A Chronology of European Security and Defence 1945-2006

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Author: Julian Lindley-French

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A Chronology of European Security & Defence 1945–2007

To Pia and Virginia who believed everything possible . . .

A Chronology of European Security & Defence 1945–2007

J U L I A N L I N D L EY-F R E N C H

1

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Great Clarendon Street, Oxford ox2 6dp Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford. It furthers the University’s objective of excellence in research, scholarship, and education by publishing worldwide in Oxford New York Auckland Cape Town Dar es Salaam Hong Kong Karachi Kuala Lumpur Madrid Melbourne Mexico City Nairobi New Delhi Shanghai Taipei Toronto With oﬃces in Argentina Austria Brazil Chile Czech Republic France Greece Guatemala Hungary Italy Japan Poland Portugal Singapore South Korea Switzerland Thailand Turkey Ukraine Vietnam Oxford is a registered trademark of Oxford University Press in the UK and in certain other countries Published in the United States by Oxford University Press Inc., New York © Oxford University Press 2007 The moral rights of the author have been asserted Database right Oxford University Press (maker) First published 2007 All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without the prior permission in writing of Oxford University Press, or as expressly permitted by law, or under terms agreed with the appropriate reprographics rights organization. Enquiries concerning reproduction outside the scope of the above should be sent to the Rights Department, Oxford University Press, at the address above You must not circulate this book in any other binding or cover and you must impose the same condition on any acquirer British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data Data available Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data Data available Typeset by SPI Publisher Services, Pondicherry, India Printed in Great Britain on acid-free paper by Biddles Ltd., King’s Lynn, Norfolk ISBN 978–0–19–921432–7 1 3 5 7 9 10 8 6 4 2

Preface

The purpose of this book is to demonstrate continuity in European security and defence by establishing the link between the events that dominate today’s headlines and their origins. Indeed, almost all contemporary events have their origins in history, in particular recent history. Understand these origins and you will understand why the challenges of the present age are both enduring and complex. The concept for A Chronology of European Security & Defence 1945–2006 emerged from my time at the EU Institute for Security Studies in Paris and the Geneva Centre for Security Policy. Countless conversations with policy-makers, practitioners, academics, commentators, and students led me to the conclusion that such was the complexity of Europe’s post-war security and defence story that only a detailed annotated chronology would suﬃce to close the very evident gap in the literature. I had developed an initial chronology while studying at the European University Institute in Florence in the 1990s, but it was apparent even then that a mere list of dates would not capture the richness of the story. A thorough extension and update of this initial chronology followed during the last year, and the result is a very personal interpretation of European security and defence and the many events that have formed and shaped it. There are, no doubt, some omissions, for which I apologize. Developing such a chronology is inevitably like cleaning large windows—one always misses something. If the reader can forgive the occasional lapse, however, I am convinced that the Chronology will help plot a way through the jungle of European security and defence that is both informative and enjoyable. This edition has been produced by Oxford University Press. As an alumnus of Oxford University I am deeply honoured to be able to publish a work that I ﬁrmly believe will be of great utility to anyone with an interest in how we got here, from where we were then. Indeed, as an Oxford historian it is impossible for me to believe that one can adequately explain the present without a grasp of the past.

[vi] preface Dominic Byatt at Oxford University Press has been unstinting in his help and encouragement for which I am most grateful. I am also grateful to Katja Flückiger for her sterling work on the ﬁrst edition. Above all, I would like to thank my wife Corine Schouten for her work and support in the preparation of this book. She has proved invaluable . . . as ever! My thanks are sincere and heartfelt. J. L-F. Lage Zwaluwe, Netherlands July 2007

Contents

About the Author How the Chronology Works List of Abbreviations and Acronyms

PART 1: 1945–1949 The Formative Years

viii ix x

1

PART 2: 1950–1959 The Long Haul

19

PART 3: 1960–1969 The Dawn of Reason

65

PART 4: 1970–1979 The Lukewarm Peace

99

PART 5: 1980–1989 Countdown to Freedom

133

PART 6: 1990–1999 The Strategic Vacation

175

PART 7: 2000–2007 A Brave New Century?

261

Sources

361 363

Index

About the Author

Julian Lindley-French was born in Sheﬃeld, Yorkshire in 1958. He is currently Professor of Military Operational Science, the Defence Academy of the Netherlands, Senior Associate Fellow of the Defence Academy of the United Kingdom, and Senior Scholar with the Centre for Applied Policy at the University of Munich. He is a former Director of the International Security Policy Training Course at the Geneva Centre for Security Policy. A historian by training, he is an Oxford Blue who graduated from Oxford University in 1980. He received a Masters Degree in International Relations (with distinction) from UEA in 1992 and a doctorate in political science from the European University Institute in Florence in 1996. He has lectured in European Security at the Department of War Studies, Kings College London, and therein was Deputy Director of the International Centre for Security Analysis (ICSA). He was also Senior Research Fellow at the EU Institute for Security Studies in Paris and has acted as a consultant to NATO in Brussels where in 1999 he was recognized for outstanding service. He is a regular contributor to the International Herald Tribune and Wall Street Journal. His recent works include A European Defence Strategy (Gutersloh: Bertelsmann 2004), and Why Europe Must Be Strong . . . and the World Needs a Strong Europe (Gutersloh: Bertelsmann 2005). In June 2005 he published ‘Power and Bleakness’ in International Spectator and in January 2006, ‘Big NATO, Big World, Big Future’, in NATO Review which helped set the debate on NATO’s Global Partnerships. In January 2007 he published NATO: The Enduring Alliance for Routledge in the US and Europe. In October 2007 he also published ‘Beyond 2010: European Grand Strategy in a Global Age’ For the Bertelsmann Foundation. He is currently working on a book on British National Strategy. In January 2007 he published ‘The Capability–Capacity Crunch: NATO’s New Capacities for Military Intervention’ in European Security.

How the Chronology Works

A Chronology of European Security & Defence 1945–2006 is divided into seven parts. Each part is introduced by a short essay that tells the story of the period covered. Each year is then treated as a distinct chronological entity. There is an overview of major events and themes that enables the reader to get a ﬂavour of any particular year. Individual events are then organized chronologically, with speciﬁc dates given where possible together with an explanatory passage or statement. Each event is then given a subheading to put it into historical context so that readers can follow particular thematic developments if they so wish. The Chronology considers institutional and policy developments and actions taken within and between international bodies such as the European Economic Community/European Community/European Union (EEC/EC/EU), the Conference on Security and Co-operation in Europe/Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (CSCE/OSCE), the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) and the Western European Union (WEU). Equally, the Chronology also covers developments in speciﬁc countries and major world events in order to place European security and defence in context and explain the drivers of change to which Europe is subject. In addition, those social and economic events that have had a considerable impact upon, and are inﬂuenced by, security and defence, are included. However, a chronology is not, and can never be, a historical analysis. Through the commentaries and explanations it provides, however, the work aims to give the reader more than just a list of events. Rather, it oﬀers perspectives and insights that place European security and defence in their historical context.

List of Abbreviations and Acronyms

ABM ACE ACLANT ACO ACT AFSOUTH AGS AKP ARRC ASEAN AWACS BAOR Benelux BiH BWC CEDP CENTO CESDP CFE CFSP CINCHAN CJTF CoE Comecon COMINFORM COMUSFOREUR CPA CPSU CRRM CSBM CSCE CSU CTBT CWC DCI

Anti-Ballistic Missile Allied Command Europe Allied Command Atlantic Allied Command Operations Allied Command Transformation Allied Forces Southern Europe (NATO) A Ground Surveillance Adalet ve Kalkinma Partisi (Justice and Development Party, Turkey) Allied Command Europe Rapid Reaction Corps Association of South-East Asian Nations Airborne Warning and Control System (aircraft) British Army of the Rhine Belgium, the Netherlands and Luxembourg Bosnia-Herzegovina Biological Weapons Convention Common European Defence Policy Central Treaty Organization Common European Security and Defence Policy Conventional Armed Forces in Europe Treaty Common Foreign and Security Policy Commander-in-Chief Channel Combined Joint Task Force Council of Europe Council for Mutual Economic Assistance Communist Information Bureau Commander, US Forces Europe Coalition Provisional Authority (Iraq) Communist Party of the Soviet Union Civilian Rapid Reaction Mechanism (EU) Conﬁdence and Security Building Measures Conference on Security and Co-operation in Europe Christlich-Soziale Union Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty Chemical Weapons Convention Defence Capabilities Initiative

list of abbreviations and acronyms [xi] DPC DPP DPQ DRC EADS EAEC EAG EAPC EC

Defence Planning Committee (NATO) Defence Planning Process Defence Planning Questionnaire Democratic Republic of the Congo European Aeronautics, Defence and Space Company European Atomic Energy Community European Air Group Euro-Atlantic Partnership Council European Communities (EEC, ECSC and Euratom), or: European Community, the new name for the EEC in the TEU ECAP European Capabilities Action Plan ECSC European Coal and Steel Community ECU European Currency Unit, an accounting unit based on a basket of national currencies EDA European Defence Agency EDC European Defence Community EDIS European Defence Industry Study EEA European Economic Area EEC European Economic Community EFA European Fighter Aircraft EFTA European Free Trade Area ELDO European Space Vehicle Launcher Development Organization EP European Parliament EPC (1952) European Political Community EPC European Political Co-operation (1970–93) ERM European Exchange Rate Mechanism ERP European Recovery Program ERRF European Rapid Reaction Force ERRM European Rapid Reaction Mechanism ESA European Space Agency ESDI European Security and Defence Identity (NATO) ESDP European Security and Defence Policy (EU) ESDU European Security and Defence Union (EU) ESRO European Space Research Organization ETA Euskadi Ta Askatasuna (Basque Homeland and Freedom) EU European Union EUCLID European Co-operation for the Long Term in Defence EUFOR EU Force in Bosnia-Herzegovina EUPM EU Police Mission (Bosnia-Herzegovina) EUPOL PROXIMA EU Police Mission in the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia Euratom European Atomic Energy Community EUROFOR European Force EUROMARFOR European Maritime Force

[xii] list of abbreviations and acronyms FAWEU FBEAG FBS FRG FRY FYROM GAC

Forces Answerable to the Western European Union (WEU) Franco-British European Air Group Forward Base System Federal Republic of Germany Federal Republic of Yugoslavia Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia General Aﬀairs Council (EU Council of Ministers/Council of the European Union meeting in foreign and defence minister composition) GAERC General Aﬀairs and External Relations Council (EU) GDP Gross Domestic Product GDR German Democratic Republic GLCM Ground-Launched Cruise Missile GPALS Global Protection against Limited Strikes GRU Glavnoe razvedyvatelnoe upravlenie (Main Intelligence Directorate, or Soviet military intelligence) G7/G8 Group of Seven/Group of Eight HLG High-Level Group HQ Headquarters HR High Representative IAEA International Atomic Energy Agency ICBM Intercontinental Ballistic Missile ICC International Criminal Court ICTY International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia IEPG Independent European Programme Group IFOR Implementation Force (Bosnia-Herzegovina) IGC Intergovernmental Conference IMS Integrated Military Structure INF Intermediate Nuclear Forces IPTF International Police Task Force (Bosnia-Herzegovina) IRBM Intermediate-Range Ballistic Missile ISAF International Security Assistance Force (Afghanistan) ISG Iraq Study Group JFC Joint Force Command JFC Naples Joint Force Command Naples, Italy (NATO) JNA Yugoslav National Army KFOR Kosovo Force (NATO) LANDJUT NATO’s HQ Allied Land Forces, Schleswig-Holstein and Jutland LTDP Long-Term Defence Programme LRTNF Long-Range Theatre Nuclear Forces MAD Mutually Assured Destruction MAPE Multinational Advisory Police Element MARAIRMED Allied Maritime Air Forces Mediterranean MBFR Mutually Balanced Force Reductions MEP Member of the European Parliament

list of abbreviations and acronyms [xiii] MIRV MIT MLF MLRS MONUC Congo/United

Multiple Independent Re-Entry Vehicle Military Implications Team Multilateral Force Multi-Launch Rocket System Mission des Nations Unies en République démocratique du Congo Nations Organization Mission in the Democratic Republic of the Congo MRCA Multi-Role Combat Aircraft MTA Military Technical Agreement NAC North Atlantic Council NACC North Atlantic Co-operation Council NATO North Atlantic Treaty Organization NAVOCFORMED Naval Oﬃcer Commanding Forces in the Mediterranean NLA National Liberation Army NPG Nuclear Planning Group NPT Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons/Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty NRF NATO Response Force NSC National Security Council (US) NSDD National Security Decision Directive NSDM National Security Decision Memorandum NST Nuclear and Space Talks NTBT Nuclear Test Ban Treaty OAS Organisation de l’Armée Secrète OCCAR Organisation Conjointe de Coopération en Matière d’Armement OEEC Organisation for European Economic Co-operation OPEC Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries OSCE Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe PA Palestinian Authority PCC Prague Capabilities Commitment PD Presidential Directive PFLP Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine PfP Partnership for Peace PIC Peace Implementation Conference (Bosnia-Herzegovina) PIT Political Implications Team PLO Palestinian Liberation Organization PM Prime Minister POCO Political Committee (EU) PRC People’s Republic of China PROXIMA EU Police Mission in FYROM (EUPOL PROXIMA) PSC Political and Security Committee (EU). Also known by its French acronym COPS QMV Qualiﬁed Majority Voting RAF Royal Air Force (UK)

[xiv] list of abbreviations and acronyms ROC RPF RSFSR SACEUR SACLANT SALT SAMs SDI SEATO SED

Republic of China Rwandan Patriotic Front Russian Soviet Federal Socialist Republic Supreme Allied Commander, Europe Supreme Allied Commander, Atlantic Strategic Arms Limitation Talks Surface-to-Air Missiles Strategic Defense Initiative South-East Asia Treaty Organization Sozialistische Einheitspartei Deutschlands (Socialist Unionist Party; the GDR communist party) SFOR Stabilization Force (Bosnia-Herzegovina) SFRY Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia SHAPE Supreme Headquarters Allied Powers Europe SIOP Single Integrated Operation Plan SOFA Status of Forces Agreement SPD Social Democratic Party (Germany) SRF Strategic Rocket Force SSBN Nuclear Ballistic Missile Submarine SSM Surface-to-Surface Missile STANAVFORLANT Standing Naval Force Atlantic STANAVFORMED Standing Naval Force Mediterranean START Strategic Arms Reduction Talks TEC Treaty establishing the European Communities TEU Treaty on European Union TNF Theatre Nuclear Forces TNW Theatre Nuclear Weapons UK United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland UN United Nations UNFICYP United Nations Force in Cyprus UNHCR (Oﬃce of the) United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees UNMIBH United Nations Mission in Bosnia-Herzegovina UNMIK United Nations Interim Administration Mission in Kosovo UNO United Nations Organization UNPA United Nations Protected Area UNPROFOR United Nations Protection Force UNSC United Nations Security Council US United States USSR Union of Soviet Socialist Republics WEAG Western European Armaments Group WEU Western European Union WEUDAM De-mining Assistance Mission to Croatia (WEU) Weucom WEU Telecommunications Network

PART ONE The Formative Years

1945–1949

INTRODUCTION

The Formative Years 1945–1949: The Cold War begins with the end of a World War. On 6 August 1945 an American atomic bomb explodes over the Japanese city of Hiroshima, reducing it and much of its population to ashes in the splitting of an atom. Europe is in pieces, Asia is mauled, America is supreme, and Russia is resurgent. Europe, consumed by its own conﬂagration, is divided along the lines agreed at two so-called Big Three conferences in 1945 between the US, Soviet Union, and Britain at Yalta in the Crimea and Potsdam a short distance from Berlin, which has rapidly become a shrine to the defeat of German expansionism. In reality, the Big Three are the Big Two plus One because, broken by two successive wars in defence of liberty and democracy, Britain is but a shadow of its former self and neither the Soviets nor the Americans are in any mood to humour a fading power. In an atmosphere redolent of a chess tournament the Soviets and the Americans set about creating their spheres of inﬂuence. However, whilst the Americans cannot bring themselves to play machtpolitik without at least the patina of ideological overlay, the hard-bitten Russians have no such qualms. And, whilst they smile politely at ﬁrst Roosevelt’s and then Truman’s hope for a new world order, behind the scenes the Soviets busily go about the business of imposing an empire, albeit masked by the empty rhetoric of the communist brotherhood. BATTLE LINES ARE DRAWN

Thus, the US search falters for a new world order in the immediate aftermath of World War Two inclusive of Soviet Russia. Indeed, Washington’s initial enthusiasm for a strategic partnership with Moscow begins to fade even before the

[2] the formative years ink is dry on the founding document of the United Nations, the United Nations Charter, after its signing in June 1945. As a result, and much to their regret, the Americans ﬁnd themselves engaged progressively in the very balance of power politics that they believed responsible for the two world wars that have so obscenely recast the European landscape. Moreover, even as battle lines are drawn across Europe it is evident that America’s European allies see things diﬀerently to the US. Whereas for Americans liberal-democratic capitalism confronts Soviet communism, for most Europeans they are simply preparing to confront Russians . . . and Germans (again). Indeed, in the mind of most Europeans, while the threat posed by 175 Red Army Divisions is very real, there is another spectre that haunts them; a révanchist Germany. Indeed, even as a lonely American diplomat in Moscow, George Kennan, begins to peer through the propaganda of the people, the British and French are busily going about preparing a new anti-German treaty, the 1947 Treaty of Dunkirk. However, it is the crafting by Kennan of the so-called Long Telegram in February 1946, and the subsequent visit to Moscow by new US Secretary of State George Marshall, that lead to the siren call to arms for a Washington that hitherto had wanted simply to ‘bring the boys home’. THE IRON CURTAIN

Whilst determined to prevent Germany from ever again disﬁguring the Old Continent, it is the British (not for the ﬁrst time) who are most fully seized of the new danger. Long an anti-communist crusader, Winston Churchill, the old British warhorse, who had rallied the free world during the dark days of victorious Nazism, again calls the free world to stand ﬁrm. In a speech to ‘real’ Americans in a school hall in Fulton, Missouri he warns in a way that only this master of grandiloquence can of an Iron Curtain descending upon Europe from Stettin in the Baltic to Trieste in the Adriatic. Indeed, such is the power of the message and the strength of his standing that the phrase ‘Iron Curtain’ would come to deﬁne the age that Churchill heralds. Taken together, Kennan’s seminal telegram, Marshall’s realist awakening, and Churchill’s vision of an Iron Curtain penetrate the post-war politics of Washington with the politics of a new war—the Cold War. As Moscow rejects the Marshall Plan and the oﬀer of aid for the rebuilding of the war-torn economies of Europe, the Old Continent once again ﬁnds itself carved into spheres of inﬂuence. The political temperature plunges as tensions mount over the status of Berlin deep in Soviet-held eastern Germany, the political destiny of Turkey, Greece, and Yugoslavia, and the destruction twice in one decade of a renascent, democratic Czechoslovakia as the Soviets endeavour to bring them

the formative years [3]

within their sphere. These are the new politics of the new nuclear ideology as the liberal West under American leadership seeks to contain Soviet expansionism. Although not at all apparent at the time, either for the Soviets or their adversaries, it is for Moscow a race against time as the Russians must somehow eclipse American economic might before it defeats them. THE EURO-WORLD

For Europeans the world has become a much smaller place. Both France and Britain begin their long and painful retreats westwards forcing the US to ﬁll the vacuum left by their failing imperial power. For a brief moment Britain holds onto the fantasy that it can play Athens to America’s Rome at the centre of three concentric circles of Europe, British Empire/Commonwealth, and Europe. To that end, in September 1946, Winston Churchill in a speech to the University of Zurich calls for the United States of Europe, only for Britain to then stand aside. In 1948 the Brussels Treaty of Economic, Social, and Cultural Collaboration is signed by Belgium, France, the Netherlands, Luxembourg, and Britain. Essentially an anti-German pact, it is the ﬁrst European organization to suggest European integration. It is also Britain’s golden moment, for it represents the high-water mark of Britain’s inﬂuence in Europe. The chance missed, France ﬁlls the vacuum of British ambivalence and begins its own journey to the leadership of a Europe increasingly shaped in its image, albeit founded on a Germany shackled and emaciated. Indeed, locked within the Brussels Treaty is a spirit of reconciliation and renewal that will eventually lead to European defence and European union as Europe re-emerges to challenge the Soviet writ and American leadership. However, in the dark, cold winter of 1947 for Europeans struggling with rationing and weakness such a dream must be dismissed in an instant. There are more immediate concerns at hand. BERLIN AND THE FOUNDING OF NATO

And then begins the Berlin blockade. In June 1948 tensions mount along with the number of Soviet divisions beyond the River Elbe in the eastern occupied Länder of Germany. Stalin’s intent becomes clear. He aims to force the West out and to force Berlin into the Soviet bloc. America’s immediate post-war aspiration for a world in which governance reﬂects the will of the United Nations under Washington’s benign leadership ﬁnally evaporates. The boys are not going to come home. Rather, Washington ﬁnds itself embroiled in a very entangling alliance with Europeans of the kind that so vexed that great founding father Alexander Hamilton. Although the Berlin blockade is broken by the

[4] the formative years British–American airlift the ﬁrst Berlin Crisis brings hopes for a new world order to a deﬁnitive conclusion. However, the Berlin airlift not only ensures the survival of the Western enclave in Berlin, it also ensures that the German soul will be Western. It is a soul that will have to wait forty years until 1989 to be freed. However, it is also a soul that will be fought over for much of the Cold War as an answer is sought for the third time in eighty years to the German Question—its place within Europe and its inﬂuence over others. Something else happens in 1948. The State of Israel is founded and with it a struggle between Israelis and Palestinians that will consume many lives and the political energy of much of the rest of the world to this day. On 4 April 1949 the North Atlantic Treaty is signed in Washington by Belgium, Canada, Denmark, France, Iceland, Italy, Luxembourg, Norway, Portugal, the UK, and the US. NATO is born and with it the true end of America’s historic isolationism. On 29 August 1949 the Soviet Union explodes its ﬁrst atomic device. America’s nuclear monopoly ends. Exploding with the strength of ten suns it is not without irony that its heat of one million degrees will keep war cold.

1945 AT A GLANCE—MAJOR EVENTS AND THEMES

r Big-Three Conferences at Yalta and Potsdam divide post-war Europe into spheres of inﬂuence. r Germany and Japan surrender; World War Two ends. r The United Nations is created in San Francisco. r Atomic bombs are dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki. r There is a growing perception in the West of a Soviet threat to Western Europe.

February 4–11

The Origins of the Cold War: At the Conference of the Crimea in Yalta, Russia, post-war Europe is divided among the victors. US and Soviet hegemony is eﬀectively established in their respective spheres of inﬂuence. Zones of occupation are established to avoid any incidents when the forces of the Western Allies meet those of the Soviet Union. This is the last summit for President Franklin D. Roosevelt.

April 12

The Origins of the Cold War: US President Theodore Roosevelt dies. Vice President Harry S. Truman succeeds him.

May 8

The End of World War Two: War in Europe ends as Germany surrenders unconditionally. Germany is divided into four zones of occupation controlled respectively by Britain, France, the US, and the Soviet Union. It is the question of the ﬁnal shape of the future Germany that will give the Cold War much of its political energy.

May 12

The Origins of the Cold War: British Prime Minister Winston Churchill warns new US President Truman for the ﬁrst time of a possible Soviet threat. He suggests that Soviet leader Josef Stalin is not interested in partnership, merely domination.

June 26

United Nations: The signing takes place of the UN Charter in San Francisco, the founding document of the United Nations. Unlike its forebear the League of Nations, the US is a full and active member and one of the ﬁve permanent members of the UN Security Council (UNSC), the others being Britain, France, the Soviet Union and the Republic of China (ROC).

July 17 –August 26

The Origins of the Cold War: Britain’s Winston Churchill and Clement Attlee, Soviet leader Josef Stalin, and US President Harry S. Truman meet at the Conference of Berlin (Potsdam) to conﬁrm the Yalta Agreement. President Truman, however, is less well disposed towards Stalin and the Soviet Union than his predecessor. The conference takes place in the shadow of the ﬁrst atomic bomb missions over Japan.

[6] the formative years July 26

The Origins of the Cold War: Clement Attlee defeats Winston Churchill to become the new UK prime minister and thus replaces Churchill while the Conference of Berlin is in progress.

August 6, 9

Hiroshima and Nagasaki: The nuclear age begins. At 08.16 hours on the morning of 6 August 1945 Little Boy, one of two atomic bombs developed by the US with British support, explodes over the Japanese city of Hiroshima. Dropped from a US B-29 bomber, the Enola Gay, under the command of Colonel Paul Tibbetts, ﬂying out of Tinian Island airbase, within onemillionth of a second of its detonation some 70,000 people are obliterated immediately as are 47,000 buildings. The blast measures between 13 and 16 kilotons, and eventually 140,000 people die as a result of the attack. Three days later the second bomb Fat Man explodes over Nagasaki with a force of between 21 and 23 kilotons. However, because of topography diﬀerent from that of Hiroshima, some 74,000 people are killed. These two events come to deﬁne an age. East–West relations are to be dominated by the shadow of these weapons hereafter, as the United States strives to maintain its atomic monopoly, and Britain, France, and, above all, the Soviet Union seek to end it.

August 15

The End of World War Two: War in the Paciﬁc ends as a ceaseﬁre is declared between the Allies and the Japanese Empire.

August

The Origins of the Cold War: Soviet President Mikhail Kalinin verbally attacks the West, signalling that Churchill’s analysis at the Yalta Conference—that the world would be divided into spheres of inﬂuence in the wake of World War Two—is essentially correct and that the US policy of Quid Pro Quo is not viable.

September 2

The End of World War Two: Japan formally surrenders, bringing World War Two to an end. It has taken six years and witnessed the killing of approximately 53 million people, some 20 million of those in the Soviet Union alone.

September 11 —October 2

The Origins of the Cold War: First post-war Four-Power Foreign Ministers Conference in London. Soviet Foreign Minister Vyacheslav Molotov takes an uncompromising posture over issues such as the repatriation of prisoners of war, which further suggests to the West that future relations will be anything but cordial.

October 24

United Nations: The United Nations Organization (UNO) is formally born as its Charter comes into force.

November 15

The Nuclear Balance: In what becomes a once-only oﬀer, the US, the UK, and Canada oﬀer the United Nations information on atomic weaponry if an adequate mechanism for control can be developed and headway made towards general and comprehensive disarmament. Little progress is made.

1946 AT A GLANCE—MAJOR EVENTS AND THEMES

r r r r

The settlement of the peace of World War Two is agreed. Kennan’s Long Telegram warning of Soviet expansionism is sent. Churchill warns of an Iron Curtain. Atomic energy discussions are held to prevent the uncontrolled spread of nuclear weapons. r Churchill calls for a United States of Europe.

January 14

The German Question: The US, the UK, and France agree at the Paris Conference on the administration of zones of occupation in Germany.

February 9

The Origins of the Cold War: Stalin states in a speech that ‘war is inevitable as long as capitalism exists’. The already frosty relations between the East and West begin to turn frigid. Western Europe begins to feel particularly exposed, as the Red Army, with more than 3 million men under arms, stands just across the River Elbe from the western half of the now-divided Germany.

February 22

The Origins of the Cold War: George Kennan sends what becomes known as the Long Telegram from the US Embassy in Moscow. In the document, Kennan warns of the Soviet Union’s expansionist intentions and the implausibility of any US policy for managing the international system in the postwar world that is based on partnership and co-operation with the Soviet Union (such as Roosevelt‘s old policy of quid pro quo). Furthermore, Kennan warns that the Soviets will use both overt and covert means to pursue their ideologically driven goal of a communist world. Secretary of State James F. Byrnes replaces Quid Pro Quo with a policy that becomes known as ‘patient but ﬁrm’.

March 5

The Origins of the Cold War: Churchill makes a speech in Fulton, Missouri, entitled ‘Sinews of Peace’, in which he warns of a descent across Europe of an Iron Curtain.

April 25 —July 12

The German Question: A conference of foreign ministers is held in Paris concerning Germany and zones of occupation. In what becomes known as Four Power Conferences (Britain, France, US, and USSR) the focus is invariably the status of Berlin and Soviet attempts to remove the Western enclave in the former German capital which now sits deep inside Sovietheld territory.

June 14

The Nuclear Balance: The United States proposes the Baruch Plan for atomic disarmament at the ﬁrst UN Atomic Energy Commission. The plan calls for the transfer of all nuclear weapons to a new international authority and for

[8] the formative years the subsequent supervision of all nuclear-energy projects by this authority. The Soviets reject the proposal, seeing it as an eﬀort by the Americans to uphold their A-bomb monopoly. July 1

The Nuclear Balance: The ﬁrst peacetime test of an atomic weapon takes place at Bikini Atoll, using captured German and Japanese ships. The heavy cruiser Prince Eugen, a veteran of the Bismarck campaign of 1941, meets its demise during this test.

July 10

The German Question: At the conference of foreign ministers in Paris, Molotov pledges Soviet support for a uniﬁed Germany with a strong industrial base, but only after reparations are paid. As this is pending, a peace treaty would have to be delayed by ‘a number of years’.

July 11

The German Question: US Secretary of State Byrnes proposes merging all zones of occupation economically with the US zone. Of the three other occupying powers formally identiﬁed as such by the new United Nations only the British agree.

July 29 –October 15

The End of World War Two: At the Paris Peace Conference, the Allies negotiate peace treaties with former Axis powers Bulgaria, Finland, Hungary, Italy, and Romania.

August 1

The Nuclear Balance: The US Congress passes the McMahon Act, which prevents the transfer of US atomic technology. This leads to tensions between the US and the UK because much of the research that led to the ﬁrst atomic bombs had been British. Indeed, the Manhattan Project that led to the two atomic bombs dropped on Japan was founded in 1942 following the transfer of British research to the Los Alamos research centre. British Foreign Secretary Ernest Bevin vows that Britain will have ‘the bomb’.

September 19

The Road to European Union: Churchill makes a speech at the University of Zurich calling for a United States of Europe, which is seen as a signal by the leaders of an emerging European movement organized around Jean Monnet that the UK is prepared to join an integrated European organization. Britain’s ambivalent relationship with the European project begins.

November –December

The End of World War Two: At the Four-Power Foreign Ministers Conference in New York, remaining diﬃculties concerning the status of the Free Territory of Trieste are resolved. Designed to reduce territorial claims following World War Two it proves unworkable and in 1954 the Free Territory is divided between Italy and Yugoslavia.

December 2

The German Question: US Secretary of State Byrnes and UK Foreign Secretary Ernest Bevin sign an agreement to merge their respective zones of occupation in Germany into a Bi-zone.

1947 AT A GLANCE—MAJOR EVENTS AND THEMES

r The division between East and West grows. r The Truman Doctrine commits the US to the containment of Soviet expansionism. r The Communist Information Bureau (Cominform) is created to disseminate Soviet thinking throughout Europe. r The anti-German Treaty of Dunkirk is signed by Britain and France. r The Europe Report and European Recovery Program are agreed, paving the way to the Marshall Plan.

January 1

European Defence: French Prime Minister Leon Blum travels to London to discuss an anti-German Anglo-French treaty of alliance with the Attlee Government.

January 1

The German Question: In Germany, the agreement between the UK and US to create one single economic entity from their two respective zones of occupation comes into eﬀect. The creation of the Bi-zone is in fact the ﬁrst step on the road to the creation of the Federal Republic of Germany (FRG).

January 8

The Origins of the Cold War: George Marshall, the former US Chief of Staﬀ, the US Army’s most senior oﬃcer, becomes US Secretary of State.

January 19

Formation of the Soviet Bloc: The Soviet-sponsored communist LublinCommittee or Polish Committee of National Liberation gains a monopoly of power in Poland. A mask for Moscow’s political ambitions in Poland, the Committee is there simply to ensure Stalin’s rule in Poland is eﬃcient and eﬀective.

February 10

The End of World War Two: The Paris Peace Treaties are signed, settling the peace with Germany‘s allies and co-belligerents in Europe. Italy, Bulgaria, Hungary, Finland, and Romania are permitted by the victorious powers to resume their identities as sovereign states and to become members of the UN. However, the treaties do not cover Germany. All outstanding questions of war reparations and minority rights are resolved.

February 21

The Origins of the Cold War: Britain informs the US that it can no longer aﬀord to provide Greece and Turkey with ﬁnancial aid. Fearing further Soviet expansion into the region, the Truman Administration in Washington decides to take over British responsibilities. In a sense the US adoption of Britain’s role is the ﬁrst step towards the policy of containment, which comes to dominate US strategy during the Cold War.

March 4

European Defence: The British and French sign the Treaty of Dunkirk, which is designed to confront a resurgent Germany should such an event occur.

[10] the formative years Importantly, the treaty contains a clause on automatic armed assistance that is to provide the precedent for the future Brussels Treaty and the formation of the anti-German Brussels Treaty of 1948. March 10 –April 25

The Origins of the Cold War: New US Secretary of State George C. Marshall visits Moscow and comes away convinced of the essential accuracy of George Kennan’s 1946 Long Telegram that the Soviet Union is set upon a course of expansion.

March 12

The Origins of the Cold War: US President Harry S. Truman outlines the Truman Doctrine to the US Congress in which he commits the United States to the containment of Soviet expansionism. In many ways the Truman Doctrine marks the start of the Cold War as the two competing ideologies, American-led liberal-democratic capitalism and Soviet Stalinist communism, square oﬀ.

March–April

The End of World War Two: At the Four-Power Foreign Ministers Conference in Moscow, possible peace treaties with Germany and Austria are discussed. However, the ministers agree only on the formal dissolution of Prussia.

June 5

The Marshall Plan: US Secretary of State George C. Marshall announces the European Recovery Program (ERP), or Marshall Plan, as it comes to be known.

June 27–July 2 The Marshall Plan: UK Foreign Secretary Bevin and French Foreign Minister Georges Bidault meet with Soviet Foreign Minister Molotov to press the Soviet Union to accept aid under the Marshall Plan. Molotov declines the oﬀer on the grounds that such an acceptance would politically compromise the Soviet Union and its satellites. July 12

The Marshall Plan: Western European foreign ministers agree to draw up a so-called Europe Report for the Americans, identifying and specifying their needs with respect to aid under the Marshall Plan.

September 22

The Marshall Plan: The Europe Report is sent to Washington.

September 22

The Formation of the Soviet Bloc: Cominform (Communist Information Bureau) is created to disseminate Soviet communist ideas throughout Europe and beyond and to facilitate Moscow’s political ambitions. This follows the rejection of Marshall Aid by the Soviet Union and its allies.

September

European Defence: The Treaty of Dunkirk is approved by the British and French Parliaments.

November

The End of World War Two: In London, the Four Powers again discuss peace treaties with Germany and Austria but reach no agreement.

1948 AT A GLANCE—MAJOR EVENTS AND THEMES

r Czech communists seize power in the Prague coup. r The West attempts to create regional organizations to respond to the Soviet threat. r The Marshall Plan is adopted for European reconstruction. r The Brussels Treaty is signed and the creation of the Western Union occurs. r The Vandenberg Resolution commits the US to the defence of Europe. r The First Berlin Crisis, the Berlin Blockade and Airlift. r A European coal and steel community is ﬁrst proposed. The road to European Union begins.

January 22

European Defence: UK Foreign Secretary Bevin informs the House of Commons that a form of union for the Western Allies is required that goes signiﬁcantly further than the Treaty of Dunkirk in its scope and membership. Bevin wants to tie the US to a longer commitment to the defence of Western Europe both as a counter to Soviet power and as a guarantor against a resurgent Germany. However, the US prefers only to consider leadership of such an organization if it is of its own making. Consequently, Washington decides not to accept membership of what becomes known as the Western Union. At the time this decision seems of little importance. However, the US decision to stand aside from the Bevin proposal lays the foundation for the future division between NATO and EU-focused European defence that continues to this day.

February 25

The Origins of the Cold War: In a blatant act of expansionism Czech communists seize power in Prague with the support of Moscow. Kennan’s warning is being realized as tension in Europe between the US and the USSR increases.

March

The End of World War Two: The occupation powers agree to allow Belgium, the Netherlands, and Luxembourg (the Benelux countries) to inﬂuence Allied policy on the future of Germany.

March 13

The Marshall Plan: The European Recovery Program is approved by the US Senate. The Marshall Plan is close to completion as the European Recovery Act goes to the White House for signing into US law. It proposes $13bn of economic and technical assistance to European countries over four ﬁscal years beginning in July 1947. It is the equivalent of $130bn in 2007 money.

March 4–12

European Defence: Belgium, France, the Netherlands, Luxembourg, and the UK meet in Brussels to discuss a Western Union. Much more than merely a defence alliance, the Western Union would be a defensive political,

[12] the formative years economic, and military organization charged speciﬁcally with guarding against a re-emergence of German militarism. March 17

European Defence: The Western Union comes into being as the Brussels Treaty of Economic, Social, and Cultural Collaboration and Collective SelfDefence is signed. The Western Union, which the Brussels Treaty establishes, is the ﬁrst truly integrative Western European organization and establishes a model for future European defence initiatives of this type . . . and the seeds of future discord with NATO.

April 3

The Marshall Plan: President Truman signs the European Recovery Act, and the Marshall Plan becomes US law.

April 16

The Marshall Plan: A convention creating the Organization for European Economic Co-operation (OEEC) is signed in Paris by all the Western powers. The OEEC will have the responsibility of administering the transfer of aid and assistance under the Marshall Plan.

April 17

European Defence: The foreign ministers of the Brussels Treaty powers meet in Paris for the ﬁrst time to discuss the machinery of the newly formed Western Union.

April 30

European Defence: The Western Union Defence Committee, made up of the defence ministers of the Brussels Treaty powers, meets for the ﬁrst time. They in turn create the Permanent Military Committee.

May 7–10

The Road to European Union: The International Committee of Movements for European Unity meets in The Hague, ostensibly to build on Churchill’s Zurich speech calling for a United States of Europe. At this meeting, Alcide de Gasperi, Konrad Adenauer, Paul-Henri Spaak, Robert Schuman, Jean Monnet, and Paul van Zeeland emerge as the driving forces behind a small but growing body of elite opinion that believes that the avoidance of war in Western Europe can be achieved only through the political and economic integration of states in Europe.

May 12

The Founding of NATO: Senator Arthur Vandenberg proposes a resolution in the US Senate that calls for placing the United States at the core of a series of regional security pacts. The call represents an important change in the direction of US security policy because before World War Two Senator Vandenburg had been one of the strongest advocates for US isolationism and keeping America out of Europe’s struggle.

May 14

The Middle East: Forged by European Jews who have survived the Nazi Holocaust the establishment of the State of Israel is proclaimed. Palestinians are evicted from land they have held for generations and the Middle East starts the latest chapter in its story of instability and conﬂict that continues to this day.

June 11

The Founding of NATO: The Vandenberg Resolution is passed by the US Congress. The US commits itself to permanent entangling alliances. It is a historic ﬁrst.

June 18

The German Question: The three Western occupying powers, Britain, France, and the US jointly announce the introduction of a new German currency in the Bi-zone and the French occupation zone but say it will

1948 [13] not extend to Berlin. It is an important step towards the creation of a new German state. June 19

The Founding of NATO: Canadian Prime Minister Louis Saint-Laurent proposes a regional defence pact incorporating the US, Canada, and the Western European states (excluding Germany) speciﬁcally designed to counter the Soviet threat. This is the ﬁrst time a leading Western statesman makes an overt public proposal for a transatlantic security alliance in the face of the perceived Soviet threat.

June 20

The German Question: Currency reform is implemented in the US–UK Bi-zone and the French occupation zone in Germany.

June 24

The First Berlin Crisis: The Berlin Blockade begins as the Soviet Union attempts to force the Western Allies out of the former German capital by closing road and rail access. The reason is Soviet displeasure with discussions in the West aimed at creating the Federal Republic of Germany. The blockade, also known as the First Berlin Crisis or the Berlin Airlift, lasts 323 days. The US makes it perfectly clear that any unauthorized Soviet incursion into the Western sectors of Berlin will mean war.

June 26

The First Berlin Crisis: The airlift starts to help the residents of Berlin as aid is ﬂown in. The Soviet Air Force does nothing as the British and Americans eventually deliver over 2,326,406 tons of supplies, together with 1,500,000 tons of coal during 278,228 ﬂights.

June 28

Formation of the Soviet Bloc: Yugoslavia is formally expelled from the Cominform following tensions between Belgrade’s strong man Marshal Josep Tito and Moscow. As a result, Yugoslavia begins its non-aligned status between East and West that ends only with its collapse in the early 1990s.

July 2

The Founding of NATO: President Truman orders the Vandenberg Resolution to be enacted into US law as soon as possible in order to proceed quickly with the strategy of containment through the establishment of security pacts with friendly states.

July 6

The Founding of NATO: Talks on North Atlantic defence begin in Washington between the United States, Canada, and the Brussels Treaty Powers (Belgium, France, the Netherlands, Luxembourg, and the UK).

July 17

The Nuclear Balance: In a move that is to characterize much of the standoﬀ that takes place during the Cold War the ﬁrst nuclear-capable US B-29 bombers arrive in Britain.

August 25

European Defence: The Treaty of Brussels founding the Western Union is ratiﬁed by the parliaments of the signatory states.

August

The Founding of NATO: The French ambassador to Washington tells US Secretary of State Marshall that France demands ‘unity of command at once and immediate movement of US military personnel to France’ if France is to join any proposed Atlantic security pact. The Americans view such high-handed behaviour with distaste, and this event establishes the tone of Franco-American relations for much of the Cold War.

[14] the formative years September 10

The Nuclear Balance: The US National Security Council’s policy document NSC-30 asserts that the military ‘must be ready to utilize promptly and eﬀectively all appropriate means available, including atomic weapons’ to counter any Soviet conventional attack. The strategy of Massive Retaliation is eﬀectively born, and with it tensions with the European allies over the possible use of such weapons on their territory that will continue throughout the Cold War.

September

Decolonization: The foreign ministers of the Four Powers meet in Paris and discuss the future fate of the former Italian colonies. The meeting ends inconclusively because the US is opposed to colonialization in principle whilst Britain and France are still keen to retain parts of their respective empires. Ironically, the Soviet Union backs the American position which is keen to avoid the redistribution of colonies such as that which took place after World War One.

October 5

European Defence: British Field Marshal Bernard Law Montgomery is appointed Chairman of the Western Union’s Permanent Military Committee. The victor of El Alamein in 1942 and the Deputy Supreme Allied Commander during the Normandy landings, his anti-German credentials are beyond reproach. That cannot be said for his tact and diplomacy.

October 25–6

The Founding of NATO: The Brussels Treaty Permanent Commission of the Western Union meets in Paris and announces that it is committed to securing a North Atlantic Treaty. However, France harbours fears that such a pact will eventually lead to German rearmament.

November

The Road to European Union: André Philip, a close colleague of French Foreign Minister Robert Schuman, proposes in the French Assemblée Nationale the creation of a European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC) to resolve the age-old Franco-German problem of German steel production in the Ruhr being reliant on French coal in the Saar.

November 2

The Founding of NATO: Having taken over the reins of power in 1945 following the death of President Roosevelt, Harry S. Truman is elected US president in a close-run contest.

December 10

The Founding of NATO: Talks on a proposed North Atlantic Treaty resume in Washington. Norway, Denmark, Iceland, Ireland, Portugal, and Italy are invited to join (all except Ireland accept).

1949 AT A GLANCE—MAJOR EVENTS AND THEMES

r The Comecon is established binding the economies of the Soviet satellite states to Moscow. r The North Atlantic Treaty or Treaty of Washington is signed and the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) is formed. r The Council of Europe is created. r The Berlin Blockade is lifted, bringing the ﬁrst Berlin Crisis to an end. r The Federal Republic of Germany (FRG) or West Germany is created.

January 20

The Origins of the Cold War: Harry S. Truman is sworn in for his second term as US President. George C. Marshall resigns as US Secretary of State.

January 21

The Origins of the Cold War: Dean Acheson replaces Marshall as US Secretary of State. Acheson has a stronger view than Marshall of the primacy of US interests.

January 25

The Formation of the Soviet Bloc: The Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (Comecon) is established to tie the economies of the Soviet satellite states ﬁrmly to that of the USSR. Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Poland, Romania, and the Soviet Union participate in an organization that is not dissolved until 1991.

March 15

The Founding of NATO: The parties to the North Atlantic talks (the negotiating powers) invite Denmark, Iceland, Italy, Norway, and Portugal to adhere to the draft North Atlantic Treaty.

March 18

The Founding of NATO: The text of the proposed North Atlantic Treaty is published. At its heart is Article 5 which states ‘The Parties agree that an armed attack against one or more of them in Europe or North America shall be considered an attack against them all, and consequently they agree that, if such an armed attack occurs, each of them, in exercise of the right of individual or collective self-defence recognised by Article 51 of the Charter of the United Nations, will assist the Party or Parties so attacked by taking forthwith, individually, and in concert with the other Parties, such action as is deemed necessary, including the use of armed force, to restore and maintain the security of the North Atlantic Area.’

March 31

The Founding of NATO: The Soviet Union condemns the North Atlantic Treaty as contrary to the UN Charter and the Four-Power Foreign Ministers Conferences because of Moscow’s exclusion from it.

April 2

The Founding of NATO: The twelve soon-to-be signatories of the North Atlantic Treaty reject the Soviet complaint.

[16] the formative years April 4

The Founding of NATO: The North Atlantic Treaty is signed in Washington by Belgium, Canada, Denmark, France, Iceland, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Norway, Portugal, the UK, and the US.

April 8

The German Question: France merges its zone of occupation in Germany with the British–American Bi-zone. The new Tri-zone will form the territory of the new Federal Republic of Germany as the three Western powers begin preparations for ending their status as occupying powers. It is evident to Moscow that the three Western powers want to tie much of Germany to the West.

April 8

The Founding of NATO: The Brussels Treaty Powers, Denmark, Italy, and Norway formally request military and ﬁnancial assistance from the United States.

April

The Balance of Forces in Europe: At the signing of the North Atlantic Treaty the Western Allies have only twelve active divisions in Western Europe. This compares with an estimated Soviet strength thought to be in the region of 175 divisions. Whilst it is an overestimate, it indicates the concern that exists amongst the Allies.

April

The German Question/NATO: The French newspaper Le Monde suggests that the signing of the North Atlantic Treaty represents a strong step on the road to German rearmament as part of the Western Allies’ desire to balance Soviet conventional strength. The paper states that, ‘The rearmament of Germany is present in the Atlantic Pact as the seed in the egg.’

April

The Road to European Union: André Philip develops the idea of an European Coal & Steel Community (ECSC) at a European Movement Conference in London.

May 4

The Road to European Union: The London Ten-Power Agreement sets up the Council of Europe to defend human rights, parliamentary democracy, and the rule of law across the Continent. The inaugural meeting of the Council takes place in Strasbourg, France, on 10 August.

May 9

The First Berlin Crisis: The Berlin blockade is lifted.

May 12

The First Berlin Crisis: At a meeting of Four-Power foreign ministers in Paris, it is agreed that lifting the Berlin blockade will be formalized. In the face of Western solidarity, Moscow has backed down.

May 19

The Nuclear Balance: The US Joint Chiefs of Staﬀ produce a Short-Range Emergency Plan (1844/13) code-named Half Moon. The plan is designed to counter the Soviet Union‘s ability to ﬁght a war in Europe through the use of massive US air power and nuclear weapons. In eﬀect, Half Moon is a panic response to the number of Soviet divisions on the Eastern side of the River Elbe identiﬁed by Western intelligence during the Berlin blockade and foreshadows the later adoption by NATO of the strategic doctrine of Massive Retaliation.

May 23

The German Question: The Soviet Union, accepting that its policy of coercion just short of war has failed to force the West to retreat, adopts a more conciliatory line over the division of Berlin and Germany in general.

1949 [17] The softening of Moscow’s line is apparent in discussions over a proposed Austrian peace treaty. May 23

The German Question: Drafted by the Western allies the Basic Law is promulgated paving the way for the creation of the FRG or West Germany. The Basic Law has two central elements: a paciﬁst constitution and the decentralization of power in the new entity to the regions or Länder.

July 25

NATO—The Early Years: President Truman sends what is known as the Mutual Defense Assistance Act to Congress. This Act ties the US to entangling foreign alliances even in peacetime and represents a historic shift in US foreign policy.

July

The Road to European Union: Germany’s ﬁrst chancellor-in-waiting, Konrad Adenauer, writes to French Foreign Minister Schuman to complain about France’s continued dismantling of German industry and infrastructure by way of war reparations. Adenauer also complains about French behaviour to the Americans and British.

August 14

The German Question: The ﬁrst free elections since World War Two are held in West Germany.

August 24

NATO—The Early Years: The North Atlantic Treaty, also called the Washington Treaty, enters into force. NATO is formally born with its ﬁrst headquarters in Paris, France.

August 29

The Nuclear Balance: Much to the shock of the West the Soviet Union explodes its ﬁrst atomic device. Washington thought that the USSR was several years the US behind in obtaining the requisite technology. The USSR had been helped by such notorious spies as the Rosenbergs, Guy Burgess, Kim Philby, and Donald Maclean. The American nuclear monopoly is ended and the Cold War enters a new phase.

September 17

NATO—The Early Years: The ﬁrst session of the North Atlantic Council (NAC) takes place in Washington.

September 20/1 The German Question: The Federal Republic of Germany formally comes into being. September

The Road to European Union: US Secretary of State Dean Acheson, British Foreign Secretary Ernest Bevin, and French Foreign Minister Robert Schuman meet to discuss the dismantling of German infrastructure and industry by France. The French come under intense pressure from the Americans and British to desist from such practices. However, as a quid pro quo for French agreement, Schuman is charged by Acheson and Bevin with ﬁnding a solution to the ‘perennial problem’ of Germany and the historic threat it poses to its neighbours.

October 1

The People’s Republic of China: After defeating Chinese nationalists under Chiang Kai-Shek, who retreat to the Island of Formosa (or Taiwan), the People’s Republic of China (PRC) is formed by the victorious communists under their leader, Mao Zedong.

[18] the formative years October 6

NATO—The Early Years: President Truman signs the Mutual Defense Assistance Act into US law.

October 12

The Balance of Forces in Europe: US Chief of Staﬀ General Omar Bradley says that the Soviet Union has some 2.5 million military personnel, twice the number available to NATO. Bradley increases his estimate to 5 million during hearings before the Senate Armed Services Committee.

October 31

The German Question: The FRG becomes a full member of the OEEC.

November 23

European Defence/NATO: The Western Union Defence Committee decides at a meeting in London to discuss the place of the Western Union within the North Atlantic framework and NATO.

November

The German Question: France, Britain, and the US agree that the practice of dismantling German infrastructure and industry must stop.

December 11

European Defence/NATO: The North Atlantic Defence Committee accepts the Western Union Defence Committee’s recommendation to place itself under the aegis of NATO.

PART TWO The Long Haul

1950–1959

INTRODUCTION

The Long Haul 1950–1959: The 1950s set the scene for Europe’s age of modernity. There are two struggles. The ﬁrst is grand strategic between the America-led West and the Soviet Union and its shackled acolytes. The second is Eurostrategic and concerns the shape and nature of power in Western Europe then and now. CONTAINMENT AND KOREA

The grand strategic struggle becomes truly titanic in 1950 as the Long Haul gets underway. The situation in Europe is tense as both the US and USSR attempt to outﬂank each other. However, it is not Europe where war breaks out. On 25 June 1950 the forces of Stalinist North Korea attack South Korea. Three years later some 2 million will be dead as the ﬁrst ideological war of an ideological age ends in a tense truce. Two months prior to the outbreak of the Korean War, in March 1950, US Policy Document NSC-68 calls upon the West to rearm under American leadership to contain the Soviets wherever their expansionism expresses itself. Known colloquially as Containment, NSC-68 commits the US and its allies to confront Soviet communism wherever it appears. Consequently, for the Americans the Korean War was the start of a crusade by Moscow to export communism globally. However, for most Europeans, as today, it is a war in a small country a long way away. Many of the allies dutifully follow the call to arms, especially after the UN sanctioned the removal of North Korean forces. Moscow, not for the ﬁrst or last time having made the most elemental of political mistakes, boycotts the UN Security Council and is thus unable to cast a veto that would have prevented such backing.

