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Unit 1 The History of Cognitive Psychology 1. Give Russian equivalents to the following English words. What part of speech do they belong to? Civilization, interest, cognition, Greek, discussion, nature, debate, position, empiricism, argument, speculation, period, astronomy, physics, chemistry, biology, method, barrier, psychology, analysis, date, laboratory, contrast, division, student, portion, introspection, observer, condition, inspection, theory, reports, continent, type, method, revolution, behaviorism, phenomenon, association, stimulus, term, problem, program. Western, human, technical, conceptual, egocentric, mystical, comparative, clinical, social, intense, primitive, particular, adequate, complex. Essentially, usually. Intensify, cite, train, control, identify, constitute, produce. 2. Find the meaning of the following words in a dictionary: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
knowledge (n) experience (n) innate (a) attitude (n) inconceivable (a)
3. Match synonyms: 1) ancient 2) eventually 3) core 4) experience 5) frequently 6) markedly 7) take place 8) barrier 9) establish 10) primitive 11) account for 12) match 13) emanate (from) 14) drawback 15) entirely 16) precisely 17) struggle
6. mind (n) 7. susceptible (a) 8. view (n) 9. inquiry (n) 10. consciousness (n) 11. thought (n)
1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) 7) 8) 9) 10) 11) 12) 13) 14) 15) 16) 17)
12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17.
considerably found simple emerge completely fight old explain finally centre practice often occur obstacle shortcoming accurately coincide
match (v) emanate (v) experience (n) drawback (n) attempt (n) creativity (n)
4 4. Group the words given below into the pairs of antonyms (if it is necessary, consult a dictionary). Ancient, different, frequently, Eastern, internal, grown-ups, limit, children, simple, long, origin, the same, complex, young, seldom, Western, knowledge, external, ignorance, short. 5. Read and translate the text: The History of Cognitive Psychology In Western civilization, interest in human cognition can be traced to the ancient Greeks. Plato and Aristotle, in their discussions of the nature and origin of knowledge, speculated on memory and thought. These early discussions, which were essentially philosophical in nature, eventually developed into a centuries-long debate. The two positions were empiricism, which held that all knowledge comes from experience, and nativism, which held that children come into the world with a great deal of innate knowledge. This debate intensified in the seventeenth, eighteenth, and nineteenth centuries. Though the arguments were at their core philosophical, they frequently slipped into psychological speculations about human cognition. During this long period of philosophical debate, such sciences as astronomy, physics, chemistry, and biology developed markedly. Curiously, no attempt was made to apply the scientific method to the understanding of human cognition; this understanding did not take place until the end of the nineteenth century. Certainly, no technical or conceptual barriers existed to prevent the study of cognitive psychology earlier. But cognitive psychology, like many other sciences, suffered because of our egocentric, mystical, and confused attitude about ourselves and our own nature. It had seemed inconceivable before the nineteenth centure that the workings of the human mind could be susceptible to scientific analysis. As a consequence, cognitive psychology as a science is only a little more than 100 years old and lags far behind many other sciences. Psychology in Germany The date usually cited as marking the beginning of psychology as a science is 1879, when Wilhelm Wundt established the first psychology laboratory in Leipzig, Germany. Wundt’s psychology was cognitive psychology (in contrast to other divisions of psychology, such as comparative, clinical, or social), although he had far-ranging views on many subjects. The method of inquiry used by Wundt, his students, and a large portion of the early psychologist was introspection. In this method, highly trained observers reported the contents of their consciousness under carefully controlled conditions. The basic belief was that the workings of the mind should be open to selfobservation. Drawing on the empiricism of the British philosophers, Wundt and others believed that very intense self-inspection would be able to identify the primitive
5 experiences out of which thought was constituted. Thus, to develop a theory of cognition, a psychologist had only to develop a theory that accounted for the contents of introspective reports. Psychology in America Introspection was getting into trouble on the continent. Different laboratories were reporting different types of introspections-each type matching the theory of the particular laboratory from which it emanated. It was becoming clear that introspection did not give a clear window into the workings of the mind. Much that was important in cognitive functioning was not open to conscious experience. The drawbacks of the introspective method set the groundwork for the great behaviorist revolution in American psychology, which occurred around 1920. Behaviorism held that psychology was to be entirely concerned with external behavior and was not to try to analyze the workings of the mind that underlay this behavior. Behaviorism never produced detailed or adequate accounts of complex cognitive functioning. It was possible (although probably erroneous) to explain many phenomena in terms of associations between stimuli and responses, but it made little or no sense to attempt to account for our knowledge of a complex system such as language in stimulus-response terms. Precisely the same was true of attempts by Bechaviorists to account for cognitive activities such as creativity and problem solving. Nevertheless, in both the introspectionist and the behaviorist programs, we see the human mind struggling with the effort to understand itself. 6. Answer the following questions to the text: 1) Whom can interest in human cognition be traced to? 2) What was the character of the early discussions on human cognition? 3) Was any attempt made to apply the scientific method to understanding of human cognition before the end of the nineteenth century? 4) Because of what did cognitive psychology suffer at that time? 5) How old is cognitive psychology as a science? 6) What was the method of inquiry used by W.Wundt in Germany? 7) What did observers do according to W.Wundt’s method? 8) Did the introspective method have any drawbacks? 9) Did psychology in America go the same way as in Germany? 10) What did behaviorists try to prove? 7. Contradict the following statements: 1) In Western civilization speculations on memory and thought can be traced only to Wilhelm Wundt’s ideas. 2) Nativism held that children should learn much from nature itself. 3) The development of different sciences helped to apply the scientific method to the understanding of human cognition a long time ago.
