Russia Photo 5 Blagonravov A.A

Photo 6 Bruevich N.G

401

402

N.V. Umnov and V.A. Glazunov

Photo 7 Kononenko V.O

of gearing, named after him later, N.I. Kolchin, V.N. Kudryavtsev, V.A. Gavrilenko, K.I. Zablonsky, A.I. Petrusevich, E.L. Airapetov and many others, who influenced greatly the development of theory and practice of gears and gearbox industry, are known all over the world. And, certainly, Russia is proud of the large contribution made to the theory of gearing by an outstanding scientist F.L. Litvin, who up to now remains one of the most cited scientists in this area of mechanisms and machines science. The achievements of Soviet and Russian scientists in the area of oscillation and vibration investigation are rather great. Academician V.O. Kononenko (1918–1975) developed the theory of interaction of non-linear oscillating systems with sources of energy of limited power (Photo 7). Academician R.F. Ganiev (born in 1937) created a theory of non-linear oscillations in continuums and developed a number of manufacturing vibrational-wave technologies (Photo 8). The role of Academician K.V. Frolov (1932–2007) in the development of Soviet and Russian mechanical engineering should be mentioned especially. The area of his scientific interests is non-linear oscillations of biomechanical systems manmachine-environment [23]. He was the Head of the Mechanical Engineering Research Institute for many years and carried out large-scale organizing work on investigations in this area; he supervised the publication of fundamental works on machine-building, theory of oscillations and a number of textbooks for technical higher educational institutions (Photo 9). In the beginning of the 1960s, soviet scientists began studying robotics [3] and achieved great success. One of the first functioning biomechanical artificial hands appeared in the USSR. Automatic cosmic probes (essentially they are robots too) were first to realize a soft landing on the Moon, to investigate its surface by means of a ship Lunokhod (the Mechanical Engineering Research Institute took part in

Formation and Development of MMS in Russia Photo 8 (a) Ganiev R.F., (b) One picture from the book [8]

403

404

N.V. Umnov and V.A. Glazunov

investigations of friction in the wheels of the Lunokhod), and to deliver soil samples from the moon. Soviet machines carried out investigation of Venus and Mars. The most contribution to development of soviet space robots was made by academician G. N. Babakin (1914–1971) (Photo 10).

Photo 9 Frolov K.V

Photo 10 (a) Babakin G.N., (b) The Lunokhod, (c) the robot to deliver Moon soil

Formation and Development of MMS in Russia

405

Photo 10 (continued)

One of the most important problems in machine-building is strength of machine parts under dynamical variable loads. Academician Yu.N. Rabotnov (1914–1985) and his followers productively worked in this area. This scientist developed theory, describing processes of deforming of different materials, including plastics and composite materials [19]. He made important contribution to the theory of elastic plastic mediums, failure processes, combining theoretical investigations with experimental ones(Photo 11).

406

N.V. Umnov and V.A. Glazunov

Photo 11 Rabotnov Yu.N

Photo 12 Bolotin V.V

General theory of design units’ reliability, based on application of methods of random processes theory and on application of probabilistic-statistical methods of mechanics, was developed by Academician V.V. Bolotin (1926–2008). In addition, he investigated properties of flaky and fibrous mediums and proposed methods of prediction of technical objects’ lifetime on the design stage (Photo 12) [6].

Formation and Development of MMS in Russia

407

It should be noted that Soviet scientists made large contributions to development of the theory of friction and wear, or tribotechnics. Here the scientific schools, created by Professors I.V. Kragelsky and M.M. Khrushchov, can be mentioned. They and their followers investigated the questions of metrology of parts’ surface quality, creation of new antifriction materials, mechanism of wear and development of friction theory. In particular, when investigating wear processes, fundamental relationships of relative wear resistance on load, sliding velocity, abrasive grain size and correlation of hardness were determined. We would like to note the great contribution to development of mechanics and control of machines that was made by academicians A.Yu. Ishlinsky (1913–2003), K.S. Kolesnikov (born in 1919), D.M. Klimov (born in 1933), and F.L. Chernousko (born in 1938) (Photos 13–16). The significance of some results becomes visible only after a number of years. In particular, the effectiveness of application of screw calculus in mechanisms science keeps increasing more and more. One of the first to propose it was F.M. Dimentberg (1908–1999) after he got acquainted with the book of D.N. Zeiliger, where the properties of surfaces, generated by the motion of a straight line, were investigated on the basis of screw calculus. Then F.M. Dimentberg [9] met with one of the founders of screw calculus A.P. Kotelnikov [15] (the second founder was E. Study). A.P. Kotelnikov indicated that application of that instrument for problems of continuum mechanics was not reasonable, but it evidently would be effective for mechanisms investigation.

Photo 13 Ishlinsky A.Yu

408

N.V. Umnov and V.A. Glazunov

Photo 14 Kolesnikov K.S

Photo 15 Klimov D.M

F.M. Dimentberg not only was the first to apply the theory of screws and screw calculus to space mechanisms, but also could state, and also develop this mathematical tool not in analytical (as the most of researchers did), but in more illustrative and compact geometrical form. Now the method of screws attracts attention of more mechanical scientists, dealing with space mechanisms.

Formation and Development of MMS in Russia

409

Photo 16 Chernousko F.L

Academician I. I. Artobolevsky and IFToMM in the Soviet Union and Russia The role of Academician I.I. Artobolevsky (1905–1977) in the development of Soviet and Russian mechanical engineering is inestimable. He worked hard in the area of structure and kinematics of mechanisms, dealt with force analysis, theory of machines balancing and synthesis of mechanisms. He developed a system of mechanisms classification that became the basis for the whole development of MMS in the Soviet Union and all over the world. I.I. Artobolevsky together with his followers N.I. Levitsky and S.A. Cherkudinov developed the fundamental theory of planar mechanisms’ synthesis [2] (Photo 17). He carried out large-scale organizing, educational and teaching work. His textbooks on mechanisms and machines science were edited for many times and became classical. I.I. Artobolevsky was one of the initiators of organizing the International Federation on Theory of Mechanisms and Machines (IFToMM) and became its first president in 1969. He occupied this post for 8 years. Besides, he was the first chairman of the National Committee of the Soviet Union on MMS. After I.I. Artobolevsky, his follower Professor A.P. Bessonov was the chairman of the Committee and made his own great contribution to the science of mechanisms with variable mass. The activity of scientists in the area of mechanical engineering of the Soviet Union and Russia always was closely connected with the activity of International Federation on Theory of Mechanisms and Machines (IFToMM). As it was noted,

410

N.V. Umnov and V.A. Glazunov

one of the initiators of this organization’s creation in 1969 and its first president during 8 years was I.I. Artobolevsky. After I.I. Artobolevsky, his follower Professor A.P. Bessonov was a representative of the USSR and Russia in IFToMM, and he was rewarded the honourable medal of this organization during the work of XI World Congress on MMS in 2004. A scientific conference, devoted to the centenary of Academician I.I. Artobolevsky, was carried out in the Mechanical Engineering Research Institute in 2005. President of IFToMM Professor K. Waldron and general secretary of this Federation Professor M. Ceccarelli took part in the activity of this conference. Soviet and Russian scientists actively participated in many scientific events of IFToMM, in all World Congresses and Symposiums on robotics ROMANSY. Many Russian scientists are members of Committees and Editorial Boards of IFToMM.

Conclusion Let’s note the following as a conclusion. Achievements of all modern sciences – from physics of elementary particles, nanotechnologies, cosmic space investigation to genetic engineering and, further, to psychology and philosophy – are to a significant degree determined by achievements of modern mechanical engineering. For example, the tunnel microscope is a machine having a motor, transmission mechanism, actuator, and a control system with an increased number of artificial intelligence elements. The human researcher does not experience with his or her own

Photo 17 (a) Artobolevsky I.I., (b) One page from the book of Artobolevsky I.I. [4], (c) The library of Artobolevsky I.I. given to Mechanical Engineering Research Institute

Formation and Development of MMS in Russia

Photo 17 (continued)

411

412

N.V. Umnov and V.A. Glazunov

Photo 17 (continued)

sense organs the influence of the objects under investigation, but looks at reactions of the machines created by humans for this purpose. In this sense it is absolutely necessary to study and develop the machines themselves and to know the general principles of their design and functioning. Modern mechanical engineering widely applies achievements of all progressive sciences. But mechanical engineering itself implements its methods in other sciences that could seem to be far from it. In particular, the representation of protein structure and functioning as a machine is known, and technique of mechanisms science can be applied to investigation of internal mobility in crystal parts. General fundamental problems of mechanical engineering are structuralparametric syntheses of mechanisms and machines, systematization of machines according to functional features in historical and logical aspects, kinematical and dynamical analysis of mechanisms, science of materials, tribology, biomechanics, complex investigation of a machine’s influence on a human, oscillations and vibrations, wave technologies, development of drives and control algorithms, sensitization and artificial intelligence, and also robotics, strength of machines’ design units,

Formation and Development of MMS in Russia

413

construction of machines by analogy to living organisms and creation of prosthetics, and also medical instruments and robots, technological machines, as well as investigation of interaction of mechanical engineering and progressive technologies, problems of reliability and safety of machines’ operation, diagnostics and methods of experimental machines’ investigation, problems of philosophy and psychology, connected with creation and evaluation of inventions, problems of teaching and popularization of investigation results in the area of mechanical engineering. The stated above allows one to say, that mechanical engineering is one of the most fundamental modern sciences, and Russian researchers continue to take efforts for development of this science.

References 1. Apтoбoлeвcкий И.И. Teopия мexaнизмoв и мaшин. M.: Haукa, 1988. (Artobolevsky, I.I.: Theory of Mechanisms and Machines. Nauka, Moscow (1988)) 2. Apтoбoлeвcкий И.И., Лeвитcкий H.И., Чepкудинoв C.A. Cинтeз плocкиx мexaнизмoв. M.: Физмaтгиз, 1959. (Artobolevsky, I.I., Levitsky, N.I., Cherkudinov, S.A.: The Synthesis of Planar Mechanisms. Fizmatgiz, Moscow (1959)) 3. Apтoбoлeвcкий И.И., Кoбpинcкий A.E. Poбoты./ Maшинoвeдeниe, 1970, № 5, c.3-11. (Artobolevsky, I.I., Kobrinsky, A.E.: Robots. Soviet Machine Science (Mashinovedenie), N5 (1970)) 4. Apтoбoлeвcкий И.И. Mexaнизмы в coвpeмeннoй тexникe: в 5 тoмax. M.: Haукa, 1970–1975 г. (Artobolevsky, I.I.: Mechanisms in Modern Technique, vol. 5. Nauka, Moscow (1970–1976)) 5. Бeccoнoв A.П. Ocнoвы динaмики мexaнизмoв c пepeмeннoй мaccoй звeньeв. M.: Haукa, 1967. (Bessonov, A.P.: The Basics of Dynamics of Mechanisms with Variable Mass of Links. Nauka, Moscow (1967)) 6. Бoлoтин B.B. Пpoгнoзиpoвaниe pecуpca мaшин и кoнcтpукций. M.: Maшинocтpoeниe, 1984. (Forecasting of Resource of Machines and Constructions. Mashinostroenie, Moscow (1984)) 7. Бpуeвич H.Г. Toчнocть мexaнизмoв M.-Л.: Гocтexиздaт, 1946. (Bruevich, N.G.: The accuracy of mechanisms. Gostekhizdat, Moscow/Leningrad (1946)) 8. Гaниeв P. Ф. Кoнoнeнкo B. O. Кoлeбaния твepдыx тeл. M. : Haукa, 1976. (Ganiev, R.F., Kononenko, V.O.: Oscillations of Rigid Bodies. Nauka, Moscow (1976)) 9. Димeнтбepг Ф.M. Bинтoвoe иcчиcлeниe и eгo пpилoжeния в мexaникe. Haукa, M. (AD680993, Clearinghouse for Federal Technical and Scientific Information, Virginia (1965)) 10. Жукoвcкий H.E. Aнaлитичecкaя мexaникa, тeopия peгулиpoвaния, пpиклaднaя мexaникa. M.-Л.: Oбopoнгиз, 1939. (Zhukovsky, N.E.: Analytical Mechanics, Theory of Regulation, Applied Mechanics. Oborongiz, Moscov/Leningrad (1939)) 11. Ишлинcкий A.Ю. Инepциaльнoe упpaвлeниe бaллиcтичecкими paкeтaми. M.: Haукa, 1968. (Ishlinsky, A.Yu.: Inertial Navigation of Ballistic Rockets. Nauka, Moscow (1968)) 12. Климoв Д.M. Инepциaльнaя нaвигaция нa мope. M.: Haукa 1984. (Klimov, D.M.: Inertial Navigation on a Sea. Nauka, Moscow (1984)) 13. Кoбpинcкий A.A., Кoбpинcкий A.E. Maнипуляциoнныe cиcтeмы poбoтoв: ocнoвы уcтpoйcтвa, элeмeнты тeopии. M.: Haукa, 1989. (Kobrinsky, A.E., Kobrinsky A.A.: Manipulation Systems of Robots: the Basics of Design, Elements of the Theory. Nauka, Moscow (1989)) 14. Кoлecникoв К.C. Динaмикa paкeт. M.: Maшинocтpoeниe, 2003. (Kolesnikov, K.S.: The Dynamics of Rockets. Mashinostroenie, Moscow (2003))

414

N.V. Umnov and V.A. Glazunov

15. Кoтeльникoв A.П. Bинтoвoe cчиcлeниe и нeкoтopыe пpилoжeния eгo к гeoмeтpии и мexaникe. Кaзaнь, 1895. (Kotelnikov, A.P.: The Screw Calculus and Some Its Applications to Geometry and Mechanics. Kazan (1895)) 16. Кpaйнeв A.Ф. Cлoвapь-cпpaвoчник пo мexaнизмaм. M.: Maшинocтpoeниe, 1987. (Kraynev, A.F.: Dictionary-Handbook on Mechanisms. Mashinostroenie, Moscow (1987)) 17. Лeвитcкий H.И. Teopия мexaнизмoв и мaшин. M.: Haукa, 1990. (Levitsky, N.I.: Theory of Mechanisms and Machines. Nauka, Moscow (1990)) 18. Maлышeв A.П. Aнaлиз и cинтeз мexaнизмoв c тoчки зpeния иx cтpуктуpы. / Изв. Toмcкoгo тexнoлoг. ин-тa, 1923, т. 44, вып. 2, c. 1–78. (Malyshev, A.P.: Analysis and Synthesis of Mechanisms from the Point of View of These Structure. In: The News of Tomsk’ Technological Institute, vol. 44, N 2, pp. 1–78 (1923)) 19. Meдвeдeв B.C., Лecкoв A.Г., Ющeнкo A.C. Cиcтeмы упpaвлeния мaнипуляциoнныx poбoтoв. M.: Haукa, 1978. (Medvedev, V.S., Leskov, A.G., Yuschenko, A.S.: The Systems of Control of Manipulation Robots. Nauka, Moscow (1978)) 20. Пoпoв E.П., Bepeщaгин A.Ф., Зeнкeвич C.П. Maнипуляциoнныe poбoты. Динaмикa и aлгopитмы. M.: Haукa, 1978. (Popov, E.P., Vereschagin, A.F., Zenkevich, S.P.: Manipulation Robots. Dynamics and Algorithms. Nauka, Moscow (1978)) 21. Paбoтнoв Ю.H. Лeкции пo тeopии упpугocти. M.: MГУ, 1967. (Rabotnov, Yu.N.: The Lectures on the Theory of Elasticity. State university of Moscow, Moscow (1967)) 22. Уcкoв M.К., Пapxoмeнкo A.A. Paзвитиe тeopии и пpaктики coвeтcкoгo мaшинoвeдeния. M.: Haукa, 1980. (Uskov, M.K., Parkhomenko, A.A.: Development of the Theory and Practice of the Soviet Machine Science. Nauka, Moscow (1980)) 23. Фpoлoв К.B. Meтoды coвepшeнcтвoвaния мaшин и coвpeмeнныe пpoблeмы мaшинoвeдeния. M.: Maшинocтpoeниe, 1984. (Frolov, K.V.: The Methods of Perfection of Machines and Modern Problems of Machine Science. Mashinostroenie, Moscow (1984)) 24. Чeбышeв П.Л. Избpaнныe мaтeмaтичecкиe тpуды. M. – Л., 1946. (Chebyshev, P.L.: The Selected Mathematical Works. Moscow/Leningrad, MIR (1946)) 25. Чepнoуcькo Ф.Л., Бoлoтник H.H., Гpaдeцкий B.Г. Maнипуляциoнныe poбoты: динaмикa, упpaвлeниe, oптимизaция. M.: Haукa, 1989. (Chernousko, F.L., Bolotnik, N.N., Gradetsky V.G.: Manipulation Robots: Dynamics, Control and Optimization. CRC Press, Boca Raton (1994))

Role of MMS and IFToMM in Slovakia S. Segla and P. Solek

Abstract The paper describes the development of machines and mechanisms science and its achievements in Slovakia, along with problems concerning further development. This area of science has had an interesting and far-reaching tradition since the Middle Ages in this country. Following World War II, a systematic research and development base was built in the former Czechoslovakia, including the institutions of higher learning - universities of technology. In 1993 Slovakia became an independent republic and during the social and economic transformation of the last two decades, it has had to face further challenges. An important role in this process has been played by international cooperation, including participation of Slovak scientists in IFToMM activities.

