Віра Потєхіна
ІНТЕЛЕКТУАЛЬНА ВЛАСНІСТЬ За редакцією доктора економічних наук, професора, старшого наукового співробітника, патентознавця І. І. Дахна
Навчальний посібник для студентів вищих навчальних закладів
Київ «Центр учбової літератури» 2008
ББК 67.623.3я73 П 64 УДК 347.77(075.8)
За редакцією доктора економічних наук, професора, старшого наукового співробітника, патентознавця І. І. Дахна
П 64
В.О. Потєхіна Інтелектуальна власність: Навч. пос. – К.: Центр учбової літератури, 2008. – 414 с.
ISBN 978%966%364%672%5 У навчальному посібнику висвітлюються економіко%правові аспекти інтелекту% альної власності в умовах глобалізації економіки. Вирізняльною особливістю книги є комплексний економіко%правовий підхід до проблем інтелектуальної власності. Посібник містить інформацію про зміст вітчизняних книг з інтелектуальної влас% ності та словник офіційної термінології України у цій сфері, а також текст угоди ТРІПС. Навчальний посібник може використовуватися у ВУЗах під час вивчення дис% циплін «Інтелектуальна власність», «Право інтелектуальної власності», «Міжнарод% на економіка», «Міжнародне право», «Міжнародне економічне право», «Міжнарод% не приватне право» тощо. Для студентів, підприємців, правників, науковців, творчих працівників та інших категорій читачів, які цікавляться питаннями інтелектуальної власності. ББК 67.623.3я73 ISBN 978/966/364/672/5
© В.О. Потєхіна, 2008 © Центр учбової літератури, 2008
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5
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7
1. . . . . . . 1.1. 1.2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.3. - . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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20
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+> * , " " , " " " » [99]. / « » @ + 80- LL ’ - . <" ’ F " * " , ’ . < > @ * " , F " " [156]. $ , F " " " + " @ , " " . A " " , , "+ + . C " . J"" , A*. / A*. #, + + > , F * +, " " , * « ». $. B « » >, F > " , F " + +
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, ", @ ’> , + "+ . "" @ +> " * " , " @ , > * . = " + * <<%. < @ @ > , > * @+ "+ " . C. ( >, F > " , , , + [152]. < > @ , > @ > , @ > . $ , + ’+ * . +> , *+ +" " + " . K > <. , > @ . # " " " * " " " " 2025 . [157]. < " " >
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"" ’> . % " + . < >" + + > +" + ’> . " + ", " + ’> . )+ ’> " > "* * , " * ’+ . C + > " * , - . P" " > F , F * " , " ’> , " . B " > " , . B >+ ’> > " + "* @ ". > ’> ; ’> " "> " ’> ( . . ). K > , F > " " * @" " +"* . ! , ++ , > ( ’> @" +"* ). K > * , > * . " > : +"*+ + + " . @+ * + + , ++ , > , F " > 22
, @ > " . <" + " " . « », @++ ++ . <" , F + ’ , ’ @ @ ’> " , * " " " " + . K > , ’>" > , "", +, * " "* @ ". C " (. J , — , * , , * + [9]. <. & B. +, F > , * [28, c. 24]. <"" " (. B, — , [35]. <. & B. " + " : +" ( , , " F); ( !), , " , , , , ); * ( * " " *) [28, c. 24]. ). C >, F > " : > ( , " , "*, @ " @ +
) (, "", , F + " + " , ""+ ) [159]. !*, > ,
> , @+ . C > * * " . ) > * * . K > <. ! , " " > >+, > + @ + + + [44, 23
c. 45]. — " , > , ’> " , F > + "*
. % > . % « » > +" * . % > +" ", "* , * , + +. % +> , * . ( > " , , "* , "* , @ . %" * + , F "+ , , . % > + @ ( "), F "+ . % « », ", > +" +, + >+. % , "" , > + +" " . % @ " >+ +, * " @ . <" * > " . @+ + , " <. B , > * " ’> * [37]. !*, , + >" " , > * + . ’> ’ * , "* - , " ’> , ’> , @, " . 24
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’> [145, pp. 6—7]. C ", " ++ " . A @> 25
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, "* " > * +. KF > + , @ * " + + . # " " , " > ( ). !" " " + " > * . <" "* , , > + , F * . C ", $ "
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«» * , F @ > , @ " "* " " " «». & " @ " > " @ ( " @ > ). L > " *, F «» > *" , +"* 29
* . <F , F "+ " + : - , " " * " , * * " +"* . < ’+ " @ , F @ «», , F > @ , " > , * " + F. Q" @ ’> , ( " –"), @ ( ), * . # " @" " " ( + " ) > " +. C ", " " " " , , . M @ " " " ( ) > " , F > " (« » +"). /, @ "
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> " ). $* (z) > ’>, +, + + , > " >" " z. <" z = 0 " > ( ", " " " 30
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(My) @+ , , F z @> , > F . / "+ > " + @ , F "F " . !*, " @> "F + , (. 1.3). & "+ <. D " $. % , " " +> +: % = (p – c) x – e (z),
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(1.3)