6 4) W.Wundt was the father of comparative and social psychology. 5) The basic belief was that the workings of the mind should be open to clinical observation. 6) Psychology in America was based on introspective reports. 7) The great behaviorist revolution was concentrated on self-observation. 8. Outline the main ideas of the text.
Unit 2 The Reemergence of Cognitive Psychology 1. Give Russian equivalents to the following English words. What part of speech do they belong to? Decade, information, soldier, character, psychologist, perception, computer, intelligence, concept, machine, linguistics, structure, formulation, publication, journal, technique, idea, era. Modern, practical, academic, abstract, minimal, psychological, logical, experimental, behaviorist. Observe, analyze, integrate, date, define, study. 2. Find the meaning of the following words in a dictionary: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
emerge (v) influence (n) development (n) research (n) attention (n)
6. issue (n) 7. bent (n) 8. performance (n) 9. pervade (v) 10. relate (v)
11. artificial (a) 12. liberate (v) 13. inhibition (n) 14. overlap (v) 15. simulation (n)
3. Match synonyms: 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) 7) 8) 9) 10) 11)
emerge research boost issue related influence enormous complexity rapidly journal era
1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) 7) 8) 9) 10) 11)
connected great quickly appear problem investigation raise magazine epoch impact difficulty
7 4. Fill the blanks with the appropriate word: 1) The development of computer science made a great … on cognitive psychology. 2) There is a special laboratory at the University which deals with the problems of … intelligence. 3) The Soviet soldier … many countries of Western Europe. 4) During his or her lessons a teacher should develop his pupils … . 5) The word “ … ” has the other meaning besides “pretence”. 6) These two problems are closely … . 7) The computer technology … only in the 20-th century. 5. Read and translate the text: The Reemergence of Cognitive Psychology Cognitive psychology, as we know it today, emerged in the two decades between 1950 and 1970. Three main influences account for the modern development of cognitive psychology. The first was research on human performance that was given a great boost during World War II, when practical information was badly needed on training soldiers to use sophisticated equipment and dealing with problems like breakdown of attention. Behaviorism offered no help for such practical issues. While the work during the war had a very applied bent, its character stayed with psychologists when they went back to their academic laboratories after the war. The work of the British psychologist Donald Broadbent at the applied Psychology Research Unit in Cambridge was probably most influential in integration ideas from human performance with new ideas that were developing in an area called information theory. Information theory was an abstract way of analyzing the processing of information. He developed his ideas most directly with regard to perception and attention, but such analyses now pervade all of cognitive psychology. Closely related to the development of the information-processing approach were developments in computer science, particularly artificial intelligence, which tries to get computers to behave intelligently. The direct influence of computer-based theories on cognitive psychology has always been minimal. The indirect influence, however, has been enormous. A great number of concepts has been taken from computer science and used in psychological theories. Probably more important observing how we could analyze the intelligent behavior of a machine has largely liberated us from our inhibitions about analyzing our own intelligence. The third field of influence on cognitive psychology is linguistics. In the 1950s, Noam Chomsky a linguist at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, began to develop a new mode of analyzing the structure of language. His work showed that language was much more complex than had previously been believed and that many of the prevailing behavioristic formulations were incapable of explaining these complexities. Cognitive psychology has grown rapidly since the 1950s. A very important event was the publication of Ulric Neisser’s Cognitive Psychology in 1967. It consisted of six chapters on perception and attention and four chapters on language, memory, and
8 thought. Following Neisser’s work, another important event was the beginning of the journal Cognitive Psychology in 1970. More recently a new field, called cognitive science, has emerged which attempts to integrate research efforts from psychology, philosophy, linguistics, neuroscience, and artificial intelligence. This field can be dated from the appearance of the journal Cognitive Science in 1976. The fields of cognitive psychology and cognitive science overlap. It is difficult to define precisely the differences, but cognitive science makes greater use of methods such as computer simulation of cognitive processes and logical analysis, while cognitive psychology relies heavily on experimental techniques that grew out of the behaviorist era for studying behavior.