Introduction IFToMM was established to promote Mechanism and Machine Science. However, immediately after its inception in the year 1969, its achievements outgrew the original goals. During the Cold War it helped overcome obstacles in establishing scientific contacts and cooperation on both sides of the so-called “Iron Curtain”. Only after its removal in 1989 did it became possible to significantly expand this cooperation. The scientists involved in IFToMM activities are familiar with the characteristic atmosphere in the IFToMM community - openness, friendliness and a willingness to work together without prejudice or barriers. Working in its Permanent Commissions and Technical Committees, participation in world congresses and

S. Segla (*) and P. Solek Department of Mechanics, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Slovak National Committee of IFToMM, Technical University of Liberec, Studentska 2, 46117 Liberec, Czech Republic e-mail: [email protected] M. Ceccarelli (ed.), Technology Developments: the Role of Mechanism and Machine Science and IFToMM, Mechanisms and Machine Science 1, DOI 10.1007/978-94-007-1300-0_35, © Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2011

415

416

S. Segla and P. Solek

conferences organized or supported by IFToMM has also helped scientists in Slovakia. Among other things this has enabled them to respond more quickly to new development trends.

A Historical Perspective Slovakia has throughout its history been a part of several state formations. The beginnings of a systematic development of sciences in the field of machinery and mechanisms spans back to the Austro-Hungarian Empire. As early as 1735 Hungary’s oldest mining school was founded in Banská Štiavnica (Central Slovakia), as the surrounding mines were rich in gold, silver and copper. These metals were mined and exported throughout Europe. In 1762 the school was promoted to become a Mining Academy – the first of its kind in the world and until 1849 the only one in the Austro-Hungarian Empire. The importance of these mines led to usage of the most modern machinery and mining technologies of that time. A leading figure in the development of mining industry and mining technology in Slovakia was Samuel Mikoviny (1686–1750), Fig. 1, who devoted his work

Fig. 1 Samuel Mikovini

Role of MMS and IFToMM in Slovakia

417

Fig. 2 Mine lift from the mine “Königseg”

mainly to geometry, mathematics, mechanics and hydraulics. He was a pioneer in the use of mathematical models in the technical sciences. Together with the manufacturers of mining machinery, M. K. Hell and his son J. K. Hell, he built up a unique system of 60 ponds, very sensitively incorporated into the surrounding beautiful mountainous countryside. This system was used as a source of water power to drive the mining machinery, mainly lifts and pumps for pumping flood water from mines. J. K. Hell was a master of practical mechanics and inventor of new machines. He was the first to use the potential energy of water instead of water wheels, thus saving a considerable amount of water. Figure 2 illustrates the operation of a lift powered by water energy. The importance of mathematics and mechanics at that time was already testified to by the fact that the second established Department of the Mining Academy was the Department of Mathematics and Mechanics in 1765. Popularization of that period of development of science and technology in coal mines is the domain of S. Havlik, a member of the Permanent Commissions for the History of Mechanism and Machine Science. From several of his works may be cited for example the following papers: [1, 2]. Another personality, who was interested in further development and improvements of Hell’s “ware-column” hydro-motors was Joseph Schitko (1776–1883). As a professor of the Mining Academy he introduced a strictly scientific approach to the study and design of these machines. He derived and applied exact calculations in hydraulics and mechanics, in contrast to his predecessor, who designed machines in a more or less empirical and experimental way. Professor Schitko in fact designed new and much more elaborated machines (1820–1823). His first water-motor and pump built in 1828 used the potential energy of a primary water column 239,72 m high. The two-piston pump transported 2148.37 m3/24 h of mine water to outlet pipeline at the height of 93.13 m and consumed 1639.05 m3 of primary pressure water.

418

S. Segla and P. Solek

Fig. 3 The Segner wheel (his sketch)

In the years 1750–1754 Andreas Segner (1704–1777), born in Bratislava, Slovakia, performed in Germany the first experiments and studies of water reactive force. His main invention, well known as “Segners’s wheel”, Fig. 3, was an inspiration for the development of water turbines. Another excellent mechanician, Wolfgang Kempelen (1734–1804), also lived for some period in Bratislava. He proposed to use Segner’s wheel for driving pumps in mines, with a relatively small amount of primary water under a high pressure column. The first design of this reactive machine was made by J. Chenot and J. Shitko in 1816. The Mining Academy in Banska Stiavnica ceased to exist in 1948, after the collapse of the Austro-Hungarian monarchy.Many other important scientists and technicians were born and attended both basic and secondary schools in Slovakia. They acquired higher education and often carried out scientific activities either in other parts of the Austro-Hungarian Empire or abroad. Here, let us briefly mention at least two of them whose work has had global significance. Prof. Aurel Stodola (1859–1942) was born in Liptovsky Mikulas. Since 1892 he worked at ETH Zurich. He created a scientific basis for steam and combustion turbines, and was also engaged in the theory of automatic control machines. He achieved his greatest success in the field of the steam turbine, its design and calculations, and created a foundation for that area of engineering industry. The first edition of his master work “Die Dampfturbinen und ihre Aussichten als Värmekraftmaschinen” [3] was published in Berlin in 1903. It has been translated into many foreign languages and was published in five editions. Prof. Jozef Maximilian Petzval (1807–1891), Fig. 4, was a mathematician, physicist, engineer and founder of modern optics. He was the first to show that experimentallymade lenses and camera objectives have low speed and therefore require long exposure

Role of MMS and IFToMM in Slovakia

419

Fig. 4 Prof. Jozef Maximilián Petzval, Museum at Spisská Bela

times. He mathematically proved that for a substantial increase in lens speed it is necessary to use two or more lenses. The result of his calculations was the first doublet achromatic lens, which bears his name. J. M. Petzval designed the flood light reflectors and searchlights which have found application not only in the film studios to illuminate actors and sets but later (after the necessary technology was developed) also in lighthouses, ships and military uses. During his long career at the Department of Mathematics at the University of Vienna, J. Petzval taught mathematical theory and differential equations [4, 5], and dealt with the equilibrium and movement of flexible objects, ballistics, mechanics of planet movement, vibration of strings and acoustic oscillation [6]. Higher technical education in Slovakia, after the termination of the Mining Academy in Banska Stiavnica, began to develop systematically through the late 1930s. The Slovak Technical University (now the Slovak University of Technology), founded in 1939 in Bratislava was, after the second World War and the renewal of the Czechoslovak Republic, joined by technical universities in other cities: Kosice, Zilina, Zvolen and Trencin. The science of machines and mechanisms is being developed mainly at faculties of mechanical engineering, but also at other faculties of related fields.

420

S. Segla and P. Solek

In 1956, the Institute of Machine Mechanics at the Slovak Academy of Sciences (SAV), was established, and has played a very important role in developing the science of machines and mechanisms. In 1980 the Institute merged with the Institute of Materials Sciences and became today’s SAV Institute of Materials and Machine Mechanics. Participation of Slovakia in IFToMM activities found a suitable place at the SAV Institute of Machine Mechanics, thanks to Dr. V. Oravský, who initiated the establishment of the IFToMM Slovak National Committee. In 1976, Dr. Oravský became a member of the Permanent Commission (PC) for Standardization of Terminology, where as the longtime chairman of the subcommittee for Dynamics he significantly contributed to the conception and creation of a four-language Terminological Dictionary for the science of machines and mechanisms [8, 9]. After his retirement, the leadership of the Slovak IFToMM national committees was taken over by Assoc. Prof. Stefan Segla, who has been working in the PC for Standardization of IFToMM Terminology since 1998, and since 2000 has headed the subcommittees for dynamics. Both of them contributed not only to the creation and further development of the terminological dictionary, but to its popularization among professionals and its practical use in teaching at a number of faculties of mechanical engineering. Dr. V. Oravský organized the 11th Working Meeting of the PC for Standardization of Terminology of IFToMM at Smolenice Castle (27–31 August, 1989) and Assoc. Prof. Stefan Segla organized the 21st Working Meeting of the same PC at Bardejov Spa, Figs. 5 and 6. A characteristic feature of those meetings was an intensive and demanding scientific program, accompanied by scientific seminars, see [7].

Fig. 5 Participants of 21st working meeting of the PC for standardization of terminology of IFToMM at Bardejov Spa

Role of MMS and IFToMM in Slovakia

421

Fig. 6 Visit to the Saris Museum at Bardejov

One of the fields in which Slovak researchers actively collaborate with the international engineering community is robotics. Yet, from the beginning of the RAAD workshops (Robotics in Alpe-Adra-Danube region) the Institute of Control Theory and Robotics (Institute of SAV, now Institute of Informatics) was an active member of its scientific or organizing committees – Assoc. Prof. K. Dobrovodský (Institute of Informatics, Slovak Academy of Sciences) has been an active member of the scientific committees of the RAAD workshops (Robotics in Alpe-Adria-Danube region). This event, organized every year under the IFToMM umbrella, took place in Slovakia (Smolenice castle) in 1998. Participation at this workshop offered young researchers the possibility to publish and present their best works related to robotic research carried on at technical universities in Bratislava, Košice and Žilina. This meeting helped establish many professional contacts and led to several common projects. Over the next years many other SAV scientific workers became members of the Slovak National Committee (SNC), along with university teachers engaged in IFToMM activities, mainly from faculties of mechanical engineering. Among these belong: Assoc. Prof. J. Mudrik (TC for Gearing), Prof. S. Kral (TC for Gearing), Prof. V. Klimo (TC for Gearing), Prof. S. Havlik (PC for the History of Mechanism and Machine Science), Prof. P. Solek (since 2010 President of SNC Slovak National Committee) and Assoc. Prof. F. Palčák (TC for Computational Mechanics). Assoc. Prof. J. Mudrik and Prof. S. Kral collaborated with Prof. V. I. Goldfarb (former President of TC for Gearing) from the Izhevsk State Technical University in Russia, in issuing the scientific journal, “Gearing and Transmissions”, which was an official journal of TC for Gearing. In 1998, the last above-named scientists established the tradition of organizing the international conferences “Dynamics of Machine Aggregates” and “Dynamics of Gear Drives”, in collaboration with TC for Gearing, Izhevsk State Technical University and Slovak National Committee, Fig. 7.

422

S. Segla and P. Solek

Fig. 7 International conference “Dynamics of Machine Aggregates 2000”

Achievements in Research and Education The key to economic prosperity is science and education. In prevailing Slovak conditions, an essential role is played by the technical sciences, and among them the science of machines and mechanisms, because mechanical engineering has a strong tradition in Slovakia.Technical education and sciences are increasingly being shifted to universities (the share of SAV scientific research institutions is decreasing), which has a positive impact because at universities it is more feasible to combine

Role of MMS and IFToMM in Slovakia

423

science and education. An advantage is also that universities of technology in Slovakia are fairly well distributed geographically. In the last two decades were created agencies which distribute funds to support scientific research and education in a competitive manner. The most important are: 1. VEGA (Scientific Grant Agency of Slovak Ministry of Education). The scientific department of the Agency for Higher Education and Slovak Academy of Sciences. It provides a coordinated approach in the evaluation and selection of projects for basic research. 2. GAVV (Grant Agency of the Ministry of Education of the Slovak Re-public for Applied Research). It is aimed at funding projects in the field of applied research. 3. KEGA (Cultural and Educational Grant Agency of Slovak Ministry of Education). It supports a variety of cultural and educational activities, including the issue of scientific and professional books. 4. APVV (Agency for Research and Development). The purpose of this Agency is funding research and development, with co-financing also coming from private financial sources. It supports the establishment of private and educational centers of excellence, cooperation with universities, institutes, the Slovak Academy of Sciences and the business community. Slovak universities of technology are part of the European research and education community and are more and more involved in international scientific, technological and educational cooperation. These are in particular European programs for the promotion of science and research, COST, EUREKA, EU framework programs and various educational exchange programs (ERASMUS, etc.). Although financial support for scientific research and education in the Slovak Republic is still insufficient, the modern forms of distribution allow introducing and developing modern scientific lines of study and providing the necessary equipment for laboratories. Among the engineering study programs offered by faculties of mechanical engineering can be found, for example: –– –– –– –– –– –– ––

Applied Mechanics Mechatronics Mechatronics of Road Vehicles Biomedical Engineering Robotic Technology Hydraulic and Pneumatic Machinery and Equipment Cars, Boats and Internal Combustion Engines

Research projects also follow modern scientific and technological trends in looking for solutions to engineering problems: –– Applications of electronic materials and magnetorheological vibration suspension –– Detection of failures in mechanical systems –– Vibroinsulation of drivers using passive, active and semiactive vibroinsulation systems

424

S. Segla and P. Solek

–– Optimization of mechanical and mechatronic systems –– Interaction fluid – structure –– Vehicle safety against derailment The exchange of scientific knowledge is supported by organizing international conferences, such as: –– –– –– ––

Numerical methods in continuum mechanics Modeling of mechanical and mechatronic systems ROBTEP – Robotics in theory and practice Mechanical Engineering

Trends in MMS Developments and IFToMM Trends in the further development of the science of machines and mechanisms in Slovakia must respond to the needs of industrial development, particularly mechanical engineering. Since most of the technical departments of the faculties of Slovak universities which focus on the science of machines and mechanisms have existed for several decades, they are developing traditions which were founded in the past, but on the other hand they are responding to new challenges, leading to a reevaluation of existing study and scientific programs. We are witnessing the growing importance of interdisciplinary research teams composed of the staffs of several departments, colleges or universities. One clear example is mechatronics, where cooperation over a number of disciplines is necessary, particularly mechanical engineering, electronics and intelligent computer control.In Slovakia, for example, the following scientific guidelines have been developed: –– Mechatronics (with a various focus on, e.g. road vehicles, sensors, actuators, etc.) –– Micromechanisms and microrobotics –– Active and semiactive suspension of vehicle driver seats and/or operators of various machines –– Rail transport technology with the focus on the problems of wheel-rail contact, virtual modeling, etc. –– Electronics and magnetorheological technology –– Biomechanics –– The use of parallel robotic mechanisms and production technology –– Numerical and experimental modeling and optimization of mechanical and mechatronic systems –– Interactions between structure and fluid –– Stochastic vibration of nonlinear systems –– Hydraulic and pneumatic machinery –– Computer aided kinematic and dynamic analysis of flexible mechanical systems, contact and impact dynamics

Role of MMS and IFToMM in Slovakia

425

SNC’s challenge is to attract additional members to work in organizational and technical committees IFToMM (Permanent Commissions and Technical Committees of IFToMM) because IFToMM international contacts in the community may significantly influence the further development of machines and mechanisms science in Slovakia. We need to recruit scientists to work mainly in commissions that are at present without Slovak representation and which will have a significant impact on further development impulses: TC for Human-Machine Systems, TC for Mecha tronics, TC for Micromachines, TC for Robotics, TC for Transportation Machinery and TC for Tribology.

Expectations and Critical Problems For the further economic growth of Slovakia it is necessary to invest in education and science. Although absolute state expenditures in this sector have a growing tendency, Slovakia still lags behind the average of developed EU countries. While in EU in the years 2003–2007, the average investment in R&D was 1.83% of GDP (e.g. in Finland o 3.47% of GDP), in Slovakia it was only 0.46% of GDP. The share of spending relative to GDP terms is even declining in Slovakia. The result of this low investment in research and development is a relatively poor standard of instruments and equipment in nearly all sectors of research and development. Another consequence is that Slovakia has a lower relative number of publications and a low Citation Index compared with more developed EU countries. In the field of human resources we are facing the problem of a lack of a middle generation of scientists, which makes it difficult to ensure the continuity of research. Another problem is presented by the concentration of the decisive portion of research in the region of the capital of Slovakia, Bratislava. Although the above figures apply to research in general, the situation is essentially the same also in machines and mechanisms science. One of the aims of a knowledge society is also an increase in the social status and recognition of science and technology in society. It is therefore necessary that scientific and educational institutions should be open institutions interconnected with the business sphere, thus affecting the growth of innovation and popularization of science. Machines and mechanisms science has a long and rich tradition in Slovakia. The great development of mechanical engineering and thus of machinery and mechanisms science in Slovakia occurred especially after the Second World War, in the restored Czechoslovak Republic. In those days the necessary research background was established, including institutions of higher technical education. Despite the collapse of many engineering enterprises due to economic transformation, it is imperative to maintain, at least in the selected areas, the preserved traditions and further develop them in such a manner that Slovakia is not just a cheap workshop without its own strong science and research base.