[20] the long haul However, the Korean War also heralds a recurrent European nightmare— German rearmament. It is after all only ten years to the month since the Nazi’s invincible army, the Wehrmacht, had marched along Paris’s Champs Élysée in triumph. The problem is one of calculation. The Americans needed European manpower if they are to confront Soviet ambitions the world over. What ensues captures a mood that will permeate the Cold War. The seemingly interminable debate that accompanies American attempts to generate manpower through German rearmament is allied to France’s equal determination to resist it. It leads inexorably to an enlarged NATO with West Germany as a member. It also leads to an Alliance strategy that is founded ultimately on Germany’s destruction— the ﬁrst use of nuclear weapons against an invading Red Army as part of a doctrine known as Massive Retaliation. Indeed, that is the essence of the American-led Western strategy: West Germany can be part of the West so long as it understands that it might have to be sacriﬁced to protect the West. In the event of an overwhelming conventional invasion of Western Europe by the Red Army the West would not hesitate to use nuclear weapons. For Germans such a ‘solution’ is at best double-edged and over time they begin to say so. The German Question does, however, lead to a novel experiment in European integration—the European Defence Community or EDC. Determined to prevent the re-emergence of German military divisions, France and other Europeans ﬁnally accept the need for German manpower to relieve hard-pressed Americans of responsibilities in both Europe and Asia. However, the solution is drastic; to subsume German forces in a European Army made up of multinational groupements that would in principle see the end of all Europe’s armies. Indeed, it is for that reason that the EDC ultimately fails, because the French are simply unable to go the full length of their logic and subsume the French Army into the EDC. For the French descendants of Napoleon’s Grande Armée the solution is worse than the problem and, in the absence any British involvement, in August 1954 the French Parliament duly strikes down the EDC. Ironically, after his grand 1950 call for a European Army it is Winston Churchill who helps strike it down. We are with them, he says, but not of them. It was ever thus. For the British the Cold War simply exacerbates and complicates national strategy for even as their retreat from political Europe gathers apace they ﬁnd themselves ever more embroiled in military Europe. For the ﬁrst time in four hundred years the British are forced into a permanent presence in Continental Europe as the days of Splendid Isolation are but a dim and distant memory. The failed European Defence Community also provides a stark lesson for contemporary European eﬀorts concerning the relationship between strength and acronyms. The result is the very thing that neither France nor Britain wanted.

the long haul [21]

If West German power cannot be safely housed in the EDC then the only other place for it is the Alliance. Consequently, in October 1954, new Western security architecture emerges as West Germany is not only invited to join NATO but the 1948 Brussels Treaty is amended to include West Germany and Italy. The Western Union becomes the Western European Union (WEU). The Soviet Union having failed to establish the neutral Germany it had sought retaliates by creating the Warsaw Treaty Organization (WTO). The Cold War blocs are now in place. As NATO gets to grip with the now over three hundred Soviet divisions the tension between the US and its allies over force levels is a reminder that Washington has always been disappointed by the apparent lack of willingness of its many European allies to share the burden of US strategy and its security vision. One suspects disappointment is America’s fate. THE RE-EMERGENCE OF EUROPE

It is an abiding irony of the Cold War that the very nature of American power eventually leads to its own replacement in Western Europe. Indeed, during the Cold War America was a part of the Europe–Europe struggle because of the extent and nature of its presence. An empire unlike any other, American supremacy is founded on a paradox; its own demise and the re-emergence of a strong, democratic Europe as part of a pluralistic community of political equals. As such, America struggles with itself over the relationship between power and ideas. Although there would be times long after the Cold War faded from history when the Americans would live to regret the pluralism they had guaranteed for Europeans, the emergence of Europe as Europe is testimony to the American political creed. It would not be an easy journey and it would often be marked by contention, not least in the pivotal Franco-American relationship. Franco-American relations are never easy, tensions driven by the contending visions for Germany in Paris, Washington and London. By the 1950s Britain has begun its precipitous descent to American supplicant. It is a role from which it only begins to escape in the early years of the twenty-ﬁrst century after a disastrous war in Mesopotamia, the scene of Britain’s last imperial adventure in the 1920s. France and the US had sparred in 1948 and 1949 over Washington’s insistence that Paris stop the practice of dismantling large parts of German industry and infrastructure by way of war reparations. However, the French never know their place. The land of Richelieu, Mazarin, and Talleyrand France follows its own form of pragmatism markedly less emotional than the famed Anglo-Saxon variety. Consequently, unable to dominate Germany, France switches to co-opting it. After Churchill’s 1946 Zurich speech calling for a United States of Europe an International Committee of Movements

[22] the long haul for European Unity meets. The driving force is a Frenchman, Jean Monnet, who, under the patronage of the French Foreign Minister Robert Schuman, becomes the architect of the new French-led Europe, and a German, Konrad Adenauer, the ﬁrst Chancellor of the Federal Republic of Germany. The historic cause of war in Europe it is believed is economic tensions caused by disputed coal and steel production on the two sides of the Franco-German border along the famed and blood-soaked banks of the River Saar. France proposes a visionary solution—the 1950 Treaty of Paris. By this seminal act the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC) is founded, as France and Germany remove economic tensions caused by coal on one side of the border fuelling industry on the other. It is more than a mere ﬁx. It is the ﬁrst step on the road to European Union. NATO’S FORWARD PRESENCE

NATO is as ever the bell-wether of these tensions played out as they invariably are in the North Atlantic Council (NAC), the supreme decision-making body of the Alliance. However, below the radar screen of the geopolitics of alliance the day-to-day work goes on, building what is ﬁrst and foremost a nuclear alliance. That said, the abiding tenet of NATO is also established, the so-called Forward Presence of NATO forces. This communicates to the Soviets that the Alliance will not yield one inch of soil under its protection. It is agreed that the political leader of NATO, the Secretary-General, must always be a European, whilst the military leader, the Supreme Allied Commander, Europe (SACEUR) must always be an American. To that end, on 19 December 1950 General Dwight D. Eisenhower is appointed the ﬁrst SACEUR. The hero of D-Day, and future US President, his appointment symbolizes the new relationship. It is a relationship that is given further symbolic eloquence with the appointment on 13 March 1952 of a Briton, Lord Bruce Ismay, as the ﬁrst Secretary-General. Indeed, the foundation of NATO is in many ways the zenith of British post-war policy as Britain brieﬂy plays Greece to America’s Rome, for whilst American nuclear power is Europe’s deterrent guarantee, the Alliance is a British idea. Moreover, it is Ismay who succinctly captures NATO’s purpose when he states the reason for the Alliance; to keep the Russians out, the Germans down, and the Americans in. SUEZ AND THE END OF A BRITISH EUROPE

Britain’s decline is precipitous as the grand European colonial age ends with a humiliating full stop. The Suez ﬁasco coincides with a brief dawn of hope to the East as in 1956 Hungarians revolt in deﬁance of Moscow. It is a tragic irony for Hungarians that Europe’s last colonial adventure helps justify Moscow’s brutal

the long haul [23]

crushing of Budapest’s moment of hope. The Suez Crisis follows the forced 1956 renationalization of the Suez Canal by President Nasser of Egypt and a clumsy Anglo-French political and military eﬀort to regain control over a vital artery to what is left of their respective empires. Appalled, Eisenhower refuses support to the two allies and threatens sanctions. London and Paris react diametrically diﬀerently. The British vow never again to cross America and eﬀectively hand over British grand strategy to Washington, whilst the French vow never again to be humiliated by America. West German Chancellor Konrad Adenauer happens to be sitting in the oﬃce of French Foreign Minister Christian Pineau as the latter takes the call from British Prime Minister Anthony Eden informing him of Britain’s withdrawal from the Suez operation. Europe, Adenauer asserts to Pineau, will be your revenge. THE CONSOLIDATION OF SUPERPOWER

Suez however merely provides the backdrop to an age in which the US and USSR consolidate their hold on what is left of European power and prestige. The atomic age becomes the nuclear age as both the US and Soviet Union test hydrogen bombs many time more powerful than the devices that so devastated Hiroshima and Nagasaki. With such demonstrations of awesome power the battle lines of the Cold War become ﬁxed. As Robert Oppenheimer said on witnessing the ﬁrst test of an atomic bomb, “I am become death, the destroyer of nations.” And so it is. Hope and fear co-mingle in a world grappling with the prospect of nuclear annihilation and superpower overlay. However, deep down in the cavernous recesses of European politics a new Europe begins to stir, ﬁrst under French leadership. The 1957 Treaty of Rome and the founding of the European Economic Community (EEC) by France, West Germany, Italy, the Netherlands, Belgium, and Luxembourg not only writes an anthem for Europe that echoes from behind the stage of superpower, it also excludes the strategically broken British and thus starts a steady tipping in the balance of power in Europe. In time the aggregation of European state power implicit in the Treaty of Rome would revolutionize order in a Europe that for much of the preceding three centuries had been busily and destructively disaggregating itself. In time . . . THE MISSILE GAP AND THE END OF AMERICAN INVULNERABILITY

The Long Haul concludes with a revolution as the end of American isolationism is reinforced by the end of American invulnerability. America’s awakening to its own possible demise changes the course of the Cold War. In October 1957 the Soviets put the ﬁrst satellite, Sputnik I, into Earth orbit. With that one act

[24] the long haul Moscow rewrites the rule book of the Cold War as the Soviets demonstrate the ability to put something, anywhere, at will—nuclear warheads included. Convinced that they are no longer invulnerable to Soviet ballistic nuclear missile attack, the Americans respond with an all-American determination to counter the Soviet threat. In fact, Moscow will have to wait some years before it can match American nuclear prowess, but the so-called missile gap becomes the latest paranoia in America’s capital of power paranoia. For weary Western Europeans a new question arises. Just how certain is it that America’s nuclear arsenal will be used in their ‘defence’? Having rejected the idea of so-called ‘baby bombs’ in Europe, many Europeans begin to believe that they must have their own weapons. To that end, both the British and French embark on national programmes. For the British such weapons are a last hoorah of a Great Power, but not even London is certain of America’s solidarity. For the French such weapons are an overt statement of their intent to defy America if need be and lead Europe as must be. It is a truly dangerous moment. And, ﬂushed with the success of Sputnik, Soviet supremo Nikita Khrushchev, in a crude rhetorical ﬂourish which is his mark, promises to bury the West. The Cold War is a ﬁght to the ﬁnish.

1950 AT A GLANCE—MAJOR EVENTS AND THEMES

r The Cold War nuclear stand-oﬀ begins. r The Schuman Plan is adopted leading to the founding of the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC). r The Korean War starts and the US proposes German rearmament. r West German Chancellor Konrad Adenauer proposes economic union between France and Germany. r Winston Churchill calls for the creation of a European army. r The Pleven Plan proposes a supranational European Defence Community (EDC).

January 27

NATO—The Early Years: President Truman approves the plan for an integrated defence of the North Atlantic area. What will become known in time as the Integrated Military Structure (IMS) takes shape.

January 31

The Nuclear Balance: The US proceeds to construct a plutonium-based hydrogen bomb that is many times more potent than the uranium-based atomic weapons dropped on Japan. The dawn of the thermo-nuclear age begins.

March 21

The Road to European Union: German Chancellor Konrad Adenauer suggests an economic union between France and Germany. It is an important ﬁrst step towards reconciliation between France and Germany that will lead in time to Europe’s driving force, the Franco-German axis.

March 28

The German Question: British Prime Minister Clement Attlee, concerned over reports that some in the US are contemplating the rearmament of Germany, states unequivocally, ‘We have set our face—the United States, France and ourselves—against the rearming of Germany.’

April 1

NATO—The Early Years: The NATO Defence Committee approves the ﬁrst draft of a four-year (medium-term) defence plan.

April 16

The Road to European Union: Jean Monnet, Paul Reuter, and Etienne Hirsch draft the ﬁrst version of the so-called Schuman Plan, the document resolving the Saar/Ruhr divide ﬁrst through the creation of the ECSC and eventually by means of a federation of all Western European states currently members of the Western Union.

April

NATO—The Early Years: US policy document NSC-68 is presented to President Truman. The document proposes a strategy of comprehensive Western rearmament focused upon, and led by, the United States. It represents a ﬁnal acceptance of the enduring nature of the now-established Cold War. The socalled Long Haul begins.

[26] the long haul May 5

German Rearmament: The British complain to the Soviet Union over the creation and rearming of the Volkspolizei (People’s Police) in the Eastern Länder of Germany under Soviet occupation. The British claim that such rearming is in breach of the Four-Power agreement.

May 9

The Road to European Union: In the Declaration of 9 May, the French Cabinet accepts the Schuman Plan for (ECSC). In a statement that would come to be regarded in time as the true start of European integration, the declaration states: ‘World peace cannot be safeguarded without the making of constructive eﬀort proportionate to the dangers which threaten it. The contribution which an organised and living Europe can bring to civilisation is indispensable to the maintenance of peaceful relations. In taking upon herself for more than 20 years the role of champion of a united Europe, France has always had as her essential aim the service of peace. A united Europe was not achieved and we had war. Europe will not be made all at once, or according to a single, general plan. It will be built through concrete achievements, which ﬁrst create a de facto solidarity. The gathering of the nations of Europe requires the elimination of the age-old opposition of France and the Federal Republic of Germany. The ﬁrst concern in any action undertaken must be these two countries.’

May 11

The Road to European Union: In a debate in the British House of Commons, both Government and Opposition parties are ﬁrmly against Britain joining the Schuman Plan and the ECSC. Britain not only starts its ambivalent relationship with the European institutions, but also its retreat from leadership in Europe that was London’s by right after World War Two.

June 2

The Road to European Union: The British formally reject membership of the ECSC. Not for the last time the French say that they will press ahead anyway.

June 3

The Road to European Union: To further complicate Anglo-French relations the French Government sends a memorandum outlining the conditions for UK membership of the ECSC. The ‘diﬃcult’ terms contained therein are evidence that Schuman has no real desire to see the UK join, for that would disrupt French leadership of the ﬂedgling European institution. It is the ﬁrst time that France indicates a desire to use such an institution to counter British (and American) inﬂuence in Europe through NATO.

June 5

The Road to European Union: The so-called Six (Belgium, France, Germany, Italy, Luxembourg, and the Netherlands) agree to pool their steel and coal industries under a High Authority as part of the ECSC.

June 12

The Road to European Union: The National Executive Council of the British Labour Party publishes a pamphlet entitled ‘European Unity’, in which they attack what they call the supranationality underpinning the ECSC.

June 20

The Road to European Union: Work starts in Paris on an ECSC Treaty under the chairmanship of Schuman’s close collaborator Jean Monnet.

June 25

The Korean War: North Korea invades the South. The Korean War starts. The war will last over three years and in that time 1,130,000 Koreans will be killed out of about 2,500,000 people in total killed during the war.

1950 [27] July 22

German Rearmament: As pressure mounts to ﬁnd forces to go to Korea, the US High Commissioner to Germany states that ‘it is very diﬃcult to deny the Germans the right and the means to defend their own soil’.

July 24

German Rearmament: General Graf von Schwerin is appointed adviser to German Chancellor Adenauer on technical security issues. He commences work on an intelligence appreciation of the Soviet threat as Adenauer begins to prepare the ground for the possible rearming of West Germany.

July 25

German Rearmament: The ﬁrst meeting of the NATO Council Deputies takes place in London. Ambassador Charles M. Spoﬀord, the United States Representative to the North Atlantic Council, is elected Permanent Chairman. Spoﬀord will take the lead in the question of German rearmament.

July 26

German Rearmament: The British Government, sensing the shift in Washington’s thinking, reaﬃrms its opposition to German rearmament. At the same time, British War Minister Emanuel Shinwell conﬁrms that according to British Intelligence the Soviet Union possesses some 175 active military divisions.

August 3

The Balance of Forces in Europe: The British Government announces that it will increase defence expenditure to a historic high of £3.4bn per annum.

August 9–10

German Rearmament: In a debate in the Assembly of the Council of Europe (CoE), French representative Paul Reynaud calls for a European Minister of War. However, the German Social Democrat Carlo Schmid says that German rearmament would destroy European defence.

August 11

European Defence Community: Following on from his 1946 speech calling for a United States of Europe, and ever sensitive to American policy, Winston Churchill at the Council of Europe calls for the creation of a European Army to solve the issue of German rearmament. Churchill implies that the British would be part of such an integrated, supranational force but will not conﬁrm it.

August 11

European Defence Community: In the Strasbourg Resolution, the Council of Europe (CoE) calls for ‘the creation, for a common defence of Europe, of a European Army under political institutions of a United Europe’.

August 29

The German Question: Chancellor Konrad Adenauer oﬀers West German participation in the defence of Western Europe.

August

The Balance of Forces in Europe: In the face of the overwhelming conventional superiority of Soviet armed forces the French Government announces that it is to increase its army signiﬁcantly to 20 divisions with a 28-group air force. The increase is to be completed by 1953.

September 9

The Balance of Forces in Europe: President Truman follows the French lead and in spite of pressures on the US military as it prepares to engage in Korea decides to increase the level of US forces in Western Europe.

September 12–14

German Rearmament: French Foreign Minister Robert Schuman, British Foreign Secretary Ernest Bevin, and US Secretary of State Dean Acheson meet at the Waldorf Astoria in New York. Acheson proposes an integrated military command for NATO. He also proposes a German contribution

[28] the long haul of ten divisions or around 300,000 troops. Schuman leaves the meeting shocked by the prospect of German rearmament, aware that such a development would be utterly unacceptable to the French Government and people. All the European Allies are resentful of the manner by which the US is forcing the issue of German rearmament upon them. However, Britain, France, and the US agree to continue discussing the problem. September 15

The Korean War: The US lands forces at Inchon in Korea. The Americans exert further pressure on the Europeans to increase available military manpower so they can move troops from Europe to Asia.

September 16

German Rearmament: Meeting in New York the North Atlantic Council (NAC) decide that the Western defensive line must be placed as far east as possible. The Forward Strategy, or Forward Presence, is born at American insistence. NATO’s military posture is to remain central to Alliance thinking until the end of the Cold War in 1989 and implicit therein is the rearmament of West Germany.

September 26

German Rearmament: The North Atlantic Council (NAC) reconvenes and accepts the US plan for an integrated military command. However, France refuses to shift its position over any possible German military contribution to the defence of the West. Therefore, any discussion of a German contribution is postponed until a planned meeting of the NATO Defence Council on 28 October. Importantly, France recognizes its need to produce an alternative strategy if it is to avoid isolation at that meeting. The concept of what eventually becomes the EDC is the result. Schuman charges the same team that drew up the plan for a European Coal and Steel Community to devise an integrated solution to this latest version of the German Problem.

October 14

European Defence Community: The ECSC team, under the direction of Jean Monnet and including such notable ﬁgures as Etienne Hirsch, Pierre Uri, Bernard Clappier, Paul Reuter, Hervé Alphand, and Jacques van Helmont, complete the basic plan for an integrated European Army. It becomes known as the Pleven Plan, after the French Prime Minister of the time, René Pleven.

October 23

European Defence Community: The French Cabinet accepts the Pleven Plan at what is an emotional meeting given that the EDC will mean the end of the French Army. The Plan insists that France remains implacably opposed to the creation of a German Army with a separate general staﬀ. Moreover, Paris insists that Germany is to be allowed to rearm only under the auspices of a supranational high command and an organization that will provide for common equipment and common ﬁnancing under a single high authority (à la ECSC). No agreement is to be signed before the ECSC Treaty. It is a bold plan the need for which not only deepens French resentment of the Americans, but also anchors France’s position as the intellectual driver of the emerging European architecture.

October 24

European Defence Community: The French Parliament, L’Assemblée Nationale, grudgingly agrees to the Pleven Plan, but such is the opposition because of the implication that West Germany will be rearmed that Prime

1950 [29] Minister Pleven concludes that should he be required to make further concessions the plan will fail and his government will fall. October 27

The Korean War: 270,000 troops of China’s People’s Liberation Army attack UN forces in Korea across the Yalu River separating China from Northern Korea. At a stroke the strategic balance on the Korean peninsula changes.

October 28

European Defence Community: France introduces the Pleven Plan to the Allies at the NATO Defence Committee. The response is at best lukewarm because the Americans want to ensure that any such solution remains ﬁrmly anchored within NATO. It is the ﬁrst example of a debate between France and the US that will rumble on about the status of European defence: support for NATO or an alternative.

November 3

German Rearmament: Increasingly concerned by the prospect of German rearmament the Soviet Union proposes a meeting of the Big Four, Britain, France, the US, and USSR to discuss what it calls ‘the fulﬁlment of Potsdam’. In other words, the rejection of any suggestion that West Germany is treated as a sovereign state.

November 13

German Rearmament: In response to the Pleven Plan, the US issues the Spofford Proposals, named after Charles Spoﬀord, an American lawyer charged with ﬁnding a solution to the impasse caused by German rearmament. The Americans insist that the immediate military crisis caused by the Korean War is more important than any fear over a resurgent West Germany. They insist that the West German element within NATO must not exceed 20 per cent of the overall force levels of the Alliance. However, they also insist that West Germany must become a NATO member which in turn will require equality of treatment in the political ﬁeld and the right to secede from the Alliance. This is something that is unacceptable not only to the French, but to all the European Allies. The Spoﬀord Proposals go on to make a distinction between the creation of German units and a European Army. Vitally, they only accept the concept of a European Army if it is a means of strengthening the Atlantic Alliance that is militarily viable and operates within the framework of NATO. The Forward Strategy is conﬁrmed and as such requires that German military units be formed as soon as possible. The Americans try to sweeten what is a bitter pill to swallow only seven years after the end of World War Two by suggesting that any German military contribution would have to be subject to several safeguards. First, the stationing of Allied forces in West Germany and the express prohibition of any West German general staﬀ or national army. Second, that West Germany is permitted no heavy armoured formations, no chemical, biological, or atomic weapons and only a limited German navy and air force. The Proposals go on to suggest that the NAC invite the three Western Allied Occupation Powers, Britain, France, and the US, to discuss German participation with the Government of the Federal Republic. Paradoxically, the proposals deny any intention to grant West Germany equality of rights or treatment in the military ﬁeld. The Spoﬀord Proposals and the Pleven Plan, while presented as complementary, are in fact opposing positions that will lead to the ﬁrst of many Franco-American battles over European defence.

[30] the long haul November 15

German Rearmament: The British Government begins to shift its position on German rearmament falling dutifully into line behind American policy. It will not be the last time. In a speech to the British House of Commons War Minister Emanuel Shinwell asks ‘whether British public opinion, French public opinion or American public opinion would tolerate a situation in which British, American and French soldiers and airmen were engaged in the defence of German territory without some contribution from the German people’.

November 24

European Defence Community: The Consultative Assembly of the Council of Europe (CoE) makes a formal recommendation to the Council of Ministers urging governments to create a European Army as soon as possible.

December 18

German Rearmament: Given the changed situation in Korea and the shift in the British position the NATO Defence Committee approves the Spoﬀord Proposals for the rearmament of West Germany.

December 19

NATO—The Early Years: General Dwight D. Eisenhower, the Supreme Allied Commander on D-Day, is appointed NATO’s ﬁrst Supreme Allied Commander, Europe (SACEUR). The old hero of D-Day steps straight into another European crisis.

December 20

European Defence/NATO: The ﬁve Brussels Treaty Powers, Belgium, Britain, France, Luxembourg, and the Netherlands, decide to subsume the military organization of the Western Union into NATO.

December 21

German Rearmament: At American insistence it is agreed that West Germany shall have ‘equality of rights and treatment’, paving the way for membership of the Alliance and eventual rearmament.

1951 AT A GLANCE—MAJOR EVENTS AND THEMES

r The Paris Conference on a European Army takes place. r The Petersberg Conference is held to consider the West German contribution to Europe’s defence. r The US augments the production of material for nuclear weapons. r NATO’s Supreme Headquarters Allied Powers Europe (SHAPE) is established in France. r The Paris Four-Power Conference is held to discuss the future status of Germany. r The Paris Treaty establishing the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC) is signed.

January 9

The German Question: The Petersberg Conference convenes outside Bonn in West Germany to discuss a possible West German contribution to the defence of Western Europe. From the outset, in what can only be described as brinkmanship, the Germans make it clear to their American, British, and French negotiating partners (the three respective High Commissioners with responsibility for Western Germany as occupying powers) that they demand ‘equality of rights and equality of treatment’ before they will consider making such a contribution. Not for the last time German Chancellor Konrad Adenauer proves adept at turning divisions between the three Western powers to Germany’s advantage.

February 1

The German Question: NATO Supreme Allied Commander, Europe (SACEUR) General Eisenhower publicly calls for Germany to be given equality of status with the other Western Allies following the leak of the Spoﬀord Proposals in The Times of London.

February 12

German Rearmament: In an address to the British House of Commons, Prime Minister Clement Attlee raises several conditions for West German rearmament. First, the rearmament of NATO should precede that of West Germany. Second, the build-up of NATO forces should precede that of West Germany. Third, the West German contribution should be wholly integrated into a European Army with no West German Army. Fourth, rearmament should be carried out only with the agreement of the German people. The last point provides the Soviet propaganda machine with an opportunity to sway West German public opinion.

February 15

European Defence Community: The Paris Conference on the creation of a European Army commences. Known oﬃcially as La Conférence pour l’Organisation de l’Armée Européenne, it has ﬁve participants: France, Germany, Italy, Belgium, and Luxembourg. However, there are also six observers present: Canada, Denmark, the Netherlands, Norway, the US,

[32] the long haul and Britain. France dominates proceedings from the start, including naming Hervé Alphand as the chairman of the meeting. A lot of the time is spent debating Britain’s status as a member or an observer of the European Defence Community (EDC). It is a question that will be vital to the success or failure of the EDC. February 20

European Defence Community: The Soviet oﬃcial newspaper Izvestiya accuses the Pleven Plan of being a tool of Washington and a means to carry out America’s desire to rearm an anti-Soviet West Germany.

March

The Balance of Forces in Europe: The British War Oﬃce estimates the strength of the Soviet armed forces at 4 million military personnel.

April 2

NATO—The Early Years: Allied Command Europe (ACE) becomes operational. SHAPE is situated at Roquencourt, near Paris, France.

April 4

NATO—The Early Years: The US Senate approves Resolution 99, which commits the US to sending six US Army divisions or around 150,000 troops to Western Europe.

April 18

The Road to European Union: Belgium, France, Germany, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, and Italy sign the Treaty establishing the ECSC in Paris. The Six is born, and with it the ﬁrst of the integrated European institutions that will lead in time to the European Union. It comes into force on 23 July 1952 with a duration of ﬁfty years (it ends on 23 July 2002) with much the same structure as today’s European Commission, with high commissioners responsible for ensuring supranational impartiality.

May 3

NATO—The Early Years: The NATO Defence Committee and the NATO Defence Financial and Economic Committee are incorporated into the North Atlantic Council (NAC) making it the sole ministerial and thus sovereign body of the Atlantic Alliance to which all other committees are subordinate.

June 4

German Rearmament: The Petersberg Conference ends in failure due to West German insistence upon equality of treatment and a French determination to prevent it. At issue are Contractual Agreements that would change the status of West Germany from that of occupied country to that of ally. For the moment West German membership of NATO is blocked. As a consequence, the US switches its support to the negotiations over the EDC as a means of committing West German military manpower to the defence of Western Europe.

June 10

German Rearmament: In the wake of the failure of the Petersberg talks, and as part of what becomes known as the US ‘change of heart’, the US High Commissioner to Germany is recalled to Washington to discuss future US policy towards West Germany.

June 19

NATO—The Early Years: The parties to the North Atlantic Treaty sign a Status of Forces Agreement (SOFA) covering the rights and responsibilities of all Allied forces based on German soil. It changes the status of Western forces from occupying forces to defending forces, paving the way for a resumption of talks over Germany’s status.

1951 [33] June 30

European Defence Community: The Military Committee of the Paris Conference succeeds in producing an interim draft report on the structure, size, and command of a European army.

July 3

European Defence Community: NATO SACEUR Eisenhower calls for a European Federation as he lends his weight to the creation of a European Army.

July 24

European Defence Community: The Paris Conference approves the report of the Military Committee and recommends the creation of a European Army. The military term ‘division’, so painful to the French given the German occupation of 1940, is replaced by the word groupement. Central to the plan is that all formations will be multinational down to platoon level, i.e. around twenty soldiers.

July 30

European Defence Community: US President Truman formally authorizes US backing for the EDC.

September 15–20

NATO—The Early Years: The NATO Council meeting in Ottawa examines the vexed issue of Contractual Agreements, which proved the stumbling block during the ill-fated Petersberg Conference. The Contractual Agreements are aimed at transforming the status of Germany from that of an occupied power to that of an ally. However, France demands that any such agreement be linked to the European Defence Community, speciﬁcally an EDC treaty, and thus a European Army, so denying Germany freedom of action.

September 15–20

NATO—The Early Years: At the same Ottawa meeting, NATO establishes the Temporary Council Committee to better enable Allies to match military requirements with economic and ﬁnancial capabilities. It is the beginning of the Defence Planning Process (DPP) that exists to this day.

September 20

NATO—The Early Years: NATO countries sign the Civilian Status Agreement (CSA) in Ottawa covering the juridical status of NATO personnel, national representatives, and international staﬀ.

October 9–11

NATO—The Early Years: The ﬁrst meeting takes place of the Temporary Council Committee TCC in Paris. The TCC was established by the NAC to seek a balance between the burdens imposed by collective defence with the political and economic capabilities of the member countries.

October 22

NATO Enlargement: The protocol inviting Greece and Turkey to join NATO is concluded. Long concerned about Soviet encroachment in the Adriatic, Balkans, and Mediterranean regions, Washington has been pushing for the membership of two states long locked in a political struggle of their own. It is the ﬁrst step on the long road to NATO enlargement.

October 26

European Defence/NATO: Labour loses the British elections to the Conservatives and 77-year-old Winston Churchill is elected to a second term as British Prime Minister.

October

European Defence Community: As a result of a shift in attitude by the Dutch Government the Netherlands changes its position from that of observer to participant at the Paris Conference for a European Defence Community.

[34] the long haul October

The Nuclear Balance: The US carries out a test on the ﬁrst sub-kiloton bomb. These so-called ‘baby bombs’ are the ﬁrst generation of tactical nuclear weapons and lead to a long debate with NATO about the utility and ethicality of nuclear weapons as warﬁghting munitions.

October

European Defence Community: As a result of American pressure Britain agrees to send a military oﬃcer to Paris to take part in the Military Committee of the European Defence Community. However, it is unclear whether the UK is willing to enter into a formal relationship with a future European Army. Consequently, to ease British fears over the possible loss of the British Army the conference on a European Army becomes the Conference on a European Defence Community.

November 19

NATO—The Early Years: The NATO Defence College is inaugurated in Paris. It is to be transferred to Rome on 10 October 1966 when France quits military NATO.

November 28

European Defence Community: British Foreign Secretary Anthony Eden says at a press conference that British units will not participate in a European Army. The Anglo-French rift becomes deeper as British involvement is a sine qua non for the French. However, the protracted nature of the negotiation is leading to a loss of faith in the EDC on the part of the Americans, enabling the British also to back away from any commitment.

November 28

European Defence Community: British Home Secretary (Interior Minister) Sir David Maxwell Fyfe reiterates Anthony Eden’s statement that Britain will not participate in a European Army. Responding to the statement the French Representative to the Council of Europe (CoE) states: ‘Britain must not now repudiate Churchill’s resolution . . . If Britain . . . refuses to join . . . what a powerful argument for the European Army’s opponents in parliaments.’

November

The Nuclear Balance: The US Army Command and General Staﬀ College complete a report entitled ‘The Tactical Use of Atomic Weapons—FM 10031’ that conﬁrms the possible use of such weapons on the battleﬁeld in Europe.

December 1

European Defence Community: US Secretary of State Dean Acheson informs President Truman that the talks over the EDC are not going well. Washington reconsiders its position.

December 10

European Defence Community: In what becomes known as the New Schuman Plan French Foreign Minister Robert Schuman suggests a College of Ministers similar in structure and status to the political control of the British Commonwealth. This is to overcome British concerns over loss of sovereignty implied by the EDC.

December 15

European Defence Community: Concluding a visit to Paris, British Prime Minister Winston Churchill issues a communiqué saying that whilst Britain will not join the EDC it will co-operate as closely as possible.

December 20

European Defence Community: US Secretary of State Dean Acheson states publicly that he hopes the New Schuman Plan for the EDC is enough to persuade Britain to participate.

1951 [35] December 27–30

European Defence Community: The foreign and defence ministers of the six EDC states agree that the community is a step along the path to eventual European uniﬁcation. The ministers also agree to develop a plan for European confederation or federation. The statement makes British participation even less likely.

December

The Balance of Forces in Europe: The NATO Allies announce that they have 35 divisions in Western Europe or just over 1 million men under arms. They also state that they possess 3,000 operational aircraft compared with the 1949 level of 1,000. However, former UK War Minister Shinwell suggests that the Soviets have 19,000.

1952 AT A GLANCE—MAJOR EVENTS AND THEMES

r London Foreign Ministers Conference takes place in support of the European Defence Community (EDC). r Greece and Turkey join NATO. r Stalin proposes a neutral united Germany. r The Eden Plan for the political control of the EDC. r The Contractual Agreements are signed giving the Federal Republic of Germany equality of treatment and thus sovereignty. r The Treaty establishing the European Steel and Coal Community (ECSC) enters into force. r Britain tests its ﬁrst atomic device. r The US tests it ﬁrst hydrogen-bomb. r West German Chancellor Konrad Adenauer calls for a common European foreign policy.

January 5–9

European Defence Community: British Prime Minister Winston Churchill goes to Washington to discuss the European Defence Community with US President Harry S. Truman and to ensure the so-called ‘special relationship’ remains intact in spite of the British refusal to join the EDC.

January 26–7

European Defence Community: The foreign ministers of the Six meet in Paris and agree that the Board of Commissioners that will oversee the work of the EDC should consist of nine High Commissioners, each serving for six years.

January 30

NATO—The Early Years: Vice-Admiral Lynde D. McCormick of the United States Navy is appointed the ﬁrst Supreme Allied Commander, Atlantic (SACLANT).

February 3

European Defence Community: West German Chancellor Konrad Adenauer suggests that West German membership of the EDC and an accord over the Contractual Agreements might take place only if West Germany is permitted NATO membership. Moreover, West German agreement would also be dependent on a bilateral settlement with France of the Saar/Ruhr dispute and West Germany’s territorial claim. In eﬀect, Adenauer is testing the political climate and following the hostile reaction to his suggestion he quickly backs away from the proposal.

February 8

European Defence Community: The West German Parliament, the Bundestag, votes for a resolution demanding equal status for Germany and an end to the occupation of the Western powers if it is to accept membership of the EDC.

1952 [37] February 17–19 European Defence Community: During the London Foreign Ministers Conference, the US and Britain oﬀer to give their full support to the EDC, although short of British membership, and to play their full role in the defence of Western Europe. They also agree a position on future relations between NATO and the EDC, which averts the EDC’s immediate failure. February 18

NATO Enlargement: Greece and Turkey accede to NATO. The Alliance now has fourteen members.

February 19

European Defence Community: In a heated debate in the French Parliament (L’Assemblée Nationale), the vote is narrowly in favour of the EDC. The main concern of French MPs is that the EDC will permit Germany to enter NATO without formal French approval. Consequently, they want the US and the UK to guarantee the EDC and continue to insist upon British membership.

February 20–5 The Balance of Forces in Europe: The North Atlantic Council meeting in Lisbon sets a force target of 96 divisions by 1954 at mobilization plus another 30 days for all reserves to be called up. It is also agreed to reorganize the structure of the Alliance and conﬁrms NATO as a permanent organization with its headquarters in Paris. February 21

NATO—The Early Years: The North Atlantic Council (NAC) establishes Channel Command, with British Admiral Sir Arthur John Power as the ﬁrst Commander-in-Chief Channel (CINCHAN).

March 10

The German Question: In a note to Britain, France, and the US, Josef Stalin proposes a peace treaty for Germany that oﬀers German unity and sovereignty with rearmament suﬃcient for self-defence within one year on the condition of strict German neutrality.

March 12

NATO—The Early Years: Lord Bruce Ismay of the United Kingdom is appointed vice-chairman of the North Atlantic Council and the ﬁrst Secretary-General of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization. He is famous for stating that the purpose of NATO is to keep the Russians out, the Americans in, and the Germans down.

March 14

European Defence Community: The Paris Conference asks Britain ‘to enter into a formal treaty relationship with the EDC, including accepting a provision for an automatic armed assistance’ clause similar to that contained in Article IV of the Treaty of Brussels (Article V in the modiﬁed treaty of 1954). Britain responds by stating that Article 51 of the UN Charter and Article 5 of the North Atlantic Treaty already provide such guarantees. UK Foreign Secretary Anthony Eden also proposes that the Council of Europe should become the political-control body for the European Defence Community because it is intergovernmental, rather than supranational. The so-called Eden Plan is designed to solidify French support for the EDC through partial British involvement in an intergovernmental structure. The approach foreshadows later British support for the process of European Political Cooperation in the 1970s.

March 25

The German Question: In response to Stalin’s proposal for a uniﬁed but neutral Germany the West makes free elections under UN control a

[38] the long haul precondition for negotiating a peace treaty. The West believes such elections would give the German people a chance to choose their political destiny, something that is unacceptable to Moscow. April 4

The German Question: Lord Ismay takes up his positions as SecretaryGeneral of NATO and vice-chairman of the NAC.

April 9

The German Question: In a note to the Western Powers, the Soviet Union insists that Germany remain free from alliances but agrees to allow free elections in Germany if they are supervised by the Four Powers, rather than the UN. Such an approach would enable the Soviets to control the outcome in the part of Germany they command.

April 10

NATO—The Early Years: Allied Command, Atlantic (ACLANT) becomes fully operational as its headquarters are established at Norfolk, Virginia, US.

April 16

NATO—The Early Years: NATO’s provisional headquarters are opened at the Palais de Chaillot, Paris, France.

April 28

NATO—The Early Years: The ﬁrst meeting takes place of the NAC in permanent session in Paris at ambassadorial level.

April 30

European Defence Community: The Labour Party in Britain demands a fresh general election before any decision is taken that would commit the British to the EDC.

May 1

NATO—The Early Years: US Army General Matthew ‘Bunker’ Ridgway becomes Supreme Allied Commander, Europe (SACEUR). He succeeds General Dwight D. Eisenhower.

May 9

European Defence Community: The text of the EDC Treaty, ‘La Traité Instituant la Communauté Européenne de Défense’ is initialled in Paris by Belgium, France, West Germany, Italy, Luxembourg, and the Netherlands. West Germany’s involvement paves the way for the Contractual Agreements to be signed on the sovereign status of the Federal Republic of Germany.

May 12

European Defence Community: British Field Marshal Earl Alexander visits Paris and oﬀers the French strong British support in the form of a close British military association with the EDC. French concerns are temporarily eased.

May 26

The German Question: The Contractual Agreements, or German Treaty, are signed in Bonn, thus ending the status of the West Germany as an occupied power.

May 27

European Defence Community: The EDC Treaty is signed in Paris. It is agreed that all members shall be treated on the principle of equality and that the European Army constituent to the treaty shall be an integrated force overseen by High Commissioners. However, whilst the West German military must report directly to the EDC the armed forces of the other ﬁve will report to their national governments.

June 2

European Defence Community: In a letter to the US Senate, President Truman expresses his satisfaction with the European Defence Community Treaty.

1952 [39] June 3

European Defence Community: The temporary control mechanism for the EDC, Le Comité Intérimaire de la Conférence pour l’Organisation de la Communauté Européenne de Défense, is established in Paris.

July 23

The Road to European Union: The Treaty Establishing the ECSC enters into force.

July 31

European Defence Community: After a tense debate in the British House of Commons, Parliament approves the EDC. However, the ﬁnal motion is worded in such a way as to preclude any direct British involvement.

August 23

European Defence Community: French Premier Antoine Pinay, who is a strong supporter of the EDC, steps down from oﬃce.

August 25

European Defence Community: The Soviet Union attacks the EDC as being in breach of the 1945 Potsdam Agreement that committed the signatories not to rearm Germany.

August 28

NATO—The Early Years: NATO member nations sign the Protocol on the Status of International Military Headquarters in Paris.

September 5

European Defence Community: The East German Volkskammer attacks the EDC.

September 10

European Defence Community: The Eden Plan for intergovernmental control of the EDC is killed oﬀ as Italian Foreign Minister Alcide de Gasperi suggests that a new ECSC Assembly should be the focus of EDC political control. The ECSC Assembly will become the forerunner of the European Parliament (EP)

September 10

European Defence Community: At an ECSC meeting in Luxembourg, the Six agree to appoint a special assembly to interpret Article 38 of the EDC treaty, which spells out its institutional structure, and to draw up a draft treaty for a European Political Community (EPC). This political community would take over the powers and institutions of both the ECSC and the EDC and harmonize the two. However, the success of the initiative depends on the ratiﬁcation of the EDC treaty.

October 3

The Nuclear Balance: Britain carries out its ﬁrst test explosion of an atomic device at Christmas Island in the Paciﬁc.

October 3

The German Question: Soviet leader Stalin proposes to West German Chancellor Konrad Adenauer a ‘pan-German solution’, oﬀering military autonomy to prevent the conclusion of treaties between the Western Powers and Germany. Adenauer rejects the proposal.

October 17

European Defence Community: French Socialists attack the EDC as unconstitutional. Edouard Herriot, the president of the Assemblée Nationale, leads the attack, lending it real political weight.

November 1

The Nuclear Balance: The ﬁrst US hydrogen bomb is exploded at Bikini Atoll in the Paciﬁc.

November 4

NATO—The Early Years: Former NATO Supreme Allied Commander, Europe Dwight D. Eisenhower is elected President of the United States.

[40] the long haul November 15

European Defence Community: The French Government puts the EDC Treaty before the Assemblée Nationale for detailed examination in committee. The initial reaction is hostile and EDC starts to lose political momentum.

November

European Defence Community: Architect of the European Defence Community René Pleven begins to talk of alternatives to the EDC but says that he himself remains committed.

December 3

The Balance of Forces in Europe: The British Foreign and Commonwealth Oﬃce (FCO) estimate West German troop strength at 100,000.

December 5

European Defence Community: The West German Parliament, the Bundestag, approves the EDC at its second reading but puts oﬀ voting on it at a third reading for fear of its being rejected.

December 15

European Defence Community: Fearing the loss of the EDC West German Chancellor Konrad Adenauer calls for a common foreign policy. He says that a common defence policy without a common foreign policy cannot work. It is a debate to which Europeans will return.

December 15–18

European Defence/NATO: The NAC aﬃrms that there remains a need for the European Defence Community but none of the Six signatories wants to be the ﬁrst to ratify the EDC Treaty.

December 23

European Defence Community: The French Government formally resigns over the EDC dealing it a signiﬁcant blow.

1953 AT A GLANCE—MAJOR EVENTS AND THEMES

r r r r r r r r r r r

The European Defence Community falters. Dwight D. Eisenhower is sworn into oﬃce as US President. John Foster Dulles becomes US Secretary of State. Charles de Gaulle attacks the European Defence Community (EDC). Josef Stalin dies. Calls for a new European Assembly. The Dulles Deadline over the EDC. The ﬁnal armistice in the Korean War is signed at Panmunjom, Korea. First Soviet thermonuclear device is tested. NATO adopts the doctrine of Massive Retaliation. Dulles warns of an ‘agonizing reappraisal’ of US policy towards Western Europe if the EDC Treaty is not ratiﬁed. r Britain, France, and the US each establish defence expenditure at around 10 per cent of GDP.

January 7

European Defence Community: West German Chancellor Konrad Adenauer says that he is prepared to meet the French to discuss their concerns over the EDC.

January 8

European Defence Community: René Mayer becomes Prime Minister of France. He demands more guarantees from the US and UK before France will ratify the EDC Treaty. Robert Schuman is replaced by Georges Bidault as French Foreign Minister.

January 20

NATO—The Early Years: Dwight D. Eisenhower is sworn into oﬃce as president of the United States.

January 21

NATO—The Early Years: John Foster Dulles and Charles E. Wilson begin their terms as US Secretary of State and US Secretary of Defense respectively.

January 29

European Defence Community: In an authoritative article the Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung says that France intends to maintain the ‘ﬁction’ of the EDC while at the same time keeping its own national army.

January 31

European Defence Community: John Foster Dulles starts a tour of Western European capitals in order to push for the ratiﬁcation of the EDC Treaty.

February 12

European Defence Community: New US Secretary of State Dulles tells the American people that the failure to ratify the EDC Treaty is ‘worrying’, and that NATO suﬀers from a ‘fatal weakness’ without Germany and the EDC.

[42] the long haul February 12–13 European Defence Community: At the Anglo-French summit, the two sides discuss French national sentiment over their army, enhanced guarantees from the UK prior to ratiﬁcation, and protocols to the treaty concerning France’s deepening crisis in Indo-China. The world will soon know the country as Vietnam. February 23–5 European Defence Community: The foreign ministers of the Six meet in Rome. Concern is expressed at what is now regarded by the other ﬁve signatories as French tampering with the EDC Treaty. They accept that ratiﬁcation will be delayed, but issue a statement saying it cannot now be avoided. February 25

European Defence Community: Charles de Gaulle launches a bitter public attack on the EDC.

February

European Defence Community: US Secretary of State Dulles says that the EDC Treaty must be ratiﬁed by all participants or else the US will cut its military aid.

March 1

European Defence Community: French Prime Minister René Mayer, in an eﬀort to get the EDC Treaty ratiﬁed, says that it represents the last guarantee against the rebirth of German militarism.

March 5

The Death of Stalin: Josef Stalin dies and brings Stalinism to an end. The cult of Stalin’s personality dies with him. Without a clear mechanism for the orderly transfer of power a struggle between Georgi Malenkov and Nikita Khrushchev begins over the succession.

March 5/6

The Death of Stalin: Malenkov is named chairman of the Council of Ministers of the USSR and ﬁrst secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU).

March 10

European Defence Community: Italy’s Prime Minister de Gasperi formally puts forward a new plan for the political control of both the ECSC and the EDC through an elected assembly. This plan, known as Article 38 (referring to the EDC treaty), kills oﬀ the Eden Plan and any realistic chance of the UK being fully involved with either the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC) or the EDC.

March 10

The Road to European Union: The ad hoc assembly instituted by the ECSC agrees on the text of the treaty establishing a European Political Community (EPC).

March 13

The Soviet Succession: Malenkov has to resign from his post as ﬁrst secretary of the CPSU. The balance of power shifts in favour of his rival Nikita Khrushchev.

March 19

European Defence Community: The German Constitutional Court rules that a two-thirds majority from both German chambers of Parliament is necessary to ratify the EDC Treaty.

March 19

European Defence Community: The German Bundestag ﬁnally votes for the ratiﬁcation of the EDC Treaty after a bitter debate. However, approval by the upper house, the Bundesrat, is still needed before ratiﬁcation.

1953 [43] March 23

NATO—The Early Years: US President Eisenhower establishes the post of Assistant to the President for National Security Aﬀairs, better known as National Security Adviser. Robert Cutler, who wrote the report on the organization of the National Security Council (NSC) that triggered Eisenhower’s decision to appoint such an individual, becomes the ﬁrst National Security Adviser.

April 1

European Defence Community: The Dulles Deadline is reached for ratiﬁcation of the EDC Treaty. However, no country has as yet done so.

April 6–19

European Defence Community: During a visit to the US and Canada, West German Chancellor Konrad Adenauer goes to Washington and is given pledges of US aid for ratifying the EDC Treaty.

April 23–5

European Defence/NATO: At the North Atlantic Council (NAC) meeting in Paris, the US pushes hard for the ratiﬁcation of the EDC Treaty but faces stiﬀ opposition, particularly from the French.

May 11

European Defence Community: In a famous speech to the British House of Commons, Prime Minister Winston Churchill attacks France and its ‘antiBritish’ position on the European Defence Community. He says that the UK has done more than anyone to support the treaty and was getting absolutely no thanks for its eﬀorts. He states that, ‘we are with them but not of them’, ending any hope that Britain will join the EDC.

May 15

European Defence Community: The West German Bundesrat approves the EDC Treaty. It is the only parliament to have done so.

June 17

The German Question: Seeking to exploit the apparent uncertainty in Moscow after Stalin’s death and following food shortages, anti-Soviet demonstrations break out in East Berlin. They are ruthlessly suppressed.

June 30

European Defence Community: In France, the René Mayer Government falls and Mayer is replaced by Joseph Laniel, an opponent of the European Defence Community. The EDC is failing.

June

European Defence Community: French Foreign Minister André Bidault says that France will not ratify the EDC Treaty until there is a further Western attempt at an overall East–West settlement to the German Problem and other related disputes.

July 11

NATO—The Early Years: US Army General Alfred Gruenther replaces General Matthew Ridgway as NATO’s Supreme Allied Commander, Europe (SACEUR).

July 23

The Korean War: The Korean Armistice is signed at Panmunjom, Korea. It is agreed that the 38th Parallel shall be the demarcation line between North and South Korean forces.

July 28

European Defence Community: Alcide de Gasperi is toppled as Prime Minister of Italy. This represents another blow to the ratiﬁcation of the EDC Treaty.

August 4

The German Question: The Soviet Union rejects a Western request for a meeting to discuss free and open elections in the whole of Germany. The

[44] the long haul West uses this rejection to reinforce the image of a wholly intransigent and undemocratic USSR. August 12

The Nuclear Balance: The Soviet Union explodes its ﬁrst thermonuclear device. Again, the speed with which Moscow has matched the US is a shock to the West.

August 20

The Nuclear Balance: The Soviet Union announces that it possesses a hydrogen bomb.

September 6

European Defence Community: West German Chancellor Adenauer wins decisively in elections in the Federal Republic Germany (FRG). Hopes for a successful EDC are renewed.

September 7

The Soviet Union: Nikita Khrushchev is named First Secretary of the CPSU. Far more charismatic than Stalin, he sets about denouncing his predecessor. However, he is to prove no less an opponent of the West.

September 15

The Nuclear Balance: The US Secretary of the Army reveals that six 280millimetre cannons are on their way to Germany. These cannons are nuclear-capable. On 8 October they arrive in West Germany.

October 27–9

European Defence Community: In yet another blow to the EDC ratiﬁcation process, the French Assemblée Nationale calls on its government to protect French interests and on Britain to formally commit itself to balancing German power within the EDC.

October 30

The Nuclear Balance: US President Dwight D. Eisenhower approves NSC162/2, which advocates extensive reliance on nuclear weapons and strategic air power to deter Communist expansion and aggression. Eisenhower authorizes an expansion of the US nuclear arsenal. The document lays the administrative foundation for the New Look Strategic Concept and advocates containment and the doctrine of massive retaliation. While it does not advocate a roll-back, i.e. actively pushing back the Soviet Union from its zones of inﬂuence in Europe, the doctrine does endorse military initiatives against lesser adversaries.

October

NATO: Under the title of Massive Retaliation, NATO formally adopts the US National Security Doctrine enshrined in NSC-162/1 and commits itself to the use of theatre nuclear weapons in the event of a conﬂict in Europe.

November 12

European Defence Community: Charles de Gaulle once again publicly attacks the EDC.

November 18–27

European Defence Community: In a key debate in the French Parliament, L’Assemblée Nationale, the anti-treaty forces carry the day, and the prospect of the successful ratiﬁcation of the EDC Treaty becomes even more remote.

November 30

The German Question: The Soviet Union ﬁnally agrees to a Four-Power meeting to discuss the future of Germany.

December 4–8 European Defence Community: The Bermuda Conference between the US, the UK, and France. Among other international issues, discussions focus on the EDC. Churchill and Eden once again try to persuade the French to support the treaty. If the EDC fails, they want to prepare ground for German integration into NATO, fearing that without a German contribution the US

1953 [45] would withdraw from Europe. For Eisenhower, however, ‘it’s [only] the EDC and we must get it done’. Bidault requests US and UK guarantees for a troop presence in continental Europe for 20 years; otherwise, he says, Assemblée Nationale support for the EDC would be diﬃcult to obtain. December 14

European Defence/NATO: At the North Atlantic Council meeting, US Secretary of State Dulles warns of an ‘agonizing reappraisal’ of US policy towards Western Europe if the EDC Treaty is not ratiﬁed.

December 14–16

NATO: The NAC reports that defence expenditure among members is 3.5 times higher in real terms than in 1949 and 13 per cent up on 1952. However, the NAC gives up on the achievement of the force goals set at the Lisbon Conference.

December 17

European Defence Community: British Prime Minister Churchill raises the prospect of Germany being given membership of NATO if France does not ratify the EDC treaty.