6. Answer the following questions to the text: 1. When did cognitive psychology, as we know it today, emerge? 2. What are the tree main influences which account for the modern development of cognitive psychology? 3. Is information theory an abstract way of analyzing the process of information? 4. What science tries to get computers to behave intelligently? 5. What did the work of N.Chomsky show? 6. Since what period has cognitive psychology grown rapidly? 7. What was a very important event which took place in 1967? 8. How many chapters did Neisser’s book consist of? 9. Why may cognitive science be called “an umbrella” combination of different subjects? 10. When did the first issue of the journal Cognitive Science appear? 7. Is it right or false? 1) Cognitive psychology as a science emerged between 1950 and 1970. 2) All World War II soldiers suffered from breakdown of attention. 3) D.Broadbent integrated ideas for human performance with the new ideas of information theory. 4) Information-processing approach made people behave as the most sophisticated computers. 5) The direct influence of computer-based theories on cognitive psychology has always been enormous. 6) The third influence on cognitive psychology is linguistics. 7) Noam Chomsky worked at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. 8) Cognitive psychology relies heavily on experimental techniques. 9. Discuss the main items of the text in pairs. 10.Retell the text in brief.
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Unit 3 Neural Representation of Information 1. Give Russian equivalents to the following English words. What part of speech do they belong to? Component, system, neuron, activity, billion, fraction, interaction, term, effect, stimulus, baseball, algebra, bit, emotion, argument, function, area, code, scheme; Nervous, electrical, individual, specific, massive, temporary, informative, binary; Maximally, really, generally, particularly; Accumulate, transmit, contain, represent, result, localize, distribute, determine, utilize. 2. Find the meaning of the following words in a dictionary: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
6. evidence (n) 7. monkey (n) 8. frustration (n) 9. solution (n) 10. damage (n)
cell (n) brain (n) power (n) excitation (n) inhibition (n)
11. store (v) 12. redundant (a) 13. missing (a) 14. reliable (a)
3. Match antonyms: 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) 7) 8)
roughly simultaneously excitation individual stimulus off temporary more
1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) 7) 8)
on reaction less precisely alternatively inhibition collective constant
4. Choose the right definition: 1) neuron 2) stimulus 3) brain 4) emotion
1) the part of a person’s character that consists of their feelings as opposed to their thoughts; 2) the organ inside your head which enables you to think and to feel things; 3) a cell that is part of the nervous system and that conducts messages to and from the brain; 4) something that causes a part of a person’s or animal’s body to move or function, usually automatically by a natural reflex.
10 5. Read and translate the text: Neural Representation of Information From an information-processing point of view, the most important components of the nervous system are the neurons. A neuron is a cell which accumulates and transmits electrical activity. The human brain itself contains roughly 100 billion neurons, each of which may have roughly the processing capability of a modest-sized computer. A considerable fraction of the 100 billion neurons are active simultaneously and do much of their information processing through interactions with one another. Imagine the information-processing power in 100 billion interacting computers! Neurons interact by driving up the activation level of other neurons (excitation) or by driving down their activation level (inhibition). All neural information processing takes place in terms of these excitatory and inhibitory effects; they are what underlies human cognition. It is an interesting question just how these neurons represent information. There is evidence that individual neurons respond to specific features of a stimulus. For instance, there are neurons in the monkey brain that appear to respond maximally to faces. However, it is not possible that we have single neurons encoding all the concepts and shades of meaning we possess. If a single neuron cannot represent the complexity of our cognition, how is it represented? How can the activity of neurons represent our concept of baseball; how can they result in our solution of an algebra problem; how can they result in our feeling of frustration? Similar questions can be asked of computer systems, which have been shown to be capable of answering questions about baseball, solving algebra problems, and displaying frustration. Where in the millions of off – and – on bits in a computer does the concept of baseball lie? How does a change in a bit result in the solution of an algebra problem or in feeling of frustration? The answer in every case is that these questions fail to see the forest for the trees. The concepts of baseball, problem solution, and emotion occur in large patterns of bit changes. Similarly we can be sure that human cognition is achieved through large patterns of neural activity. We do not really know how the brain encodes cognition in neural patterns, but the evidence is strong that it does. There are computational arguments that this is the only way to achieve cognitive function. There is also a fair amount of evidence suggesting that human knowledge is not localized in any single neuron, but is distributed over many neurons in large patterns of activation. Damage to a small number of neurons in the brain generally does not result in the loss of specific memories. On the other hand, massive damage to larger areas of the brain will not result in temporary or a large set of memories. It is informative to consider how the computer stores information. Consider a simple case: the spelling of words. Most computers have codes by which individual patterns of binary values (1’s and 0’s) represent different letters. Similarly, information in the brain can be represented in terms of patterns of neural activity. At the same time the brain codes information redundantly so that even if certain cells are missing, it can
11 still determine what the pattern is encoding. It is generally thought that the brain uses very different schemes for encoding information and achieving redundancy than the computer. It also seems that the brain utilizes a much more redundant code than the computer. This is because individual neurons are not particularly reliable in their behavior. 6. Answer the following questions to the text: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.
