A Beginner's Guide to Become an Aviator

First Edition, 2012

ISBN 978-81-323-4446-9

© All rights reserved.

Published by: White Word Publications 4735/22 Prakashdeep Bldg, Ansari Road, Darya Ganj, Delhi - 110002 Email: [email protected] 

Table of Contents Chapter 1 - Aviator Chapter 2 - How to Become an Airline Pilot Chapter 3 - How to Become Qualified to Fly a Plane Chapter 4 - How to Takeoff and Land on a Soft Runway Chapter 5 - How to Land an Airplane in an Emergency Chapter 6 - How to Learn Aerobatics Chapter 7 - How to Choose a Flight Instructor Chapter 8 - How to Become a Navy Pilot Chapter 9 - Aircraft Chapter 10 - Pilot Licensing and Certification Chapter 11 - Air Safety

Chapter- 1

Aviator

U.S. Army test pilot Lt. F.W. "Mike" Hunter wearing a flight suit

Louis Blériot in his monoplane An aviator is a person who flies an aircraft. The first recorded use of the term (aviateur in French) was in 1887, as a variation of 'aviation', from the Latin avis (meaning bird), coined in 1863 by G. de la Landelle in Aviation Ou Navigation Aérienne (Aviation or Air Navigation). The term aviatrix (aviatrice in French) is used for a female aviator. The term is often applied simply to pilots, but is often extended to include aviation navigators, bombardiers, Weapon Systems Officers, and Electronic Warfare Officers. This should not be confused with the term naval aviator, which refers to crew members in the U.S. Navy, U.S. Marine Corps and U.S. Coast Guard. The term "aviator", as opposed to "pilot" or other terms, was used more in the early days of aviation, before anyone had ever seen an airplane fly, and it had connotations of bravery and adventure. For example, the editors at the Dayton Herald, in an article of December 18, 1903, described the Wright brothers' first airplane as thus: "The weight, including the body of the aviator, is slightly over 700 pounds". To ensure the safety of people in the air as well as on the ground, it soon became a requirement for an aircraft to be under the operational control of a properly trained, certified and current pilot at all times, who is responsible for the safe and legal completion of the flight. The first certificate was delivered by the Aéro-Club de France to Louis Blériot in 1908, followed by Glenn Curtiss, Léon Delagrange, and Robert EsnaultPelterie. The absolute authority given to the "pilot in command" is derived from that of a ship's captain.

In recognition of the aviators' qualifications and responsibilities, most militaries and many airlines around the world award aviator badges to their pilots, as well as other air crews.

Female pilots

Beverly Lynn Burns, first woman in the world to captain the Boeing 747 airliner

Pioneers Pioneer aviatrices include French, Raymonde de Laroche, the world's first-ever licensed female pilot on March 8 1910; Belgian, Helene Dutrieu, the first woman to fly a passenger, first woman to win an air race (1910), and first woman to pilot a seaplane (1912); French, Marie Marvingt the first woman to fly as a bomber pilot in combat missions (1915); American, Harriet Quimby, the USA's first-ever licensed female pilot in

1911, and the first woman to cross the English Channel by air; American Amelia Earhart, the first woman to fly solo across the Atlantic (1932); Bessie Coleman, the first person of African-American descent to become a licensed airplane pilot (1921); German, Marga von Etzdorf, first woman to fly for an airline (1927); Opal Kunz, one of the few women to train Navy fighter pilots during World War II in the Civilian Pilot Training Program; and the British Amy Johnson, the first woman to fly solo from Britain to Australia (1930). As well as being Turkey's first aviatrix, Sabiha Gökçen, born in 1913, became the world's first female fighter pilot at the age of 23. In 1979, a Jamaican, Maria Ziadie-Haddad, became one of the first women in the Western Hemisphere to become a commercial jet airline pilot when she was hired by Air Jamaica 1968 Ltd as a B727 Second Officer.

Soviet Union The Night Witches, a women-only combat regiment of the Soviet Air Forces, flew harassment bombing and precision bombing missions from 1942 to the end of the World War II.

United States In the United States, aviation is a traditionally male occupation. Due to Commerce Department regulations, one was virtually required to have flown in the military, and until the 1970s, the U.S. Air Force and Navy barred women from flying, thus also preventing them from moving into commercial piloting. Women began to enter U.S. aviation in the 1970s and 1980s, with 1973 seeing the first female pilot at a major U.S. airline, American Airlines, and 1986, seeing the first female captain at a major U.S. airline. In the 1970s, women began being permitted to fly in the United States Armed Forces, beginning with the Navy and the Army in 1974, and then the Air Force in 1976. As of 2006, just over 6% of certified civilian pilots (both private and commercial) in the United States were women.

Japan In Japan, the first female captain for commercial passenger flights was Ari Fuji, who began flying as captain for JAL Express in July 2010. Fuji was rejected from admission to Japanese pilot training school on the grounds of being too small (155 cm; standard was previously 163 cm, currently 158 cm (as of spring 2010)), so she got her pilot's license in the United States. There are currently a few other female pilots in Japan, though, as of 2010, no others in a captain role.

Civilian

Hot air balloon pilot and passenger in basket Civilian pilots fly privately for pleasure, charity, or in pursuance of a business, for nonscheduled commercial air-transport companies, or for airlines. When flying for an airline, pilots are usually referred to as airline pilots, with the pilot in command often referred to as the captain. United States In 1930, the Air Commerce Act established pilot licensing requirements for American civil aviation. United Airlines and Delta Air Lines have slashed their pilot pay scales and benefits in the face of fierce competition from low-cost carriers. In fact, Southwest Airlines Captains and First Officers both have higher salaries than their counterparts at legacy carriers. As of May 2004, median annual earnings of airline pilots, co-pilots, and flight engineers were $129,250. However, such salaries represent the upper level of airline pay scales. Salaries at regional airlines can be considerably less - though, according to the Bureau of Labor statistics, median annual earnings of commercial pilots were $212,870, with the middle 50 per cent earning between $137,170 and $279,390. Pilots making very large salaries are typically senior airline captains, while pilots making very small salaries are generally low-seniority first officers. A large variability in salaries can easily skew an average; thus, the use of median wages to gauge such things as salary. Where large gaps are seen between a median figure, and a lower-bound figure, this usually reflects those who do not stay in that particular field. Viewing this middle ground in context to the upper-bound numbers can give a burgeoning pilot an idea of what to expect if they are able to stay with flying as a full-time career. Most airline pilots are unionized, with the

Air Line Pilots Association, International (ALPA) being the largest pilot labor union in the United States. In the United States, due to pay cuts, airline bankruptcies and other industry problems, there are fewer young people who want to make a career out of flying. First-year pilots at AMR Corporation's outsourced operation called AmericanConnection, which is flown by multiple regional partners, would only earn $22,000 a year if they could pick up and fit into their schedule all the extra flying allowed under federal FAA rules. Commercial airline pilots in the United States have a mandatory retirement age of 65, increased from age 60 in 2007. International In some countries, such as Pakistan, Israel, Thailand and several African nations, there is a strong relationship between the military and the principal national airlines, and many airline pilots come from the military; however, that is no longer the case in the United States and Western Europe. While the flight decks of U.S. and European airliners do have ex-military pilots, many pilots are civilians. Military training and flying, while rigorous, is fundamentally different in many ways from civilian piloting. Military pilots are trained to higher regulatory standards than civilian pilots, and while both paths create a safe pilot, civilian pilots are better versed in civilian regulations. In many newhire classes of civilian airlines, military pilots require a few more hours of study than their civilian counterparts. With this fact, coupled with the increasing popularity of European-style airline-training schools in the U.S., it seems likely that the percentage of ex-military pilots flying for the airlines will continue to decrease.

Military

F-16 pilot in flight Military pilots fly under government contract for the defense of countries. Their tasks involve combat and non-combat operations, including direct hostile engagements and support operations. Military pilots undergo specialized training, often with weapons. One example of a military pilot is a fighter pilot. Military pilots are trained with a different syllabus than civilian pilots, which is delivered by military instructors. This is due to the different aircraft, flight goals, flight situations and chains of responsibility. Many military pilots do transfer over to civilian-pilot qualification after they leave the military, and typically their military experience will be used to grant a civilian pilot's license.

Aviator certifications Pilots are required to go through many hours of training and theoretical study, that differ depending on the country. The first step is acquiring the Private Pilot License (PPL), or Private Pilot Certificate.

The next step in a pilot's progression is either Instrument Rating (IR), or Multi-Engine Rating (MEP) endorsements. If a professional career or simply professional-level skills are desired, a Commercial Pilot License (CPL) endorsement would also be required. To be the captain of an airliner, one must obtain an Airline Transport Pilot License (ATP). Some countries/carriers require/use a Multi Crew Co-operating Certification (MCC).

Aviators in space In human spaceflight, a "pilot" is someone who directly controls the operation of a spacecraft, while located within the same craft. This term derives directly from the usage of the word "pilot" in aviation, where it is synonymous with "aviator". Note that on the U.S. Space Shuttle, the term "pilot" is analogous to the term "co-pilot" in aviation, as the "commander" has ultimate responsibility for the shuttle.

Chapter- 2

How to Become an Airline Pilot

The best way to find out how to become an airline pilot is to ask an airline pilot. Know that it is a very long process, and, to qualify as a new-hire pilot at a major US airline, you'll have to have a 4-year college degree (minimum), and years of flying experience. The highest quality pilot training is military training, but the commitment for active duty

is long (up to 10 years), the competition for positions is intense, and the program is very demanding. Also, your service may entail serving in combat. To go the civilian route, expect to spend 5-10 years garnering enough flying experience in order to qualify. You must have a perfectly clean police record and must produce proof of citizenship. It is not a job for anyone who is not serious, motivated, and willing to suffer through a lot of intense training. Remember that the training does not stop once hired at the airline; pilots are tested by government-controlled, company-provided evaluations on a yearly scheduled basis, and also on a no-notice basis. Recent serious erosion of pilot pay and benefits have taken place. Investigate the details thoroughly; as stated above, the very best way to research the job is to talk to the people that do the job.

Steps 1. Look around your local area for a good flight school and flight instructor to begin working on your private pilot certificate. The FAA minimum flight time is 40 hours, but the average is around 60. FAA-approved schools are always more desirable. 2. Get a First Class medical certificate from a Federal Aviation Administration medical examiner. It is better to apply for a first class medical the first time you apply for a medical certificate to be sure you will qualify for one before you have invested too much time and money into your new career choice. 3. Get a 4-year college degree(Preferably a Bachelor's of Science in aviation). Virtually every flying job requires an associate degree and almost every airline pilot job requires a bachelors degree However, your degree doesn't have to be aviation related. Any college degree will do. Airline pilot training is intense and expensive. A college degree helps to demonstrate to the airline that you will be capable of completing their education program.slsdkflsdkf 4. After you earn your private pilot license, begin working on your instrument rating and commercial certificate. An instrument rating requires 50 hours of cross country Pilot-in-Command (PIC) and 40 hours of actual or simulated instrument conditions. For the commercial certificate, you will need 250 hours total time, 100 hours PIC, 50 hours cross country, and 10 hours of dual instruction in a complex aircraft. 5. Complete your certified flight instructor (CFI) rating and begin working at your flight school. Some flight schools offer you flight hours in exchange for instructing for them. This can be useful when you go on to your multi-engine rating. 6. Work on your multi-engine, certified flight instructor instrument (CFII), and multi-engine instructor (MEI) ratings. 7. With the proper ratings and as little as 500-1000 hours of flight time, you could get hired by any number of REGIONAL airlines flying turboprop and regional-jet aircraft. None of which require an ATP. You will earn your ATP when you upgrade to captain at a REGIONAL airline.

To work for a major airline, you will need to have your ATP license. Major airlines typically require at least 3,000 hours total flight time including at least 1,500 hours multi-engine, and at least 1000 hours as pilot in command (PIC) of turbine (jet) powered aircraft, preferably in scheduled airline flying. These numbers are estimates and will vary depending on the airline. Also, while these may be the minimums required to apply for a job at a major airline, they may be far from the actual competitive numbers and the actual experience of successful applicants may be considerably higher than the minimums. 8. The best and most thorough training is offered by the military services. The Air Force, Navy (includes Marine pilots), Army, and Coast Guard offer flight training. In the case of the Air Force Reserves and Air National Guard, after initial training (a little over a year) you can go back to civilian life and, once you have enough hours, qualify to fly with an airline. Remember that US companies must allow their reservists and guard members to do their active duty drills without repercussion. Another option would to go to a flight academy, such as Embry-Riddle 9. (which offers a 4-year aviation degree plus flight training) or the Delta Connection Academy, which is quite costly, but in completing the course, you may be offered an entry-level interview as a pilot instructor, which may later lead to a job with Delta connection. There are NO schools in the US that guarantee a position as a pilot for any company, and especially not a major airline. 10. Be patient! The airlines go through hiring "cycles", and with the current poor economy, hiring is not taking place. In fact, airlines actually furlough pilots regularly. o

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Be sure to do your research before jumping into your flight training. Use a reliable source for this information and not marketing from flight schools. Online forums, asking pilots, visiting flight schools to ask about the experience of their instructors are a good way to find out about a school's reputation. Be sure to ask current students what they think of their training privately where they feel free to talk. Be sure to ask if they are flying as much/often as they had originally planned and if not, why not. Don't be afraid to look for an instructor at a local airport rather than a big school. While a big school has a lot of advantages, remember that their instructors are generally low-time recent grads from their program. On the other hand, you might find a retired airline captain, military aviator, or maybe just a life-long flying enthusiast with a lifetime of real-world flying experience to share with you instructing at a smaller, local airport. Think about joining a Flying/Gliding Club near you to build up your hours. A great place to start building time and experience is flying for a sub-regional cargo operator. Flying medical specimens and bank checks. Logging as much as 1,000 hours of flying per year in the process, which makes you a much more

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attractive pilot candidate for the passenger REGIONAL carriers. With many of the cargo operations, you'll fly every day and be home every night. Although flying is a fun job, don't expect to make a lot of money at first. Average starting pay is $19,000 for cargo and REGIONAL airlines. When you upgrade to captain at a REGIONAL airline, you can expect to start out on average at $50,000 per year. Expect to take a substantial paycut if you decide to move over to a major airline once you have the requirements to apply there.After getting more seniority in a major or international airline, you could make up to $200,000 dollars or more. As an airline pilot, you will start as a first officer and work your way to captain. Having the opportunity to enter training for upgrade from First Officer to Captain at an airline is based on seniority with the company rather than total flight time or experience. If you are unsuccessful in completing the airline's command training, you will be sent back to the right seat as a first officer, or your employment terminated, depending on the airline's policy. At many airlines you have a specific number of attempts allowed to attain captain, after which your employment may be terminated. Join the military. Military pilots often become airline pilots after they retire from the military. While it might not cost you any actual money to train this way, it will take a lot of pre-planning and hard work during your college years to make you a viable candidate for a pilot slot in the military. Check with a military recruiter before you enter college, and during college, so you can be sure your college experience gives you exactly what you will need. Don't wait until the end of your senior year and, out of job options, decide to throw your name in the hat for pilot training. You will not be a military pilot this way. Additionally, you will make a substantial commitment to the military and your country to enter pilot training, such as engaging in combat, and the fact that time spent in the military will delay your entry into the airline industry--costing you seniority. Also, a high "wanting" to be a pilot will help you. Believe that you will become a pilot and you will.