426

S. Segla and P. Solek

Conclusion The paper deals with the influence of the science of machines and mechanisms on the development of industry and thus for the whole of Slovakia. It describes the beginnings of the systematic development of science, education and collaboration with industry, as well as the IFToMM role in this development over the last four decades. Slovakia has achieved remarkable results in the above areas, such that a relatively underdeveloped and largely agricultural-based part of the former Austrian Empire has become a sovereign country with a strong industrial base. These goals could not have been attained without the corresponding development of the science of machines and mechanisms, currently concentrated mainly in the engineering faculties at universities of technology. Despite insufficient funding for research, development and education and a momentary weaker interest in technical sciences from the younger generation, the science of machines and mechanisms continues to develop and prosper. The involvement in various international programs and activities, including involvement in activities within the PCs and TCs of IFToMM, plays an essential role in this development.

References 1. Havlik, S.: Water machines in Central European Ore-Mines within 16th and 19th century. In: Proceedings of the 12th IFToMM World Congress, Besancon, France, 18–21 June 2007 2. Havlik, S., Kladivik, E.: Some interesting mechanisms and machines in Central European Ore-Mines within 16th and 19th century. In: Proceedings of the IFToMM International Conference on History of Machines and Mechanisms, Moscow, 17–19 May 2005 3. Stodola, A.: Värmekraftmaschinen, Berlin (1903). 4. Petzval, J.M.: Integration der linearen Differentialgleichungen mit Constanten und veränderlichen Coefficienten. Erster Band, Braumüller, Wien (1853) 5. Petzval, J.M.: Integration der linearen Differentialgleichungen mit Constanten und veränderlichen Coefficienten. Zweiter Band, Gerold’s Sohn, Wien (1859) 6. Petzval, J.M.: Theorie der Schwingungen gespannter Seiten. K.K. Almanach, Wien (1859) 7. Segla, S. (ed.): Proc. of the Scientific Seminar of the 21st Working Meeting of the IFToMM Permanent Commission for Standardization of Terminology “Terminology for the Mechanism and Machine Science”, Bardejovske Kupele, Slovakia (2005) 8. IFToMM Commission A: Terminology for the theory of machines and mechanisms. Mech. Mach. Theory 26(5), 435–539, Elsevier (1991) 9. IFToMM Commission A: Terminology for the mechanism and machine science. Mech. Mach. Theory 38(7–10), 598–1111, Elsevier (2003)

The Role of MMS and IFToMM Influence in Spain Fernando Viadero, Vicente Díaz, A. Fernández, and Y.A. Gauchía

Abstract In this paper a retrospective vision of the development of MMS in Spain is presented. A historical perspective is first outlined and the research carried out in MMS and vehicle engineering is also described. The evolution and changes in education in Spain have been also addressed regarding MMS in the last half century. Not only has the development of new degree plans been analyzed, but also the increase in the number of engineering schools and their impact. Afterwards, future trends in the evolution of MMS in Spain are analyzed. Finally, expectations and critical problems in relation with the field and the scientific community are discussed.

Introduction: A Historical Perspective The interest and the principal historical developments of mechanism and machine sciences (MMS) in Spain are concentrated in the period known as “Siglo de Oro Español” (The Spanish Golden Age) that begins in the fifteenth century and finishes in the sixteenth century. During this period, and parallel to great contributions in the artistic and cultural environments, there arose a great demand for technical solutions that would allow exploitation of the new expectations raised from the expansion of political influence of the Spanish Crown, due to the discovery of

F. Viadero (*) and A. Fernández Structural and Mechanical Engineering Department, University of Cantabria, Santander, Spain e-mail: [email protected] V. Díaz and Y.A. Gauchía Mechanical Engineering Department, Carlos III University of Madrid, Madrid, Spain M. Ceccarelli (ed.), Technology Developments: the Role of Mechanism and Machine Science and IFToMM, Mechanisms and Machine Science 1, DOI 10.1007/978-94-007-1300-0_36, © Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2011

427

428

F. Viadero et al.

America [1]. At this time, several important, although generally unknown, people can be identified, as for example, Jerónimo de Ayanz and Beaumont or Pedro Juan de Lastanosa, as well as other highly qualified professionals such as Giovanni Torriani, also known as Juanelo Turriano who worked for the Spanish Crown. Several centuries later, Agustín de Betancourt [2] wrote the influential book “Essai sur la composition des machines” with Jose María Lanz [3]. This book was the first modern book on machines and the first solid reference where an effort was made to classify mechanisms according to their movement transformations [4]. Taking a great jump in time, recently, in the last third part of the twentieth century and coincident with the first steps of IFToMM in 1969, the activity in MMS in the Spanish context was principally oriented towards education; in particular the presentation of manuals written in Spanish allowed an increase in technical education so as to meet the increasing demand of professionals as a consequence of the impressive industrial development that was taking place. Regarding this interest in increasing technical concepts we cite, among others, the works of Professor Belda [5] or the works of Professors Lamadrid and Corral [6]. In the year 1978 the first work written in Spanish and related to the synthesis of mechanisms [7] was published; the author, Justo Nieto, was a member of the IFToMM executive council during the period 1988–1991 and from 1992–1995. In 1978, the first National Congress on Theory of Machines and Mechanisms was held in Valencia with the collaboration of the IFToMM Spanish Committee. This Congress continued being held annually in Madrid, Seville and again in Valencia so that in its fifth edition it was widened and became coincident with what would afterwards be called the National Congress of Mechanical Engineering. Thus, in 1982 the first congress was held in Madrid with its new name. It was also in this year, 1982, that the first edition of the journal Annals of Mechanical Engineering was presented (see Fig. 1). As Professor Emilio Bautista [8] stated in this edition, the aim of the journal was to bind together the Spanish community of researchers who had developed their work in this field. In the following year, in 1983, the Spanish Association of Mechanical Engineering (AEIM) was created; its first president was Professor Emilio Bautista Paz. During 1993, under the auspices of the AEIM, among others, the first Iberoamerican Congress in Mechanical Engineering was held in Madrid (view Fig. 2), encouraging the creation of the Iberoamerican Federation of Mechanical Engineering (FEIBIM) and, also of paramount importance, launching the Iberoamerican Journal of Mechanical Engineering. In 1994 the AEIM became part of IFToMM, heralding a very important increase of Spanish participation in the federation’s activities. The National Congress of Mechanical Engineering was held annually during its early editions, but in order to be held between other national and international congresses, since 1990 it has become a biannual event. A proof of the critical interaction between AEIM and the international federation is the XVIII edition of the National Congress that will be held in Ciudad Real (Spain) during November 2010 which, as the previous edition that took place in Gijón in 2008, it also counts IFToMM among its patrons.

The Role of MMS and IFToMM Influence in Spain

429

Fig. 1 Main page of the first number of Annals of Mechanical Engineering

At the end of the twentieth century, we make special mention of the celebration of the 7th World Congress of IFToMM in 1987, held in Seville (see Fig. 3) and organized by the Spanish Commission of this international federation [9], under the aegis of Honorary President Prof. Bianchi, and Professors J. Nieto, J. Domínguez, J. García-Lomas, E. Bautista, A. Navarro and M. Cabrera members of the Executive Organizing Committee. From its beginnings, the AEIM has operated as a network connection with the development of the research activity in the MMS Spanish context which has experienced a prominent increase not only in the number of researchers but also in the quality of the presented works. Since its founding in 1983, AEIM was chaired by Professor Emilio Bautista of the Polytechnic University of Madrid (1983–1994), Professor Mariano Artés of the UNED (1994–1998), Professor Vicente Diaz of the Carlos III University of Madrid (1998–2007) and Professor Fernando Viadero of the University of Cantabria, from 2007 until the present day. The research activity of the first two of them are closely linked to MMS, and the last two to both MMS

430

F. Viadero et al.

Fig. 2 Main page of the Annals of the First Iberoamerican Congress of Mechanical Engineering held in Madrid in 1993

and their applications in vehicle engineering. All of them, except Prof. Artés, appear in Fig. 4 during a meeting that took place in January of 2007 in the city of Cuenca (Spain), for preparing the 2008 national conference on mechanical engineering celebrated in Gijón (Spain). They are with Prof. Nieto, Prof. Fernández, as well as with Prof. Fuentes and Velasco, who are members of the Chancellor Council of the AEIM.

MMS in Research From the first Spanish contribution in the IFToMM context, and specifically in Mechanism and Machine Theory, in 1981 [10], the number of presented works and the number of involved researchers has continued to increase. As an example of this increase, taking as a reference last year 2009, a total of nine works that involved

The Role of MMS and IFToMM Influence in Spain

431

Fig. 3 Brochure of the 7th World IFToMM Congress held in Seville

Spanish researchers can be found. During the past years, the contributions to the several technical fields have been very different, ranging from introduction of natural coordinates to the elaboration of different procedures in order to solve dimensional synthesis problems, going through the kinematics context and the dynamics by means of computational software, as well as problems about direct contact mechanisms like cams or gears, among others. We can also point to the participation of Spanish researchers in the international congress of IFToMM which is a world reference in the machine context. In particular, in the last congress, which was held in Besançon during 2007, a total of 32 conferences were presented by Spanish researchers associated with the AEIM, covering different fields related to machines and mechanisms. Although some members of the AEIM work in several fields, covering topics such as biomechanics, kinematics and computational dynamics, gears or robotics, there is a heavy degree of application in the vehicle industry, probably due to the great number of vehicle manufacturing companies and to their component companies in Spain. As an example, again in the Mechanism and Machine Theory context, in 1987 the first work related to the study of vehicle kinematics was presented [11];

432

F. Viadero et al.

Fig. 4 From left to right: Profs. Velasco, Díaz, Nieto, Bautista, Fuentes, Viadero and Fernández

since then specific research has been addressed to other elements, such as, dampers, suspension systems, steering devices and such items as proposals of mechanisms to improve the ability of a wheelchair to overcome certain obstacles. In the same line, in the World Congress held in Besançon, other research works were presented, such as experimental and theoretical study of car window mechanisms, application of multibody and genetic algorithms techniques to the vehicle field, the deep study of dampers and tires or the effect of fatigue in vehicle components. In addition to the activity directly related with IFToMM, the members of AEIM are involved in different contexts of mechanical engineering, such as for example, specific applications in manufacturing engineering, prosthesis development and surgical instruments as well as noise and vibration problems.

MMS in Education The evolution of study in the field of machines and mechanisms is focused in the industrial engineering education context. A brief description of the evolution of the number of schools in Spain during the second half of the twentieth century and the different education systems has been deeply analyzed.

The Role of MMS and IFToMM Influence in Spain

433

During 1957 the Technical Teaching Law (“Ley de Enseñanzas Técnicas”) was promulgated, which in all Spanish Engineering Schools was the first major reform of the degree plan. The entrance examination disappeared and two new courses, called selective and initiation were added; then the students had to complete a 5 year degree and present a final project. Mechanics was included among the considered specialities. A few years after, in 1964, another big change in the degree plan took place; the number of years to obtain the degree was reduced from seven to five. This degree plan, with a slight modification in 1975 (the degree was obtained in 6 years instead of five), was the one which was then being followed with slight changes in different schools until the reform that started with the decree of 1992, where new guidelines specific to the industrial engineering degree plan were established. Finally, the law that currently regulates the degrees in Spain was based on adaptation to the Bologna guidelines and the creation of the European Space of Higher Education. Thus, regarding studies which were more closely related to the MMS, in 2009 new conditions for degree programs leading to qualification for the pursuit of regulated professions of Engineer or Technical Engineer were published, and ministerial orders, which also appeared during that year, established requirements for verification of the official degrees that enabled one to exercise the professions of Industrial Engineering and Technical Industrial Engineer with Mechanical speciality. These legislations established that the bachelor degree study should last for 4 years and Master between one and two additional years. From these standards, regarding the studies dedicated to MMS, in the 1964 plan of Industrial Engineer, with speciality in Mechanics, two annual subjects were included, one during the third year called Kinematics and Machine Dynamics and the other one during the fourth year and named Calculus, Construction and Testing of Machines. In the reform of 1992 some new guidelines were established by the Spanish Ministry, so that in different schools there was a broad variety of MMS subjects. During the first cycle of the degree, contents regarding Theory of Mechanism were taught during at least 60 h of classes and in the second cycle Technology of Machines combined with issues regarding manufacturing were taught, including concepts for design and machine testing, during at least 60 h of class. Finally, regarding the guidelines of 2009, it is no longer a matter of contents but of professional skills the students must acquire during the common courses of the industrial branch of Bachelor Engineering, which requires 60 credits. It is established that the student must acquire adequate knowledge regarding the principles of machine and mechanism theory, and during the specialized mechanical courses, of at least 48 credits, the students must acquire the knowledge and skills required for calculating, designing and testing machines. For the Master of Industrial Engineering, a module of industrial technologies is considered with a minimum of 30 credits, where, among other professional skills the student must acquire, is the knowledge of how to design and test machines. The contents regarding MMS during the Mechanical speciality in Technical Industrial Engineering degree has had a similar evolution to the one described for the Industrial Engineering degree.

434

F. Viadero et al.

To end this section, it has been considered of great interest to include comments regarding the development of the number of Schools of industrial engineering in Spain, due to the fact that these studies, and more precisely the teaching and research groups in mechanical engineering, are those that primarily represent the group involved in the study of Theory of Machines and Mechanism in Spain. From the beginning of the twentieth century until the 1960s, the degrees of Industrial Engineering were taught in the Schools of Barcelona, Bilbao and Madrid under the same degree plan. During the 1960s the School of Seville was opened (1963) as well as the one in Valencia (1968) and it was during the 1970s when the first graduates finished. From the 1970s, and mainly during the 1980s and 1990s, due to the new legal framework, there was a notable increase of the number of Schools, having gone from a situation where there was only one School with three sites to a situation with more than 30 Schools that nowadays teach the degree of Industrial Engineering. During this process new Schools have been created and a transformation of University Schools to Superior Schools has also taken place. All this has led to a high growth of the number of professors and researchers devoted to the study of the Theory of Machines and Mechanism, which together with other measures that fall outside the scope of this work has led to a very positive increase in teaching and research production in the field of the Theory of Machines and Mechanism, as already shown in the previous section. In this new context, a much wider group of professors, and in order to have a forum to discuss those aspects which were more academic regarding MMS and which were not easy to be addressed in the national congress framework, an initiative of Prof. Castany of the Zaragoza University, led to the celebration of the first meeting of professors of Mechanical Engineering which was held in December of 1992 in the city of Jaca (Huesca, Spain). A group of professors who participated in this first meeting is shown in Fig. 5.

Trends in MMS Developments and IFToMM Influence The evolution of the activity in MMS in the Spanish context can, in a sense, be established by looking at the distribution of the number of presented works in the most recent congresses. Thus, during the XVII National Congress held in Gijón [12] a total of 200 papers were presented from which two third corresponds to topics that were also included in the last World IFToMM Congress which was held in Besançon. The largest number of papers were posted under the name of machines and mechanisms with a total of 17 papers covering different mechanical design problems with various applications such as energy storage, automation of certain operations in the industrial field and experimental validation among others. The interest of certain applications and its practical approaches seems to indicate that the Spanish research groups are increasingly collaborating in the industrial field. In addition, a great activity regarding computational simulation has been identified, with a total of 12 conferences divided

The Role of MMS and IFToMM Influence in Spain

435

Fig. 5 Some participants in the 1st meeting of MMS and Vehicle Engineering Professors. Jaca 1992

between Kinematics and Multibody Dynamics, subjects that have been traditionally covered by Spanish researchers and, therefore, it is expected that the activity in these fields will be maintained or even increased. Problems due to vibrations and noise are other fields of interest with great activity, having been represented by a total of 14 research projects in the XVII National Congress covering applications such as detection and identification of faults or attenuation and control of noise and vibrations. This is a very active field that has a great number of possibilities for development over the forthcoming years. Other particularly active fields are tribology, having been presented at 11 conferences in the last National Congress, biomechanics in 10 conferences and robotics which contributed to 8 conferences. These fields have a great activity and undoubtedly have great future expectations. In addition, is also important to emphasize the increasing interest in the field of education where a total of eight conferences were presented in the last National Congress, perhaps as a result of the intensive review process of degrees due to the introduction of the European Space of Higher Education. In the area of vehicles and transportations a great number of researches, such as vehicle safety, dynamics, suspension, hybrid vehicles, tires, multibody vehicles and bus structures, vibrations, braking, steering and engine design, have been published during the last XVII National Congress. Particularly a total of 21 papers were published, 4 of them related to the suspension system and 4 of them to tires. Suspension systems and tires are directly related to vehicle safety because these

436

F. Viadero et al.

vehicle components are responsible for maintaining an adequate contact between the tire and the pavement and of transmitting traction and braking efforts, respectively. The work presented by Spanish researchers indicates there is a great concern in trying to analyze, design and propose new technologies and techniques that allow an increase of vehicle safety. In addition, vehicle safety is a multidisciplinary area and this leads researchers to communicate with each other in order to propose new designs and solutions. As a result of this multidisciplinary engineering, 7 papers out of the 21 presented in the XVII National Congress represented work by researchers who did not either belong to the same department or even to the same university. It is worth noting that a recent concern regarding environmental issues has arisen. Analyzing the topics presented in the IX Iberoamerican Congress of Mechanical Engineering [13], held in Las Palmas of Gran Canaria (Spain) in 2009, it can be seen that there has been an increase of 19 presented papers in the topic regarding energy with respect to the previous Iberoamerican Congress [14], which was held in Cusco (Perú) in 2007. There has also been an increase of the presented researches, 11, in vehicle engineering with respect to the VIII Iberoamerican Congress. A slight increase of five in the presented papers of the last IX Iberoamerican Congress has also been found with respect to the topic of education, which denotes a rise in education concern. Finally, an increase of presented papers in the last Iberoamerican Congress with respect to the VIII Iberoamerican Congress in the topic of synthesis and mechanism analysis has also been encountered. A total of 16 papers of this area were presented in Cusco whereas a total of 19 researchers regarding this topic were published in the IX Iberoamerican Congress. During the XVII and XVIII National Congress of Mechanical Engineering, last held and the next to be held, which also have the support of IFToMM, the covered topics are primarily those related to the Technical and Permanent Committees (TC and PC) of IFToMM, in order to encourage and guide the activities of Spanish research groups along the lines marked at international level. Therefore, achieving a greater presence of Spanish researchers in the different TC and PC of IFToMM is still a priority activity of AEIM.