What are the most important components of the nervous system? In what way is a neuron defined? How many neurons does the human brain contain? Do neurons act simultaneously? How do neurons interact? Through what is human cognition achieved? Is human knowledge localized in any single neuron? What does massive damage to large areas of the brain result in? What is the difference between the brain’s and the computer’s work?
7. Complete the sentences using information given in the text: 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6)
The human brain contains … All neuron information processing takes place in terms … There is evidence that individual neurons respond … Human knowledge is distributed … Damage to a small number of neurons usually does not result … The brain codes information …
7. Summarize the main ideas of the text.
Unit 4 Perception-Based and Meaning-Based Knowledge Representation 1. Give Russian equivalents to the following English words. What part of speech do they belong to? Representation, material, subject, image, localization, reason, interest, interpretation, aspect, detail, structure, schema, category, object, sort. Dual, separate, verbal, visual, internal, mythical, mental, actual, computational, perceptual, propositional, typical. Champion, encode, conceptualize, focus, preserve, abstract, press, register, extract, document.
12 2. Find the meaning of the following words in a dictionary: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
superior (a) enhance (v) chase (v) temptation (n) inference (n)
6. 7. 8. 9.
imagine (v) failure (n) share (v) conscious (a)
10. experience (n) 11. wedding (n) 12. event (n) 13. property (n)
3. Fill the blanks with the appropriate words: 1) The rank of a major in the army is … to the rank of a captain. 2) The two students … one room in the hostel. 3) If you are … of something you notice and realize what is happening; this term is also used to describe thoughts and memories that come into your mind. 4) “ … “ means to improve value, quality or attractiveness of something. 5) Try to … that you are on the Moon. 6) He is a very good specialist, he has gathered much of … while working abroad. 7) The boy had a great … to eat the cake. 8) … is a triumph of love. 4. Read and translate the text: Perception-Based and Meaning-Based Knowledge Representation Paivio has long championed the dual-code theory that there are separate representations for verbal and visual information. Much of his evidence came from research on human memory where it is often found that memory for pictorial material is superior to memory for verbal material. Researchers have also found that memory for verbal material is greatly chanced if one can develop visual images corresponding to the material. For instance, subjects given the sentence “The dog chased the bike” will better remember the sentence if they develop a corresponding image of the sentence. It has been proved that verbal and visual information are processed by different parts of the brain in different ways. Although issues of brain localization are important, they are not the principal reason why psychologists are concerned with knowledge representation. The principal reason for the interest in knowledge representation is that the way in which information is represented can affect the way it is processed. There is a strong temptation to use such information about the way representations are processed to make inferences about the way they are actually encoded in the brain. For instance, it is tempting to take a very literal interpretation of the way they are encoded. One might imagine that there are pictures in the head which some internal being in the brain looks at or that there is speech in the head which the same internal being listens to. The mythical internal being in the brain that sees and hears is infamous in cognitive psychology, use of such a concept is recognized as a failure of scientific explanation. More than that – mental images are not actual images; they are not drawn on any tangible canvas or viewed by actual eyes. Generally speaking, it is difficult to
13 conceptualize what an image is. Difficulties in studying imagery were in large part responsible for the Behaviorists’ swing away from studying mental activity of any sort. Visual images share many properties with the products of visual perception. Nowadays mental images are better explained and understood in the terms of computational theories. Computational theories of imagery attempt to account for how information is stored and processed when one uses imagery; such theories focus on the brain activities involved in imagery rather than on the conscious experience of imagery itself. If perception-based knowledge representation is a knowledge representation that attempts to preserve much of the structure of a perceptual experience, than meaning representation attempts to abstract out some significant aspects of an experience. Recall a wedding you attended a while ago. Presumably, you can remember who married whom, probably where the wedding was, many of the people at the wedding, and some of the things that happened. However, you would probably be hard pressed to say exactly what all the participants wore and exactly what was said although you probably registered all of these details. Thus we extract what is significant about an event and discard many of the unimportant events. A fair amount of research in cognitive psychology has been devoted to documenting the importance of such meaning-based memories and establishing that they are different from perception-based memories. There are two types of meaning-based representations: propositional structures that encode the significant information about a particular event (such as who married whom in the wedding) and schemas that represent categories of events and objects in terms of their typical properties (such as what typically happens at a wedding). 5. Answer the following questions to the text: 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) 7) 8)
Who was the father of the dual-code theory? What does the dual-code theory state? Is memory for verbal material superior to memory for pictorial material? In what way can verbal material be greatly enhanced? Are verbal and visual information processed by different parts of the brain? What is a naive interpretation of the way representations are produced? Do mental images look like actual images? Visual images share many properties with the products of visual perception, don’t they? 9) What is perception-based knowledge representation? 10) In what way does meaning-based knowledge representation differ from perception-based knowledge representation? 6. Formulate your understanding of perception-based and meaning-based knowledge representations.