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Most of the steps and tips on this page apply primarily to people eligible to work in the USA and planning to train, fly, and become an airline pilot in the USA. While some of them may be applicable to other countries and job markets, it is best to ask for more advice in your home country about becoming an airline pilot. You will have long absences from home and family. You will never be able to stop that. No matter what is going wrong at home, you will be going back into the sky. Flying as a career is a stressful job. A pilot's ultimate responsibility, the safety of his/her passengers and/or cargo means making a lot of personal sacrifices constant training & evaluation, constant drug and alcohol testing, background checks, difficult hours, long days, and huge liability. Think long and hard before taking on this career. Your career will always depend on your maintaining your medical certificate.

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You will always be taking written exams, oral exams, and checkrides multiple times in a year for the rest of your career. Yes, you will still be performing stalls and steep turns on checkrides as a 747 captain. Failing these checks can be an end to your airline pilot career. Failure of any airline training or checking event becomes part of your permanent airman record which is required, by law, to follow you to any new employer for your entire career. Anytime you change jobs, by choice or because you've been laid off or your airline has gone out of business, you will be starting at the bottom again at your new airline in terms of your position, schedule, and pay, regardless of experience. This was once a glamourous job, not anymore. Airlines have slashed pilot pay, days off, hotel quality and location, uniform expenses, medical and dental plans, and vacation time. Unless the regional carriers radically increase the starting pay ($45,000 or more) it is not worth your time and money for training. That is unless you want to be on food stamps, carry around food on a 4 or 5 day trip, sleep at the airport in operations or a crash pad, and hope you will have enough to pay your bills. If this were not enough, your management will still insist you make too much money. Your experience will never be valued and people that might have a GED will have control over your schedule. This is the reality and some pilots eventually get out of flying all together! And others get some position at the airline that doesn't involve "flying the line" because they cannot hack it anymore. This is about as honest an answer you are ever going to get. They say pilots complain too much. There is a reason for that. Don't be sold on the notion that you are going to make $100,000/yr and get 15 days off a month. Finally, watch PBS's Front line episode "Flying Cheap." I once heard a fellow pilot say, "If you love flying, do it as a hobby so you will still love it".

Chapter- 3

How to Become Qualified to Fly a Plane

You can be like him!

If you're thinking about joining the mile high club, or just want to know, here is how to complete a successful flight. You can get instruction by going to a flight school at your local airport or join the military air force training program. Note: Many of the details on this page relate to the US only.

Steps Self-Study 1.

Flying takes your life to new levels Pick up a copy of Microsoft Flight Simulator, or Laminar Research's XPlane. It doesn't have to be the latest version if your computer is older. First go through the flying lessons and ground school. You will learn a lot about the instruments and systems found in a typical trainer aircraft. You will become familiar with maneuvers and procedures you will need to master for your private pilot exam. Thus you will need to spend less time and money on actual flight lessons, which are quite expensive. Use this program to learn the basics not for learning to actually fly, because a real plane is alot different than a toy. 2. Check out weather products such as METARS and TAFs even on days you don't fly. See if conditions match what those products indicate. That way, when you do fly, you'll have a higher confidence in the weather predictions.

3. Raise the nose of the airplane by pulling the control wheel toward you. This will make the airplane climb or stall if you don't know what you are doing. Pitch changes speed, power changes altitude. 4. Use the throttle control to help the airplane climb. 5. Push the control wheel away from you to descend, along with reducing power. 6. Push the right rudder pedal along with turning the stick right to turn right and vice versa for left 7. Turn the control wheel to raise or lower either the right or left wing. This helps the airplane turn faster and is used in conjunction with the rudder.

Certification 1. Your instructor, Certificated Flight Instructor (CFI), will probably charge for time on the ground as well as in the air. This is not just a way for the CFI to generate more income. If used wisely, you will become proficient more quickly than by just flying. For example, if you study your intended flight prior to the flight lesson, you will optimize the time you spend with your CFI by having smarter questions and clearly understanding what you are going to do. Additionally, you should have (insist upon) a thorough post-flight debrief - even if everything went picture perfect. As you progress in your training these pre and post flight debriefs should get shorter. Bottom line: your time on the ground with your CFI is very important - use your time wisely: gas is expensive! Safe flying! 2. Get your Class III Medical. It's relatively simple to pass if you're in good health. No use starting sometime if you have a health condition that will preclude you from flying.

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Join a support or educational group such as AOPA (Aircraft Owners and Pilots Association) or EAA (Experimental Aircraft Association), as well as any number of internet groups or e-newsletter subscription services. Get a mentor or buddy to share experiences and information. Consider purchasing your own headset (for radio/intercom communication) early in your training. CFIs/flight schools may loan or rent you a set, but having your own gives you one less variable to deal with when you fly. Also, consider getting a "Sport Pilots" license. It takes half the time (read that as half the cost) and is a great starting point. You have some additional restrictions, but all the flight time acquired as a sport pilot can be applied to higher certificates (i.e. Private, Commercial, ATP, etc.) and ratings (i.e. instrument rating after you earn private or above). Your state issued driver's license is your medical certificate. The private pilot certificate costs around $7000 to $10,000 with ground school and flight time included, so make sure you have enough money.

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A contrary opinion: Avoid using any desktop PC-based "flight simulator" to learn how to fly, as there are significant differences between the reactions of the computer and those of a real airplane, and you will acquire numerous bad habits which will be difficult (and expensive) for your primary flight instructor to cure. For example, as an FAA-certified Flight Instructor, I want you to be listening to the sounds of the wind, and feeling the changes in control feel and seat positioning as the airspeeds and flight attitudes change. I need you to learn trimming to reduce control pressures, and to become smoothe on the controls. If you have tried to learn from a computer, I will detect it within five seconds of giving you the controls! You will be abrupt on the controls, un-coordinated, oblivious to cues from the 'seat of the pants', and will not utilize trim. Learn to make a no-go decision. Especially when you see bad weather coming into the airport or if the aircraft is unsafe. Adequate ground school required. Adequate aircraft training required. Flight instructor required to learn. Do not attempt to fly without prior knowledge. Don't fly a plane unless you have permission to rent the plane or you own the plane.

Things You'll Need • • • •

Ground school Pilot text books FAR/AIM for the current year A good flight instructor

Chapter- 4

How to Takeoff and Land on a Soft Runway

As a pilot, you may have to land on a runway that is not paved. This could be a dirt, gravel, or grass strip and requires a different technique than a paved runway. The basic idea is to stay off the runway as much as possible. Most of the techniques in here will apply to any airplane, but since each plane is different it is important to be familiar with the procedures for the aircraft you will be flying. For simplicity, here we will focus on smaller aircraft such as a Cessna Skyhawk.

Steps Takeoff 1. While taxiing, apply full back pressure on the yoke (pull it towards you) to relieve the pressure on the nose wheel. Keep the braking to a minimum as much as possible so you can keep your inertia. Depending on conditions you may want to lower your flaps to 10° at this point. 2. If you can, don't stop at the hold short line (only if you have permission to do so and traffic conditions allow for it). Always obey the controller if at a towered airport. LOOK FOR Traffic APPROACHING TO LAND. Lower the flaps to 10° if you haven't already. When all is clear, radio the tower or announce your intentions on the Common Traffic Advisory Frequency (CTAF). CTAF is used at non-towered airports or when the tower is closed. 3. Once you have obtained clearance (only at towered airports), taxi onto the runway and align on the center-line. 4. Do not stop. As soon as you are lined up, smoothly apply full power and continue to hold the yoke back. 5. The nose will begin to rise. Continue to hold back pressure to keep the nose wheel off the ground. The cowling should be aligned with the horizon. 6. The plane will takeoff on its own. Quickly, but smoothly, apply forward pressure to lower the nose. The plane is off the ground but does not have enough lift to fly. This is called Ground Effect. It feels as if the plane is flying on a cushion of air between the wings and the ground (although this is not really the case at all--that feeling is caused by the ground interfering with the wingtip vorticies/ downwash, reducing overall drag and therefore increasing airplane performance). If you go too high, you will lose this cushion, the drag will increase thus decreasing airplane performance and lift, and you may crash. Try to keep you altitude above the runway approximately equal to your wingspan. 7. As the speed increases, you will need to apply even more forward pressure on the yoke. You will feel like you are flying in a nose low pitch attitude--and you are! 8. Once you reach a safe airspeed (usually the best rate of climb also known as Vy), raise the nose and climb, maintaining Vy. This information can be found in your Pilot's Operating Handbook (POH). Landing 1. Enter the pattern as you would at any airport after contacting the tower or announcing your position on the CTAF. 2. Fly the standard traffic pattern, beginning your descent on the downwind leg abeam the touchdown point of the runway. Don't forget to lower 10° of flaps. 3. When the runway is 45° over your shoulder, turn base and lower another 10° of flaps.

4. Turn final to align the plane with the runway and lower flaps completely (30° or 40° depending on the aircraft). Once you have the runway made, pull the throttle to idle. 5. Once you are a couple feet above the runway, gently flare and add a little bit of power. Adding a little power at this point allows you slow your decent rate, and keeps you from slamming into the ground and flipping the plane. It also allows you to touch down at a slower airspeed making for a softer landing. 6. As soon as the main gear touches the runway, pull the power back to idle. 7. Apply full back pressure on the yoke to keep the nose wheel of the ground. Allow it to settle on its own. 8. Holding full back pressure, taxi off the runway to make room for other traffic. You may need enough speed to avoid settling and getting stuck - use caution!

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The speeds and technique will vary depending on the aircraft. Be familiar with the aircraft you will be flying prior to the flight. Check the Airport/Facility directory for information about runway surfaces and length.

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Never fly an airplane without proper training. You must have a student certificate (or higher rating) and a current medical certificate to legally fly an airplane.

How to Make a 3 Point Landing in a Tailwheel Airplane Most pilots today learn to fly in tricycle gear airplanes and transitioning to tailwheel or conventional landing gear can be difficult. However, learning to fly a tailwheel airplane can be personally rewarding and improve a pilot's skills.

Steps 1. Make your approach to land as you would in any airplane using the correct procedure for your particular make and model. 2. As you cross the runway threshold reduce the power to idle and slow your decent rate by raising the nose and flaring. 3. As the airplane slows, continue to raise the nose and hold the airplane off the runway. Optimally you are holding the airplane just an inch or so off the runway.

4. Continue to raise the nose to the point where the airplane's pitch attitude matches the pitch attitude when its sitting on all three wheels. At this point stop raising the nose. 5. The airplane should settle to the runway and touch on all three wheels simultaneously. 6. Quickly and firmly pull the yoke all the way back to hold the tailwheel down and do not let up until the airplane has completely stopped. 7. Look far down the runway and line your nose up with an object on the horizon. Use the rudder pedals to keep the nose exactly on that object. This prevents the airplane from swerving or "ground looping." 8. Let the airplane roll to a stop. You can start using gentle braking after you've mastered the above steps.

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Find a nice grass runway to practice. Grass is much more forgiving than pavement because it allows the main wheels to skid sideways if you aren't perfect on the rudder pedals. This helps to avoid ground looping. Be firm and positive when you move the yoke back after touchdown. Wiggle the rudder on short final to remind yourself that you are flying a tailwheel airplane and to get a feel for the required rudder pressure. Proper rudder use is very important when landing a tailwheel airplane. Make sure there is no drift at the point of touchdown. Land with a drift and you might be up the creek... literally. Drop a wing if needed.

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Obviously this is something you do the first time with a flight instructor in the airplane.

Chapter- 5

How to Land an Airplane in an Emergency

Have you ever wondered what you would do if the pilot became unconscious? If there is no one else capable of flying the plane, your safety may depend on you making several important decisions. Your landing will likely be guided by someone on the radio, but this overview will help you know what to expect.

Steps 1. Take a seat. The pilot (Captain) usually sits in the left seat where the concentration of instruments are (especially for light single engine aircraft). Fasten your seat-belt and shoulder harness if so equipped. However, almost all

aircraft have dual controls and you can successfully land the plane from either side. Do not touch the controls yet! Many airplanes have an autopilot and moving the control yoke or stick may disengage it. Make sure the unconscious pilot is not leaning on the control yoke (the plane's equivalent of a steering wheel). 2. Take a breather. You'll probably be overwhelmed with the sensory overload and the seriousness of the situation. 3. Level the aircraft. If the plane is noticeably ascending, descending, or turning, gently bring the plane into a level flight attitude. o

Attitude indicator Look for the attitude indicator. Sometimes called the artificial horizon, it consists of a miniature set of "wings" and a picture of the horizon. The top is blue (for the sky) and the bottom is brown. On some complex aircraft, the attitude indicator is displayed on a computer screen in front of the pilot. For older aircraft, it is in the center of the top row of instruments. o

Correct the pitch (climb or descent) and bank (turning) if necessary so that the miniature wings are level with the artificial horizon. If they are already level, do not touch the controls at all; move to the next step. If you do need to level the plane, however, adjust the flight attitude by pulling the yoke (or stick) toward you to bring the nose up or push it forward to lower the nose. You can correct bank (turning) by rotating the yoke left or right to turn in that direction. Simultaneously, you must apply slight back pressure to the yoke to prevent the airplane from losing altitude.

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If you have been trying to correct the flight path, the autopilot is probably disengaged. Try to get the autopilot on, by pushing buttons labeled "AUTOPILOT" or "AUTO FLIGHT" or "AFS" or "AP" or something alike. On passenger airplanes it is situated in the center of the glare-shield panel, in a position where both pilots can easily reach it. Only if this results in the aircraft doing things you do not want it to do, disengage it again by pushing all buttons you can find on the yoke (which then probably will include the autopilot disconnect button). Usually the best way to get an aircraft to fly in a stabilized way is to not touch the controls; it is designed to be stable and most people who are not trained pilots tend to over-control the plane.