December

The Nuclear Balance: President Eisenhower says that nuclear weapons have ‘virtually achieved conventional status’ within the US armed forces.

1954 AT A GLANCE—MAJOR EVENTS AND THEMES

r Four-Power Conference in Berlin in which the Soviet Union calls for a general European treaty on collective security. r French garrison at Dien Bien Phu in Indo-China is attacked and falls. r France deploys more than 100,000 troops to Algeria as the security situation deteriorates. r The European Defence Community (EDC) fails. r South East Asia Treaty Organization (SEATO) is formed. r The London Conference is held to expand the 1948 Brussels Treaty to include a rearmed Germany and Italy; the Western Union becomes the Western European Union. r The West German contribution to the NATO defence structure is agreed, as is German membership of NATO. r NATO Supreme Allied Commander, Europe (SACEUR) General Gruenther suggests that the introduction of theatre nuclear weapons could reduce NATO’s need for manpower by as much as two-thirds. r The ﬁrst Soviet nuclear-capable TU-16 ‘Badger’ bomber is deployed in Eastern Europe. r Soviet forces receive their ﬁrst operational atomic weapons.

January 6

European Defence Community: US President Eisenhower raises the prospect of US withdrawal from Europe unless the EDC Treaty is ratiﬁed: ‘It is the EDC or nothing,’ he says.

January 12

The Nuclear Balance: The US formally announces that its strategic doctrine is based upon the concept of Massive Retaliation and the early use of nuclear weapons in the event of a Soviet conventional attack in Europe.

January 25

The German Question: The Four-Power Conference opens in Berlin. The Soviet Union proposes a general European treaty on collective security. The West rejects it on the grounds that it would formalize the division of Europe.

January 18

The German Question: The Four-Power Conference fails due to the Soviet refusal to allow free and open elections in East Germany. The Four Powers do agree, however, to convene a Geneva Conference on Indo-China and Korea in the same year.

January

NATO: General Gruenther (SACEUR) formally announces that NATO has a theatre nuclear capability.

February 26

European Defence Community: The German Bundestag discusses Germany’s military contribution to the EDC, because the 1949 Basic Law left open the

1954 [47] question of future membership of military alliances. The Federal Republic of Germany’s (FRG) exclusive legislative jurisdiction is extended to defence, including compulsory military service, and the EDC Treaty is declared compatible with the Basic Law. March 13

French Indo-China: The French garrison at Dien Bien Phu in Indo-China is attacked by Communist irregulars.

April 7

The German Question: The German Bundestag refuses to recognize a new German Democratic Republic (GDR) in eastern Germany as a sovereign state and instead insists that the FRG is the only legal successor of the German Reich and thus the only legitimate representative of German interests.

April 13

European Defence Community: The EDC ratiﬁcation process is given a boost when Britain signs an Agreement Regarding Co-operation Between the UK and the EDC in Paris.

April 26

French Indo-China: The ﬁrst Geneva Conference on a possible solution to the Indo-China conﬂict opens.

May 2

The German Question: The Soviet Union recognizes the GDR, or East Germany, as a sovereign state.

May 7

French Indo-China: The French garrison at Dien Bien Phu falls to communist irregulars in Indo-China. Facing increasing pressure for independence by Algeria the French are in no position to defend far-ﬂung colonial possessions.

May 7

NATO: Both London and Washington reject a bid by the Soviet Union to join NATO.

May

European Defence Community: Alcide de Gasperi’s hope of a supranational assembly to control the EDC is ﬁnally dashed as it is rejected by the Six. De Gasperi dies shortly thereafter.

June 17–18

NATO: The Constituent Conference of the Atlantic Treaty Association sponsored by the International Atlantic Committee meets in The Hague, Netherlands to discuss parliamentary oversight of the Alliance.

June 18

European Defence Community: In what proves to be a fatal blow for the EDC process, Pierre Mendès-France is appointed Prime Minister of France.

June

The Balance of Forces in Europe: NATO SACEUR General Gruenther announces that NATO has 100 divisions. However, the US also announces plans to cut its military personnel from 3.3 to 2.8 million by June 1957. Gruenther also conﬁrms that he fully intends to deploy nuclear weapons in support of NATO ground forces.

July 20

French Indo-China: Geneva Conference reaches an accord on the future of Indo-China. France is to withdraw, and the US is to guarantee security through a new regional security organization, the South East Asia Treaty Organization (SEATO).

July 24

The East–West Balance: The Soviet Union repeats its proposal made at the Berlin Conference and calls for an all-European security treaty.

[48] the long haul August 29

European Defence Community: L’Assemblée Nationale votes to reject ratiﬁcation of the treaty setting up the EDC. In a historic debate the discussion of the EDC Treaty is eventually adjourned sine die. The EDC is dead.

September 8

Global Security: (SEATO) is founded in Manila, the Philippines. Modelled on NATO, it is one of the regional groupings to which the US was committed by the Vandenburg Resolution in 1948 and includes Australia, France, New Zealand, Pakistan, the Philippines, Thailand, the UK, and the US.

September 10

The East–West Balance: British Foreign Secretary Eden replies to the Soviet Union’s proposal for a European security treaty, recalling the Berlin discussions in January and asserting that for any progress to be made Germany should be united in freedom and be allowed to hold free elections under international supervision and that the USSR should sign the Austrian Peace Treaty.

September 28 –October 3

European Defence/NATO: British Foreign Secretary Anthony Eden ‘rescues’ Western European defence from the debacle of French rejection of the EDC by hosting a Nine-Power Conference in London. The conference decides to terminate the occupation regime in the (FRG), to invite West Germany and Italy to accede to the Brussels Treaty, to allow Germany to undertake some rearmament, and to invite Germany to join NATO. A conference paper sets out ‘A German Defence Contribution and Arrangements to Apply to SACEUR’s Forces on the Continent’. Historically, Britain commits itself to a permanent presence on the Continent and agrees to station four divisions and a tactical air force in Germany. It allows itself the escape clause, however, that if its economic or political circumstances change, it can withdraw from the commitment. European defence is therefore maintained; France has a UK presence to counterbalance Germany; the US has access to German manpower; and Germany has equality of status. The EDC era is brought to an end.

October 22–3

NATO: The North Atlantic Council (NAC) approves the decision taken at the Nine-Power Conference in London permitting West Germany to join NATO.

October 23

European Defence/NATO: The four treaties implementing the ‘EDC alternative’ designed during the London Nine-Power Conference are signed in Paris: the Western Union becomes the Western European Union (WEU) and is expanded to include West Germany and Italy; the occupation of the FRG is ended and its full sovereignty restored; the FRG is invited to join NATO; and a French-German treaty foresees a European status for the Saar/Sarre region, subject to a referendum by the region’s inhabitants.

October

French Indo-China/Vietnam: French troops leave French Indo-China, which becomes now an independent country called Vietnam.

November

Algerian Independence: Conﬂict breaks out in Algeria, a French département or region in North Africa.

December 17–18

NATO: NATO formally adopts the New Look Strategic Concept, which enshrines Massive Retaliation and the Forward Strategy as doctrine. This is very much a result of US pressure. The Allies are not given much choice in the matter.

1955 AT A GLANCE—MAJOR EVENTS AND THEMES

r President Eisenhower reconﬁrms that nuclear weapons are to be regarded like any other weapon within the NATO arsenal. r The UK commits itself to develop a hydrogen bomb. r The Warsaw Treaty Organization (WTO) is formed. r Dual-key American and European control over tactical nuclear delivery systems is agreed. r West Germany joins NATO. r The ﬁrst Honest John theatre nuclear missiles arrive in West Germany. r France ratiﬁes the revised Brussels Treaty. r Austrian Peace Treaty is signed. r The Geneva Conference on European security, disarmament, and German uniﬁcation takes place. r US President Eisenhower proposes an Open Skies Treaty to the USSR. r Jean Monnet creates the Action Committee for the United States of Europe. r US forward-based system exceeds 500 nuclear-capable force units.

February 8

The Soviet Union: Malenkov is forced to resign as Chairman of the Council of Ministers of the USSR. Nikolai Bulganin succeeds him following a recommendation by Khrushchev.

February 24

NATO: The Baghdad Pact is signed to create a Middle East regional security organization not dissimilar in ambition to NATO. Indeed, its primary mission is to prevent the expansion of Soviet inﬂuence therein. Members include Iran, Iraq, Pakistan, Turkey, and the UK, with the US as an Associate Member.

March 16

The Nuclear Balance: US President Eisenhower states that, ‘A-bombs can be used . . . as you would use a bullet.’

April 2

The Road to European Union: Belgian Foreign Minister Paul-Henri Spaak proposes to German Chancellor Konrad Adenauer the relaunch of European co-operation by extending the responsibility of the European Coal and Steel Community’s (ECSC’s) High Authority to include energy and transport.

April 4

The Road to European Union: Jean Monnet proposes to Adenauer, Antoine Pinay, and Italian Foreign Minister Gaetano Martino an extension of European economic integration and calls for a meeting of the Six to that end.

April 5

Winston Churchill Resigns: Winston Churchill resigns and on 7 April Anthony Eden becomes British Prime Minister.

[50] the long haul April

NATO: The US agrees to ‘share’ nuclear weapons with other NATO members. The dual-key system is introduced, by which NATO members will control nuclear delivery systems but the US will maintain control over the warheads.

May 5

European Defence/NATO: France ratiﬁes the revised Brussels Treaty. Although there is much opposition to German rearmament within the Assemblée Nationale, the French know that to procrastinate any longer will result in France’s isolation. However, the level of US pressure that they are subjected to further sours an already tense and complex intra-Alliance relationship.

May 5

The Warsaw Pact: The WTO (Warsaw Pact) is formed as a Soviet-inspired counterbalance to NATO and the rearming of West Germany.

May 5

The Soviet Union: The emerging power of Khrushchev as he consolidates his victory over Malenkov in the Kremlin power struggle leads to an increasingly sophisticated Soviet policy shift in its dealings with the West.

May 5

NATO: The High Commission in Germany is dissolved; the Federal Republic of Germany declares its sovereignty and undertakes to contribute to NATO defence eﬀorts by setting up the Bundeswehr.

May 6

European Defence/NATO: The amended Brussels Treaty enters into force.

May 6

NATO Enlargement: The Federal Republic of Germany joins NATO making it the ﬁfteenth member.

May 9–11

NATO: The North Atlantic Council (NAC) meeting in Paris welcomes Germany’s accession to NATO and stresses the Alliance’s purely defensive character.

May 14

The Warsaw Pact: The USSR concludes the Warsaw Treaty with seven of its satellite states: Albania, Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, East Germany, Hungary, Poland, and Romania.

May 15

Austrian Peace Treaty: At the Vienna Four-Power Conference, the Treaty on a Democratic and Independent Austria is signed. The peace treaty ends the Four-Power occupation of that country and prohibits a future Anschluss or union between Austria and Garmany. It represents the ﬁrst really positive sign of the Soviet policy shift.

May

The Nuclear Balance: The ﬁrst US Honest John theatre nuclear missiles arrive in West Germany.

June 1–3

The Road to European Union: The foreign ministers of the Six meet in Messina, Italy, to discuss the future of European integration. They propose economic integration through a common market as an instrument to create a political union. They also welcome the idea of a European Atomic Energy Community. The ministers decide to set up the Intergovernmental Committee on European Integration, chaired by Belgian Foreign Minister Spaak, to prepare a report on the necessary treaties and to prepare the conference to draft them.

June 16

The Nuclear Balance: The British decide to proceed with the development of a hydrogen bomb.

1955 [51] June 23–8

The Nuclear Balance: The ﬁrst Western exercise simulating the use of tactical nuclear weapons takes place in West Germany. Known as Operation Carte Blanche, the result suggests a staggering degree of damage in the event of such a conﬂict occurring on West Germany territory.

June

The Nuclear Balance: The B-52 long-range US bomber becomes operational, and the ﬁrst truly intercontinental atomic delivery system comes into service.

July 18–23

The East–West Balance: A conference of four heads of government and foreign ministers takes place in Geneva regarding European security and German reuniﬁcation, disarmament, and East–West contacts. West and East German delegations participate as observers, constituting de facto recognition of the German Demouratic Republic (GDR).

July 18–23

NATO: The ﬁrst conference takes place of NATO Parliamentarians in Paris.

July 21

The East–West Balance: At the Four-Power Conference in Geneva, US President Eisenhower proposes Open Skies (unarmed reconnaissance ﬂights for mutual veriﬁcation of capabilities and deployment by the US and the USSR over each other’s territory to reduce the risk of a surprise attack). The USSR rejects the proposal.

July 23

NATO: The West Germans authorize the raising of the ﬁrst volunteer troops for the newly-created West German Army or Bundeswehr.

July 26

The German Question: Khrushchev declares in East Berlin that reuniﬁcation concerns only the Germans and presupposes rapprochement. Also, that the structure of the GDR must be retained along with what he calls its socialist acquisitions. This kills all Western hopes for the rapid reuniﬁcation of Germany.

September

The Middle East: The ﬁrst tangible signs of Soviet expansion into the Middle East occur when Czechoslovakia signs an arms deal with President Gamal Abd al-Nasser’s Egypt.

October 13

The Road to European Union: Jean Monnet announces the establishment of the Action Committee for the United States of Europe. This committee will prove an extraordinary instrument for inﬂuencing and lobbying political parties, trade unions, and European governments over the following twenty years.

October 22

The Saar Plebiscite: The inhabitants of the Saar/Sarre vote by 67.7 per cent in favour of reintegration into Germany, thereby rejecting the European status foreseen in the French–German Paris Treaty of 1954. The plebiscite resolves all outstanding territorial disputes between France and West Germany.

October 26 The East–West Balance: A Four-Power Foreign Ministers Conference is held –November 16 in Geneva on Germany, disarmament, and East–West contacts. In a sign of worsening East–West relations no agreement is reached. December

The Algerian Crisis: The French deployment in Algeria now reaches a level of 517,000 troops. Most of these troops have been withdrawn from NATO duty in Germany or France. France justiﬁes this by saying that the

[52] the long haul deployment in Algeria is part of the West’s global policy of containment of Soviet expansionism. December 30

The German Question: The USSR signs a treaty with the GDR granting it the prerogatives of a state.

1956 AT A GLANCE—MAJOR EVENTS AND THEMES

r r r r r r r

De-Stalinization begins in the Soviet Union. The Spaak Report on a future European Common Market is approved. Polish workers revolt against the Soviet occupation. West Germany passes the Service Bill, and conscription begins. The Hungarian Revolt against Soviet occupation occurs. The Suez Crisis. European members of NATO demand access to control of nuclear weapons on their soil.

February 25

The Soviet Union: In a famous speech to the 20th Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU) General Secretary Nikita Khrushchev attacks Stalin. The process of de-Stalinization gets under way.

March 6

NATO: West Germany agrees to raise an army of 500,000, far beyond that envisaged for the European Defence Community.

April 18

The Warsaw Pact: The dissolution of Cominform takes place following the creation of the Warsaw Pact, and the rapprochement between Moscow and Yugoslavia, takes place as part of the process of de-Stalinization.

April 21

The Road to European Union: The Intergovernmental Committee on European Integration presents the Spaak Report to the foreign ministers of the Six. The report proposes a common market on the basis of a customs union and urges the establishment of an atomic-energy organization to ensure European independence in this ﬁeld.

May 4–5

NATO: The North Atlantic Council (NAC) establishes the Committee of Three on Non-Military Co-operation comprising the foreign ministers of Canada, Italy, and Norway, to consider improvements to NAC procedures to foster more eﬀective consultation. In their report the Three underline the need ‘for all members to make consultation in NATO an integral part of the making of national policy’.

May 29–30

The Road to European Union: In Venice, the foreign ministers of the Six approve the Spaak Report as a basis for negotiations and decide to hold an Intergovernmental Conference (IGC) to draw up the two treaties proposed by the report, one establishing a European Economic Community (EEC), and one for a European Atomic Energy Community (Euratom).

June 26

The Road to European Union: The IGC to set up the two treaties establishing the EEC and Euratom opens in Brussels.

[54] the long haul June 28–9

The East–West Balance: A Polish workers’ revolt is ruthlessly crushed by Soviet troops.

July 7

NATO: West Germany passes a law permitting general conscription to the armed forces.

July 26

The Suez Crisis: President Abdul Gamal Abd al-Nasser of Egypt renationalizes the Suez Canal, thus technically depriving the British and the French of what they continue to regard as a vital strategic artery that has hitherto been under their control. Although Britain has agreed to withdraw in 1954 it still claimed control over the Company under the terms of the 1936 AngloEgyptian Treaty.

July

NATO: News leaks that the US Joint Chiefs of Staﬀ are planning a cut of 800,000 in the US Army. This greatly concerns the West German leadership as they have just announced conscription. To counter the American move in September West German Chancellor Adenauer proposes cutting the length of conscription from 18 months to 12, which, with leave, would barely allow time for the basic training of conscripts.

October 23

The Hungarian Revolution: Hungarians revolt against the pro-Soviet Government in Budapest and call upon the West for aid as Hungary attempts to secede from the Warsaw Pact.

October 29

The Suez Crisis: With Anglo-French collusion the Israelis invade the Sinai Desert of Egypt. The Suez Crisis begins.

October 29

The Hungarian Revolution: The Red Army, with the support of other Warsaw Pact forces, invades Hungary to suppress the revolt.

October 31

The Suez Crisis: Using the pretext of separating Israeli and Egyptian forces as a casus belli, the two old imperial powers Britain and France prepare to attack Egypt to regain control of the nationalized Suez Canal. The Americans are implacably opposed and threaten sanctions against London and Paris. US Secretary of State John Foster Dulles is particularly strident in his criticism but later admits that his support for al-Nasser had been a mistake as the Soviets gain inﬂuence in the region.

November 4

The Hungarian Revolution: The Red Army attacks Budapest. Although the revolt is crushed some 15,000 are killed and an estimated 200,000 ﬂee. It is yet another blow to Soviet attempts to present themselves as the champions of socialist democracy.

November 6

The United States: Dwight D. Eisenhower is elected US President for the second time.

November 6

The Suez Crisis: Britain and France intervene militarily in Egypt’s Canal Zone by attacking Port Said.

November 20

US Air Force General Lauris Norstad replaces US Army General Gruenther as Supreme Allied Commander, Europe (SACEUR). The appointment of a US Air Force oﬃcer emphasizes the increasing reliance of NATO on both air power and nuclear weapons.

December 13

NATO: The NAC approves the recommendations in the Report of ‘The Committee of Three on Non-Military Co-operation in NATO and European

1956 [55] NATO members demand access to the control of nuclear weapons that are stationed on their soil. December 19

The Suez Crisis: Angered at overt American opposition to the operation to regain the Suez Canal France makes public its determination to develop an independent nuclear deterrent.

December 22

The Suez Crisis: Under intense US pressure the British and French are forced to withdraw from Egypt as London caves in to American pressure. A UN Emergency Force takes over control of the region. The humiliation leads to the fall of Anthony Eden as British Prime Minister and abruptly marks the end of the Imperial Age in Europe. French Foreign Minister Christian Pineau takes the call from Eden informing of Britain’s decision to pull out while in conversation with West German Chancellor Konrad Adenauer. Adenauer is succinct in his analysis. ‘Europe’, he says to Pineau, ‘will be your revenge.’ While the French vow never again to be humiliated by the US, the British vow never again to cross them.

1957 AT A GLANCE—MAJOR EVENTS AND THEMES

r General Norstad proposes the stationing of a medium-range 300–700 ballisticmissile force in Western Europe. r The Saar region returns to West Germany. r UK/US Bermuda Conference discusses a UK nuclear deterrent. r The Treaties of Rome establish the European Economic Community and the European Atomic Energy Commission. r The UK announces an end to military conscription. r The UK tests its ﬁrst hydrogen bomb. r The USSR launches Sputnik into orbit. The Space Race begins.

January 1

The Saar Treaty: The Saar Treaty enters into force, and the Saar thus becomes part of the Federal Republic of Germany.

January 9

The Suez Crisis: Anthony Eden resigns and on 10 January Harold Macmillan becomes the new British Prime Minister promising to repair the ‘special relationship’ so badly strained by the Suez Crisis. MacMillan can only do so by handing over Britain’s grand strategy to the Americans.

March 12

The German Question: An agreement is signed between the Soviet Union and the German Democratic Republic (GDR) on the temporary stationing of Soviet troops in East Germany.

March 15

The Nuclear Balance: The US announces that its troops stationed in West Germany possess tactical nuclear weapons.

March 20–4

The Nuclear Balance: British Prime Minister Macmillan and US President Eisenhower meet at the Bermuda Conference to discuss a possible UK nuclear deterrent with US backing. The US is keen to massage the bruised British ego following the Suez Crisis and the enticement of an ‘independent’ nuclear deterrent will tie the British to the Americans indeﬁnitely.

March 25

The Road to European Union: The Treaty Establishing the European Economic Community (the Treaty of Rome) is signed by the six European Coal & Steel Community (ECSC) members (Belgium, France, Germany, Italy, Luxembourg, and the Netherlands). The treaty solemnly declares that it aims to ‘lay the foundations of an ever closer union among the peoples of Europe’.

March 25

The Road to European Union: The Treaty Establishing the European Atomic Energy Community (Euratom) is signed.

March

The Suez Crisis: Israel withdraws from Sinai to its 1949 borders and the Suez Canal is reopened for shipping.

1957 [57] April 4

The Nuclear Balance: At a press conference West German Chancellor Adenauer advocates the nuclear arming of the West German army, the Bundeswehr. However, on 12 April, and reﬂecting the growing tide of public concern about the possession and use of nuclear weapons in Western Europe, a group of eminent German scientists issues the Göttingen Appeal, calling for the FRG to reject the possession of nuclear weapons.

May 2–3

The German Question: At the ministerial meeting of the North Atlantic Council (NAC) in Bonn, West Germany, it is decided to intensify eﬀorts to bring about German reuniﬁcation by means of free elections.

May 15

The Nuclear Balance: Britain tests its ﬁrst thermonuclear device.

May 16

NATO: Paul-Henri Spaak of Belgium succeeds Lord Bruce Ismay as the second Secretary-General of NATO.

May

NATO: The United Kingdom declares an end to conscription and is immediately attacked by its Western European Union partners, which openly question whether the British will be able to fulﬁl their obligations under both the North Atlantic Treaty of 1948 and the modiﬁed Brussels Treaty of 1955. In fact it is the ﬁrst step on a road that in time will give the British a professional army far superior to that of most of its allies.

July 29

The German Question: Britain, France, the US, and West Germany sign the Berlin Declaration on German Unity calling for Four-Power negotiations and the conclusion of a peace treaty providing for a freely elected allGerman government. The Western Powers also undertake not to negotiate disarmament with the Soviet Union without a German voice in any such negotiations.

August 27

Sputnik: Soviet supremo Nikita Khrushchev states that the Soviet Union has an intercontinental ballistic missile capability (ICBM) that will soon be able to strike the United States. The statement heralds the end to American invulnerability and the start of the so-called ‘de-coupling debate’ with the European allies over the credibility of the American nuclear deterrent in their defence.

October 4

Sputnik: The Soviet Union proves its grasp of the essential technology for an ICBM capability by successfully launching the Sputnik satellite, the ﬁrst venture of humanity into space. The eﬀect on the US is electric. Overnight Washington is panicked into believing that a ‘missile gap’ exists between the US and the Soviet Union.

October

Sputnik: In the shadow of the Sputnik launch, US President Eisenhower and British Prime Minister Macmillan meet again to discuss a UK nuclear deterrent. As a result, the US President promises to request that Congress relax the Atomic Energy Act, which prohibits the sharing of such technology with other countries, in order for the British to get US nuclear technology. The US/UK talks reﬂect an emerging European concern that in the event of nuclear parity between the US and the Soviet Union, the American extended deterrent would no longer be credible.

December 16–19

Sputnik: Further reﬂecting the growing European concerns about a Soviet strategic nuclear force nullifying the eﬀects of the US deterrent, the NAC

[58] the long haul agrees to place theatre nuclear weapons under the command of the Supreme Allied Commander Europe (SACEUR) (and not the US president) as part of a Euro-deterrent. However, as SACEUR is in any case under the command of the US President in his capacity of Commander US Forces, Europe (COMUSFOREUR) the distinction is meaningless. December

Sputnik: France agrees to station US intermediate-range ballistic missiles (IRBMs) on its territory in return for US nuclear technology. This partly reﬂects problems that France is having with its own development programme and a desire not to be left behind in this vital ﬁeld.

1958 AT A GLANCE—MAJOR EVENTS AND THEMES

r Charles de Gaulle is elected President of France and the Fifth Republic is founded. r De Gaulle calls for a Triple Entente between France, the UK, and the US. r The second Berlin Crisis commences. r The ﬁrst West German force contingent becomes available to the NATO Command. r The British Army of the Rhine (BAOR) completes its preparations to ﬁght a nuclear war. r First British regiment possessing theatre nuclear weapons is stationed in West Germany.

January 1

The Road to European Union: The Treaty of Rome setting up the European Economic Community (EEC) and the European Atomic Energy Community (Euratom) enters into force.

January

NATO: Britain announces that it is to reduce the BAOR from 77,000 to 55,000. This decision provokes protests from all the NATO Allies.

February 22

The Nuclear Balance: The British and the US agree to station 60 Thor missiles, each with a range of 2,400 km, in the UK under a dual-key arrangement, also known as the double-veto agreement, which will permit the British to have some say over the use of such weapons.

March 27

The Soviet Union: Nikita Khrushchev becomes Chairman of the Council of Ministers of the USSR, replacing Bulganin. Khrushchev now formally gains complete control of state and party.

March 26–9

NATO: The ﬁrst meeting takes place of the NATO Science Committee to foster sharing of technical research to oﬀset the spiralling cost of armaments.

March

NATO: Adenauer says that NATO deployment of theatre nuclear weapons (TNW) in West Germany must go ahead in spite of public opinion and that the Federal Republic must either accept these weapons on its soil or leave NATO.

April

The Nuclear Balance: French Prime Minister Felix Gaillard authorizes French construction of a French nuclear deterrent following progress in the development programme.

April 15–17

NATO: At a meeting of the North Atlantic Council (NAC) at the level of defence ministers in Paris the defensive character of the Alliance is reafﬁrmed.

[60] the long haul June 1

NATO: In the midst of the Algerian crisis, General de Gaulle becomes prime minister of France determined to bring the Fourth Republic, which he blames for French weakness, to an end. This augurs badly for the future political cohesion of the NATO Alliance as de Gaulle is known for his dislike of both the British and the Americans.

July 2

The Nuclear Balance: The McMahon Act, which permits the transfer of American nuclear technology to favoured third parties, becomes US law. The way in which the law is drafted suggests it clearly prefers Britain rather than France as a favoured partner.

July 3

The Nuclear Balance: The US and Britain sign an agreement allowing for the ‘exchange’ of nuclear technology for weapons purposes.

September 17

NATO: In an attempt to break what he regards as Anglo-Saxon control of the Atlantic Alliance, de Gaulle proposes a new Triple Entente between France, Britain, and the US as a method for the collective control of NATO. The Americans and the British reject this proposal for a directoire almost out of hand, which only serves to consolidate de Gaulle’s anti-American and antiBritish views.

October

The Nuclear Balance: US President Eisenhower and British Prime Minister Macmillan issue a Joint Declaration of Common Purpose, which conﬁrms a special relationship between the two countries. The two leaders also agree to work together closely on defence, particularly nuclear matters.

November 10

The Second Berlin Crisis: In a speech at a Soviet–Polish Friendship Meeting in Moscow, Soviet leader Khrushchev asserts that the Western Powers have long since lost all legal rights to remain in West Berlin because they have broken all other Four-Power agreements on Germany, especially concerning the latter‘s demilitarization. He declares that the Berlin situation must be ‘normalized’, meaning that the Western Powers leave West Berlin and that any remaining questions regarding Berlin be addressed to the East German Government. The second Berlin Crisis begins.

November 26

The Second Berlin Crisis: In response to Khrushchev’s speech, US Secretary of State Dulles says, ‘We are most solemnly committed to hold West Berlin, if need be, by military force.’ He demands that the Soviet Union respect its ‘explicit obligation’ to assure ‘normal access to and egress from Berlin’.

November 27

The Second Berlin Crisis: The Soviet Union pronounces a double ultimatum: Western Allied troops have to withdraw from Berlin, and an agreement on Berlin as a ‘free city’ has to be reached. If there is not suﬃcient progress on these issues within six months, Moscow will sign a separate peace treaty with East Germany and transfer control over access routes between West Germany and West Berlin to the German Democratic Republic (GDR). The West threatens war.

December 16–18

The Second Berlin Crisis: The North Atlantic Council issues a Berlin Declaration stating that: ‘no state has the right to withdraw unilaterally from its international engagements . . . the denunciation by the Soviet Union of the inter-allied agreements on Berlin can in no way deprive the other parties of their rights or relieve the Soviet Union of its obligations. . . . The

1958 [61] member states of NATO could not approve a solution of the Berlin question which jeopardized the right of the three Western Powers to remain in Berlin as long as their responsibilities require it, and did not assure freedom of communication between that city and the free world . . . the Berlin question can only be settled in the framework of an agreement with the USSR on Germany as a whole. [The Council] recalls that the Western Powers have repeatedly declared themselves ready to examine this problem, as well as those of European security and disarmament. They are still ready to discuss all these problems.’ December 21

De Gaulle becomes French president: General Charles de Gaulle wins the French presidential election and becomes the ﬁrst President of the Fifth Republic determined to restore French prestige. He must ﬁrst extricate France from the war in Algeria.

December 31

The Cuban Revolution: Cuban President Fulgencio Batista resigns amidst political and social turmoil. The Communist Party is the strongest opposition party under two charismatic leaders Fidel Castro and Che Guevara.

1959 AT A GLANCE—MAJOR EVENTS AND THEMES

r Fidel Castro comes to power in Cuba. r The Soviet Union creates a Strategic Rocket Force (SRF). r The First Polaris nuclear ballistic-missile submarine is commissioned by the US Navy. r With the deployment of SS-4 missiles in Eastern Europe, the USSR establishes the ﬁrst operational theatre nuclear system. r The British start to receive their ﬁrst Honest John and Corporal theatre nuclear missiles from the Americans

January 1–2

The Cuban Revolution: Fidel Castro comes to power in Cuba after the fall of a corrupt US-supported regime.

January 8

de Gaulle: General Charles de Gaulle is inaugurated as President of France.

January

The Nuclear Balance: The term ‘second strike’ appears in an article by Albert Wohlstetter entitled The Delicate Balance of Terror. With it comes the concept of mutually assured destruction (MAD), which is to dominate American strategic nuclear doctrine for the next two decades.

February 23 –March 3

The Nuclear Balance: British Prime Minister Harold Macmillan visits the Soviet Union and meets with Khrushchev. Discussions focus on Berlin and Germany and ways to stop nuclear testing and nuclear armament, as well as on cultural exchanges.

March

The Nuclear Balance: The US announces that it intends to base 15 Jupiter theatre nuclear missiles in Italy possibly with suﬃcient range to strike the Soviet Union.

March

NATO: As a sign of the rising tension within NATO and continuing French problems in Algeria, the French withdraw their Mediterranean Fleet from the control of the Supreme Allied Commander, Europe (SACEUR).

April 15

The United States: Suﬀering from cancer, John Foster Dulles resigns as US Secretary of State. He dies the same year. He is replaced by Christian Herter.

June 11

The Second Berlin Crisis: At the Four-Power Meeting the foreign ministers of France, the UK, the US, and the USSR meet in Geneva, Switzerland, to discuss the German Question, in particular the status of Berlin. The conference is adjourned on 20 June with little progress.

June 20

The Sino-Soviet Split: As a ﬁrst sign of a major Sino-Soviet split, the USSR rescinds the Sino-Soviet Nuclear Agreement.

June

de Gaulle: French President Charles de Gaulle decrees that there can be no stockpiling on French soil of theatre nuclear weapons that are not French.

1959 [63] July 21

The Road to European Union: Seven members of the Organization for European Economic Co-operation (OEEC), Britain, Denmark, Norway, Sweden, Austria, Portugal, and Switzerland decide to create the European Free Trade Area (EFTA) as an alternative to the European Economic Community (EEC), of which they are not a part.

July 23 –August 1

The East–West Balance: US Vice-President Richard Millhouse Nixon visits the Soviet Union where he is allowed to make a television address in which he criticizes communism and warns against any attempt to spread it beyond the borders of the USSR. In response Khrushchev demands a removal of all American bases on foreign land.

August 3

The East–West Balance: In an apparent thawing of relations the US and the Soviet Union announce that President Eisenhower will visit the USSR and that in turn Khrushchev will visit the US.

August 5

The Second Berlin Crisis: The Geneva Four-Power Conference ends without agreement. The US, UK, and France insist that Germany must be reuniﬁed through free elections before there can be a peace treaty or a European Security Plan and also that Western troops would stay in Berlin until such time. The USSR, however, proposes the transformation of West Berlin into a demilitarized free city, separate peace treaties with the two Germanys, and the establishment of a zone in Central Europe within which arms and troops would be banned or limited.

August 19

NATO: The Baghdad Pact becomes the Central Treaty Organization (CENTO) with its headquarters in Ankara, Turkey.

September 15–27

The East-West Balance: Khrushchev visits the US, Eisenhower and Khrushchev establish a tradition by beginning talks at Camp David, the presidential retreat.

November

De Gaulle: French President Charles de Gaulle states that, ‘ it is necessary that the defence of France be French’. He also presents a plan to develop an all-French nuclear capacity to be called the force de frappe.

November 20

The Road to European Union: Austria, Denmark, Norway, Portugal, Sweden, Switzerland, and the United Kingdom initial the Stockholm Convention establishing the European Free Trade Association (EFTA). It is a thinly disguised attempt by the British to establish an alternative to what London regards as the French-dominated European Economic Community EEC.

December 15–22

NATO: The inauguration takes place of NATO’s new headquarters at the Porte Dauphine in Paris, France.

December 30

The Nuclear Balance: The ﬁrst Polaris-class nuclear ballistic-missile submarine (SSBN) the USS George Washington, is commissioned by the US Navy. This marks the ﬁrst move towards invulnerable nuclear systems able to withstand a ﬁrst strike on the US and able to hit the Soviet Union as part of what becomes known as a second strike capability.

December

The Nuclear Balance: The Soviet Union creates the Strategic Rocket Force (SRF). The era of American invulnerability again appears to be coming to an end. However, the Soviets are having considerable technical diﬃculties with their ﬁrst-generation ICBMs, the SS-6.

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PART THREE The Dawn of Reason

1960–1969

INTRODUCTION

The Dawn of Reason 1960–1969: In November 1960, John F Kennedy is elected president of the United States. Some six months earlier Colonel Gary Powers had been shot down by a Soviet ground-to-air missile as his U2 spy plane searches for evidence of the missile gap that has so gripped the American strategic psyche. In such an environment and faced with such a situation Kennedy challenges his fellow Americans: ask not what America can do for you, but what you can do for America. Implicitly he poses the same question to Europeans as, during the ides of August 1961, an ominous wall advances across Berlin as the Third Berlin Crisis reaches it climax and the Cold War enters it most dangerous phase. However, whilst the 1960s see the Cold War strike the hard bottom of nuclear confrontation it is the very realization of what failure and misunderstanding can mean for humanity that ﬁnally leads to the dawn of reason. Indeed, it is the unpleasantly novel experience for Europeans of being totally reliant upon others for their collective destiny that slowly and painfully leads to the re-emergence of Europeans as a political force as they begin to impose on both Moscow and Washington in a way that would have been unthinkable ten years prior. Amid the furore of the Strangelove-esque missile gap that had opened up with such éclat following the launch of Sputnik I on October 1957, Kennedy sets out to establish American supremacy with the ambitious goal of placing an American on the moon by the end of the decade. The result is a nuclear arms race as the weapons get ever bigger and missiles ever longer and the chilling vocabulary of Cold War is reinforced by city-busters and counter-value, by ﬁrststrike and MAD—mutually assured destruction. Out of control, the nuclear

[66] the dawn of reason arms race accelerates, harking back to President Eisenhower’s valedictory call to curb the military-industrial complex. The logic of an arms race is that sooner or later it will lead to an armed confrontation; thus Americans and Russians start a voyage of destructive discovery that will end in the Cuban missile crisis. During the infamous Thirteen Days in November 1962 the world teeters on the brink of nuclear cataclysm. It is the inevitable nemesis of an unavoidable clash. THE EURO-STRATEGIC GAME

Europeans are mere powerless targets. Britain and France adjust to their postimperial eclipse by seeking nuclear power not only as consolation for decline but as a means to tie America to them. That is the European paradox; cannot live with the Americans, cannot live without them. France, internally instable in the aftermath of the Algerian War, is blessed with an adept and daring elite that, under its old war leader Charles de Gaulle, no lover of les anglosaxons, remains true to his determination to restore French gloire through a restored Europe. Britain, internally stable but led by an elite that has lost all pretence to strategic self-conﬁdence, simply contracts out its grand strategy to a country that it once helped to create. Leader has become supplicant. Central to France’s vision of Europe is inevitably a compliant West Germany. Chancellor Konrad Adenauer, himself no lover of the British, is content to oblige. Slowly but steadily, France and Germany move towards the ﬁnal reconciliation of the January 1963 Elysée Treaty and the start of a Franco-German relationship that for forty years will drive Europe and its stuttering process of political and economic integration. The very same day that France and Germany ﬁnally bury an enmity that has killed millions since 1871, Charles de Gaulle simultaneously rejects the oﬀer of American Polaris nuclear missiles and Britain’s application to join the European Economic Community (EEC). Indeed, only today is the Franco-German axis being forced to release its grip on the European story as Britain ﬁnally awakes from its post-Imperial depression. It is not all plain sailing, for if Americans irritate Europeans with their certainties, France is no less irritating with its duplicity. Indeed, in 1966 when the limits of French ‘Europeanness’ are laid bare, France fails to get her way in the European Economic Community she pioneered, and simply walks out. It is a moment of coquettishness for which La Belle France will pay dearly as the anti-French feeling it generates enables the old enemy across the Channel to establish a foothold in France’s political Europe. Equally, for all the intra-European spats Europeans are still all too aware of the limits of their autonomy, reliant as they are upon America and its nuclear arsenal for their protection. This is the age of deterrence as the two superpowers balance each other in the most grotesque of nuclear postures, justifying their

the dawn of reason [67]

respective leaderships by doing so. However, Europeans are no longer mere recipients of American strategic wisdom. Indeed, this third age of European security and defence is when Europe itself once again slowly begins to come of age, as Europeans start to question that very American strategy upon which they rely in the event of a major conﬂict. Failure is too ghastly to contemplate, for Europe would be the cauldron of conﬂict and thus the defence of Europe would mean the end of Europe. The Americans, willing as ever, try hard to ﬁnd an acceptable solution to the dilemma posed by the fact of their leadership and the contending European demand for some control over it. Indeed, such is the charm of this most complex of pluralistic communities: its very weakness is its very strength. In 1960 the Americans propose a Multilateral Force (MLF) that would give Europeans at least some semblance of control over the weapons that are at one at the same time their protection and their nemesis. However, relations between America and France deteriorate, and such solutions become ever harder as Paris eﬀectively vetoes the Alliance. In 1966 France breaks from the military structures of NATO, with Charles de Gaulle deﬁantly claiming that the defence of France must be French as he expels the Alliance from its Paris headquarters. Little heed is given to the sacriﬁce of the Anglo-Saxons only some twenty years prior to ensure that the defence of France could be French. Indeed, for most Europeans the French démarche further weakens French claims to be the champion of Europe, acting on behalf of all Europeans. Stung by French obstructionism London loses little time in constructing a counter-coalition that will in time see the British re-enter political Europe. THE GRAND STRATEGIC GAME

As the nuclear balance begins to stabilize in the late 1960s another shadow looms over the West as the logic of containment leads to an American manoevre too far, in Vietnam. Like Korea some fourteen years before the Americans in 1964 see the threat to South Vietnam from the Communist North as part of a global communist conspiracy. Europeans, by and large, do not. Not even the compliant British are prepared to send troops to support what will become the open sore of American engagement. Wounded by the recalcitrance of its European associates, burden-sharing between America and its allies comes to the fore, leading to a diﬃcult atmosphere inside NATO. American concerns strike home. Recognizing that Europeans must take on more of the burden for their own defence, the 1968 Harmel Report calls for the creation of a strengthened European pillar within the Alliance. It also calls for further European integration and, in a marked slight against Paris, warns of the danger of hegemony on the

[68] the dawn of reason part of any one European state. However, what Washington does not seem to understand, and fails to understand to this day, is that a stronger, more cohesive Europe means a more demanding Europe. That said, for NATO much of the 1960s is spent trying to adjust to the reality of strategic nuclear parity between the US and the Soviet Union. Although the Americans insist that their own vulnerability does not diminish the role of American nuclear weapons in the defence of Europe, it is well understood that the US will not commit nuclear suicide on Europe’s behalf. It is ultimately for that reason that both Britain and France acquire nuclear weapons and it is for that reason that NATO abandons its by now traditional doctrine of Massive Retaliation. On 13 December 1967 a new doctrine, known as Flexible Response, is adopted, that enables the Alliance to envisage some degree of conventional war before stepping over the nuclear threshold. It is the crossing of the nuclear Rubicon. The threat of nuclear war that came so close to during the 1960s also spurs Moscow and Washington to formalize their own relationship independent of Europe and their respective Europeans. To that end, in the wake of the Cuban missile crisis, Washington and Moscow move to establish a new arms control framework as an extension of their respective national security policies. It is a sign that the ideological aspect of the Cold War is easing. In 1963 the Hot Line is established between Moscow and Washington to expedite communication in the event of a crisis. That same year the ﬁrst Nuclear Test Ban Treaty (NTBT) is signed by the US, the Soviet Union, and Britain; and, in 1968 the NonProliferation Treaty (NPT) supposedly limiting the number of nuclear weapons states (NWS) to the US, Soviet Union, China, Britain, and France. But nothing is simple in the Cold War. As the direct US–Soviet relationship strengthens, Europeans fret that Moscow and Washington will act over their heads. It is a concern that is to be given full expression in the 1970s as the Euromissile crisis erupts. THE TWO GERMANYS APPROACH

Uncertain of either Moscow or Washington Germany takes the ﬁrst faltering steps to answering the German Question itself. Social Democratic Chancellor Willy Brandt deﬁes Washington to embark on what he calls Ostpolitik, and opens up a separate track to his East German counterparts. The Soviets, keen as ever to exploit Western divisions, again see an opportunity to separate West Germany from the West, an abiding Russian obsession. Unfortunately for Moscow its own illiberal instincts doom the policy from the outset. In January 1968, sensing the mood, new Czech communist leader Alexander Dubcek

the dawn of reason [69]

introduces liberal reforms, including freedom of speech and assembly. Eight months later in a move all too reminiscent of the crushing of the Hungarian Revolution in August, Soviet and Warsaw Pact tanks crush the Prague Spring. The bankruptcy of Moscow’s ideology is there for all to see. It is a bankruptcy that is given less than eloquent expression by Soviet leader Leonid Brezhnev as he enunciates the Brezhnev Doctrine in which forces hostile to socialism and which turn a socialist country towards capitalism become a common problem and concern for all socialist countries. With America embroiled in Vietnam and the Soviet Union bereft of zeal the Cold War loses any pretence to being an ideological confrontation and becomes merely the latest iteration of the balance of power—superpower. Thus, the dawn of reason also witnesses the eclipse of ideas. It is an age when the two superpowers begin to justify themselves through each other. It is an age when Europeans start the search for a will of their own that will shape their relations, as much as they shape each other. Above all, it is an age when the global policy of the United States driven by containment contrasts with the regionalism of the Europeans driven by integration. In the West exists a diﬀerence of vision and political method that not only shapes the West for the rest of the Cold War, but for the many years beyond. Indeed, as America shapes grand strategy, Europeans become obsessed with grand institutions. Paradoxically, it is an obsession made possible by the stabilization of the strategic nuclear arms race as the madness of mutually assured destruction comes to pass for peace and stability. As the legions of mass destruction wait patiently, glaring at each other through lofty satellites and safe in their silos in the verdant pastures of the US and the Soviet Union, a new word enters the lexicon of the Cold War—Détente. On 20 July 1969, Neil Armstrong steps onto the surface of the moon and utters the now immortal words, ‘One small step for man and one giant leap for mankind’. It is not the West that is buried but the missile gap, and with it any hope Moscow ever had of winning the Cold War.

1960 AT A GLANCE—MAJOR EVENTS AND THEMES

r The European Free Trade Association (EFTA) is created by those states not in the European Economic Community (EEC). r France detonates its ﬁrst atomic device. r U2 incident: a US spy plane over USSR is shot down by a Soviet missile. r The US Navy establishes the US Polaris submarine base at Holy Loch in Scotland. r John F. Kennedy is elected President of the United States. r The US oﬀers Europeans a multilateral force (MLF) to give them greater control over the use of nuclear weapons. r Khrushchev calls for peaceful coexistence with the West. r The UK ends military conscription. r The US announces that it has 18,000 warheads in Western Europe. r Due to the war in Algeria French forces in West Germany fall to a level of 50,000 troops and 8 air squadrons. r The West German defence budget exceeds 6 per cent of gross domestic product (GDP) r France refuses to operate under the control of NATO’s Supreme Allied Commander, Europe (SACEUR). r The US Secretary of State Dean Rusk reinforces European fears of de-coupling. r US General Maxwell D. Taylor publishes a book entitled The Uncertain Trumpet, in which he proposes NATO adopt a ‘ﬂexible response’ in the event of a Soviet invasion of Western Europe.

January 4

The Road to European Union: The treaty establishing the European Free Trade Association (EFTA) is signed by Austria, Denmark, the Netherlands, Norway, Portugal, Sweden, Switzerland and the United Kingdom. EFTA is a counterbalance to the EEC and matches the latter in terms of market size. However, in contrast to the EEC, EFTA members maintain full political independence. Agriculture and ﬁsheries are not included in the free-trade area due to disagreements among its members. EFTA and the EEC also diﬀer in that the former is driven by free market principles preferred by the British whereas the EEC reﬂects the statist approach of the French. It is a division that continues to this day within the European Union (EU).

February 13

The Nuclear Balance: France explodes its ﬁrst atomic device at Reggane, Algeria.

March 15

The Nuclear Balance: The United Nations Ten-Power Disarmament Committee negotiations open in Geneva, Switzerland. With its emphasis on

1960 [71] nuclear disarmament the Committee embarks on the long road to strategic nuclear arms control. March

The Road to European Union: At Camp David, the US and Britain reach an agreement in which the US promises the UK Skybolt, a high-altitude airlaunched ballistic missile. In return, Britain is to make available bases on Scotland’s west coast for US Navy Polaris missile submarines.

May 1

The U2 Incident: The Cold War heats up as US pilot Colonel Gary Powers is shot down by a SAM 2 surface-to-air missile in his U2 spy plane over the Soviet Union as he attempts to obtain evidence of Soviet nuclear preparedness.

May 3

The Road to European Union: The EFTA Treaty enters into force.

May 16

The U2 Incident: Soviet supreme Khrushchev walks out of a Paris FourPower Summit after the US refuses to apologize for spy-plane ﬂights.

May 27

NATO: A military coup d’état takes place in NATO member Turkey. As the Alliance is supposed to be made up of democracies NATO moves into crisis talks.

June 27

The U2 Incident: The ﬁve communist states present at the UN Ten-Power Disarmament negotiations withdraw in protest at the U2 incident.

July 18

The Sino-Soviet Split: All Soviet advisers are recalled from China as tension increases between the two communist giants. The problem centres on border disputes and a long-running Chinese belief that the Soviets are not promoting the communist struggle with the Americans energetically enough.

July 20

The Nuclear Balance: The ﬁrst test-ﬁring of a US Polaris submarinelaunched ballistic missile takes place. That same month the US Navy moves to establish a US Polaris submarine base at Holy Loch in Scotland so that Polaris missiles will be in range of the Soviet Union and America’s commitment to the nuclear defence of Western Europe reinforced.

August 16

Decolonization: Cyprus gains independence, which is guaranteed by Greece, Turkey, and the UK. Some British bases on the island remain under UK sovereignty.

August

De-coupling: Driven by an emerging debate over the credibility of the US nuclear deterrent in defence of Western Europe, US State Department policy-planning oﬃcial Robert Bowie presents the department with a report about the future of NATO. He suggests that a multinational Polaris missilesubmarine force under joint command joint ﬁnancing and using mixed crews be set up to ease NATO’s nuclear dilemma between the natural development of national forces and the need for international co-operation. He hopes such a force will promote amongst the European allies a feeling of nuclear control and, at the same time, prevent any members from withdrawing. A build-up of European conventional forces is implicit in his proposal.

September 23

The East–West Balance: General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union Nikita Khrushchev attends the General Assembly of the United Nations in New York. This marks a shift in Soviet policy as he calls for

[72] the dawn of reason UN reform and starts to favour the UN General Assembly over the Security Council as the forum most likely to promote Soviet interests. October 12

The East–West Balance: At the UN General Assembly in New York, Khrushchev angrily pounds his shoe on the table after the Philippine delegate accuses the USSR of imperialism in Eastern Europe.

November 8

The United States: John F. Kennedy is elected President of the United States. One of his main campaign pledges is to plug the missile gap between the US and the Soviet Union.

November 10

Peaceful Coexistence: At a summit meeting in Moscow eighty-one Communist leaders dutifully approve Khrushchev’s new concept of peaceful coexistence with the West in which Moscow calls for the communist and capitalist systems to live side by side. It is a marked shift in Soviet policy. At the same time, Khrushchev continues to build up the Soviet nuclear missile capability to the extent that Soviet conventional forces are starved of resources. It is to prove his undoing.

November

De-coupling: In a clear move away from the doctrine of Massive Retaliation, and with it the assumption of early ﬁrst use of nuclear weapons by the NATO Alliance, SACEUR General Norstad tells the NATO Parliament that the threshold over which the use of nuclear weapons is countenanced in a war in Europe must be high. This is prompted partly by US fears for the vulnerability of the United States in the event of war and the hostile reaction of Western European publics to the use of tactical nuclear weapons. European leaders are concerned such a posture will lead to the de-coupling of the US nuclear arsenal from the defence of Western Europe.

December 14

OECD: The Convention for the Establishment of the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) is signed by eighteen European countries, together with the United States and Canada. Australia, New Zealand, and Japan subsequently join the Organization, which replaces the Organization for European Economic Co-operation (OEEC).

December 16–18

De-coupling: In an attempt to soothe general Allied concerns over the lack of accountability to Europeans of American-controlled nuclear weapons in Western Europe (particularly French ones), outgoing Secretary of State Christian Herter oﬀers the Europeans a Multilateral Force (MLF). This would involve all the Allies in a much closer degree of military integration over the use of nuclear forces. However, the US State Department rejects the Bowie concept for mixed manning as too complex.

1961 AT A GLANCE—MAJOR EVENTS AND THEMES

r Outgoing US President Eisenhower warns of a military-industrial complex driving defence policy. r Robert McNamara becomes US Secretary of Defense and Dean Rusk becomes US Secretary of State. r A US-backed invasion of Cuba is attempted. r The ﬁrst manned space ﬂight takes place. r The Berlin Wall is built during the second Berlin Crisis. r The Soviet SS-5 theatre nuclear missile is deployed. r The ﬁrst Soviet inter continental ballistic missiles (ICBMs) become operational. r Kennedy places ﬁve nuclear ballistic missile submarines (SSBNs) at Holy Loch under the control of NATO’s SACEUR.

January 17

The Military-Industrial Complex: In his farewell address, US President Eisenhower warns against the inﬂuence of what he terms the ‘military-industrial complex’. By coining a phrase that will soon become famous, he hints that procurement policy might be pushed as much by special-interest groups in the military and the defence industry as by a hard assessment of the strategic environment.

January 20

The United States: Democrat John F. Kennedy is inaugurated as President of the United States. In his inaugural address he states, ‘Ask not what America can do for you, but what you can do for America.’ He also pledges that the US will put a man on the moon by the end of the decade.

January 21

The Nuclear Balance: Robert McNamara becomes Secretary of Defense under Kennedy. Coming from a business background, ‘Mac’, as he is popularly known, immediately starts introducing strategic business practices into the Department of Defense, including models based on game theory which become the basis for America’s nuclear strategy. The era of zero-sum games, bolts from the blue, mutually assured destruction (MAD) and second-strike is born.

January 21

The United States: Dean Rusk becomes US Secretary of State.