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Unit 5 Concepts and Categories 1. Give Russian equivalents to the following English words. What part of speech do they belong to? Description, class, classification, contrast, criterion, prototype, instance, exemplar, function, situation, person, basis, fact, flamingo; Real, potential, conceptual, classical, historical, central, summary, particular, intelligent, equivalent, alternative. Treat, theorize, organize, constitute, analyze, interpret, cause, reason, communicate, index. Objectively. 2. Find the meaning of the following words in a dictionary: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
Indude (v) entity (n) deny (v) misleading (a) counterpart (n)
6. discover (v) 7. sufficient (a) 8. even (number) (a) 9. similar (a) 10. robbin (n)
11. rattlesnake (n) 12. prediction (n) 13. avoid (v) 14. breathe (v) 15. frame (v)
3. Match synonyms. If you don’t know a word from the right column, consult a dictionary: 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) 7)
misleading counterpart ground impact sufficient pure similarity
1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) 7)
resemblance influence clean enough foundation deceptive equivalent
4. Read and translate the text: Concepts and Categories A concept is a mental representation of idea that includes a description of important properties of a class or term. Concepts refer to categories, a category being a partitioning to which a certain assertion or assertions apply. Whenever a category includes two or more members, then classification involves treating multiple entities as in some way equivalent. An alternative contrast between categories and concepts, which we wish to deny, suggests that categories are classes of entities that are objectively in
15 the real world and that concepts are mental description of them. We believe that this distinction is misleading because concepts need not have real-world counterparts, because the set of potential real-world categories is indefinitely large, and because people may impose rather than discover structure in the world. The most active ground for research and theorizing about concepts is involved with determining the structure of concepts. There are several theories concerning conceptual structure: The classical view. The classical view has had a profound historical impact on psychology and linguistics. On this view, concepts are structured around defining features-features that are singly necessary and jointly sufficient to define the concept. The category “even number” has a classical definition provided by the feature “evenly divisible by two”; this definition acts as a fixed criterion for evaluating whether an object belongs to the concept. According to the pure form of the classical view, all concepts are like “even number” in being organized around defining features. The prototype view. The prototype view developed out of dissatisfaction with the classical view. Its central claim is that concepts are organized around a prototype or best example that summarizes the most common or typical features among a concept’s instances. The similarity between an item and a concept’s prototype determines whether, and how well, the item belongs in the concept. The exempler view. Unlike the earlier views, the exemplar view does not create a summary description to represent concepts. Concepts are represented by the individual instances (or examplars) that constitute it. To decide whether an item belongs to a concept, the item is compared with the concept’s exemplars. If the item is similar to the exemplars then it will be placed in the concept. Concepts serve multiple functions. They are: (1) Classification. The classification function involves determining that a particular instance is an instance of a concept or that one particular concept is a subset of another (for example, robbins are birds). (2) Understanding and explanation. Classification allows intelligent systems to form their experience into meaningful chunks and to construct an interpretation of it. Old knowledge is used to analyze the current situation. If a person recognizes an animal as a “rattle-snake”, for example, he or she will interpret their situation as dangerous. (3) Prediction. In the example of the rattlesnake just described one may also access knowledge that might allow one to make predictions concerning the future. One might, for instance, predict that sudden movements might cause the rattlesnake to strike and on the basis of this prediction one might slowly back away from the snake to avoid being bitten. (4) Reasoning. Concepts and conceptual structure support reasoning. One does not need to store every fact and possibility if one can derive knowledge from the information that is stored. From the knowledge that all animals breather, that birds are animals, and that flamingos are birds, one may reason that flamingos breathe. Concepts support not only logical inferences but also plausible reasoning. From “doctor” one might infer “large salary, long and irregular work hours”.
16 (5) Communication. To the extent that people share knowledge and index it in terms of the same categories, they will be able to communicate with each other. Conceptual knowledge frames the sphere of meaning-based knowledge representations. 5. Answer the following questions to the text: 1) What is a concept? 2) What do concepts refer to? 3) Do concepts need to have real-world counterparts? 4) In what way does the classical view on concepts define them? 5) Around what are concepts organized according to the prototype view? 6) What is the essence of the exempler view? 7) Does classification allow old knowledge to analyze the current situation? 8) Does classification help to make predictions? 9) Do concepts and conceptual structures support reasoning? 10) Why can people communicate with each other? 6. What is the most typical example of a bird (tree, vegetable, fruit) in Russia? Discuss it in pairs. 7. Outline the main ideas of the text.