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Avionics and radio stack Call for help on the radio. Look for a hand-held microphone, which is normally to the left of the pilot’s seat just below the side window, and use it like a CB radio. Find the microphone or take the pilot's headset, press and hold the button, and repeat "Mayday" three times followed by a brief description of your emergency (pilot unconscious, etc.). Remember to release the button to hear a response. An airport flight controller will help you fly the plane to a safe landing. Listen carefully and answer their questions to the best of your abilities so they can better assist you. If you see a red light on the panel illuminated, tell the controller. Below the red

light, there will a description of the light, i.e. Generator, Low Voltage. Obviously this requires prompt attention. Alternatively, you can take the pilot's headset and press the push-to-talk (PTT) button, which is on the yoke. However, so is the autopilot button, and if you press it by accident, you could mess with the autopilot system. Stick with the hand-held radio. o If you know how to change the frequency, you can call for help on 121.50 MHz. Otherwise, call on the frequency you are currently on. o If you can find the Transponder on the radio stack (it has four windows of numbers from 0-7, usually located near the bottom of the stack), set it to 7700. This is an emergency code that will quickly alert air traffic controllers that you have an emergency. o If possible, use the airplane's call sign when you talk with the controller. The airplane's call sign is located on the panel (unfortunately, there's no standard location, but the call sign should be somewhere on the panel). Call signs for airplanes registered in the United States start with the letter "N" (e.g. "N12345"). "N" can be confused with other letters over a radio, so say "November." Announcing the call will clearly identify the aircraft and will also give the flight controllers important information about the airplane so they can better help you land it. If you are on a commercial aircraft (an aircraft operated by an airline, such as United, American, US Airways, etc.) the aircraft is not referred to by its "N" number. It is instead called by its call-sign, or the flight number. Sometimes pilots will put a sticky note on the panel to remind them. Ask a flight attendant what the flight number is. When you call on the radio, say the airline's name first, then say the number. If the flight number is 123 and you are flying United, your call-sign would be "United 1-2-3". Do not read the numbers like a normal number, so do not say "United One-hundred twenty three". 5. Maintain a safe speed. Look for the airspeed indicator (usually labeled ASI, Airspeed or Knots) usually located toward the upper left of the instrument panel, and keep an eye on your speed. Speeds are either in MPH or Knots (similar values). Do not fly a small 2 seater less than 70 knots. Do not fly a large (Jumbo) less than 180 knots. Ultimately, just make sure the needle stays in the "green" zone for normal flight, until you can get someone on the radio to help. If the airspeed starts increasing, and you haven't touched the throttle, you're probably going down, so pull back gently on the control yoke. If the airspeed is decreasing, gently push the nose down to increase the speed. Do not let the aircraft fly too slowly, especially near the ground. It may stall (the wing no longer produces lift). 6. o

Land the plane. The controller you are talking to should brief you on the landing procedures for the aircraft and direct you to a safe spot to land. They will most likely line you up with the runway at an airport, but under rare circumstances you may have to land in a field or road. If you must land and can't get to an airport, avoid places with power lines, trees, or other obstacles. To begin the descent, pull back the throttle (to reduce power) until you hear the pitch of the engines change - then stop. Its impossible to generalize, but this probably shouldn't be more than 1/4 inch or so of throttle travel. Keep the airspeed within the green arc. Gently push on the yoke until the nose drops below the horizon. o If you find you are constantly pushing or pulling on the yoke to keep the airplane steady, you have to use trim to relieve those pressures. Otherwise, it can get very tiring and/or distracting. The trim wheel is typically a wheel approximately 3-6 inches in diameter that rotates in the same direction as the landing gear wheels. It is often located near your knees on either side. It is black and has small bumps on the outside edges. As you hold pressure against the yoke, gently turn the trim wheel. If the pressure you are holding gets greater, turn the wheel in the other direction until you no longer have to maintain the original level of pressure. Note: On some small airplanes, the trim wheel may be found on the headliner and in the shape of a crank. Also, on some larger aircraft the trim is in the form of a switch on the yoke (control stick). It is usually on the left near the top. If the aircraft is pushing the yoke towards you, then push the lever down. If it is pulling away, push the lever up. o Get the landing gear down, if it's retractable. If the gear is fixed, it's always down and you don't need to do anything. The gear handle (the end of the handle is shaped like a tire) is usually just to the right of the center console, above where the knee of the co-pilot would be. If you need to land on water, though, leave the landing gear up. o

You'll be using a variety of drag devices (slats and flaps, next to the throttles) to slow the plane down without losing lift. o Just before you touch down, you'll need to raise the nose to flare and land on the main wheels first. A flare is typically 5-7 degrees in a small aircraft. In some larger aircraft, a flare may mean up to 15 degrees of nose up. o If flying a large commercial aircraft, activate your reverse thrust, if the plane has it. On Boeing aircraft, there are bars behind the throttle quadrant. Pull the bars back all the way and the thrust will be directed forward to aid in stopping the aircraft. If all else fails, pull the throttle back as fast and far as possible. o

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Throttle Quadrant Reduce power to idle by pulling the throttle all the way towards you, until you reach the sign labled idle. It is a black lever usually located between the pilot and co-pilot. Gently apply the brakes by pressing on top of the rudder pedals. Use enough pressure to stop the plane without skidding. The rudder pedals themselves are used to steer the plane on the ground, so don't use them unless the plane is veering off the runway. 7. Congratulations, you have just landed an airplane! Once you get some help for the unconscious pilot, you can finally faint. Go ahead, you earned it. And if you can ever stand to see another airplane, let alone get on one, you just may have "the right stuff" and should consider taking flight lessons from a certified instructor. Then again, maybe not. o

Tips •

Make any adjustments to the controls slowly, and wait for the changes. Making fast or abrupt changes can get you out of control in a hurry.

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Before take-off, ask the Pilot in Command where the basic controls are. These should include instruments, control wheel/yoke, throttle, transponder, radio, and rudder/brake pedals. Caution: if you're on an airline, doing so could get the crew really stressed out. You might end up having to explaining to the TSA you were asking - "Just in case!" Consider getting game software like X-Plane or Flight Sim. There are no easy to generalize rules about using the yoke and how much pressure to use. All things equal, treat the yoke with tenderness. But that also means you have to move the yoke decisively when the circumstances require you to do so. Generally, leave fighter pilot stick deflections to fighter pilots. Find a pilot who has x-plane or flight sim. Ask the pilot to configure an airplane that you are likely to be a passenger in and set up the aircraft in straight and level flight. Then sit down and land the airplane. After reading the above, should be a piece of cake! Visit the Air Safety Foundation's Pinch Hitter course for information developed by aviation safety professionals regarding what to do if your pilot becomes incapacitated.

Warnings •

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Pay attention to your choice of landing sites. Larger aircraft require a longer landing distance. Also, make sure there are few or no obstructions around the site (power lines, buildings, trees, etc). This is only for emergency situations. Do not rely on these instructions for recreational flying; find a certified flight instructor. While all of the above advice is very good (and can seem overwhelming), the single most important thing to remember is to "FLY THE PLANE". Even experienced pilots when dealing with an emergency have become so focused on one or two items - be it airspeed or looking for a landing spot or using the radio or whatever - that they forget to simply fly the plane - with catastrophic results. Keep it in the air. As long as the plane is in the air, you can take all the time you need to work out the rest.

Chapter- 6

How to Learn Aerobatics

If you have been to an air show and seen pilots risk their lives in daring turns and loops, you know how fascinating and complex it is. Understand that it takes actual flying lessons to learn how to do aerobatics, as it is extremely dangerous to learn and do without instruction, but here we can help you to understand some basics.

Steps Loop 1. Start off flying straight and level with no change of altitude or roll. 2. Push the throttle up to full and pitch slightly down. By doing this you are building up the speed to get you "over the top". 3. At about 120 knots, pull back hard on the stick. G-Force will push you into your seat but don't worry about it; just keep pulling back. 4. At the invert, gradually relax the pressure and pull back on the stick. 5. Carry on pulling back until you are once again straight and level. That is the procedure for a basic loop.

Cuban Eight 5/8s of a loop to the 45 degree line, 1/2 roll, 5/8s of a loop to the 45 degree line, 1/2 roll, 3/8s of a loop to level flight (half of the Cuban Eight is called a "half Cuban Eight", and the figure can be flown backwards, known as a "Reverse Cuban Eight").

Stall Turn 1. Fly straight and level. Push the throttle up to full and pitch slightly down. By doing this you are building up the speed to get you up into the vertical. 2. At about 120 knots, pull back on the stick until you are going vertically upwards. Keep the plane heading up. When you are near to falling backwards, push the rudder either left or right. 3. The plane will fall backwards and tilt to the way your rudder is. It will twist round and start to descend vertically. 4. Pull out until straight and level again. That is the procedure for a stall turn.

Knife Edge 1. 2. 3. 4.

Fly straight and level, go to 3/4 throttle Roll your wings to quarter roll, Input opposite rudder to the roll and hold For exit level your wings and take the rudder out

Four Point Roll This is best done with low wings. A four point roll depends on your airspeed, a four point roll is a roll in four parts a roll to quarter, a roll to inverted, another roll to quarter, roll to leveled. For this guide we will be doing a right roll: 1. Make your throttle 1/2 to 3/4 throttle 2. Roll right to first quarter, add left rudder to steady the plane

3. Roll right another quarter to inverted, add down elevator to keep the nose up 4. Roll right another quarter, add right rudder to steady the plane 5. Roll right another quarter to level

Tips • • •

Take lessons to learn how to fly. Get your pilot license, as it will be required to fly solo in competitions. If you plan on undergoing positive and negative G, make sure you and your body are fit and control your breathing.

Warnings IF YOU ATTEMPT ANY OF THE STEPS LISTED IN THIS POST WITHOUT PROPER TRAINING OR THE PROPER AIRCRAFT YOU WILL DIE. NOT ALL AIRCRAFT CAN PERFORM THESE MANUEVERS WITHOUT FALLING APART. • • • •

All of these stunts should be done at a height of no less than 5000ft above the ground unless with a qualified and experienced instructor. Before starting the sequence, check your seat harness to make sure it is secure. Negative G's can be very dangerous. Try not to exceed three G's as any more could damage your eyes. Positive G's above five are dangerous as they can cause you to black out. *Do not attempt without a qualified instructor present.

How to Fly a Holding Pattern If you're a frequent flyer, you have probably had to "hold" at one time or another. Holding is when an airplane makes several 360° turns to avoid other aircraft or wait for a clearance to land. Although not as common now as it used to be, you may still encounter a holding request, especially if you are a pilot working on an instrument rating. With that in mind, the following article is written from a private pilot standpoint and (foolishly) assumes you know how to use aircraft navigation equipment such as VORs, DME, and NDBs.

Steps 1. Determine the Holding Fix. Air Traffic Control (ATC) will give you instructions to "hold north of SKIER intersection as published" or give you specific holding instructions such as "hold southeast of Falcon VOR on Victor 366, left turns." The holding fix can be identified on an instrument flying chart and will usually be an intersection of Victor Airways (pre-established flying routes between VOR navigational aids), a VOR (Very high frequency OmniRange station), or an NDB (NonDirectional Beacon). 2. Visualize the Holding Course. This is the position in relation to the holding fix that ATC would like you to hold at. They may say "hold west on Victor 8" or "hold on the Kremmling 260° radial." You should be very familiar with VOR and NDB radials and bearings before flying holding patterns. The holding course is the course to fly "to" the station. This will always be the reciprocal of the radial or bearing "from" the station (eg the 260° radial would result in a 080° Holding Course). To quickly identify this, take a piece of paper and put a dot for the Holding Fix and draw a line in the direction of the radial or airway to hold on. Place an arrow pointing to the station to identify the Holding Course. 3. Draw the Holding Pattern. Once you have the Fix and Course, mentally or physically draw a picture of the holding pattern. You will need to determine if it is Standard or Nonstandard. A standard pattern turns are to the right, while nonstandard turns are to the left. If the pattern is nonstandard, it will be published on the chart as left turns or ATC will say "nonstandard pattern" or "left turns." Starting at the Holding Fix, draw a 180° turn in the direction specified (left or right), continue the line paralleling the Holding Course, and draw another 180° turn to bring you back to the Holding Course. This is the famous "racetrack" or Holding Pattern. 4.

Determine the correct Entry Procedure. Depending on where you enter the holding pattern, you will need to follow an entry procedure. If you are coming from 70° to the left (right for nonstandard patterns) of the holding course, use a Teardrop procedure. Coming from 110° to the right (or left if nonstandard), use the Parallel procedure. And from the remaining 180°, fly a direct entry. The entry procedures are outlined below: 1. Parallel Procedure. When approaching the holding fix from anywhere within sector (a), turn to a heading to parallel the holding course outbound on the nonholding side for the appropriate time, turn in the direction of the holding pattern through more than 180 degrees, and return to the holding fix or intercept the holding course inbound. 2. Teardrop Procedure. When approaching the holding fix from anywhere in sector (b), turn outbound to a heading 30° from the holding course on the holding side for the appropriate time, then turn in the direction of the holding pattern to intercept the inbound holding course. 3. Direct Entry Procedure. When approaching the holding fix from anywhere in sector (c), fly directly to the fix and turn to follow the holding pattern. 5. Time the legs. The pattern should be flown so the Inbound Leg is one minute long if you are flying at or below 14,000ft Mean Sea Level (MSL) or one and a half minutes above 14,000ft MSL. At the holding fix, make a 180° standard rate turn (3°/sec) in the direction specified for the pattern (standard or nonstandard). When you are abeam the holding fix (or after rolling out of the turn if you are unable to determine abeam the fix), start timing the outbound leg. After a minute (1½ minutes above 14,000ft), make another 180° turn in the same direction to intercept the holding course. Time the inbound leg until reaching the holding fix.

If there is little or no wind, it should be one or 1½ minutes as appropriate. If not, you will need to adjust the outbound leg to make the inbound leg the appropriate time. For example, if you are flying at 12,000ft and find that it takes 45 seconds to fly the inbound leg after flying outbound for one minute, make your outbound leg 1 minute and 15 seconds next time. Similarly, if the inbound leg comes out as 1 minute 30 seconds, shorten the outbound leg by the extra 30 seconds. Remember not to start timing the outbound leg until you are directly abeam the holding fix. 6. Watch your speed. Unless otherwise depicted on a chart or directed by ATC, maximum holding airspeed between the minimum holding altitude and 6000ft is 200 knots indicated airspeed (KIAS). Between 6001 and 14,000ft, don't fly faster than 230 KIAS and above 14,000ft, maximum airspeed is 265 KIAS.

Wind Corrections 1. Adjust for wind to make the inbound leg the appropriate time. If the inbound leg is shorter than it should be, lengthen the outbound leg by the difference. If the inbound leg is to long, shorten the outbound leg by the excess time. For example, flying below 14,000ft, if the inbound leg takes one minute, 45 seconds to complete, time the outbound leg for 15 seconds (one minute minus the extra 45 seconds from the inbound leg). 2. Triple your crosswind correction on the outbound leg. If you have a 10° crosswind correction to hold your track on the inbound leg, fly the outbound leg with 30° correction. Maintain standard rate turns.

DME Holding Some holding patterns require the use of Distance Measuring Equipment (DME) or GPS Along-Track Distance (ATD). The basics are the same as above except a DME distance is used as the holding fix.

1. Enter the pattern as appropriate (teardrop, parallel, or direct). 2. Start the turn to the outbound leg at the specified DME/ATD fix. 3. End the outbound leg and turn to the inbound leg at the required distance instead of timing the leg. For example, if you are holding on the 10DME fix to

the navaid and flying 5 mile legs as directed by ATC, you would end the outbound leg at 15 miles DME. If you are holding away from the navaid, subtract the length of the legs from the holding fix. For example, if you are holding on the 20DME fix and flying away from the navaid, end your outbound leg at 25DME.

Tips •

Quickly sketch the holding pattern on a piece of paper to increase situational awareness.