" e (z) > " , > "F [110, p. 73]. %, F " " (R) , " +> " " " "*
. $ , R * " z (R z). !*, > G , R t e (z). 31
z
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z1
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y
$. 1.3. B " (y) * " (z) [110]
< " e (z) > *+ " " @ . !" , F " > @ , * . !" , " , * " , " @ ( ’ * " " ). < > " " . % , " > " , @> , F " " , " +"* > * " . <, " > @ " , " " , " + " "@" . % * > "
* . ! * " 32
, * " . K . 1.4 1.5, (z) " > (p), (x) (y), " " " (R), (N). p y = y (p, z0) B " R
c=c %
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N = N(R, z1)
N = N(R, z0)
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N1
$. 1.5. $ [110, p. 75] 33
N
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> , > @ " " " . ( " * " " "F > , > * " " « », " +> . = " . C , * . 1.5, (N) @> "F + " *, " , F > * + , " +> " " ( ). %, F z0, * . 1.4, "*> " " R0. & " + . 1.5 * ,
, , " (N0). # " "F " " R1. <. D " $. % +, F (N) "F> [110, p.76]. C @ ", " , "* > , > * " "F (* *
34
z " " ). $* > , F " > , " > @ . %"F " *, > + > , " " , " " " > *, * . / "F > @
, F +> @ " ( ) . H F * , " " " , F > . B , ’ , F "F > @ + " " + (. 1.5). $ "> "F " . $ , "F > * , F > . !*, " , +> " " " , @ — +> * " " " « ». C @ ", * , , — > + , " , — «" » . ! * " " @ " , " , * " . H @ > , F > , "F> " ,
* . < + "
" " * " " , %. )A ", A*. ', $. )"*, . J ’>, . ) , . , <. D " $. % . A " " 35
, F " > " " . C "
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> > . A , F " ++ " , : A* " . A , F @, "’ , " " " " " + + " +. < > * " > ", " , , , @ " ( ). & " > ", , " A* " ) # " " @ >+ P " " * " . = +> , F " * " " " 20 . " . '(, "* , ++ , > . )* " > " " + * " . # " # " *" " " " " P, '( K . * "* "F " , "* "" " )< A* * " . / "" " M# ) . A" @ >, F ’>" "* (" " " * ). C " "
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3. # "* 2001— 2005 + + , + - . "> " >+ " * "* 2000—2006 . "* - > @ - " " " " . <"* 1992—2007 . # " " > ’> . C " " " " " # , F ’ @ - " " + + . 4. < # " , F + ""+ " - . < + @ # , " " ’> , " " , " " , , " "
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115
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Millar v. Taylor, in Burr (4th ed.), p. 2303, 98 English Reports, p. 201, 1769.
118
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Wheaton v. Peters, 33 U.S. (8 Peters), p. 591. January, 1834.
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& " '( +> " , "" " , F +"* . %-@, « ». & +>, F * " , * * " . KF > >+, , , > « ». # @ , Feist Publications, Inc. v. Rural Telephone Service Co. 1991 , < " '( , F " + + > " . / " * "" @ , "" Rural Telephone Service Co. " : «! , > , >, F , F . & + * , F " "* , > " . M @ " "*+ , , , " ». " "@ , F "" @ . $@ " « », « " " , F » — , F "> ’> . %-" , > "- " + , " ", * , " " " , " + " +, — >. ( " "> >. KF , & > " @. KF * >, +"*> "" " " @. / , , + , + , > , F @ > , " " " @. KF * ( ), " 138
, @ , * " "" " "" " " " '(. & " . 2 . 433 = " # , + ’> "- * " @ , , , * — +" , +" , @ , @ , * " , * , , . & '( +>, F " + * " . ( + " +"*> * " , F " , > * , + " " (§103). B >+ > « " , F @, " , F , F "+ ». % " * "@ " . B* > > ’> , . !" > , F> " ". B , F " + , * " " , F + " , +"*> +"*> ( Baldwin Cooke Co. v. Keith Clark, Inc.7). A
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+ ; > ( Triangle Publications v. New England Newspaper Pub. Co.8). <"" " § 101, " > , F G > " , @ ( ", ", * , , ", , , "* " , , " "- @ , " ). % " > , F > +, >+, "7 Baldwin Cooke Co. v. Keith Clark, Inc., D.C.I11.1974, 383 F.Supp. 650, affirmed 505 F.2d 1250, supplemented 420 F.Supp. 404. 8 Triangle Publications v. New England Newspaper Pub. Co., D.C.Mass.1942, 46 F. Supp. 198.
139
+ @+ + * , > . # Reyher v. Children’s Television Workshop " " - . / " , + " , F " .9 ! West Publishing Co. v. Mead Data Central, Inc. (1987 .). B’+ +" " «Lexis» " " " @ « », " " " West Publishing. " " West Publishing, * , F " @+ + " " . " @, F F
" West Publishing. . 19 & # «% * » > " , " " " « ». & >, F @ " * " " @ ( ) @ " , F > ( " ). % , F ( " ), > " * , + " " . ( , + " " , + + + * " " , F @ " " " . & '( +"*> " , ""+ " + , ", . <"" " § 102 (b) & , @+> "- "+, ", , , " , +, " , * " , , , + + " . = Baker v. Selden, @ < " 1879 . * * : — @+> " , , +"*> ; 9 Reyher v. Children’s Television Workshop, D.C.N.Y.1975, 387 F.Supp. 869, affirmed 533 F.2d 87, certiorari denied 97 S.Ct. 492.