Unit 6 Schemas 1. Give Russian equivalents to the following English words. What part of speech do they belong to? Schema, story, process, rationalization, version, role, configuration, packet, attribute; Prior, central, basic, modern, various, typical, reconstruct; Base, guide, program, specify. 2. Find the meaning of the following English words in a dictionary: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
expectation (n) undergo (v) deletion (n) elaboration (n) distortion (n)
6. dwelling (n) 7. insight (n) 8. enable (v) 9. sense (n) 10. slot (n)
11. value (n) 12. default (a) 13. ostrich (n)
17 3. Give the plural form of the nouns listed below: 1. 2. 3. 4.
foot – schema – datum – phenomenon -
5. 6. 7. 8.
stratum – tooth – mouse – child -
4. Complete the sentences with the appropriate words: 1) People believe that … hide their heads in the sand. 2) Human memory … changes. 3) C.Dickens had a great … of humor. 4) Bikes … people to travel for both short and long distances. 5) Cubism appeared to most people to be a … of reality. 6) Please underlie any words for … . 5. Read and translate the text: Schemas The idea of a schema (plural: either schemata or schemas) was originally introduced by sir Frederic Bartlett in 1932. Bartlett made use of schemata to explain why it is that, in understanding and remembering stories, people tend to reconstruct the story to fit in with expectations based on their prior knowledge and past experience. The original story undergoes processes of rationalization, deletion, elaboration, and distortion which, according to Bartlett, are shaped and guided to pre-existing schemata. Barlett’s ideas were ahead of his time. In the 1970s, with the growing interest in mental representations, schemata have been reinstated and modern versions play a central role in current theories of memory. What does the term “schemata” mean from the point of view of cognitive science? First of all it is necessary to point out that with the help of a schema we represent our knowledge about categories. For instance, consider our knowledge of what a house is like. We know many things about houses, such as the following: • Houses are a type of a building. • Houses have rooms. • Houses can be built of wood, brick, or stone. • Houses serve as human dwellings. • Houses tend to have rectilinear and triangular shapes. • Houses are larger than 100 square feet and smaller than 10,000. The importance of a category is that it stores predictable information about instances of a category such as the above. So, when someone mentions a house we have a rough idea of the size of the object being referred to. The basic insight is that concepts like house are defined by a configuration of features. This representational structure is called a schema. A schema is an organized packet of knowledge. The concept of a schema comes from artificial intelligence and computer science. Readers who have
18 experience with modern programming languages should recognize its similarity to various types of data structure (e.g., records in Pascal) that are used. Schemas represent categorial knowledge according to a slot structure, where slots specify values that members of a category have on various attributes. So, we have the following partial schema representation of a house (building): • Parts: rooms. • Materials: wood, brick, stone. • Function: human dwelling. • Shape: rectilinear, triangular. • Size: 100-10,000 square feet. In this representation, terms like “materials” or “shape” are the attributes or slots, and terms like “wood”, “brick”, or “rectilinear” are the values. Each pair of a slot and a value specifies a typical feature. The fact that houses are typically built of materials like wood and brick does not exclude such possibilities as cardboard. Thus, the values listed above are called default values. For instance, the fact that we represent that birds can fly as part of our schema for birds does not prevent us from seeing ostriches as birds. We simply overwrite this default value in our representation for ostrich. The questions for the psychologist is what aspects of the schema notion are appropriate for understanding how people reason about concepts. 6. Answer the questions to the text: 1. When was the idea of a schema introduced? 2. For what purpose did F.Bartlett make use of schemata? 3. What processes does the original story undergo, according to Frederic Bartlett? 4. Were Bartlett’s ideas ahead of his time? 5. When were schemata reinstated? 6. What do we represent with the help of a schema? 7. What is a schema? 8. Where does the concept of a schema come from? 9. What are default values? 7. Is it true or false? 1. People usually recall all the events with equal details. 2. The original story undergoes processes of rationalization, deletion, elaboration, and distortion. 3. A category stores predictable information about instances of a category. 4. Schemas represent categorial knowledge according to a slot structure. 5. Houses are never built of cardboards that is why this value is called a default value. 8. Give a schema of a University (hospital, museum). 9. Outline the main idea of the text.