March 8

The Nuclear Balance: The ﬁrst Polaris submarine, USS Patrick Henry (SSBN 559), arrives at Holy Loch, Scotland.

March

The Third Berlin Crisis: At a Warsaw Pact Summit, Khrushchev promises to conclude a separate peace treaty with East Germany if a general settlement with the West cannot be reached.

[74] the dawn of reason March

NATO and Flexible Response: In preparing a report for Kennedy entitled ‘A Review of North Atlantic Problems for the Future’, Dean Rusk hints at changes in US strategic doctrine and a move away from Massive Retaliation to a new doctrine entitled Flexible Response. This is designed from its outset to aﬀord the Alliance a graduated response short of all-out nuclear war in the event of a Soviet conventional attack in Europe.

April 15–20

The Bay of Pigs: In a disastrous attempt to overthrow Fidel Castro in Cuba, CIA-trained Cuban Irregulars attempt to land at the Bay of Pigs. The mission is a ﬁasco, and the Americans are made to look aggressive and inept.

April 21

NATO: Dirk U. Stikker of the Netherlands succeeds Paul-Henri Spaak as the Secretary-General of NATO.

April 12

The Space Race: Yuri Gagarin becomes the ﬁrst man in space, further enhancing the public perception that the USSR is ahead in missile technology.

April

De-coupling: US President Kennedy addresses the NATO Military Committee and suggests that signiﬁcant improvements need to be made to the capabilities of conventional forces. This is widely accepted both within the Alliance (and without) as a thinly disguised attempt to end the automatic use of the US strategic nuclear capability in the event of a Soviet conventional attack in Europe.

May 5

The Space Race: Alan Sheppard becomes the ﬁrst American in space.

May 17

De-coupling: In a speech to the Canadian Parliament, US President Kennedy conﬁrms the Polaris oﬀer of ﬁve nuclear submarines under US control to NATO, and proposes that a NATO sea-borne force be formed. Kennedy stresses the multilateral character of the force.

June 3–4

The Third Berlin Crisis: Khrushchev and Kennedy meet at a Vienna conference but reach no solution on the German/Berlin problem. Khrushchev threatens to sign a peace agreement with East Germany in December that might restrict Western rights in Berlin if the US refuses an interim agreement.

Throughout July

The Third Berlin Crisis: East German authorities try to stop the ‘haemorrhaging’ after more than 33,000 people ﬂee to the West. The second Berlin Crisis comes to a head.

July 25

The Third Berlin Crisis: Kennedy states that blocking Western access to Berlin by East Germany or the Soviet Union would mean war.

August 4

The Third Berlin Crisis: Khrushchev makes a secret speech at a Warsaw Pact meeting in reaction to Kennedy’s speech of 25 July. He insists on a West Berlin peace treaty and worries about the possibility of war and nuclear destruction. He also speaks about the need to raise living standards in the German Democratic Republic (GDR).

August 13–16

The Third Berlin Crisis: In a desperate attempt to stop the ﬂow of escapees from East to West, the Berlin Wall is built. The symbol of Europe’s division is

1961 [75] constructed, which will endure until 1989, turning Churchill’s Iron Curtain into reality. October

The Nuclear Balance: US Nuclear artillery shells become available to the British.

December 13–15

The Third Berlin Crisis: At a ministerial meeting of the North Atlantic Council (NAC) in Paris, the Alliance reaﬃrms its position on Berlin and strongly condemns the building of the Berlin Wall. At the same time, the NAC calls for diplomatic engagement with Moscow to determine whether negotiations are possible.

1962 AT A GLANCE—MAJOR EVENTS AND THEMES

r The Evian Peace Agreement extricates France from the Algerian conﬂict. r Talks over a NATO nuclear Multilateral Force (MLF) continue. r US Secretary of Defense Robert McNamara attacks NATO’s doctrine of Massive Retaliation. r The Cuban Missile Crisis. r The US/UK Nassau summit leads to agreement over UK access to US Polaris nuclear technology. r Despite deploying inter continental ballistic missiles (ICBMs) by the end of the 1962, the USSR has only 30 operational ICBMs against America’s 200 as a result of continuing technical diﬃculties.

January 8–20

NATO: The ﬁrst Alliance Convention of NATO Citizens meets and endorses the Declaration of Paris and the strengthening of the Alliance. The need to ensure that the Alliance is ﬁrmly embedded in public opinion is well understood. It is a relationship that will be sorely tested in the coming years.

February 6

The Nuclear Balance: West German Chancellor Konrad Adenauer announces that the Federal Republic of Germany (FRG) is willing to participate in a multilateral nuclear force under NATO. He is out of step with public opinion.

February 20

The Space Race: John Glenn is the ﬁrst American to orbit the planet Earth.

February 23

The Nuclear Balance: France’s Conseil de Défense decides to build a ballistic surface-to-surface missile (SSM) and a sea-to-surface, submarine-launched missile force. It is the ﬁrst step to France constructing an independent triad of land, air, and sea-based nuclear systems.

February

Decolonization: As the situation deteriorates Britain announces that it is to station forces in its crown colony Aden in Yemen.

March 18

The Algerian War: De Gaulle ﬁnally extracts France from the turmoil of Algeria with a peace agreement signed at Evian. The agreement gives Algeria independence, even though it was technically a département of France, rather than a colony. This policy is seen as a humiliating climb-down by the French military and earns de Gaulle many enemies in the armed forces. Extremists start a terrorist network known as the OAS (Organisation de l‘Armée Secrète), and the Fifth Republic appears to be going the way of its four predecessors.

March 29

The Space Race: The European Organization for the Development and Construction of Space Vehicle Launchers (ELDO) is established with Belgium, West Germany, France, Italy, the Netherlands, and the UK forming the

1962 [77] initial membership. Because the test-site is the Woomera Range, Australia is also made a member. April 10

The Nuclear Balance: UK Prime Minister Harold Macmillan and US President John F. Kennedy appeal to Soviet leader Khrushchev for agreement on a Nuclear Test Ban Treaty (NTBT) to stabilize the burgeoning and dangerous nuclear arms race.

May 4–6

De-coupling: In a meeting of NATO foreign and defence ministers in Athens, Greece, US Secretary of Defense McNamara bluntly tells the Allies that the US is no longer ready to respond to a nuclear attack upon them with its own nuclear arsenal. He also demands US control of all NATO planning and that conventional forces be improved. The Allies like neither the tone nor the content of the speech, which simply reinforces the determination of the British and French to get their hands on their own nuclear deterrent.

June 14

The Space Race: The European Space Research Organization (ESRO) is established. Membership comprises Belgium, Denmark, France, West Germany, Italy, the Netherlands, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, and UK. ELDO and ESRO form the basis of what would become the European Space Agency (ESA) and in time challenge the American-Soviet duopoly over space launchers.

October 14–28 The Cuban Missile Crisis: In what is the most dangerous superpower confrontation of the Cold War, the Cuban Missile Crisis occurs when the USSR attempts to station intermediate-range ballistic missiles (IRBMs) in Cuba within the US early-warning system. Such a capability would give the Soviets the ability to strike American cities and other targets without warning and gravely destabilize the nuclear balance. US President Kennedy orders the US Navy to stop any Soviet ships carrying missiles en route to Cuba and threatens to bomb existing sites if all missiles are not returned to the Soviet Union. After a tense stand-oﬀ that becomes known as the Thirteen Days, with the world teetering on the brink of nuclear war, Khrushchev ﬁnally recalls the ships after Kennedy promises that the US will not invade Cuba. Six months later, the US secretly begins dismantling its nuclear missiles based in Turkey and Italy, thereby de facto conforming to a second request by Khrushchev for the US to remove missiles that threaten the Soviet Union in a similar manner. Both sides seem genuinely shaken by how close to the brink they came and begin moves to ensure it does not happen again. The end of the crisis marks the start of a more pragmatic period of nuclear management between the two sides: a thaw that eventually leads to arms control and détente. October 20

The Sino-Indian War: The ﬁrst Sino-Indian War breaks out. India is quickly defeated, but, rather than advancing, the Chinese withdraw.

October

The Sino-Soviet Split: Khrushchev oﬃcially acknowledges a Sino-Soviet split as the border dispute between the two communist states deteriorates into sporadic armed clashes between the Red Army and the Chinese People’s Liberation Army (PLA).

December 16

The British Nuclear Deterrent: The ﬁrst fully successful ﬂight of Skybolt takes place, but the US cancels the programme forthwith. The move appears

[78] the dawn of reason to the British a US attempt to rid Britain, to which Skybolt had been solemnly promised, of its independent nuclear deterrent in the wake of the Cuban missile crisis. The special relationship deteriorates rapidly as London becomes concerned about the reliability of the American nuclear deterrent. December 18–21

The British Nuclear Deterrent: At the Nassau Summit between British Prime Minister Macmillan and US President Kennedy, the Americans conﬁrm their decision to terminate US procurement of Skybolt. However, in a volteface they eventually agree to allow the British to purchase the Polaris system at a reduced price. Under the agreement, the missiles for the system (the A-4) will be American and will be serviced by the US. This greatly qualiﬁes the independence of the UK’s deterrent but establishes a nuclear relationship between the two countries that continues to this day.

December 31

The Nuclear Balance: The US Skybolt programme is oﬃcially terminated.

1963 AT A GLANCE—MAJOR EVENTS AND THEMES

r French President Charles de Gaulle rejects both the Multilateral Force (MLF) proposals and British membership of the European Economic Community (EEC). r The Elysée Treaty between France and West Germany reconciles the two countries. r A Hot Line is established between Washington and Moscow to avoid misunderstandings during crises. r In a speech in Berlin, US President Kennedy declares: ‘Ich bin ein Berliner,’ reaﬃrming America’s commitment to West Berlin. r France withdraws its Atlantic Fleet from NATO control. r The ﬁrst Nuclear Test Ban Treaty is initialled by Britain, US, and USSR. r The US and USSR renounce the use of nuclear weapons in space. r A communist coup takes place in Vietnam. r US President Kennedy is assassinated. r West German Chancellor Konrad Adenauer resigns.

January 14

The Multilateral Force (MLF): Unwilling to have de facto American control over the French nuclear deterrent, President de Gaulle rejects the American proposal for a Polaris MLF, and at the same time rejects the British bid for membership of the EEC on the grounds that Britain is in eﬀect an American ‘ﬁfth column’. In reality, de Gaulle is aware that British membership of the Community would weaken France’s control over it.

January 14

The Multilateral Force (MLF): Just a few hours after de Gaulle’s rejection of the MLF, Kennedy lays out his vision for it in his State of the Union address: ‘For the ﬁrst time, the door is open for the nuclear defense of the Alliance to become a source of conﬁdence, instead of contention.’

January 16

NATO: The North Atlantic Council (NAC) notes that the relevant clauses of the North Atlantic Treaty became inapplicable as of 3 July 1962 as regards the former French départmentes in Algeria.

January 22

The Road to European Union: The Franco-German Elysée Treaty of Friendship is signed, which sets the seal on reconciliation between the two countries and creates the institutional framework for close German–French cooperation. The treaty provides for regular meetings between French and German ministers of armed forces/defence, chiefs of staﬀ, and relevant authorities in the ﬁeld of education and youth. With regard to foreign aﬀairs, ‘The two Governments will consult each other, prior to any decision, on all important matters of foreign policy, [on defence matters] . . . on the

[80] the dawn of reason level of strategy and tactics, [and they will] endeavour to harmonize their doctrines with a view to arriving at mutual concepts, [and] [e]xchanges of personnel between the armed forces will be increased.’ January

The Multilateral Force (MLF): US Special Ambassador to NATO Livingston Merchant tours Europe to test opinion on the MLF proposal. He receives at best a lukewarm response.

February

The Multilateral Force (MLF): US President Kennedy proposes a new structure to implement MLF: the force should be based on ships instead of submarines. This would be cheaper and quicker to produce and could be carried out in several European countries. The proposal is failing.

April 5

The Hot Line: In the ﬁrst attempt to avoid an accidental nuclear war or war through misunderstanding, the US and USSR establish the Hot Line between Washington and Moscow. From the Soviet point of view, the American position reﬂects a growing recognition on the part of the US that they are in a situation of nuclear stalemate with their communist adversary.

June 26

The Third Berlin Crisis: In front of 120,000 West Berliners, US President Kennedy gives a speech intended to boost the morale of the Berlin population and to give a strong signal to the USSR about the Allies’ determination to stay in West Berlin. Kennedy ends his speech with the words, ‘Ich bin ein Berliner.’

June

The French Withdrawal from Military NATO: France withdraws its Atlantic Fleet from the control of the Supreme Allied Commander, Atlantic (SACLANT).

July 25

Nuclear Arms Control: In recognition of the huge environmental damage that atmospheric nuclear tests are causing, Britain, the US, and USSR initial the Nuclear Test Ban Treaty, (NTBT) which prohibits nuclear testing in the atmosphere, in outer space, and underwater, but allows tests conducted underground. The treaty is important for several reasons. First, a culture of nuclear management is developing between the superpowers. Second, two burgeoning nuclear powers, France and China, are conspicuous by their absence.

August 5

Nuclear Arms Control: The Moscow Treaty Banning Nuclear Tests in the Atmosphere, Under Water or Outer Space is signed. Also known as the Partial Test Ban Treaty (PTBT) or Limited Test Ban Treaty (LTBT) it is signed by the US, Soviet Union, and UK. The treaty calls on the parties to refrain from conducting tests outside the conﬁnes of the state, with a particular emphasis on the eﬀects of radioactive fallout.

October –November

The Third Berlin Crisis: During the so-called Tailgate Crisis, access between West Germany and West Berlin is blocked for several days.

October 3

Nuclear Arms Control: At the UN General Assembly, the US and the USSR renounce the deployment of nuclear weapons in space. The commitment of the two countries’ space programmes to ostensibly peaceful purposes is a further conﬁdence-building step on the road to the Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (SALT) talks.

October 10

The Nuclear Balance: The Partial Test Ban Treaty (PTBT) comes into force.

1963 [81] October 16

Konrad Adenauer Resignation: In 1962 a scandal erupts over the charging with high treason of ﬁve Der Spiegel journalists after they publish an article on the weaknesses of the West German armed forces. The scandal leads to the resignation of several ministers. West German Chancellor Konrad Adenauer manages to survive for a further year but is much weakened and on 16 October, 1963 is forced to resign at the age of 87. He is succeeded by Ludwig Erhard.

October 22–3

NATO: Operation Big Lift demonstrates the ability of the US to reinforce NATO forces in Europe in the event of an emergency. As part of the exercise 14,500 American soldiers are ﬂown from the US to Germany.

November 1

Vietnam: A communist-inspired coup takes place in South Vietnam against the corrupt, US-backed Government of Diem. America‘s Vietnam saga begins.

November 22

The Kennedy Assassination: US President John F. Kennedy is assassinated in Dallas, Texas. Vice President Lyndon B. Johnson is sworn in as the new interim president.

November 30

The Cyprus Crisis: Greek Cypriot leader Makarios proposes changes to the Cypriot Constitution that would abrogate power-sharing arrangements. The Turkish side subsequently withdraws from power-sharing.

November

The Multilateral Force (MLF): Two working groups established by NATO to explore several aspects of the MLF proposals begin their work. The Paris working group begins considering issues of control and international legality of the MLF proposal, and the Washington working group starts examining military implications of the MLF.

December 21

The Cyprus Crisis: Intercommunal violence erupts on Cyprus and on 27 December British troops assume positions between the warring factions.

December

The Multilateral Force (MLF): At a meeting of the North Atlantic Council (NAC) British Defence Secretary Peter Thorneycroft puts forward the idea of mixed manning of weapons systems as a counter-proposal to MLF.

1964 AT A GLANCE—MAJOR EVENTS AND THEMES

r The Gulf of Tonkin incident occurs as the USS Maddox is attacked by North Vietnamese forces. r France’s ﬁrst nuclear-capable Mirage IV aircraft is deployed. r Nikita Khrushchev is deposed as General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU). r China explodes its ﬁrst atomic device. r Lyndon B. Johnson is elected President of the United States. r The Multilateral Force (MLF) proposals fail.

January

The Multilateral Force (MLF): The Washington and Paris Multilateral Force working groups produce their respective reports and recommendations.

February

The French Independent Nuclear Deterrent: The ﬁrst Mirage IVs are delivered to the French Air Force. They are to form France’s ﬁrst two nuclear bomber squadrons. The Mirage IV is the only plane in the world able to ﬂy at Mach 2 for more than half an hour.

February

The Cyprus Crisis: Attacks by Greek Cypriots spark renewed fears of Turkish landings on the island. The British appeal to the UN.

February 26–7 The British Nuclear Deterrent: British Minister of Defence Thorneycroft announces that the UK will build a ﬁfth Polaris submarine and stresses the importance of a British independent nuclear deterrent to link the US to Western Europe and to increase the price that Moscow would pay in the event of an attack on Western Europe. It is the start of a Western concept based on multiple centres of nuclear decision-making to raise the nuclear threshold and make the success of a Soviet conventional invasion far less likely. March 4

The Cyprus Crisis: The UN Security Council (UNSC) establishes the UN Force in Cyprus (UNFICYP) a peacekeeping force, to prevent any recurrence of ﬁghting between Greek and Turkish Cypriot communities and to contribute to the restoration of normal conditions.

May

The Multilateral Force (MLF): Assembly begins of the USS Biddle, a ship that is intended to be a US-led mixed-manned, guided-missile destroyer to be equipped with surface-to-air missiles and anti-submarine rockets. This is supposed to demonstrate the feasibility of mixed manning.

June 10

The Multilateral Force (MLF): Thorneycroft conﬁrms his proposal of December 1963: ‘[I]t would be sensible to consider the possibility of mixed manning some of the weapons systems that people are going to buy anyway

1964 [83] since this might achieve the political objective much cheaper than any other method.’ June 26

NATO & Flexible Response: French Chief of Staﬀ of the Armed Forces General Charles Ailleret criticizes a shift by NATO to a strategic doctrine of Flexible Response, saying that, ‘immediate strategic nuclear action remains the best guarantee of the elimination of external attack’.

June

The Multilateral Force (MLF): USS Biddle is completed. It is manned with seamen from the US, Britain, the FRG, the Netherlands, Italy, and Turkey.

July 2

The Multilateral Force (MLF): At a meeting of the Paris working group on the MLF, Britain presents proposals for applying the concept of mixed manning to aircraft and land-based missiles.

July 11

The Multilateral Force (MLF): The Soviet Union protests against the MLF, which it judges to be ‘primarily a means of camouﬂaging the fact that West Germany is in fact being given access to nuclear weapons’.

July 23

The Road to European Union: French President Charles de Gaulle states at a press conference that ‘It is apparent that Europe, provided it wishes to do so, is henceforth called to play a role of its own.’ Not only does the statement imply that France will withdraw from military NATO, but also that the development of European institutions must counter-balance the United States, not just the Soviet Union.

August 1

NATO: Manlio Brosio of Italy succeeds Dirk Stikker as Secretary-General of NATO.

August 7

Vietnam: After an incident in the Gulf of Tonkin oﬀ North Vietnam, when the American frigate USS Maddox is attacked, the US Congress passes the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution, which allows the President almost unrivalled and unquestioned powers in the conduct of defence operations against the North Vietnamese. The Imperial Presidency becomes an increasing reality. Ironically, the pretext for the resolution, which takes Congress forty minutes to pass, is the belief that the Maddox was the victim of an unprovoked attack on the open seas. It later transpires that the ship had been operating in support of South Vietnamese aircraft that were attacking a North Vietnamese port.

October 14

The Soviet Union: Nikita Khrushchev is deposed as General Secretary of the CPSU. His removal from oﬃce is mainly due to what his colleagues in the Politburo regard as a reckless foreign policy. However, it is also the result of his increasing insistence on the role of nuclear weapons as the Soviet Union‘s only credible instrument of armed force. This has led to discontent both within the Red Army and the CPSU. Leonid Brezhnev takes over as General Secretary in a move that is meant to signify the return to collective leadership within the Politburo.

October 15

The British Nuclear Deterrent: British Conservatives lose elections. A new Labour Government is formed under Harold Wilson. Wilson is very critical of the Nassau Agreement on Britain’s nuclear deterrent.

October 16

The Nuclear Balance: China explodes its ﬁrst atomic device. The world new contains ﬁve nuclear weapons states.

[84] the dawn of reason November 3

The United States: Lyndon B. Johnson is elected US President by promising to maintain the Kennedy legacy of US strength allied to a domestic New Deal-type programme called the Great Society.

December 16

The French Nuclear Deterrent: The Loi programmation d’équipment militaire is given ﬁnal approval by the French Parliament, L’Assemblée Nationale. It provides for France to have a triad of submarine ballistic nuclear missiles (SLBMs), together with ground and air-launched systems.

December

The Multilateral Force (MLF): Less convinced than Kennedy of the value of the MLF and unimpressed by the European response, US President Johnson declares the MLF dead.

1965 AT A GLANCE—MAJOR EVENTS AND THEMES

r The Vietnam War starts. r The Merger Treaty is signed in Brussels eﬀectively creating the European Commission and the Council of Ministers. r A dispute over Kashmir and East Pakistan results in the Second Indo-Pakistan War. r The US proposes a NATO nuclear force instead of the Multilateral Force (MLF). r French President Charles de Gaulle announces his intention to withdraw France from NATO’s integrated military structure.

February 7

The Vietnam War: The US commits troops to Vietnam, and the bombing of the North commences. The European Allies steadfastly refuse to join in the operation; eventually, it is only Australia that sends troops.

March 4

The Nuclear Balance: UK Secretary of State for Defence Denis Healey states: ‘Britain cannot go it alone in the nuclear age. Until disarmament is achieved, her survival and national security must depend on the strength and solidarity of the alliance with the US and Western Europe.’

April 6

The Space Race: Early Bird, the world’s ﬁrst commercial communications satellite, is put into orbit by the US. It is the start of the revolution in telephonic and TV communications.

April 7

The Fourth Berlin Crisis: In response to the holding of a plenary session of the West German Parliament in West Berlin’s Congress Hall Soviet and East German authorities block land access to Berlin for one week.

April 8

The Road to European Union: The Merger Treaty is signed in Brussels. It provides for a single supranational European Commission and a single Council of the member states of the three European Communities (ECSC, Euratom, and the EEC). A system of governance is established that will endure beyond the founding of the European Union (EU).

April 23

The Space Race: Increasing the tempo of the space race, the Soviet Union launches its ﬁrst communications satellite.

April 25–30

The East–West Balance: Invited by France, Soviet Foreign Minister Andrei Gromyko visits Paris and meets with de Gaulle and Prime Minister Georges Pompidou to discuss the East–West balance. Moscow senses an opportunity to exploit France’s growing estrangement from the Americans and NATO.

May 31–June 1 The Multilateral Force (MLF): At a Paris Foreign Ministers Conference, US Secretary of Defense Robert McNamara proposes a Committee on Nuclear

[86] the dawn of reason Planning within NATO as an alternative to the MLF. This gives the MLF the ﬁnal death blow. June 30

The Road to European Union: Unwilling to let the European Economic Community (EEC) have a common budget that is beyond direct French control, and rejecting what is known as qualiﬁed majority voting (QMV) of the member states to resolve the issue, French President de Gaulle boycotts the EEC. In what becomes known as the empty-chair policy France refuses to take part in Council meetings of the member states or committee meeting at ambassador or permanent representative (Permrep) level. Not only is this the ﬁrst overt challenge to what Paris regards as its right to lead the EEC, such is the damage it does to France’s reputation that it opens the door for Britain to build a counter-coalition.

August 5

The Second Indo-Pakistan War: The Second Indo-Pakistan War breaks out in a dispute over Kashmir and the separation movement in East Pakistan.

September 9

The French Withdrawal from Military NATO: Concerned about restoring what he regards as France’s grandeur and citing the need for strategic independence from the Americans, as well as being afraid of faltering US commitment to the nuclear defence of Europe (because of the US change in strategy from Massive Retaliation to Flexible Response), French President Charles de Gaulle announces his intention to withdraw French forces from the integrated military structure of NATO by 1969.

October 20

NATO and Flexible Response: The North Atlantic Council (NAC) revises the missions of the Major NATO Commanders and the Canada-US Regional Planning Group. It is part of the move towards a new NATO doctrine of Flexible Response in the face of what is regarded as an increased threat posed by Soviet conventional forces based in Central and Eastern Europe.

November

The Multilateral Force (MLF): The British Labour Government makes it clear they are not in favour of the MLF proposal and will thus not attempt to revive it. As the British have long been its strongest supporters any chance of a revival of the force is extinguished.

December 14–16

NATO and the Defence Planning Process: At the NAC ministerial meeting in Paris new procedures are authorized to improve the annual process of reviewing the defence eﬀorts of member countries and agreeing upon their force contributions. NATO’s Defence Planning Process (DPP) begins, and with it the Defence Planning Questionnaire (DPQ) that is to be the source of much discord within the Alliance over the years.

1966 AT A GLANCE—MAJOR EVENTS AND THEMES

r The Chinese Cultural Revolution begins as Mao Zedong seeks to consolidate his power. r France leaves the military structure of NATO. r A Grand Coalition comes to power in the Federal Republic of Germany under Willy Brandt. r French Prime Minister Georges Pompidou says that the US would never have allowed France to get its hands on nuclear technology and as such France’s decision to leave NATO was entirely justiﬁed. r The Soviet Union deploys the SS-11 intercontinental ballistic missile (ICBM) capable of hitting continental North America.

January 28–9

The Road to European Union: The Luxembourg Compromise ends France’s empty-chair policy. Member states agree that if important interests of one or more partners are at stake in cases of decisions that are normally taken by majority vote on the proposal of the Commission, then the Council members should make an eﬀort to ﬁnd a solution that can be adopted by all Council members in a reasonable time. The French delegation, however, says that if these matters concern very important interests, then discussion should continue until unanimity is reached. Despite such a ‘settlement’ normal working procedures are taken up again; France decides to once again participate in Council meetings.

January

The Chinese Cultural Revolution: The Chinese Cultural Revolution begins. In what amounts to a purge by Mao Zedong of the communist old guard, the Great Helmsman uses the young revolutionary guard to eradicate opposition to his control and to shift the blame for the catastrophic failure of the Great Leap Forward, a programme of forced industrialization started in 1959.

March 7

The French Withdrawal from Military NATO: In a ﬁnal break with the Americans and the British, de Gaulle oﬃcially announces to the US and then to the other Allies that France will withdraw from the integrated command structure of the Alliance. However, de Gaulle leaves the back door open by maintaining France’s political membership of the organization. French oﬃcers who are serving NATO commanders are increasingly regarded by de Gaulle as ‘traitors’. De Gaulle also orders all NATO forces and functionaries to leave France by 1 April.

July 1

The French Withdrawal from Military NATO: French representatives step down from their positions in the military organizations of NATO.

[88] the dawn of reason October 26

The French Withdrawal from Military NATO: Having been ordered to quit Paris NATO decides to set up headquarters in the suburbs of Brussels in Zaventem, Belgium.

November 10

The French Withdrawal from Military NATO: Seizing on the move from Paris to Brussels to reform and consolidate Alliance structures the NATO Defence Planning Committee (DPC) requests that the Military Committee of the Alliance be transferred from Washington to Brussels.

November 14

The Road to European Union: Noting France’s diminished standing in both the EEC and NATO Britain announces that it will try again to join the EEC.

November 30

The Federal Republic of Germany: The West German Chancellor Ludwig Erhard steps down after coalition negotiations fail between the Liberal Democrats (FDP), the Christian Democratic Union (CDU), and the Christian Social Union (CSU). However, the Social Democrats reach an agreement with the Christian Union parties (CDU and CSU) for a Grand Coalition and on 1 December Kurt Georg Kiesinger is selected as West German chancellor. Willy Brandt becomes Foreign Minister.

December 14

The German Question: West Germany declares that diplomatic recognition of the GDR or East Germany is possible only after the people living in the GDR grant democratic legitimization through a free vote.

December 14

NATO: At a meeting of NATO’s Defence Planning Committee it is agreed to create a high-level Nuclear Planning Group (NPG) to give some Europeans a semblance of control over nuclear weapons stationed on their soil. However, the NPG will only consider subjects such as safety and security of the weapons, not targeting, which remains the preserve of the three nuclear powers Britain, France, and the US.

December 14

The Nuclear Balance: West German Federal Foreign Minister Willy Brandt states before the representatives of the Western European Union (WEU) that the new West German Government does not aspire to any nuclear role within NATO.

December 15–16

The Harmel Report: During a ministerial meeting of the NATO DPC, Belgian Foreign Minister Pierre Harmel calls for a fundamental reappraisal of the political, military, and economic aims of the Alliance, given what he sees as the fundamental changes that have taken place over the preceding years.

1967 AT A GLANCE—MAJOR EVENTS AND THEMES

r The US nuclear arsenal reaches a peak of 32,000 warheads. r The US informs its Allies of the details of the nuclear weapons that it has deployed on the territory of its partners. r The US completes its programme for the construction of 41 ballistic nuclear missile submarines (SSBNs), carrying 656 missiles in total, each with a range of between 2,400 and 4,000 kilometres. r At the US-USSR Glassboro Summit, the US indicates for the ﬁrst time its willingness to begin talks with the Soviet Union on strategic arms control. r Former West German Chancellor Konrad Adenauer dies. r The Six Day War takes place between Israel and an Arab coalition led by Egypt. r China explodes its ﬁrst hydrogen bomb. r The Merger Treaty enters into force, setting up a single Council and a single Commission for the European Economic Community (EEC), the European Atomic Energy Community (Euratom), and the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC). r The ﬁrst British Polaris ballistic nuclear missile submarine HMS Resolution enters service. r The Harmel Report is completed and Flexible Response is formally adopted as NATO doctrine.

January 18

NATO: The NATO Defence College is inaugurated in Rome having been moved from Paris.

March 29

The French Nuclear Deterrent: The ﬁrst French SSBN Le Redoutable is launched.

March 31

NATO: The inauguration of NATO’s new Supreme Headquarters Allied Powers Europe (SHAPE) takes place at Mons, Belgium, following the expulsion of the Alliance from France.

April 1

The French Withdrawal from Military NATO: The deadline arrives for the withdrawal of all NATO forces from France.

April 6–7

The Nuclear Balance: The ﬁrst meeting of NATO’s Nuclear Planning Group (NPG) takes place in Washington.

April 19

The Death of Konrad Adenauer: Konrad Adenauer dies at the age of 92. He was the ﬁrst Chancellor of post-war West Germany and did more than any other politician to create the Federal Republic of Germany. Although no friend of the Americans or British he forged a close relationship with

[90] the dawn of reason Germany’s historic enemy France and established the foundation for the Franco-German axis within the European institutions. April 21

The Greek Coup: In Greece, a group of colonels seizes power in a coup d’état and installs an authoritarian regime that suppresses civil liberties. Greece is a full NATO member and the Regime of the Colonels as it comes to be known causes a major political crisis in the Alliance. On 13 December, King Constantine II attempts a counter-coup but it fails. The Colonels would stay in power until 1974.

June 5

The Six Day War: Following the massing of Egyptian, Jordanian, and Syrian troops near the Israeli border and blockades of waterways, Israel attacks a coalition of Arab forces. In the Six Day War that follows, the Arabs suﬀer heavy losses, and East Jerusalem, the Golan Heights, and the Sinai Desert fall to Israel.

June 13–14

The Six Day War: In the wake of the Six Day War in the Middle East the North Atlantic Council meets in Luxembourg to review the situation on the ground and implications for Alliance security.

June 17

The Nuclear Balance: On the eve of the ﬁrst US-USSR nuclear arms control summit China explodes its ﬁrst hydrogen bomb. It reminds the Americans and Russians that they are not the only nuclear leaders.

June 23–5

The Nuclear Balance: At the Glassboro Summit between US President Johnson and Soviet Prime Minister Aleksei Kosygin, the US indicates that it is willing for the ﬁrst time to enter into talks with the Soviet Union on strategic arms control. This greatly concerns the Europeans, who fear that the Americans might negotiate over their heads and, by formally accepting the strategic stalemate, render Europe vulnerable to a Soviet conventional attack— thus making a European war ‘winnable’ for the USSR. This foreshadows the dual-track debate that erupts in the 1970s with the Soviet deployment of the SS-20 intermediate-range ballistic missile (IRBM).

July 1

The Road to European Union: The Merger Treaty enters into force, merging the executive bodies of the three European Communities: the EEC, Euratom, and ECSC. A single Commission and a single Council thus begin to operate for all three Communities. The Treaty also provides for a common budget.

August 8

ASEAN: Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines, Singapore, and Thailand sign the Treaty establishing the Association of South-East Asian Nations (ASEAN).

October 2

The British Nuclear Deterrent: The ﬁrst British Polaris SSBN HMS Resolution joins the British Fleet.

October 16

NATO: The inauguration of the new NATO Headquarters in Brussels formally takes place.

November 29

Decolonization: The last British forces leave Aden, Yemen, which became their main base in the region after the loss of the Suez Canal. The territory is left to the control of a movement called the National Liberation Front. However, Yemen is to remain unstable for many years and in time becomes the base of operations for several radical Islamist groups.

1967 [91] December 13–14

NATO and Flexible Response: The North Atlantic Council (NAC) formally adopts the strategy of Flexible Response. This enables the Alliance to envisage some degree of conventional warfare before it is deemed necessary to cross the nuclear threshold. The move to a graduated response to a Soviet attack enshrines nuclear weapons at the heart of NATO strategy. It also precludes any no-ﬁrst-strike agreement with the Soviet Union. Not surprisingly, Moscow endeavours to exploit this.

December 13–14

The Harmel Report: The Harmel Report is approved by NATO’s NAC. Central to the report, entitled The Future Tasks of the Alliance is the Harmel Doctrine, which advocates strong defence combined with good diplomatic relations with the countries of the Warsaw Pact. The Harmel Doctrine helped to pave the way for the East–West détente of the early 1970s and helped lead to the 1975 Helsinki Summit and the creation of the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE).

1968 AT A GLANCE—MAJOR EVENTS AND THEMES

r r r r r r r r r r

The Prague Spring occurs in Czechoslovakia. Britain announces withdrawal of all forces from east of the Suez Canal. The ﬁrst British Polaris missile is test ﬁred. Mass student demonstrations in Paris destabilize the Fifth Republic. Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons (NPT) is signed. Warsaw Pact countries invade Czechoslovakia. The Brezhnev Doctrine is enunciated. The Harmel Plan is presented to the Western European Union (WEU). Richard Millhouse Nixon is elected President of the United States. NATO’s Eurogroup is established.

January 5 –20 August

The Prague Spring: New Communist Party leader Alexander Dubˇcek and, as of March, new President Ludvik Svoboda, introduce liberal reforms in Czechoslovakia, including freedom of speech and assembly. Moscow at ﬁrst looks on, unsure what action to take. Any attempt to crush the movement will destroy Moscow’s reputation in the West. Inaction could well lead to the unravelling of the Soviet bloc.

January 13

NATO: Standing Naval Forces Atlantic (STANAVFORLANT) is inaugurated at the Royal Navy’s base at Portland in the United Kingdom.

January 16

Decolonization: Britain announces that it intends to withdraw from all of its bases east of the Suez Canal by 1971.

January 19

Nuclear Arms Control: The US and the Soviet Union table a draft (NPT) at the Geneva Disarmament Conference. It is an important step on the road to eventual détente but also signals the start of a new phenomenon, the stabilization of strategic relations between the US and USSR and the destabilization of relations between NATO and the WTO.

January 31

The Vietnam War: The Americans receive their ﬁrst major shock of the Vietnam War when the North Vietnamese launch the Tet Oﬀensive and get to within a few kilometres of the South’s capital, Saigon.

May 2–16 June The Movement of ’68 in France: Mass student demonstrations create the impression that the Fifth Republic in France might fall. After open conﬂict between the student movement and French riot police on the streets of Paris, however, the government brings the situation under control. June 23

The Movement of ’68 in France: Charles de Gaulle and his conservative allies triumph in French parliamentary elections.

1968 [93] June 24–5

The Balance of Forces in Europe: The North Atlantic Council (NAC) publishes a declaration calling for mutually balanced force reductions (MBFR) in Europe involving all NATO and Warsaw Pact conventional forces.

July 1

Nuclear Arms Control: The Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons is signed in Washington, London, and Moscow. Due to enter into force on 5 March 1970, the treaty commits the so-called Nuclear Weapons States (NWS) to eventual disarmament. All other states are formally obliged not to develop nuclear weapons. There are some notable absentees.

August 20–1

The Prague Spring: After a period of experimentation with democratic socialism under Alexander Dubˇcek known as the Prague Spring, the Soviet Union, East Germany, Poland, Hungary, and Bulgaria invade Czechoslovakia to enforce communist orthodoxy. The invasion of up to 200,000 Warsaw Pact forces marks the end of any crusading appeal of Soviet-style communism in the West and leads to 70,000 Czechs quitting the country in the immediate aftermath.

August

The Nuclear Balance: The USSR surpasses the US in the number of nuclear warheads deployed. This is a somewhat semantic point for both superpowers now possess enough warheads to destroy life on the planet several times over. The term ‘overkill’ enters the lexicon.

September 12

Warsaw Pact: Albania renounces its membership of the Warsaw Treaty Organization (WTO).

September 25

The Brezhnev Doctrine: In the wake of the crushing of the Prague Spring the Brezhnev Doctrine is unoﬃcially enunciated in the Soviet newspaper Pravda. The doctrine restricts socialist countries’ sovereignty in that it makes any shift towards capitalism in one socialist country the concern of other socialist countries and thus justiﬁes military intervention.

October 3

European Defence: Pierre Harmel, the Foreign Minister of Belgium, tells a press conference that at the next ministerial meeting of the WEU Council scheduled for 21–2 October, the Benelux countries will submit a plan for cooperation between the European Economic Community (EEC) and Britain in the ﬁelds of foreign, defence, technological, and monetary policy. This plan becomes known as the Harmel Plan. European integration is essential, it states, and must move ahead even if some countries are not ready. At this juncture it is clear that Harmel is aiming his comments at the increasingly intransigent French Government. He goes on to say that the ‘hegemony’ of any one EEC or WEU member must be avoided. Furthermore, he suggests that political co-operation should move from ‘occasional’ to ‘compulsory’ consultation. With regard to a common defence, he suggests that the seven WEU members should aim to establish a European pillar within NATO through a process of systematic consultation. The basis for Eurogroup is established. On 21 October, The Harmel Plan is presented to the Ministerial Council of the WEU.

November 5

The United States: Richard Millhouse Nixon is elected President of the United States with a mission to extricate the US from the Vietnam War, which has split the country profoundly and undermined American strategic leadership of the West.

[94] the dawn of reason November 12

The Brezhnev Doctrine: In a speech at the Fifth Congress of the Polish United Workers’ Party, Communist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU) General Secretary Leonid Brezhnev reinforces the Brezhnev Doctrine: ‘When forces that are hostile to socialism and try to turn the development of some socialist country towards capitalism, it becomes not only a problem of the country concerned, but a common problem and concern of all socialist countries.’

November 13–14

European Defence/NATO: At a meeting of the NAC it is agreed to establish Eurogroup to better co-ordinate all the defence activities of the European pillar of NATO.

November 15–16

The Prague Spring: The NAC denounces the Soviet intervention in Czechoslovakia as being contrary to the basic principles of the United Nations Charter. NATO also issues a warning to the USSR about its actions and the potential danger for conﬂict in Europe.

November 21

NATO: MARAIRMED, or Allied Maritime Air Forces Mediterranean is activated by NATO.

1969 AT A GLANCE—MAJOR EVENTS AND THEMES

r The Soames Aﬀair as Anglo-French tensions come to a head. r The Western European Union (WEU) Crisis. r The US moves to enhance its intercontinental ballistic missile (ICBM) capability through multiple independent re-entry vehicles (MIRV) on each missile. r Soviet-Chinese border war starts. r Neil Armstrong and Edwin Aldrin walk on the moon. r The Nixon Doctrine is enunciated. r Ostpolitik is launched by Willy Brandt. r Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty (SALT) talks agreed. r The Hague Summit of the European Economic Community European Economic Community and the Davignon Report on European Political Union is authorised.

February 4

The Soames Aﬀair: President Charles de Gaulle has lunch with the British Ambassador to Paris, Christopher Soames, to discuss what is termed ‘the future of European co-operation’. At the meeting, the British claim that de Gaulle demands that Europe become totally independent of the US and that Britain could join the EEC if it dismantled NATO. Furthermore, de Gaulle tells Soames that he wants discussions on all the European issues that divide the two countries and favours the creation of a core of countries consisting of Britain, France, Germany, and Italy to act as a kind of political directorate. Soames duly passes the information on to London. Unfortunately, the British note of the meeting is made public.

February 6–7

The WEU Crisis: France commences a boycott of the Western European Union following the Harmel Plan and a sharp deterioration in its relations with the UK during what is soon called the Soames Aﬀair. In what also becomes known as the WEU Crisis, France reserves its position on the coordination of foreign policy through the Council of Ministers of the WEU. The dispute develops after the UK elaborates its position and attempts to exploit the Harmel Plan on co-operation between itself and the six EEC members on areas not covered by the Treaty of Rome, such as defence, security, and technological and monetary policy.

February 11

Euromissiles: The US gives the go-ahead for the development of an accurate new theatre nuclear missile for Europe that will become known as the Pershing II. This decision is detected by Soviet military intelligence, the GRU, and ironically becomes one of the Soviet military’s rationales for developing the SS-20, which in turn leads to the Euromissile crisis of the 1970s.

[96] the dawn of reason February 14

The WEU Crisis: In a strongly worded communiqué, France states that it fundamentally objects to the UK’s using the machinery of the WEU in an attempt to outﬂank French objections to British membership of the EEC by establishing other links with members of the Community. Furthermore, France is irritated by what it regards as the unceasing eﬀorts of the other members of the EEC to force it to change its position with regard to its veto over UK membership of the Community. Unquestioned French leadership of the Community is beginning to crack as France boycotts ﬁrst NATO, then the Community, and ﬁnally the WEU.

February 21

The Soames Aﬀair: Through Agence France Presse, the French Government angrily denies the British interpretation of the meeting that took place between President de Gaulle and Christopher Soames, the British Ambassador. Furthermore, the press release disavows any suggestion that Britain join the EEC.

February 24

The Soames Aﬀair: France formally protests to Britain, via its ambassador Christopher Soames, over its handling of his note of the meeting with de Gaulle.

February 24

NATO: In an address to the North Atlantic Council (NAC) in Brussels, US President Nixon oﬀers what he calls ‘a two-way street’ with the NATO Allies in an attempt to resolve what he acknowledges as discontent on the part of the Europeans, who feel too often talked at rather than talked to.

March

The Sino-Soviet Border War: Soviet and Chinese troops start all-out ﬁghting in Manchuria over the disputed border.

April 10–11

NATO: A meeting of the NAC in Washington celebrates 20 years of NATO.

April 28

The Resignation of de Gaulle: French President Charles de Gaulle resigns over a lost referendum on regionalization and reform of the Senate. Not only does the resignation of de Gaulle mark the political end of who was arguably France’s outstanding ﬁgure of the twentieth century, but it also permits a shift in French policy and paves the way for Britain to join the EEC.

May 28

NATO: As a sign of the increasing encroachment of the Soviet Black Seas Fleet into the Mediterranean, NATO’s Defence Planning Committee (DPC) decides to create Naval Oﬃcer Commanding Forces in the Mediterranean (NAVOCFORMED).

June 15

The Election of Georges Pompidou: Long-time French Prime Minister Georges Pompidou is elected President following the resignation of Charles de Gaulle.

July 1

Nuclear Arms Control: The Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT) is signed. Its 59 initial members (189 as of March 2005) agree to renounce the use of nuclear weapons, and the ﬁve existing nuclear powers agree to work towards disarmament and to assist the other signatories with help and advice concerning the peaceful use of nuclear energy.

July 20

The End of the Space Race/Man on the Moon: Neil Armstrong becomes the ﬁrst man to walk on the moon. The US therefore wins the Space Race, and President Kennedy’s 1962 claim that an American would walk upon the Earth’s only terrestrial satellite before the end of the decade is realized.

1969 [97] July 25

The Nixon Doctrine: US President Richard Nixon announces the Nixon Doctrine. In an approach that Bismarck would have understood and appreciated, the US becomes a balance-of-power player and begins to court China in a bid to force the Soviet Union on to the defensive while at the same time keeping the lines of communication open to Moscow. The thinking behind this move comes from Nixon’s National Security Adviser, Henry Kissinger.

October 21

Ostpolitik and the German Question: Willy Brandt of the Social Democratic Party is elected West German Federal Chancellor. On 28 October Brandt launches his famous Ostpolitik drive aimed at a German-led rapprochement with the East. The US sees this as a dangerous precedent. A leading NATO member has broken ranks and thus undermined the de facto American monopoly over the political leadership of the Alliance.

November 17

Nuclear Arms Control: At Helsinki, Finland, the US and Soviet delegates have their ﬁrst discussion over the practicalities of entering into arms-control discussions. It is the start of talks aimed at a Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty, or SALT 1.

November 25

Biological and Chemical Arms Control: Building upon the goodwill generated by the Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT), the US renounces biological warfare and the ﬁrst use of chemical weapons.

December 1–2 The Road to European Union: At the Hague summit, the heads of state of the six member states of the EEC reach an agreement to build a European Community that is based on economic and monetary union. They also instruct their foreign ministers to ‘study the best way of achieving progress in the matter of political uniﬁcation, within the context of enlargement’ of the European Communities. The preparation of the Davignon Report on political union is authorized. The summit also paves the way for the opening of membership negotiations with the UK, Ireland, Denmark, and Norway. December 8–10

NATO: The ﬁrst meeting takes places of NATO’s Committee on the Challenges of Modern Society (CCMS). The CCMS emerged following a proposal by US President Nixon to foster better information-sharing among the allies concerning the environmental and societal challenges posed to NATO members.

December

Nuclear Arms Control: The US and the USSR reach an agreement to begin talks towards a Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty (SALT).

December

Ostpolitik and the German Question: The Soviet Union and the two Germanys begin talks in Moscow over Soviet recognition of the Federal Republic of Germany and the latter’s recognition of the German Democratic Republic (GDR) or East Germany.

December

The Nuclear Balance: The Soviet Union has 1,190 strategic nuclear missiles deployed, and the Americans 1,054. However, the US seeks to upgrade its weapons by providing its ICBM capability (the Minuteman III system) with MIRV or multiple warheads on each missile.

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PART FOUR The Lukewarm Peace

1970–1979

INTRODUCTION

1970–1979 The Lukewarm Peace begins with a United States mired in a costly and failing war in Vietnam and unable to exert the inﬂuence it once enjoyed over its fractious European allies. It also begins with a Soviet Union less credible by the day as an ideological power. Consequently, Moscow and Washington begin to forge an ever more direct relationship, often bypassing their European allies and satellites, because by the 1970s the legitimacy of superpower can only be justiﬁed by the existence of the other. It is a direct relationship of which Europeans are suspicious not least when Washington and Moscow negotiate a raft of strategic arms control treaties over the heads of the European Allies. In 1970 talks commence between the US and Soviet Union on a Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty (SALT), which is duly signed on 26 May, 1972, along with the Anti-Ballistic Missile (ABM) Treaty. It is a far cry from the early days of the Cold War and American nuclear monopoly. Indeed, the ABM Treaty is a very unAmerican treaty designed as it is to ensure the mutual vulnerability that both sides accept as the price for nuclear stability and thus never sits comfortably with the Washington political establishement. To a signiﬁcant extent the 1970s become the age of superpower symbiosis even as Europeans begin to reclaim security sovereignty. It is a tension that will not only in time force an end to the Cold War, but lead Eastern Europe to break free from Soviet shackles. A SERIES OF SHOCKS

For the Soviet Union its satellites are all but irrelevant, and for the Americans the issue of consulting theirs haunts them. By the 1970s it is patently evident that

[100] the lukewarm peace while the United States has a world-view, its European allies are irredeemably regional and parochial. Moreover, as Washington endeavours to both mask its defeat in South-East Asia and extricate itself from the consequences of that defeat the prestige of its strategic leadership is dealt a series of shocks that are felt profoundly within the Alliance. Indeed, the linkage between America’s retreat into uncertainty and Europe’s search for its own institutional alternative becomes well established in the 1970s. It is a retreat reinforced by a Middle East War that brieﬂy threatens to go global. Oil, not ideas, becomes the currency of both power and weakness in this age, as a commodity that much of the West had taken for granted is suddenly denied them by an Arab world angry at America’s support for Israel, and, by extension and association, Europe. During the Six Day War in 1967 Israel had captured strategic territory in Syria, Jordan, and Egypt. In 1973 Egypt leads a coalition of Soviet-backed Arab states to regain the losses and if possible drive Israel into the Mediterranean. For a brief moment it seems the Yom Kippur War would lead to Israel’s demise and the superpowers would be reined in. For the Americans the defeat of Israel is unthinkable; for Europeans it would be unfortunate. The merging of American domestic politics and its foreign policy is only too apparent in its preparedness to go to war to protect Israel. The result is a transatlantic split of the ﬁrst order as the Nixon Administration prepares for a possible war, maybe even a nuclear war, without bothering to consult its European allies. The consequences are profound and set the tenor for a fractious 1970s. Furthermore, in the aftermath of the war European economies slow down, crippled by the oil embargo imposed by the Arab states. For the ﬁrst time some Western Europeans begin to wonder if their security is best served by being close to the US or by distancing themselves from it. Unable to fund large military machines, the European Allies begin to cut defence expenditure, just as the Americans demand greater eﬀort. NATO becomes progressively fractious, not least because of a further raft of nuclear arms control agreements between the US and USSR. In 1973 the US and Soviet Union reach an agreement on the avoidance of nuclear accidents. It requires from the signatories a pledge to maintain and improve safeguards against accidental or unauthorized use of nuclear weapons. For Europeans it appears that the US could well be retreating from the commitment to the ﬁrst use of nuclear weapons that is the very cornerstone of Alliance doctrine. EEC ENLARGEMENT

It is no surprise that in parallel the European political and economic ediﬁce expands. As early as 1970 the six members of the European Economic Community

the lukewarm peace [101]

(EEC) had agreed on the need for the harmonization of their foreign policies through what became known as European Political Co-operation (EPC). In 1973 Britain ﬁnally overcame the French veto to join the EEC. However, it is not the Britain of the past, nor the future, but a country profoundly weakened by political and economic decline, industrial strife, and a defence eﬀort far beyond its means. It is still, however, a country with a very diﬀerent vision of Europe and its institutions than that of France and Germany. Thus the stage is set for a battle over the nature and extent of ‘Europe’ that continues today. THE FALL OF NIXON AND SAIGON

This is also the decade of American crisis. President Nixon is forced to resign in August 1974, having been impeached by Congress for sanctioning a burglary at the Democratic Party’s headquarters in the Watergate Building in Washington in the run-up to his 1972 re-election. In April 1975 Saigon ﬁnally falls to North Vietnamese and Vietcong forces. America’s stock is at a low ebb as America’s ability to lead an Alliance riven by weakness and discord is again called into question by partners and adversaries alike. It is fortunate for the West that behind the carefully constructed façade of the Kremlin, Brezhnev’s Russia is even weaker: a stultifying ediﬁce in which ideological zeal has been replaced by central bureaucratic empires as vast as they are corrupt run by an ageing elite that has little or no idea how to re-energize the failing Soviet idea. Hidden behind a stern mask of Soviet armed forces and the false power of weapons counts, the Soviet Union gradually seizes up, forced on the defensive by its own inner contradictions and overreach. Indeed, by the mid-1970s so much of the Soviet economic eﬀort is consumed by the armed forces that little room is left for growth and innovation—except in weapons. Doomed by its own centralized ineﬃciency it lacks the pluralistic diversity of the West and it is that diﬀerence and the imbalance in growth and wealth it entails that will slowly and inexorably crush the Soviet Union. By 1975, just as the West seems at its weakest, the battle of ideas has in fact already been won. As Winston Churchill had once said in another age, the victory of the West in the Cold War was simply a question of the inexorable application of overwhelming power—so long as the war remained cold. EUROMISSILES

It is the perceived weakness of America in particular that leads to NATO’s most dangerous crisis—Euromissiles. Indeed, as Western Europe slowly begins to assert itself in the wake of Vietnam and the Nixon resignation, the Soviet Union still sees a chance to de-couple America from its European allies and

[102] the lukewarm peace thus prevent its own inevitable demise. In 1977 Moscow deploys the SS-20 intermediate range missile system capable of hitting only targets in Europe. At a stroke the credibility of the American nuclear guarantee is again brought into question by the emergence of long-range theatre nuclear forces (LRTNF). Europe’s own psychosis is revealed as Europeans ﬁrst demand the weapons as security against America’s failing guarantee and then reject them because they will undermine that guarantee. Not surprisingly, the political cohesion of the Alliance falters. President Jimmy Carter is an amiable and liberal Democrat Senator from Georgia, elected precisely because he is not of the Washington elite. However, he also seems ill-equipped to cope with the complexities of leading a transatlantic Alliance at a particularly dangerous moment. Indeed, in a sign of the times the German Government goes as far as to say so. Not surprisingly the relationship between Jimmy Carter and West German Chancellor Helmut Schmidt is not at all easy. Germans demand that the US deploy Pershing and Cruise intermediate range missiles to cement the nuclear link between the US and the European allies. However, Western European public opinion is not so sure as the Soviet propaganda machine goes into overdrive to claim that America is preparing to ﬁght the Soviet Union with the lives of Europeans. It is a preposterous claim that is, however, given some credence in 1977 when the Carter Administration proposes the deployment of the neutron bomb designed to kill people, not destroy property. Not for the ﬁrst or last time the logic of the American security machine seems impervious to the logic of popular imagination, particularly that of Europeans. Hearts and minds seem irrelevant. They should be central. By NATO’s Special Summit of 12 December 1979 the transatlantic split is so profound that while Europeans grudgingly agree to the deployment of Pershing and Cruise missiles by 1983 unless the Soviets withdraw SS-20 missiles they demand of the Americans far greater eﬀort to negotiate them away. But the political landscape is changing. In May 1979 one Margaret Thatcher is elected British Prime Minister and in 1981 Ronald Reagan takes the US Presidency with the slogan Peace Through Strength. As the West slumbers in the midst of the Christmas celebrations and the start of a new decade, on 26 December 1979 Soviet tanks cross the border into a littleknown and even less understood country called Afghanistan. As they rumble through the Panshir Valley they are hounded by gunﬁre from a group called the Mujahidin that will in time haunt not only Moscow but Washington too. The Second Cold War begins and with it Moscow’s self-imposed retreat from political rationality. Afghanistan returns to the legend of political conﬂict and will not leave it to this day.