140
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> , , , . «A » > > , " , * " , > . A "+ + & . A " «" » " > " : — , ++ , > + " ; — " ; — , F ; — . " * , > «" ». & " * " " . = " *> ". $ "+ @ — . A , F «" » , > +, G +, " + 142
+ (@ Tenessee Fabricating Co. v. Moultrie Mfg. Co)10. *, , F « " ». !" , , F + , «" » . < 1991 " " @ C+-S @ Basic Books, Inc. v. Kinko’S Graphics Corporation. " , F, ++ " * " ++ "* " , Kinko’S Graphics @ « " » ’> . C* @ "
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, " + . / « " », 10 Tenessee Fabricating Co. v. Moultrie Mfg. Co., C.A.Ga.1970, 421 F.2d 279, certiorari denied 90 S.Ct. 1819, 398 U.S. 928, 26 L. Ed.2d 91.
143
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144
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2) " " +> " * , @"* " " " , @"* " " , "* @ @ * , * F " > " " > . & " > " " " , * + , " " ’+ (. 23, 24). % * * + * " * . § 101 & '( "> , " * ’ : , * > , * , " " " @ " , , , "" , * ; F " + , "@ " , F " > * , " " * ’ . § 201 (b) & >, F *> ", , F * " " " @. C*+ " , , F +> " * ’ , " @ ". ( , " ++ " " * @ , , "+ , F " " . § 101 & 1976 . > , , * > , , "+ " . )* : " " , + + ( ), > ’>" , > , * , " >" ( . & & 1990 " " " , " " , F " * " + , F " * . H § 201 147
(c) ’ +>, F "" * . & " " " "> " , *> , F "* @ " +" " >" (§201 ()). & " " # , > * , F +> * ’ " * " " " . * > . 429 = " . 16 & «% * ». A 1 2004 . * . 16 & «% * ». /" " : * * , + * * "+, F @ " " " " * ". 1 2004 . = ", 429 , F ’>, ’ " " , * , ’>. # " ’> * * +" , "
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2002 , @ 31 " 2047 ; — " , ( > ) " 1 1978 . ( " 28 ( > ) "" 28- . H " @ 28 " 67 , "+ 95 [165]. K '(, # > , > " . A " > > "- @ , * "- @ . <"" " . 11 & «% * », , > , " " * — ©, ’ , > , @ . ( , > , * > > ( +" +" ) "* >. $> * " "- . % " > > % + B ) # " 27.12.2001 . I 1756 «% "* >+ " , + ». A* > " , + , " +> ) ()!C) A* " , F "> " . )!C "> " "> "* >. § 501 & '( > @ . $@ Universal Athletic Sales Co. v. Salkeld , F " + * " , F " @ "" 12. A @ " 12 Universal Athletic Sales Co. v. Salkeld, C.A.Pa.1975, 511 F.2d 904, certiorari denied 96 S.Ct. 122, 423 U.S. 863, 46 L.Ed.2d 92. See also, Triangle Publications, Inc. v. Sports Eye, Inc., D.C.Pa, 1976, 415 F. Supp. 682.
150
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, > " @, , > , > , F @" "* (@ Carr v. National Capital Press, Inc.)16. $@ Johns & Johns Printing Co. v. PaullPioneer Music Corporation , F > ’ + + "" + @ 17. < @ " " Playboy Enterprises, Inc. v. Fren 1993 , " > " + "+ " @ . " @ " , F " " @ * «Playboy», @ * . <" " @ : « > , "" @ , ». C > "+ "" @ . " * " " " 13 Becker v. Loew’s, Inc., C.C.A.I11.1943, 133 F.2d 889, certiorari denied 63 S.Ct. 1438, 319 U.S. 772, 87 L.Ed. 1720, rehearing denied 64 S.Ct. 30, 320 U.S. 811, 88 L.Ed. 490. 14 Mazer v. Stein, Md.1954, 74 S.Ct. 460, 347 U.S. 201, 98 L.Ed. 630, rehearing denied 74 S.Ct. 637, 347 U.S. 949, 98 L.Ed. 1096. 15 Toksvig v. Bruce Pub. Co., C.A.Wis.1950, 181 F.2d 664. See also, Christianson v. West Pub. Co., C.C.A. Cal.1945, 149 F.2d 202; Dymow v. Balton, C.C.A.N.Y.1926, 11 F.2d 202. 16 Carr v. National Capital Press, Inc., 1934, 71 F.2d 220, 63 App.D.C. 210. See also, Greenbie v. Noble, D.C.N.Y.1957, 151 F.Supp. 45. 17 Johns & Johns Printing Co. v. Paull-Pioneer Music Corporation, C.C.A.Mo.1939, 102 F.2d 282. See also, Alden-Rochelle, Inc., et al. v. American Soc. Of Composers, Authors and Publishers, D.C.N.Y.1948, 80 F. Supp. 888.