Expectations and Critical Problems As stated throughout the document, in the last decades a notable increase of the presence of Spanish researchers in MMS in international forums has taken place. However, this increase has not been uniform across the fields represented by IFToMM. As already mentioned, in some fields there are several research groups achieving recognized results, however, there are few people in other fields. In this sense, and as an example, it draws our attention to the low activity in the field of mechatronics and micromachines. Possibly, this lack is related to the structure and institutional framework of the Spanish research groups in MMS.

The Role of MMS and IFToMM Influence in Spain

437

From the Spanish point of view, it appears that some of the topics of IFToMM, which are listed in TC and PC, might be studied by the Executive Committee in order to assess their possible removal, or reorientation in name, aims and activities; as well as the possible creation of others that might respond to needs arising from the current technological development in MMS, such as human-machine systems, nonlinear oscillations and reliability. From the Spanish point of view and taking into account the activity of our research groups, possibly, a committee working in the field of vibrations or vibrations and noise in machines might be more attractive. In this sense, reorientation of human-machine systems clearly outlining the biomechanical aspects or moving the transportation machinery to vehicle machinery might also have a great impact allowing a wider projection of research regarding MMS in society.

Conclusions After studying the data analyzed in relation to the evolution of MMS in Spain from the last third part of the twentieth century to the present, which corresponds with the life of IFToMM, it could be concluded that this development is clearly positive. In the field of MMS there is a wide Spaniard research community of international prestige. However, it still continues to follow a low presence in some areas of the MMS, which the authors believe have a high scientific and technological potential. It is hoped that the strong involvement of organizations as AEIM in the international area, and specifically in IFToMM, will allow on one hand expansion of areas of potential for our research groups, and on the other a continuation of work in those fields of MMS where there is a leadership position. At the same time, it is considered that to achieve this task, a reorientation in some of the IFToMM Committees might be desirable for better adaptation to technological progress and to facilitate an increasing presence of MMS in society.

References 1. Bautista, E., Bernardos, R., Ceccarelli, M., Díaz Lantada, A., Díaz Lopez, V., Echávarri, J., Lafont, P., Leal, P., Lorenzo, H., Muñoz García, J., Muñoz Guijosa, J., Muñoz Sanz, J.L.: Breve historia ilustrada de las máquinas. Sección de publicaciones de la E.T.S.I.I. Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, Madrid (2007) 2. http://www.cehopu.cedex.es/es/biblioteca_dc.php?ID_col=6 3. Lanz, J.M., Betancourt, A.: Essai sur la composition des machines: Programme du cours élémentaire des machines pour l’an 1808 par M. Hachette. Imprimerie Impériale, Paris (1808) 4. Ceccarelli, M. (ed.): Figures in Mechanism and Machine Science. Their Contributions and Legacies Part 1. Springer, Dordrecht (2007) 5. Belda Villena, E.: Mecanismos. Teoría cinética de mecanismos y cálculo de órganos de máquinas. Imprenta del Montepío, Diocesano (1959)

438

F. Viadero et al.

6. Lamadrid, A., Corral, A.: Cinemática y Dinámica de Máquinas. Ed. E.T.S. de Ingenieros Industriales, Madrid (1963) 7. Nieto, J.: Síntesis de mecanismos, A.C., Madrid (1978) 8. Anales de Ingeniería Mecánica, year 0, No. 1, November 1982 9. Bautista, E., García-Lomas, J., Navarro, A., Dominguez, J., Nieto, J. (eds.): The Theory of Machines and Mechanisms. Pergamon Press, New York (1987) 10. García de Jalón, J., Serna, M.A., Avilés, R.: Computer Method for Kinematic Analysis of Lower-Pair Mechanisms-I Velocities and Accelerations. Mech. Mach. Theory 16(5), 543–556 (1981) 11. Agulló, J., Cardona, S., Vivancos, J.: Kinematics of vehicles with directional sliding wheels. Mech. Mach. Theory 22(4), 295–301 (1987) 12. Fernández Rico, J.E., Tucho, R., Vijande, R., Viadero, F.: Anales de Ingeniería Mecánica, Revista de la Asociación Española de Ingeniería Mecánica, año 16, vol. 1 (2008) 13. Actas del 9vo Congreso Iberoamericano de Ingeniería Mecánica, Las Palmas Gran Canaria, España (2009) 14. Actas del 8vo Congreso Iberoamericano de Ingeniería Mecánica, Cusco, Perú (2007)

Ultra-High Precision Robotics: A Potentially Attractive Area of Interest for MM and IFToMM Clavel Reymond, Le Gall Bérangère, and Bouri Mohamed

Abstract New miniaturized products include more and more functions in a limited volume. This evolution leads to a drastic reduction of component size and the miniaturization requires very high precision for manufacturing, assembly and packaging operations. This chapter presents several concepts of high precision robots that meet the permanent issue of product miniaturization. The works that will be presented directly connect to fields of interest to the IFToMM and also demonstrate how they can generate attractive opportunities for Swiss companies.

Introduction Most new products such as sensors (gyroscopes, accelerometers, position sensors, distance sensors and speed sensors), medical products (hearing aids, insulin pumps, glucose sensors and pacemakers), cell phones, watches, etc. integrate more and more functions in a limited volume. It leads to development of function integration inside the component and to a need to miniaturize different parts. This miniaturization requires high precision manufacturing and an advanced cleanliness during assembly and packaging operations.

C. Reymond (*), L.G. Bérangère, and B. Mohamed Laboratoire de Systèmes Robotiques (LSRO), Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), Swiss Institute of Technology, Station 9, CH - 1015 Lausanne, Switzerland e-mail: [email protected] M. Ceccarelli (ed.), Technology Developments: the Role of Mechanism and Machine Science and IFToMM, Mechanisms and Machine Science 1, DOI 10.1007/978-94-007-1300-0_37, © Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2011

439

440

C. Reymond et al.

This evolution has led to a differentiation between high precision with repeatability better than 1 mm, very high precision with repeatability better than 100 nm and ultra-high precision with repeatability better than 10 nm. The most common robot kinematics (SCARA and anthropomorphic robots) are not suitable for very high precision. Cartesian kinematics are best suited for these tasks, but their high mobile masses, their encumbrance and the problems of friction and backlash in guides and drives limit their use to applications requiring good but not exceptional precision. The niche represented by very high precision robots led to the creation of small innovative companies and to reorientation of the R&D program in larger companies. The Robotic Systems Laboratory (LSRO) at EPFL has been involved for many years in research in the high to ultra-high precision robotics field. Due to its specialization in parallel kinematics robotics and its interactions with the micro-technology industry, this research unit proposed and still proposes several innovative concepts, of which prototypes and industrial products have proved its worth. This contribution will first note the background and the problems related to miniaturized products requiring high precision operations in a controlled environment. Then, it will present several concepts of robots, which answer the permanent issue of product miniaturization. Very high precision work requirements will be highlighted in order to emphasize the high precision robots design rules. Finally this chapter will show that numerous subjects specific to IFToMM such as “Robotics”, “Multi-body Dynamics”, “Computational Kinematics”, “Mechatronics”, “Reliability”, “Linkages” and “Tribology” are essential subjects for high precision robotics.

The Problem of High Precision Whether for metrology or micro-system manufacturing operations, the complex issue of ensuring a very high precision requires us to consider many parameters and integrate many precautions. The precision ensues from the temperature variations that influence the dimensions of the components to manufacture and/or assemble and also the dimensions of handling, manufacturing or control systems. The following elementary calculations give an error idea. –– A 100 mm long steel bar will get 1.2 mm longer for a 1°C temperature increase. –– The deformation due to gravity effect on fixed and mobile parts of the robot is often wrongly disregarded. Consider a 100 mm long steel bar with a 10 mm circular cross-section diameter. Horizontally supported by two fulcrums, the gravity effect causes a 76 nm deflection. If the beam is clamped, the gravity effect will cause a 730 nm deflection.

Ultra-High Precision Robotics

441

These two simple assessments let us propose the following rules to apply when designing high precision robots: First rule: Designing small robots. Second rule: Avoiding parts working in flexion and especially eliminating the clamped beam robot parts (in overhang). Third rule: Minimizing stick and slip phenomenon. For that, Coulomb friction must be banned and high stiffness assured between the actuator and the output. Fourth rule: Ensuring high temperature stability. Fifth rule: Calibrating the robot. Meeting the two first rules is only a problem of design and particular methods or words of advice are not required to meet them. However, high stiffness (third rule) may be guaranteed by designing robots with parallel kinematics. Moreover, this design involves low mobile masses, so that it presents high eigenfrequencies. Different solutions exist to avoid Coulomb friction: –– air bearings [1, 2] –– magnetic bearings [3, 4] –– flexible guides Nevertheless, we assume that, for high precision positioning systems, the use of flexible joint based guideways are better than the air bearing and magnetic bearing guideways. The first one has the drawback of moving dust and the second of producing warm up which is not advised for high precision. Flexible joint based guideways will be introduced in the next section. As we previously discussed in the introduction, draughts around a moving unprotected mobile structure (made of thin bars and flexible hinges) can lead to important drift. To remedy that, the robot may be integrated in an environment with a stabilized temperature (rule 4). As an example, the integration of the robot in a stabilized temperature enclosure within a precision of 0.01°C leads to a 12 nm elongation for a 100 mm bar. Such realization has been carried out in the work of [5] and led to an absolute precision of ±100 nm, ±2.5 mrad (» ±0.5”) of a six DOF parallel platform. The last rule concerning the realization of a high precision robot obviously concerns the calibration of the kinematics with respect to operational positions. Whether the machine environment is drastically stabilized or the machine is calibrated according to the temperature of its various components. Commonly, the robot geometry is calibrated once the temperature environment is stabilized [6–8]. That is difficult for machining operations that involve introducing pieces into the stabilized enclosure. According to realized experiments at our laboratory [5], ensuring temperature stabilization within a tolerance of ±0.01°C in a 0.3 m3 enclosure requires about 10 h. This is not permissible, even if the introduction of parts into the enclosure is made by packs of 20. That’s why in a recent work undertaken in partnership with the company AGIE realizing microEDM tooling operations, we proposed that the robot be calibrated according to data related to its thermal state with respect to its different positions in the workspace.

442

C. Reymond et al.

Design of Parallel Kinematics with Flexible Hinges Flexible Joints Flexible joints [17] are elementary components (Fig. 1) from which different types of joints or translational and rotary guideways can be designed. Figure 1 shows the different steps to obtain a sub-assembled linear table consisting of a linear guide. By mounting three sub-assemblies (Fig. 1), a three DOF robot is obtained. Flexible based guideways have the advantages of high stiffness in the constrained direction, non-friction and a well known rigidity model in the guided direction. However the drawback of this type of guide is the low stroke obtained at the mobile end. Up to now, we have succeeded in realizing linear tables with a 10 mm stroke for a 100 × 100 mm dimension table. The experiment shown in Fig. 2 demonstrates the performances that can be achieved with a 10 mm stroke linear table. Two series of steps of 20 nm and 20 mm have been realized. To obtain these results, an interpolated optical linear scale of 1.25 nm resolution has been used. A linear moving magnet DC motor allowed total avoidance of friction.

Flexible Joints Based Parallel Robots Robots composed of flexible hinge guides and a direct drive made by a movable magnet or moving coil (voice-coil) associated with a non-contact position sensor, such as an optical linear encoder, can provide repeatability better than 5 nm. When the movements only involve the hinge deflection, mobility is easily ensured by the flexible guides. Except the torsion, the other bond strengths provide high stiffness. When low stiffness due to torsion limits the movement quality, other flexible elements must be added to ensure the desired performance, e.g. with cross blades for a pivot.

Fig. 1 Flexible components: from the joint to the robot

Ultra-High Precision Robotics

443

Fig. 2 Flexible joint based translational table: precision experiment

As said before, the backlash and lack of friction of flexible hinge kinematics (see Figs. 1 and 2) and their inherent stiffness, make them well suited for the design of high precision robots. The parallel arrangement of different kinematic chains contributes also significantly to robot precision. It provides the following advantages: –– The mobile masses are limited because the actuator base may be fixed; –– A high stiffness of the kinematics is ensured by several kinematics chains; –– It is possible to use identical modules to obtain a given kinematics. The remaining part of this section will present different realizations of ultrahigh precision robots developed in partnership with different industrial partners. The prototypes have been designed and realized at the EPFL and industrial products are available for the majority of them. We will first present the family of 3-axis translational Delta robots and make the link with six DOF robots.

The 3-Axis Translational Delta Robots Figure 3 shows a version of Delta robot [9] of which the three identical modules are arranged on three sides of a cube. The correspondence between the basic geometry of the Delta and this version is shown. In this monolithic structure, called Delta Cube I [10], each module is made of a linear guide (S1¢) as a plane parallelogram

444

C. Reymond et al.

Fig. 3 Robot Delta Cube I. This figure shows the correspondence between the classic kinematics of Delta robot and the monolithic Delta cube I designed for high precision positioning. It is composed of flexure hinges machined from a plate by EDM

and a space parallelogram (S2¢ S3¢). The parts “BM” of each module form together the mobile component of the robot output. The Figure 4 version is different as each chain is composed of two separate modules [11]: the plane parallelogram and the space parallelogram. Despite a compactness and elegance loss, this concept has several advantages: –– The eigenfrequency of oscillation outside the plane parallelogram main direction (first natural frequency outside the axis movement) is more than four times higher than for the Delta Cube I. It reaches 400 Hz, that makes robot control much easier; –– The space parallelogram is the most difficult to machine but it can be made independently of the plane parallelogram. That reduces the risks; –– It is easier to move the actuators away, so that the mobile structure can be isolated from heat sources (especially for the space parallelogram). The Delta Cube I is a linear orthogonal structure reaching a repeatability of ±10 nm and has a travel of ±1 mm in each direction. It has been improved by developing with the companies AGIE and Mecartex another orthogonal structure called “Delta Cube MX3003” that has been industrialized by Mecartex (Fig. 4). This version was specifically designed for very high precision EDM operations [12] but it is also a convenient structure for micro-positioning. Figure 5 shows the possibility

Ultra-High Precision Robotics

445

Fig. 4 Delta Cube MX3003 industrialized by the company Mecartex. This version presents three identical kinematic chains. Each is composed of two parts: a plane parallelogram (on which there is the movable magnet actuator) and a space parallelogram. The thermal stabilization of the set in an enclosure is improved by the frame made of a solid cast-iron block

Fig. 5 Schematic representation of an assembly station made of 4 robots. Each end effector can move in a limited workspace without interfering with other’s robot end effectors. It has been developed for the assembly of optical components

of integrating different Delta Cube robots in a microfactory system making them collaborating on the same task. The robot Agietron MicroNano (Fig. 6) shows another realization with three vertical translational actuations and a ternary symmetry that makes the machine laterally less sensitive to homogeneous temperature variations in the lateral directions. The error detection along z is improved thanks to the EDM spark behavior analyzer. It has been equipped with 11 platinum resistance thermometers (eight placed on different robot parts and three closed from the calibration interferometer rays) that

446

C. Reymond et al.

Fig. 6 Robot Delta Cube MX3004 or Agietron MicroNano

report on the thermal conditions. It has been calibrated considering its thermal information combined with the variation of geometric behavior in the workspace. The absolute accuracy was better than 300 nanometers. These results can be improved if the forces on the robot are known a priori or by measurement (e.g. the forces during machining by EDM). Considering the thermal and forces status, an absolute accuracy better than 100 nanometers can be reached with this robot without a special thermal enclosure [13]. This robot has been used for another application for a 5-axis tool machining and will be explained in the next section.