Warnings •

All maneuvering should be accomplished on the holding side to avoid terrain or other obstacles.

Chapter- 7

How to Choose a Flight Instructor

Flight Instructors are like Doctors or Accountants... they are not all created equal. If you want to fly, your first task is to choose the flight instructor who is right for you. That step alone can make the difference between a fun, challenging and fulfilling experience and one which leads to a dead end. and maybe the end of your dream of becoming a pilot. Know why you want to fly. Be honest with yourself. Your answers will define what you need in an instructor (and a flight school)

Steps 1. Airports usually have a Fixed Base Operator (FBO). Larger general aviation airports may have several to choose from. The FBO usually hosts (or may own) a flight school. Flight schools have Certificated Flight Instructors (CFI's) and training aircraft for rent. 2. If no one has recommended a CFI, the school will assign one to you. 3. Some questions you might want to ask the CFI: o What is your schedule and general availability? o What is your training philosophy? o What is your billing policy? What is your cancellation policy? 4. After the first couple of flights you (and your CFI) will start to get a feel for how the training is going. Ask yourself if you feel the CFI is: too laid back, too stern, genuinely concerned about your learning, or distracted. Hey, it's your money! If it doesn't feel right have a discussion with your instructor, or request another CFI. 5. Flight schools are authorized by the FAA to operate under two sets of regulations known as FAR part 141, or part 91 (the FBO will tell you or ask) Many schools can offer you a choice. There are advantages to both. 6. If you are are with a part 141 school you will normally fly with one CFI. Periodically, you'll have what are called Stage Checks. Stage Checks are done with a different CFI. This is to ensure you are progressing in accordance with the training syllabus. 7. The training under part 91 is less structured in some ways, but can be more suitable for some students. It depends on your situation and what your aviation

goals are. Your CFI and/or your school will be able to help you decide which course is best for you.

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Start out your aviation journey by training for a sport or recreational pilot license. You can experience the joy and freedom of flight sooner that way, and you won't have to repeat anything. Your training and experience will apply when you are ready to go for your Private Pilot's license... and other advanced ratings later on. Assuming you've studied for your flight lesson, your post flight debrief may be the most important part of your lesson. Insist on a thorough post flight debrief. For home practice: Take a picture of the instrument panel. Load it on your computer and use the checklists to go over procedures. Even if you dont have the ability to turn switches or move the yoke - pretend. You'll probably come up with questions for your CFI. Another possibility is an instrument panel poster. Put it on your wall and engage in "desk flying". It's a very effective and cheap way to enhance your training... and your fun. Flight training can get intense. You will make mistakes, learn from it and press on (hopefully not to ever repeat it). Be sure that you're not projecting your frustration on the CFI. Remember your CFI's time is just as valuable as yours. Show up on time and be prepared for the lesson. It's important to feel comfortable with your CFI. You'll be spending a fair amount of time in a small enclosed space with him/her. If for any reason you don't feel comfortable, be it style, personality or whatever, talk about it frankly with your CFI. Also remember that you can ask to train with a different instructor. While the overwhelming majority of CFIs are extremely professional, there are a few that aren't. Sadly, many aspiring pilots never realize their dream because they were unfortunate enough to get matched up with the wrong CFI. Be proactive, don't let that happen to you.

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Throughout your flying career you will get to fly with many different types of CFI's and Examiners. As a pilot you will be periodically checked for proficiency. And in the event you want additional ratings, you will invariably fly with persons you may not necessarily like or get along with. So be flexible, listen, and try to make every flight a learning experience. To optimize your training, you should probably be available to fly at least twice a week. You will progress more quickly and with less effort... not to mention the cost savings.

How to Survive a Plane Crash

Evacuating passengers from US Airways Flight 1549, January 2009 Commercial airlines around the world now carry nearly 2.5 billion passengers a year, and despite the inherent dangers of rocketing through the sky miles above the Earth in a very heavy piece of metal, these travelers are amazingly safe. In fact, the odds of dying on a commercial airline flight are as low as 9 million to 1! That said, a lot can go wrong at 33,000 feet above the ground, and if you’re unlucky enough to be aboard when something does, the decisions you make could mean the difference between life and death. Keep in mind that about 95% of airplane crashes have survivors, so even if the worst does happen, your odds aren’t as bad as you might think.

Steps 1. Wear long pants, a long-sleeve t-shirt, and sturdy, comfortable, lace-up shoes. Although you may want to be comfortable or professional-looking on a flight, sandals or high heels make it hard to move quickly within the wreckage. High heels are not allowed on the evacuation slides and you can cut your feet and toes on glass or get flammable liquids on or in your sandals if you wear them. o Loose or elaborate clothing also poses a risk, as it can get snagged on obstacles in the close confines of a plane. If you know you’re going to be flying over cold areas, dress appropriately, and consider keeping a jacket on your lap. You’ll need to be able to stay warm if you survive the crash. Even if that is not a consideration, the more of your body is covered during impact, the less likely you are to receive serious injuries or burns. Cotton or wool clothing is also preferable as it is less flammable. Wool is preferable to cotton when flying over water, as wool does not lose its insulating properties to the degree cotton does when wet.

2. Book the right seats. Because the initial impact is most often survivable, the key to living to tell about a crash is frequently how quickly you can get out. To this end, it’s best to get seats as close as possible to an exit, and aisle seats are generally preferable. In addition, try to sit in the back of the plane. Passengers in the tail of the aircraft have 40% higher survival rates than those in the first few rows. 3.

Boring, yes. But the flight attendant's safety briefing may save your life--if you pay attention. Read the safety information card and pay attention to the preflight safety speech. Yes, you’ve heard it all before, and you’ll probably never need it, but if you keep your headphones on during the preflight instructions or ignore the safety card, you’ll be missing out on information that could be vital in the event of a crash. Don’t assume you know it all already, either. Every type of airplane has different safety instructions. If you're sitting in an exit row, study the door and make sure you know how to open it if you need to. In normal circumstances the

flight attendant will open the door, but if they are dead or injured, you'll need to do it. 4. Make a plan. If the plane is going to crash, you almost always have several minutes to prepare before impact. Use this time to once again review where the exits are, and try to count the number of seats between your row and the exit row—that way you’ll know when you’ve reached the exit even if you can’t see it. Assess the situation as well as possible. Try to determine what surface the plane will land on so you can customize your preparations. If you’re going to be landing in water, for example, you’ll want to put your life vest on—don’t inflate it until you’re out of the plane—and if you’re going to be landing in cold weather, you should try to get a blanket or jacket to keep you warm once outside. 5.

Keep your seat belt securely fastened at all times. If the plane crashes while you’re sleeping, you’ll be glad you kept your seat belt on. In any case, make sure it is placed around you snugly before impact. Every centimeter of slack in your seat belt triples the G-Force you'll experience in the crash, so keep it snug! Also, push that snug seat belt down as low over your pelvis as possible. You should be able to feel the upper ridge of the pelvis above the upper edge of the belt. Why? The pelvis is a very strong structure that handles force well. However, if your belt slides up into your stomach, you have a greater chance of sustaining dangerous internal injuries. (Note: this also applies to car seat belts.)

6. Brace yourself for impact. If you know you’re going to crash, brace yourself. Return your seat back to its full upright position and assume one of two "brace positions." o If the seat or bulkhead in front of you is close enough to easily reach, place one hand palm-down on the back of that seat, cross the other hand palm-down over the first hand, and rest your forehead against your hands (don’t lace your fingers). It is also sometimes recommended to put your head directly against the seat in front of you and lace your fingers behind your head, tucking your upper arms against the sides of your head. o If you don’t have a seat close in front of you, bend forward and put your chest on your thighs and your head between your knees. Cross your wrists in front of your lower calves, and grab your ankles. In either position, your feet should be flat on the floor and further back than your knees to reduce injuries to your feet and legs, which you will need in order to successfully exit the craft after impact. Place your legs as far under the seat as possible to avoid breaking your shin bones. 7. Remain calm. It can be easy to get swept up in the pandemonium immediately preceding and following a crash. Keep a cool head, though, and you’re more likely to get out alive. Remember that even in the worst wrecks, you do have a chance of survival. You’ll need to be able to think methodically and rationally to maximize that chance. 8. Put your oxygen mask on before assisting others. You’ve probably heard this on every commercial flight you’ve been on, but it’s worth repeating. If the integrity of the cabin is compromised, you have only about 15 seconds (often less if you’re a smoker or have circulatory or respiratory problems) to start breathing through your oxygen mask before you are rendered unconscious. o While you may feel an impulse to first help your children or the elderly passenger sitting next to you, you’ll be no good to anyone if you don’t remain conscious. o You can put somebody else's oxygen mask on even if they're unconscious. 9. Protect yourself from smoke. Fire and, more commonly, smoke is responsible for a large percentage of crash fatalities. The smoke in an airplane fire can be very thick and highly toxic, so cover your nose and mouth with a cloth to avoid breathing it in. If possible, moisten the cloth to provide extra protection. 10. Get out of the airplane as quickly as possible. It’s critical to get out of the aircraft without delay—if fire or smoke is present, you will generally have less than two minutes to safely exit the plane. o Obey the flight attendants’ post-crash instructions. Flight attendants undergo rigorous training to make sure they know what to do in the event of a crash. If a flight attendant is able to instruct or assist you—sometimes they won’t be able to do so after a crash—listen to him or her, and cooperate to increase everyone’s chances of survival. o Don’t try to rescue your belongings. It’s common sense, but still some people don’t seem to get it. Leave everything behind. It will only slow you down.

Make sure the exit you choose is safe. Look through the window to determine if there is fire or some other hazard outside of an exit. If there is, try the exit across the plane, or proceed to another set of exits. 11. Get at least 500 feet upwind from the aircraft. If you’re stranded in a remote area, the best thing to do usually is to stay close to the aircraft to await rescuers. You don’t want to be too close, though. Fire or explosion can result at any time after a crash, so put some distance between you and the plane. If the crash is in open-water, swim as far away from the plane wreckage as possible. o

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If you have no time to prepare for the crash and you forget some of these instructions, you can find much of the most important information in the safety card in the seat back pocket in front of you. Remain in the brace position until the plane comes to a complete stop, a secondary impact or bounce will often follow the initial impact. In the event of a water landing, remove your shoes and excess clothes before or immediately after entering the water. This will make swimming and floating easier. While it’s essential to stay calm after a crash, you also need to be careful not to succumb to “negative panic.” Negative panic is a strange inability to react assertively and appropriately to the situation. For example, a person may just remain in his or her seat instead of heading toward the exit. Watch out for this in your fellow passengers or traveling companions. The one exception to the “leave everything behind” rule may be a jacket or blanket, and you should only consider carrying that if you have it ready to go at impact. While having appropriate clothing may save your life if you’re stranded for a while, you first have to get out of the aircraft safely. If you can find a pillow or something similarly soft to protect your head during impact, use it. It’s quite common for people to forget how to unbuckle their seat belts after a crash. It seems easy enough, but in your dazed condition the first instinct is often to try to push a button as you would for a car seat belt. When that doesn’t work, it’s easy to panic. Before impact, make a mental note to remember how to quickly and easily unbuckle your seat belt. Place your baggage beneath the seat in front of you. It can help prevent your legs from snapping under the seat. Remove sharp objects—pens, pencils, etc.—from your pockets before a crash. Better yet, don’t carry them at all. Nearly any loose object on a plane can become a deadly projectile in the event of a crash. If you have nothing to moisten a cloth with (in order to protect yourself from smoke inhalation), you can use urine. This sort of breach of decorum is perfectly acceptable in such a situation.

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Avoid wearing synthetic fabrics while traveling by plane. If a fire breaks out in the cabin, these materials will melt to your skin. Avoid excessive alcohol consumption before or during a flight. Alcohol impairs your ability to quickly and methodically react to the crash and evacuate the plane. Never hold your infant or toddler on your lap. While it may be cheaper than buying a seat, your child is almost guaranteed not to survive if you are holding him or her. Get a seat for your child and use an approved child restraint system. Don’t get down on the floor of the plane. If there is smoke in the cabin, try to stay low, but do not crawl. You will likely be trampled or injured by other passengers attempting to escape in the low-visibility conditions. Don’t push other passengers. An orderly exit increases everybody’s chance of survival, and if you panic and start shoving, you may be faced with retaliation. When landing in water, do not inflate your life vest until you are outside of the aircraft. If you do, you run the risk of becoming trapped when the aircraft fills with water.

Chapter- 8

How to Become a Navy Pilot

To become a pilot in the United States Navy you must meet educational, physical and medical preconditions and complete several stages of training. The educational requirements are among the more significant and time-consuming factors in becoming a navy pilot, or naval aviator. In addition to academics, you must prepare for the physical demands of training and meet certain medical standards.

Steps 1. Attend a college or university and graduate with a bachelor's degree. All pilots in the United States Navy are officers therefore you must already possess a bachelor's degree or be attending a college or university on a bachelor's degree track. Broadly speaking, there are two ways to enter into the United States Navy: enter as a commissioned officer or as a non-commissioned officer, or NCO. o Receive a commission and become an officer. The United States Navy has a 'Direct Appointment Program' for those already have a bachelor's degree. o There are two methods of becoming an officer and a pilot for current students. The Naval Reserve Officers Training Corps (NROTC) and the Navy Baccalaureate Degree Completion Program (BDCP) help students with their tuition and expenses and put them in position to attend Officer Candidate School (OCS). o Alternatively, the United States Naval Academy combines the process of obtaining a bachelor's degree and becoming an officer. 2. Meet the the medical requirements and prepare for physical fitness tests. Besides filling out all appropriate basic paperwork, such as employment and education history, the United States Navy has medical and physical requirements. o The initial medical testing is standard for both officers and NCOs and is similar to an annual physical. The examiner collects urine and blood samples and takes height and weight measurements. Once officer training begins, you must maintain a certain body fat percentage. o The Navy assesses physical fitness levels when you begin your training and at three intervals during training. The assessment tests your ability to stretch, run, and complete curl-ups and push-ups. You must also be able to swim. The Navy recommends beginning naval fitness training in peak physical condition in order to meet its goals and avoid injuries.

3. Attend and graduate officer training to become an officer. Basic training, known as boot camp to non-commissioned personnel, is called Officer Candiate School, or OCS, for future navy pilots. OCS takes place over 12 weeks at the Naval Station Newport in the State of Rhode Island and in Annapolis in the State of Maryland for cadets who attend the United States Naval Academy. o Prepare paperwork for OCS. Required documentation includes college transcripts and marriage licenses. o Bring basic items to training, such as required clothing and toiletries, spending money and pre-paid phone cards. o Academic and military training will be provided at OCS, and, as with physical part of OCS, strict standards must be met. 4. Complete the stages of flight training, which begins with an air indoctrination course and primary flight training. o Request an aircraft and enter intermediate flight training. o Finish advanced naval flight training and after being awarded "wings of gold," report a Fleet Replacement Squadron to receive your final aircraftspecific training.