151
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Ideal Toy Corp. v. Adanta Novelties Corp., D.C.N.Y.1963, 223 F.Supp. 866. Runge v. Lee, C.A.Cal.1971, 441 F.2d 579, certiorari denied 92 S.Ct. 197, 404 U.S. 887, 30 L.Ed.2d 169. 20 F. W. Woolworth Co. v. Contemporary Arts, C.A.Mass.1951, 193 F.2d 162, affirmed 73 S.Ct. 222, 344 U.S. 228, 97 L.Ed. 276, clarification denied 76 S.Ct. 37, 350 U.S. 810, 100 L.Ed. 727. 19
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Vira Potyekhina INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY Edited by Dr. of Economics, Professor, Patent Lawyer I. I. Dakhno CONTENTS of the Book Introduction Chapter 1. Globalization and Intellectual Property 1.1. Foundation of the Global Economy Environment 1.2. Intellectual Property as a Key Factor of the Knowledge Economy 1.3. Economic and Law Tools of Intellectual Property Protection Conclusions to Chapter 1 Self-control Questions Chapter 2. Global System of Intellectual Property Protection 2.1. Foundation of the Global System of Intellectual Property Protection 2.2. Discontents of the Global System of Intellectual Property Protection Conclusions to Chapter 2 Self-control Questions Chapter 3. Intellectual Property Protection System in Ukraine 3.1. Tendencies of Innovative Development of Ukraine 3.2. Development of the National System of Intellectual Property Protection 3.3. Problems and Prospects of Intellectual Property Protection System in Ukraine Conclusions to Chapter 3 Self-control Questions 399
Chapter 4. More About Intellectual Property Protection 4.1. Intellectual Property Law: Historical Background 4.1.1. Copyright Law Foundation in Case Law 4.1.2. Evolution of the Patent Concept: the U.S. Experience 4.2. Protection of Intellectual Property Rights Under Laws of Ukraine and the United States: Comparative Aspects 4.2.1. Protection of Inventions Under Laws of Ukraine and the U.S. 4.2.2. Copyright Protection in Ukraine and the United States 4.3. International Experience of Database Protection and Development of the Ukrainian Legislation Conclusions to Chapter 4 Self-control Questions Conclusions Index Annexes Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS) Glossary of official terms of Ukraine in the area of intellectual property Contents of books about intellectual property published in Ukraine
400
Globalization of knowledge economy raised a problem of intellectual property (IP) protection on the global level. With the shift to the new knowledge economy IP protection rules are becoming the focus of one of the most intense struggles to reform globalization. This book arose out the growing controversy surrounding the global system of IP protection that govern rights over knowledge. This book determines the main actors of globalization in the age of IP protection. It examines the potential impact of the global IP protection in the countries of the center (core) and periphery, as well as on private and public interests. Who will control the major new technologies of the twenty-first century? The book demonstrates the fundamental economic rationality of intellectual property law, but argues that countries of the center have gone too far in their attempts to implement high IP standards in countries of periphery. Economic analysis of advance in technology and its effect on the creation of new technology makes the author sceptical about substantial enlargement of global IP protection. The book determines the optimal scope of IP protection favourable for both — private and public interests. The author addresses this issue in light of advances in technology and changes in the concept of creativity, and especially in light of the underemphasized role of the public domain as a source of vital inputs into the creation of new technology. To do so the book examines the scholarly literature, doctrines and principles and conclude whether they are efficient in an economic sense. Intellectual property should be subject to both economic and law research. Economic factors determining IP protection impact are decisive for identifying law instruments of adequate IP protection regime. In this book economics answers the fundamental question how extensive the legal IP protection should be. Optimal IP protection contributes to innovations and distribution of knowledge and technologies being decisive factors of competitive economy. The book refers to intellectual property from the standpoint of law and economics. The book contains brief overview of copyright and patent law history. It focuses on IP protection system in Ukraine and its development tendencies. As a result of comparative analysis of the U.S. and Ukraine’s IP legislation the book reveals main problems of the Ukrainian IP protection system and develops recommendations for improvement of the national legal framework. Glossary of official terms of Ukraine in the area of intellectual property and contents of books published in Ukraine in this area are increasing the scientific and educational value of the book. 401
1. GLOBALIZATION AND INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY Globalization stirs strong emotions. The advantages and disadvantages of globalization have been heavily scrutinized and debated in recent years. While the benefits of globalization are significant for many countries, the global society is wrought with inequalities. Who is affected positively and negatively by globalization of the world economy and why anti-globalization protests are taking place? We don’t expect this book to settle the debates over globalization. The purpose of this overview is to better understand conditions of the global economy in which IP protection is developed. In order to study impact of globalization and the global IP protection the author uses the «periphery» theory arguing that the world economy has two poles: a «center» and «periphery». The productive structures of the center (the developed countries economies) and those of the periphery (mainly countries of the Third World) are distinctively different. Poor states, operating in the periphery of the global economy and playing an essential role in the world production, shift raw materials and labor resources to the core. The productive capacity of the periphery is always behind that of the core. That backwardness hinders the development of knowledge and technology and its use. The center supplies the world economy with knowledge and technology and plays the role of the main actor in the political process. If there are changes in the periphery, they are always changes in response to changes in the core. In the center-periphery system there is a built-in mechanism for unequal growth. Proponents argue that globalization has provided development opportunities for poor countries due to eliminating trade barriers between the countries. They point to increased trade, new and better technologies, expanded media, and economic growth. According to IMF, globalization offers «greater opportunity for people to tap into more and larger markets around the world. It means that they can have access to more capital flows, technology, cheaper imports, and larger export markets.37 According to globalization proponents, trade liberalization helps the peripheral countries to learn and adopt new technologies through a better knowledge of the embodied technology in the goods and services imported from the countries of the center. Capital liberalization allows larger foreign direct investment inflows 37 International Monetary http://www.imf.org/external.