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Unit 7 Scripts 1. Give Russian equivalents to the following English words. What part of speech do they belong to? Action, plan, restaurant, lecture, experiment, course, doctor, reservation, menu, salad, dessert, position, student, soup, colour, scene, organization; Special, routine, central, prototypical, irrelevant; Explicitly, occasionally, usually. Visit, constitute, verify, refine, govern, encapsulate. 2. Find the meaning of the following English words in a dictionary: 1. 2. 3. 4.
script (n) sequence (n) label (v) napkin (n)
5. 6. 7. 8.
bill (n) order (n) waiter (n) spill (v)
9. obstacle (n) 10. distraction (n) 11. flexible (a) 12. goal (n)
3. Form the comparative and the superlative degree of the adjectives listed below: Familiar – famous – many – important –
bad – usual – routine – far –
few – little – much – good –
4. Group the words into synonymous pairs: Sequence, common, inference, label, connected, part, usual, mark, order, assumption, portion, constitute, purpose, verify, related, significance, make up, use, check, importance, employ, goal. 5. Read and translate the text: Scripts Scripts are a special type of schema. They represent our knowledge of routine actions and familiar repeated sequences. Scripts include information about the usual roles, objects, and the sequence of events to be found in action; they enable plans to be made and enable us to draw inferences about what is not explicitly mentioned. Two famous examples are the “restaurant script” and the “attending a lecture script”. Psychological evidence for the existence of scripts comes from an experiment in the course of which participants were asked to list about 20 events in activities such as
20 visiting a restaurant, attending a lecture, getting up in the morning, visiting the doctor, or going shopping. Some examples are shown in the following table; items labelled (1) were mentioned by the most subjects and are considered the most important actions in a script, items labelled (2) were mentioned by fewer subjects. and items labelled (3) were mentioned by the fewest number of subjects and are considered the least important parts of the script. Attending a lecture script
Visiting a restaurant script Open door_____________________ Enter_________________________ Give reservation name___________ Wait to be seated_______________ Go to table____________________ Be seated_____________________ Order drinks___________________ Put napkins on lap______________ Look at menu__________________ Discuss menu__________________ Order meal____________________ Talk_________________________ Drink water___________________ Eat salad or soup_______________ Meal arrives___________________ Eat food______________________ Finish meal____________________ Order dessert__________________ Eat dessert____________________ Ask for bill____________________ Bill arrives____________________ Pay bill_______________________ Leave tip______________________ Get coats______________________ Leave________________________
3 2 2 3 3 1 2 3 1 2 1 2 3 2 3 1 3 2 2 3 3 1 2 3 1
Enter room___________________ Look for friends_______________ Find seat_____________________ Sit down_____________________ Settle belongings_______________ Take out notebook_____________ Look at other students__________ Talk_________________________ Look at lecturer________________ Listen to lecturer_______________ Take notes____________________ Check time___________________ Ask questions_________________ Change position in seat__________ Daydream____________________ Look at other students__________ Take more notes_______________ Close notebook________________ Gather belongings______________ Stand up_____________________ Talk_________________________ Leave_______________________
1 2 1 1 3 1 2 2 3 1 1 1 3 3 3 3 3 2 2 3 3 1
The events are shown in the order in which they were usually mentioned. All of these events were mentioned by at least 25 % of the subjects. Hence subjects agree about the central features that constitute a script and their relative importance. Occasionally events turn up that are not in the script: for example, the waiter might spill the soup on you Such events may be considered as obstacles or distractions, because they get in the way of the main purpose of the script (here eating). Predictions were made about two types of event in stories relating to the script. First, distractions, that are in the way of the purpose of the script should be more likely to be remembered.
21 Second, events that are irrelevant to the purpose of the script (such as the colour of the waiter’s shoes) should be poorly remember. Both of these predictions were verified. Further on, the idea of scripts was refined. Most of life is not governed by predetermined, over-learned sequences such as is encapsulated in a script. Knowledge structures need to be flexible. Scenes turned out to be organized into memory organization packets or MOPs, which are all linked by being related to a particular goal. The most important thing about scripts is that they represent event schemas which people use to reason about prototypical events.
6. Answer the following questions to the text: 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) 7)
Are scripts a special type of schema? What do scripts represent? What do scripts usually include? Can you give two famous examples of scripts? What events may be considered as obstacles or distractions? Are all the details of any event included in a script? In what way do people reason about prototypical events?
7. Contradict the following statements. 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6)
Scripts greatly differ from schemas. Scripts include the most interesting events of a person’s life. Scripts help us to draw inferences about what is explicitly mentioned. In real life all events turn up that are not in the script. Distractions that are in the way of the purpose of the script are less remembered. The idea of scripts remains unchanged.
8. Develop the scripts of visiting a polyclinic, going to your friend’s birthday party, taking an examination. 9. Think over some other rubrics of scripts. 10. Retell the text.