Tips •

•

•

Speak with a recruiter. Although rules and regulations for becoming a Navy pilot are somewhat static, changes in requirements are possible. Recruiters specialize in knowing the rules and being able to clearly explain them to interested persons. Review forums and blogs that contain personal stories of experiences with the Navy. While websites such as these do not contain any official information, they can be useful as a general guide. Start physical training at least 6 months in advance of Officer Candidate School. Guidelines for preparing for the physical portion of OCS can be found by reviewing the Navy's "Pre-Entry Physical Training Plan."

Warnings •

The Navy has strict guidelines that may, for whatever reason, exclude you from becoming a pilot; be prepared to explore alternative naval careers.

Chapter- 9

Aircraft

Three F-86 Sabres flying over North Korea Aircraft are vehicles which are able to fly by being supported by the air, or in general, the atmosphere of a planet. An aircraft counters the force of gravity by using either static lift or by using the dynamic lift of an airfoil, or in a few cases the downward thrust from jet engines. Although rockets and missiles also travel through the atmosphere, most are not considered aircraft because they use rocket thrust instead of aerodynamics as the primary means of lift. However, rocket planes and cruise missiles are considered aircraft because they rely on lift from the air. Another type of aircraft is the spaceplane which is an aircraft designed to fly up to extreme altitudes into space and land as a conventional aircraft.

The human activity which surrounds aircraft is called aviation. Manned aircraft are flown by an onboard pilot. Unmanned aerial vehicles may be remotely controlled or selfcontrolled by onboard computers. Target drones are an example of UAVs. Aircraft may be classified by different criteria, such as lift type, propulsion, usage and others.

History The history of aircraft development divides broadly into five eras: • • • • •

Pioneers of flight First World War Inter-war, sometimes called the Golden Age Second World War Postwar era, also called the jet age

Methods of lift Lighter than air – aerostats Aerostats use buoyancy to float in the air in much the same way that ships float on the water. They are characterized by one or more large gasbags or canopies, filled with a relatively low density gas such as helium, hydrogen or hot air, which is less dense than the surrounding air. When the weight of this is added to the weight of the aircraft structure, it adds up to the same weight as the air that the craft displaces. Small hot air balloons called sky lanterns date back to the 3rd century BC, and were only the second type of aircraft to fly, the first being kites. Originally, a balloon was any aerostat, while the term airship was used for large, powered aircraft designs – usually fixed-wing – though none had yet been built. The advent of powered balloons, called dirigible balloons, and later of rigid hulls allowing a great increase in size, began to change the way these words were used. Huge powered aerostats, characterized by a rigid outer framework and separate aerodynamic skin surrounding the gas bags, were produced, the Zeppelins being the largest and most famous. There were still no fixed-wing aircraft or non-rigid balloons large enough to be called airships, so "airship" came to be synonymous with these aircraft. Then several accidents, such as the Hindenburg disaster in 1937, led to the demise of these airships. Nowadays a "balloon" is an unpowered aerostat, whilst an "airship" is a powered one. A powered, steerable aerostat is called a dirigible. Sometimes this term is applied only to non-rigid balloons, and sometimes dirigible balloon is regarded as the definition of an airship (which may then be rigid or non-rigid). Non-rigid dirigibles are characterized by a moderately aerodynamic gasbag with stabilizing fins at the back. These soon became known as blimps. During the Second World War, this shape was widely adopted for tethered balloons; in windy weather, this both reduces the strain on the tether and

stabilizes the balloon. The nickname blimp was adopted along with the shape. In modern times any small dirigible or airship is called a blimp, though a blimp may be unpowered as well as powered.

Heavier than air – aerodynes Heavier-than-air aircraft must find some way to push air or gas downwards, so that a reaction occurs (by Newton's laws of motion) to push the aircraft upwards. This dynamic movement through the air is the origin of the term aerodyne. There are two ways to produce dynamic upthrust: aerodynamic lift, and powered lift in the form of engine thrust. Aerodynamic lift is the most common, with fixed-wing aircraft being kept in the air by the forward movement of wings, and rotorcraft by spinning wing-shaped rotors sometimes called rotary wings. A wing is a flat, horizontal surface, usually shaped in cross-section as an aerofoil. To fly, air must flow over the wing and generate lift. A flexible wing is a wing made of fabric or thin sheet material, often stretched over a rigid frame. A kite is tethered to the ground and relies on the speed of the wind over its wings, which may be flexible or rigid, fixed or rotary. With powered lift, the aircraft directs its engine thrust vertically downwards. The initialism VTOL (vertical take off and landing) is applied to aircraft that can take off and land vertically. Most are rotorcraft. Others, such as the Hawker Siddeley Harrier and F-35B, take off and land vertically using powered lift and transfer to aerodynamic lift in steady flight. Similarly, STOL stands for short take off and landing. Some VTOL aircraft often operate in a short take off/vertical landing mode known as STOVL. A pure rocket is not usually regarded as an aerodyne, because it does not depend on the air for its lift (and can even fly into space); however, many aerodynamic lift vehicles have been powered or assisted by rocket motors. Rocket-powered missiles which obtain aerodynamic lift at very high speed due to airflow over their bodies, are a marginal case.

Fixed-wing

NASA test aircraft

A size comparison of some of the largest fixed-wing aircraft. The Airbus A380-800 (largest airliner), the Boeing 747-8, the Antonov An-225 (aircraft with the greatest payload) and the Hughes H-4 "Spruce Goose" (aircraft with greatest wingspan). Airplanes or aeroplanes are technically called fixed-wing aircraft. The forerunner of the fixed-wing aircraft is the kite. Whereas a fixed-wing aircraft relies on its forward speed to create airflow over the wings, a kite is tethered to the ground and relies on the wind blowing over its wings to provide lift. Kites were the first kind of aircraft to fly, and were invented in China around 500 BC. Much aerodynamic research was done with kites before test aircraft, wind tunnels and computer modelling programs became available.

The first heavier-than-air craft capable of controlled free flight were gliders. A glider designed by Cayley carried out the first true manned, controlled flight in 1853. Besides the method of propulsion, fixed-wing aircraft are generally characterized by their wing configuration. The most important wing characteristics are: • • • • •

Number of wings – Monoplane, biplane, etc. Wing support – Braced or cantilever, rigid or flexible. Wing planform – including aspect ratio, angle of sweep and any variations along the span (including the important class of delta wings). Location of the horizontal stabiliser, if any. Dihedral angle – positive, zero or negative (anhedral).

A variable geometry aircraft can change its wing configuration during flight. A flying wing has no fuselage, though it may have small blisters or pods. The opposite of this is a lifting body which has no wings, though it may have small stabilising and control surfaces. Most fixed-wing aircraft feature a tail unit or empennage incorporating vertical, and often horizontal, stabilising surfaces. Seaplanes are aircraft that land on water, and they fit into two broad classes: Flying boats are supported on the water by their fuselage. A float plane's fuselage remains clear of the water at all times, the aircraft being supported by two or more floats attached to the fuselage and/or wings. Some examples of both flying boats and float planes are amphibious, being able to take off from and alight on both land and water. Some people consider wing-in-ground-effect vehicles to be fixed-wing aircraft, others do not. These craft "fly" close to the surface of the ground or water. An example is the Russian ekranoplan (nicknamed the "Caspian Sea Monster"). Man-powered aircraft also rely on ground effect to remain airborne, but this is only because they are so underpowered—the airframe is theoretically capable of flying much higher.

Rotorcraft

Mil Mi-26, the world's largest production helicopter

Rotorcraft, or rotary-wing aircraft, use a spinning rotor with aerofoil section blades (a rotary wing) to provide lift. Types include helicopters, autogyros and various hybrids such as gyrodynes and compound rotorcraft. Helicopters have powered rotors. The rotor is driven (directly or indirectly) by an engine and pushes air downwards to create lift. By tilting the rotor forwards, the downwards flow is tilted backwards, producing thrust for forward flight.

US-Recognition Manual (very likely copy of German drawing) Autogyros or gyroplanes have unpowered rotors, with a separate power plant to provide thrust. The rotor is tilted backwards. As the autogyro moves forward, air blows upwards across the rotor, making it spin.(cf. Autorotation) This spinning dramatically increases the speed of airflow over the rotor, to provide lift. Juan de la Cierva (a Spanish civil engineer) used the product name autogiro, and Bensen used gyrocopter. Rotor kites, such as the Focke Achgelis Fa 330 are unpowered autogyros, which must be towed by a tether to give them forward ground speed or else be tether-anchored to a static anchor in a highwind situation for kited flight. Gyrodynes are a form of helicopter, where forward thrust is obtained from a separate propulsion device rather than from tilting the rotor. The definition of a 'gyrodyne' has changed over the years, sometimes including equivalent autogyro designs. The Heliplane is a similar idea. Compound rotorcraft have wings which provide some or all of the lift in forward flight. Compound helicopters and compound autogyros have been built, and some forms of gyroplane may be referred to as compound gyroplanes. They are nowadays classified as powered lift types and not as rotorcraft. Tiltrotor aircraft (such as the V-22 Osprey) have their rotors horizontal for vertical flight, and pivot the rotors vertically like a propeller for forward flight. The Coleopter had a cylindrical wing forming a duct around the rotor. On the ground it sat on its tail, and took off and landed vertically like a helicopter. The whole

aircraft would then have tilted forward to fly as a propeller-driven fixed-wing aircraft using the duct as a wing (though this transition was never achieved in practice.) Some rotorcraft have reaction-powered rotors with gas jets at the tips, but most have one or more lift rotors powered from engine-driven shafts. Other methods of lift

X24B lifting body, specialized glider •

•

A lifting body is the opposite of a flying wing. In this configuration the aircraft body is shaped to produce lift. If there are any wings, they are too small to provide significant lift and are used only for stability and control. Lifting bodies are not efficient: they suffer from high drag, and must also travel at high speed to generate enough lift to fly. Many of the research prototypes, such as the MartinMarietta X-24, which led up to the Space Shuttle were lifting bodies (though the shuttle itself is not), and some supersonic missiles obtain lift from the airflow over a tubular body. The flat bodies of recent jet fighters also produce lift, as in the F14 Tomcat's "pancake". Powered lift types rely on engine-derived lift for vertical takeoff and landing (VTOL). Most types transition to fixed-wing lift for horizontal flight. Classes of

• •

powered lift types include VTOL jet aircraft (such as the Harrier jump-jet) and tiltrotors (such as the V-22 Osprey), among others. A few examples rely entirely on engine thrust to provide lift throughout the whole flight. There are few practical applications. Experimental designs have been built for personal fan-lift hover platforms and jetpacks or for VTOL research (for example the flying bedstead). The Flettner airplane has a spinning cylinder in place of a wing, relying on the Magnus effect to create lift. The FanWing is a recent innovation with some similarities to the Flettner rotor design. It uses a fixed wing with a cylindrical fan mounted spanwise just above. As the fan spins, it creates an airflow backwards over the upper surface of the wing, creating lift. The FanWing is (2010) in development in the United Kingdom.

Propulsion Unpowered Gliders Heavier-than-air unpowered aircraft such as gliders (i.e. sailplanes), hang gliders and paragliders, and other gliders usually do not employ propulsion once airborne. Take-off may be by launching forwards and downwards from a high location, or by pulling into the air on a tow-line, by a ground-based winch or vehicle, or by a powered "tug" aircraft. For a glider to maintain its forward air speed and lift, it must descend in relation to the air (but not necessarily in relation to the ground). Some gliders can 'soar'- gain height from updrafts such as thermal currents. The first practical, controllable example was designed and built by the British scientist and pioneer George Cayley, who many recognise as the first aeronautical engineer. Balloons Balloons drift with the wind, though normally the pilot can control the altitude, either by heating the air or by releasing ballast, giving some directional control (since the wind direction changes with altitude). A wing-shaped hybrid balloon can glide directionally when rising or falling; but a spherically shaped balloon does not have such directional control. Kites Kites are aircraft that are tethered to the ground or other object (fixed or mobile) that maintains tension in the tether or kite line; they rely on virtual or real wind blowing over and under them to generate lift and drag. Kytoons are balloon kites that are shaped and tethered to obtain kiting deflections, and can be lighter-than-air, neutrally buoyant, or heavier-than air.

Powered Propeller

A turboprop-engined DeHavilland Twin Otter adapted as a floatplane A propeller or airscrew comprises a set of small, wing-like aerofoils set around a central hub which spins on an axis aligned in the direction of travel. Spinning the propeller creates aerodynamic lift, or thrust, in a forward direction. A tractor design mounts the propeller in front of the power source, while a pusher design mounts it behind. Although the pusher design allows cleaner airflow over the wing, tractor configuration is more common because it allows cleaner airflow to the propeller and provides a better weight distribution. A contra-prop arrangement has a second propeller close behind the first one on the same axis, which rotates in the opposite direction. A variation on the propeller is to use many broad blades to create a fan. Such fans are traditionally surrounded by a ring-shaped fairing or duct, as ducted fans. Many kinds of power plant have been used to drive propellers. The earliest designs used man power to give dirigible balloons some degree of control, and go back to Jean-Pierre Blanchard in 1784. Attempts to achieve heavier-than-air manpowered flight did not succeed fully until Paul MacCready's Gossamer Condor in 1977.

Gossamer Albatross, a human-powered aircraft The first powered flight was made in a steam-powered dirigible by Henri Giffard in 1852. Attempts to marry a practical lightweight steam engine to a practical fixed-wing airframe did not succeed until much later, by which time the internal combustion engine was already dominant. From the first controlled powered fixed-wing aircraft flight by the Wright brothers until World War II, propellers turned by the internal combustion piston engine were virtually the only type of propulsion system in use. The piston engine is still used in the majority of smaller aircraft produced, since it is efficient at the lower altitudes and slower speeds suited to propellers. Turbine engines need not be used as jets (see below), but may be geared to drive a propeller in the form of a turboprop. Modern helicopters also typically use turbine engines to power the rotor. Turbines provide more power for less weight than piston engines, and are better suited to small-to-medium size aircraft or larger, slow-flying types. Some turboprop designs (see below) mount the propeller directly on an engine turbine shaft, and are called propfans. Since the 1940s, propellers and propfans with swept tips or curved "scimitar-shaped" blades have been studied for use in high-speed applications so as to delay the onset of shockwaves, in similar manner to wing sweepback, where the blade tips approach the

speed of sound. The Airbus A400M turboprop transport aircraft is expected to provide the first production example: note that it is not a propfan because the propellers are not mounted direct on the engine shaft but are driven through reduction gearing. Other less common power sources include: • •

Electric motors, often linked to solar panels to create a solar-powered aircraft. Rubber bands, wound many times to store energy, are mostly used for flying models.

Jet Airbreathing jet engines provide thrust by taking in air, burning it with fuel in a combustion chamber, and accelerating the exhaust rearwards so that it ejects at high speed. The reaction against this acceleration provides the engine thrust.

A jet-engined Boeing 777 taking off Jet engines can provide much higher thrust than propellers, and are naturally efficient at higher altitudes, being able to operate above 40,000 ft (12,000 m). They are also much more fuel-efficient at normal flight speeds than rockets. Consequently, nearly all highspeed and high-altitude aircraft use jet engines.