Fund.
Globalization:
402
Threat
or
Opportunity?
into the peripheral states to create jobs and raise wages, as well as transfer technology to the local workers. Globalization can help world convergence not only through the possibility of periphery to import and export more, but also through increasing knowledge and faster technological transfer. Opponents blame globalization for a rapid loss of national sovereignty and for the reason that governments and states are becoming powerless before the irresistible rise and influence of financial markets and multinational corporations. They argue that globalization increases poverty and inequality while increasing gap between rich and poor. While globalization is heavily weighted in favor of the more economically stable countries, it also limits the ability of any single state to exercise absolute dominance.38 Economic and political interdependence allows countries to influence policies and economic decisions made by other countries. Globalization transcends national borders and limits the political and coercive actions individual states take within their borders, thus further limiting the dominance of countries. The general concern of «anti-global» movement is that the growing international economy and the organizations that support it are dominated by corporate economic interests who are escaping the scrutiny and regulation provided by national governments. Anti-global motivations vary. Peripheral states argue that free trade is a benefit for the core at the expense of periphery since tariff barriers are necessary for periphery to develop their economies. They also complain that World Bank lending policies force poor countries to adopt economic policies which benefit only their wealthy trading partners and leave them with an overwhelming burden. Environmental organizations believe that the WTO has promoted policies which enable corporations to escape national restrictions on business practices by calling such restrictions «trade barriers». They also accuse global companies of dominating the politics of peripheral governments. Social activists are concerned that the social rights in the United States and Europe will become eroded because workers in the emerging countries will not have these protections. Globalization opponents protest against activity of the World Trade Organization, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, NAFTA and Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development, etc. 38 This argument comes from Arthur L. Dunklin, «Globalization: A Portrait of Exploitation, Inequality, and Limits», Western Washington University, 2005, http://globalization.icaap.org/content/v5.2/dunklin.html.
403
Unequal economic growth of the core and periphery is being the major discontent of globalization. Peripheral countries have created resistance to the global pressure to reduce trade barriers through World Trade Organization (WTO) agreements. The main problem relates to agricultural products. Because local producers cannot compete with agricultural exports from major countries (such as the United States) these countries have experienced a severe downturn in their domestic agricultural acreage. They cannot afford to subsidize adequately their own domestic agricultural industries. Globalization is accompanied by increase of multinational corporations’ role. Corporations raise and control trade and capital flows between regions and integrating markets on the global basis. They are agents driving globalization due to a series of technological advances and political decisions. These influential actors keeping under control the world trade and capital flows negatively impact economy of the peripheral states. Globalization is taking place in the age of knowledge economy where intellectual property is becoming the major factor of production. Technological developments in the 20th century have transformed the majority of wealth-creating work from physically-based to knowledgebased. The only comparative advantage a country will enjoy will be its process of innovation-combining market and technology know-how with the creative talents of knowledge workers to solve a constant stream of competitive problems and its ability to derive value from information. We are now an information society in a knowledge economy where intellectual property is a key production factor. Transformation of the world economy in the knowledge economy raises the issue of optimal IP model. Intellectual property means the rights for non-material assets (outcome of intellectual activity) existing separatively from a unique physical embodiment and having economic value. Intellectual property covers both law and economic aspects. In order to develop an adequate IP protection model this book looks at intellectual property as at a complex interdisciplinary subject. The case for intellectual property in economic theory notes certain substantial differences from the case for tangible property. Consumption of tangible property is rivalrous. The subjects of intellectual property do not share this feature of rivalness. Intellectual property is of disseminating nature which means its ability to spread quickly (due to technology development) and to become the basis for new ideas. Intellectual property may exist in many bearers but to be low in demand. These specific features explain the complex IP nature and complicate development of the optimal IP protection regime. 404
Intellectual property raises distinctive economic issues. Analysis and evaluation of IP law should be conducted within an economic framework that seeks to align law with the dictates of economic efficiency. Being a key factor of production in knowledge economy intellectual property requires adequate protection. This assertion is popular among the Ukrainian IP researches. However, will economy and society benefit from absolute IP protection? To answer this question the book evaluates IP protection from the standpoint of advance in technology and its effect on the creation of new technology. Although there are powerful economic reasons in favor of IP rights protection, there are also considerable social costs and whether the benefits exceed the costs is impossible to answer without economic analysis. Disseminating and cumulative by nature, intellectual property requires protection since it may be easily copied by competitors who have not borne any of the cost of creating IP. Thus, without protection against copying the incentive to create intellectual property will be undermined. At the same time, protection against copying, by enabling the creator of intellectual property to charge a price for copies (of which his property right makes him a monopolist) in excess of his marginal cost, prevents access to intellectual property by persons who value that access at more than the marginal cost but less that the price.39 What should be the scope of IP protection to ensure tradeoff between incentive to innovate and public access to knowledge (hereinafter referred to accordingly as «incentive» and «access»)? The book illustrates economic analysis of IP protection model in order to conclude whether particular economic doctrines and principles are efficient in an economic sense and, if not, how they might be changed to become efficient. Expanding IP rights can reduce the amount of new intellectual property that is created by raising the creators’ input costs. This relates to both copyright and patent areas. The broader IP protection is, the costlier the subsequent creation of works and inventions becomes because earlier ones are inputs into later ones. It brings the author to conclusion that enlargement of IP rights could weaken rather than strengthen the incentives to create new intellectual property. The optimal scope of IP protection is supposed to ensure incentiveaccess tradeoff which means that IP rights-holders (creators) get high 39 This argument comes from William Landes and Richard Posner, «The Economic Structure of Intellectual Property Law,» The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, Cambridge, 2003.