Rotational Parallel Structures The structural modularity of high precision robots is not restricted to the Delta family. It has been validated with several three DOFs [14] as the one presented below (Fig. 7) carrying out one translation along the z-axis and two rotations around x and y axes. Three vertical actuators allow the movement of the platform of these robots called “Orion robots”.

Ultra-High Precision Robotics

447

Fig. 7 Three DOF (z, qx, qy) robot called Orion

Each actuator of the Fig. 7 robot acts on an element guided by a 2-blade parallelogram. An arm transmits the movement between the actuator and the mobile platform. It is made of a simple hinge (bending blade) on its low end and a cross-wire joint on the platform end. This last joint behaves like a ball joint providing small movements: the range of rotation is limited to 5°. The resolutions are 0.8 mm in translation and »30 mrad (»6″) in rotation. The angular stroke is about 5°.

A 6-Degree of Freedom Platform: The Sigma 6 A six DOF parallel machine has been designed with different industrial partners for high precise positioning (Sysmelec, Mecartex, AGIE and Heidenhain). This robot is based on the Stewart platform principle with an arm arrangement at 90°. This machine called Sigma 6 (see Fig. 8) is made of three identical plates. Two actuators are integrated into each. They act respectively in the vertical and horizontal directions. The actuator movements are driven to the output element by six rods. Each rod is equipped with a universal joint at each end and a longitudinal area of torsion. All rod joints are made with flexible hinges. Movable magnet actuators are guided by a plane parallelogram made of flexible guide. The position sensors (Heidenhain beam and heads) provide a 10 nm resolution in translation, thereby 0.25 mrad (about 0.05″) resolution in rotation. The kinematics high stiffness and the friction absence make the repeatability equal the resolution.

Role of the IFTOMM for Ultra-High Precision Robotics As noticed in the introduction, several IFToMM domains are directly concerned with ultra-high precision robotics. This robotics branch involves many skills developed and promoted by IFToMM. High precision robotics can be a matter of generating

448

C. Reymond et al.

Fig. 8 The Sigma 6 was used to align optical fibers. It performs a ±5 mm in translation without rotation, ±5° in rotation without translation, ±3.5 mm and ±3.5° for movements combining translation and rotation

synergies between domains and allowing connections of academic and theoretical studies with industrial reality. To successfully design such robots, the scientific bases emphasized by the IFToMM should be used; Particularly “Computational Kinematics”, “Multi-body Dynamics”, “Mechatronics” and “Linkages and Cams” (mainly Linkages) and “Reliability”. Current and future applications of these robots are numerous and particularly concern micro-machines (for manufacturing, assembly, packaging or calibration) and tribology. Considering this last point, ultra-high precision robots have been used to test material properties in terms of friction, indentation hardness, scratching, etc. The same type of these robots (or a part of them) was also used to measure mechanical characteristics of nanotubes and nanowires [15, 16]. The use of these machines for applications such as microsurgery and the study of living cells is also a good opportunity to build bridges between IFToMM activities and life sciences. This high technology robotics can be the mainspring of innovation in many IFToMM sectors; interaction with industry is required so that significant prototypes can be built and a relevant knowledge transfer ensured. This interaction, however, leads to some restrictions on the allowed delays of publication. This last point is to integrate all participants in the IFToMM reflection of this field. In Switzerland, research in partnership with companies has been underway for nearly 10 years with interesting results. Most have been patented and are being

Ultra-High Precision Robotics

449

industrialized. These researches are usually conducted in the EPFs (Ecoles Polytechniques Fédérales de Lausanne and Zurich). As soon as the results become more mature, this research will naturally involve the Universities of Applied Sciences.

Conclusion Ultra-high precision robotics presents few nanometer resolutions and better than 100 nm absolute precisions. It is a challenge considering the scientific, technical, industrial and economic terms. Progress in high precision robotics progress will provide new possibilities for the making of micro-systems, optical systems, new watch movements, hearing and even visual aids. These robots will also help in life sciences (e.g. actions on cells) and in surgery (eye and cochlea operations for example). The knowledge and competences generated by IFToMM can contribute to a better mastery of design, simulation, calibration, modeling and reliability of such systems. The existence of high precision robots will also open possibilities of studies on friction, fatigue and wear. This knowledge expansion depends also on the means that can be mobilized to ensure high quality research on these subjects. A major issue is the need of collaboration with local industrial companies to ensure result durability and the means to implement the making of convincing demonstrators. This industrial link imposes also constraints, particularly those related to intellectual property and preservation of an industrial partner’s lead in their domain. That slows down and delays publications, but this provides the researcher with the satisfaction of seeing the development of new product concepts and production systems in the economic world. Patenting is a constraint, but the intellectual and financial investments in a patent encourage research action continuity. This balance “academic research – industrial partnership” has been a well-known practice for the LSRO from EPFL and Swiss industries for years. The success key is a good distribution between the academic and industrial domains: both of them should positively and openly play this game.

References 1. Choi, Y.M., Kim, J.J., Kim, J., Gweon, D.G.: Design and control of a nanoprecision XYQ scanner. IEEE Rev. Sci. Instrum. 79(4), 045109–045109-7 (2008) 2. Hammer, R., Hollis, R.L., An, C.H., Hendriks, F.: Design and control of an air-bearing supported three degree-of-freedom fine positioned. In: Proceedings of the IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Automation, vol. 1, pp. 677–684. Nice (1992) 3. Williams, M.D., Trumper, D.L., Hocken, R.: Magnetic bearing stage for photolithography. Ann. CIRP 42(1), 607–610 (1993) 4. Shinno, H., Yoshioka, H., Taniguchi, K.: A Newly Developed Linear Motor-Driven Aerostatic X-Y Planar Motion Table System for Nano-Machining. CIRP Ann. Manufac. Technol. 56(1), 369–372 (2007)

450

C. Reymond et al.

5. Fazenda, N., Lubrano, E., Rossopoulos, S., Clavel, R.: Calibration of the 6-DOF high-precision flexure parallel robot “Sigma 6”. In: Keynote paper Calibration, Proceedings of the 5th Chemnitz Parallel Kinematics Seminar (PKS 2006), pp. 379–398, Chemnitz, December 2006 6. Fazenda, N.: Calibration of high precision flexure parallel robots. PhD thesis No. 3712, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne EPFL (2007) 7. Payannet, D.: Modélisation et correction des erreurs statiques des robots manipulateurs. PhD thesis, Université des sciences et techniques du Languedoc, Académie de Montpellier (1985) 8. Shamma, J.S., Whitney, D.E.: A method for inverse robot calibration. J. Dyn. Syst. Meas. Control 109, 36–43 (1987) 9. Clavel, R.: DELTA, a fast robot with parallel geometry. In: Proceedings of the 18th International Symposium on Industrial Robots (ISIR), pp. 91–100. Lausanne,, April 1988 10. Henein, S., Aymon, C., Bottinelli, S., Clavel, R.: Articulated structures with flexible joints dedicated to high precision robotics In: Proceedings of International Advanced Robotic Program, Workshop on Micro Robots, Micro Machines and Systems, Moscow (1999) 11. Bacher, JPh, Bottinelli, S., Breguet, J.M., Clavel, R.: Delta³: A new ultra-high precision micro-robot. J. Eur. Syst. Automat. 36(9), 1263–1275 (2002) 12. Joseph, C., Bacher, J.Ph., Breguet, J.M., Clavel, R.: Miniature electro discharge machine for high precision micro-structurisation. In: Third International Workshop on Microfactories IWMF, Minneapolis (2002) 13. Lubrano, E., Clavel, R.: Compensation of thermal effects and cutting-forces acting on ultra high-precision robots. In: Proceedings of Actuator 2010, Bremen (2010) 14. Merlet, J.P.: Parallel robots, 2nd edn. Springer, Dordrecht (2006). ISBN ISBN 978-1-4020-4132-7 15. Zhang, D., Breguet, J.-M., Clavel, R., Philippe, L., Utke, I., Mischler, J.: In situ tensile testing of individual Co nanowires inside a scanning electron microscope. Nanotechnol. J. 20, 365706 (2009) 16. Zhang, D.: A nano-tensile testing system for studying nanostructures inside an electron microscope: design, characterization and application. PhD thesis No. 4605, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne EPFL (2010) 17. Henein, S.: Conception des guidages flexibles, Presses Polytechniques et Universitaires Romandes PPUR, ISBN 2-88074-481-4 (2004)

Teaching and Research in Mechanism Theory and Robotics in Tunisia Lotfi Romdhane and A. Mlika

Abstract Teaching and research in robotics and mechanisms in engineering schools in Tunisia can be a very challenging task. Indeed, most engineering schools in Tunisia are relatively young, and only four out of about ten engineering schools in Tunisia have mechanical engineering curricula. This paper tries to delineate the place of mechanisms and robotics in these curricula and the evolution of teaching and research in this discipline during the last two decades. Especial attention will be paid to the ways and means used to teach this type of courses. The role of IFToMM in promoting this field in Tunisia is also highlighted.

A Historical Perspective The oldest school in Tunisia is located in the capital Tunis; it was founded in the late 1960s. The Mechanical Engineering curriculum was one of the first to be offered by this institution. One course on the theory of mechanisms was offered and it was based on the book of Artobolovski [1]. This course was offered in French but taught by Russian professors. Until the mid 1980s the school of Tunis was the only one in Tunisia. Two new schools were established during that period, one at Sfax in the South and one at Monastir in the Center. These two schools have young professors and most of them are specialized in materials and mechanics of materials. This period coincided with the flourishing of robotics as a discipline. However, no real strategy was used to teach courses related to mechanisms and robotics in these schools.

L. Romdhane (*) and A. Mlika Laboratoire de Génie Mécanique, Ecole Nationale d’Ingénieurs de Sousse, 5019 Monastir, Tunisia e-mail: [email protected] M. Ceccarelli (ed.), Technology Developments: the Role of Mechanism and Machine Science and IFToMM, Mechanisms and Machine Science 1, DOI 10.1007/978-94-007-1300-0_38, © Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2011

451

452

L. Romdhane and A. Mlika

The classical course offered in this field is usually included in an undergraduate design course where the aspects of motion and dynamics are marginal. Indeed, these courses usually stress the architectural problems of mobility and overconstraints to analyze the statics of the mechanism in order to calculate the reaction forces needed to choose the technological type of the joint. Very little attention is paid to the synthesis problem. Therefore, studying the kinematics and dynamics of a mechanism is not an objective in itself but rather a mean to get the necessary information to design and build the machine. Most of the graduate programs do not include any mechanisms or robotics courses and they are mainly oriented toward the domain of mechanics of materials. As a consequence, most of the Tunisian professors who got their PhD during the 1980s had their domain of expertise more in mechanics of materials rather than in mechanisms and machine theory. As a consequence of this trend, the research activity in mechanical engineering in Tunisia is more oriented toward the field of mechanics of materials and a few are working on fields like manufacturing, nonlinear dynamics and mechanisms and robotics. This unbalance is felt in the mechanical engineering curricula being offered. Mechatronics, which is a marriage between mechanical engineering and electronic engineering, gave a boost to the activities in mechanisms and machine theory and dynamics since they are more likely to interact with the control aspects of a system. The first curriculum in mechatronics in Tunisia was offered by the Ecole Nationale d’Ingénieurs de Sousse. This curriculum is more oriented toward mechanical engineering but with a strong component in the curriculum of electronics and control. The next section addresses the place of mechanisms and robotics in this curriculum and a comparison of the past and present of teaching mechanisms and robotics in Tunisia, in general.

Achievements in Research and Education This section describes the teaching philosophy and educational material developed for teaching mechanisms to mechanical and mechatronic engineering students.

Undergraduate Courses Undergraduate courses in the subject of mechanisms and machine theory provide the first opportunity for students to experience practical application of the mathematics taught in undergraduate linear algebra and calculus. Indeed, these courses are oriented toward developing mathematical models that represent a given behavior

Teaching and Research in Mechanism Theory and Robotics in Tunisia

453

of a physical system. The mathematics in this case is not abstract anymore, but every parameter used in the calculation has to measure a physical phenomenon. This skill is expected to be mastered by every engineer and should be stressed in any curriculum. The course content will be presented and discussed in order to show its pertinence to the whole process of giving the students enough background in the analysis of mechanical systems to motivate them and interest them in such courses. A problem based learning strategy will be presented, which has proved to be a powerful tool to develop intuitive insight and practical experience in modeling and simulating complex mechanical systems. Four developed courses will be presented, in a logical sequence, which guide the student through solution of more and more complex problems. The beginning is usually classical dynamics, which was taught in preparatory schools before integration of the engineering school. Indeed, in Tunisia, engineering students have to go through a 2 year preparation before taking a national exam to get into an engineering school. Three more years are needed to get the diploma of Engineer. In preparatory schools, the curriculum is mainly made of Math, Physics, Chemistry and Technology courses. The main idea behind this teaching is to give students enough theoretical background to be able to apply them later when they start in their engineering schools. One of the courses in Technology is a standard Newtonian approach to solving multibody dynamics problems. This course is given to all sophomore engineering students. Due to its standard aspect little effort is made to emphasize the practical applications and sometimes it looks like a mathematics course rather than a physics course. Indeed, the developed skills aim to enable students to address particular well-defined classes of problems with formulaic manipulation and no effort is made to understand the significance of the results or to justify the validity of the underlying assumptions. Therefore, the course is regarded by students more as a recipe of cookbook problems to learn and no effort is made to go beyond this level to apply the acquired knowledge to solve real problems. As a result, students have little understanding of the significance of the results of their analysis or alternative means of justifying their validity and their underlying assumptions. The constraint of time is one of the main obstacles, which limits the efficiency of this course at this level. Since this course is addressed to all engineering students, irrespective of their future specialty, not all of them are motivated or interested by this type of problems and their main concern is how to pass the final year exam. After 2 years of preparation, the students integrate their engineering schools starting their third year at the university. Each student chooses one of the offered curricula existing in the chosen engineering school. The first course in the engineering school is scheduled during the first semester and it is a common one to all the curricula. This is usually a continuation of the classical dynamics course, which deals with the Lagrangian approach. The main objectives of this course are: • To give enough background to model the geometry of the system and how to choose the set of generalized coordinates that best describes this geometry.

454

L. Romdhane and A. Mlika

• To show the notion of the generalized forces induced by the external forces on the system. • To show how Lagrange equations can describe the dynamics of the system exactly as the Newton-Euler formulation does, but written in a scalar form. • The use of Lagrange multipliers and their underlying physical meaning No effort is made in this course to solve the obtained nonlinear differential algebraic equations (DAE). In the case of holonomic systems the Lagrange equations are also the equations of motion. This course is a prerequisite to the vibration course where the Lagrange equations are linearized and solved to study the vibration of elastic systems.