The early turbojet and modern turbofan use a spinning turbine to create airflow for takeoff and to provide thrust. Many, mostly in military aviation, use afterburners which inject extra fuel into the exhaust. Use of a turbine is not absolutely necessary: other designs include the crude pulse jet, high-speed ramjet and the still-experimental supersonic-combustion ramjet or scramjet. These designs require an existing airflow to work and cannot work when stationary, so they must be launched by a catapult or rocket booster, or dropped from a mother ship. The bypass turbofan engines of the Lockheed SR-71 were a hybrid design – the aircraft took off and landed in jet turbine configuration, and for high-speed flight the afterburner was lit and the turbine bypassed, to create a ramjet. The motorjet was a very early design which used a piston engine in place of the combustion chamber, similar to a turbocharged piston engine except that the thrust is derived from the turbine instead of the crankshaft. It was soon superseded by the turbojet and remained a curiosity. Helicopters

HAL Dhruv, a multi-role utility helicopter

The rotor of a helicopter, may, like a propeller, be powered by a variety of methods such as an internal-combustion engine or jet turbine. Tip jets, fed by gases passing along hollow rotor blades from a centrally mounted engine, have been experimented with. Attempts have even been made to mount engines directly on the rotor tips. Helicopters obtain forward propulsion by angling the rotor disc so that a proportion of its lift is directed forwards to provide thrust. Other methods of propulsion •

•

Rocket-powered aircraft have occasionally been experimented with, and the Messerschmitt Komet fighter even saw action in the Second World War. Since then they have been restricted to rather specialised niches, such as the Bell X-1 which broke the sound barrier or the North American X-15 which traveled up into space where no oxygen is available for combustion (rockets carry their own oxidant). Rockets have more often been used as a supplement to the main powerplant, typically to assist takeoff of heavily loaded aircraft, but also in a few experimental designs such as the Saunders-Roe SR.53 to provide a high-speed dash capability. The flapping-wing ornithopter is a category of its own. These designs may have potential, but no practical device has been created beyond research prototypes, simple toys, and a model hawk used to freeze prey into stillness so that it can be captured.

Areas of use The major distinction in aircraft types is between military aircraft, which includes not just combat types but many types of supporting aircraft, and civil aircraft, which include all non-military types.

Saab Gripen, a Swedish multi-role fighter aircraft

Military A military aircraft is any fixed-wing or rotary-wing aircraft that is operated by a legal or insurrectionary armed service of any type. Military aircraft can be either combat or noncombat: • •

Combat aircraft are aircraft designed to destroy enemy equipment using its own armament. Non-Combat aircraft are aircraft not designed for combat as their primary function, but may carry weapons for self-defense. Mainly operating in support roles.

Combat aircraft divide broadly into fighters and bombers, with several in-between types such as fighter-bombers and ground-attack aircraft (including attack helicopters). Other supporting roles are carried out by specialist patrol, search and rescue, reconnaissance, observation, transport, training and Tanker aircraft among others. Many civil aircraft, both fixed-wing and rotary, have been produced in separate models for military use, such as the civil Douglas DC-3 airliner, which became the military C-

47/C-53/R4D transport in the U.S. military and the "Dakota" in the UK and the Commonwealth. Even the small fabric-covered two-seater Piper J3 Cub had a military version, the L-4 liaison, observation and trainer aircraft. Gliders and balloons have also been used as military aircraft; for example, balloons were used for observation during the American Civil War and World War I, and military gliders were used during World War II to land troops.

The Premium Class cabin of Jet Airways Boeing 777

Eurocopter EC 145 of the Rega air rescue service

Civil Civil aircraft divide into commercial and general types, however there are some overlaps. Commercial Commercial aircraft include types designed for scheduled and charter airline flights, carrying both passengers and cargo. The larger passenger-carrying types are often referred to as airliners, the largest of which are wide-body aircraft. Some of the smaller types are also used in general aviation, and some of the larger types are used as VIP aircraft. General aviation General aviation is a catch-all covering other kinds of private and commercial use, and involving a wide range of aircraft types such as business jets (bizjets), trainers, homebuilt, aerobatic types, racers, gliders, warbirds, firefighters, medical transports, and cargo transports, to name a few. The vast majority of aircraft today are general aviation types. Within general aviation, there is a further distinction between private aviation (where the pilot is not paid for time or expenses) and commercial aviation (where the pilot is paid by

a client or employer). The aircraft used in private aviation are usually light passenger, business, or recreational types, and are usually owned or rented by the pilot. The same types may also be used for a wide range of commercial tasks, such as flight training, pipeline surveying, passenger and freight transport, policing, crop dusting, and medical evacuations. However the larger, more complex aircraft are more likely to be found in the commercial sector. For example, piston-powered propeller aircraft (single-engine or twin-engine) are common for both private and commercial general aviation, but for aircraft such as turboprops like the Beechcraft King Air and helicopters like the Bell JetRanger, there are fewer private owners than commercial owners. Conventional business jets are most often flown by paid pilots, whereas the new generation of smaller jets are being produced for private pilots.

Experimental Experimental aircraft are one-off specials, built to explore some aspect of aircraft design and with no other useful purpose. The Bell X-1 rocket plane, which first broke the sound barrier in level flight, is a famous example.

A model aircraft, weighing six grams

Boeing B-17E in flight. The Allies of World War II lost 160,000 airmen and 33,700 planes during the air war over Europe. The formal designation of "experimental aircraft" also includes other types which are "not certified for commercial applications", including one-off modifications of existing aircraft such as the modified Boeing 747 which NASA uses to ferry the space shuttle from landing site to launch site, and aircraft homebuilt by amateurs for their own personal use.

Model A model aircraft is a small unmanned type made to fly for fun, for static display, for aerodynamic research (cf Reynolds number) or for other purposes. A scale model is a replica of some larger design.

Chapter- 10

Pilot Licensing and Certification

Pilot Licensing/Certificate are issued by the National Aviation Authority (NAA) in each country, which establishes that the holder has met a specific set of knowledge and experience requirements. This is sometimes determined by taking a checkride. The certificated pilot can then exercise a specific set of privileges in the nation’s airspace. Despite attempts to harmonize the requirements between nations, the differences in certification practices and standards from place to place serve to limit full international validity of the national qualifications. In addition, U.S. pilots are certificated, not licensed, although the word license is still commonly used informally. Legally, pilot certificates can be revoked by administrative action; whereas licensing (i.e drivers license) requires intervention by the judiciary system. In the U.S., a pilot certificate is issued by the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) — a branch of the Department of Transportation (DOT). A pilot is certificated under the authority of Parts 61 and 141 of Title 14 of the Code of Federal Regulations, also known as the Federal Aviation Regulations (FARs). In Canada, licensing is issued by Transport Canada, and in the United Kingdom licensing is issued by the Civil Aviation Authority (CAA).

Brief History Pilot licensing began not too long after the invention of powered airplanes in 1903. Since much of aviation was invented and took place in the United States and Europe (in particular France) the first of what were ancillary licenses appeared in those nations. In the US the Aero Club of America was a gathering body used to discuss the different advancements in aviation. They were formed around 1905 as an off shoot of the American Automobile Association which already existed. As aeroplanes became more popular after public flights by the Wright Brothers and others more and more people were buying machines and taking to the skies. Since in those days most men built their own machines, they were usually the ones to test fly them and if an individual bought a machine from one of the several manufacturers, then that particular manufacturer had a school to teach the buyer how to fly his aeroplane. the first Aero Club of America certificates were not mandatory and were more for prestige and show. The qualifications for an 'Aero Club' ticket was to ascend in the machine and fly a course of a figure-eight at a given height. Individual states sometimes posed a mandate for a license but it wasn't a

Federal cause until 1917. The first persons to be awarded certificates by the 'Aero Club' were men who had already flown and the bestowing was honorary: • • • • •

1.Glenn Curtiss, 2.Frank Purdy Lahm, 3.Louis Paulhan 4.Orville Wright 5.Wilbur Wright

In Europe there was the Federation Aeronautique Internationale or FAI. It was founded in 1905 and like the 'Aero Club' was a prestigious aviation body where certificates or ratings from them were not mandatory but rather more obligatory. Their criteria was pretty much the same as the 'Aero Club'.

General Structure of Certification Pilots are certificated to fly aircraft at one or more named privilege levels and at each privilege level, rated to fly aircraft of specific categories. Privilege levels of pilot certificates are, in order of increasing privilege: • •

• • • •

•

Student: Cannot fly solo without proper endorsement from a Certified Flight Instructor. Passenger Carrying is Prohibited. Sport: Cannot carry more than one passenger, authorized to fly only Light-sport Aircraft and are limited to daytime flight only. If an individual elects to receive additional instruction, some of the limitations may be removed. Recreational: May fly aircraft of up to 180 horsepower (130 kW) and 4 seats in the daytime for pleasure only. Private: May fly for pleasure or personal business. Private pilots cannot be paid, compensated to fly, or hired by any operator. Commercial: Can be paid, compensated to fly, or hired by operators and are required to have higher training standards than private or sport pilots. Flight Instructors: Flight instructors are commercial pilots who have been trained and can demonstrate various teaching techniques, skills and knowledge related to safely teaching people to fly. Airline Transport Pilot: ATP’s as they are called, typically qualify to fly the major airliners of the US transit system. ATP’s must qualify with a range of experience and training to be considered for this certificate.

Pilot privileges are further broken down into category, class, and type ratings. A category is defined as "a broad classification of aircraft", which a pilot may be rated for: • • •

Airplane Rotorcraft Glider

• • • •

Lighter than air Powered lift Powered parachute Weight-shift-control

A class is defined as "a classification of aircraft within a category having similar operating characteristics": • • • • • • • •

Single engine Multi-engine Land Water Gyroplane Helicopter Airship Free balloon

In addition, a type rating is required for particular aircraft over 12,500 pounds, or aircraft which are turbojet powered. Further endorsements are required for high performance (more than 200 horsepower), complex (retractable landing gear, flaps, and a controllable pitch propeller), or tailwheel equipped aircraft, as well as high altitude operations. Most Private Pilot certificates are issued as "Private Pilot: Airplane Single Engine Land", which means the pilot may employ his piloting privileges in any single engine, land based airplane in which they are qualified. A pilot is only qualified in the category and class of aircraft in which they successfully complete their checkride. A checkride consists of a 2 part process, an oral test and a flight test. During the oral portion, the examiner will quiz the applicant on what was learned in ground school and ask practical questions. The flight test is ensure the applicant is a safe and competent pilot. Checkride examiners job is to see that only safe applicants become pilots. Therefore, a pilot who takes a Commercial Pilot checkride in a multi-engine, land-based aircraft and passes may only exercise the privileges of a Commercial Pilot in multi-engine, land-based aircraft. That pilot may not exercise the privileges of a Commercial Pilot in single engine or sea-based aircraft without passing the appropriate parts of a checkride in those particular categories of aircraft. Typical order in which a pilot obtains ratings: • • • •

Private Pilot (35–40 hours minimum required) Instrument Rating (40–50 hours minimum required) Commercial Pilot (250 hours minimum required) Airline Transport Pilot or ATP (1500 hours total time required)

Note: Hours can often be earned concurrently and are accumulative. For example, after acquiring a private certificate, an instrument rating can be obtained with an additional 20–30 hours hours of training. In the course of the Commercial Pilot training, most pilots

will also receive their high performance and complex endorsements, as well as get a multi-engine rating before applying for the Airline Transport Pilot license. Private Pilot The majority of pilots are Private pilots. To obtain a private pilot license, one must be at least 17 years old and have a minimum of 35–40 hours of flight time, in addition to 20 hours of instruction and 10 hours of solo flight. Pilots trained according to accelerated curricula outlined in Part 141 of the Federal Aviation Regulations may be certified with a minimum of 35 hours of flight time. Private pilots may not fly for compensation or hire. However, they may carry passengers as long as they have the appropriate training, ratings, and endorsements. Private pilots must have a current Class III medical exam, which must be renewed every 24 or 60 months (depending on age). In addition private pilots must revalidate their pilot certificates every 24 months by undertaking a flight review with a certificated flight instructor (CFI). Instrument Rating Instrument rating is technically not a pilot certificate, but an add-on which allows a pilot to fly in weather with reduced visibilities such as rain, low clouds, or heavy haze. When flying in these conditions, pilots follow instrument flight rules (IFR). The training provides the skills needed to complete flights without visual reference to the ground, except for the takeoff and landing phases. All pilots who fly above 18,000 feet mean sea level (msl) must have an instrument rating. This rating requires highly specialized training by a certificated flight instructor (CFI) with a special instrument instruction rating (CFII), and completion of an additional written exam, oral exam, and flight test. Pilots applying for an instrument rating must hold a current private pilot certificate and medical, have logged at least 50 hours of crosscountry flight time as pilot in command, and have at least 40 hours of actual or simulated instrument time including at least 15 hours of instrument flight training and instrument training on cross-country flight procedures. Commercial Pilot Commercial pilots can be paid to fly an aircraft. In order to obtain a commercial pilot’s license one must be at least 18 years old and have a minimum of 250 hours of flight time (190 hours under the accelerated curriculum defined in Part 141 of the Federal Aviation Regulations), including 100 hours in powered aircraft, 50 hours in airplanes, and 100 hours as pilot in command (of which 50 hours must be cross-country flight time). In addition, commercial pilots must hold an instrument rating, or be restricted to flying for hire only in daylight, under visual flight rules (VFR), within 50 miles of the originating airport.

Airline Transport Pilot Airline transport pilots (ATPs) must be at least 23 years old and have a minimum of 1,500 hours of flight time, including 500 hours of cross-country flight time, 100 hours of night flying, and 75 hours in actual or simulated instrument flight conditions. Most ATPs have many thousands of hours of flight time. ATPs also must have a commercial certificate and an instrument rating. ATPs may instruct other pilots in air transportation service in aircraft in which the ATP is rated. ATPs must have a current and much more stringent Class I medical exam, which renew every six months or one year (depending on age). Like all pilots, they must revalidate their certificates every 24 months with a flight review.

Multi-Crew Pilot License MPL pilots must be at least 18 years old, have a minimum of 240 hours of flying training, and 750 hours of theoretical knowledge instruction. Developed by the International Civil Aviation Organization, requirements for the Multi-Crew Pilot License (Aeroplane) MPL(A) were included in the 10th edition of Annex 1 to the Convention on International Civil Aviation (Personnel Licensing) which superseded all previous editions of the Annex on 23 November 2006. MPL is a significant development in training professional pilots. It represents the first time in 30 years that ICAO seriously has reviewed the standards for the training of flightcrew Center Air Pilot Academy in Scandinavia was the first FTO worldwide to graduate MPL pilots. Others include •

Sport pilot certificate (United States only), used for Light-sport aircraft, a category that was designated in 2004. These aircraft are larger and faster than U.S. ultralights, and carry more fuel and often one passenger. The ultralight category of aircraft in the U.S. requires no specific training and no certification.

•

Night rating, enables the private pilot to fly at night. A total of 5 hours night flying (including at least 3 hours of dual instructions), 1 hour cross country navigation, 5 solo flights and 5 full stop landings are required to gain this rating. The pilot can add various ratings as they wish.