405
incomes, and public access to intellectual property contributes to creation of new IP. Incentive-access tradeoff should be achieved by application of particular legislative provisions balancing the private (IP rights-holders’) and public (society’s) rights and interests. Patent law and copyright provide for different legislative tools of balance. The book examines these tools for copyright and patent protection based on the Ukrainian legislation. In case of patent protection, incentive-access tradeoff is achieved by disclosure of information about invention for patent protection, patentibility requirements and the limited patent duration. To ensure optimal scope of copyright protection law provides for the limited copyright duration, fair use, public domain, nonprotection of ideas, theories etc. 2. GLOBAL SYSTEM OF INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY PROTECTION Growth of international trade and development of knowledge and technology in the era of globalization requires development of the global IP protection system. States around the globe are on the way of converging upon the same set of IP standards in areas of law such as patents, copyrights, trademarks, industrial designs etc. IP protection rules are becoming uniform around the world. States are shifting these rules to higher standards than previously prevailed in their domestic law: longer terms of protection, fewer exceptions to the scope of rights. The major global IP agreement that caused important implications for economic development of the peripheral states is Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS Agreement). TRIPS Agreement covering all IP rights is mandatory for all states that wish to join the WTO. TRIPS Agreement became part of the global IP protection system. The book examines politics leading up to TRIPS Agreement and its implementation process. Interested private sector actors had persuaded U.S. government to promote their cause of expanding IP protection. TRIPS Agreement resulted largely from lobbying by multinational corporations who wished to mould international law to protect their markets40. These actors pressed the U.S. Congress to recognize the critical importance to the United States of trade in goods and 40 This argument comes from Susan K. Sell, «Private Power, Public Law: The Globalization of Intellectual Property Rights», Cambridge University Press, 2003.
406
services dependent upon IP protection worldwide, and to help forge the necessary law tools. Peripheral countries that required economic aid from the core and global institutions in the form of loans and closer alliances with the stronger nations had no other option but to submit an agreement advocated by the U.S. TRIPS Agreement established expansion of IP rights and high standards of IP protection. It raised the price of information and technology by extending the monopoly privileges of the IP rights-holders. TRIPS Agreement has important implications for innovation, research and development, economic development and the global division of labor. The agreement codifies the increasing commodification of what was once called «public domain», making it unavailable to future creators. It is often argued that the global IP protection established by TRIPS Agreement locks up knowledge vital to the development of poor countries. TRIPS Agreement met active resistance concentrating on patents on life forms and patents on pharmaceuticals. In area of life forms patenting opponents (grassroots activists, enviromental groups, farmers, human rights groups and consumer groups) are claiming that patenting of life forms is no less that control of the U.S. corporations over the world food supply, not to mention the implications for scientific research and public access. A global campaign for access to essential medicines has emerged to protest U.S. trade policy in intellectual property and the TRIPS trade-off in favor of commercial interests over public health concerns. Patenting of pharmaceuticals is beeing blamed by opponents as restricting public access to essential medicines. At the same time, TRIPS Agreement contains provisions minimizing negative impact and allowing states to increase the competitiveness of the national economy. Clauses on parallel imports and data exclusivity are described in the book. The said TRIPS provisions should be implemented and developed by states in their domestic laws as clauses favorable for innovations growth and competitiveness. Application of global IP rules raises a question about human rights established by the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (adequate health provision, food and education, the right to share in the benefits of scientific progress etc.). Some researches state that these rights are being made subordinate to the investment priorities of corporate IP owners while having primacy as a matter of international law. Unification of copyright protection led to radical movements opposing expansion of high IP standards. Opponents argue that IP rights-holders’ monopoly on works, embodied inter alia in extension 407
of copyright duration, negatively affects public interests. Copyright is public by nature. Extension of copyright protection shifts trade-off in favor of the rights-holders over public interests. TRIPS Agreement and WIPO Treaties establish minimum IP standards, however they never set the maximum IP protection requirements. Trade-off in favor of commercial interests restricts public access to computer technologies and hinders access to folklore impeding knowledge exchange in the peripheral states. The United States has been the most aggressive country in the IP area. While imposing IP protection on the global level, it has filed more WTO TRIPS complaints than all other member countries combined. The United States is promoting global IP protection through a variety of mechanisms, including annual review of the global state of IP rights protection (the «Special 301» Report) and trade preference programs, such as the Generalized System of Preferences. Actions of the U.S. government aimed at promotion of the global IP regime are the result of consultations with industry groups and other U.S. private sector representatives. In fact, the U.S. measures against «inadequate» IP rights protection in the peripheral states are aimed to protect private interests of the American IP rights-holders. Globalization of IP rights protection meets polar emotions. No doubt, global IP protection is important for knowledge and technology development and economy growth. However, to which extent this protection should go? Uniform global IP protection imposing high standards on the countries with unequal economies establishes monopoly of the core and multinational corporations for knowledge and technology. This increases prices on technologies and negatively affects periphery competitiveness. This discontent is explained by different roles of the global actors of IP rights exchange — rights-holders (inventors, authors or their assignees) and users of knowledge and technology. Based on this idea, the core countries generating intellectual property are more likely to be rights-holders, while the periphery getting technologies from the center is a user of IP rights. Thus, IP rights are accumulated in the center while peripheral states are isolated from the knowledge exchange. This inequality results in blocking economic development of the peripheral countries. Globalization of intellectual property by establishing uniform standards around the world blocks sustainable economic development and raises the problem of tradeoff between the center and periphery. While uniform IP protection will hinder access to knowledge and subsequently will negatively affect poor countries, differential global 408