1970 AT A GLANCE—MAJOR EVENTS AND THEMES

r President Nixon states that the US is not prepared to commit suicide in defence of Western Europe. r The Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT) comes into force. r Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (SALT) I commence. r Cambodia is invaded by US forces. r NATO calls for mutually balanced force reductions in Europe. r First US F-111 nuclear-capable bombers arrive in Europe as part of NATO’s Forward Base System. r The Werner Report on European economic and political union is presented. r The Davignon or Luxembourg Report on European Political Co-operation is started.

January

The Middle East: The Soviet Union establishes a military relationship with President Anwar el-Sadat of Egypt. This raises alarm both in Washington and in Tel Aviv, Israel’s capital.

March 5

The Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT) comes into force.

March 20

NATO: NATO’s ﬁrst communications satellite is launched from Cape Kennedy in the US.

April 16

Nuclear Arms Control: The main round of SALT talks commences in Vienna. The objective is arms control rather than disarmament with the ﬁrst target being the stabilization of the strategic arms race through the establishment of nuclear strategic parity between the superpowers. Both the US and Soviet economies are suﬀering the strain of prolonged confrontation. In particular, the US economy is being badly aﬀected by the Vietnam War, as the budget deﬁcit balloons and the US Federal Reserve print dollars to fund the debt.

April 29–30

The Vietnam War: The invasion of Cambodia by American and South Vietnamese troops begins and is announced the next day by President Nixon under the guise of winding down the Vietnam War.

May 26–7

Mutually Balanced Force Reductions: The North Atlantic Council (NAC) issues a declaration calling for Mutually Balanced Force Reductions (MBFR) in Europe with the Warsaw Treaty Organization (WTO). Western economies are moving into recession, and the cost of the Cold War is proving prohibitive.

July 20

The Road to European Union: The foreign ministers of the six European Economic Community (EEC) member states accept in principle the Davignon Report on a European foreign policy. It calls on Europeans to speak with

[104] the lukewarm peace one voice where possible and leads ﬁrst to European Political Co-operation (EPC) and eventually to the Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP) of the EU. August 12

Ostpolitik and the German Question: In the ﬁrst overt demonstration of the thaw in Soviet–West German relations, the two countries sign a nonaggression treaty in Moscow paving the way for full recognition of the two Germanys. It is vindication for West German Chancellor Brandt who was criticized for breaking ranks with the Allies to negotiate a separate relationship with the Soviet Union. It is also a mark of the growing diplomatic strength of West Germany, which by 1970 is Europe’s most powerful economy.

August 19

The Nuclear Balance: The US deploys the ﬁrst multi-warhead or ‘MIRVed’ missile, the Minuteman III.

September 6

Terrorism: In what becomes known as the ‘blackest day in aviation’ four airliners are hijacked by the Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine (PFLP). The TransWorld Airlines (TWA), Pan American (Pan Am), British Overseas Aircraft Corporation (BOAC), and Swissair planes are taken to Dawson’s Field, a remote former Royal Air Force strip in Jordan. The PFLP demands the release of Leila Khaled from a British prison in return for the safe release of the 310 passengers. The Israelis foil an attempt on an El-Al plane. The worldwide media coverage the attack generates helps to establish a precedent for a spate of similar hijackings.

September 12

Euromissiles: The ﬁrst US lighter delivery aircraft, the F-111, arrives in Europe. Deployed as a way of calming European fears over the stalemate in the nuclear balance, this nuclear-capable aircraft is capable of penetrating Soviet air defences as part of the US Forward Base System (FBS). As such, it creates an ‘action–reaction cycle‘, for the Soviet high command perceives the need for a highly accurate, mobile theatre nuclear missile that can both attack the home bases of the F-111 and threaten Western European governments. The SS-20 is born.

October 7

The Road to European Union: The Werner Report on European economic and monetary union is presented to the EEC’s Council of Ministers and the European Commission for consideration. This document, which advises the six member states to increase co-operation between their central banks, is the ﬁrst step on the way to the Euro and eventually leads to the Single European Act of 1986.

October 27

The Road to European Union: The foreign ministers of the Six formally endorse the Report on the Problem of Political Uniﬁcation, known as the Davignon Report or Luxembourg Report, and thus the movement towards political union. As a result, the concept of European Political Co-operation (EPC) is born. A Political Committee is established to bring together foreign policy oﬃcials of member states responsible for political aﬀairs. EPC is intergovernmentalist, i.e. based upon the traditional nation-state. However, it requires member states to work so closely together that the co-ordination of policy in key areas should, the architects hope, lead to integration to all intents and purposes.

1970 [105] November 9

The Death of de Gaulle: Former French President Charles de Gaulle dies. For many he was the saviour of France during World War Two, and extricated France from the entanglement of the Algerian War. For the British and Americans he was the totem of the French ingratitude for tens of thousands of British and American servicemen who paid for French freedom with their lives during World War Two.

December 2–4 NATO: Following the AD-70 report by NATO suggesting Warsaw Pact forces have undergone a major programme of qualitative upgrading, the ten members of NATO’s Eurogroup decide to embark upon a force improvement package. This is in spite of the economic diﬃculties that many of them are beginning to experience. December 2–4 NATO: At ministerial meetings in Brussels of NATO’s NAC and the Defence Planning Committee (DPC) the US conﬁrms that it will not reduce its forces in Europe except as part of reciprocal East–West actions. December 7

Ostpolitik and the German Question: West Germany and Poland sign a treaty that normalizes their relations.

1971 AT A GLANCE—MAJOR EVENTS AND THEMES

r The US and Soviet Union sign a treaty to de-nuclearize the seabed. r The Mansﬁeld Resolution is tabled in US Congress demanding a greater European eﬀort in their own defence. r US President Richard Nixon accepts an invitation to visit China. r French ground-based nuclear missiles on the Plateau d’Albion become operational. r The Four-Power Agreement on Berlin is reached. r Communist China becomes a Permanent Member of the UN Security Council (UNSC). r Joseph Luns becomes Secretary-General of NATO. r The ﬁrst of the French ballistic nuclear missile submarines Le Redoutable enters service.

February 2

NATO: NATO’s second communications satellite is launched from Cape Kennedy in the US.

February 11

Nuclear Arms Control: In a further step along the road to conﬁdencebuilding and détente between the nuclear superpowers the Seabed Arms Control Treaty, which aims to de-nuclearize the seabed is signed by Britain, the US, and the USSR.

May 13

De-coupling: Senator Mike Mansﬁeld tables a motion calling upon the US administration to withdraw 50 per cent of US forces from Western Europe if the NATO Allies are not seen to be doing more for their own defence.

May 20

De-coupling: The Mansﬁeld Resolution is defeated, but it sets the tone for an increasingly acrimonious debate within the Alliance over the fraught question of burden-sharing.

July 15–16

The Nixon Doctrine: As part of his policy of forcing the Soviet Union to confront threats on two fronts, Nixon engineers and accepts an invitation to visit communist China in what is a historic rapprochement between the two former ideological adversaries.

August 2

The French Nuclear Deterrent: France’s surface-to-surface (SSM) nuclearcapable Pluton intermediate range ballistic missile (IRBM) force becomes operational on Plateau d’Albion in southern central France. Not capable of striking the Soviet Union it can only strike Soviet forces in Germany which causes some tension between Paris and Bonn.

September 3

The Berlin Settlement: In a reaﬃrmation of the status quo, the Four Powers, Britain, France, the US, and the USSR reach agreement over the continued

1971 [107] partition of Berlin and the maintenance of the corridor linking West Berlin with the Federal Republic of Germany. It brings the series of regular Berlin crises to an end. September 30

Nuclear Arms Control: The US and the Soviet Union reach an agreement on the avoidance of nuclear accidents. It requires from the signatories a pledge to maintain and improve safeguards against accidental or unauthorized use of nuclear weapons.

October 1

NATO: Dr Joseph Luns of the Netherlands becomes Secretary-General of NATO. This post is normally held by a European to oﬀer some balance to the fact that the Supreme Allied Commander, Europe (SACEUR) is always an American.

October 5–6

Mutually Balanced Force Reductions: Former NATO Secretary-General, Manlio Brosio, is asked to conduct exploratory talks on what becomes known as Mutual and Balanced Force Reductions (MBFR) with the Soviets and others. The costs of maintaining high force levels at a time of economic downturn are apparent on both sides of the East–West divide.

October 25

The United Nations: As the Nixon Doctrine takes eﬀect the communist Government of the People’s Republic of China (PRC) replaces the nationalist Republic of China (ROC—Taiwan) as the ‘only lawful representative of China to the UN’ and thus becomes a Permanent Member of the UNSC.

November 23

The United Nations: The PRC takes up China’s permanent seat at the UNSC.

November

The Nuclear Balance: The ﬁrst US F-111 nuclear-capable bombers become operational in Europe as part of NATO’s Forward Base System (FBS). At a stroke Soviet forces are vulnerable to a no-warning nuclear strike.

December 1

The French Nuclear Deterrent: The ﬁrst French ballistic nuclear missile submarine Le Redoutable enters active service. Together with the deployment of the surface-to-surface missiles on Plateau d’Albion and the nuclear-capable Mirage IV ﬁghter-bomber, the French force de frappe becomes a reality. It is an American strategic Triad in microcosm and, as such, is considerably more extensive than the British ‘minimum deterrent’.

1972 AT A GLANCE—MAJOR EVENTS AND THEMES

r Paris peace talks take place on Vietnam. r US President Nixon visits China. r The Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty (SALT) and the Anti-Ballistic Missile (ABM) Treaty are signed. r The Four-Power agreement on the future status of Berlin is signed. r The ﬁrst summit takes place in Paris of the enlarged European Economic Community (ECC). r Richard Nixon is re-elected US President. r Talks begin in Geneva on a second Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty or SALT 2. r The Mutually Balanced Force Reduction talks start in Vienna. r East and West Germany recognize each other’s sovereignty.

January 22

The Road to European Union: Britain, Denmark, Ireland, and Norway sign Accession Treaties with the European Communities with the intention of becoming full members of the EEC by January 1973.

January 25

The Vietnam War: US President Nixon reveals that his National Security Adviser Henry Kissinger has been secretly negotiating with North Vietnam to bring the Vietnam War to an end.

February 21–8 The Nixon Doctrine: US President Nixon visits China. He pledges to reduce US troops and military installations on Taiwan as tensions in the area diminish and aﬃrms complete withdrawal as the ultimate objective. Nixon also promises not to support neither the independence of Taiwan nor the military return of Taiwan to mainland China. Nixon’s visit and his pledges break the ice and mark the beginning of a normalization process between the US and the People’s Republic of China (PRC). March 23

The Vietnam War: The US begins boycotting peace talks in Paris over Vietnam, citing North Vietnamese refusal to seriously discuss concrete issues.

March 26

The Vietnam War: US President Nixon suspends Vietnam peace talks in Paris and on 30 March North Vietnam launches a major military oﬀensive.

April 14

The Nixon Doctrine: In what inevitably becomes known as ‘ping-pong diplomacy’, Chinese leader Zhou Enlai receives table tennis teams from Canada, Colombia, Nigeria, and the US in the Great Hall of the People in Beijing. A few hours after the reception, US President Nixon announces a relaxation of the US trade embargo against China.

April 27

The Vietnam War: Paris peace talks on Vietnam resume after US strategic bombing of North Vietnam intensiﬁes. However, on 4 May the US and

1972 [109] South Vietnam suspend the talks indeﬁnitely in response to the North Vietnamese oﬀensive. May 26

Nuclear Arms Control: During a visit to Moscow by US President Richard Nixon the US and USSR sign the SALT I Interim Agreement together with the ABM Treaty. These two agreements are designed to stabilize the nuclear balance by ﬁxing oﬀensive parity and by preventing a destabilizing advance through a technological breakthrough in the ﬁeld of anti-ballistic-missile technology. Partially successful as arms-control and diplomatic exercises, the core of the agreements are progressively weakened as conﬁdence is undermined with the advent of increasingly accurate warheads, multiple-warhead missiles (MIRVs) and missile-launcher mobility.

May 29

Détente: US President Nixon and Soviet General Secretary Leonid Brezhnev sign the Basic Principles of Detente. The agreement asserts the principle of peaceful co-existence and opens up the respective economic markets of the two countries.

June 3

The End of the Berlin Crises: The Four-Power agreement over the future of Berlin is signed by the foreign ministers of France, the Soviet Union, the UK, and the US. After two years of negotiations, West Berlin’s status and the city’s relationship with the two German states are regularized. The agreement paves the way for the normalization of relations between East and West Germany and their entry into the UN.

June 17

The Watergate Aﬀair: Five men are arrested trying to bug oﬃces of the Democratic Party at the Watergate Hotel in Washington. The arrested men are found to have close links to the Republican Party and the Nixon White House. The Watergate Aﬀair begins that will in time bring down the Nixon Administration.

June 18

Nuclear Arms Control: The second round of the SALT I signing process begin and talks also start for a treaty on the prevention of nuclear war.

July 13

The Vietnam War: Vietnam peace talks resume in Paris.

July 18

The Middle East: In a marked shift of allegiance President Anwar el-Sadat demands the removal of all Soviet advisers from Egypt as he moves towards the west.

August 3

Nuclear Arms Control: The Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty is approved by the US Senate and thus ratiﬁed.

September 5

Munich Olympic Massacre: The radical Palestinian Black September movement kills eleven Israeli athletes after a siege and shoot-out at the Olympic Village in Munich. A German policeman and ﬁve terrorists are also killed as a shocked world watches the crisis unfold on live television over several days. The relationship between terrorism and the television media is established.

September 25

The Road to European Union: In a referendum the Norwegian people reject membership of the EEC.

September 29

The Watergate Aﬀair: The Washington Post reports that a secret Republican fund used for widespread intelligence-gathering operations against the

[110] the lukewarm peace Democrats existed under the control of John Mitchell in 1971–2, during his time as Attorney-General. October 8

The Vietnam War: The stalemate ends at the Paris peace talks between Kissinger and Le Duc Tho, the top US and North Vietnamese negotiators both agree to major concessions.

October 10

The Watergate Aﬀair: The US Federal Bureau of Investigation says that the break-in at the Watergate Hotel was part of a massive campaign of political spying and sabotage conducted in an eﬀort to secure the re-election of President Nixon.

October 19–21 The Road to European Union: The ﬁrst summit takes place of the enlarged EEC in Paris. In a key passage of the agreed ﬁnal text, the communiqué states: ‘In line with its political aims, the construction of Europe will allow the continent to assert its personality in the loyalty of its traditional friendships and in the alliances of its member states and to make its mark in world aﬀairs as a distinct entity determined to promote a better international balance which respects the United Nations Charter. The member states of the Community, the driving wheels of European construction, declare their intention of converting their entire relationship into a European Union before the end of this decade.’ October 22

The Vietnam War: Henry Kissinger visits South Vietnamese leader Nguyen Van Thieu to discuss the compromise reached between the US and North Vietnam. Thieu refuses to allow North Vietnamese troops to remain in South Vietnam indeﬁnitely.

November 7

The United States: With more than 60 per cent of the vote, Richard Nixon is elected President of the United States for the second time. However, the Watergate Aﬀair and questions about Nixon’s complicity are slowly gaining momentum.

November 9

The Road to European Union: The Norwegian Government announces that it will not bring before Parliament a bill on the ratiﬁcation of membership of the EEC.

November 21

Nuclear Arms Control: Talks begin in Geneva on the second Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty (SALT 2). The objective of these talks is more ambitious than SALT 1 in that they aim to reduce the number of launchers and warheads. Moreover, the target is to complete a pact prior to the end of the SALT 1 Interim Agreement in 1977.

November 22

Mutually Balanced Force Reductions: In what is regarded as a major breakthrough for Western diplomacy, the preliminary talks of the MBFR negotiations begin in Vienna. In fact, they are to drag on for many years and will only be successfully concluded at the end of the Cold War.

November 22

CSCE/OSCE: Preparatory talks on the Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe (CSCE) begin in Helsinki, Finland.

December 13

The Vietnam War: The Vietnam peace talks end abruptly as Henry Kissinger presents North Vietnam with a new version of the compromise reached in Paris in October. Kissinger introduces sixty-nine changes that are demanded by South Vietnamese President Thieu.

1972 [111] December 14

Ostpolitik and the German Question: Willy Brandt is re-elected Chancellor of the Federal Republic of Germany (FRG).

December 20

European Space Agency: Mainly at French instigation, but demonstrative of an increasingly independent European line in technological development, a European Space Conference decides to fuse the two Euro launcher organizations—ELDO and ESRO—into a new organization, the European Space Agency (ESA).

December 21

Ostpolitik and the German Question: As the most overt sign of the progress of Ostpolitik East and West Germany recognize each other’s sovereignty. It is a major personal triumph for West German Chancellor Willy Brandt and brings German reuniﬁcation one step closer.

1973 AT A GLANCE—MAJOR EVENTS AND THEMES

r Britain, Ireland, and Denmark join the European Economic Community (ECC). r The Vietnam ceaseﬁre is agreed and the US begins to scale down its operations in Vietnam. r Henry Kissinger declares 1973 as the Year of Europe. r Leonid Brezhnev visits Washington. r The US/USSR Agreement on the Prevention of Nuclear War. r The Conference on Security and Co-operation in Europe (CSCE) opens in Helsinki. r The Yom Kippur War breaks out. r The US War Powers Act is passed. r The Arab oil embargo starts and Europe tips into economic recession. r The Copenhagen Summit of the EEC adopts the concept of a European identity. r European Political Co-operation is started as Europe seeks a single voice in international aﬀairs. r The Watergate Aﬀair intensiﬁes.

January 1

The Road to European Union: Britain, Denmark, and Ireland join the EEC. The Six become the Nine.

January 8

The Vietnam War: US National Security Adviser Dr Henry Kissinger and chief North Vietnamese negotiator Le Duc Tho start a new round of negotiations.

January 15

The Vietnam War: US President Nixon announces the suspension of oﬀensive military action in Vietnam because of progress in the peace talks.

January 23

The Vietnam War: As a result of talks in Paris, a ceaseﬁre agreement is announced in Vietnam. Nixon now starts to extricate the US from that war.

January 27

The Vietnam War: The Vietnam ceaseﬁre agreement oﬃcially enters into force. US troops are to withdraw within 60 days. North Vietnam is to release prisoners-of-war within 60 days.

January 31 –June 29

Mutually Balanced Force Reductions (MBFR): Multilateral exploratory talks on MBFR take place in Vienna, Austria. It is the start of a long and tortuous road.

February 21

The Vietnam War: A peace agreement is signed in Laos between the royal government and the pro-communist opposition.

April 23

The Year of Europe: In an attempt to win back an increasingly hostile Western Europe, US Secretary of State Kissinger declares 1973 the ‘year of Europe’.

1973 [113] May 11

NATO: Standing Naval Force Mediterranean (STANAVFORMED) is formed as a NATO response to increased activity by the Soviet Black Sea Fleet in the Mediterranean.

May 18

The Watergate Aﬀair: The Watergate Senate hearings begin into the break-in at the Democratic Party’s national headquarters and possible White House involvement.

June 18–25

The Nixon Doctrine: Just over a year after Nixon’s historic visit to Moscow, Soviet General Secretary Brezhnev visits Washington.

June 22

Nuclear Arms Control: On the 32nd anniversary of the German invasion of the Soviet Union, the US and the USSR conclude an Agreement on the Prevention of Nuclear War. The core tenet of this treaty, which enters into force the same day, is that both parties commit themselves to consulting one another if a nuclear conﬂict appears at all likely. The agreement sends shock waves around Western European capitals for it suggests a new superpower relationship. European members of NATO become increasingly worried about the credibility of the US extended deterrent at the heart of NATO and thus fear de-coupling.

July 3

CSCE: The Conference on Security and Co-operation in Europe opens in Helsinki. Divided into three ‘baskets’, the political/security discussions are backed up by discussions on greater freedom of movement and expression, enhanced trade and technical transfers, and human rights.

July 13

The Watergate Aﬀair: Former US Presidential Appointment Secretary Alexander Butterﬁeld testiﬁes before the US Congress that Nixon has recorded all conversations and phone calls in his oﬃces since 1971.

July 27

The Road to European Union: EEC leaders adopt the Copenhagen Report, the second report on European Political Co-operation (EPC). It endorses the Davignon (Luxembourg) Report and further develops European Political Co-operation by formalizing several already well-established features of EPC. It foresees that the member states’ permanent representatives to international organizations ‘will regularly consider matters together and, on the basis of instructions received, will seek common positions in regard to important questions dealt with by those organisations’. More generally, it contains a political commitment that foreign ministers consult with each other on foreign-policy issues and undertake joint action ‘wherever it appears possible and desirable’.

July 31

European Space Agency: A European Space Conference conﬁrms the decision taken on 20 December 1972 that a European Space Agency (ESA) will be formed out of the European Space Research Organization (ESRO) and the European Space Vehicle Launcher Development Organization (ELDO).

September 22

The United States: Henry Kissinger is promoted from National Security Adviser to US Secretary of State. He replaces William Rogers with whom he has had a diﬃcult relationship.

October 6

The Yom Kippur War: Arab forces led by the Egyptians cross the Suez Canal and attack Israeli forces. In the early days of the war, the Arab coalition seems to be winning, and the Americans rush materials and weapons to

[114] the lukewarm peace support Israel. As the war progresses, however, the Arabs begin to suﬀer heavy losses, and Syria and Egypt, both client states of the Soviet Union, appeal to Moscow for help. For a brief period, it seems that the two superpowers could be dragged into a Third World War as the doomsday scenario begins to play itself out. Confronted with a determined US, however, the Soviet Union, cautious in such situations, seeks compromise. October 17–28 The Oil Embargo: The Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) decides to place an embargo on oil exports to the US and the Netherlands, which is regarded as the European state closest to Israel. Oil exports will be cut until the territories occupied by Israel in the Yom Kippur War are liberated and the rights of the Palestinian people reinstated. October 25

The Yom Kippur War: US President Nixon places US forces on DEFCOM 4 (a state of readiness just short of war) as the war intensiﬁes. However, he fails to warn, tell, or in any way involve the European Allies. As a result, the political cohesion of NATO is once again brought into serious question.

October 30

Mutually Balanced Force Reductions: The MBFR talks open in Vienna. Aimed at achieving an equitable conventional-force balance in Europe between NATO and Warsaw Pact forces, the talks are to prove extremely diﬃcult due to political problems and the obstacle of agreeing on comparability in the weapons inventories of the two sides.

October

NATO: A group of visiting US Senators are shocked at the anger of the European Allies over the recent spate of agreements between the US and the USSR. They warn that the US policy of bargaining without any referral or consultation with allies is an extremely dangerous practice that could lead to the very problem of de-coupling that the Europeans are so keen to avoid.

November 5

The Oil Embargo: The Arab-led OPEC announce a general 25 per cent cut in oil-production levels (on the basis of September 1973 levels). The world oil price has doubled since September 1973.

November 6

The Yom Kippur War: EEC foreign ministers strongly urge that the forces of both sides in the Middle East conﬂict should return immediately to the positions they occupied on 22 October, stress ‘the need for Israel to end the territorial occupation which it has maintained since the conﬂict of 1967’, and recognize that, ‘in the establishment of a just and lasting peace, account must be taken of the legitimate rights of the Palestinians’.

November 6–7 Euromissiles: NATO’s Nuclear Planning Group (NPG) establishes two committees, the Military Implications Team (MIT) and the Political Implications Team (PIT) tasked with examining the likely impact of Cruise and Pershing 2 missile technology on NATO strategy. The Euromissile debate commences. November 7

The Vietnam War: In a response to the Vietnam debacle, and with the backdrop of Nixon’s threat to deploy US forces in the Yom Kippur War, the US Congress passes the War Powers Act. The act demands that a president come to Congress within sixty days of the deployment of US troops in a war zone to gain approval.

1973 [115] December 7

NATO: With the implied threat of US withdrawal from Europe as context, NATO’s Defence Planning Committee (DPC) starts to look at ways of reducing the US costs associated with the Alliance and the problem of burdensharing.

December 14–15

The Road to European Union: At the Copenhagen Summit, the leaders of the EEC adopt the concept of a European Identity, by which ‘(t)he nine countries aﬃrm their common will to speak with one voice in important world aﬀairs’. Furthermore, the ﬁnal communiqué goes on: ‘It was agreed that the foreign ministers of the member states should, at their next meeting decide on the means by which a common position should be worked out quickly in times of crisis. The development of political co-operation will also enable them to make joint assessments of crisis situations, with the aim of foreseeing them and of taking measures needed to deal with them.’

December 22–4

The Oil Embargo: The six members of OPEC decide to raise the price of crude oil from $5.18 to $11.65 a barrel with eﬀect from 1 January 1974. The West stands on the brink of a severe depression. Western Europe feels particularly aggrieved, as it believes it is being pressured into supporting Israel when its need for Arab oil suggest neutrality in the conﬂict might serve its interests (and economies) more eﬀectively.

1974 AT A GLANCE—MAJOR EVENTS AND THEMES

r r r r r r r r

The Schlesinger Doctrine becomes US policy. The Portuguese coup. India explodes a nuclear device. The ﬁrst Transatlantic Declaration is issued. Turkey invades Cyprus. The Watergate Aﬀair results in the resignation of President Nixon. Greece withdraws from NATO’s Integrated Military Structure. The USSR decides to develop the SS-20 Intermediate-Range Ballistic Missile (IRBM) for deployment in Eastern Europe. r The US-USSR Vladivostok summit. r The Tindemans Report on European integration is launched at the European Economic Community’s (ECC) Paris summit.

January 1

The Oil Embargo: With the increase of the crude oil price announced by OPEC in December 1973 coming into eﬀect, the world oil price has quadrupled since September 1973.

January 7–9

The Oil Embargo: Recognizing their own need for clients to purchase oil the Arab members of OPEC decide to freeze oil prices until 1 April.

January 10

The Schlesinger Doctrine: The so-called Schlesinger Doctrine, or NSDM-242, becomes US policy. Named after Secretary of Defense James Schlesinger, the objective is to reassure nervous West Europeans that in the event of a war some eﬀort would be made to limit ‘collateral damage’ by concentrating on low-yield, deep-strike targets, such as counterforce opportunities, i.e. Soviet command and control facilities and military installations.

March 18

The Oil Embargo: The Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries’ (OPEC) oil embargo ends. However, Libya maintains its oil embargo against the US.

March

The Schlesinger Doctrine: US Secretary of Defense Schlesinger is forced to admit that the Single Integrated Operating Plan, by which US (and British) nuclear forces are targeted and deployed, is still massive and pre-planned, in spite of the policy of Flexible Response in NATO and the Schlesinger Doctrine. There is little room for ﬂexibility or a limited nuclear strike given existing US command and control systems.

April 2

The Death of Georges Pompidou: French President Georges Pompidou dies in oﬃce.

1974 [117] April 25

The Portuguese Coup: In the so-called Carnation Revolution, the right-wing government in Portugal is overthrown by an apparently left-wing coup. NATO becomes increasingly concerned over the reliability of Portugal as a member.

May 6

The Fall of Brandt: West German Chancellor Willy Brandt steps down over a spy scandal involving a secretary on his close staﬀ and the East German secret police, the Stasi.

May 16

The Federal Republic of Germany: Helmut Schmidt is elected German Federal Chancellor. He is a much more forthright ﬁgure than Brandt. West– West relations center a new phase.

May 18

The Nuclear Balance: India explodes a nuclear device. Along with Israel, India joins the ﬁve acknowledged nuclear powers. However, India is not a party to the Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT).

May 19

France: Rightist Valéry Giscard d’Estaing is elected French President and takes oﬃce on 24 May.

June 26

NATO: To mark the 25th anniversary of NATO, and against the backdrop of tensions within the Alliance over the oil embargo by the Arabs, US policy towards the Soviet Union and the emerging disagreement over the credibility of the American extended deterrent, the NATO Heads of Government sign a declaration on future transatlantic relations.

July 20

The Turkish Invasion of Cyprus: After a Greek-backed coup in Cyprus with the aim of reuniﬁcation with Greece, Turkey invades the island and occupies the northern portion. Greece can do nothing to prevent its old enemy from gaining control over the island.

July 23–4

The Turkish Invasion of Cyprus: Following Greece’s failure to prevent the Turkish invasion of Cyprus the Regime of the Colonels is brought to an end and Greece returns to democracy.

July 24

The Watergate Aﬀair: Rejecting claims for executive privilege, the US Supreme Court rules that President Nixon must turn over White House tape recordings. President Nixon faces possible impeachment for his role in the Watergate Aﬀair.

July 27

The Watergate Aﬀair: Charging obstruction of justice, the US House Judiciary Committee passes the ﬁrst of three articles of impeachment against President Nixon.

August 8

The Watergate Aﬀair: US President Nixon announces his resignation to avoid being impeached following the Watergate Aﬀair.

August 9

The Watergate Aﬀair: Nixon leaves oﬃce. Vice President Gerald R. Ford takes over as Commander-in-Chief of US forces and President of the United States.

August 14

The Turkish Invasion of Cyprus: In protest at what it regards as an insuﬃcient response by NATO allies to the Turkish invasion of Cyprus, Greece withdraws from the integrated command structure of the Alliance.

August 16

The Turkish Invasion of Cyprus: The UN Security Council expands the mandate of the United Nations Force in Cyprus (UNFICYP) to include the

[118] the lukewarm peace supervision of a de facto ceaseﬁre on the island and the maintenance of a buﬀer zone that has been established between the two communities as the Turks seek to partition the island. November

Euromissiles: The Politburo of the Soviet Union decides to proceed with the development and deployment of the SS-20 missile in Eastern Europe. This mobile, triple-warhead, MIRV, mobile nuclear missile system destabilizes the theatre nuclear balance in Europe through its ability to strike the US Forward Base System (FBS) in Western Europe with little or no warning. With a range of more than 1,500 km, it is seen by the Americans and the Western Europeans as a signiﬁcant qualitative upgrading of Soviet theatre capabilities.

November 23–4

Nuclear Arms Control: The Vladivostok Summit between President Ford and General Secretary Brezhnev takes place. The Soviets drop, for the ﬁrst time, their hitherto determined insistence that the US FBS in Western Europe be included in the Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (SALT). Brezhnev indicates that he has had much trouble with the military to get them to agree to this and that, in return, he has allowed them to develop a new theatre nuclear system, the SS-20. He insists, therefore, that in return for this concession the US agree to an equal, aggregate number of strategic missile launchers and an equal sub-ceiling on the number of Multiple Independent Re-entry Vehicles (MIRVs). The US resists since Soviet weapons systems tend to be larger, with heavier throw-weights, more warheads, and greater kilo-tonnage in each warhead. The US eventually agrees, but soon after the summit the Soviets place the question of the FBS back on the negotiating agenda. The Europeans regard what they see as American weakness as another US retreat from extended deterrence.

December 9–10

The Road to European Union: At an EEC meeting in Paris, it is agreed to give new impetus to the process of European integration. As part of the ﬁnal communiqué, the Heads of Government agree that, ‘with a view to progress towards European unity, the Heads of Government reaﬃrm their determination gradually to adopt common positions and to co-ordinate their diplomatic action in all areas of international aﬀairs which aﬀect the interests of the European Community’. Belgian Prime Minister Leo Tindemans is invited to prepare a report on the progress towards European Union. Furthermore, it is also agreed to proceed with plans for an elected European Parliament (EP), although Britain and Denmark reserve their respective positions.

December 12–13

NATO: At a meeting of the North Atlantic Council (NAC), increases in Warsaw Pact forces are noted and the determination to improve NATO forces reaﬃrmed. The impact of inﬂation upon defence expenditure is also discussed. Inﬂation has soared in European economies in the wake of the Arab oil embargo.

1975 AT A GLANCE—MAJOR EVENTS AND THEMES

r r r r r

The Biological Weapons Convention (BWC) comes into force. Economic recession in Western Europe undercuts defence budgets. Saigon falls to the North Vietnamese. The European Space Agency (ESA) is founded. The Helsinki Final Act is signed.

March 26

WMD Proliferation: Having been opened for signature on 22 April 1972 in London, Washington, and Moscow the Biological Weapons Convention (BWC) comes into force. It originally had 22 signatories but today there are 155. It prohibits the production, development, and stockpiling of biological and toxin weapons.

April 29

The Vietnam War: In what represents a ﬁnal humiliation for the Americans, Saigon falls to the North Vietnamese. The remaining Americans are forced to leave the US Embassy compound squeezing into and clinging to the under-carriages of the last helicopters that can make the journey. It is a far cry from the distant days of 1964 when the Americans ﬁrst arrived in Vietnam in strength.

April

NATO: Britain, the Netherlands, Belgium, and Denmark announce significant unilateral defence cuts that are at variance with NATO’s policy of pursuing force improvement programmes. The cause is deep economic recession in these countries.

May 9

The Road to European Union: After almost twenty years of existence, the Action Committee for the United States of Europe set up by Jean Monnet is dissolved by its founder.

May 23

NATO: At a ministerial session of NATO’s Defence Planning Committee (DPC), the strategic situation in the Mediterranean is examined and Eurogroup encouraged to improve the overall eﬀectiveness of the European pillar of NATO.

May 29–30

Euromissiles: An North Atlantic Council (NAC) meeting in Brussels is attended by Heads of State and Government. Tension is rising within the Alliance over the Soviet deployment of SS-20 theatre nuclear weapons (TNW).

May 31

The Space Race: ELDO and ESRO merge to become the European Space Agency (ESA). The member countries are Belgium, Denmark, France, Federal Republic of Germany, Italy, Ireland, the Netherlands, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, and the UK.

[120] the lukewarm peace June 5

The Middle East: After extensive work by British and French minesweepers and engineers, the blockading ships and mines that have prevented the use of the Suez Canal since 1967 are removed, and the canal is reopened to traﬃc.

August 1

CSCE: The Helsinki Final Act of the Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe is signed. It contains a set of ‘politically binding’ principles for all signatory states, such as sovereign equality; territorial integrity; the right to freely choose and develop one’s political, economic, and cultural systems; respect for international law; peaceful settlement of disputes; non-intervention in internal aﬀairs; and respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms. Concretely, the document also provides for conﬁdence-building measures on certain aspects of security and disarmament, such as prior notiﬁcation of major military manoeuvres and exchange of observers. Furthermore, signatories agree on co-operation in the ﬁelds of economics, science, technology, and the environment, as well as on cooperation and exchanges of culture, education, and information. Moreover, facilitated contacts between, and reuniﬁcation of, family members dispersed in Eastern and Western countries are foreseen. The Helsinki Final Act succeeds in making human-rights issues a legitimate subject of dialogue between East and West for the ﬁrst time. It also oﬀers a permanent channel of communication through follow-up conferences, a normative code of conduct, and a long-term programme of co-operation.

October 30

The End of Franco: Prince Juan Carlos, the heir-designate, takes over as provisional Head of State in Spain, eﬀectively ending General Franco’s reign. Franco dies on 20 November. Spain begins its transition to democracy.

November 19–20

The United States: Donald Rumsfeld replaces James Schlesinger as the youngest-ever US Secretary of Defense.

November 22

Spain Moves to Democracy: Juan Carlos is sworn in as King of Spain. After thirty-six years of authoritarian rule under General Franco, Spain is becoming a democracy.

December 9–10

NATO: NATO’s DPC, in ministerial session, notes with concern the increase and improvements in Warsaw Pact forces and discusses NATO’s own progress in the ﬁelds of ‘standardization’ and ‘interoperability’.

December 16

Mutually Balanced Force Reductions: At the Vienna talks on MBFR, US Secretary of Defense Rumsfeld indicates that the US is willing to discuss the question of the Forward Base System (FBS) in Europe with the Soviet Union. Once again, there is no real consultation with the Western Europeans, who regard this latest action as further evidence that the US is becoming an increasingly untrustworthy ally.

1976 AT A GLANCE—MAJOR EVENTS AND THEMES

r r r r

European Tornado multi-role combat aircraft programme is launched. Mao Zedong dies in China. US Forward Base System (FBS) is re-structured. Jimmy Carter is elected President of the United States.

January 8

China: Former Chinese Premier Zhou Enlai dies in China.

January 21–2

NATO: At a ministerial session of NATO’s Nuclear Planning Group (NPG) meeting in Hamburg, the growth in Soviet nuclear capability is discussed, particularly with regard to its theatre nuclear capability, and the possibility of stabilization through the Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (SALT) is examined.

February 2

NATO: On invitation by Dutch Defence Minister Henk Vredeling, defence ministers from all European NATO members except Iceland establish the Independent European Programme Group (IEPG) to provide co-operation in the area of research, development, and production of defence equipment.

February

NATO: For the ﬁrst time since departing from the NATO command structure in 1966, France participates in an Alliance Eurogroup meeting to discuss the co-ordination of arms procurement and production. This lays the foundation of the IEPG.

April 7

China: Reformist Deng Xiaoping is ousted from his top government and party positions by left-wing radicals around Mao.

May 20–1

NATO: At the North Atlantic Council (NAC) in Oslo, ministers note the Helsinki Final Act and restate their determination to press Western demands for progress in the Mutually Balanced Force Reduction (MBFR) talks in Vienna.

June 10–11

NATO: At a NATO Defence Planning Committee (DPC) meeting in ministerial session, ministers restate their commitment to Eurogroup and their worries over Warsaw Pact force improvements, and they endorse force goals for the period 1977–82.

June 14–15

Euromissiles: A NATO NPG meeting in ministerial session discusses proposals for improving NATO’s theatre nuclear capability. In particular, the Europeans demand a replacement for ageing Honest John and Jupiter missiles in the form of Cruise and Pershing 2.

July 2

The Vietnam War: The Socialist Republic of Vietnam is proclaimed.

July 29

European Defence: West Germany, Italy, and the UK give the go-ahead to full production of the programme to build the multi-role combat aircraft

[122] the lukewarm peace (MRCA). This strike/ﬁghter aircraft becomes known as the Tornado and represents a major step forward in defence collaboration between the Europeans, who are later joined by Spain in the project. However, France remains outside. September 8

China: Chairman Mao Zedong dies. China goes into oﬃcial mourning, and the search for a successor begins.

October 3

Euromissiles: The US Air Force deploys another 84 F-111 nuclear-capable ﬁghter-bombers to the UK as a short-term counter to the Soviet SS-20s in Eastern Europe. However, the reliance of these aircraft upon ﬁxed conventional runways makes them vulnerable to either a ﬁrst strike or counterforce attack. In a sign of American policy thinking, the USAF therefore initiates a study to enable them to replace the F-111s in the Forward Base System (FBS) with ground-launched cruise missiles (GLCMs).

October 7

China: The Gang of Four (the chief members of a radical faction with key roles during the Chinese Cultural Revolution under Mao) are arrested, opening the way for Deng Xiaoping to regain his inﬂuential positions.

November 2

The United States: Running on a ticket designed to capitalize on the tide of disenchantment that is felt in the US against the Washington establishment, Democrat James Earl (Jimmy) Carter is elected President.

December 9–10

NATO: At the NAC in Brussels, it is decided to further increase NATO forces by way of response to what is now described as the ‘incessant’ build-up of Warsaw Pact forces. NATO totally rejects Warsaw Pact proposals to renounce the ﬁrst use of nuclear weapons and to limit the participation of European states in alliances.

1977 AT A GLANCE—MAJOR EVENTS AND THEMES

r r r r r r r

Production of cruise missiles is given the go-ahead. NATO’s Long-Term Defence Programme (LTDP) is agreed. The Vance–Gromyko meeting takes place in Geneva, Switzerland. The Gelb Paper is issued. The Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (SALT I) agreement expires. NATO High-Level Group meets for ﬁrst time. Helmut Schmidt makes a speech attacking US nuclear policy to the International Institute for Strategic Studies. r SS-20 deployed in Central and Eastern Europe. r The Carter Administration estimates that a major nuclear exchange would result in 140 million casualties in the US and c .113 million casualties in Western Europe.

January 7

The Soviet Bloc: Czech civil-rights movement Charta 77 publishes an eponymous resolution demanding that the Czech Government respect human and civil rights as established in the Helsinki Final Act. Many of the petitioners are arrested.

January 18

Euromissiles: The US Defense Department gives the US Air Force the goahead to develop Cruise missiles.

January 20

The United States: Jimmy Carter becomes the ﬁrst Democratic US President since John F. Kennedy.

January 23

The United States: Cyrus Vance becomes US Secretary of State; Harold Brown, Secretary of Defense; and Zbigniew Brzezinski, National Security Adviser.

March 21

Euromissiles: The Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, with the alleged backing of the German Foreign Ministry, publishes an article in which it states that, ‘Bonn is concerned that Jimmy Carter is a man ruling the White House whose moral and religious convictions are incompatible with the demands of world politics.’ This pejorative piece comes to encapsulate the diﬃcult relationship that develops between Carter and West German Chancellor Helmut Schmidt.

March 25

NATO: NATO’s Defence Planning Committee (DPC) meets in ministerial session to discuss the purchase of a NATO airborne early-warning capability from the US known as the Airborne Warning and Control system (AWAC).

May 10–11

NATO: The North Atlantic Council (NAC) meets in London at the level of Heads of State and Government, together with ministers, and decides to

[124] the lukewarm peace undertake a long-term study of East–West relations and to develop a LongTerm Defence Programme (LTDP). May 10–11

NATO: At the same meeting, Carter and Schmidt confront each other over the issue of NATO defence planning. Upon taking oﬃce, Carter ordered Presidential Memorandum No. 10, which was a full review of the US force posture and structure in Western Europe. The West Germans have learned that one of the key proposals to emerge from the review was for the Americans to withdraw ‘temporarily’ from the forward areas they hold in the event of conﬂict. This has infuriated the Germans.

May 18–21

Euromissiles: At a meeting between US Secretary of State Cyrus Vance and Soviet Foreign Minister Andrei Gromyko in Geneva, the Americans make a radical proposal that would involve a delay of three years in the deployment of ground- and sea-launched cruise missiles in return for a moratorium on the deployment of the SS-20. Unfortunately, the Americans once again fail to discuss this matter ﬁrst with their Europeans allies.

May

Euromissiles: As a result of European anger, Carter orders that a report be prepared for the allies to detail the US technical and operational analyses of the issue of theatre nuclear forces (TNF). After much wrangling, it is eventually prepared by Leslie Gelb, the Director of the State Department’s Bureau of Politico-Military Aﬀairs, and, as such, becomes known as the Gelb Paper. The American view of the TNF issue is found to be at considerable variance to that of the Europeans. Its key ﬁnding is that the deployment of cruise missiles would have the eﬀect of de-coupling the US strategic arsenal from the defence of Europe because it would create a Euro-strategic balance and therefore reduce the credibility of the US strategic deterrent and extended deterrence. This is a diametrically opposed view to that held by the European allies.

June 6

The Neutron Bomb: The Washington Post reports that the US is seeking to build an enhanced radiation weapon, or neutron bomb. The weapon is designed to destroy Soviet tanks through minimal blast but enhanced radiation and to reduce the degree of collateral damage in West Germany in particular. Unfortunately for NATO, the Soviet propaganda campaign catches the imagination of the public in the West and the resurgent antinuclear movement by presenting it as a weapon that kills people but does not destroy buildings. Consequently, it becomes known as the ‘Capitalist bomb’.

June 8–9

Euromissiles: The NATO Nuclear Planning Group (NPG), meeting in ministerial session in Ottawa, notes with concern the development by the Soviet Union of long-range theatre nuclear forces (LRTNF), the SS-20, and examines options open to the Alliance for similar improvements.

July 22

China: Deng Xiaoping is reinstated in China as Vice-Chairman of the Central Committee, Vice-Premier of the State Council, Vice-Chairman of the Military Commission, and Chief of the General Staﬀ of the People‘s Liberation Army, eﬀectively making him the leader of the Chinese Communist Party and Government.

1977 [125] September 23–5

Nuclear Arms Control: The US and the USSR agree to continue to abide by the terms of the SALT I interim agreement, which is oﬃcially to expire on 3 October 1977, even though a SALT II agreement has not yet been reached.

October 11–12

Euromissiles: At the ﬁrst meeting of the NATO High-Level Group (HLG), the West Germans demand that the Americans adjust their negotiating position in the SALT II talks in order to allow for the deployment of cruise missiles. The Americans refuse.

October 28

Euromissiles: In a speech to the International Institute for Strategic Studies in London, German Chancellor Helmut Schmidt responds to the American refusal to remove cruise missiles as a bargaining chip. He says that ‘Strategic arms limitations conﬁned to the United States and the Soviet Union will inevitably impair the security of the West European members of the Alliance vis-à-vis Soviet military superiority in Europe if we do not succeed in removing the disparities of military power parallel to the SALT negotiations.’ Crucially, the British agree with him. They too want a counter to the SS-20.

December

Euromissiles: The Soviet Union deploys the SS-20 in Eastern Europe and the Eastern republics of the USSR. East–West relations take a decidedly chilly turn. West–West relations are not much better.

1978 AT A GLANCE—MAJOR EVENTS AND THEMES

r r r r r

Plans to deploy neutron bomb are shelved. The UN General Assembly Special Session on Disarmament takes place. The European Monetary System (EMS) is created. NATO Long-Term Defence Programme (LTDP) is launched. The European Economic Community (EEC) forms the Three Wise Men Committee on institutional eﬃciency. r Vietnam invades Cambodia. r The US announces the normalization of its relationship with China.

January

Euromissiles: In response to the Soviet deployment of the SS-20, the NATO High-Level Group (HLG) suggests the need for an ‘evolutionary upward adjustment’ in NATO Long-Range Theatre Nuclear Forces (LRTNF).

March 14–15

Israeli Invasion of Lebanon: Israel invades Lebanon following an attack on the Tel Aviv–Haifa road that killed thirty-seven people and for which the Palestinian Liberation Organization (PLO), based in Lebanon, claims responsibility.

March 19

Israeli Invasion of Lebanon: The UN Security Council calls for an Israeli ceaseﬁre and withdrawal from Lebanon. The UN Interim Force in Lebanon (UNIFIL) is established and mandated to create a buﬀer zone in southern Lebanon.

April 7

The Neutron Bomb: The Americans are forced to shelve plans for the deployment of an enhanced radiation weapon, or neutron bomb, due to intense public pressure in Western Europe. The decision to withdraw it makes the Soviets believe that they can manipulate Western public opinion to their own advantage given the seeming inability of many Western governments to lead in the face of popular criticism.

April 18–19

NATO: At a ministerial meeting of NATO’s Nuclear Planning Group (NPG) at Frederikshavn in Denmark, the ministers note with deep concern the growth in Soviet Long-Range Theatre Nuclear Forces (LRTNF) (SS-20s) with multiple warheads and conﬁrm the importance of NATO modernization in this ﬁeld.

May 18–19

NATO: NATO ministers meeting at the Defence Planning Committee (DPC) in Brussels approve improvements to NATO forces in certain priority areas and give the go-ahead to submitting the Long-Term Development Plan (LTDP) to Heads of State and Government.

1978 [127] May 23–July 1

United Nations: The UN General Assembly Special Session on Disarmament takes place. It achieves consensus on a Final Document laying down basic objectives on disarmament, arms control and non-proliferation, and giving priority in disarmament negotiations to ‘nuclear weapons; other weapons of mass destruction, including any which may be deemed to be excessively injurious or to have indiscriminate eﬀects; and reduction of armed forces’. The session also creates the Committee on Disarmament, later called the Conference on Disarmament.

May 30–1

NATO: At the North Atlantic Council (NAC), heads of state and government give the go-ahead to the LTDP.

June

Israeli Invasion of Lebanon: Israel withdraws from Lebanon under intense US pressure. The UN peacekeeping force UNIFIL can now fulﬁl its mandate.

August 20

Euromissiles: The Economist writes: ‘Some Europeans have always doubted whether the Americans would ﬁght a nuclear war for Europe; and even the trusters are beginning to think that what might have been true when the United States had a commanding lead is not necessarily true now.’

August

Euromissiles: US President Carter accepts an interagency study group report on LRTNF and opts for an ‘evolutionary upward adjustment’, which requires the deployment of cruise and Pershing 2 missiles.

September 17

The Camp David Accords: At the presidential retreat Camp David in the US, President Anwar el-Sadat of Egypt and Prime Minister Menachem Begin of Israel sign the Camp David Accords, a framework for the conclusion of a peace treaty between Egypt and Israel within three months.

October 31 –December 11

European Stability: A meeting takes place in Montreux, Switzerland, of Conference on Security and Co-operation in Europe (CSCE) experts to discuss the peaceful settlement of disputes.

November 18

NATO: NATO’s third communications satellite is launched from Cape Canaveral, Florida.

December 5

The Road to European Union: The Brussels meeting of the ECC instructs Barend Biesheuvel (the Netherlands), Edmund Dell (UK), and Robert Marjolin (France) to prepare a report on the eﬃcient operation of the EEC’s institutions. The committee becomes known as the Three Wise Men.

December 5–6 NATO: The NAC approves the purchase of Airborne Early Warning and Control System (AWACS) aircraft by the Alliance. Eighteen are eventually purchased and registered in Luxembourg. December 15

China: The US announces the transfer of diplomatic recognition from Taipei to Beijing (as of 1 January 1979), which is now under the pragmatic leadership of Deng Xiaoping. His brand of communism calls for ‘modernization’, which requires opening up the Chinese giant to the West.

December 25

The Khmer Rouge: Vietnam invades Cambodia in an attempt to put an end to the regime of Pol Pot and his Khmer Rouge, who are believed to have massacred some 7 million people as part of their attempt to return the country to what they call Year Zero.

1979 AT A GLANCE—MAJOR EVENTS AND THEMES

r r r r r r r r r r r r r

The Guadeloupe Summit of Western leaders. Shah of Iran is toppled; Ayatollah Khomeini seizes power. China invades Vietnam. Margaret Thatcher is elected Prime Minister of the United Kingdom. First elections to the European Parliament are held. Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (SALT) II Treaty is signed. Agreement is reached within NATO on the deployment of cruise and Pershing 2 missiles in Europe; 1983 is set as the year of deployment. The US Embassy in Tehran is seized and the Iranian hostage crisis begins. Three Wise Men Report is completed for the European Economic Community (EEC). NATO’s dual-track decision on the deployment of Long-Range Theatre Nuclear Forces. The USSR invades Afghanistan over concerns about Islamic fundamentalism. The US and Western Europeans split over their reaction to Soviet invasion of Afghanistan. First European Ariane rocket is launched by the European Space Agency.