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Chapter- 11

Air Safety

NASA air safety experiment (CID project) Air safety is a term encompassing the theory, investigation and categorization of flight failures, and the prevention of such failures through regulation, education and training. It can also be applied in the context of campaigns that inform the public as to the safety of air travel.

Institutions United States During the 1920s, the first laws were passed in the USA to regulate civil aviation. Of particular significance was the Air Commerce Act 1926, which required pilots and aircraft to be examined and licensed, for accidents to be properly investigated, and for the establishment of safety rules and navigation aids, under the Aeronautics Branch of the Department of Commerce. Despite this, in 1926 and 1927 there were a total of 24 fatal commercial airline crashes, a further 16 in 1928, and 51 in 1929 (killing 61 people), which remains the worst year on record at an accident rate of about 1 for every 1,000,000 miles (1,600,000 km) flown. Based on the current numbers flying, this would equate to 7,000 fatal incidents per year. The fatal incident rate has declined steadily ever since, and, since 1997 the number of fatal air accidents has been no more than 1 for every 2,000,000,000 person-miles flown (e.g., 100 people flying a plane for 1,000 miles (1,600 km) counts as 100,000 personmiles, making it comparable with methods of transportation with different numbers of passengers, such as one person driving a car for 100,000 miles (160,000 km), which is also 100,000 person-miles), making it one of the safest modes of transportation, as measured by distance traveled. A disproportionate number of all U.S. aircraft crashes occur in Alaska, largely as a result of severe weather conditions. Between 1990-2006 there were 1441 commuter and air taxi crashes in the U.S. of which 373 (26%) were fatal, resulting in 1063 deaths (142 occupational pilot deaths). Alaska accounted for 513 (36%) of the total U.S. crashes. Another aspect of safety is protection from attack currently known as Security (as the ISO definition of safety encompasses non-intentional (safety_safety) and intentional (safety_security) causes of harm or property damage). The terrorist attacks of 2001 are not counted as accidents. However, even if they were counted as accidents they would have added only about 2 deaths per 2,000,000,000 person-miles. Only 2 months later, American Airlines Flight 587 crashed in Queens, NY, killing 256 people, including 5 on the ground, causing 2001 to show a very high fatality rate. Even so, the rate that year including the attacks (estimated here to be about 4 deaths per 1,000,000,000 personmiles), is safe compared to some other forms of transport, if measured by distance traveled. Safety improvements have resulted from improved aircraft design, engineering and maintenance, the evolution of navigation aids, and safety protocols and procedures. It is often reported that air travel is the safest in terms of deaths per passenger mile. The National Transportation Safety Board (2006) reports 1.3 deaths per hundred million vehicle miles for travel by car, and 1.7 deaths per hundred million vehicle miles for travel by air. These are not passenger miles. If an airplane has 100 passengers, then the

passenger miles are 100 times higher, making the risk 100 times lower. The number of deaths per passenger mile on commercial airlines between 1995 and 2000 is about 3 deaths per 10 billion passenger miles.

Navigation aids and instrument flight One of the first navigation aids to be introduced (in the USA in the late 1920s) was airfield lighting to assist pilots to make landings in poor weather or after dark. The Precision Approach Path Indicator was developed from this in the 1930s, indicating to the pilot the angle of descent to the airfield. This later became adopted internationally through the standards of the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO). In 1929 Jimmy Doolittle developed instrument flight. With the spread of radio technology, several experimental radio based navigation aids were developed from the late 1920s onwards. These were most successfully used in conjunction with instruments in the cockpit in the form of Instrument landing systems (ILS), first used by a scheduled flight to make a landing in a snowstorm at Pittsburgh in 1938. A form of ILS was adopted by the ICAO for international use in 1949. Following the development of radar in World War II, it was deployed as a landing aid for civil aviation in the form of Ground-controlled approach (GCA) systems, joined in 1948 by distance measuring equipment (DME), and in the 1950s by airport surveillance radar as an aid to air traffic control. VHF omnidirectional range (VOR) stations became the predominate means of route navigation during the 1960s, superseding the low frequency radio ranges and the Non-directional beacon (NDB). The ground based VOR stations were often co-located with DME transmitters and then labeled as VOR-DME stations on navigation charts. VORTAC stations, which combined VOR and TACAN features (military TACtical Air Navigation) — the latter including both a DME distance feature and a separate TACAN azimuth feature, which provides military pilots data similar to the civilian VOR, were also used in that new system. With the proper receiving equipment in the aircraft, pilots could know their radials in degrees to/from the VOR station, as well as the slant range distance to/from, if the station was co-located with DME or TACAN. All of the ground-based navigation aids are being supplemented by satellite-based aids like Global Positioning System (GPS), which make it possible for aircrews to know their position with great precision anywhere in the world. With the arrival of Wide Area Augmentation System (WAAS), GPS navigation has become accurate enough for vertical (altitude) as well as horizontal use, and is being used increasingly for instrument approaches as well as en-route navigation. However, since the GPS constellation is a single point of failure that can be switched off by the U.S. military in time of crisis, onboard Inertial Navigation System (INS) or ground-based navigation aids are still required for backup.

Air safety topics Misinformation and lack of information

Herzliya Airport (Israel) Runway location and airfield traffic pattern chart (left) was erroneously printed as a result of "black layer" 180° misplacement. The corrected chart is on the right. A pilot might fly the plane in an accident-prone manner when misinformed by a printed document (manual, map etc.), by reacting to a faulty instrument or indicator (either in cockpit or on ground) or by following inaccurate instructions or information from flight or ground control. Lack of information by the control tower, or delayed instructions, are major factors contributing to accidents.

Lightning Boeing studies have shown that airliners are struck by lightning on average of twice per year. While the "flash and bang" is startling to the passengers and crew, aircraft are able to withstand normal lightning strikes.

The dangers of more powerful positive lightning were not understood until the destruction of a glider in 1999. It has since been suggested that positive lightning may have caused the crash of Pan Am Flight 214 in 1963. At that time aircraft were not designed to withstand such strikes, since their existence was unknown at the time standards were set. The 1985 standard in force at the time of the glider crash, Advisory Circular AC 20-53A, was replaced by Advisory Circular AC 20-53B in 2006, however it is unclear whether adequate protection against positive lighting was incorporated. The effects of normal lightning on traditional metal-covered aircraft are well understood and serious damage from a lightning strike on an airplane is rare. However, as more and more aircraft, like the upcoming Boeing 787, whose whole exterior is made of nonconducting composite materials take to the skies, additional design effort and testing must be made before certification authorities will permit these aircraft in commercial service.

Ice and snow Snowy and icy conditions are frequent contributors to airline accidents. The December 8, 2005 accident where Southwest Airlines Flight 1248 slid off the end of the runway in heavy snow conditions is just one of many examples. Just as on a road, ice and snow buildup can make braking and steering difficult or impossible. The icing of wings is another problem and measures have been developed to combat it. Even a small amount of ice or coarse frost can greatly decrease the ability of a wing to develop lift. This could prevent an aircraft from taking off. If ice builds up during flight the result can be catastrophic as evidenced by the crash of American Eagle Flight 4184 (an ATR 72 aircraft) near Roselawn, Indiana on October 31, 1994, killing 68, or Air Florida Flight 90. Airlines and airports ensure that aircraft are properly de-iced before takeoff whenever the weather threatens to create icing conditions. Modern airliners are designed to prevent ice buildup on wings, engines, and tails (empennage) by either routing heated air from jet engines through the leading edges of the wing, tail, and inlets, or on slower aircraft, by use of inflatable rubber "boots" that expand and break off any accumulated ice. Finally, airline dispatch offices keep watch on weather along the routes of their flights, helping the pilots avoid the worst of inflight icing conditions. Pilots can also be equipped with an ice detector in order to leave icy areas they have flown into.

Engine failure Although aircraft are now designed to fly even after the failure of one or more aircraft engines, the failure of the second engine on one side for example is obviously serious. Losing all engine power is even more serious, as illustrated by the 1970 Dominicana DC9 air disaster, when fuel contamination caused the failure of both engines. To have an emergency landing site is then very important.

In the 1983 Gimli Glider incident, an Air Canada flight suffered fuel exhaustion during cruise flight, forcing the pilot to glide the plane to an emergency deadstick landing. The automatic deployment of the ram air turbine maintained the necessary hydraulic pressure to the flight controls, so that the pilot was able to land with only a minimal amount of damage to the plane, and minor (evacuation) injuries to a few passengers. The ultimate form of engine failure, physical separation, occurred in 1979 when a complete engine detached from American Airlines Flight 191, causing damage to the aircraft and loss of control.

Metal fatigue Metal fatigue has caused failure either of the engine or of the aircraft body. Examples: • • •

the January 8, 1989 Kegworth air disaster De Havilland Comets accidents in 1953 and 1954 Aloha Airlines Flight 243 in 1988

Now that the subject is better understood, rigorous inspection and nondestructive testing procedures are in place.

Delamination Composite materials consist of layers of fibers embedded in a resin matrix. In some cases, especially when subjected to cyclic stress, the fibers may tear off the matrix, the layers of the material then separate from each other - a process called delamination, and form a mica-like structure which then falls apart. As the failure develops inside the material, nothing is shown on the surface; instrument methods (often ultrasound-based) have to be used to detect such a material failure. Aircraft have developed delamination problems, but most were discovered before they caused a catastrophic failure. Delamination risk is as old as composite material. Even in the 1940s, several Yakovlev Yak-9s experienced delamination of plywood in their construction.

Stalling Stalling an aircraft (increasing the angle of attack to a point at which the wings fail to produce enough lift), can be dangerous and can result in a crash unless the pilot reacts in the proper manner. Upon entering a stall, the pilot will need an adequate altitude buffer to regain control, reduce the angle of attack to a point where the boundary layer reattaches to the wing, and airspeed is brought up to where level flight can resume. Stalls are most dangerous at low altitudes, which occur during takeoff and landing.

Devices have been developed to warn the pilot when the plane's speed is coming close to the stall speed. These include stall warning horns (now standard on virtually all powered aircraft), stick shakers and voice warnings. Most stalls are a result of the pilot allowing the plane to go too slow for the particular weight and configuration at the time. However, because flow separation (stall) is purely a function of angle of attack, most aircraft can be pushed hard enough to cause a stall even at high speeds (those that can't simply lack the control authority to change the angle of attack enough at speed to induce a stall). Notable crashes, caused by a full stall of the airfoils: • • • • • • • • •

British European Airways Flight 548, June 18, 1972 United Airlines Flight 553, December 8, 1972 Aeroflot Flight 7425, July 10, 1985 Arrow Air Flight 1285, December 12, 1985 Northwest Airlines Flight 255, August 16, 1987 Delta Air Lines Flight 1141, August 31, 1988 The Paul Wellstone King Air Charter crash, October 25, 2002 Colgan Air Flight 3407, February 12, 2009 Turkish Airlines Flight 1951, February 25, 2009

Fire Safety regulations control aircraft materials and the requirements for automated fire safety systems. Usually these requirements take the form of required tests. The tests measure flammability and the toxicity of smoke. When the tests fail, they fail on a prototype in an engineering laboratory, rather than in an aircraft. Fire on board the aircraft, and more especially the toxic smoke generated, have been the cause of accidents. An electrical fire on Air Canada Flight 797 in 1983 caused the deaths of 23 of the 46 passengers, resulting in the introduction of floor level lighting to assist people to evacuate a smoke-filled aircraft. Two years later a fire on the runway caused the loss of 55 lives, 48 from the effects of incapacitating and subsequently lethal toxic gas and smoke, in the 1985 British Airtours Flight 28M. That accident raised serious concerns relating to survivability, something that prior to 1985 had not been studied in such detail. The swift incursion of the fire into the fuselage and the layout of the aircraft impaired passengers' ability to evacuate, with areas such as the forward galley area becoming a bottle-neck for escaping passengers, with some dying very close to the exits. A large amount of research into evacuation and cabin and seating layouts was carried at Cranfield Institute to try to measure what makes a good evacuation route, which led to the seat layout by Overwing exits being changed by mandate and the examination of evacuation requirements relating to the design of galley areas. The use of smoke hoods or misting systems were also examined although both were rejected. The cargo holds of most airliners are equipped with "fire bottles" (essentially remotecontrolled fire extinguishers) to combat a fire that might occur in the baggage holds, below the passenger cabin. In May 1996 ValuJet Airlines Flight 592 crashed into the

Florida Everglades a few minutes after takeoff after a fire broke out in the forward cargo hold. All 110 aboard were killed. At one time fire fighting foam paths were laid down before an emergency landing, but the practice was considered only marginally effective, and concerns about the depletion of fire fighting capability due to pre-foaming led the United States FAA to withdraw its recommendation in 1987.

Bird strike Bird strike is an aviation term for a collision between a bird and an aircraft. It is a common threat to aircraft safety and has caused a number of fatal accidents. In 1988 an Ethiopian Airlines Boeing 737 sucked pigeons into both engines during take-off and then crashed in an attempt to return to the Bahir Dar airport; of the 104 people aboard, 35 died and 21 were injured. In another incident in 1995, a Dassault Falcon 20 crashed at a Paris airport during an emergency landing attempt after sucking lapwings into an engine, which caused an engine failure and a fire in the airplane fuselage; all 10 people on board were killed. Canada Geese were ingested into the engines of US Airways 1549 causing the engines to fail on the Airbus A320 that crash landed onto the Hudson River. Modern jet engines have the capability of surviving an ingestion of a bird. Small fast planes, such as military jet fighters, are at higher risk than heavy multi-engine ones. This is due to the fact that the fan of a high-bypass turbofan engine, typical on transport aircraft, acts as a centrifugal separator to force ingested materials (birds, ice, etc.) to the outside of the fan's disc. As a result, such materials go through the relatively unobstructed bypass duct, rather than through the core of the engine, which contains the smaller and more delicate compressor blades. Military aircraft designed for high-speed flight typically have pure turbojet, or low-bypass turbofan engines, increasing the risk that ingested materials will get into the core of the engine to cause damage. The highest risk of the bird strike is during the takeoff and landing, in low altitudes, which is in the vicinity of the airports. Some airports use active countermeasures, ranging from a person with a shotgun through recorded sounds of predators to employing falconers. Poisonous grass can be planted that is not palatable to birds, nor to insects that attract insectivorous birds. Passive countermeasures involve sensible land-use management, avoiding conditions attracting flocks of birds to the area (e.g. landfills). Another tactic found effective is to let the grass at the airfield grow taller (approximately 12 inches (30 centimetres)) as some species of birds won't land if they cannot see one another. Bird strike can also break windshields and wound the pilot.