protection (regime that vary depending on economic indicators of each state) could become an effective solution for benefiting the peripheral economies. 3. INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY PROTECTION SYSTEM IN UKRAINE To become an actor of globalization Ukraine should actively participate in the global technology exchange. In order to do so it is required that national technology and science are wellperformed and meet requirements of the global economy. National strategy of integration into the global environment is being a priority for Ukraine. The book illustrates that during the last decade innovations substantially decreased in Ukraine. Number of applications filed for registration of inventions, industrial designs and trademarks in 2000— 2006 proves instability of the national economic development. Decrease in innovations is explained by deterioration of material and technical conditions, labor force outflow and inability of the Ukrainian legislation to incentivize innovative activities. In order to have competitive economy able to comply with the global market demands Ukraine should adopt a strategy for economic growth through innovations and develop the innovation policy of science and technology support, as well as provide adequate IP protection. Ukraine’s innovation policy shall institute programs supporting the inventors and developing their innovative ideas, including financial aid, physical installations, and advisory services of the government. The well-developed innovation policy shall be able to incentivize innovative activities and prevent immigration of scientists and professionals from Ukraine. If Ukraine intends to participate in the global economy and to become its integral part, rather than to become an economy distanced from the global trends, it must adapt an efficient IP protection system meeting requirements of the global innovative economy. Foundation of IP protection system in Ukraine started in 1991. Since then Ukraine developed basic legislation governing IP rights protection, created IPrelated institutions and joined a range of international agreements. The book examines the system of IP protection: institutions (state organs and public organizations) and legislative documents (national, regional and global). 409
Adequate IP protection also requires creation of the efficient judicial system. While the Ukrainian legislation provides for certain law measures of protection of the infringed IP rights, the judicial system is not ready to adequately enforce these measures. It does not provide reliable recourse against IP rights infringement. IP disputes involving technical and other specific issues require judges, law experts and government officials to have appropriate professional background. IP disputes cannot be adequately resolved by the courts of general jurisdiction. Complex nature of IP rights requires a special intellectual property court. In addition, administrative and criminal sanctions for IP infringements in Ukraine cannot prevent illegal use of IP rights. These sanctions must be increased by amending the Administrative and Criminal codes. The developed system of institutions (including both state organs and public organizations involved in IP-related issues) with high level of coordination must become an integral part of the efficient IP protection system. Another obstacle is public negligence towards IP protection and lack of adequate information and educational systems. Inadequate IP protection results largely from lack of qualified specialists (among government officials, judges, independent experts etc.) with intellectual property background. Starting 1991, Ukraine appeared under the U.S. pressure for optical media piracy. In an effort to address the piracy problem, in 2000 the United States and Ukraine agreed to the U.S.-Ukraine Joint Action Plan to combat optical media piracy. As a result of Ukraine’s failure to enact most of the plan’s provisions, the U.S. Trade Representative (USTR) designated Ukraine a Priority Foreign Country in 2001, launched a Section 301 Investigation to Ukraine’s IP rights regime, and, following review, revoked Ukraine’s benefits under the U.S. Generalized System of Preferences (GSP) program in 2001. In December 2001, USTR announced trade sanctions in the amount of $75 million which went into effect on January 2002, and affected a number of Ukrainian products, including metal products, footwear, and chemicals. In April 2005, Ukraine has adopted amendments to the existing optical media licensing law. Following this, in August 2005, the U.S. revoked trade sanctions, and in 2006 USTR reinstated GSP benefits for Ukraine. Thus, under sustained pressure from the U.S., Ukraine has improved both the content and the enforcement of IP protection laws. The latest 2006 USTR Report, however, states that «there is still a long way to go, if effective protection, and redress for infringements, is to be considered the norm rather than the exception». 410