January 1

China: The US and China formally normalize their diplomatic relations.

January 5–7

Euromissiles: At the Guadeloupe Summit of Western leaders, the Americans adopt a ‘get tough’ policy in the wake of the neutron-bomb ﬁasco. Ironically, it is now West German leaders who are facing an embarrassing climb-down in the light of strong public opinion against the stationing of nuclear weapons on German soil. However, Carter and his National Security Adviser, Zbigniew Brzezinski, insist that the Germans take Pershing 2 and cruise missiles on their territory, even though they no longer have the political strength to force the Germans to accept such a demand.

January 16

Islamic Fundamentalism: Shah Mohammed Reza Pahlevi is forced to leave Iran, America’s major client state in the Middle East. Ill with cancer, the Shah has led an increasingly oppressive regime through the use of his secret police, SAVAK. Led by the octogenarian Ayatollah Ruhallah Musavi Khomeini, Islamic fundamentalists seize power, and the US becomes the Great Satan. Carter’s decision to allow the Shah into the US for medical treatment only serves to exacerbate the diﬃculties in relations between Washington and Tehran, and thus the very cornerstone of US Middle East policy is removed.

1979 [129] February 13 –March 26

European Stability: Conference on Security and Co-operation in Europe (CSCE) experts meet in Valletta, Malta to discuss Mediterranean Cooperation.

February 17

China: China invades Vietnam to punish the latter for its invasion of Cambodia, which it regards as a client state.

March

The Camp David Accords: Israel and Egypt sign a peace agreement. Israel hands back the Sinai to Egypt.

April 11

Euromissiles: NATO creates a Special Group to examine the implications involved in the escalation of Long-Range Theatre Nuclear Forces (LRTNF).

May 3

Margaret Thatcher Elected: Representing the start of a steady shift to the political right amongst all the major NATO powers, Margaret Thatcher is elected Prime Minister of the UK in what is a landslide victory for the Conservative Party over the ruling Labour Party.

May 30–1

NATO: The North Atlantic Council (NAC) meets in Washington to celebrate the 30th anniversary of the signing of the North Atlantic Treaty, which brought NATO into being. As it does so, relations between East and West are once again deteriorating, détente falters, and the stage is set for the second Cold War.

June 1

NATO: US Army General Bernard Rogers is appointed NATO’s Supreme Allied Commander Europe (SACEUR).

June 7–10

The Road to European Union: The ﬁrst elections take place to the recently created European Parliament, based in Strasbourg, France. To supporters of European integration, this event marks the start of a genuine move towards a European super-state.

June 18

Nuclear Arms Control: The SALT II Treaty is signed. If it were to have been ratiﬁed by the US Congress, the treaty would have meant the ﬁrst actual cut in strategic nuclear weapons on both sides and stabilization at a lower level of nuclear balance. However, the signing itself takes place in a declining strategic environment, and ratiﬁcation is to be overtaken by events.

September

Euromissiles: In the context of the Euromissiles dispute former US Secretary of State Henry Kissinger tells Western Europeans to stop being unrealistic about the theoretical use of the American strategic nuclear deterrent in their defence. It would never happen. The utterance by such a senior US statesman at this sensitive time in East–West relations only serves to deepen mistrust in what becomes known as the West–West relationship.

September

NATO: Spain indicates a willingness to join NATO.

November 4

Islamic Fundamentalism: Following President Carter’s decision to allow the former Shah of Iran into the US for cancer treatment, anti-American demonstrations orchestrated by the new Islamic regime in Tehran culminate in the seizing of the US Embassy and the seizure of American diplomats as hostages.

November 13–14

Euromissiles: Based on a report by the High-Level Group, a meeting of the Nuclear Planning Group (NPG) agrees to deploy 464 cruise missiles and 108 Pershing 2s in Europe by the end of 1983. All the Pershing 2s are to be

[130] the lukewarm peace deployed in West Germany; of the 464 cruise missiles, 160 are destined for the UK, 96 for Italy, and 48 each to Belgium and the Netherlands. The NPG also reaﬃrms ‘the need for arms control to be pursued in parallel’. November 29–30

The Road to European Union: The Three Wise Men formally present their 100-page ‘Report on European Institutions’ to a European Council meeting in Dublin. The key passages with regard to European Political Cooperation (EPC) are: ‘We have been asked to report on the adjustments to the machinery and procedures of the institutions which are required for the proper operation of the Communities, and for progress towards European Union. . . . An analysis of the reasons for concern—the failures, omissions and inadequacies in Community performance—will show that their deeper causes are not mechanical or procedural. . . . More important were the political and economic strains that discouraged initiative and limited resources, and the lack of clear guidelines for advance such as existed at an earlier stage. . . . In these conditions, the role of the machinery and institutional procedures is a strictly secondary one.’ The report suggests that the Council must have its workload reduced to be able to concentrate on the truly political (as opposed to technical) issues. If subsidiary bodies are to take over some responsibility for decision-making, however, this will require more use of qualiﬁed majority voting (QMV). The report recommends that: ‘In all cases where the Treaty does not impose unanimity, and very important interests are not involved for any State, voting should be the normal practice after an appropriate but limited eﬀort for consensus has been made. . . . Each State must remain the judge of where its very important interests lie.’

December 11–12

The NATO Defence Planning Committee, (DPC) meeting at ministerial level, adopts its Force Plan for the ﬁve-year period 1980–4.

December 12

Euromissiles: A special meeting of NATO foreign and defence ministers agrees that, unless the Soviet Union withdraws its SS-20 LRTNF from Central and Eastern Europe, the Alliance will deploy counterforces in the form of Tomahawk cruise missiles and Pershing 2 LRTNF in December 1983. However, in what becomes known as the dual-track decision, the more cautious members of the Alliance, such as the Netherlands, Belgium, and Germany, demand greater eﬀort from the Americans to achieve an armscontrol agreement with the Soviet Union over Euromissiles.

December 15

Euromissiles: The Economist writes: ‘In recent months, the growing Soviet nuclear superiority in Europe has posed NATO with one of its greatest challenges yet, both from the Russians and from those West Europeans who are reluctant to face up to the need to restore the balance.’

December 24

European Space Agency: The ﬁrst Ariane rocket launcher places a satellite into Earth’s orbit, and the ESA (which does not yet exist formally, as its founding treaty has not yet entered into force) under French leadership joins the space club. Between 24 December 1979 and 22 February 1986, eleven vehicles in total are launched, nine of which are successful.

December 25

Afghanistan: The Soviet Union invades Afghanistan, claiming to do so at the request of a fellow communist regime in Kabul. In reality, it is alarmed by the spread of Islamic fundamentalism on the doorstep of its volatile southern

1979 [131] republics, and the regime in Kabul is a puppet. As a result, the second Cold War begins as the West attacks the Soviets for blatant adventurism and aggression and commences to assist the resistance forces, known as the Mujahidin, in Afghanistan. December 29

Afghanistan: In the wake of the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan a special meeting takes place of the NAC. The United States and the Western Europeans react diﬀerently to the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan. The Americans see it as the end of détente, whereas the Western Europeans see no reason why such a policy should not continue.

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PART FIVE Countdown to Freedom

1980–1989

INTRODUCTION

1980–1989 The Countdown to Freedom begins with the overreach of oppression as the ever more defensive Soviet Union desperately tries to shore up the failing dykes of its authority. All it needs is a push—albeit a big push. The 1980s see the climax to the Cold War and its end as the US successfully plays strategic poker with the Soviet Union and forces its hand . . . and its fate. However, as the Soviet Union fades a newly emergent Europe challenges the role and place of the US in its aﬀairs. Even as the Cold War reaches its climax the battle for the shape of a new Europe is already underway. THE END OF AN IDEA

The countdown to freedom begins more like the countdown to war. With the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan the Cold War slips into deep freeze, even though many Europeans continue to believe that détente can be preserved. Indeed, while the US boycotts the 1980 Moscow Olympics in protest, all the Europeans attend. It is therefore not without some irony that the Soviet invasion is triggered by Moscow’s concerns about the encroachment of Islamic fundamentalism into the southern republics of the Soviet Union. Thus, as the Soviet Union begins it long implosion in Afghanistan, just as the British Empire before it, Islamic fundamentalism emerges from the shadows of chaos to challenge even the greatest of power. For the Soviets the moment is pivotal, as the socialist idea from which it was spawned, Marxist-Leninism, begins to age as rapidly as the gerontocracy that leads the Soviet empire. It ﬁnal demise is precipitated by mundane mortality. First, Leonid Brezhnev dies in 1982 and is succeeded by Yuri Andropov, who dies in 1983, only for his successor Konstantin Chernenko

[134] countdown to freedom to die in 1985. Finally, the Soviet leadership opt for relative youth as Chernenko is replaced by Mikhail Gorbachev. It is a kind of latter-day Diocletian Tetrarch and similarly chaotic as it too tries to impose a failing uniformity. It is more than the changing of the guard: it is the beginning of the end of the Soviet idea. THE NEW RIGHT

Driven by two remarkable conservative personalities armed with a vision of a new West led by the New Right, Ronald Reagan and Margaret Thatcher, the West ups the ante on Soviet power and ﬁnds it wanting. As Europe slowly recovers from the economic travails of the 1970s it is still immersed in the Euromissile crisis. Indeed, the Soviet Union seems far from eclipsed as during the ﬁrst years of the decade a battle is fought out on Western Europe’s streets over whether or not to deploy the cruise and Pershing 2 missiles to which NATO is committed. Much of it fuelled by skilful Soviet propaganda. Indeed, it is a battle that the Soviet propaganda machine does everything it can to foster. However, US President Reagan is a man with a vision—for better or worse. Not only does he ﬁrst condemn the Soviet Union as the ‘evil empire’, in 1983 he employs a masterstroke of political theatre as he threatens to make all Soviet missiles obsolete through the creation of a space-based missile defence shield, the Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI). Much of Europe looks on appalled, believing SDI more Star Trek than sound policy. Indeed, SDI soon earns the soubriquet ‘Star Wars’. Moscow is less ﬂippant. Furthermore, in Margaret Thatcher Ronald Reagan has an able lieutenant who in many ways becomes the outstanding political ﬁgure of her age. A conviction politician, she leads Britain to a stunning military victory in the 1982 Falklands War before setting about driving back what she regards as the intrusion of Brussels and ‘Europe’ into British life. The Cold War is still capable of shocks that are dangerous and tragic. In September 1983 a Korean Airlines Boeing 747 is shot down by Soviet ﬁghters, carrying 269 people including a US Congressman, to their deaths. For a few days the smell of nuclear cordite ﬁlls the air as memories of the Cuban missile crisis stir. How will the Soviets be punished? SOLIDARNOSC

However, the West is not alone in its struggle with the Soviet Union. In Gdansk, a grim northern Polish shipbuilding town on the banks of the Baltic, a new movement emerges that is to play no less a role in smashing the Soviet empire. Led by a charismatic electrician, Lech Wale¸sa, Solidarnosc is formed in

countdown to freedom [135]

August 1980. By December 1981 the challenge to the Polish Communist Party is such that its leader General Jaruzelski must either impose martial law or face a Soviet invasion similar to that suﬀered by Budapest in 1956 and Prague in 1968. However, this time there is to be no repeat of the crushing of the Czech Prague Spring. Indeed, the Soviet paradox is that the more its ‘legitimacy’ becomes the strength of the Red Army, so its political power wanes. This time the forces of freedom will prove too strong as Russians themselves begin to question the order they have imposed. Too many of their sons are suﬀering a terrible fate in Afghanistan. THE NEW EUROPE

Reagan and Thatcher are not the only remarkable politicians to stride across the stage of Cold War politics. French President François Mitterrand and German Chancellor Helmut Kohl are elected within a year of each other in 1981 and 1982. They are to forge a Franco-German axis that takes European integration to a new level of intensity as they look to a Europe beyond Cold War and one that is under their guardianship. France, ever conscious of its need to shape Europe in its own image, moves to deepen the institutions of the Europe it leads and thus create an alternative power-base built on the European Economic Community (ECC) that can challenge to America’s power in NATO. For West Germany the problem is somewhat more nuanced: what to do with its own resurgent power, where to place it, and what to do with it in the best interests of Germans and Europeans as a whole. Given the views of Margaret Thatcher on the dreaded ‘Europe’ it is not long before handbags are ﬂying. Indeed, the row inside the EEC over the British rebate that breaks out in 1980 is really a power struggle over the direction of Europe. For all her remarkable political power it is a battle that Margaret Thatcher will eventually lose. Europe, under the leadership of Mitterrand and Kohl, takes one more step towards a new identity as it welcomes new members and signs the Single European Act (SEA) committing its now twelve members, inter alia, to create a single European market and a new political community— the European Community (EC). It is a major step on the road to European Union. NATO

For NATO much of the decade is mired in a debate about whether or not nuclear weapons are doomsday machines or could have a role in ﬁghting a war. Again, Pentagon logic is out of step with European logic as for the latter the very idea seems absurd to the point of insanity. In the

[136] countdown to freedom language beloved of the American strategist, some in the Reagan Administration begin to adapt doctrine to accommodate so-called battleﬁeld nuclear systems. Although part of the arsenal since the early 1950s neither Massive Retaliation nor Flexible Response seriously considered such a role for nuclear weapons, not least because Europeans were vehemently against it. As it becomes more desperate, the Soviet Union also begins to consider tactical uses for nuclear weapons. Known as AirLand Battle, the Americans also push for the modernization of NATO’s armed forces to bring those of their allies more in line with their own forces which are becoming far more manoeuvrable and designed to disrupt Soviet forces as they mass for attack. As ever, the response of the NATO Allies is at best lukewarm and, as ever, NATO must deal with too much actuality with nothing like enough capability. Plus ça change . . . THE COLD WAR END-GAME

One other remarkable ﬁgure emerges in 1985. Mikhail Gorbachev is a new generation of Soviet leader. The ﬁrst such leader not to have been shaped by experiences of World War Two, Gorbachev is prepared to acknowledge the problems the Soviet system faces and seek an accommodation with the West to solve them. The trouble is that the plight of the Soviet system is probably beyond repair. Even Margaret Thatcher warms to him when they meet in Britain in early 1985 as a man with whom she can do business. Indeed, it is testimony to her inﬂuence that the heir apparent to the Soviet crown visits her ﬁrst. Gorbachev must manage the decline of the USSR to which twenty years of Brezhnevism has condemned it. He ﬁrst seeks to reduce tension with an economically resurgent West through agreement with Washington on the Euromissile crisis. This eventually leads to the 1987 Intermediate Nuclear Forces (INF) Treaty, ten years after the crisis started. At home he then embarks on a policy of openness (Glasnost) and restructuring (Perestroika) in a vain attempt to save the crumbling ediﬁce that is Soviet Russia. Shorn of any pretence to empire, Gorbachev invites the Soviet satellite states to adopt the Sinatra Doctrine—they can do it their way. They do. Slowly at ﬁrst, in the early months of 1989, one by one the satellite states of the Soviet Union break free. Only the hardline regime in East Germany resists. However, driven by mass demonstrations Germans in their millions seize the opportunity to resolve the German Question once and for all. In the face of the blindingly obvious Mikhail Gorbachev visits East Berlin to celebrate forty years since the founding of the German Democratic Republic. He is there

countdown to freedom [137]

to tell its leader Erich Honecker that there will be no forty-ﬁrst anniversary. On 9 November, 1988 thousands of people from East and West converge on the Berlin Wall and begin tearing it down, and with it the Cold War. Fortyfour years after Germany is divided East and West pave the way for German reuniﬁcation. In 1980 another great leader dies. He is Marshal Tito of Yugoslavia, who has held that patchwork of Balkan hatreds together since the start of the Cold War. It is a patchwork that is about to come undone, for in 1989 Slobodan Miloševi´c is elected President of Serbia.

1980 AT A GLANCE—MAJOR EVENTS AND THEMES

r The US Senate suspends consideration of the Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (SALT) II. r The Carter Doctrine is enunciated. r Marshall Tito dies in Yugoslavia. r Presidential Doctrine 59 on the build-up of US forces is issued. r The Gdansk Agreement and the founding of Solidarnosc. r A military coup takes place in Turkey. r Iraq attacks Iran. r Ronald Reagan is elected President of the United States. r The Madrid Conference on Security and Co-operation in Europe opens. r The Luxembourg European Council takes place.

January 3

Afghanistan: In the wake of the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan, the US Senate suspends consideration of SALT II as the Carter Administration withdraws the treaty. With the twin decisions of the West to deploy Long-Range Theatre Nuclear Forces (LRTNF) in Europe and the Soviets to invade Afghanistan, the SALT phase of arms control is eﬀectively dead, and détente along with it.

January 15

The Road to European Union: European Economic Community (EEC) foreign ministers attack the Soviet Union for invading Afghanistan. In a strongly worded statement, they say that, ‘the nine Ministers have reaﬃrmed their grave concern with regard to the crisis created by the military intervention of the Soviet Union in Afghanistan, which represents a serious violation of the principles of international relations enshrined in the Charter of the United Nations’.

January 23

The Carter Doctrine: President Carter enunciates the Carter Doctrine, which commits the US to adopting a policy of confrontation and containment with the USSR but reaﬃrms the aspiration for détente.

January 24

Euromissiles: NATO creates a new Special Consultative Group to examine the limitations of all LRTNF and other Theatre Nuclear Forces (TNF) as military tools.

April

Euromissiles: As a result of domestic opposition, the Belgian Government again postpones its announcement of the base for the deployment of cruise missiles that it must to accept by 1983.

May 4

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: Yugoslav leader Marshal Josip Broz Tito dies in Belgrade, and Yugoslavia begins its long slow drift towards war.

1980 [139] June

Euromissiles: Britain announces sites for the deployment of the cruise missiles that will arrive in 1983.

June

Euromissiles: The Soviet Union announces that it is ready for bilateral negotiations with the US over the question of LRTNF.

July 19 –August 3

The Moscow Olympic Boycott: The Moscow Olympics take place. The Americans boycott the Games, but the Western Europeans participate.

July 25

The Carter Doctrine: President Carter issues Presidential Directive 59 (PD59), which orders a major build-up in American military capability with a focus on the development of a rapid deployment force and an American capability to intervene successfully in two wars simultaneously anywhere in the world. The Soviet invasion of Afghanistan is used as the pretext for the decision.

July

The Road to European Union: At the invitation of Altiero Spinelli, founder of the European Federalist Movement, former Commissioner, and Member of the European Parliament (MEP), a group of nine MEPs meets in Strasbourg to discuss ways to reform the European institutions.

September 12

Islamic Fundamentalism: A military coup takes place in Turkey, partly as a result of what the armed forces regard as an Islamic threat to the secularist Kemalist Constitution. All democratic activity is suspended.

September 17

Solidarnosc: As the superpower relationship freezes, the people in Eastern Europe take action. As part of the so-called Gdansk Agreement, the independent trade union Solidarnosc (Solidarity) is formed under the leadership of a charismatic shipyard electrician, Lech Wal˛esa. Strikes are crippling the Polish economy, and the Communist Government in Warsaw decides to attempt to cohabit with this new political force. Moscow and the Red Army look on nervously.

September 22

Iraq: In an old-fashioned piece of opportunistic power politics, President Saddam Hussein al-Majit al-Tikriti of Iraq orders his troops to attack Iran. By the end of the Iran–Iraq war over one million people will be dead.

September

NATO: The Netherlands announces that it is unable to comply with the NATO decision of 1977 to increase defence expenditure by a year-onyear average of 3 per cent.

October 20

NATO: Following a break of some six years, Greece is reintegrated into the NATO command structure after Turkey lifts its veto.

October 30

European Space Agency: Having been ratiﬁed by all ten members of the European Space Research Organization (ESRO) and the European Space Vehicle Launcher Development Organization (ELDO), the convention establishing the European Space Agency ESA formally comes into force. Although in existence for some time, ESA now legally replaces ESRO and ELDO.

November 4

The Election of Ronald Reagan: Ronald Reagan is elected President of the United States in a landslide victory. After the victory of Thatcher in Britain, the New Right has its greatest moment with the capture of the White House. Reagan vows to continue the decision of PD-59 to further build up US forces to combat the Soviet Union.

[140] countdown to freedom November 11

CSCE: The Madrid Conference on Security and Co-operation in Europe (the second CSCE follow-up meeting) opens with the nine EEC countries having adopted a common position through the machinery of European Political Co-operation (EPC).

November

Euromissiles: Belgium is still unable to decide whether or not to accept cruise missiles on its territory.

December 1–2 The Road to European Union: At the European Council in Luxembourg, it is agreed that Europe must make a greater contribution to eﬀorts to ensure global peace, particularly within the context of East–West relations. To that end, the Council issues a communiqué that states: ‘In the face of the disquiet caused by developments in the international situation, the European Council is conscious of the responsibilities devolving upon Europe. The Council considers that Europe’s experience and resources make it one of the essential factors of equilibrium and peace in the world. It is in the context of the solidarity which unites a strong America and a Europe conﬁdent of itself and of its role that dialogue and co-ordination between them will best serve the cause of peace and freedom. The European Council will therefore ensure that Europe acquires greater cohesion and that its voice is heard.’

1981 AT A GLANCE—MAJOR EVENTS AND THEMES

r r r r r r r r

Greece joins the European Economic Community (EEC). The Bonn-Rome initiative for a common foreign and security policy. François Mitterrand is elected French President. The London Report on European Political Co-operation is issued. Spain applies to join NATO. The Draft Single European Act is presented to the European Parliament. Talks begin on removing Long-Range Theatre Nuclear Forces. Martial law is imposed in Poland.

January 1

The Road to European Union: Greece joins the EEC. The Nine become the Ten.

January 20

The United States: Ronald Reagan is formally sworn in as President of the United States. He appoints General Alexander Haig, Jr. (former NATO Supreme Allied Commander, Europe), as Secretary of State and Caspar Weinberger as Secretary of Defense. Weinberger, in turn, appoints Fred Ikle as Under-Secretary for Policy and Richard Perle as Assistant Secretary for International Policy. With backgrounds in the RAND Corporation, these men are well known for their anti-Soviet fervour. Furthermore, Richard Allen, National Security Adviser, and Richard Pipes, on the US National Security Council (NSC) staﬀ, are also regarded as hawks.

January

The Road to European Union: In an eﬀort to revitalize the concept of European Union, Hans-Dietrich Genscher, the German Foreign Minister, and his Italian counterpart, Emilio Colombo, suggest strengthening the political and security aspects of the Community in what becomes known as the Bonn-Rome initiative.

February 23–4 The Spanish Coup: Lt-Col. Antonio Tejero and 200 Guardia Civile storm the Spanish Parliament, which is about to elect a new Prime Minister. At the same time, General Miláns del Bosch declares a state of emergency, and army tanks take to the streets of Valencia. After several hours, King Juan Carlos makes a televised speech, demanding that Spain’s democratic process continue peacefully. The hostage-takers surrender some hours later. February

Euromissiles: The Soviet Union proposes a moratorium on the deployment of Long-Range Theatre Nuclear Forces (LRTNF) in Europe. However, such a moratorium would leave the Soviet Union with a distinct advantage.

[142] countdown to freedom February 28 –March 3

The East–West Balance: The 26th Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU) reaﬃrms Soviet commitment to détente in the wake of the invasion of Afghanistan and calls upon the US to reciprocate.

May 9

The East–West Balance: In an address at Syracuse University, US Secretary of State Haig says: ‘the task ahead for this vital decade is the management of global Soviet power’.

May 4–5

Euromissiles: At the North Atlantic Council (NAC) meeting in Rome, Western allies reject the Soviet proposal for a moratorium on the deployment of LRTNF in Europe.

May 10

The Election of François Mitterand: François Mitterrand is elected Socialist President of France replacing Valéry Giscard d’Estaing.

July

The Road to European Union: The European Parliament (EP) sets up an Institutional Aﬀairs Committee to draw up a plan for amending the existing treaties. Italian MEP Spinelli, who started the parliamentary debate on relaunching the European institutions in July 1980, is the co-ordinating Rapporteur.

August

Euromissiles: Italy takes a decision to deploy Cruise missiles and names its chosen sites. The Netherlands is still unable to make such a decision.

October 6

The Global War on Terror: Egyptian President Anwar el-Sadat is assassinated by fundamentalist elements in the Egyptian Armed Forces.

October 13

The Road to European Union: The third report (the London Report) on European Political Co-operation (EPC) is issued. It is a reaction to the EEC poor collective response to several crises in the 1970s. Member states recognize the usefulness of the Commission’s involvement in EPC at all levels, indicating a step beyond intergovernmentalism. The report also broadens the EPC mechanism to include ‘political aspects of security’ and reinforces the adjustment of policies among member states by a crisis mechanism.

October 19

The Reagan Doctrine: US President Reagan approves National Security Decision Directive 13 (NSDD 13) on Nuclear Weapons Employment Policy. It contains a return to a strong counterforce strategy as part of a new American belief that any future nuclear war world be an extended war and that nuclear weapons will have a war ﬁghting role.

October 27

The Swedish Incident: After being hunted for several days a Soviet submarine runs aground in Swedish territorial waters.

October

NATO: Spain makes a formal application to join NATO.

November 6–12

The Road to European Union: The German and Italian Governments write to the other EEC member states to present a draft European Act that includes both a declaration on economic integration and proposals in the political and security ﬁelds.

November 18

The Nuclear Balance and Euromissiles: President Reagan announces his intention to launch two new arms control initiatives to stabilize the situation both in Europe and at the strategic level. The Intermediate-Range Nuclear Force (INF) negotiations are designed to ﬁnd a euromissile balance in Long-Range Theatre Nuclear Forces (LRTNF), whilst the Strategic Arms

1981 [143] Reduction Talks (START) are aimed are reducing the 30,000 or so nuclear warheads that both sides possess, enough to destroy life on the planet several times over. November 19

The Road to European Union: West German Foreign Minister Hans-Dietrich Genscher and Italian Foreign Minister Alessandro Colombo present their draft European Act to the European Parliament. The document proposes to extend EEC powers into new areas, including foreign policy, defence, and justice, as well as to revive qualiﬁed majority voting (QMV).

November 21

Euromissiles: In Amsterdam, 400,000 people demonstrate against cruise missiles in Europe. The Dutch Government again postpones a decision on the deployment of cruise missiles upon its territory.

November 30

Euromissiles: After a break of two years, the US and the Soviet Union open negotiations in Geneva, Switzerland, on intermediate-range nuclear forces (INF). The INF talks have been forced upon the Americans by nervous Western European allies who are facing hostile public opinion in the political vacuum that has been created between the dual-track decision of December 1979 and the aggressive rhetoric and negotiating inaction of the Reagan White House.

December 10–11

Euromissiles: NATO ministers reaﬃrm their commitment to deploy new LRTNF missiles in Western Europe in 1983 but also reaﬃrm their commitment to arms control. The signature takes places of the Protocol of Accession of Spain to the North Atlantic Treaty.

December 13

Martial Law in Poland: In Poland, General Wojciech Jaruzelski stages what is in eﬀect a military coup. He imposes martial law and suppresses the independent trade union Solidarnosc. The United States and Western Europe react with diﬀering degrees of condemnation. The Europeans, however, remain keen to continue with a policy of détente.

December

Euromissiles: In a Soviet-inspired attempt to fuel West German public opposition against the proposed deployments of cruise and Pershing 2 missiles, discussions take place between the two Germanys over the issue of NATO deployment.

1982 AT A GLANCE—MAJOR EVENTS AND THEMES

r The US presents the Zero Option at Intermediate Nuclear Forces (INF) talks in Geneva, Switzerland. r Britain wins the Falkland War. r The Reagan Administration approves National Security Decision Directive 32 on US National Security Strategy. r Spain joins NATO. r George P. Shultz becomes US Secretary of State. r The Strategic Arms Reduction Talks (START) begin. r Helmut Kohl is elected West German Chancellor. r Leonid Brezhnev dies and is succeeded by Yuri Andropov. r The US issues National Security Decision Directive 75 (NSDD 75).

January 11

NATO: At a Special Ministerial Session of the North Atlantic Council (NAC) a Declaration on Events in Poland is issued condemning the crackdown by the communist authorities.

February 2

Euromissiles: The Americans provide a ﬁrst draft for discussion at the INF talks in Geneva, Switzerland, on Long-Range Theatre Nuclear Forces (LRTNF). In what becomes known as the Zero Option, the Director of the State Department Bureau of Political-Military Aﬀairs, Richard Perle, calls this a ‘simple, straightforward US approach’. It proposes that the Soviets withdraw all SS-20s from the European side of the Urals in return for which the US would not deploy cruise and Pershing 2 missiles.

February 4

Euromissiles: The Soviets table counterproposals at Geneva that demand compensation for existing British and French nuclear systems and the withdrawal of the American Forward Base System (FBS) in Western Europe if the USSR is to withdraw SS-20s from Eastern Europe and the European side of the Urals.

February 10

Euromissiles: The Soviet plan at the INF talks in Geneva is categorically rejected by the US. The objections cited are essentially threefold: ﬁrst, the Americans claim that by including French and British systems the Russians are not accepting the principle of equality between the superpowers; second, the Soviet proposals would allow the USSR to continue to replace the ageing SS-4 and SS-5 missiles with the SS-20; third, the USSR is counting launchers rather than warheads, so the actual threat to Western Europe would hardly diminish.

April 2

The Falklands War: Argentina invades the Falkland Islands/Islas Malvinas and South Georgia, British dependent territories. Britain vows to recapture

1982 [145] them. However, Foreign Secretary Lord Carrington resigns over the failure of the Foreign & Commonwealth Oﬃce to foresee the invasion. Britain rapidly establishes a task force to re-capture the Falklands but has to withdraw some of NATO’s best units for the mission. April 10

The Falklands War: The European Economic Community (EEC) adopts a series of measures against Argentina for its invasion of the Falkland Islands in solidarity with the UK. These include the banning of all Argentine imports into the Community.

May 5

The Balance of Forces in Europe/NATO: NATO publishes an oﬃcial document on force comparison with the Warsaw Treaty Organization that paints the Western Alliance as being in an alarmingly weak and vulnerable position.

May 20

The Nuclear Balance: The Reagan Administration approves a new US National Security Strategy (National Security Decision Directive 32). It reﬂects American attempts to move away from mutually assured destruction (MAD) towards a strategic posture aimed at ﬁghting and winning a nuclear war. This not only greatly concerns the Western Europeans but ﬁnds an ironic echo in the thinking of the Soviet First Deputy Defence Minister and Chief of the General Staﬀ, Marshal Nikolai Ogarkov, and his war-waging concept known as Proval Blitzkriga. Even more ironically, the Ogarkov view comes after the Soviet Union has modiﬁed its military doctrine and renounced superiority and belief in the winnability of a war in the nuclear age.

May 30

The Falklands War: At a special meeting of the NATO Eurogroup, Argentina is condemned for its attack on the Falkland Islands.

May 30

NATO: Spain becomes the sixteenth member of NATO.

June 6

The Second Israeli Invasion of Lebanon: Israel invades southern Lebanon again. The Palestine Liberation Organisation (PLO) leaves its base in the Lebanese capital Beirut.

June 10

NATO: A Summit Meeting takes place in Bonn, Germany, of Heads of State and Government in the NAC. The Bonn Declaration, setting out the Alliance Programme for Peace in Freedom, which reaﬃrms Alliance solidarity and the vital importance of the transatlantic relationship and NATO. It also calls upon the Soviet Union to modify its aggressive behaviour and to permit countries in its sphere the right of self-determination.

June 14

The Falklands War: The British retake Port Stanley after the surrender of all Argentine forces on the Falkland Islands. The longest seaborne invasion in history is successful, and British military and political standing in the world are undoubtedly enhanced.

June 25

The United States: Alexander Haig is replaced by George P. Shultz as US Secretary of State. With a background in big business, Shultz is regarded as more pragmatic in his attitude towards relations with the Soviet Union than his predecessor.

June 30

The Nuclear Balance: The Strategic Arms Reduction Talks (START) between the US and the USSR commence in Geneva. The objective is to follow up

[146] countdown to freedom where the abortive Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (SALT) II left oﬀ by going for actual reductions in the nuclear arsenals of the two superpowers. However, there is no great enthusiasm within the US administration for the talks. The US believes it has been forced into discussions by Western European concerns over the renewed arms race. September 16

The Second Israeli Invasion of Lebanon: Israeli troops march into West Beirut. On 17 September Maronite Christian militias start massacring Palestinian refugees in the Sabra and Shatila refugee camps. Throughout the massacres the Israeli Defence Force (IDF) controls the external perimeters of the camps.

October 1

The Election of Helmut Kohl: Helmut Kohl is elected Christian Democrat Chancellor of the Federal Republic of Germany. With his election the four towering Western ﬁgures of the age are now in position, Thatcher, Reagan, Mitterand, and Kohl.

November 10

The Soviet Succession 1: General secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU) Leonid Brezhnev dies. In power in the Soviet Union since the overthrow of Khrushchev in 1964, his regime has become stagnant and corrupt and his foreign policy all but static. He is succeeded as General Secretary of the CPSU by a former head of the KGB, Yuri Andropov, who is reputed to have some reform credentials, although he is still a party disciplinarian.

December

The Reagan Doctrine: President Reagan ﬁnally codiﬁes US policy towards the USSR in National Security Decision Directive 75 (NSDD-75). The directive is a compromise between the ideological-confrontational tendency of the National Security Council (NSC) staﬀ and civilian leadership in the Pentagon and the pragmatic geopolitical tendency represented by Shultz and the professionals in the Department of State. The directive’s main thrust is pragmatic. It establishes three long-term objectives: ﬁrst, to contain Soviet expansionism and to moderate Soviet international behaviour; second, to encourage, by the limited means at the disposal of the United States, change in the Soviet system towards greater liberalism over time; third, to negotiate agreements that are in the interests of the US.

1983 AT A GLANCE—MAJOR EVENTS AND THEMES

r US President Reagan calls the USSR ‘the evil empire’ and ‘the focus of evil in the modern world’. r The Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI) or Star Wars is announced. The Solemn Declaration on European Union leads to the birth of the Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP). r South Korean Airlines Boeing 747 (KAL 007) is shot down. r Deployment of cruise and Pershing 2 missiles begins in Europe.

March 8

The Reagan Doctrine: At a meeting of Evangelicals in Orlando, Florida, US President Reagan calls the Soviet Union the ‘evil empire’ and states that, ‘those who live in that totalitarian darkness . . . [while they preach the eventual domination of the state over all people] are the focus of evil in the modern world’.

March 23

The Strategic Defense Initiative: US President Reagan announces in an address to the US on national television that he is backing an initiative that will be designed to render Intercontinental Ballistic Missiles (ICBMs) obsolete through the deployment of a futuristic space-based defence system. Known oﬃcially as the Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI), it becomes known colloquially as Star Wars. The Soviets complain on the grounds that the testing and deployment of such a system would constitute a clear breach of the 1972 Anti-Ballistic Missile (ABM) Treaty. The original US negotiating team for the ABM agree with the USSR.

June 16

The European Space Agency: The sixth successful launch of the European Space Agency’s (ESA) Ariane rocket takes place.

June 19

The Road to European Union: The Heads of State or Government of the ten European Economic Community (EEC) member states, ‘resolved to continue the work begun on the basis of the Treaties of Paris and Rome and to create a united Europe, which is more than ever necessary in order to meet the dangers of the world situation, capable of assuming the responsibilities incumbent on it by virtue of its political role, its economic potential and its manifold links with other peoples’, and ‘convinced that, by speaking with a single voice in foreign policy, including political aspects of security, Europe can contribute to the preservation of peace’, issue a Solemn Declaration on European Union, also called the Stuttgart Declaration. The concept of a Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP) is born. More generally, the document, which reﬂects the 1982 draft European Act, presages the transformation of the EEC ﬁrst the European Community (EC) and then the into European Union (EU) by beginning to curtail the national right of

[148] countdown to freedom veto, increasing the powers of the European Parliament (EP), advancing the single market, and urging greater co-operation in many ﬁelds. June 28

The Soviet Union: In a speech to a meeting of leaders of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU), new General Secretary Yuri Andropov characterizes the current situation in East–West relations as ‘marked by confrontation, unprecedented in the entire post-war period by its intensity and sharpness, of two diametrically opposite world outlooks, two political courses: socialism and imperialism’.

July 22

Martial Law in Poland: Martial law is ended in Poland by the communist regime of General Jaruzelski. However, new laws reinforce government control, particularly over the right of assembly.

August 31 –September 1

The Shooting Down of KAL 007: A South Korean Boeing 747 civilian airliner, ﬂight number KAL 007, is shot down over Sakhalin Island after passing directly over Soviet submarine construction pens at Petropavlovsk. The West immediately accuses the USSR of a barbaric act and states that the plane was simply oﬀ course. The Soviets claim that it was challenged many times and failed to respond and was therefore shot down for spying on Soviet naval facilities. Two hundred and sixty-nine people are killed, including a member of the US House of Representatives. No satisfactory answer has ever been forthcoming from either side for what happened that night. The second Cold War takes a dangerous turn for the worse.

September 28

The Shooting Down of KAL 007: In a response to US accusations over the KAL 007 disaster, General Secretary Andropov attacks US policy as a ‘militarist course that represents a serious threat to peace. Its essence is to try to ensure a dominating position in the world for the United States of America without regard for the interests of other states and peoples.’ However, he reaﬃrms the Soviet policy of ‘peaceful coexistence’.

October 23

The Beirut attack on US Marines: 241 US marines and 56 French troops are killed in two bomb attacks on military headquarters in Beirut, Lebanon. The suicide bombers are thought to belong to a group of Lebanese Shia Muslims, part of an extremist militia faction based in Syrian-occupied eastern Lebanon.

October 25

The Grenada Incident: To remove what it calls a Marxist regime US and East Caribbean forces intervene militarily in Grenada. The intervention causes some tension with the UK as Grenada is a member of the Commonwealth and London was not informed.

October 25 –November 11

European Stability: A preparatory meeting takes place in Helsinki for the Stockholm Conference on Security and Conﬁdence Building Measures and Disarmament in Europe (CDE).

October 27

NATO: As part of the so-called Montebello Decision, NATO defence ministers meeting in the framework of the NATO Nuclear Planning Group (NPG) in Montebello, Canada, agree to withdraw a further 1,400 intermediate and short-range nuclear warheads from Europe; 2,400 such warheads have been withdrawn since 1979.

1983 [149] November 23

Euromissiles: With the failure of the Intermediate Nuclear Forces (INF) talks to make any substantial progress, 572 cruise and 108 Pershing 2 missiles (LRTNF) begin to be deployed in Western Europe. The Soviets walk out of the INF talks in Geneva as a result.

December 8

The Nuclear Balance: The ﬁrst round of the US–Soviet negotiations on Strategic Arms Reductions (START) is concluded in Geneva, Switzerland. No date is set by the Soviet side for their resumption. This reﬂects not only tense East–West relations but also a leadership crisis in Moscow.

December 8–9 Euromissiles: At the North Atlantic Council in Brussels, Denmark and Greece dissociate themselves from the NATO decision to deploy Long-Range Theatre Nuclear Forces (LRTNF). December 13

NATO: A civilian government is formed in Turkey following parliamentary elections under a new constitution. The military takes a back seat in Turkish politics but reserves the right it claims as the ultimate guarantor of the secular Kemalist constitution.

1984 AT A GLANCE—MAJOR EVENTS AND THEMES

r The Reagan Administration accuses the Soviet Union of violating the 1972 AntiBallistic Missile (ABM) Treaty. r Soviet leader Yuri Andropov dies and is succeeded by Konstantin Chernenko. r The European Parliament approves a draft treaty establishing the European Union. r Lord Peter Carrington appointed NATO Secretary-General. r The Rome Declaration reactivates the Western European Union (WEU). r President Reagan calls for ‘constructive negotiations’ with the Soviet Union. r Ronald Reagan re-elected US President. Peace Through Strength becomes the rallying call of the second Reagan Administration. r Thatcher and Gorbachev meet.

January 23

The Strategic Defense Initiative: The Reagan Administration sends a report to Congress charging the Soviet Union with seven speciﬁc violations and probable violations of the ABM Treaty. This is part of an attempt to persuade Congress that even if the US is breaking the ABM Treaty due to the Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI) it is justiﬁed as a result of Soviet non-compliance. The Administration’s case is based on the ambiguous wording of Article 2 of the treaty and what or what does not constitute exotic technology, as well as whether, thereafter, it is treaty-speciﬁc or treaty-exempt.

January 17

CSCE: Conference on Security and Co-operation on Europe (CSCE) meeting on conﬁdence and security building measures (CSBM) opens in Stockholm.

January 18

Euromissiles: After walking out of Intermediate Nuclear Forces (INF) talks in Geneva last month, Soviet Foreign Minister Gromyko meets with US Secretary of State George Shultz to discuss conﬁdence-building measures. There is little progress.

February 9

The Soviet Succession 2: Yuri Andropov dies of kidney failure 15 months after succeeding Leonid Brezhnev as General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU). His successor is Konstantin Chernenko, an elderly contemporary of Brezhnev who is little more than a compromise placeman. He is also in ill health. It is clear that a power struggle between conservatives and reformers is taking place within the Politburo.

February 14

The Road to European Union: The European Parliament (EP) approves a draft treaty establishing the European Union (EU), based on proposals elaborated by the Spinelli Committee set up in 1981. The draft treaty aims

1984 [151] for a balance of power between the EP and the Council of Ministers and provides for a bicameral legislature. March 21 –April 30

CSCE: A meeting takes place of CSCE experts in Athens to discuss further the peaceful settlement of disputes.

May 23

The European Space Agency: The ﬁrst commercial launch of the ESA’s Ariane rocket takes place.

June 7–9

G7/G8: At the London Summit meeting of the Heads of State and Government of the seven major industrialized countries (G7), the US, UK, France, West Germany, Italy, Japan, and Canada, issue a declaration on the need for improved East–West relations and progress on arms control.

June 12

European Defence: The Foreign Ministers of seven WEU member states meet in Paris to discuss the reactivation of the WEU as a focal point for autonomous European security and defence outside the NATO framework and with a speciﬁc focus on crisis management in and around Europe.

June 25

NATO: Lord Peter Carrington of the United Kingdom succeeds Dr Joseph Luns as Secretary-General of NATO.

June 29

Euromissiles: Impressed by the resolve being shown by Ronald Reagan and worried about the lack of contact with the United States in the wake of their walk-out from the INF talks in December 1983, the Soviet Union takes the unusual step of proposing negotiations on the prohibition of the militarization of outer space and, once the talks begin, on a moratorium on the testing and deployment of such weapons.

June

The Road to European Union: The Fontainebleau European Council decides to set up an ad hoc committee of the personal representatives of the Heads of State and Government to make proposals for improving the functioning of the Community system and of European Political Co-operation (EPC). The committee’s chairman is James Dooge, representative of Irish Prime Minister Garrett FitzGerald.

June

Euromissiles: Belgium announces that it will proceed with preparations for the deployment of cruise missiles on its territory.

June

Euromissiles: The Netherlands decides to postpone the deployment of cruise missiles on its territory at least until 1988.

August 12

The Nuclear Balance: In an interview with the Newsday magazine, former US Secretary of State Alexander Haig admits that the US Strategic Arms Reduction Talks (START) proposal was ‘a non-negotiable package . . . a twofaced proposal that was clearly going to fall of its own weight and did’. Indeed, for the US is not prepared to accept cuts in its own build-up of counterforce capabilities comparable to the drastic reductions sought in Soviet counterforce capabilities. While the US proposals are nominally equal, they would apply unequally. For example, the proposed limit of 5,000 missile warheads for each side would involve a sizeable and equitable cut of about one-third in the arsenals of both sides. But a sub-ceiling of 2,500 warheads on land-based missiles, and further sub-limits of 210 on MX-sized Intercontinental Ballistic Missiles (ICBMs) (e.g. the Soviet SS18 and SS-19 and the US MX) and of 100 on very large ICBMs (the Soviet

[152] countdown to freedom SS-18) would mean a cut of more than half the Soviet ICBM and two-thirds of SS-18 and SS-19 warheads, while the US could deploy additional ICBM warheads, including the then-planned 200 MX missiles. Moreover, other US strategic modernization programmes could continue as well: Trident II sea-launched ballistic missiles, air-launched cruise missiles, submarinelaunched cruise missiles, and the Pershing 2 and ground launched cruise missile European-based systems. One Soviet general states on seeing the proposals: ‘You want to solve your vulnerability problem by making our forces vulnerable.’ September 24

The Reagan Doctrine: In a shift in US policy towards a less overtly confrontational stance, President Reagan states in an address to the United Nations (UN) General Assembly that, ‘America has repaired its strength . . . we are ready for constructive negotiations with the Soviet Union.’

September

The Soviet Union: In a sign of the power struggle taking place within the Soviet Union over negotiations with the United States, the powerful and hawkish Red Army Chief of Staﬀ and First Deputy Minister of Defence Marshal Nikolai Ogarkov is removed from his posts for ‘unparty-like behaviour’.

October 16–26 European Stability: A CSCE Seminar on Economic, Scientiﬁc and Cultural Cooperation in the Mediterranean takes place in Venice, Italy. October 26–7

European Defence: On the initiative of the Belgian and French Governments, a preliminary joint meeting of the foreign and defence ministers within the WEU framework is held in Rome. The ministers agree to reactivate the organization and adopt the Rome Declaration to this aim. The objective is to strengthen Western Europe’s ability to contribute to its own defence and to enable France to play a fuller and more integrated role. The ministers decide ‘to hold comprehensive discussions and to seek to harmonise their views on speciﬁc conditions of security in Europe, in particular defence questions; arms control and disarmament; the eﬀects of developments in East–West relations on the security in Europe; Europe’s contribution to the strengthening of the Atlantic Alliance . . . and the development of European co-operation in the ﬁeld of armaments’. . . . The WEU Council is henceforth to hold two meetings a year at ministerial level. The Rome Declaration is seen by some commentators as being a ﬁrst step towards the WEU’s becoming the defence arm of the European Economic Community (EEC).

October

European Defence: In a response to the Soviet initiative of 29 June to open talks on the banning of space weaponry, the US oﬀers umbrella talks to cover a ﬂexible combination of arms limitations on various strategic oﬀensive and defensive arms, covering both outer space and nuclear weapons.

November 6

The United States: President Reagan is returned to oﬃce with another overwhelming majority. The second Reagan Administration now promises to promote Peace Through Strength.

November 17

The Nuclear Balance: Surprisingly, the Soviet Union reacts positively to the oﬀer made by the US in October and agrees to Nuclear and Space Talks (NST).

1984 [153] November

European Defence: The Independent European Programme Group (IEPG) meets at the ministerial level for the ﬁrst time. Ministers agree to undertake a thorough review of European defence procurement and to work harder to harmonize it. They also agree not to duplicate similar eﬀorts elsewhere. The European Defence Industry Study (EDIS) is also launched at the meeting.

December 7

NATO: A presentation is made by Lord Carrington, Secretary-General of NATO, of the ﬁrst Atlantic Award to Per Markussen (Denmark), for his contribution over many years to the furthering of the objectives of the Atlantic Alliance.

December 16

The Soviet Succession 3: Mikhail Gorbachev, Party Secretary responsible for agriculture within the Central Committee of the CPSU, and widely regarded as the next Soviet leader, visits Britain and speaks with Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher. A day later Thatcher tells the press: ‘I like Mr Gorbachev. We can do business together.’

1985 AT A GLANCE—MAJOR EVENTS AND THEMES

r US Army General Bernard Rogers is reappointed Supreme Allied Commander, Europe (SACEUR). r General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU) Konstantin Chernenko dies and is succeeded by Mikhail Gorbachev. r Intermediate Nuclear Forces (INF) talks resume in Geneva, Switzerland. r The USSR announces unilateral suspension of the deployment of intermediate nuclear weapons in Europe. r Eduard Shevardnadze is appointed Soviet Foreign Minister. r The USSR announces a unilateral moratorium on nuclear testing. r Euroﬁghter is given the go-ahead. r Gorbachev visits Paris. r Reagan and Gorbachev meet in Geneva.

January 7–8

The Nuclear Balance: US Secretary of State Shultz and Soviet Foreign Minister Gromyko agree at a meeting to make progress in arms-control talks under the umbrella approach covering both nuclear-capable and spacebased weapons. The Soviet Union is, however, determined to link any progress to the scrapping of the US Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI) programme.

January

Euromissiles: In an address on Soviet television, Foreign Minister Gromyko tells viewers: ‘If the United States continues to deploy its medium-range weapons in Europe, then I must say bluntly that the situation will be made more complicated, and greatly more complicated. The fact that we proposed a freeze on these weapons is well known. Indeed, in Geneva we warned the United States quite clearly that, if it did so—if it continued with the deployment; and it was at great pains to emphasise that it had plans, and that it intended to carry out those plans—then it would put in question the talks that were due to begin in accordance with the understanding reached in Geneva. I repeat—we warned the United States about this.’ Gromyko also insists that, in forthcoming talks, ‘British and French armaments must also be taken into account. . . . It would be most unjustiﬁed if the North Atlantic Alliance obtained a kind of addition, a bonus if you like, in the form of the British and French armaments. This is the crux of the disagreement in connection with the discussion of the medium-range-weapons problem.’

February

NATO: US General Bernard Rogers is reappointed SACEUR by NATO.

March 10

The Soviet Succession 3: General Secretary of the CPSU Konstantin Chernenko dies after pulmonary emphysema. He is to be the last of the

1985 [155] Brezhnevites and his death ends the sclerosis in the Soviet decision-making process that set in with the decline of Brezhnev’s health in the late 1970s. Mikhail Sergeyevich Gorbachev takes power as general secretary of the CPSU. The ﬁrst post-war Soviet leader not to have actually fought in World War Two, Gorbachev is only 54. He is known as a reformer. March 12

Euromissiles: Following the agreement between the USSR and the US on Nuclear and Space Talks (NST) in November 1984, the INF talks recommence in Geneva after a delay of almost 15 months. This is the ﬁrst concrete indication that there is new thinking in the Kremlin following the appointment of Gorbachev as general secretary. The Soviet Union maintains its determination to link any agreement to the scrapping of the US SDI programme.

March 29–30

The Road to European Union: The Dooge Committee, set up in 1984, presents its report. It proposes enhancing European Political Co-operation (EPC) over foreign policy by increasing adjustment of policy concerning security issues and calls for co-operation in the armaments sector.

April 26

Warsaw Pact: The 1955 Treaty of Friendship, Co-operation and Mutual Assistance, which established the WTO, is extended for twenty years by the leaders of the seven member states.

May 7–17 June European Stability: A meeting of the Conference on Security an Cooperation in Europe (CSCE) experts on human rights takes place in Ottawa, Canada. May 29

Euromissiles: At a reception for Italian President Bettino Craxi, Gorbachev reiterates that if the Soviet Union is to agree to a treaty on INF in Europe, then it will insist on compensation for British and French warheads and the removal of cruise and Pershing 2 missiles. However, the United States has not shifted from its own position of demanding a balance between cruise and Pershing 2 missiles and SS-20s with neither British nor French weapons counted.

June 14

The Road to European Union: Belgium, France, Luxembourg, and the Netherlands sign the Schengen Agreement gradually to abolish checks at their common borders.

June 25–6

The Road to European Union: The Milan European Council decides to convoke an intergovernmental conference (IGC) to consider the power of the institutions, the extension of Community activities to new areas, and the establishment of a ‘genuine’ internal market. The Single Market is born.

June

The Second Israeli Invasion of Lebanon: Israel partially withdraws from Lebanon.

June

NATO: A further meeting of NATO’s Independent European Programme Group (IEPG) takes place in order to discuss improvements in co-operation in the area of weapons procurement in Western Europe.

July

Euromissiles: As a gesture towards the West and the INF talks, the Soviet Union announces the unilateral suspension of the deployment of nuclear weapons in Europe.

[156] countdown to freedom July 2

The Soviet Union: Andrei Gromyko, the Soviet Foreign Minister and conﬁdant of Molotov as far back as the Nazi–Soviet pact of August 1939, is ﬁnally relieved of responsibility for foreign policy, as Gorbachev moves to strengthen his control over its direction. Gromyko is given the decorative position of Chairman of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet. In his place, Gorbachev promotes Eduard Shevardnadze, a Georgian fellow reformer who has little experience of foreign policy.

July 9

East–West Balance: Talks are held in the Kremlin between select members of the two committees of the Supreme Soviet on Foreign Aﬀairs and members of Britain’s House of Commons Foreign Aﬀairs Committee. The Soviet chairman states: ‘To the extent that the countries of the European Economic Community act as a political whole we are ready to seek a common language with it . . . on concrete international questions.’ This is the ﬁrst time that the Soviet side has treated the European Economic Community (EEC) as anything other than an object of its policy via the Americans and thus represents a clear shift towards treating the Western Europeans as a separate entity from the United States within the Western Alliance.