Mechanism Design Course The second course in theory of mechanisms was limited to the analysis of structural performances of mechanisms, e.g. mobility, degree of overconstraints for open loop mechanisms, closed loop mechanisms and complex ones. Duality between statics and kinematics is highlighted and the course stresses mainly the numerical aspect of the problem. The main mathematical tool used in this course is the “torseur”, which is the dual vector in the English literature. In almost all engineering schools a great part of the “classical mechanics” course is devoted to this mathematical tool. The twist or the “torseur cinématique” is used to elaborate the kinematic model of the mechanism. The aim of the kinematic model is determination of the mobility of the system and the effect of the structure on this mobility. The duality between statics and kinematics allows generation of the static model. The static analysis allows determination of the degree of overconstraint. This part is called the structural analysis of the mechanism. The aim is mainly to determine the final equation which relates the mobility and the degree of overconstraint to the parameters of the mechanism. In this course, the aspect of lower and higher pairs, and how to replace a higher pair by a series of lower pairs in order to improve the quality of the mechanism by reducing the contact stress in the joint, is also addressed. However, the mechanism as taught in these courses is limited to the static aspect and there is no motion involved in the presented analysis. Therefore, this structural analysis does not attract students and does not give them enough information on the motion involved and the utility of the system. In the mid-1990s, planar mechanisms and their analysis started to be taught to engineering students. The course is divided into two parts: structural analysis of special mechanisms and kinematic analysis of planar mechanisms [2]. The first part is similar to what was described above and the second part addresses the problem of a geometric model, a kinematic model, and the input output relations in position and in velocity. The methods of solving the geometric model as a set of nonlinear equations are presented. Analytical methods for relatively simple systems and

Teaching and Research in Mechanism Theory and Robotics in Tunisia

455

numerical methods for more complex systems are presented. Mechanisms, having ‘assure groups’ or dyads, can be solved easily, since the set of equations can be decoupled and solved analytically. The dyad method is based on the idea of identifying the dyads of the mechanism and applying pre-solved models. Computer aided methods are also introduced to illustrate the motion of the studied mechanism through animation. Course projects were introduced. During these course projects, the student is asked to use a CAD software to model and animate a given mechanism. The chosen system can be planar or spatial. During their final project, students usually are asked to design a given mechanism and the simulation is the easiest way to test and validate the motion before building the system. Therefore, the students are very attracted by this part of the course, because they feel the utility of the exercise. This exercise has the benefit of introducing the students to the use of software tools to solve the kinematic model of complex mechanisms. However, in class it is stressed that relying solely on these tools could be dangerous and the user should be able to defend the validity of the output of any simulation. To do so, students should have enough background and experience in modeling mechanical systems, which is one of the main goals of this course. The course project is an opportunity to go beyond the simple mechanisms, investigated in class, to analyze and simulate more realistic mechanisms. This year, a novelty is introduced in the course project. The students are given several data bases of patents and they are asked to search through these data bases for a mechanism and to analyze it and simulate it on a CAD software. This experiment began this semester and students had difficulties in getting started due to the great number of systems in these databases. However, with some help from the instructors, some students were very motivated and discovered some interesting systems. In this course, students have also Labs. The main idea is still to take a real mechanism and to analyze and simulate it using a CAD software. Several mechanisms were tested: windshield wipers, quick return mechanism, and a crank slider mechanism… The main difficulties found by the students in performing this activity were the identification of the link lengths with enough accuracy. Experimental measures are confronted with the simulated results, which exhibit usually a difference that the students have some difficulty to interpret and to identify the cause. Some discussion is also required concerning the choice of the type of joint. The aim of this discussion is to give the students an insight into the design of the machine, which goes beyond the kinematics problem to transmitting forces and moments during the machine’s life. Robotics Course The first course deals with modeling serial robots. The homogeneous transformations are introduced and used to model the pose of a rigid body. The Denavitt-Hartenberg parameters are used to derive the forward and inverse models. The problem of

456

L. Romdhane and A. Mlika

nonlinearity of the geometric problem is stressed leading to the differential model. The Jacobean matrix of the robot is then defined and through its analysis the problem of singularity is addressed. The problem of path planning and strategies of control of serial manipulators are also studied. Parallel manipulators are not studied in this course due to time limitations. Dynamics of Machinery The second course in multibody dynamics deals with the balancing of rotating machines and machines based on the crank-slider mechanism. The practical example used in this study is the internal combustion engine. The problem of balancing the shaking forces and the shaking moments is addressed from both theoretical and practical sides. The difficulties found in balancing the shaking moments are stressed. This course addresses also the problem of irregularity in the movement of machines. The design of a flywheel capable of reducing the speed fluctuation due to periodical disturbances is presented. The practical side of the problem is stressed in this course. All these undergraduate courses aim to improve the ability of the engineering student to abstract and reduce to a model, to communicate the abstraction and, ultimately, to synthesize the results of an analysis based on the assumptions.

Graduate Courses Graduate courses in mechanisms are limited to advanced robotics courses and advanced dynamics of machinery. This area is also not well developed in Tunisia. Indeed, only two masters programs out of five have courses in this field. Advanced Mechanisms This course is also popular during which we present the problem of synthesis of mechanisms and the dynamic problems such as: kinestatic analysis, dynamic response and balancing. Different algorithms are presented to solve these problems. Also CAD systems are used to show the results of some synthesis problems. Advanced Robotics This course aims to give some advanced topics in the field of mechanisms and robotics. For example, the undergraduate course in robotics is limited to introducing the different models of serial robots. This graduate course presents the problems of path planning and non-holonomic mobile robots and the modeling and analysis of parallel robots.

Teaching and Research in Mechanism Theory and Robotics in Tunisia

457

Research in the Field of Mechanisms and Robotics Research in the field of mechanisms and robotics in Tunisia is still very limited. Indeed, only one team exists in this field, which consists of four PhD students and six or seven faculty members. Most of the PhD projects are developed with French and Italian partners. Some of the PhD students are in “cotutelle” with a French university, which allows them to have the double degree from the two universities. These students are supervised by two professors, one from each university. This program is an excellent opportunity to promote joint projects and develop international cooperation in this field. Parallel manipulators have been popular for some time and the problem of designing and analyzing this type of robots is still open. As an example, in 2001 we proposed a new design of a translational parallel robot called “RAF” (Figs. 1 and 2), which is capable of using linear actuators to generate the three translations of the platform. This design was built and tested at the Université de Poitiers. In mechanism synthesis, most of the work developed involves using intelligent techniques to find the best suited mechanism for a given task. The Genetics Algorithm and fuzzy logic methods were used to efficiently solve path generating problems and the dimensional synthesis of a delta robot for a given task.

Trends in MMS Developments and IFToMM Influence The IFToMM has played an important role during the last decade in promoting the field of MMS in teaching and research in Tunisia. Indeed, even before joining IFToMM, several faculty members attended IFToMM sponsored conferences,

Revolute joint between 4’ and the platform

Solid 4’

2nd PKC 1st PKC

Fig. 1 CAD model of the RAF robot

458

L. Romdhane and A. Mlika

Fig. 2 Built prototype of the RAF

which allowed them to meet colleagues from all over the world to discuss teaching and research in this field. Moreover, IFToMM is sponsoring a local conference (Modeling and Simulation of Mechanical Systems – CMSM) and several colleagues from all over the world attended this conference and they met local students which has the effect of attracting more and more Tunisian students to this field. This conference takes place every 2 years and it started in 2005 (CMSM’2005), and one of the keynote speakers during a plenary session was the actual president of the IFToMM (Professor M. Ceccarelli, IFToMM Italy) [3]. It was a great opportunity to present the mission of IFToMM to more than 300 people present at that event. Several other prominent people from the IFToMM community attended this conference and subsequent ones. There was always one keynote speaker in the field of MMS. Indeed, in 2007, Professor S. Zeghloul [4] and Professor M. Dahan [5] (IFToMM France) were the invited speakers, whereas in 2009, Professor C. Crane (IFToMM USA) [6] was the invited speaker. An excellent indicator of the increasing popularity of the domain of MMS, is the increasing number of papers related to this field in CMSM, which totals around 30 papers in 2009. Moreover, by sponsoring this event, IFToMM has consolidated its position as the promoter of Mechanism and Machine Science in Tunisia and the whole of North Africa. Indeed, several participants from neighboring countries, i.e., Algeria, Libya and Morocco, are attending this conference. Therefore, the whole North African community working in the field of MMS are benefiting from the IFToMM support of such an event. On the other hand, IFToMM is becoming more and more known in Tunisia and in Africa in general. Discussions are underway with some North African countries to join the IFToMM in the near future.

Teaching and Research in Mechanism Theory and Robotics in Tunisia

459

Expectations and Critical Problems In Tunisia, teaching in the field of MMS is getting a boost by the arrival of new and young professors who worked in this field during their PhD projects. The IFToMM can play a key role in encouraging these young researchers, through the “young researchers program” for example, by allowing them to attend different IFToMM sponsored events. The Tunisian community working in this field is increasing in number and hence will have a key role in boosting the field of MMS in Tunisia. However, in a small country like Tunisia, the MMS community will remain relatively small and joint projects with other communities in other countries are the key to success. IFToMM can play a great role in this direction by promoting events, which will allow different researchers from different countries to meet and get to know each other. Collaboration among North African countries could also be encouraged by IFToMM by sponsoring events in the field of MMS taking place in the region.

Conclusions This paper presented an overview of the activities related to MMS in Tunisia. First, the teaching aspect of this activity is presented through the analysis of the content of several courses taught in this field in Tunisia. Then, the research activities are briefly presented. Finally, the role of IFToMM in promoting this field in Tunisia and North Africa, in general, is highlighted. It can be concluded that the MMS community can greatly benefit from such institutions as IFToMM, by encouraging professors from these countries to attend IFToMM sponsored events.

References 1. Artobolovsky, I.: Théory des mécanismes et des machines. Edition MIR, Moscou (1977) 2. Mlike, A., Romdhane, L.: Analyse cinématique et dynamique des mécanismes, Manuscript under review. Centre de Publications Universitaires, Tunisia (2010) 3. Ceccarelli, M.: Numerical and experimental analysis of manipulator workspace. Invited paper, International Congress on Modelling and Simulation of Mechanical Systems, Hammamet, Tunisia, March 2005 4. Zeghloul, S.: Planification d’allures de marche pour robots humanoïdes. application au robot uiniki. Invited paper, International Congress on Modelling and Simulation of Mechanical Systems, Monastir, Tunisia, March 2007 5. Dahan, M.: Des mecanismes articulés d’hier à aujourd’hui, quelques exemples d’applications. Invited paper, International Congress on Modelling and Simulation of Mechanical Systems, Monastir, Tunisia, March 2007 6. Crane, C.D.: High speed navigation of an autonomous ground vehicle. Invited paper, International Congress on Modelling and Simulation of Mechanical Systems, Hammamet, Tunisia, March 2009

Contributions to MMS and IFToMM from USA Kenneth J. Waldron

Abstract Many of the important developments in mechanism and machine science of the past 50 years originated with work in the USA. In this chapter we will attempt to review the most significant of these. Space is limited, so some valuable topics cannot be addressed.

Historical Context In the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries the U.S.A. was the home of inventors like Eli Whitney, Thomas Alva Edison, Henry Ford, George Westinghouse, Charles F. Kettering and Wilbur and Orville Wright. These people were inventors who developed new devices primarily by trial and error, and entrepreneurs focused on founding large companies to commercialize their inventions. Some of those inventions, such as Westinghouse’s air brake, and Ford’s innovation of moving assembly lines to automotive manufacture, were contributions to mechanism and machine science. American contributions to the theoretical side of mechanism and machine science during this era were negligible, with the notable exception of Josiah Willard Gibbs’ formulation of vectorial mechanics [1]. Gibbs himself obtained the foundation for his fundamental contributions to mechanics from his extensive studies in Europe following completion of his doctoral degree at Yale University [2], which was the first doctoral degree awarded in engineering in the USA.

K.J. Waldron (*) Department of Mechanical Engineering, Stanford University, Terman Engineering 521, Stanford, CA 94305-4021, USA e-mail: [email protected] M. Ceccarelli (ed.), Technology Developments: the Role of Mechanism and Machine Science and IFToMM, Mechanisms and Machine Science 1, DOI 10.1007/978-94-007-1300-0_39, © Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2011

461

462

K.J. Waldron

Nevertheless, there were important contributions to mechanism and machine science during this era. Not surprisingly, given the technologies of the day, and the environment of rapid expansion of the country, most innovations were focused on rail transportation, agriculture or munitions. Particularly notable is the concept of manufacturing similar systems with interchangeable parts. The idea came from Europe, but it was first implemented in practice in 1819 by Simeon North, who invented the milling machine, and by John H. Hall at the Harper’s Ferry Armory. They created the American Armory System of manufacturing, with interchangeable parts produced within tolerance by semiskilled labor using specially designed machine tools, together with jigs and fixtures similar to those used in modern manufacturing. In the agricultural domain, contributions included Eli Whitney’s cotton gin, a machine for separating the seed from the fibers in cotton pods (1793), and the horse-drawn mechanical reaper of Cyrus Mc Cormick (1831) that evolved into the modern combine harvester. A century later, a notable development in the area of transportation was the invention, and commercialization of a practical system of crawler tracks. This was an idea that had been pursued by a number of inventors both in Europe, and America, but had not been implemented in a practically useful way. A patent was granted to Alvin Lombard in 1901, who applied it to steam powered log haulers. In 1903 Benjamin Holt purchased the right to produce vehicles using the Lombard patent and continued development of the idea. Interestingly, some tanks on both sides of the First World War ran on Holt designed running gear. After the war, Holt Manufacturing Co. became Caterpillar Corporation. An important social development in the middle of the nineteenth century was the recognition of the importance of tertiary education in engineering. This led to the system of land-grant universities enabled by the Morrill Act of 1862. The Morrill Act funded the establishment of universities (one per state) by granting federally controlled land to the states to raise funds to establish and endow colleges. The mission of these institutions was to focus on teaching of agriculture, science and engineering, rather than higher education’s historic core of classical studies. This was a response to the industrial revolution and to economic development of the country. The model for the Morrill act actually came from the 1855 establishment of Michigan State University, and the predecessor of Pennsylvania State University by grants of land from their respective states. While many states chose to establish new universities with the resources provided by the Morrill act, others chose to apply the funding to existing institutions. A number of private institutions that had an engineering focus were established in the same time period. The early development of education in mechanism and machine science in America is well illustrated by the story of Stillman W. Robinson. Robinson was born in rural Vermont in 1838. His father died when he was young, and he entered the workforce at a young age, working first in a sawmill, and then becoming an apprentice machinist. Over the course of 4 years he became so interested in mechanical devices that he decided to pursue a course in engineering at the University of Michigan. He needed to do a term in high school in preparation before

Contributions to MMS and IFToMM from USA

463

he could enroll. He received a degree in civil engineering (the only engineering degree then given) in 1863 after only 2.5 years of study, while working part time as a machinist to support himself. He was assistant engineer of the U.S. Lake Survey for 3 years before becoming Assistant Professor of Mining and Geodesy at the University of Michigan. In 1870 he accepted the Professorship of Mechanical Engineering and Physics at what is now the University of Illinois at UrbanaChampaign. There he established the first Department of Mechanical Engineering at any state supported university in the U.S.A. Eight years later as Dean of Engineering he resigned from Illinois to accept the chair of physics at Ohio State University. He soon repeated the process of separating mechanical engineering from physics and became the founding head of the new Department of Mechanical Engineering. The curriculum during Robinson’s time was heavily based in what we would now call laboratory work and practical instruction. A feature was a yearlong project in the third year in which students were required to conceive, design and manufacture a mechanism model based on the kinematic principles they had been taught. The models were typically constructed by casting bronze or iron and then finish machining the parts before assembly. The students did all of the manufacture themselves. A collection of mechanism models resulting from this activity is still kept in the department. It was not unique. Other schools had similar student projects, and some still have collections of the resulting models.

Application of Computers to Mechanism and Machine Science The modern history of mechanism and machine science in the U.S., which has been globally influential, owed at least as much to the inflow of ideas from overseas as to indigenous developments. A very important factor was the intense technology development and manufacturing effort that took place in the U.S. during the Second World War. The design methods used might have been, on the whole primitive, but the results could be extremely sophisticated. The Norden bombsight included a complex, mechanical analog computer and a gyroscopically stabilized platform that could be coupled to the aircraft’s autopilot, but then Carl Norden was a Dutch engineer, educated in Switzerland, who migrated to America in 1904. The person of Professor Ferdinand Freudenstein embodies the fusion of ideas from overseas with indigenous energy and manufacturing know-how. Born in Germany in 1926, Ferdinand was very early fascinated by mechanical devices. He escaped with his family to England when he was 10 years old. Several years later the family moved to the U.S. and at age 18, Ferdinand joined the U.S. army. Fortunately, the war ended before he was shipped to an active area. Like many of those discharged from the military he took advantage of the assistance of the GI Bill to complete his education. He obtained an M.S. degree from Harvard in 1948. After a brief period in industry he enrolled in the doctoral program at Columbia in 1950, receiving his Ph.D. in 1954. Both degrees were in mechanical engineering. Notably, he pursued his doctoral studies in machine kinematics despite finding that none of

464

K.J. Waldron

the professors had any understanding of what he was proposing to do. Fortunately he found Professor Dean Baker who, despite being a researcher in combustion, with a background in physics, was willing to be Ferdinand’s doctoral advisor. His doctoral work was on analytical methods for synthesis of four-bar mechanisms and resulted in a couple of papers in ASME Transactions that have seminal importance from today’s vantage point [3, 4]. The first of those papers contains the equation we know as Freudenstein’s Equation. In the course of his studies, Ferdinand had collected a considerable library of the European literature on mechanism kinematics. Most importantly, he became very conversant with the German literature. The fortuitous conjunction of the renewed interest in mechanism theory generated by Ferdinand Freudenstein and the advent of digital computation led to an explosion of the field of mechanism and machine science over the course of the next 20 years. This began with his collaboration with George N. Sandor who had enrolled in the doctoral program at Columbia and became Ferdinand’s student, despite being 14 years his senior. George Sandor was born in Hungary, and had received his basic education there. He was already a successful engineer in industry having attained the position of chief engineer of Time Inc. Together they set about translating the classic work of Ludwig Burmester [5] on precision position synthesis of linkages into a form that could be implemented on a digital computer. At the time, the digital computer they used was an IBM 650 mainframe that occupied a large cabinet filled with racks of electronic tubes that failed frequently, and had 2,000 bytes of memory. Their work together produced two papers [6, 7] that provided the foundation for the use of digital computation in linkage synthesis. Sandor used complex numbers to express the vectorial entities of planar kinematics. He used that formalism throughout his career, as did most of his students. In principle it is equivalent to the more widely used vector formulation, but there are differences in the handling of polar quantities that make the complex number formulation more elegant for some purposes. Sandor would continue his career as an academic, holding appointments at Yale University, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, and the University of Florida. Among Freudenstein’s early students, Bernard Roth and An Tzu Yang were also notable. Freudenstein’s work with Roth continued the theme of developing algorithms for planar linkage synthesis. They returned to the path generation problem [8]. Roth used the complex number formalism that Sandor had pioneered in his doctoral thesis, but abandoned it in favor of the vector-matrix notation with which we are familiar today in his subsequent work. This was probably important to his work of the next few years in which he generalized Burmester theory for synthesis of some classes of spatial linkage [9–11]. Roth and Freudenstein recognized the ubiquity of systems of nonlinear algebraic equations in the algebraic geometry of linkage synthesis and analysis, and began seeking methods of solution. This led them to Sylvester’s dyalitic method for closed form algebraic solutions, and to the formulation of what is now called a continuation algorithm for numerical solution [12]. Roth took up an appointment at Stanford University, where he is still active. He would also produce a large number of doctoral graduates who would be influential in the field.