4. MORE ABOUT INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY Efficient IP protection must be an integral part of the innovation-based growth strategy and prerequisite of economic development. The book raises a question whether national IP protection meets requirements of innovative economy and able to affect it positively. This issue is examined on example of the United States being the world IP protection leader. Based on comparative analysis of the Ukrainian and U.S. legislation the author concludes that Ukraine has made a progress in adoption of adequate copyright legislation, while national patent protection is full of gaps and collisions. Comparative analysis brings us to conclusion that the Ukrainian patent system is pretty far from the U.S. standards. Patent registration procedure is not clear and deeply formalized, judicial practice is not developed, compensation for patent infringements is not adequate. Legislative gaps and inconsistencies cause unfavourable conditions for incentive to innovate. The book determines recommendations on how to fill up the existing gaps and illiminate legislative inconsistencies of the patent protection. Software and database, trade names and franchise are not under efficient protection in Ukraine. Software and database protection should be subject to both copyright and patent protection. Legislation on fair competition, commercial secrets and civil law should be amended in order to ensure software and database protection. Franchise requires adequate legal framework determining substantial requirements for franchise contracts. Legislation on fair competition should be amended in order to avoid monopolization of the markets by patenting. To summarize, Ukraine has made a progress in development of the national IP protection system. As part of its efforts to negotiate accession to the WTO, Ukraine has adopted legislation to bring its legislative regime further into compliance with the WTO TRIPS Agreement. Despite these efforts, however, legal protection and enforcement still require improvement. The abovementioned problems of IP protection system must be resolved in order to ensure competitiveness of the national economy. While eliminating the abovementioned IP protection defects, Ukraine has to provide the national IP system with the legislative provisions ensuring incentive-access tradeoff described in the book. CONCLUSIONS 1. Globalization has created an economically polarized world. Inequality has served as a necessary component of the global 411
order. Unequal economic growth of the core and periphery is being the major discontent of globalization. 2. TRIPS Agreement is the major global IP agreement establishing uniform IP minimal standards around the world. TRIPS Agreement resulted from lobbying by the private sector actors who had persuaded U.S. government to promote their cause of expanding IP protection. TRIPS Agreement caused important implications for economic development of the peripheral states by locking up knowledge vital to the development of poor countries. Thus, TRIPS Agreement negatively impacts innovation, research and development, economic development and the global division of labor. 3. Despite arguments of the U.S. private sector actors supporting TRIPS Agreement and the U.S. government’s promises, not only there is compelling evidence that TRIPS will make the peripheral countries better off, there is also no evidence that countries of the center are making good on their commitments to open their markets more widely to periphery’s agricultural and textile exports. In practice, TRIPS embedded asymmetrical power relationships and non-consensual values. 4. The book is opposing not the global IP protection itself, but rather the one-size-fits-all approach of the contemporary global IP protection model, implemented by TRIPS, that blocks sustainable development of the peripheral countries. Globalization of intellectual property by establishing uniform standards around the world raises the problem of tradeoff between the center and periphery and incentiveaccess disbalance. While uniform IP protection hinders access to knowledge and subsequently negatively affects poor countries, differential global protection (regime that vary depending on economic indicators of each state) may become an effective solution for benefiting the peripheral economies. 5. Economic analysis enables IP law to be grasped as a whole and the many commonalities among the different fields and cases to be seen clearly, along with the significant differencies. It enabled the author to determine that expanding IP rights can reduce the amount of new intellectual property and weaken rather than strengthen the incentives to create new intellectual property. This is explained by thesis that the broader IP protection is, the costlier the subsequent creation of works and inventions becomes because earlier ones are inputs into later ones. 6. The optimal scope of IP protection is supposed to ensure incentive-access tradeoff which means that IP rights-holders get high incomes, and public access to intellectual property contributes to creation of new intellectual property. Incentive-access tradeoff should be 412
achieved by application of particular legislative provisions balancing the private (IP rights-holders’) and public (society’s) rights and interests. 7. Incentive-access tradeoff is ensured by legislative provisions of patent law and copyright. These legislative tools must be a part of national legislation. In case of patent protection, incentive-access tradeoff is achieved by disclosure of information about invention for patent protection, patentibility requirements and the limited patent duration. Incentive-access tradeoff for copyright is ensured by provisions on copyright duration, fair use, public domain and nonprotection of ideas, theories etc. 8. In order to integrate into the global innovative economy Ukraine should adapt a strategy for economic growth through innovations. This strategy should include support of science and technology by the government (including financial aid, physical installations, and advisory services of the government). 9. Efficient IP protection system is required for Ukraine in order to join the global innovative environment. While copyright protection in Ukraine is not far from international standards, the national patent system requires substantial improvements. Patent registration procedure should be simplified, a special IP court should be created, lack of the qualified IP specialists must be filled up, etc. Numerous legislative gaps and inconsistencies (including protection of software and database, trademarks, fair competition, franchise etc.) require adequate law regulation. Finally, the piracy problem causing the U.S.-Ukraine conflict and undermining the Ukraine’s economy must be resolved without delay. 10. The abovementioned problems of IP protection should be resolved in order to ensure competitiveness of the national economy and to bring the Ukrainian IP protection system in compliance with requirements of globalization. This should be done with consideration of the legislative provisions ensuring the incentive-access tradeoff described in the book.
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НАВЧАЛЬНЕ ВИДАННЯ
Віра Олександрівна ПОТЄХІНА
ІНТЕЛЕКТУАЛЬНА ВЛАСНІСТЬ Навчальний посібник Керівник видавничих проектів – Б.А.Сладкевич За редакцією: І.І. Дахно
Дизайн обкладинки – Костянтин Лобанов
Підписано до друку 22.02.2008. Формат 60x84 1/16. Друк офсетний. Гарнітура PetersburgC. Умовн. друк. арк. 26. Наклад 1000 прим. Видавництво “Центр учбової літератури” вул. Електриків, 23 м. Київ, 04176 тел./факс 425%01%34, тел. 451%65%95, 425%04%47, 425%20%63 8%800%501%68%00 (безкоштовно в межах України) e%mail: [email protected] сайт: WWW.CUL.COM.UA Свідоцтво ДК №2458 від 30.03.2006