July 16

Euromissiles: The ﬁrst round of the resumed INF talks in Geneva ends with no substantial progress. The determination of the United States to avoid ‘linkage’ between INF and the SDI results in a stalemate. It is clear that the US administration is not very bothered about whether or not there is an agreement. The onus shifts to Soviet side.

August 6

The Nuclear Balance: The Soviet Union announces a unilateral moratorium on nuclear testing.

September

European Defence: Britain, Germany, Italy, and Spain agree to build the European Fighter Aircraft (EFA) or Euroﬁghter as it becomes known. Work allocation is divided strictly on investment levels, with the UK and Germany leading the way. France is, at this stage, outside, as it remains committed to building a wholly French aircraft, the Rafael. The ﬁrst aircraft will not be delivered to Britain’s Royal Air Force until 2007.

September 25

The Middle East: Three Israeli civilians are killed on their yacht oﬀ Larnaca, Cyprus. Force 17 of the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) claims responsibility. The Israeli Cabinet vows revenge.

October 1

The Middle East: The Israeli Air Force (IAF) attacks the headquarters of the PLO in Tunis, Tunisia. Sixty people are killed.

October 2

East–West Balance: Gorbachev arrives in Paris where he stresses the Soviet Union’s wish to resolve ‘accumulated European and world problems’.

October 3

East–West Balance: Gorbachev, in a speech to the deputies of the French Assemblée Nationale, makes clear that his wish to resolve foreign-policy disputes has an economic imperative. The ﬁrst real suggestion that reform or Perestroika is driving new Soviet thinking in foreign policy.

October 3

Euromissiles: In the same speech to the French Assemblée Nationale, Gorbachev oﬀers direct talks with France and Britain. France, in particular, objects to direct talks between the Soviet Union and the United States over issues that it regards as its special interest. Gorbachev lays the foundation

1985 [157] for a later concept of the Common European Home and his subsequent attempts to de-couple the Americans and Western Europeans in a manner far more subtle than those employed in the past. However, he goes on to say that the Soviet Union cannot ignore British and French nuclear forces because: ‘This capability is growing rapidly and we can no longer close our eyes to it.’ Gorbachev also oﬀers to drop the Soviet linkage between the SDI and INF if the British and French start talks with the USSR about their own nuclear systems. October 15 CSCE: The CSCE Cultural Forum takes place in Budapest, Hungary. –November 25 November 19–21

The First Gorbachev–Reagan Summit: Soviet leader Gorbachev meets US President Reagan in Geneva. The summit falters as Reagan tries to convince Gorbachev of the mutual beneﬁt to be gained from continued US research and development of the SDI. However, both sides agree to accelerate progress towards a 50 per cent cut in strategic nuclear forces (START) and interim INF agreement on Long-Range Theatre Nuclear Forces (LRTNF) in Europe.

December

European Defence: In what represents a major change of policy, France agrees to participate in the Euroﬁghter project if the aircraft can be redesigned to suit the requirements of the French Air Force.

1986 AT A GLANCE—MAJOR EVENTS AND THEMES

r r r r

Spain and Portugal join the European Economic Community (EEC). Reagan and Gorbachev meet in Reykjavik, Iceland. Gorbachev makes a radical proposal to cut nuclear weapons. The Single European Act (SEA) is signed; the European Community (EC) is born with an overt foreign, security, and defence element. r A switch to defence suﬃciency takes place in Soviet doctrine. r The US attacks Tripoli, Libya.

January 1

The Road to European Union: Spain and Portugal join the EEC, bringing its membership to twelve.

January 14

Euromissiles: Soviet leader Gorbachev writes to British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher, outlining the proposals for a cut in nuclear forces on both sides that he is to make public the following day.

January 15

Euromissiles: Gorbachev issues a statement, probably without full Politburo backing, that the USSR and the US should ‘reduce by one half the nuclear weapons that can reach one another’s territory’. As to the remaining systems, each side would retain no more than 6,000 warheads. This would be dependent upon mutual renunciation of ‘the development, testing and deployment of space strike weapons’. The ﬁrst stage would include ‘the adoption and implementation of a decision on the complete elimination of medium-range missiles of the USSR and the USA in the European zone’. The Soviets also include the non-transfer provision that they had consistently attempted and failed to get the Americans to accept during the Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (SALT) I and II. ‘The United States should undertake not to transfer its strategic and medium-range missiles to other countries.’ The most innovative element, however, is the disappearance of the insistence upon compensation for existing British and French systems by suggesting that ‘Great Britain and France should pledge not to build up their respective nuclear arsenals’.

January 15

Euromissiles: Western Europeans react to the Soviet proposal by suggesting that the USSR was once again trying to de-couple the US from its NATO allies.

February 17

The Road to European Union: The Single European Act (SEA), elaborated during the IGC convened in 1985, is signed in Luxembourg. European Political Co-operation (EPC) is incorporated into the treaty: ‘The High Contracting Parties . . . shall endeavour jointly to formulate and implement a European foreign policy.’ They also pledge to develop ‘a European identity

1986 [159] in external policy matters’. The SEA contains the legal codiﬁcation of EPC structures and processes, including Commission involvement in the EPC. It also creates a small EPC secretariat. Thus, what is now called the European Community contains for the ﬁrst time an element of security, foreign, and defence policy. Although still vague, intergovernmental, and, as far as security is concerned, restricted to non-military aspects, it represents an important precedent. France and Germany are very much the driving forces and it is therefore a surprise that the arch Eurosceptic, Margaret Thatcher, accepts the treaty. February 23

Euromissiles: The US formally rejects the Soviet oﬀer of 15 January on Euromissiles.

February

European Defence: The United States expresses an interest in joining the consortium building the Euroﬁghter. It is probably a spoiling move as the US begins to become concerned about a future Europe that might go its own way particularly in defence-industrial matters.

March 10

Euromissiles: NATO Secretary-General Lord Carrington reacts to the Gorbachev proposal of 15 January and echoes British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher by saying that Britain and France could not be expected to accept ‘perpetual nuclear obsolescence’.

March 12

NATO: In a referendum the Spanish electorate votes for the continued membership of the Alliance’s integrated military structure (IMS).

March 26

Euromissiles: Izvestiya reports that General Secretary Gorbachev made a speech at the 27th Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU) redeﬁning the Soviet concept of security away from preparedness to take the oﬀensive to one of defence suﬃciency. This is in order to meet certain preconditions for talks that the British and French have insisted upon with regard to their own nuclear forces. ‘Security’, he declared, ‘can only be mutual,’ and Soviet military doctrine was ‘purely defensive’. ‘Our country’, he argued, ‘is in favour of keeping military capability within the limits of reasonable suﬃciency.’

April 5

The Libya Attack: Three people die, including US servicemen, in a bomb explosion at a disco in West Berlin. A Berlin court later ﬁnds Libya coresponsible for the attack.

April 15

The Libya Attack: The US attacks the Libyan capital, Tripoli, in retaliation for what it regards as complicity in the terrorist attack in Berlin in which several Americans were killed. The NATO allies are split over the American action, with only the UK oﬀering full and unquestioning support.

April 15 –May 26

CSCE: A meeting takes place of Conference on Security and Co-operation in Europe (CSCE) experts in Berne, Switzerland, on fostering human contacts.

April 25–6

The Chernobyl Disaster: A testing procedure in reactor number 4 of the nuclear plant in Chernobyl, Ukraine, gets out of control. The ensuing chemical explosions blow oﬀ the reactor’s heavy steel and concrete lid. Radioactive clouds are released for more than ten days and spread over parts of Europe. The accident kills around 30 people immediately and more than 15,000 in the emergency clean-up in the three-month period immediately

[160] countdown to freedom afterwards. As a result of the high radiation levels in the surrounding 30-km radius, 135,000 people have to be evacuated. Estimations of the total shortand long-term death toll of the disaster range from 15,000 to 56,000. It is estimated that a million more people become ill or suﬀer disability because of the disaster. May 4–6

G7/G8: A political debate on terrorism is held. The European Community (EC) countries’ position was previously consolidated within the European Political Co-operation (EPC) framework and is carried over into the ﬁnal document the statement an International Terrorism: they give preference to strategies founded on diplomacy and political sanctions rather than economic sanctions or military action.

May 22

NATO: NATO’s Defence Planning Committee (DPC) rubber-stamps the US administration’s decision to resume the production of chemical weapons.

May 29–30

NATO: Alliance foreign ministers issue a statement at the ministerial meeting of the North Atlantic Council (NAC) in Halifax, Canada, that calls on Moscow to join the West in taking ‘bold new steps’ to promote peace, security, and a productive East–West dialogue. At the same meeting ministers also establish a High-Level Task Force on Conventional Arms Control.

July 25

The Strategic Defense Initiative: President Reagan extends an invitation to General Secretary Gorbachev to visit the United States. However, Gorbachev is reluctant to go unless a deal cutting the SDI is in the oﬃng.

September 19

The Strategic Defense Initiative: Soviet Foreign Minister Shevardnadze hands US Secretary of State George Shultz a reply to the Reagan invitation for Gorbachev to visit the US. He says that the two leaders should be personally involved in preparations for the summit.

September 20

Euromissiles: To help the Americans accept the idea of a pre-summit summit, Soviet Foreign Minister Shevardnadze announces that the Soviet Union has dropped its demand that British and French nuclear forces be frozen at existing levels.

October 11–12

The Second Gorbachev–Reagan Summit: US President Reagan and Soviet General Secretary Gorbachev meet in Reykjavik. The Soviet side surprises the US by arriving with a radical arms-control package. The Soviets suggest that, ﬁrst, the two sides should both cut strategic weapons by 50 per cent in the ﬁrst ﬁve years of any agreement and then the remaining 50 per cent in the following ﬁve. Initially, Reagan agrees to apply this proposal to all intercontinental weaponry. The Soviets then suggest the complete liquidation of US and Soviet medium/intermediate-range missiles in Europe. However, British and French forces are to be totally excluded. The Soviets agree to freeze SS-23 short-range weapons and SS-12 (model 2) Intermediate-Range Ballistic Missiles (IRBMs) at existing levels as a prelude to negotiations. However, the talks fail when Gorbachev links cuts to the scrapping of the US Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI) programme.

October 21–2

Euromissiles: NATO defence ministers, meeting at Gleneagles Hotel in Scotland, express continuing concern at the US negotiating over their heads. They also agree to meet West German concerns by providing for constraints

1986 [161] on operational tactical missiles along with the reduction of Long-Range Theatre Nuclear Forces (LRTNF). However, the British and French continue to express unease over apparent US willingness to negotiate away weaponry that is peripheral to US security (LRTNF) but seem to be unprepared to negotiate on weaponry central to US security, i.e. the SDI. October 25

Euromissiles: In an article in The Economist, French Foreign Minister André Giraud is reported as saying that the withdrawal of all American missiles from Europe ‘would weaken the security of Europe, especially in view of other imbalances, such as those in conventional and chemical weapons’.

December 11

NATO: NATO foreign ministers issue the Brussels Declaration on Conventional Arms Control calling for negotiations to foster stability in the conventional arms balance. Speciﬁcally, they call for an end to existing disparities between Eastern and Western forces ‘from the Atlantic to the Urals’ through the establishment of a conventional arms balance at lower levels of military capability. They also call for further conﬁdence and security building measures.

December

European Defence: The European Defence Industry Study (EDIS), chaired by former Dutch Defence Minister Henk Vredeling, presents its report Towards a Stronger Europe to Independent European Programme Group (IEPG) ministers. The report’s proposals for an improvement of the competitiveness of Europe’s defence-equipment industry contain the following elements: an opening of procurement markets; promotion of mergers, the strengthening of technical capabilities; the principle of fair return; support for the development of the armaments sector in weaker countries; and the establishment of an IEPG secretariat in order to ensure that Western European countries can be technical leaders.

December

European Defence: In an address to the Western European Union (WEU) Assembly, French Prime Minister Jacques Chirac proposes that the WEU draw up a Western European Charter of security principles. The Assembly strongly endorses this and recommends that the Council draw up such a document.

1987 AT A GLANCE—MAJOR EVENTS AND THEMES

r r r r

France withdraws from Euroﬁghter. Turkey applies to join the Western European Union (WEU). WEU Platform on European Security Interests is adopted. Intermediate Nuclear Forces Treaty is signed.

January

European Defence: Greece enquires about joining the WEU.

January 8

The Strategic Defense Initiative: Soviet leader Gorbachev accepts defeat over his attempt at Reykjavik to link cuts in strategic and intermediate nuclear forces with the scrapping by the US of its Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI) programme by stating through the TASS news agency that the Intermediate Nuclear Forces (INF) issue could be singled out from the rest for negotiation.

January 26

NATO: In the wake of the referendum Spain resumes negotiations with its NATO partners on the future role of Spanish forces with the Alliance.

February

European Defence: France withdraws support for Euroﬁghter due to design incompatibility with the requirements of the French Air Force.

February 17

The Balance of Forces in Europe: Talks open in Vienna between NATO and the Warsaw Treaty Organization (WTO) on the search for the basis upon which future negotiations would take place over conventional forces in Europe.

March 3–4

Euromissiles: The US delegation to the INF talks tables a draft agreement. The Soviets respond by accepting the proposal in principle and agreeing to intrusive on-site inspections, which has been one of the major stumbling blocks to progress. However, Western Europeans remain uneasy about the American proposals. To satisfy the Germans, the Americans agree to insist that Soviet short-range nuclear weapons be included within the treaty framework. The Soviets object on the grounds that the American equivalent (the ageing Pershing 1A) is not included.

March 27

NATO: Following an emergency session of the North Atlantic Council (NAC), NATO Secretary-General Lord Carrington oﬀers to help resolve the dispute in the Aegean between two Alliance members, Greece and Turkey.

March

European Defence: The US withdraws its interest in participating in the building of Euroﬁghter.

April

European Defence: Turkey makes a formal application to join the WEU.

June 4

Euromissiles: The West German Parliament formally calls for the elimination of INF and short-range missiles in Europe.

1987 [163] June 5

The End of the Cold War: The Canadian Government announces a decision to redirect its strategy of reinforcing NATO’s Northern Region in Europe to the Central Region. Henceforth, the Canadians will support the British Army of the Rhine (BAOR). The Peace Dividend begins as the reduction of NATO forces gathers pace.

June 19

European Defence: West German Chancellor Helmut Kohl proposes the formation of a joint Franco-German Brigade as the ﬁrst step towards a joint European ﬁghting force. A new chapter is opened in European defence and a ﬁrst step is taken on the road to what will become known as Eurocorps.

June

The End of the Cold War: Karoly Grosz becomes Hungarian Prime Minister, and whilst he begins to introduce tough economic reforms, he also relaxes censorship legislation to allow independent political groups and to legalize the right to strike and to demonstrate.

July 22

Euromissiles: General Secretary Mikhail Gorbachev announces a Soviet preparedness to eliminate all intermediate-range nuclear weapons including those deployed in 1987 in the Asian part of the Soviet Union as part of any US–Soviet INF treaty.

July 23

Euromissiles: Following the Gorbachev démarche Soviet negotiators present a proposal in Geneva at the US–Soviet arms control negotiations. They accept the principle of what becomes known as the ‘double-zero option’ whereby both Soviet and US land-based intermediate and short-range (LRINF and SRINF) forces would be completely eliminated.

August 20

European Defence: WEU experts meeting in The Hague consider joint action in the Gulf to ensure freedom of navigation in the oil shipping lanes of the region. If agreed it would be the ﬁrst time the WEU would act outside Europe since its formation in 1948. It is one further small step towards European defence outside NATO.

August 28–30

The End of the Cold War: US military inspectors attend military manoeuvres near Minsk as part of the ﬁrst inspection under the provisions of the September 1986 Stockholm Document on military transparency. It is an important step towards a Conventional Forces Europe (CFE) agreement.

September 15–17

Euromissiles: During a visit to the United States by Soviet Foreign Minister Shevardnadze, the Americans inform him that the West Germans have agreed to withdraw their objections to the inclusion of the Pershing 1A within the INF Treaty to oﬀset Soviet conventional superiority. All the ‘ﬁnal issues of principle’ are resolved.

September

NATO: The North Atlantic Assembly produces a report recommending Alliance participation in the US SDI. However, while it is clear that any involvement will be peripheral, it will in time lead to Alliance Ballistic Theatre Missile Defence (ABTMD).

October 5–7

The End of the Cold War: As part of the reciprocity at the heart of the Stockholm Accord Soviet military inspectors attend NATO exercises in Turkey.

October 27

European Defence: The WEU Ministerial Council adopts a ‘Platform on European Security Interests’. The document is the result of consultations following a December 1986 proposal by French Prime Minister Chirac.

[164] countdown to freedom Recognizing that ‘the constitution of an integrated Europe will remain incomplete as long as it does not include security and defence, [WEU foreign and defence ministers] intend therefore to develop a more cohesive European defence identity’ by setting out European security conditions and criteria and the speciﬁc responsibilities of Europeans for their defence within the Atlantic Alliance after the negotiations between the United States and the USSR on the withdrawal of intermediate nuclear forces. In the Platform, the WEU links its fate to the European Community (EC) for the ﬁrst time. November 4

European Defence: US President Reagan welcomes the WEU Platform and emphasizes the unshakeable nature of the United States’ commitments to the Alliance and to European security.

November 11

European Defence: The NAC also welcomes the WEU Platform, which aﬃrms ‘a positive identity in the ﬁeld of European security within the framework of the Atlantic Alliance, conducive to the strengthening of the transatlantic partnership and of the alliance as a whole’.

November 13

European Defence: At the 50th French–German summit in Karlsruhe, German Federal Chancellor Kohl and French President Mitterrand announce that a joint German–French Brigade will be set up.

December 8

Euromissiles: The Treaty Between the United States of America and the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics on the Elimination of Their Intermediate-Range and Shorter-Range Missiles (INF Treaty) is signed by Reagan and Gorbachev in Washington. Both parties agree to eliminate all their intermediate- and medium-range missiles and launchers within 18 months of the ratiﬁcation of the treaty. This covers SS-20s, SS-4s, SS-5s, SS12s, and SS-23s on the Soviet side; Pershing 2s, Pershing 1As, and cruise on the American side. Replacement missiles are banned. On-site inspection is provided for at all operating bases and support facilities. The treaty is for unlimited duration.

December 11

NATO: On the occasion of the 20th anniversary of the Harmel Report, at a meeting of the NAC, the US secretary of state, together with the foreign ministers of Belgium, West Germany, Italy, the Netherlands, and the UK, sign bilateral agreements covering implementation of the INF Treaty and its on-site inspection and veriﬁcation procedures.

December

The Middle East: An intifada (uprising) begins in the West Bank and the Gaza Strip. The Palestinians protest with civil disobedience and riots against the Israeli occupation.

1988 AT A GLANCE—MAJOR EVENTS AND THEMES

r r r r r r r r

The withdrawal begins of Soviet troops from Afghanistan. The Kádár regime in Hungary is replaced by reform communists. An Iranian airliner is shot down by the US warship USS Vincennes. The Iran–Iraq War ends. Mikhail Gorbachev becomes President of the Soviet Union. George Herbert Walker Bush is elected US President. Pan Am Flight 103 explodes over Scotland. Chairman Yasser Arafat, leader of the Palestinian Liberation Organization (PLO), recognizes the State of Israel.

January 22

European Defence: A German–French Defence and Security Council is created. It gives the two countries’ security and defence co-operation a broad institutional basis. The council is composed of the Heads of State and Government and the foreign and defence ministers, and meets at least twice a year. The council’s work is to be prepared by a council’s committee, which bases itself on reports by the German–French Permanent Commission for Security and Defence.

March 2–3

NATO: At a summit meeting of the North Atlantic Council (NAC) in Brussels, meeting at heads of state and government level, Allied unity is emphasized with the common objectives and principles reasserted together with a declaration over the continuing validity of Alliance policies. A Statement on Conventional Arms Control is also issued which calls for signiﬁcant progress on eliminating conventional force disparities in Europe between East and West.

March 23

The Collapse of the Soviet Union: Mikhail Gorbachev speaks in favour of more private initiative in agriculture. Faced with the essential contradictions of the Soviet central planning and the failure of successive so-called Five Year Plans the Soviet Union faces economic collapse.

April 14

Afghanistan: Afghanistan and Pakistan sign an agreement, with the US and the USSR as guarantors, calling for the withdrawal of Soviet military forces from Afghanistan.

April 19

European Defence: The Western European Union (WEU) Council issues a political statement voicing its grave concern at the increase in hostilities in the Persian Gulf and the need to respect the principle of free navigation, and it calls urgently for an immediate end to all mine-laying and other hostile activities against shipping in international waters. This is the ﬁrst application of Article VIII of the modiﬁed Brussels Treaty,

[166] countdown to freedom which foresees that at the request of any of the High Contracting Parties the Council should be ‘immediately convened in order to permit them to consult with regard to any situation which may constitute a threat to peace, in whatever area this threat should arise, or a danger to economic stability’. The Council consultations lead to Operation Clean Sweep, which helps to clear the Gulf waters of mines, providing the ﬁrst example of a joint military operation co-ordinated by the WEU. May 15

Afghanistan: Soviet troops begin their withdrawal from Afghanistan. Some 620,000 Soviet personnel have served. The Red Army has suﬀered its worst defeat since the early days of World War Two. The original objective of curbing the spread of Islamic fundamentalism in the southern Soviet Republics has been forgotten in the sheer rush to get out. Islamic fundamentalism, far from being weakened, gains status across the Islamic world.

May 23

The End of the Cold War: An extraordinary congress of the Hungarian Socialist Workers’ Party agrees profound changes in, and reform of, the top leadership and a separation of functions between state and party. Party head János Kádár is replaced by Karoly Grosz, who became Prime Minister in 1987.

May 26–7

NATO: As part of an ongoing debate over burden-sharing between the US and its European allies, NATO defence ministers commission the Executive Working Group (EWG) to conduct a review of roles, risks, and responsibilities shared by member nations to sustain the credibility and eﬀectiveness of the Alliance.

May 31

Euromissiles: US President Reagan and Soviet General Secretary Gorbachev exchange documents implementing the recently ratiﬁed December 1987 Intermediate Nuclear Forces (INF) Treaty and sign bilateral agreements covering nuclear testing.

June 24

NATO: NATO announces the formation of a so-called Composite Force to reinforce Northern Norway in periods of tension or hostility. This force is designed to replace the Canadian Brigade (CAST) which has been reassigned to the Central Region. In reality the initiative is the start of the reduction of forces as the end of the Cold War approaches.

June 29

The Collapse of the Soviet Union: At a press conference in Moscow chaired by General Secretary Gorbachev, leading Soviet politicians and economists demand major political and economic reforms in order to allow the democratization process to proceed.

July 1

NATO: In a historic appointment Manfred Wörner, the former West German Minister of Defence, succeeds Lord Carrington as Secretary-General of NATO. It is the ﬁrst time since World War Two that a German has been appointed to such a senior position.

July 3

The Middle East: The USS Vincennes, a US cruiser, shoots down an Iranian airliner in the Persian Gulf, killing 290 people. The US Government says the USS Vincennes mistook the airliner for an Iranian F-14 Tomcat in spite of being warned of its presence by a nearby British warship.

1988 [167] July 3

The Collapse of the Soviet Union: The All-Union Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU) endorses proposals for the dramatic reform of all the main political institutions of the Soviet Union.

August 20

The End of the Iran–Iraq War: A ceaseﬁre ends the Iran–Iraq War after Iran, feeling militarily isolated, oﬀers peace negotiations to Iraq. Over one million people are dead and neither side has gained.

September

The End of the Cold War: The Hungarian Democratic Forum, an umbrella movement for opposition groups, is formed.

October 1

The Collapse of the Soviet Union: Mikhail Gorbachev is elected Chairman of the Supreme Soviet and Head of State.

November 8

The United States: George Herbert Walker Bush is elected the 41st US President. The former director of the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) and Vice-President under Ronald Reagan, he is the father of the 43rd President, George W. Bush.

November 9

European Defence: Independent European Programme Group (IEPG) ministers accept the Action Plan on a Stepwise Development of a European Armaments Market, which they commissioned in 1987. The Action Plan (which is based on the Vredeling Report of 1986, Towards a Stronger Europe) proposes an opening of armament markets to competition, the principle of juste retour, technical transfers, more research and development, and special assistance for countries with developing defence industries. Funding for community projects is to come from national budgets. Ministers also agree to set up a small IEPG secretariat in Lisbon.

November 14

European Defence: Spain and Portugal sign the accession protocol to the WEU.

December 1

The Collapse of the Soviet Union: The Supreme Soviet of the USSR approves the establishment of a new legislative body, the Congress of People’s Deputies.

December 7

The End of the Cold War: In the course of a major address to the UN General Assembly, Soviet President Gorbachev takes the West and much of the rest of the world by surprise when he announces that the Soviet Union will make unilateral conventional force reductions.

December 21

Pan Am Flight 103: Two hundred and seventy people are killed as an onboard bomb causes Pan Am Flight 103 to explode over Lockerbie, Scotland. The US and UK suspect Palestinian or Iranian involvement, the former possibly with Lebanese support. However, forensic evidence points to the involvement of the Libyan regime of Colonel Gaddaﬁ.

December

The Middle East: Palestinian leader Yasser Arafat recognizes the State of Israel and condemns terrorism in all its forms. It is a seminal moment in the search for a durable peace between the Palestinians and the Israelis.

1989 AT A GLANCE—MAJOR EVENTS AND THEMES

r The Solidarnosc trade union movement is legalized in Poland. r Slobodan Miloševi´c is elected President of Serbia. r Dr Wim van Eekelen is appointed Secretary-General of the Western European Union (WEU). r The Tiananmen Square massacre occurs in Beijing, China. r Reformist governments are elected in Poland and Czechoslovakia. r Gorbachev enunciates the Sinatra Doctrine. r A French UTA DC-10 aircraft explodes over the Sahara Desert. r The Berlin Wall falls. r Czechoslovakia‘s Velvet Revolution occurs. r Communist dictator Ceause¸scu and his wife are executed in Romania. r Democratic changes begin in Bulgaria.

January 7–11

WMD Proliferation: In a major advance for multilateral arms control 149 countries participate in an international Conference on Chemical Weapons in Paris, France.

January 18

The End of the Cold War: Soviet President Gorbachev announces cuts of 14.2 per cent in Soviet defence expenditure and 19.5 per cent in the production of arms and military equipment. Although touted as a major peace gesture the decision as much reﬂects the parlous state of the Soviet economy as forty years of Cold War take their toll.

January 19

European Stability: At the conclusion of the Vienna Conference on Security and Co-operation in Europe (CSCE) Follow-up Meeting a Concluding Document is adopted to initiate new negotiations on Conventional Forces in Europe (CFE) and on Conﬁdence and Security-Building Measures (CSBMs).

January 20

The United States: George H. W. Bush is inaugurated as US President. Brent Scowcroft becomes National Security Adviser, James Baker III Secretary of State, and John B. Tower Secretary of Defense.

January 23–7

The End of the Cold War: Reductions in conventional forces and military budgets are announced by several Warsaw Treaty Organization (WTO) states: East Germany (GDR), Poland, Hungary, Czechoslovakia, and Bulgaria. NATO welcomes the move as a signiﬁcant contribution to the reduction of conventional force imbalances in Europe. The Cold War begins to wind down.

1989 [169] February 2

The End of the Cold War: The ﬁnal meeting takes place in Vienna in negotiations on Mutually Balanced Force Reductions (MBFR). Agreement is in place for the start of formal negotiations on a CFE Treaty.

February 11

The End of the Cold War: The Soviet ediﬁce starts to crack. The Central Committee of the Hungarian Communist Party formally calls for the ‘gradual and steady’ transition to a multi-party political system.

February 15

Afghanistan: The Soviet Union announces that the last Soviet troops have left Afghanistan. Since 25 December 1979 and the Soviet invasion some 30,000 Soviet personnel have been killed and some 470,000 wounded or become sick. There are no reliable ﬁgures for Afghans killed or wounded. In the aftermath of the Soviet withdrawal the Kabul regime of Mohammed Nazibullah stumbles on but Afghanistan teeters on the brink of collapse with the most inﬂuential ﬁgures increasingly being regional warlords. The growing power of Islamic fundamentalism among the Mujahidin is reinforced by the Arab foreign ﬁghters in their ranks, the so-called Afghan Arabs. The Pakistanis increase their inﬂuence markedly through the work of their intelligence agency the Inter-Services Intelligence (ISI) and the Special Services Group (SSG). Indeed, such are the ﬂows of refugees into Pakistan’s largest province Baluchistan that the inﬂuence of the new immigrants continues to be felt in Pakistan to this day as Islamabad loses control over its North-West Frontier tribal lands.

February 24

The End of the Cold War: The Hungarian Socialist Workers’ Party renounces its constitutionally based claim to leadership.

March 6

The End of the Cold War: The foreign ministers of the CSCE states meet in Vienna to mark the opening of negotiations on CFE. In addition to the 16 NATO and 7 WTO members, are all 35 CSCE participating states.

March 9

The United States: The US Senate rejects President Bush’s ﬁrst nomination for the post of Secretary of Defense, John Tower. On 10 March Bush nominates Richard B. (Dick) Cheney. On 17 March Cheney is appointed US Secretary of Defense.

March 26

The Collapse of the Soviet Union: For the ﬁrst time, Soviet citizens can choose from among several candidates in elections to the ﬁrst Congress of Soviet People’s Deputies. Many reformist candidates are elected.

April 17

The End of the Cold War: The Polish trade union and opposition movement Solidarnosc is legalized and allowed to run for elections.

April 19

The Tiananmen Massacre: Tens of thousands of Chinese students start protests for democracy and freedom on Beijing’s Tiananmen Square on the eve of a visit to China by Gorbachev. The protests go on for weeks, and the number of demonstrators swells to over a million, gaining large support also from urban workers.

May 8

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: Slobodan Miloševi´c is elected President of Serbia by the National Assembly. The Balkan mettdown is about to begin.

May 12

The End of the Cold War: Picking up on an idea that US President Eisenhower had in 1955, President George Bush makes another Open Skies proposal, which is to involve NATO and the Warsaw Pact. Open Skies is meant

[170] countdown to freedom to serve as a conﬁdence-building tool, lead to increased transparency, and be used for the surveillance of arms-control and disarmament agreements, and possibly later on for crisis management and environmental protection. The proposal is also a test by the US President of how serious the Soviet Union is about political reforms. Unlike in 1955, the US proposal receives a positive response from the Soviet Union. May 15

European Defence: Dr Wim van Eekelen is appointed Secretary-General of the WEU. His appointment is an interesting one, for he is a former Dutch minister of defence and an expert on European defence, suggesting that the member states of the WEU are serious about upgrading the status of the organization.

May 15–18

The Tiananmen Massacre: President of the Supreme Soviet and general secretary of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU) Gorbachev pays an oﬃcial visit to China and meets Deng Xiaoping. The visit brings about formal restoration of party-to-party relations and completes a process of normalization of the relationship between the two countries that began when Gorbachev came to power.

May 20

The Tiananmen Massacre: Martial law is declared by Chinese leaders. The demonstrations in Tiananmen Square are widely covered by the international media, which is present due to Gorbachev’s visit.

May 25

The Collapse of the Soviet Union: Gorbachev is elected State President with special powers by the Congress of Soviet People’s Deputies.

May 29–30

The End of the Cold War: NATO agrees to a Comprehensive Concept of Arms Control and Disarmament.

May 29–30

European Stability: The ﬁrst meeting takes place of the CSCE Conference on the Human Dimension (CDH) in Paris, France.

May 31

The End of the Cold War: During a visit to West Germany President George H. W. Bush outlines proposals for promoting free elections and pluralism in Eastern Europe and the dismantling of the Berlin Wall.

May

The End of the Cold War: Nominally communist Hungary opens its borders to Austria. The lifting of the Iron Curtain begins.

June 4

The Tiananmen Massacre: Chinese leaders decide to use force to end protests. Up to 3,000 students may have been killed according to the Chinese Red Cross. The international image of China is seriously damaged.

June 18

The End of the Cold War: Free elections take place in Poland for the Polish Senate. Moreover, partial elections involving 35 per cent of seats in the Polish Parliament, the Sejm, result in a major victory for Solidarnosc. This inspires a succession of mostly peaceful anti-communist revolutions in Eastern Europe.

June 16

The End of the Cold War: Imre Nagy, the leader of the 1956 Hungarian revolution who was hanged in 1958, is reburied with full honours in Budapest, Hungary. The Warsaw Pact is beginning to dissolve.

June 19

The Nuclear Balance: Strategic Arms Reduction Talks (START) reopen in Geneva between the US and Soviet Union.

1989 [171] June 27

European Defence: At an Independent European Programme Group (IEPG) meeting in Estoril, Portugal, the European Co-operation for the Long Term in Defence (EUCLID), is endowed with 120 million European Currency Units (ECUs) for future transnational defence procurement. It is the ﬁrst step on the road to a European Defence Agency (EDA).

July 2

The Collapse of the Soviet Union: Former Soviet Foreign Minister and President Andrei Gromyko dies. Known as Mr Niet, for his uncompromising negotiating style, he had started his career with Molotov in the 1930s and survived Stalin and several Soviet leaders, becoming the international face of the Brezhnev regime in the 1960s and 1970s.

July 7

The End of the Cold War: At an Eastern bloc summit in Bucharest, Soviet leader Gorbachev concedes that every socialist state has the right to choose its own way of development. This invalidates the Brezhnev Doctrine of 1968 and creates the Sinatra Doctrine: they can do it their way.

July

The End of the Cold War: In Hungary, Prime Minister and Socialist Party leader Grosz has to cede power to three more-radical reformers including Imre Pozsgay. A four-person ruling presidency that includes Grosz is formed.

July

The End of the Cold War: East German citizens ﬂood to the West German embassies in Berlin, Budapest, and Prague, demanding to leave the German Democratic Republic (GDR).

August 19

The End of the Cold War: Some 900 people ﬂee over the ‘green border’ from Hungary to Austria, taking advantage of a so-called Pan-European Picnic initiated by the President of the Pan-European Union, Otto von Habsburg.

August 23

The End of the Cold War: Tens of thousands of people form a human chain between the capitals of Estonia and Lithuania, Tallinn and Vilnius, respectively, to protest against the 50th anniversary of the Hitler–Stalin Pact.

August 24

The End of the Cold War: The Hungarian Government grants permission to 108 East German citizens camping in the West German Embassy in Budapest to leave for the West in what is called a one-time humanitarian action.

August 24

The End of the Cold War: Tadeusz Mazowiecki becomes Prime Minister of what is the ﬁrst non-communist government in Poland in over forty years, even though the Polish United Workers’ Party (the communists) retain four ministries.

September 4

The End of the Cold War: The ﬁrst Monday Demonstration takes place in Leipzig, East Germany. Participants demand more freedom of travel and the closing down of the Ministry for State Security.

September 10–11

The End of the Cold War: Hungary allows all GDR or East German citizens presently on its territory to leave for the West. It does so without prior discussion with GDR authorities.

September 18

The End of the Cold War: At talks between the government and the opposition, the introduction of a multi-party system is agreed in Hungary and approved by the parliament the same day.

[172] countdown to freedom September 19

Terrorism: UTA DC-10 Flight 772 explodes over the Sahara Desert in southern Nigeria, killing 171 people. In 2003 Libya accepts responsibility.

September 30 –October 1

The End of the Cold War: Chartered trains transport some 7,600 GDR refugees who sought refuge at the Prague and Warsaw West German embassies across GDR territory to West Germany. Stations and tracks are closed and the carriages barred to prevent more people from jumping onto the trains.

October 3

The End of the Cold War: In a desperate attempt to stop the swelling tide of refugees the East German Communist Party, the SED, closes the borders of the GDR with Czechoslovakia.

October 7

The End of the Cold War: Mikhail Gorbachev participates in celebrations of the 40th anniversary of the founding of the GDR. He speaks about the necessity of reforms and says pointedly, ‘He who arrives late is punished by life.’

October 9

The End of the Cold War: Seventy thousand people demonstrate in Leipzig in the GDR. Their rallying cry becomes famous: ‘We are the people.’

October 16

CSCE/OSCE: A CSCE meeting on Environmental Protection takes place in Soﬁa, Bulgaria.

October 18

The End of the Cold War: East German leader Erich Honecker steps down from his posts as General Secretary of the SED and Chairman of the State Council. He is replaced by Egon Kranz, who cannot, however, stop the rapid crumbling of the country’s communist system.

October 23

The End of the Cold War: After giving the leader of the 1956 Hungarian Revolution, Imre Nagy, a state funeral, Hungary adopts a series of reforms: restrictions on emigration are eased, the Constitution is revised to allow for multi-party democracy, and the state’s name is changed from People’s Republic of Hungary to Republic of Hungary.

November 3

The End of the Cold War: The GDR Government decides that its citizens can leave the country without formalities via the territory of Czechoslovakia.

November 4

The End of the Cold War: Between 500,000 and 1 million people demonstrate in favour of democratic reforms in East Berlin. GDR television broadcasts the events live.

November 7

The End of the Cold War: The Government and Politburo of the GDR step down.

November 9

The Berlin Wall Falls: After hundreds of people converge on crossing points along the Berlin Wall, East Germany’s rulers give permission for gates along the Wall to be opened, and tens of thousands of people break through to the West.

November 10

The End of the Cold War: The Head of the Bulgarian state and Communist Party, Todor Zhivkov, is replaced by Petre Mladenov, hitherto Prime Minister. The party gives up its political and ideological monopoly, and a multi-party system is introduced in Bulgaria.

1989 [173] November 17

The End of the Cold War: Communist riot police severely beat participants in a peaceful student demonstration in Prague. The Velvet Revolution that follows ends in the overthrow of the Communist Government.

November 14

European Defence: Portugal and Spain sign the Treaty of Accession to the WEU.

November 20

The End of the Cold War: In what become known as the Monday Demonstrations, mass demonstrations take place in Leipzig, East Germany, calling for German uniﬁcation. East Germany’s communist Government is losing control.

November 26

The End of the Cold War: Civic forum leaders and one representative of Charta 77 meet with Czechoslovak Prime Minister Ladislav Adamec in Prague. They discuss the setting up of independent political parties and a transition to democracy. A further release of political prisoners is announced after the discussions. The opposition groups maintain the call for a two-hour general strike to take place the next day. The same evening, a massive rally takes place in Prague and is broadcast live on TV.

November 26

The End of the Cold War: Hungary conducts a referendum on four issues: putting oﬀ scheduled presidential elections until after parliamentary elections, the withdrawal of party organizations from the workplace, that the Hungarian Socialist Workers’ Party should give account of its property, and the dissolution of workers’ militia.

November 27

The End of the Cold War: A Czechoslovak general strike is observed by millions.

November 29

The End of the Cold War: The Czechoslovak Parliament abolishes the leading role of the Communist Party.

December 3

The End of the Cold War: The new East German Politburo and Central Committee resign amid revelations of communist misrule and corruption.

December 7

The End of the Cold War: In Bulgaria, thirteen opposition organizations form the Union of Democratic Forces (UDF).

December 7

The End of the Cold War: One by one Soviet puppet regimes in Eastern Europe fall. In Prague President Gustav Husak resigns and communist rule comes to an end with the formation of a broad coalition government in Czechoslovakia.

December 11

The End of the Cold War: Popular demonstrations in Bulgaria lead to the promise of free elections as the Communist Party renounces its leading role.

December 17

The End of the Cold War: Romanian leader Nicolae Ceau¸sescu orders regular military forces and Securitate secret service forces to ﬁre on anti-communist demonstrators in the city of Timisoara. The demonstrations quickly spread to Bucharest.

December 19

The End of the Cold War: Soviet Foreign Minister Eduard Shevardnadze visits NATO Headquarters for talks with NATO Secretary-General Manfred Wörner and Permanent Representatives of NATO countries. It is the ﬁrst such visit by a Soviet minister. The Cold War is truly over.

[174] countdown to freedom December 20

The Panama Operation: Citing the need to protect US citizens and the Canal Zone the US invades Panama. This follows the refusal of the Panamanian Government, under the de facto rule of General Manuel Noriega, to recognize the victory of Guillermo Endarma in presidential elections, citing US interference. The similarities with the 1956 Suez Crisis are both striking and ironic.

December 22

The End of the Cold War: The Romanian Army fraternizes with the demonstrators. Ceau¸sescu and his wife ﬂee in a helicopter. The pilot lands after faking an engine failure, and the Ceau¸sescus are captured by the Romanian Army at a roadblock.

December 25

The End of the Cold War: Ceau¸sescu and his wife are executed in Romania after a secret military tribunal ﬁnds them guilty of crimes against the state.

December 27

The Panama Operation: Having achieved their objective, US troops begin to withdraw from Panama.

December 29

The End of the Cold War: Former dissident and famed writer Vaclav Havel is elected President of a transitional government in Czechoslovakia.

PART SIX The Strategic Vacation

1990–1999

INTRODUCTION

1990–1999 The Strategic Vacation: Much of the 1990s is spent clearing up the detritus of the Cold War. It is also the start of strategic vacation. Indeed, while at times ﬁerce debate erupts over Europe’s role in the world that splits Atlanticists and Europeanists, most Europeans retreat into Euro-isolationism as they grapple with the construction of an increasingly complicated European institutional architecture. For nine months between 9 November 1989 and 2 August 1990 the world is in strategic equilibrium. It is a unique moment. The elder Bush talks of a new world order, a leading thinker foresees a systemic liberal-democratic victory that will presage the end of history and even much of the Russian elite see their ‘defeat’ as an opportunity. The Europeans get in on the act. In 1991 they agree the Treaty on European Union (TEU) and with it a Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP). The site of its signing, the Dutch town of Maastricht, enters the political lexicon. However, for many Europeans the intricacies of European institutions become the very stuﬀ of international relations. There is, however, a whole diﬀerent world out there. It is the certainty of the profoundly out of touch. NATO

Only at NATO is there a sense of uncertainty—what now for the Alliance? At NATO’s London Summit in July 1990 NATO announces that it will reduce the number of troops deployed up against the border with Warsaw Pact forces. The so-called Forward Presence that has sustained Alliance strategy since the early 1950s ﬁnally comes to an end. Moreover, nuclear weapons are henceforth to be weapons of last resort, not ﬁrst. A new military strategy is proposed shifting

[176] the strategic vacation the Alliance to a crisis response role. Finally, a statement is prepared that NATO and the Warsaw Pact are no longer enemies. It is just in time for the Warsaw Pact is soon to cease to exist. Indeed, NATO begins the business of embracing its old enemies as the Alliance embarks on the ﬁrst steps towards enlargement. To that end, NATO adopts the New Strategic Concept at the Rome Summit in November 1991 and in December the North Atlantic Co-operation Council (NACC) is formed to pave the way for a new NATO. Six years later in July 1997, the Czech Republic, Hungary, and Poland are invited to join the Alliance. There is even talk in some more optimistic circles of Russia itself joining NATO. Instead, 1997 also witnesses the creation of the NATO–Russia Permanent Joint Council. It is at least something, even though that something is a Russia that cannot make its mind up as to whether it is part of European security or a problem for it. The jury on this is still out. THE GULF WAR AND THE END OF THE SOVIET UNION

On 2 August 1990 the real world breaks into the post-Cold War party that Europe is enjoying. Saddam Hussein’s tanks role across the Kuwaiti Border in open violation of the UN Charter. In months a coalition is formed and the new American hyper-military is unveiled to crush the Iraqis, revealing as they do the extent to which much of Europe has fallen behind in military technology. With the Cold War over, Europe retreats into defence cuts and defence premium, and security and defence slides rapidly down the slope of political priorities. And why not? In the space of two bewildering years Germany reunites and Eastern Europe is liberated. Finally, in August and September 1991 ten Soviet republics declare their independence from the Soviet Union. Even Russia joins in, which is not without some irony. Perhaps the Soviet Union had repressed Russia too? On 21 December 1991, with the creation of the new Confederation of Independent States (CIS), the Soviet Union is deemed no longer to exist. Released from the shackles of alliance discipline imposed by the Soviet threat America and Europe begin the bickering that has been the story of transatlantic relations and European security and defence ever since. America, determined to prove to its old allies that (a) they still need American leadership; and (b) they had better do far more, itself retreats into the politics of what Bill Clinton succinctly described as ‘the economy, stupid‘. Excited by their apparent coming of age, Europeans manufacture security and defence acronyms apace with no intention of giving them either meaning or capability. In 1994 the European Security and Defence Identity (ESDI) is introduced to NATO with a fanfare of irrelevance, followed in 1999 by the European Union’s European Security and Defence Policy (ESDP).

the strategic vacation [177] THE WARS OF THE YUGOSLAV SUCCESSION

But there is a blot on the landscape, and a bloody one at that. The Balkans ﬁnally collapse. The Prime Minister of Luxembourg loudly proclaims 1991 to be the Hour of Europe, but forgets to add the word ‘humiliation‘, as preventing the collapse of Yugoslavia rapidly proves beyond Europe and Europeans. By 1995 it is all too obvious that only American power will stop the genocide, and it is the same in 1999 as Kosovo too faces the horror of ethnic cleansing. ‘America says and Europe pays’ becomes the mantra of the 1990s as Europe fails to close the rhetoric–capabilities gap. Indeed, the Wars of the Yugoslav Succession are the dark side of victory in the Cold War as both Americans and Europeans initially lack the means and the will to prevent a Serbia determined to carve out an enlarged state for itself via the blood of over 200,000 victims. The wars demonstrate something else. The transatlantic alliance is a big security relationship designed to deal with high, not low, politics, and in the Balkans of the 1990s politics is the lowest of the low as death squads and rape gangs grind their way across what is left of Yugoslavia. It is not until the Bosnian Serbs sack the UN ‘safe haven’ of Srebrenica and massacre some 7,000 Bosnian men in 1995 that NATO reacts with ﬁrepower and the terror of the Bosnian Serbs is ﬁnally broken. The 1995 Dayton Accords impose an uneasy peace on BosniaHerzegovina that exists to this day. THE POLITICS OF EUROPEAN DEFENCE

Throughout the 1990s the politics of European defence accelerates as the creation of the European Union spurs on what simply becomes known as ‘Brussels’ to subsume all the functions of its member states. However, no issue is as thorny as defence because it is the essential competence of the state. For France, European defence is the chance for which it has been long searching to eclipse American power in Europe and with it NATO. With the creation of Eurocorps in 1992 France seems to have the perfect vehicle. However, the Americans will not cede NATO’s ground. Consequently, each time an initiative is launched by one side, the other counters. Each and every initiative is masked by the rhetoric of false co-operation with much talk of strengthening this and strengthening that. The result is precisely the opposite. For the British in particular it is an acutely uncomfortable period as bereft of any vision of their own they try to ‘balance’ American and French policy and at the same time ﬁnd some solution to the carnage in the former Yugoslavia. In May 1997 Tony Blair comes to power. Young and Europe-leaning he promises to give resurgent British economic power the European strategic idea

[178] the strategic vacation it had always lacked. In December 1998 Britain and France make a historic commitment to lead Europe towards a security and defence capability worthy of the name. However, France is at the same time keen on British engagement in Europe, but wary of it. The past will always speak with eloquence in the transChannel relationship. As the enlargement of Europe threatens to weaken French power, President Chirac seeks a new inner core through the creation of a single currency that is political anathema to Britain. Balance of power politics is back. In April 1999 NATO removes Serbian forces forcibly from the Serbian region of Kosovo. Made up of 90 per cent Albanians Belgrade has embarked upon a campaign of repression and ethnic cleansing that had scarred what was meant to be Europe’s victorious decade. Unfortunately, history never ends. On 7 August 1998, 250 people are killed and 5,000 wounded in explosions in Kenya and Tanzania. It is the work of al-Qaeda.

1990 AT A GLANCE—MAJOR EVENTS AND THEMES

r r r r r r r r r r r r

Lithuania declares independence from the USSR. Communist rule in Hungary ends. Spain and Portugal join the Western European Union (WEU). Germany and France propose a European Union (EU). Dublin Convention on the allocation of asylum applications between European Community (EC) member states is agreed. The Convention Implementing the Schengen Agreement on free cross-border movement is signed. Iraq invades Kuwait. Germany is reuniﬁed and the German Question ﬁnally resolved. The Conventional Forces in Europe (CFE) Agreement is signed. NATO and the Warsaw Treaty Organisation (WTO) declare themselves to no longer be enemies. The Transatlantic Declaration is signed. Two EC Intergovernmental Conferences (IGC) begin on monetary and political union.

January

The United States: The US announces its National Security Strategy (NSS). It bears similarities with the Quid Pro Quo plan of 1945 in that it invites all major powers to join the US in forming a New World Order in which liberal democracy will be spread as a precondition of security.

February 3

The End of the Cold War: The Bulgarian parliament elects economist Andrei Lukanov as Prime Minister. He is replacing a hardline communist.

February 6

The Collapse of the Soviet Union: In an unprecedented speech to the Plenary Session of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU), Soviet President Gorbachev calls for the abandonment of the leading role of the Communist Party and the introduction of political pluralism.

February 12–28

The End of the Cold War: The ﬁrst round of negotiations between NATO and Warsaw Pact states on an Open Skies treaty takes place in Ottawa, Canada. There are disagreements over the resolution of optic sensors on planes and on information-sharing, but progress is made.

February 13

German Reuniﬁcation: During Open Skies talks, agreement is reached in Ottawa, Canada, to hold discussions on the establishment of German unity in what becomes known as a ‘Two Plus Four’ (West and East Germany, plus the US, the UK, France, and the Soviet Union) framework. NATO and

[180] the strategic vacation WTO foreign ministers also agree on steps to enable a CFE agreement to be concluded in 1990. March 11

The End of the Cold War: The Lithuanian parliament declares the reestablishment of independence.

March 13

The Collapse of the Soviet Union: Article 6, prescribing the leading role of the Communist Party, is removed from the constitution of the Soviet Union.

March 15

The Collapse of the Soviet Union: Mikhail Gorbachev is elected President of the USSR.

March 17

The End of the Cold War: WTO foreign ministers meeting in Prague support the continuation of both NATO and the Warsaw Pact.

March 18

German Reuniﬁcation: In the ﬁrst free elections in over forty years the citizens of East Germany give an overwhelming majority to the conservative ‘Alliance for Germany’. It is a key step in the formal reuniﬁcation of Germany.

March 19 –April 11

CSCE: The Conference on Security and Co-operation in Europe (CSCE) Conference on Economic Co-operation in Europe takes place in Bonn, Germany, against the backdrop of a European political map that is being redrawn by the day.

March 25 and April 8

The End of the Cold War: In two rounds of the ﬁrst free elections in Hungary since before World War Two, a coalition of centre-right parties led by the Hungarian Democratic Forum wins.

March 26

The End of the Cold War: Churchill’s Iron Curtain begins ﬁnally to collapse as the Czech Government orders the complete opening of its border with Austria and West Germany.

March 27

European Defence: Portugal and Spain become full members of the WEU.

March 30

The Collapse of the Soviet Union: The Estonian parliament declares the Soviet annexation to have been illegal and re-establishes the country’s independence.

April 10

The End of the Cold War: The Bulgarian Communist Party changes its name to Bulgarian Socialist Party.

April 12

German Reuniﬁcation: The East German coalition government pronounces formally in favour of reuniﬁcation with West Germany on the basis of Article 23 of the Basic Law and the membership of one uniﬁed country in the North Atlantic Alliance. After forty-one years of struggle the West has answered the German Question emphatically in its favour.

April 23 –May 2

The End of the Cold War: The second round of Open Skies negotiations takes place in Budapest. Progress is again slowed by disagreements on technical issues.

April 28

The Road to European Union: At the Special Dublin European Council Germany and France propose the creation of a European Union (EU). What becomes known as the Dublin Convention is agreed. The subtext is the establishment of France’s relationship with a soon-to-be reuniﬁed

1990 [181] Germany. Indeed, a not insigniﬁcant aspect to the drive for European Union is Germany’s desire to relieve any concerns felt by its neighbours and partners over the creation of a new European political and economic power by embedding the new Germany ﬁrmly in the institutions of a European Union. France is particularly concerned not to lose what it sees as its traditional leadership role. May 3

Euromissiles: In the light of the radically changed strategic environment President George H. W. Bush announces the cancellation of modernization programmes for nuclear artillery shells deployed in Europe and for a successor to the LANCE short-range nuclear missile. President Bush also calls for negotiations on US and Soviet short-range nuclear missiles to begin shortly after a CFE Treaty is signed.