Contributions to MMS and IFToMM from USA

465

Freudenstein’s first serious foray into spatial kinematics was his work with Yang [13]. In this work they employed a dual quaternion representation that is, of course, deeply rooted in the European literature on mechanism and machine science [14, 15]. They developed a method of analyzing spatial closures based on the closure equations of space triangles. The space triangle formulation would be used by others, notably by Duffy [16] in his work on the order of the general seven bar spatial closure. Yang would continue his research career at the University of California, Davis. One of Freudenstein’s most important and ubiquitous contributions was his many doctoral students. Some of them have, themselves, had extremely successful academic careers and have long lists of doctoral graduates. Consequently a considerable number of U.S. based researchers in mechanism and machine science can trace their academic descent from Freudenstein. In 1991, on the occasion of Freudenstein’s 65th birthday an academic family tree was compiled. It was updated on the occasion of his memorial in 2006 and is currently maintained by Larochelle [17]. The book edited by Erdman [18] on the occasion of Freudenstein’s birthday celebration includes much more detailed accounts of these contributions, and of the status of research in mechanism and machine science in the US at that time (1991). There were other researchers in the U.S.A. during the fifties and sixties, who were active in various aspects of mechanism and machine science. These included Alan Hall, Richard Hartenberg, Charles McLarnan, Erskine Crossley, Joseph Shigley and Alfred Holowenko. Alan Hall, who spent his career at Purdue University, was the primary academic sponsor of the early mechanisms conferences. Hall’s colleagues Ault and Holowenko started the Mechanism Conference in 1948. The conferences were then held biennially at Purdue University. Ben Hummel of Machine Design Magazine co-chaired the conferences with Hall, and Machine Design Magazine published the proceedings of the first eight conferences. In 1966 ASME assumed sponsorship, and the 1968 conference was held in Atlanta, and hosted by Erskine Crossley who was then at Georgia Institute of Technology. This was the first that was not held at Purdue. Since 2005 the ASME Mechanisms Conference has become an annual component of the ASME International Design Engineering Technical Conferences (IDETC). Alan Hall also authored reference [19], which was a widely used text during that period. He was also active in research in the area of utilizing digital computation for mechanism design and analysis. Cam design was an early topic of active interest and Harold Rothbart’s handbook first appeared in 1956. It has been revised and is still in print [20]. Richard Hartenberg’s name is well known via the Hartenberg and Denavit convention for characterizing the geometry of a spatial, binary link [21]. Hartenberg was a professor of mechanical engineering at Northwestern University. His colleague, Jacques Denavit, was actually a mathematical physicist. Together they also authored reference [22]. Interestingly, when modern authors refer to Hartenberg and Denavit notation they almost never mean the original version. Although the geometric concept is always the same, there are several conventions extant for labeling the geometric entities used as discussed in [23].

466

K.J. Waldron

Charles McClarnan was in the Department of Mechanical Engineering at Ohio State University. He was also active in research on the application of computational techniques to mechanism design. He later moved on to an administrative position at another institution. In 1978 ASME decided to create a new transactions journal entitled Journal of Mechanical Design from material predominantly of mechanism and machine science that previously was mostly published in the Journal of Engineering for Industry. Charles McLarnan was the founding editor of the Journal of Mechanical Design. Unfortunately, he passed away shortly after establishing the journal. F.R.E. (Erskine) Crossley was a native of England who held academic appointments at Yale University, Georgia Institute of Technology and the University of Massachusetts. He was one of the founding fathers of IFToMM, signing the Foundation Act on behalf of the U.S.A. at the meeting in Zakopane in 1969, and being the principal author of the IFToMM constitution. He was the first Vice President of IFToMM serving from 1969 through 1975. Before that, he was the founding editor of the Journal of Mechanisms, which first appeared in 1966 published by Pergamon Press. Crossley offered to affiliate the journal with IFToMM. It eventually became the official journal of IFToMM under the title Mechanism and Machine Theory, which was preferred by the IFToMM Executive Council. Joseph Shigley enjoyed a long academic career at the University of Michigan. He is chiefly remembered for the many textbooks he authored. His text on kinematics is still offered as Uicker, Pennock and Shigley [24]. Shigley also authored texts on Kinematic Analysis of Mechanisms and Dynamic Analysis of Machines. There was also Mechanical Engineering Design, co-authored with Charles R. Mischke. A.R. Holowenko was a colleague of Hall at Purdue University. He was the author of a classic text on Dynamics of Machinery. The 1960s and 1970s were a period of vigorous expansion in research and practice in the field both within the U.S.A. and in development of collaborations throughout the world. IFToMM was an important component of that development. The World Congresses at Varna, Bulgaria in 1965, which predated the formal establishment of IFToMM; in Zakopane, Poland in 1969 at which IFToMM was formally established; in Kupari, Yugoslavia in 1971 and in Newcastle on Tyne, UK in 1975 were the premier international meetings in the field in that time frame and drew substantial participation from professionals based in the U.S.A. The 1979 World Congress, held in Montreal, Canada marked the first substantial IFToMM meeting on the North American continent, and was attended by most of those active in the U.S. in research in mechanism and machine science. A number of younger researchers began their careers during that period. Kenneth Waldron moved to Stanford in 1965 to pursue a doctorate under Roth’s supervision. He had already collaborated with J.R. Phillips and K.H. Hunt in Australia, and was familiar with their rediscovery of Ball’s screw systems and their application to linkage theory. He would explore the relationship between the motion properties of individual joints, as described by screw systems, and the mobility of the linkages of which they formed components [25]. In so doing he developed techniques that would later be applied to a variety of spatial linkage problems. Arthur G. Erdman

Contributions to MMS and IFToMM from USA

467

worked with Sandor at RPI on the dynamics of mechanisms subject to elastic deflection of the members [26]. This would be a topic to be further addressed by several of his students. Steven Dubowsky worked with Freudenstein on the dynamic response of linkages with joint clearances [27]. Each would go on to graduate a number of doctoral students and make contributions of other areas of mechanism and machine science. In the same time frame, more focused meetings that would be very important for interaction between researchers based in the East and the West during the Cold War years were established under the auspices of IFToMM. Particularly notable in this respect was the First CISM-IFToMM Symposium on Theory and Practice of Robots and Manipulators that took place at the headquarters of CISM in Udine, Italy 5–8 September 1973. This originated a series of meetings that continues to this day, usually held every second year. These meetings are known by the abbreviation RoManSy. Bernard Roth and Daniel E. Whitney represented the U.S.A. on the original RoManSy organizing committee, and U.S. based authors contributed 13 of the 44 papers presented.

Multi-Body Dynamics In this period several other developments took place that were important in the history of mechanism and machine science. Several groups were interested in applying digital computation to the dynamic analysis of mechanical systems. Particularly notable is the work of Milton A. Chace [28], John J. Uicker, and Thomas R. Kane. Chace was Shigley’s student at the University of Michigan. After 2 years at IBM, Chace returned to U. Michigan as an academic himself. With active interest and support from the automotive industry, Chace took on the problem of modeling the dynamic motion of systems of rigid bodies, linked by kinematic joints and springs and dampers, such as automotive suspensions. His immediate competition was Uicker, who was Hartenberg’s student and who took up an academic position at the University of Wisconsin after serving in the U.S. Army. Chace developed a two-dimensional multi-body analysis system called DRAMS. Subsequently, with two colleagues he formed MDI Inc. which led to the development of the very widely used ADAMS package. Uicker developed his own three-dimensional multi-body analysis software system called IMP. At Stanford University, Kane was less interested in development of commercial multi-body systems software, and more interested in theoretical dynamics. He developed the formulation of the Lagrangian dynamic equations known as Kane’s equations [29]. He also graduated a significant number of doctoral students who have themselves made contributions to multi-body system dynamics, and have developed software systems such as AUTOLEV. Uicker succeeded Crossley as editor of Mechanism and Machine Theory in 1969 and served in that capacity until 1976. He was himself succeeded as editor by Terry E. Shoup.

468

K.J. Waldron

Further Development of Linkage Synthesis Another theme of the 1970s was continued development of planar linkage synthesis theory, and software. Notable in the former area was the work of Delbert Tesar, who succeeded in uniting finitely separated position synthesis with curvature theory into a single mathematical formulation allowing, in principle, synthesis with specification of any meaningful combination of finitely and infinitely separated design positions [30]. Tesar would hold academic appointments at the University of Florida, and the University of Texas. Waldron worked on techniques to eliminate design choices that would lead to unworkable solution linkages [31]. There were also several attempts to build comprehensive, and relatively user-friendly software packages for planar linkage synthesis. The most successful of these was LINCAGES developed by Erdman and his students [32]. Erdman’s academic career has been spent at the University of Minnesota.

Integration of Computers in Mechanical Systems: Robotics As computers became more compact and powerful engineers became interested in interfacing them with mechanical systems. Mechanical master-slave manipulation systems had long been used to handle toxic materials, notably radioactive materials. The thought was to drive such a manipulator by means of a programmed computer. Simple robots capable of recording and replaying their motions appeared in industry. Researchers began conducting experiments at places like SRI and the artificial intelligence laboratories of MIT and Stanford. It was not long before researchers confronted fundamental problems, such as how to determine the joint positions needed to place the end-effector in a specified location, and, in particular, how to generate a smooth motion between two specified end-effector positions. These problems required solution of the inverse kinematics of the manipulator. It was soon discovered that the first of these problems: the inverse position problem, was multi-valued and intractable even for relatively simple serial manipulator geometries. However, the inverse rate kinematics offered a way of solving the second problem when combined with solution of the forward position problem. From a practical point of view, this was enough to enable point-to-point programming of industrial robots. Solutions were independently formulated by Daniel Whitney [33] and by Pieper and Roth [34]. Roth’s students at Stanford would have a particularly strong impact on the development of robotics. Victor Scheinman designed the Stanford Arm in the late sixties [35]. Copies of that design would be used by a number of laboratories for early experiments in robotics. Scheinman would go on to be a principle designer of the PUMA robots initially marketed by Unimation. Later, Bruce Shimano and Brian Carlisle who had also worked with Roth would spin off the Adept Company from Unimation, which was purchased by Westinghouse.

Contributions to MMS and IFToMM from USA

469

A number of other Roth students would start companies based on various aspects of robotics. Several others would work at government laboratories such as the Jet Propulsion Laboratory. A second generation of research in robotics focused on more diverse mechanical structures. Work in legged robots has a long history in the USA, but this is documented in another chapter of this book. Grasping and hand design has a similarly rich history. Particularly notable is the work of J. Kenneth Salisbury [36], which laid the foundation for modeling and controlling grasping, and his work on the Stanford/JPL hand which, at the time, set new standards for dexterity in a robotic end-effector. It had three fingers in an opposable configuration. It also exploited tendon drive techniques to an unprecedented level of sophistication. Salisbury worked with Roth to complete his doctoral work, and then held appointments at JPL and MIT before moving back to Stanford in 2000. Another influential device in the area of grasping and robotic hand design from the same period was the Utah/MIT hand designed by Steven Jacobsen’s group at the University of Utah [37]. This device used a combination of pneumatic actuation and tendon drives to actuate 12° of freedom in a near humanoid configuration (three fingers and an opposable thumb). It was capable of superhuman dynamic behavior. Both of these devices required bulky actuator packages, and so could not be easily integrated with a near human scale manipulator. The Utah/MIT hand also required a bulky pneumatic power supply. Second generation research led to improved methods of coordinating serial manipulators based on formalisms that take advantage of transformations to appropriate reference frames [38]. Study of the kinematic nature of contact with a fixed surface led to a method for controlling motion of a tool over a surface [39]. That result was generalized by Lipkin and Duffy [40]. A number of researchers in the US also contributed to the development of means of analysis and control of parallel robotic architectures. This included, among other works, Raghavan’s demonstration that the forward position problem of the general Stewart-Gough platform has 40 solutions using a continuation method [41], and analysis and control of mechanisms that have mixed serialparallel architectures [42]. An area that is often ignored is the integration of robotic systems. The complexity of robotic systems involving mechanical, electronic and information systems and interacting with users and the environment in diverse ways makes this a challenging area. In addition to several people already mentioned: Scheinman, Salisbury, and Jacobsen, important early contributors in this area included Joseph Engelberger, Ewald Heer [43], Antal Bejczy [44], and James Albus [45]. Engelberger was the originator of several of the very first industrial robot designs and the founder of Unimation Inc. The US Robotics Industries Association recognizes his contribution by means of the Engelberger Award presented to individuals who make important contributions to the field.

470

K.J. Waldron

Biomechanics In 1872 the former governor of California, Leland Stanford, commissioned the English professional photographer Eadweard Muybridge to demonstrate that there was a period in which a horse at full gallop had all four feet clear of the ground. This question was hotly debated at the time. Working on Stanford’s horse farm that would later become the campus of Stanford University, Muybridge succeeded in shooting a frame that demonstrated that the proposition was true. Muybridge continued to work on animal and human locomotion first with Stanford’s sponsorship, and later at the University of Pennsylvania. He developed a technique of using a row of cameras triggered by trip wires to develop a series of frames covering the complete slide sequence that could be displayed as a moving image on an instrument he called a zoopraxiscope. This can be regarded as a forerunner of moving pictures. Muybridge’s work initiated the use of stop motion photography to study animal and human locomotion. Several collections of his picture sequences have recently been re-published, and remain useful references to this day [46, 47]. Dr. Verne T. Inman can legitimately be claimed to have initiated the field of biomechanics of human locomotion. Like many later contributors to the field, Inman earned both an M.D. degree and a Ph.D. from the University of California at Berkeley. He received the latter degree in 1934, with a thesis in the area of gross anatomy, followed by a residency in orthopedic surgery. By 1940 he was a clinical instructor in orthopedic surgery, and an instructor in anatomy at the University of California, San Francisco. As the World War neared its end he had established his credentials in the area of biomechanics by studies of the shoulder and upper extremity. He established a research program to address the problems of the many amputees returning from the war. In collaboration with researchers in mechanical engineering, such as Charles W. Radcliffe, he set about improving the designs of prosthetic devices. It soon became apparent that a fundamental understanding of locomotory biomechanics was necessary to accomplish this goal. Among Inman’s contributions was his definition of the major determinants of normal and pathological human gait [48]. This was, no doubt, primarily intended as a diagnostic tool, but it has also informed design of prosthetic devices. From the engineering point of view, a series of papers that contained empirically based, quantitative analyses of muscle phasing during locomotion [49] established the field of biomechanical modeling of locomotion. Another prominent contributor to biomechanics was Y.C. Fung. He was born in Jiangsu Province, China where he received his early education. He obtained a PH.D. from the California Institute of Technology in 1948, and pursued the balance of his professional career at the University of California, San Diego. Fung’s primary technical contributions were in the mechanical characterization of tissue properties that lead to the modern field of tissue engineering [50]. He authored several books and was one of the founders of the Journal of Biomechanics. An odd, but important contribution to the field was that of Colonel John Stapp. Colonel Stapp was a flight surgeon in the U.S. Air Force. In 1947 he was assigned

Contributions to MMS and IFToMM from USA

471

to a project to determine the effects of severe acceleration and deceleration on the human body. In order to explore the effectiveness of restraint systems and provide basic engineering data, Stapp’s group conducted tests in which live human volunteers were accelerated on a rocket sled at Edwards Air Force Base in the Mojave Desert that was violently decelerated by scoops mounted on the sled that gathered water from troughs under the rails on which the sled was mounted. By changing the depth of the water, the scoop configuration, and the configuration of the rocket booster it was possible to vary the deceleration of the sled. The volunteers were, in fact, Stapp and his team. He, himself was the volunteer for the most severe tests, including one in which he was subjected to a deceleration of 46.2 times gravitational acceleration. In the course of the test series he received numerous broken bones and other injuries, and acquired a long-term vision impairment due to the bursting of blood vessels in his eyes during some of the more severe tests. Stapp’s work showed that, with proper support, the human body could withstand far higher accelerations and decelerations than was previously thought. It also led to the design of restraint systems for pilots and passengers in aircraft, and later automobiles, and provided basic data used in designing transportation systems of all kinds [51].