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Unit 8 Memory Systems 1. Give Russian equivalents to the following English words. What part of speech do they belong to? Form, utilization, hierarchy, evolution, substrate, system, nature, operation, base, classification, person, episode, occasion, individual, organism, essnce, phenomenon, actualization, fact, conception, subdivision, relevance, model, aspect, situation, debate; General, separate, neural, hypothetical, episodic, semantic, procedural, concrete, subjective, normal, mental, expressible, abstract, original, classificatory, various, complex, symbolic, specific, intense, anatomical; Initially, automatically. Function, revolve, date, define, conceptualize, construct, represent, accept. 2. Find the meaning of the words listed below in a dictionary: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
6. ability (n) 7. available (a) 8. handle (v) 9. sensitization (n) 10. witness (v)
putative (a) acquisition (n) retention (n) skill (n) level (n)
11. absent (a) 12. qualitatively (adv) 13. hallmark (n) 14. belief (n)
3. Match antonyms: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.
putative short concrete subjective qualitatively present close broad high complex
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.
low far absent abstract long real narrow simple objective quantitatively
4. Read and translate the text: Memory Systems This term denotes putative brain / behavior and brain / cognition systems concerned with different forms of learning and memory. “Memory” is a general label for different forms of acquisition, retention, and utilization of informations, skills and
23 memory constitute a hierarchy in which forms that emerged early in evolution represent the lower levels, and forms evolving later represent the higher levels. Because evidence exists showing that the operations of different forms are related to different neuroanatomical substrates, the different forms of learning and memory have been increasingly thought of as constituting different memory systems. All systems have in common the ability to retain and to make available for use in ongoing behavior and cognitive functioning, effects of earlier behavior and experiences. They differ in the kind of information they handle, and in the nature of their operations. Separate neural systems are believed to underlie simple forms of learning, such as sensitization. Some evidence also exists for separate neural bases for short-term memory and long-term memory. However, most of the research concerned with the classification of forms of learning and memory has revolved around three hypothetical systems: episodic memory, semantic memory and procedural memory. Episodic memory is the memory system that makes it possible for a person to remember concrete personal episodes or events dated in the subjective past – that is, to remember that he or she did or witnessed something on a particular occasion at a particular time. This ability to remember personal experiences is possessed by all normal individuals, but it is absent in very young children, and absent or less well developed in lower organisms. Episodic remembering is, in its essence, a mental phenomenon. The nature of the conscious experience of remembering a past event differs qualitatively from the nature of the conscious experience resulting from the actualization of general knowledge about the world. The hallmark of episodic – memory capability is the rememberer’s strong belief that the remembered event did in fact occur and that he or she was present when it occurred. At the next level of the classificatory scheme is semantic memory. It is concerned with what William James called “conceptions”, or what today can be described as “general knowledge about the world”. Semantic memory was initially defined in close reference to knowledge expressible in language, but is now conceptualized much more broadly, consisting of a number of hypothetical subdivisions. The information that the semantic system handles need not have any personal relevance to the individual. Neither need it refer to the past, or any other particular time in the individual’s existence. The semantic system allows the individual to construct mental models of both concrete and abstract parts and aspects of the world. It makes possible the cognitive representation of stimuli, objects, situations, facts and events, and the utilization of information thus represented in the absence of original stimuli and events. Procedural memory represents a lower, more general level of the classificatory hierarchy. It is thought in evolution and that is shared in various enables organisms to retain learned connections stimulus-response patterns and sequences. Learning in procedural memory is nonsymbolic; it can be expressed only in terms of specific responses or behaviors. This expression can occur “automatically”, in the absence of directed attention. The distinction between procedural and other types of memory is now widely accepted but the nature of the concepts of episodic and semantic memory, on the other hand, is still a subject of intense debate.
24 5. Answer the following questions to the text: 1. What does the term “memory system” denote? 2. Is there a general label for different forms of acquisition, retention, and utilization of informations skills and knowledge? 3. How many levels can one differentiate within different forms of leaning and memory? 4. Do all systems of memory have anything in common? 5. What is the difference between them? 6. Is sensitization a simple form of learning? 7. Do short-term and long-term memories have different neural bases? 8. What are the three hypothetical systems of memory? 9. Do animals have the semantic system of memory?
6. Write a short summary of episodic, semantic and procedural systems of memory.
Ebl_jZlmjZ 1. Andersen T.R. Cognitive Psychology and its Implications. – 4-th ed. – New York, 1995 – 519 p. 2. The Blackwell Dictionary of Cognitive Psychology / Ed. by M.W.Eysenck. – Cambridge; Massachusetts: Blackwell Publishers, 1994 – 390 p. 3. Harley T.A. The Psychology of Language: from Data to Theory. – Hove: Erlbaum (UK), Taylor and Francis, 1995 – 482 p.
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