Ground damage Aircraft are occasionally damaged by ground equipment at the airport. In the act of servicing the aircraft between flights a great deal of ground equipment must operate in

close proximity to the fuselage and wings. Occasionally the aircraft gets bumped or worse. Damage may be in the form of simple scratches in the paint or small dents in the skin. However, because aircraft structures (including the outer skin) play such a critical role in the safe operation of a flight, all damage is inspected, measured and possibly tested to ensure that any damage is within safe tolerances. A dent that may look no worse than common "parking lot damage" to an automobile can be serious enough to ground an airplane until a repair can be made. An example of the seriousness of this problem was the December 26, 2005 depressurization incident on Alaska Airlines flight 536. During ground services a baggage handler hit the side of the aircraft with a tug towing a train of baggage carts. This damaged the metal skin of the aircraft. This damage was not reported and the plane departed. Climbing through 26,000 feet (7,900 metres) the damaged section of the skin gave way due to the growing difference in pressure between the inside of the aircraft and the outside air. The cabin depressurized with a bang, frightening all aboard and necessitating a rapid descent back to denser (breathable) air and an emergency landing. Post landing examination of the fuselage revealed a 12 in × 6 in (30 cm × 15 cm) hole between the middle and forward cargo doors on the right side of the airplane. The three pieces of ground equipment that most frequently damage aircraft are the passenger boarding bridge, catering trucks, and cargo "beltloaders." However, any other equipment found on an airport ramp can damage an aircraft through careless use, high winds, mechanical failure, and so on. The generic industry colloquial term for this damage is "ramp rash", or "hangar rash".

Volcanic ash Plumes of volcanic ash near active volcanoes present a risk especially for night flights. The ash is hard and abrasive and can quickly cause significant wear on the propellers and turbocompressor blades, and scratch the cockpit windows, impairing visibility. It contaminates fuel and water systems, can jam gears, and can cause a flameout of the engines. Its particles have low melting point, so they melt in the combustion chamber and the ceramic mass then sticks on the turbine blades, fuel nozzles, and the combustors, which can lead to a total engine failure. It can get inside the cabin and contaminate everything there, and can damage the airplane electronics. There are many instances of damage to jet aircraft from ash encounters. In one of them in 1982, British Airways Flight 9 flew through an ash cloud, lost all four engines, and descended from 36,000 ft (11,000 m) to only 12,000 ft (3,700 m) before the flight crew managed to restart the engines. A similar incident occurred on December 15, 1989 involving KLM Flight 867.

With the growing density of air traffic, encounters like this are becoming more common. In 1991 the aviation industry decided to set up Volcanic Ash Advisory Centers (VAACs), one for each of 9 regions of the world, acting as liaisons between meteorologists, volcanologists, and the aviation industry. Prior to the European air travel disruption of April 2010, aircraft engine manufacturers had not defined specific particle levels above which engines were considered to be at risk. The general approach taken by airspace regulators was that if the ash concentration rose above zero, then the airspace was considered unsafe and was consequently closed. The April 2010 eruptions of Eyjafjallajökull caused sufficient economic difficulties that aircraft manufacturers were forced to define specific limits on how much ash is considered acceptable for a jet engine to ingest without damage. In April, the CAA, in conjunction with engine manufacturers, set the safe upper limit of ash density to be 2 mg per cubic metre of air space. From noon 18 May 2010, the CAA revised the safe limit upwards to 4 mg per cubic metre of air space. In order to minimise the level of further disruption that this and other volcanic eruptions could cause, the CAA announced the creation of a new category of restricted airspace called a Time Limited Zone. Airspace categorised as TLZ is similar to airspace experiencing severe weather conditions in that the restrictions are expected to be of a short duration; however, the key difference with TLZ airspace is that airlines must produce certificates of compliance in order for their aircraft to enter these areas. Flybe was the first airline to conform to these regulations and their aircraft will be permitted to enter airspace in which the ash density is between 2 mg and 4 mg per cubic metre. Any airspace in which the ash density exceeds 4 mg per cubic metre is categorised as a no fly zone. Aviation risks of flight through downstream ash clouds It is important to make a distinction between flight through (or in immediate vicinity of) the eruption plume and flight through so-called affected airspace. Volcanic ash in the immediate vicinity of the eruption plume is of an entirely different particle size range and density to that found in downwind dispersal clouds which contain only the finest grade of ash. The ash loading at which this process affects normal engine operation is not established beyond the awareness that relatively high ash densities must exist. Whether this silica-melt risk remains at the much lower ash densities characteristic of downstream ash clouds is currently unclear. This is therefore a serious safety hazard which invites preventive risk management strategies in line with other comparable aviation risks.

Human factors

NASA air safety experiment. The airplane is a Boeing 720 testing a form of jet fuel containing the additive FM-9, known as "Antimisting kerosene" (AMK), which formed a hard-to-ignite gel when agitated violently, as in a crash. Human factors including pilot error are another potential danger, and currently the most common factor of aviation crashes. Much progress in applying human factors to improving aviation safety was made around the time of World War II by people such as Paul Fitts and Alphonse Chapanis. However, there has been progress in safety throughout the history of aviation, such as the development of the pilot's checklist in 1937. Pilot error and improper communication are often factors in the collision of aircraft. This can take place in the air (1978 Pacific Southwest Airlines Flight 182) (TCAS) or on the ground (1977 Tenerife disaster) (RAAS). The ability of the flight crew to maintain situational awareness is a critical human factor in air safety. Human factors training is available to general aviation pilots and called single pilot resource management training. Failure of the pilots to properly monitor the flight instruments resulted in the crash of Eastern Air Lines Flight 40 in 1972 (CFIT), and error during take-off and landing can have catastrophic consequences, for example cause the crash of Prinair Flight 191 on landing, also in 1972. Rarely, flight crew members are arrested or subject to disciplinary action for being intoxicated on the job. In 1990, three Northwest Airlines crew members were sentenced

to jail for flying from Fargo, North Dakota to Minneapolis-Saint Paul International Airport while drunk. In 2001, Northwest fired a pilot who failed a breathalyzer test after flying from San Antonio, Texas to Minneapolis-Saint Paul. In July 2002, two America West Airlines pilots were arrested just before they were scheduled to fly from Miami, Florida to Phoenix, Arizona because they had been drinking alcohol. The pilots have been fired from America West and the FAA revoked their pilot's licenses. As of 2005 they await trial in a Florida court. The incident created a public relations problem and America West has become the object of many jokes about drunk pilots. At least one fatal airliner accident involving drunk pilots has occurred when Aero Flight 311 crashed killing all 25 on board in 1961, which underscores the role that poor human choices can play in air accidents. Human factors incidents are not limited to errors by the pilots. The failure to close a cargo door properly on Turkish Airlines Flight 981 in 1974 resulted in the loss of the aircraft - however the design of the cargo door latch was also a major factor in the incident. In the case of Japan Airlines Flight 123, improper maintenance resulted in the loss of the vertical stabilizer. Controlled flight into terrain Controlled flight into terrain is a class of accident in which an undamaged aircraft is flown, under control, into terrain or man-made structures. CFIT accidents typically are a result of pilot error or of navigational system error. Some pilots, convinced that advanced electronic navigation systems such as GPS and inertial guidance systems (inertial navigation system or INS) coupled with flight management system computers, or overreliance on them, are partially responsible for these accidents, have called CFIT accidents "computerized flight into terrain". Failure to protect Instrument Landing System critical areas can also cause controlled flight into terrain. One of the most notable CFIT accidents was in December 1995 in which American Airlines flight 965 tracked off course while approaching Calí, Colombia and hit a mountainside after the speedbrakes were left deployed despite an aural terrain warning in the cockpit and an attempt to gain ample altitude in the nighttime contidions. Crew awareness and monitoring of navigational systems can prevent or eliminate CFIT accidents. Crew Resource Management is a modern method now widely used to improve the human factors of air safety. The Aviation Safety Reporting System, or ASRS is another. Other technical aids can be used to help pilots maintain situational awareness. A ground proximity warning system is an on-board system that will alert a pilot if the aircraft is about to fly into the ground. Also, air traffic controllers constantly monitor flights from the ground and at airports. Terrorism Terrorism can also be considered a human factor. Crews are normally trained to handle hijack situations. Prior to the September 11, 2001 attacks, hijackings involved hostage negotiations. After the September 11, 2001 attacks, stricter airport security measures are

in place to prevent terrorism using a Computer Assisted Passenger Prescreening System, Air Marshals, and precautionary policies. In addition, counter-terrorist organizations monitor potential terrorist activity. Although most air crews are screened for psychological fitness, some may take suicidal actions. In the case of EgyptAir Flight 990, it appears that the first officer deliberately dived his aircraft into the Atlantic Ocean while the captain was away from his station, in 1999 off Nantucket, Massachusetts. Motivations are unclear, but recorded inputs from the black boxes showed no mechanical problem, no other aircraft in the area, and was corroborated by the cockpit voice recorder. The use of certain electronic equipment is partially or entirely prohibited as it may interfere with aircraft operation, such as causing compass deviations. Use of personal electronic devices and calculators may be prohibited when an aircraft is below 10,000', taking off, or landing. The American Federal Communications Commission (FCC) prohibits the use of a cell phone on most flights, because in-flight usage creates problems with ground-based cells. There is also concern about possible interference with aircraft navigation systems, although that has never been proven to be a non-serious risk on airliners. A few flights now allow use of cell phones, where the aircraft have been specially wired and certified to meet both FAA and FCC regulations. Attack by a hostile country Aircraft, whether passenger planes or military aircraft, are sometimes attacked in both peacetime and war. Notable examples of this are: •

• • •

On February 21, 1973 Libyan Arab Airlines Flight 114 727-224 entered the thenIsraeli-controlled airspace over the Sinai Peninsula, was intercepted by two Israeli F-4 Phantom IIs and shot down while trying to re-enter Egyptian airspace after failing to follow instructions issued by the Israeli pilots. Of the 113 people on board, there were 5 survivors, including the co-pilot. 1 September 1983 downing by the Soviet Union of Korean Air Lines Flight 007, carrying 269 people (including a sitting U.S. Congressman Larry McDonald), 3 July 1988 shoot-down by United States Navy of Iran Air Flight 655, carrying 290 people. 4 October 2001 shoot-down by Ukrainian Air Force of Russian flight 1812 (TelAviv - Novosibirsk), carrying 78 people.

Airport design Airport design and location can have a big impact on air safety, especially since some airports such as Chicago Midway International Airport were originally built for propeller planes and many airports are in congested areas where it is difficult to meet newer safety standards. For instance, the FAA issued rules in 1999 calling for a runway safety area, usually extending 500 feet (150 m) to each side and 1,000 feet (300 m) beyond the end of a runway. This is intended to cover ninety percent of the cases of an aircraft leaving the

runway by providing a buffer space free of obstacles. Since this is a recent rule, many airports do not meet it. One method of substituting for the 1,000 feet (300 m) at the end of a runway for airports in congested areas is to install an Engineered materials arrestor system, or EMAS. These systems are usually made of a lightweight, crushable concrete that absorbs the energy of the aircraft to bring it to a rapid stop. They have stopped three aircraft (as of 2005) at JFK Airport.

Infection On an airplane, people sit in a confined space for extended periods of time, which increases the risk of transmission of airborne infections. For this reason, airlines place restrictions on the travel of passengers with known airborne contagious diseases (e.g. tuberculosis). During the severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) epidemic of 2003, awareness of the possibility of acquisition of infection on a commercial aircraft reached its zenith when on one flight from Hong Kong to Beijing, 16 of 120 people on the flight developed proven SARS from a single index case. There is very limited research done on contagious diseases on aircraft. The two most common respiratory pathogens to which air passengers are exposed are parainfluenza and influenza. In one study, the flight ban imposed following the attacks of September 11, 2001 was found to have restricted the global spread of seasonal influenza, resulting in a much milder influenza season that year, and the ability of influenza to spread on aircraft has been well documented. There is no data on the relative contributions of large droplets, small particles, close contact, surface contamination, and no data on the relative importance of any of these methods of transmission for specific diseases, and therefore very little information on how to control the risk of infection. There is no standardisation of air handling by aircraft, installation of HEPA filters or of hand washing by air crew, and no published information on the relative efficacy of any of these interventions in reducing the spread of infection.

Emergency airplane evacuations According to a 2000 report by the National Transportation Safety Board, emergency airplane evacuations happen about once every 11 days in the U.S. While some situations are extremely dire, such as when the plane is on fire, in many cases the greatest challenge for passengers can be the use of the airplane slide. In a TIME article on the subject, Amanda Ripley reported that when a new supersized Airbus A380 underwent mandatory evacuation tests in 2006, 33 of the 873 evacuating volunteers got hurt. While the evacuation was generally considered a success, one volunteer suffered a broken leg, while the remaining 32 received slide burns. Such accidents are common. In her article, Ripley provides tips on how to make it down the airplane slide without injury.

Runway safety Several terms fall under the flight safety topic of runway safety, including incursion, excursion, and confusion.

Runway excursion is an incident involving only a single aircraft, where it makes an inappropriate exit from the runway. This can happen because of pilot error, poor weather, or a fault with the aircraft. Overrun is a type of excursion where the aircraft is unable to stop before the end of the runway. A recent example of such an event is Air France Flight 358 in 2005. Further examples can be found in the overruns category. Runway event is another term for a runway accident. Runway incursion involves a first aircraft, as well as a second aircraft, vehicle, or person. It is defined by the U.S. FAA as: "Any occurrence at an aerodrome involving the incorrect presence of an aircraft, vehicle or person on the protected area of a surface designated for the landing and take off of aircraft." Runway confusion involves a single aircraft, and is used to describe the error when the aircraft makes "the unintentional use of the wrong runway, or a taxiway, for landing or take-off". An example of a runway confusion incident is Comair Flight 191. Runway excursion is the most frequent type of landing accident, slightly ahead of runway incursion. For runway accidents recorded between 1995 and 2007, 96% were of the 'excursion' type. The U.S. FAA publishes a lengthy annual report on runway safety issues, available from the FAA website here. New systems designed to improve runway safety, such as Airport Movement Area Safety System (AMASS) and Runway Awareness and Advisory System (RAAS), are discussed in the report. AMASS prevented the serious near-collision in the 2007 San Francisco International Airport runway incursion.

Accidents and incidents • • • •

List of airship accidents Lists of aviation accidents and incidents Aviation accidents and incidents Flight recorder, includes flight data recorder and cockpit voice recorder

Statistics There are three main statistics which may be used to compare the safety of various forms of travel: Deaths per billion passengerjourneys Bus 4.3 Rail 20 Van 20 Car 40

Foot Water Air Bicycle Motorcycle

40 90 117 170 1640

Deaths per billion passenger-hours Bus 11.1 Rail 30 30.8 Air Water 50 Van 60 Car 130 Foot 220 Bicycle 550 Motorcycle 4840 Deaths per billion passenger-kilometres 0.05 Air Bus 0.4 Rail 0.6 Van 1.2 Water 2.6 Car 3.1 Bicycle 44.6 Foot 54.2 Motorcycle 108.9 It is worth noting that the air industry's insurers base their calculations on the number of deaths per passenger-journey statistic while the industry itself generally uses the number of deaths per passenger-kilometre statistic in press releases. However, considering the "number of deaths per passenger-journey" statistic, it should also be noted that an average person makes far fewer number of journeys by the air than by car, bus or train in a year.