Medical Devices An important field of research that draws heavily on both robotics and biomechanics is the design of medical devices. Many of these applications originated from work first done in the U.S. They include the use of what are basically industrial robots to carry radiation sources allowing application of radiation from diverse directions to concentrate on a tumor, while not damaging surrounding tissues [52]. It also includes the use of a programmed robot to prepare bones for artificial joint implants [53]. In many ways the most spectacular development is the use of teleoperative manipulative tools for minimally invasive surgery. This has led to complex and expensive, but successful systems like da Vinci and Zeus [54].

Contributions to Education in Mechanism and Machine Science U.S. textbooks are frequently distributed throughout the world, including translation into local languages. For this reason they tend to have a disproportionate influence on education in the field. Many of the early textbooks in the area were mentioned in Sect. 2 above. Others were the book by Mabie and Ockvirk (later Mabie and Reinholtz) on kinematics and dynamics [55], and books by Spotts (now Spotts, Shoup and Hornberger) [56] and Juvinall (now Juvinall and Marshek) [57]

472

K.J. Waldron

on machine design. Like several of those mentioned in Sect. 2, these works are still in print with younger authors contributing to keeping them current. More recent, but still well established texts in kinematics and dynamics of machines include Erdman and Sandor (now Erdman, Sandor and Kota) [58], Norton [59], and Waldron and Kinzel [60]. In the area of design of machine elements more recent books include Norton [61] and Hamrock, Schmid, Jacobson [62]. Influential texts at higher technical levels, or research monographs in linkage theory and design published by U.S. authors include Bottema and Roth [63], Sandor and Erdman [64], McCarthy [65] and Chirikjian and Kyatkin [66]. In the more specialized area of gear design we have the classic work of Darle Dudley [67]. One of the first widely used, and influential texts in robotics was that written by Paul [68]. More recently Craig has written a text based in part on Roth’s teachings in robotics [69].

Contributions to IFToMM Erskine Crossley’s activities as a “Founding Father” of IFToMM and as the first Vice-President, serving from 1969 through 1975 have been documented above. In addition, Bernard Roth served as President from 1980 through 1983, and Kenneth Waldron served as President from 2000 through 2007. Terry E. Shoup was Vice-President from 1992 through 1995. In addition, the following U.S. based researchers have served on the IFToMM Executive Council: Bernard Roth 1976–79, Ali A. Seireg 1984–91, Joseph K. Davidson 1996–99, Bahram Ravani 2008-. U.S. based professionals have also chaired many of the IFToMM Permanent Commissions and Technical Committees: Communications: Mavroidis 2002–05; Education: Waldron1998–05; Publications Crossley 1969–81, Shoup 1990–01; Standardization of Terminology: Douglas Muster 1969–79; Computational Kinematics: Ravani 1990–97; Gearing: Darle W. Dudley 1975–85; Robotics: Roth 1975–79, Waldron 1990–97; Rotordynamics: Neville Rieger 1998–05; Transportation Machinery: Ravani 1998–05, Madhusudan Raghavan 2005–. As was mentioned above, Uicker served as editor of Mechanism and Machine Theory from 1969 to 1979 and Shoup from 1979 to 2005. ASME has been the U.S. affiliate organization to IFToMM since the founding of IFToMM: formerly officially named the American Society of Mechanical Engineers, now ASME International. The U.S.A. has always paid IFToMM dues at the Category I level, and for the past 15 years has been the only member organization to pay dues at that level. The IFToMM dues have, for many years, been paid from the custodial fund of the ASME Design Engineering Division. This constitutes a significant contribution to IFToMM.

Contributions to MMS and IFToMM from USA

473

Conclusion Because of space constraints, this review could cover only the most significant developments. There is much, very important work, that certainly deserves to be documented that could not be included. In particular, very little of the very large volume of work that took place in the last 20 years has been touched on (except in the medical device area). One reason for this is that there is simply too much ground to cover. Another is the globalization of research during that period. In most areas it simply does not make sense, any more, to identify research initiatives with any particular geographical location. Fortunately, we have the Springer Handbook of Robotics to provide much more detail in many technical areas [70]. Acknowledgements The author appreciates the assistance of Professor Bernard Roth, who reviewed the manuscript for accuracy, and acknowledges the support of the National Science Foundation, grant number CMMI-0825364.

References 1. Wilson, E.B.: Vector Analysis, 2nd edn. Charles Scribner’s Sons, New York (1909), reprinted Dover (1960) 2. Wheeler, L.P.: Josiah Willard Gibbs. Yale University Press, New Haven (1962) 3. Freudenstein, F.: An analytical approach to the design of four-link mechanisms. Trans. ASME 76, 483–492 (1954) 4. Freudenstein, F.: Approximate synthesis of four-bar linkages. Trans. ASME 77(6), 853–861 (1955) 5. Burmester, L.: Lehrbuch der Kinematik. Felix, Leipzig (1888) 6. Freudenstein, F., Sandor, G.N.: Synthesis of path-generating mechanisms by means of a programmed digital computer. J. Eng. Ind. 81B(2), 159–168 (1959) 7. Sandor, G.N., Freudenstein, F.: On the Burmester points of a plane. J. Appl. Mech. 28E(1), 41–49 (1961) 8. Roth, B., Freudenstein, F.: Synthesis of path-generating mechanisms by numerical methods. J. Eng. Ind. 85(3), 298–307 (1963) 9. Roth, B.: The kinematics of motion through finitely separated positions. J. Appl. Mech. 34(3), 591–598 (1967) 10. Roth, B.: Finite position theory applied to mechanism synthesis. J. Appl. Mech. 34(3), 599–605 (1967) 11. Roth, B.: On the screw axes and other special lines associated with spatial displacements of a rigid body. J. Eng. Ind. 89(1), 102–110 (1967) 12. Roth, B., Freudenstein, F.: Numerical solution of systems of nonlinear equations. J. Assoc. Comput. Mach. 10(4), 550–556 (1963) 13. Yang, A.T., Freudenstein, F.: Application of dual number quaternion algebra to the analysis of spatial mechanisms. J. Appl. Mech. 31E, 300–308 (1964) 14. Study, E.: Geometrie der Dynamen. Verlag Teubner, Leipzig (1901) 15. Hamilton, W.R.: On quaternions, or on a new system of imaginaries in algebra. In: Wilkins, D.R. (ed.) Philosophical Magazine, 18 installments July 1844 – April 1850, 2000 (1969) 16. Duffy, J.: Analysis of Mechanisms and Robot Manipulators. Edward Arnold, London (1980) 17. Larochelle, P.: http://my.fit.edu/~pierrel/ff.html

474

K.J. Waldron

18. Erdman, A.G. (ed.): Modern Kinematics: Developments in the Last Forty Years. Wiley, New York (1993) 19. Hall, A.S.: Kinematics and Linkage Design. Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs (1961) 20. Rothbart, H.A.: Cam Design Handbook, 2nd edn. McGraw-Hill, New York (2003) 21. Hartenberg, R.S., Denavit, J.: A kinematic notation for lower-pair mechanisms based on matrices. J. Appl. Mech. 22, 215–221 (1955) 22. Hartenberg, R.S., Denavit, J.: Kinematic Synthesis of Linkages. McGraw-Hill, New York (1964) 23. Waldron, K.J., Schmiedeler, J.P.: Chapter 1: Kinematics. In: Siciliano, B., Khatib, O. (eds.) Springer Handbook of Robotics, pp. 9–33. Dordrecht (2008) 24. Uicker, J.J., Pennock, G.R., Shigley, J.E.: Theory of Machines and Mechanisms, 3rd edn. Oxford University Press, New York (2003) 25. Waldron, K.J.: The constraint analysis of mechanisms. J. Mech. 1, 101–114 (1966) 26. Erdman, A.G., Sandor, G.N.: Kineto-elastodynamics – A review of the state of the art and trends. Mech. Mach. Theory 7(1), 19–33 (1972) 27. Dubowsky, S., Freudenstein, F.: Dynamic analysis of mechanical systems with clearance part 1 and 2. J. Eng. Ind. 93, 305–316 (1971) 28. Chace, M.A.: Development and application of vector mathematics for kinematic analysis of three-dimensional mechanisms. Doctoral dissertation, Department of Mechanical Engineering, U. Michigan, Michigan (1964) 29. Mitiguy, P.C., Kane, T.R.: Motion variables leading to efficient equations of motion. Int. J. Robot. Res. 15(5), 522–532 (1996) 30. Tesar, D.: The generalized concept of four multiply separated positions in coplanar motion. J. Mech. 3, 11–23 (1968) 31. Waldron, K.J.: Elimination of the branch problem in graphical Burmester mechanism synthesis for four finitely separated positions. J. Eng. Ind. 98B(1), 176–182 (1976) 32. Erdman, A.G.: Computer-aided design of mechanisms: 1984 and beyond. Mech. Mach. Theory 20(4), 245–250 (1981) 33. Whitney, D.E.: The mathematics of coordinated control of prosthetic arms and remote manipulators. J. Dyn. Syst. Meas. Control 122, 303–309 (1972) 34. Pieper, D., Roth, B.: The kinematics of manipulators under computer control. In: Proceedings of 2nd World Congress on the Theory of Machines and Mechanisms, vol. 2, pp. 159–169. Zakopane (1969) 35. Gill, A., Paul, R., Scheinman, V.: Computer manipulator control, visual feedback and related problems. In: Proceedings of 1st CISM-IFToMM Symposium on Theory and Practice of Robots and Manipulators (RoManSy), vol. 2, pp. 31–50. Udine (1973) 36. Mason, M.T., Salisbury, J.K.: Robot Hands and the Mechanics of Manipulation. MIT Press, Cambridge (1985) 37. Jacobsen, S.C., Wood, J.E., Knutti, D.F., Biggers, K.B.: The UTAH/M.I.T. dextrous hand: work in progress. Int. J. Rob. Res. 3(4), 21–50 (1984) 38. Khatib, O.: A unified approach for motion and force control of robot manipulators – the operational space formulation. IEEE J. Robot. Automat. RA-3(1), 43–53 (1987) 39. Raibert, M.H., Craig, J.J.: Hybrid position/force control of manipulators. J. Dyn. Syst. Meas. Control 105, 126–133 (1981) 40. Lipkin, H., Duffy, J.: Hybrid twist and wrench control for a robotic manipulator. J. Mech. Transm. Automat. Des. 110(2), 138–144 (1988) 41. Raghavan, M.: The Stewart platform of general geometry has 40 configurations. J. Mech. Des. 115, 277–282 (1993) 42. Waldron, K.J., Raghavan, M., Roth, B.: Kinematics of a hybrid series-parallel manipulation system. J. Dyn. Syst. Meas. Control 111(2), 211–221 (1989) 43. Heer, E.: Remotely manned systems for operation and exploration in space. In: Proceedings of 1st CISM-IFToMM Symposium on Theory and Practice of Robots and Manipulators (RoManSy), vol. 2, pp. 149–168. Udine (1973)

Contributions to MMS and IFToMM from USA

475

44. Bejczy, A.K.: Effect of hand-based sensors on manipulator control performance. Mech. Mach. Theory 12(5), 547–567 (1977) 45. Albus, J.S.: Brains, Behavior and Robotics. McGraw-Hill, New York (1981) 46. Muybridge, E.: Animals in Motion. Dover, New York (1957) 47. Muybridge, E.: The Human Figure in Motion. Dover, New York (1955) 48. Saunders, J.B., Inman, V.T., Eberhart, H.D.: The major determinants in normal and pathological gait. J. Bone Joint Surg. 35A, 543–558 (1953) 49. Mann, R., Inman, V.T.: Phasic activity of intrinsic muscles of the foot. J. Bone Joint Surg. 46A(3), 469–481 (1964) 50. Fung, Y.-C.: Biomechanics: Mechanical Properties of Living Tissues, p. 568. Springer, New York (1993) 51. Stapp, J.P., Gell, C.F.: Human exposure to linear declarative force in the backward and forward facing seated positions. Mil. Surg. 109(2), 106–109 (1951) 52. Schweikard, A., Bodduluri, M., Adler, J.R.: Planning for camera-guided robotic radiosurgery. IEEE Trans. Robot. Automat. 14(6), 951–962 (1998) 53. Paul, H., Bargar, W.L., Mittlestadt, B., Musits, B., Taylor, R.H., Kanzanzides, P., Zuhars, J., Williamson, B., Hanson, W.: Development of a surgical robot for cementless total hip arthroplasty. Clin. Orthop. 285, 57–66 (1992) 54. Satava, R.M.: The Future of surgical simulation and surgical robotics. Bull. Am. Coll. Surg. 92(3), 13–19 (2007) 55. Mabie, H.H., Reinholtz, C.F.: Mechanisms and Dynamics of Machinery. Wiley, New York (1987) 56. Spotts, M.F., Shoup, T.E., Hornberger, L.E.: Design of Machine Elements, 8th edn. Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River (2003) 57. Juvinall, R.C., Marshek, K.M.: Fundamentals of Machine Component Design, 3rd edn. Wiley, New York (2005) 58. Erdman, A.C., Sandor, G.N., Kota, S.: Mechanism Design: Analysis and Synthesis, vol. 1, 4th edn. Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs (2001) 59. Norton, R.L.: Design of Machinery, 4th edn. McGraw-Hill, New York (2008) 60. Waldron, K.J., Kinzel, G.L.: Kinematics, Dynamics and Design of Machinery, 2nd edn. Wiley, New York (2003) 61. Norton, R.L.: Machine Design: An Integrated Approach, 3rd edn. McGraw-Hill, New York (2005) 62. Hamrock, B., Schmid, S.R., Jacobson, B.O.: Fundamentals of Machine Elements, 2nd edn. McGraw-Hill, New York (2007) 63. Bottema, O., Roth, B.: Theoretical Kinematics. North-Holland Press, New York (1979) 64. Sandor, G.N., Erdman, A.C.: Advanced Mechanism Design: Analysis and Synthesis, vol. 2. Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs (1984) 65. McCarthy, J.M.: Geometric Design of Linkages. Springer, New York (2000) 66. Chirikjian, G.S., Kyatkin, A.B.: Engineering Applications of Noncommutative Harmonic Analysis. CRC Press, Boca Raton (2001) 67. Dudley, D.W.: Handbook of Practical Gear Design. CRC Press, New York (1994) 68. Paul, R.P.: Robot Manipulators: Mathematics, Programming and Control. MIT Press, Cambridge (1981) 69. Craig, J.R.: Introduction to Robotics, 2nd edn. Addison-Wesley, Boston (1989) 70. Siciliano, B., Khatib, O. (eds.): Springer Handbook of Robotics. Springer, Berlin (2008)

Author Index

A Algin, V., 235 Amarnath, C., 327 Ananthasuresh, G.K., 153

F Fernández, A., 427 Filemon, E., 315 Fong, Z.H., 281

B Bautista Paz, E., 35 Bérangère, L.G., 439 Boudreau, R., 257 Brix, T., 141

G Gauchía, Y.A., 427 Glazunov, V.A., 395 Goldfarb, V.I., 133

C Caballero-Ruiz, A., 353 Carretero, J.A., 257 Carvalho, J.C.M., 249 Ceccarelli, M., 3 Chang, S.H., 281 Chen, D.Z., 281 Chen, I.-M., 185 Chicurel-Uziel, R., 353 Chondros, T.G., 301 Corves, B., 107, 141 Csonka, P.J., 59 Cuadrado, J., 161

D Davitashvili, N., 295 Demiyanushko, I.V., 173 Díaz, V., 427 Döring, U., 141

E Escalona, J., 161

H Hayes, M.J.D., 257 Horáček, J., 289 Huang, T., 265 Husty, M.L., 121 K Kerle, H., 77, 107 Klein Breteler, A.J., 95 Koetsier, T., 77 Kuang, J.H., 281 L Lee, J.J., 281 Liu, T., 281 Luo, J., 203 M Mauersberger, K., 107 Mlika, A., 451 Modler, K-H., 107 Mohamed, B., 439 Mrázek, J., 289

M. Ceccarelli (ed.), Technology Developments: the Role of Mechanism and Machine Science and IFToMM, Mechanisms and Machine Science 1, DOI 10.1007/978-94-007-1300-0, © Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2011

477

478 N Nieto, J.N., 35 O Ostasevicius, V., 343 P Pámanes-García, A., 353 Pisla, D., 121 Podhorodesk, R.P., 257 Pust, L., 289 R Raghavan, M., 191 Rao, J.S., 43 Reymond, C., 439 Romdhane, L., 451 Rovetta, A., 337 Ruiz-Huerta, L., 353 S Sarkissyan, Y., 223 Schiehlen, W., 161 Segl’a, S., 289 Segla, S., 415

Author Index Seifried, R., 161 Solek, P., 415 Sung, C.K., 281 T Tsai, S.J., 281 Tsai, Y.C., 281 Tsay, C.B., 281 U Umnov, N.V., 395 V Václavík, M., 289 Viadero, F., 427 Visa, I., 25, 383 W Waldron, K.J., 59, 461 Wojnarowski, J., 367 Y Yan, H.-S., 77, 281