May 4

The Collapse of the Soviet Union: The Latvian parliament declares the union with the USSR illegal and states its intention to restore full Latvian independence after a transition period.

May 8

The End of the Cold War: The Estonian parliament modiﬁes the Republic’s name and constitution and restores its pre-war ﬂag and national anthem.

May 20

The End of the Cold War: Parliamentary and presidential elections take place in Romania. The elections are not fully free, but the outcome reﬂects the will of the people. The National Salvation Front of Ion Iliescu wins, and Iliescu becomes President. He is a former top party and state oﬃcial who had fallen into disfavour with Ceau¸sescu.

May 30

The Collapse of the Soviet Union: Boris Yeltsin is elected President of the Russian Republic in the third round of elections. The days of the Soviet Union are numbered.

May 31–June 3 The Nuclear Balance: The US and USSR Summit agree to commence talks on a follow-up to the Strategic Arms Reductions Treaty to be known as START 2. The objective of a new treaty would be to reduce incentives for the ﬁrst use of nuclear weapons, the ﬁrst-strike option, and to reduce the number of multiple warhead missiles (MIRVs). June 5

CSCE/OSCE: The foreign ministers of the thirty-ﬁve countries participating in the second CSCE Conference on the Human Dimension (CHD2) in Copenhagen agree to accord observer status to Albania.

June 7–8

The End of the Cold War: At a Ministerial Meeting of the North Atlantic Council (NAC) at Turnberry in Scotland, Alliance foreign ministers publish a Message from Turnberry. The determination is expressed to extend to the Soviet Union and all other European countries the hand of friendship and co-operation.

June 8

The End of the Cold War: Parliamentary elections take place in Czechoslovakia. Civic Forum and other allied parties win a majority in the Federal Assembly to form a new centre-right grouping with NATO and EC membership central policy platforms.

June 10

The End of the Cold War: The Bulgarian Socialist Party (the former Communist Party) wins the ﬁrst free parliamentary election in the country.

[182] the strategic vacation June 12

The Collapse of the Soviet Union: In a move not without irony the Congress of People’s Deputies of the Russian Soviet Federal Socialist Republic (RSFSR) issues a Declaration of Sovereignty eﬀectively declaring independence from the Soviet Union. That same month Boris Yeltsin quits the CPSU.

June 15

The Road to European Union: The Dublin Convention is signed by all European Community (EC) member states except Finland, Sweden, and Denmark. The convention sets out criteria to determine which state is responsible for examining an application for asylum lodged in a member state of the EC. This aims to ensure that applications cannot be made in several countries but also that every application is dealt with.

June 17

The End of the Cold War: Multi-party elections take place in Bulgaria. The former communists gain a relative majority of 45 per cent.

June 18

The End of the Cold War: NATO awards seventy research fellowships for 1990/1. These include 55 fellowships for research on democratic institutions awarded to citizens of both NATO and Central and Eastern European countries.

June 19

The Road to European Union: The Convention Implementing the Schengen Agreement is signed by Belgium, France, the Federal Republic of Germany (FRG), Luxembourg, and the Netherlands. It contains measures to create a common area of security and justice following the abolition of common border checks. Britain, together with a few others, stays outside citing concerns about terrorism.

June 28

The End of the Cold War: At the Copenhagen CSCE Conference on the Human Dimension, all Central and Eastern European countries (excluding Albania, which joined the CSCE process only in June 1991) make commitments to multi-party parliamentary democracy and the rule of law.

June

Conventional Forces Europe: During CFE negotiations in Vienna, NATO members table the idea of an aerial inspection regime. Since there is not enough time to settle the details of such a regime, a general provision is included that allows for aerial inspections throughout the area of application of the treaty. Russia soon begins to relocate weapons and equipment beyond the Urals, where the CFE does not apply, but where the Open Skies treaty will apply. Thus, the CFE negotiations give new impetus to the Open Skies negotiations.

July 5–6

The End of the Cold War: At NATO’s London Summit of Heads of State and Government the NAC states that NATO will reduce its forward presence. French President Mitterrand announces that France will withdraw all troops from Germany by 1994. Nuclear weapons are to be used by NATO only as a last resort, as the Alliance renounces the ﬁrst use of nuclear weapons. A new military strategy is to be prepared focused on crisis management rather than territorial defence. NATO members propose to Warsaw Pact states a joint declaration containing a commitment to non-aggression and a statement that the two organizations are no longer enemies. NATO ministers also invite Eastern and Central European leaders to address NATO and to establish regular diplomatic liaison with NATO. Ministers assert that the ‘Alliance will do its share to overcome the legacy of decades of suspicion’

1990 [183] and that they are ‘ready to intensify military contacts, including those of NATO Military Commanders, with Moscow and other Central and Eastern European capitals’. July 6

The End of the Cold War: President Petar Mladenov resigns in Bulgaria.

July 13–17

The End of the Cold War: NATO Secretary-General Wörner visits Moscow at the invitation of Foreign Minister Eduard Shevardnadze for talks with the Soviet leadership following the London Declaration.

July 16

German Reuniﬁcation: German Chancellor Kohl and Soviet President Gorbachev agree on the process to full German sovereignty and that the uniﬁed FRG will exercise all its rights as a full member of the Atlantic Alliance.

July 25

European Defence: British Defence Secretary Tom King announces the Options for Change Programme for the British armed forces. King states that between 1990 and 1994 cuts of roughly 18 per cent in current manpower levels will be made. British forces in Germany will be cut by around 50 per cent.

July 25

The First Gulf War: The US Ambassador in Baghdad, April Glaspie, meets with Saddam Hussein and tells him that the US has no position with regard to regional border disputes. However, she adds that the US ‘strongly believe[s] that they should be settled peacefully’. She also makes it clear that the US is concerned by the massive Iraqi troop deployment at the Kuwaiti border.

July 27

The Collapse of the Soviet Union: Belarus’s newly elected Supreme Soviet adopts a Declaration of Independence from the Soviet Union.

July

WMD Proliferation: The US agrees to halt production of chemical weapons.

August 2

The First Gulf War: The 100,000 strong Iraqi Revolutionary Guard invades Kuwait. Within two days they have overrun the country. The UN Security Council demands an immediate Iraqi withdrawal.

August 3

Gladio: Italian Prime Minister Giulio Andreotti conﬁrms before an Italian Senate committee the existence of Gladio, a clandestine military force that is an armed covert subdivision of the military secret service. The senators demand a written report on this force, whose task was to ﬁght a potential Soviet invasion.

August 6

The First Gulf War: The UN Security Council imposes economic sanctions against Iraq.

August 8

The First Gulf War: The UN Security Council declares Iraq’s announcement of its de facto annexation of Kuwait null and void.

August 21

The First Gulf War: The WEU Ministerial Council meets in Paris to discuss the situation in the Persian Gulf. Ministers reactivate and extend the coordination mechanisms approved in 1988. A high-level group of foreign and defence ministers’ representatives is made responsible for ‘the most eﬀective coordination in capitals and in the region’. Ministers emphasize that, ‘coordination within WEU should also facilitate cooperation with

[184] the strategic vacation other countries deploying forces in the region, including those of the United States’. August 22

German Reuniﬁcation: The East German Parliament votes in favour of reuniﬁcation with the FRG. Reuniﬁcation is to take place on 3 October 1990, with elections in the reuniﬁed country taking place on 2 December 1990.

September 4

The First Gulf War: The nine WEU member states agree on guidelines for the better co-ordination of naval operations in the Gulf region to reinforce the international embargo against Iraq. A number of WEU and other countries send forces to the area.

September 12

German Reuniﬁcation: The Treaty on the Final Settlement with Respect to Germany, also called the Two-Plus-Four Treaty, is signed by the FRG, the German Democratic Republic (GDR), France, the Soviet Union, the UK, and the US. It accords the uniﬁed Germany a de facto peace treaty and full sovereignty, as Allied sovereign rights are discontinued as of 3 October 1990.

September 14

The First Gulf War: Consultations begin within NATO’s Special Consultative Group (SCG) on future negotiations to curb short-range nuclear forces. NATO also condemns the entry by Iraqi soldiers into the residences of the embassies of NATO countries in Kuwait, demands that Iraq frees those seized, and refrains from further aggressive acts.

September 24 –October 19

The Southern Dimension: A CSCE meeting on the Mediterranean takes place in Palma de Mallorca, Spain.

October 3

German Reuniﬁcation: The newly created East German Länder of Brandenburg, Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania, Saxony, Saxony-Anhalt, and Thuringia accede to the Federal Republic of Germany. The German Question is ﬁnally and once and for all resolved.

October 15

The End of the Cold War: Soviet President Mikhail Gorbachev is awarded the 1990 Nobel Peace Prize.

October 18

Gladio: Italian Prime Minister Andreotti presents his report on Gladio to the Senate. It conﬁrms that Gladio is still active, that the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) built up the force after World War Two, that similar structures exist all over Western Europe, and that NATO co-ordinated these secret armies.

October

The End of the Cold War: The USSR agrees to remove all troops from Germany by the end of 1994.

November 17

The End of the Cold War: CSCE negotiators adopt the Vienna Document on Conﬁdence and Security-Building Measures (CSBMs).

November 19

Conventional Forces Europe: The CFE Treaty is signed by twenty-two states at a CSCE summit in Paris. The CFE Treaty establishes a complex system of military balance between the Eastern and Western alliances from the Atlantic to the Urals. In particular, it provides for equal ceilings for major weapons and equipment systems for both groups of states, which are then translated into national limits for each state party.

November 19–21

CSCE: The CSCE participating states sign the Charter of Paris for a New Europe. The Charter marks the formal end of the Cold War and begins the

1990 [185] institutionalization of the CSCE by setting up three permanent bodies: the Secretariat, the Conﬂict Prevention Centre, and the Oﬃce for Free Elections. November 26–9

The End of the Cold War: At the North Atlantic Assembly meeting in London Associate Delegate status is accorded to parliamentarians from the Soviet Union, Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, and Poland.

November

Gladio: While the CIA, the US Government, and NATO all refuse to comment on the Gladio aﬀair, the European Parliament holds a special session on the issue. It is very concerned that such secret armies could exist without any democratic oversight and urges governments to conduct profound and precise investigations into these networks.

November

The End of the Cold War: NATO and the WTO issue a statement that they are no longer enemies.

November 23

NATO: A Transatlantic Declaration is signed and a new era of US–European relations hailed. The key components are the maintenance of the transatlantic security pact and a determination to modify NATO so that the Alliance will be able to cope with post-Cold War strategic realities.

November 29

The First Gulf War: In its Resolution 678, the UN Security Council issues an ultimatum to Iraq, demanding it withdraw from Kuwait by midnight of 15 January 1991. All member states co-operating with Kuwait are authorized ‘to use all necessary means to uphold and implement resolution 660 (1990) and all subsequent resolutions and to restore international peace and security in the area’ in the event of Iraqi non-compliance with the ultimatum.

November 29

The End of the Cold War: Confronted with a wave of protests and riots, Bulgarian Prime Minister Andrei Lukanov falls from power.

December 9

The End of the Cold War: Solidarnosc founder and former Gdansk shipyard electrician Lech Walesa is elected President of Poland.

December 11

The End of the Cold War: Albania’s Communist Party announces the legalization of political opposition parties after forty-ﬁve years of one-party, onefamily dictatorship by the Hoxha family. The Albanian ‘socialist paradise’ is formally ended.

December 15

The Road to European Union: At the Heads of State and Government Summit Meeting in Rome, EC leaders open Intergovernmental Conferences (IGC) on Economic and Monetary Union and Political Union. The long road to the Euro has commenced. The results of the IGCs will form the basis for the Treaty on European Union (Maastricht Treaty).

December 20

The Collapse of the Soviet Union: In a sign of the power struggle that is getting underway between hardliners and reformers in Moscow, Soviet Foreign Minister Eduard Shevardnadze resigns, warning of the risks of what he sees as renewed dictatorship in the Soviet Union. The USSR enters its ﬁnal phase.

December

The End of the Cold War: In Bulgaria, the dominant Socialist Party forms a coalition government that includes the reformist United Democratic Force (UDF).

1991 AT A GLANCE—MAJOR EVENTS AND THEMES

r r r r r r r r r r r r r r r r r r r r r

Comecon and the Warsaw Pact are dissolved. The First Gulf War. The US announces Global Protection Against Limited Strikes (GPALS). The ﬁrst meeting of the Visegrad Group. Armenia, Azerbaijan, Belarus, Estonia, Georgia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Latvia, Moldova, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Ukraine, and Uzbekistan declare independence from the USSR. The UN Special Commission (UNSCOM) is created to inspect Iraqi weapons capabilities. The Allied Rapid Reaction Corps (ARRC) is created. Boris Yeltsin is elected President of the Russian Soviet Federal Socialist Republic. Yugoslavia dissolves as Slovenia, Croatia, and Macedonia declare independence. The Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty (START) is signed. August coup by hardline communists in the USSR fails. First European Community (EC) peace conference on ex-Yugoslavia. First fully democratic elections in Bulgaria. European Economic Area (EEA) agreed. Germany and the US call for establishment of North Atlantic Cooperation Council (NACC). NATO adopts the New Strategic Concept. Nunn-Warner Act. Treaty on European Union (the Maastricht Treaty) is approved. Declaration on the role of the Western European Union (WEU) and its relations with the European Union and Atlantic Alliance. North Atlantic Co-operation Council founded. The USSR is dissolved.

January 2

The First Gulf War: NATO deploys aircraft of the Allied Command Europe (ACE) Mobile Force (AMF) to south-east Turkey in an operational role as the countdown to the Gulf War begins.

January 5

The Collapse of the Soviet Union: The Executive Committee of Comecon, the Soviet economic grouping, agrees to disband the organization. In its place, the Organization for International Economic Co-operation will be created.

January 8

The End of the Cold War: Soviet troops are deployed around the Lithuanian capital Vilnius in an attempt to enforce mandatory conscription.

1991 [187] January 10

The Collapse of the Soviet Union: Economist Albertas Simenas is appointed Lithuanian Prime Minister. Gorbachev sends a telegram to the Lithuanian Parliament, demanding it revoke unconstitutional acts, i.e. the declaration of independence.

January 13

The Collapse of the Soviet Union: The Soviet Union cracks down on Lithuania in an attempt to reverse its independence.

January 15

The First Gulf War: In order to establish common rules of engagement for WEU forces, given Iraq’s non-compliance with the UN Security Council ultimatum, the WEU Naval Co-ordination Authority is established.

January 15–18

CSCE: The Conference on Security & Co-operation in Europe (CSCE) draws up a procedure for the peaceful settlement of disputes, at Valetta, Malta.

January 17

The First Gulf War: After the UN Security Council ultimatum against Iraq elapses without compliance, US-led coalition forces begin Operation Desert Storm with aerial bombardment of Iraq.

January 29

Strategic Defense Initiative: US President Bush announces a new, scaled-back missile defence project named Global Protection Against Limited Strikes (GPALS). It is intended to protect the US from unauthorized, accidental attacks from Soviet warheads or limited attacks from so-called rogue states.

February 9

The Collapse of the Soviet Union: In Lithuania, a referendum on independence from the Soviet Union takes place.

February 15

The End of the Cold War: First meeting of the Visegrad Group (Czechoslovakia, Hungary, and Poland) takes place in Hungary.

February 22

The First Gulf War: Iraq agrees to a Soviet ceaseﬁre proposal. The US rejects it but gives Iraq 24 hours to withdraw without being attacked by coalition ground forces.

February 24

The First Gulf War: The US and Britain launch Desert Sabre, the ground operation against Iraqi forces in Kuwait.

February 26

The First Gulf War: Suﬀering enormous casualties, Iraqi forces begin to withdraw from Kuwait.

February 28

The First Gulf War: Coalition forces liberate Kuwait. US President George H. W. Bush suspends allied coalition combat operations. Iraq accepts unconditionally all twelve UN resolutions relating to the withdrawal of its forces from Kuwait. Interestingly, the US resists taking over Iraq and expelling Saddam on the grounds that it does not wish to be sucked into another Vietnam and that the integrity of Iraq is still vital to contain Iranian ambitions in the region.

February

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: The Serbian minority in Croatia’s Knin region declares independence as the Autonomous Region Krajina.

March 3

The Collapse of the Soviet Union: Referendums are held in Estonia and Latvia which vote respectively in favour of independence from the Soviet Union by 77 per cent and 73 per cent.

[188] the strategic vacation March 4

German Reuniﬁcation: The Supreme Soviet ratiﬁes the treaty permitting German reuniﬁcation. This brings to an end quadripartite or Four Power arrangements for controlling Germany introduced after World War Two.

March 17

The Collapse of the Soviet Union: Seventy-eight per cent of voters in the Soviet Union vote for the retention of the USSR in a modiﬁed form. Ukraine and Belarus boycott the plebiscite.

March 26

Euromissiles: The US completes its withdrawal of cruise and Pershing 2 intermediate-range missiles from Europe in accordance with the Intermediate Nuclear Forces (INF) Treaty.

March 31

The End of the Cold War: Communists gain a majority in the ﬁrst multiparty elections in Albania.

March 31

The End of the Cold War: The military components and structures of the Warsaw Pact are abolished. After thirty-six years the Warsaw Pact begins to dismantle itself.

April 3

The First Gulf War: In its Resolution 687, the UN Security Council decides that Iraq shall ‘unconditionally accept the destruction, removal, or rendering harmless, under international supervision, of: (a) All chemical and biological weapons and all stocks of agents and all related subsystems and components and all research, development, support and manufacturing facilities; (b) All ballistic missiles with a range greater than 150 kilometres and related major parts, and repair and production facilities’. Iraq shall also ‘unconditionally agree not to acquire or develop nuclear weapons or nuclear-weapons-usable material or any subsystems or components or any research, development, support or manufacturing facilities related to the above.’ The Security Council creates the United Nations Special Commission (UNSCOM) to carry out immediate on-site inspection of Iraq’s biological, chemical, and missile capabilities and mandates the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) to verify Iraq’s disarmament of its nuclearweapons programmes.

April 5

The End of the Cold War: Inauguration in London of the European Bank for Reconstruction and Development (EBRD), which has been established to assist Eastern European countries and the Soviet Union in developing democracy and free market economies.

April 9

The Collapse of the Soviet Union: Georgia declares independence from the USSR.

April 24

The Collapse of the Soviet Union: Gorbachev oﬀers his resignation as General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU) to the Central Committee, but it is rejected. However, he seeks to remain head of state.

April

The End of the Cold War: The US announces a Basic Force Plan for restructuring US forces and their command functions. It is in eﬀect a plan to cut US forces by 25 per cent.

April

CSCE/OSCE: High-level parliamentary leaders from CSCE participating states set up the CSCE Parliamentary Assembly.

1991 [189] May 7

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: The Yugoslav Defence Minister in Belgrade declares that his country is in a state of civil war. Just as the euphoria marked by the end of the Cold War subsides the Balkan tragedy begins to unfold. Not all the consequences of victory in the Cold War are to prove positive.

May 12

Euromissiles: The ﬁnal elimination takes place of the Soviet Union’s remaining SS-20 missiles in accordance with the INF Treaty.

May 21

The End of the Cold War: In a sign of the changed times the US House of Representatives demands the reduction of US troop strength in Europe from 250,000 to 100,000 by 1995. It is ﬁnally time to bring at least some of the boys (and girls) home.

May 21

The Collapse of the Soviet Union: The Supreme Soviet in Moscow passes a bill liberalizing foreign travel and emigration.

May 28–9

NATO: NATO’s Defence Planning Committee (DPC) agrees in principle to establish an Allied Command Europe Rapid Reaction Corps (ARRC). Under British leadership the force will be central to NATO’s post-Cold War crisis management military role.

June 1

The End of the Cold War: US and Soviet oﬃcials report the resolution of outstanding diﬀerences on the Conventional Forces Europe (CFE) Treaty.

June 6–7

NATO/European Defence: At the North Atlantic Council (NAC) in Copenhagen, the US threatens to pull out of European security if the European Community (EC) takes responsibility for security matters. At the same meeting, ministers refuse to give security guarantees to Eastern Europe but state that the security of those countries is indivisible from their own.

June 12

The Collapse of the Soviet Union: Boris Yeltsin wins a big majority in popular elections for the presidency of the Russian Republic (RSFSR).

June 19

CSCE/OSCE: Albania becomes the 35th participating state of the CSCE.

June 19–20

CSCE/OSCE: At a meeting of the CSCE Council in Berlin, foreign ministers create a CSCE Emergency Mechanism allowing for meetings of senior oﬃcials to be called at short notice subject to agreement by thirteen states, and endorse the Valetta Report on the Peaceful Settlement of Disputes.

June 20

German Reuniﬁcation: Berlin is reinstated as the oﬃcial capital of the Federal Republic of Germany following a vote in the German Parliament.

June 23

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: EC foreign ministers meet in Luxembourg. Ministers agree not to recognize any of the Yugoslav republics unilaterally and to support the unity of Yugoslavia.

June 25

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: The Parliaments of Slovenia and Croatia both proclaim independence from the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (FRY).

June 27

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: Yugoslav troops invade Slovenia. Fighting also starts within Croatia between Croats and ethnic Serbs supported by the Yugoslav National Army (JNA).

[190] the strategic vacation June 27

European Defence: At the WEU Vianden meeting, ministers agree to set up a Satellite Data Interpretation Centre in Torrejon, Spain.

June 28–9

The Collapse of the Soviet Union: Comecon is formally dissolved.

June 29

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: An EC ‘Troika’, composed of Jacques Poos of Luxembourg, Hans van den Broek of the Netherlands, and Gianni de Michelis of Italy, arrives in Zagreb to try to stop the war in Croatia.

July 1

The End of the Cold War: The Warsaw Pact is formally dissolved.

July 1

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: The Slovenian leadership and a delegation of the Yugoslav Government headed by Prime Minister Ante Markovic agree on a peace deal in Ljubljana. The JNA has already been defeated.

July 2

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: The Slovenian delegation and the European Troika agree on a ceaseﬁre on the basis of the agreement concluded on 1 July.

July 4

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: EC foreign ministers meet in The Hague. German Foreign Minister Genscher insists on warning the JNA with reference to the right to self-determination. The majority of EC members disagree, however, citing the principle of the unity of Yugoslavia.

July 5

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: The EC issues an arms embargo covering the whole of Yugoslavia.

July 7–8

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: Under EC auspices, a meeting of leaders of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (SFRY), Slovenia, and Croatia takes place. They adopt the Brioni Agreement, under which all parties accept principles for a peaceful resolution of the crisis in Yugoslavia, such as the urgent beginning of negotiations and abstention from unilateral steps. The Croatian and Slovenian declarations of independence are suspended for three months. International monitoring missions are agreed for Slovenia but only envisaged for Croatia. An agreement between Yugoslavia and Slovenia ends hostilities: Slovenia retains control of its borders, including external borders, and Slovenian forces end a blockade of JNA units, which return to barracks. Prisoners of War (POWs) are released. The war in Croatia continues, however, and JNA troops withdrawing from Slovenia are stationed in Croatia.

July 9

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: The European Parliament (EP) adopts a resolution on Yugoslavia in which it states that it does not support any unilateral action that will lead to the break-up of Yugoslavia.

July 10

The Collapse of the Soviet Union: Boris Yeltsin takes oﬃce as President of the Russian Socialist Federation of Soviet Republics (RSFSR).

July 10

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: EC foreign ministers meet in The Hague and conﬁrm their support for the Brioni Agreement ending the ten day war in Slovenia.

July 12

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: The Yugoslav presidency endorses the Brioni Declaration and decides to demobilize the JNA.

1991 [191] July 12

The End of the Cold War: The Bulgarian Parliament passes a new, democratic constitution.

July 18

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: The Yugoslav presidency agrees to withdraw the JNA from Slovenia. Meanwhile, ﬁghting between the JNA and Croats intensiﬁes.

July 19

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: The EC sets up an ad hoc working group on Yugoslavia.

July 30

The Collapse of the Soviet Union: Russian President Boris Yeltsin formally recognizes the independence of Lithuania.

July 31

Nuclear Arms Control: The Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty (START) is signed. It reduces the two superpowers’ nuclear arsenals to a limit of about 3,500 warheads apiece and, in so doing, raises the relative importance of the Anglo-French nuclear deterrents.

July

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: Dutchman Henry Wynaendts is sent to Yugoslavia by the EC to enquire about a political solution to the conﬂict.

August 18–21

The Collapse of the Soviet Union: Feeling threatened by Gorbachev’s perestroika policy and his plans for a new union treaty between the Soviet republics, some hardline communists mount a coup. They hold Gorbachev under house arrest at his dacha in the Crimea, publicly declaring that he is ill. The putschists issue emergency decrees declaring a return to the pre-perestroika period and order tanks and troops to Moscow. NATO warns the Soviet Union of ‘serious consequences’ if it abandons the reform programme and Western aid programmes are immediately suspended. Russian President Boris Yeltsin prevents the success of the coup by encouraging the public to take to the streets to resist it. He calls a general strike whilst tanks of the Tula Brigade loyal to Yeltsin protect the Russian Parliament building. Russia teeters on the brink of civil war. After three days, the coup implodes, as its proponents give up in the face of resistance by the population and large parts of the military. The events leave three people dead. Yeltsin makes use of a unique opportunity and emerges as the new leader in the USSR. The Soviet Union is about to collapse.

August 20

The Collapse of the Soviet Union: Estonia declares independence from the USSR.

August 21

The Collapse of the Soviet Union: At the ministerial meeting of the NAC, NATO foreign ministers issue a statement condemning what they call the unconstitutional removal of President Gorbachev and demand the restoration of democratic reform. That same day, lacking the support of key elements of the Red Army, the coup collapses and President Gorbachev is able to return to Moscow. The West hails Boris Yeltsin as a hero for resisting the coup and aid to the Soviet Union is resumed.

August 21

The Collapse of the Soviet Union: Latvia declares independence from the USSR.

[192] the strategic vacation August 24

The Collapse of the Soviet Union: Yeltsin closes the Communist Party newspaper Pravda and suspends the CPSU.

August 24

The Collapse of the Soviet Union: Ukraine declares independence from the USSR.

August 25

The Collapse of the Soviet Union: The Soviet Union announces a wholesale purge of the Military High Command, whilst Gorbachev proposes the CPSU be disbanded and resigns as General Secretary.

August 25

The Collapse of the Soviet Union: Belarus declares independence from the USSR.

August 26

The Collapse of the Soviet Union: Gorbachev accepts that demands for independence from the Soviet republics can no longer be resisted. EC countries agree to establish diplomatic ties with the three Baltic states, Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania.

August 27

The Collapse of the Soviet Union: Moldova declares independence from the USSR.

August 27

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: EC foreign ministers urge Serbia to co-operate at the Yugoslavia conference; otherwise the EC will search for a solution to the conﬂict without Serbia.

August 28

The Collapse of the Soviet Union: Gorbachev appoints Boris Rankin, former Ambassador to Czechoslovakia, as Foreign Minister of the Soviet Union, orders the removal of troops from under KGB command, and institutes an investigation into its activities.

August 29

The Collapse of the Soviet Union: In a vote in the Supreme Congress of People’s Deputies all activities of the CPSU are suspended.

August 30

The Collapse of the Soviet Union: Azerbaijan declares independence from the USSR.

August 31

The Collapse of the Soviet Union: Kyrgyzstan declares independence from the USSR.

September 1

The Collapse of the Soviet Union: Uzbekistan declares independence from the USSR.

September 5

The Collapse of the Soviet Union: The Soviet Congress of People’s Deputies votes to transfer decision-making powers to the Soviet republics. The dissolution of the Soviet Union accelerates.

September 6

The Collapse of the Soviet Union: The Soviet Union recognizes Latvian, Estonian, and Lithuanian independence.

September 7

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: First EC peace conference on former Yugoslavia opens in The Hague, Netherlands.

September 8

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: Macedonia conducts a referendum on independence from Yugoslavia. Sixty-eight per cent of voters express that they are in favour of an independent state.

September 9

The Collapse of the Soviet Union: Tajikistan declares independence from the USSR.

1991 [193] September 10 –October 4

The Collapse of the Soviet Union: At the third CSCE meeting on the Human Dimension in Moscow, Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania become participating CSCE states.

September 17

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: Macedonia declares independence from Yugoslavia.

September 17

The Collapse of the Soviet Union: Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania are admitted to the United Nations (UN).

September 20

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: Yugoslav President Stjepan Mesic declares that he has no more control over the JNA and that the latter is conducting a dirty war against Croatia.

September 21

The Collapse of the Soviet Union: Armenia declares independence from the USSR.

September 25

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: The UN Security Council imposes a general and complete arms embargo on the whole of Yugoslavia.

September 27

The Nuclear Balance: US President George H. W. Bush announces massive cuts in American nuclear weapons and calls upon the Soviet Union to follow. The US proposals include the destruction of all US ground-launched tactical nuclear missiles and the removal of nuclear cruise missiles from submarines and warships.

September 28

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: EC ministers announce that they will take restrictive measures against ‘unco-operative participants’ in the Yugoslavia conference, by which they mean Serbia.

September

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: France and Germany propose placing a WEU interposition force in Croatia, but they are blocked by the British.

October 3

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: Four nationalist Serb members of the Yugoslav federal presidency oust President Mesic and the Federal Parliament from power.

October 4

European Defence: A UK–Italian declaration calls for a permanent European command structure for general defence missions.

October 5

The Collapse of the Soviet Union: Gorbachev announces that he will reduce the Soviet arsenal by 1,000 more warheads than required by START.

October 5–6

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: EC foreign ministers meeting at Haarzuilens in the Netherlands conﬁrm the decision of the Yugoslavia conference of two days earlier to envisage a political solution that comprises the possibility of recognition of Slovenia and Croatia. The EC stops considering the Yugoslav presidency as representing all its constituent republics.

October 6

NATO Enlargement: Meeting in Cracow, Poland, the foreign ministers of Poland, Hungary, and Czechoslovakia declare their intention to become part of NATO activities. In response to a US proposal President Mikhail Gorbachev announces the abolition of Soviet short-range nuclear weapons and the removal of all tactical nuclear weapons from ships, submarines, and land-based naval aircraft.

[194] the strategic vacation October 7

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: The Council of Europe stops cooperation with Yugoslavia on the grounds of human-rights violations.

October 8

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: The three-month moratorium imposed by the Brioni Agreement ends. Slovenia and Croatia conﬁrm their declarations of independence from Yugoslavia.

October 10

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: The Dutch EC presidency, represented by Foreign Minister van den Broek, asserts that the recognition of Slovenia and Croatia is planned if negotiations do not succeed within two months. France and the UK agree on the condition that recognition can only be the result of a consensus reached in negotiations among all parties. Germany, however, sees van den Broek’s assertions as representing an ultimatum and hints at unilateral recognition of Croatia.

October 13

The End of the Cold War: The Union of Democratic Forces (UDF) wins 110 out of 240 seats in elections in Bulgaria. The ﬁrst truly non-communist government since 1946 is formed.

October 14

European Defence: In a letter to the European Council, Chancellor Kohl and President Mitterrand propose to expand the French–German Brigade into ‘the basis for a Eurocorps, to which the armed forces of other WEU memberstates could be added’.

October 21–2

The Road to European Union: The Agreement on the European Economic Area (EEA) is signed between EC and European Free Trade Association (EFTA) countries. It is designed to allow EFTA member states to participate in the EU single market by providing for the free movement of goods, services, capital, and persons among EEA countries.

October 25

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: A declaration by the EC identiﬁes the JNA as the main party responsible for the escalation of the Croatian conﬂict.

October 27

The Collapse of the Soviet Union: Turkmenistan declares independence from the USSR.

October 30

The Middle East: The ﬁrst Peace Conference on the Middle East opens in Madrid, jointly chaired by the US and the Soviet Union.

October

Missile Defence: The USSR responds to US President Bush’s Global Protection Against Limited Strikes (GPALS) initiative by agreeing to discuss limited Anti-Ballistic Missiles (ABM) defence systems.

October

Nuclear Arms Control: Kazakhstan and Belarus agree to centralized Russian control of all nuclear weapons in the former Soviet Union.

October

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: The WEU and the EC accept the primacy of the UN in the crisis in former Yugoslavia. This marks the failure of the EC to ﬁnd a solution and a reverse for Europe’s attempts to be taken seriously as an international actor.

October

NATO Enlargement: Germany and the US propose the establishment of a North Atlantic Cooperation Council (NACC).

1991 [195] November 4–8 Nuclear Arms Control: Open Skies negotiations resume in Vienna. Major concessions by both the USSR and the US allow a draft treaty to be set up for ﬁnal review by all states. November 7–8 NATO: NATO’s Rome Summit adopts the New Strategic Concept and establishes the framework for the development of the ARRC. The New Strategic Concept is based on a broad concept of security and on co-operation with all European states. NATO moves away from Forward Defence and towards a strategy of involvement in the security and stability of the new democracies. ‘To protect peace and to prevent war or any kind of coercion, the Alliance will maintain for the foreseeable future an appropriate mix of nuclear and conventional forces based in Europe and kept up to date where necessary, although at a signiﬁcantly reduced level . . . the overall size of the Allies’ forces, and in many cases their readiness, will be reduced [and] the maintenance of a comprehensive in-place linear defensive posture in the central region will no longer be required. . . . [Alliance forces] will require enhanced ﬂexibility and mobility and an assured capability for augmentation when necessary. . . . For the Allies concerned, collective defence arrangements will rely increasingly on multinational forces, complementing national commitments to NATO.’ November 7–8 NATO: NATO Heads of State and Government call for a strengthening of the on CSCE process of conﬁdence and security building across Europe. November 14

Pan Am Flight 103: A British investigation concludes that two Libyan nationals were responsible for the bombing of Pan Am ﬂight 103 in December 1988. They are charged with conspiracy, murder, and contravention of the Aviation Security Act. The US issues a similar indictment. Libya refuses to hand the suspects over for trial, which results in UN sanctions against Libya.

November 18

European Defence: At a Bonn meeting of the WEU Council, the attending foreign and defence ministers discuss the place and speciﬁc role of the WEU in the European security architecture. They welcome NATO’s New Strategic Concept and endorse ‘the objective of developing the WEU as the defence component of the European uniﬁcation process and as a means of strengthening the European pillar in the Atlantic within the Alliance’.

November 27

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: German Chancellor Helmut Kohl announces Germany’s intention to recognize Slovenia and Croatia before Christmas 2004 if they fulﬁl the necessary criteria. If the intention is carried out it breaks EC solidarity, the stance of which is that no action must be taken that could hasten the collapse of Yugoslavia and tip the region into general war.

November

Missile Defence: The Warner-Nunn Act is passed by the US Congress. It calls for the deployment by 1996 of an Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty compliant ground-based anti-ballistic-missile defence system in the US.

November

The Collapse of the Soviet Union: The CPSU is formally disbanded.

December 1

The Collapse of the Soviet Union: The majority of Ukrainians vote for independence from the Soviet Union.

[196] the strategic vacation December 2

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: The EC lifts its economic sanctions from Croatia, Slovenia, Bosnia and Herzegovina (BiH), and Macedonia, leaving only Serbia and Montenegro.

December 4

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: The Croatian Parliament adopts new legislation on minority protection to qualify for German recognition of its sovereignty.

December 6

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: French Foreign Minister Roland Dumas describes the German attitude on the recognition of Croatia and Slovenia as harmful to the EC. Britain and most other EC member states agree.

December 7

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: The ﬁrst assessment of the Badinter Commission is presented by the Dutch presidency of the EC. It speaks of a ‘process of dissolution’ in Yugoslavia. For the Germans this simply conﬁrms the need to recognize the sovereignty of Croatia and Slovenia as soon as possible.

December 8

The Collapse of the Soviet Union/The Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS): The leaders of Belarus, Ukraine, and Russia, Stanislau Shushkevich, Leonid Kravchuk, and Boris Yeltsin, respectively, meet in Minsk and set up the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS). They also annul the 1922 treaty establishing the Soviet Union, and declare that ‘the USSR, as a subject of international law and a geopolitical reality, has ceased to exist’.

December 9–10

The Road to European Union: The Treaty on European Union (TEU) is negotiated and approved at Maastricht, the Netherlands. Title V of the treaty contains ‘provisions on a common foreign and security policy’ and Article J.4.1 states that, ‘the implementation of a common foreign and security policy including the eventual framing of a common defence policy, which might in time lead to a common defence’ is the goal. However, there are profound disagreements among the member states over how to proceed.

December 10

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: In a letter to Dutch Foreign Minister Hans van den Broek, UN Secretary-General Javier Pérez de Cuéllar expresses concern that a premature, selective recognition of Yugoslav republics might exacerbate the conﬂict and cause an explosive situation, ‘particularly in Bosnia and Herzegovina and also in Macedonia’.

December 10

European Defence: The Declaration on the Role of the Western European Union and its Relations with the European Union and with the Atlantic Alliance is signed. The member states of the WEU agree to ‘develop a genuine European Security and Defence Identity and a greater European responsibility on defence matters’. The declaration likewise indicates that, ‘this identity will be pursued through a gradual process involving successive phases’. The declaration also states that the re-examination of the WEU’s provisions ‘will take account of the progress and experience acquired and will extend to relations between WEU and the Atlantic Alliance’. This speciﬁc reference to NATO is consistent with the deﬁnition of the role of the WEU as ‘the defence component of the European Union and as a means to strengthen the European pillar of the Atlantic Alliance’. Under the declaration, member states also undertake further to examine enhanced

1991 [197] co-operation in the ﬁeld of armaments with the aim of creating a European armaments agency. December 12

The Road to European Union: The Maastricht European Council issues a Declaration on Areas which could be the Subject of a Joint Action. The CSCE process, disarmament and arms-control policy in the EU, nuclear non-proliferation, and economic aspects of security are cited as being such areas.

December 13

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: The German Government announces that it will recognize Croatia and Slovenia before Christmas. The announcement triggers a crisis in the EC and concerns about German unilateralism.

December 15

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: The UN Security Council agrees to send peacekeeping troops to Yugoslavia.

December 15

The Road to European Union: The two-year-long intergovernmental conferences (IGC) that led to the Maastricht Treaty (Treaty on European Union) come to an end.

December 16

The Collapse of the Soviet Union: Kazakhstan declares independence from the USSR.

December 16–17

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: EC foreign ministers meet in Brussels on the issue of Yugoslavia. They agree that those Yugoslav republics that wish to obtain recognition must apply for it by 23 December and that recognition will then be granted on 15 January 1992. German Foreign Minister Genscher insists that Germany can pronounce recognition before Christmas.

December 19

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: Germany decides to grant recognition to Croatia and Slovenia on 23 December.

December 20

NATO Enlargement: The North Atlantic Cooperation Council (NACC) is created. It is a consultative forum for NATO member states and nine Central and Eastern European countries, initially including the Soviet Union. However, at the closing session, Moscow sends instructions to delete all references to the USSR in the documents. The Soviet Ambassador assumes that all agreements concerning the NACC are valid for the successor states to the Soviet Union.

December 21

The Commonwealth of Independent States: The Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) is expanded to include Armenia, Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan. Georgia participates as an observer. The participant states agree that, ‘with the formation of the Commonwealth of Independent States, the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics ceases to exist.’ They also declare that, ‘Member states of the Commonwealth support Russia in taking over the USSR membership in the UN, including permanent membership in the Security Council’.

December 23

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: Slovenia adopts a new constitution eﬀectively seceding from Yugoslavia.

December 23

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: Germany recognizes Slovenia and Croatia, to be eﬀective on 15 January. The other EC member states are forced to follow suit.

[198] the strategic vacation December 24

The Collapse of the Soviet Union: Yeltsin informs the Secretary-General of the UN that the Russian Federation will continue the membership of the USSR in the UN, including in the Security Council. He also requests ‘that the name “Russian Federation” should be used in the United Nations in place of the name “the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics” ’

December 25

The Collapse of the Soviet Union: President Mikhail Gorbachev of the Soviet Union steps down. It is the end of the Soviet Union.

1992 AT A GLANCE—MAJOR EVENTS AND THEMES

r The Maastricht Treaty creating the European Union is signed. r The UN Protection Force (UNPROFOR) is created to demilitarize parts of former Yugoslavia. r The Open Skies Treaty is signed. r Elections in Albania end 47 years of Stalinist communist rule. r Bosnia-Herzegovina (BiH) declares independence from Yugoslavia. r War in Bosnia and Herzegovina starts. r Eurocorps is created. r Western European Union (WEU) Petersberg Declaration and Tasks is adopted. r Greece is admitted as a full member of the WEU. r US Senate approves START I. r William Jeﬀerson Clinton is elected US President. r The European Community (EC) draws up a report on the future of Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP).

January 1

The United Nations: Egyptian Boutros Boutros-Ghali becomes SecretaryGeneral of the United Nations (UN) following the retirement of Peruvian Javier Perez de Cuellar.

January 7–8

The Collapse of the Soviet Union: NATO helps to airlift EC humanitarian assistance to Moscow and St Petersburg.

January 9

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: Serbian President Slobodan Miloševi´c declares the war against Croatia over.

January 10

European Defence: French President Mitterrand proposes a common European nuclear strategy but receives a very lukewarm response from the other EC member states.

January 10

NATO: The British Army of the Rhine’s (BAOR) I Corps is disbanded and becomes instead the nucleus of the new NATO Allied Rapid Reaction Corps (ARRC). The various brigades and divisions of the BAOR in Germany are disbanded or reorganized.

January 10

NATO: The High Level Working Group (HLWG), established by the North Atlantic Co-operation Council (NACC) to discuss ratiﬁcation and implementation of the Conventional Forces Europe (CFE) Treaty, reaches agreement on the process for bringing the treaty into force.

January 11

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: The European Community (EC) Badinter Commission presents its second report on the situation in Yugoslavia.

[200] the strategic vacation It endorses the recognition of Slovenia and Macedonia but demands improvements in the constitutional protection of minorities in the case of Croatia. January 13–20

Nuclear Arms Control: A further conference on Open Skies is held in Vienna. Russia participates in place of the former Soviet Union. Ukraine and Belarus take part as observers. The US agrees to the so-called Taxi Proposal, by which an observed nation can insist that an observer state use aircraft and equipment of the observed party and not its own. The signing of the treaty is conﬁrmed for March 1992.

January 15

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: Following Germany’s force majeure the EC announces its readiness to recognize Slovenia and Croatia.

January 28

The Nuclear Balance: As the arms reduction accelerates US President George H. W. Bush uses his State of the Union Address to propose new arms control and disarmament steps.

January 30

The Collapse of the Soviet Union: At a Summit Meeting of the 15-nation UN Security Council (UNSC) Boris Yeltsin attends as President of the Russian Federation. His attendance is recognition of Russia as the successor state for the Soviet Union.

January 30–1

The Collapse of the Soviet Union: At a meeting of the Conference on Security & Co-operation in Europe (CSCE) Council of Foreign Ministers in Prague the Russian Federation is recognized as the legitimate holder of the legal personality of the former Soviet Union. The meeting also admits ten former Soviet Republics as CSCE participating states.

January

The End of the Cold War: The French Loi Programmation de la Défense 1992–4 reduces the proportion of the defence budget spent on nuclear forces from 30 to 20 per cent.

January

NATO: NATO Status of Forces Treaty (SOFA) is revised in order to remove special privileges.

January

European Defence: France agrees not to deploy the Hades Theatre Nuclear Weapons (TNW) due to German protests.

January

European Defence: The WEU chief of staﬀ asks the WEU presidency to deﬁne the mandate of a proposed Military Planning Cell.

January

Missile Defence: The US Congress throws out the Warner-Nunn Act.

February 3

European Defence: Turkey establishes a forum of states that border the Black Sea.

February 7

The Road to European Union: The Treaty on European Union (TEU) is signed. It establishes the Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP), which replaces European Political Co-operation (EPC). It also changes the name of the European Economic Community (EEC) to simply the European Community (EC) and establishes a structure of three pillars, of which the EC is the central one. Together, they form the EU. The TEU enables the EU to request the WEU to implement EU decisions with defence implications. However, before the EC can become the EU the Treaty must be ratiﬁed by all the member states.

1992 [201] February 21

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: The UN Security Council establishes the United Nations Protection Force (UNPROFOR) to ‘create the conditions of peace and security required for the negotiation of an overall settlement of the Yugoslav crisis’. UNPROFOR’s mandate is to ensure the demilitarization of the three United Nations Protected Areas (UNPAs) in Croatia and the protection of all persons residing in them.

February 26

The Peace Dividend: The Canadian Government informs NATO that it will no longer maintain 1,100 Canadian troops in Europe after 1994. However, Ottawa conﬁrms all other commitments to the Alliance and its decision to remain part of NATO’s Integrated Military Structure (IMS).

February 26

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: In a statement on Yugoslavia the North Atlantic Council (NAC) appeals to all parties to respect cease-ﬁre arrangements in order to allow the deployment of a UN peacekeeping force.

February 29

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: Bosnia-Herzegovina conducts a plebiscite on independence. Bosnian Croats and Bosnian Muslims are largely in favour, while Bosnian Serbs are largely against, although most of them boycott the vote.

March 5–6

The Northern Dimension: The foreign ministers of Denmark, Estonia, Finland, Germany, Latvia, Lithuania, Norway, Poland, Russia, and Sweden meet in Copenhagen to create the Council of Baltic Sea States.

March 6

European Defence: Independent European Programme Group (IEPG) ministers agree to analyse the future of the IEPG in the new European security architecture and consider the defence procurement implications.

March 10

NATO Enlargement: At an extraordinary meeting of the North Atlantic Cooperation Council, the foreign ministers and representatives of the NACC countries agree a Work Plan for Dialogue, Partnership, and Co-operation.

March 22 and 29

The End of the Cold War: The second multi-party parliamentary elections in Albania result in the victory of the Democratic Party, ending forty-seven years of communist rule.

March 24

Arms Control: Twenty-four states sign the Treaty on Open Skies in Helsinki, Finland.

March 24

CSCE/OSCE: The opening takes place of the Fourth CSCE Follow-Up Meeting in Helsinki at which Croatia, Georgia, and Slovenia become CSCE participating states.

March 31

Pan Am Flight 103: The UN imposes a ﬂight and arms embargo and a selective travel ban on Libya. Libyan citizens are suspected of having caused the UTA and Lockerbie ﬂight bombings with the support of the Libyan Government. Diplomatic and consular relations with Libya are to be reduced.

March

NATO Enlargement: The NACC is expanded to include all members of the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS).

April 5

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: Bosnia-Herzegovina (BiH) declares independence from Yugoslavia.

April 5

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: Bosnian Serb militants open ﬁre on peace demonstrators in Sarajevo, BiH.

[202] the strategic vacation April 6

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: The EC and the CIS recognize BosniaHerzegovina.

April 6–7

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: Bosnian Serb enclave Republika Srpska declares independence from BiH.

April 8

Nuclear Arms Control: France declares a moratorium on nuclear testing.

April 27

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: The remnant of the Socialist Federation of the Republic of Yugoslavia (SFRY) renames itself the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (FRY).

April 30

NATO: Standing Naval Force Mediterranean (STANAVFORMED) is inaugurated by NATO.

April 30

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: The UN Secretary-General redeploys forty military observers from the UN Protected Areas (UNPAs) in Croatia to the Mostar region in BiH due to the deteriorating situation there.

April

European Defence: German Defence Minister Volker Rühe rejects plans for a Führungskommando to unify command of German forces. It is, he says, too much like a German General Staﬀ and even ﬁfty-seven years after World War Two neither Germany nor Europe is ready.

May 2

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: Sarajevo is besieged by Serbian forces. From the start it is evident that the forces involved are not simply those of the Bosnian Serbs but are supported by Serbia. Serbia’s President proclaims a Greater Serbia in the absence of the former SFRY.

May 14

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: As the conﬂict in BiH intensiﬁes further, UN military observers are withdrawn to Croatia.

May 15

Conventional Forces Europe: Azerbaijan, Armenia, Belarus, Kazakhstan, Moldova, the Russian Federation, Ukraine, and Georgia sign the Agreement on the Principles and Procedures for the Implementation of the Treaty on Conventional Armed Forces in Europe (Tashkent Agreement) to establish the maximum levels of conventional armaments of these successor states of the USSR. Russia and Ukraine are to have forces as large as, or larger than, any other European state.

May 16–17

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: Around two-thirds of the UNPROFOR headquarters personnel in Sarajevo are withdrawn as the shelling of the city intensiﬁes.

May 21–2

The Road to European Union: At the Franco-German Summit in La Rochelle the Joint Report Concerning the Creation of the European Corps (La Rochelle Report) of the French and German defence ministers, Pierre Joxe and Volker Rühe, is endorsed. The construction of a Eurocorps is agreed.

May 30

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: The UN Security Council imposes wideranging economic, cultural, and other sanctions on Yugoslavia.

June 2

The European Union: The Danish people vote ‘no’ in a referendum on the ratiﬁcation of the Treaty on European Union. Technically at least the treaty has failed because all member states must ratify it. The Danish voters are to be given another chance to get the answer right.

1992 [203] June 4

European Defence: NATO and the WEU oﬀer peacekeeping forces to the CSCE in order to allow time to settle disputes.

June 5

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: UNPROFOR negotiates an agreement with the parties to the BiH conﬂict on handing over Sarajevo Airport to the UN force as a base of operations for humanitarian aid and monitoring.

June 5

NATO Enlargement: At a meeting of the NACC in Oslo foreign ministers and representatives hold talks on regional conﬂicts and other major security issues. Georgia and Albania become members of the NACC and Finland an oﬃcial observer. The Final Document issued at the conclusion of an Extraordinary Conference held in Oslo in conjunction with the NACC meetings formally establishes the obligations of eight states, formerly republics of the Soviet Union, under the CFE Treaty with territory subject to the treaty.

June 8

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: The UN Security Council enlarges the UNPROFOR mandate and increases the force’s strength to include the supervision of the withdrawal of anti-aircraft weapons and the concentration of heavy weapons at agreed locations in Sarajevo.

June 16

The Nuclear Balance: An agreement is reached by US President George H. W. Bush and Russian President Boris Yeltsin to cut nuclear warheads on strategic missiles signiﬁcantly beyond the limits proposed by the START Treaty.

June 19

European Defence: At the WEU Petersberg Summit the WEU countries adopt the Petersberg Declaration, whereby ‘forces answerable to WEU’ (FAWEU) can henceforth undertake humanitarian missions, rescue and peacekeeping tasks, and tasks of combat forces in crisis management (including peacemaking). WEU ministers also call for a more coherent relationship between NATO’s IEPG and the emerging Western European Armaments Group (WEAG).

June 20

European Defence: The WEU admits Greece as a full member; Iceland, Norway, and Turkey as Associate Members; and Denmark and Ireland as Observers.

June 20

European Defence: The WEU establishes a Forum for Consultation, in which WEU members and Eastern and Central European states will participate.

June 29

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: UNPROFOR’s mandate is further expanded to ensure the security and functioning of Sarajevo Airport and the delivery of humanitarian assistance to Sarajevo and environs.

June

NATO Enlargement: Georgia and Albania join the NACC.

June

European Defence: The WEU Farfadet Exercise combines forces from France, Greece, Italy, the Netherlands, Portugal, Spain, and the UK, as well as Eurocorps.

July 1

European Defence: A provisional staﬀ for the Franco-German-led Eurocorps is created at Strasbourg.

July 2

The Nuclear Balance: The United States notiﬁes the NATO Allies of the complete withdrawal from Europe of land-based nuclear artillery shells, LANCE short-range missile warheads, and nuclear depth charges, as well as

[204] the strategic vacation the removal of all tactical nuclear weapons from US surface ships and attack submarines. Kazakhstan, a successor state of the Soviet Union within which signiﬁcant former Soviet nuclear systems are based, approves the ratiﬁcation of the START Treaty. July 3

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: United Nations observers and troops are deployed to Sarajevo, and the airport is reopened for a humanitarian airlift.

July 3–6

CSCE/OSCE: The CSCE Parliamentary Assembly meets and agrees to hold a review conference every two years.

July 9–10

CSCE/OSCE: CSCE Heads of State and Government meet in Helsinki and agree to appoint a High Commissioner on National Minorities. They also conﬁrm the suspension of the FRY as a participating state.

July 10

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: The WEU decides to dispatch naval forces to the Adriatic to support an operation to prevent the ﬂow of arms to former Yugoslavia.

July 13

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: The UN Security Council calls on states to ‘take nationally or through regional agencies or arrangements all necessary measures to facilitate, in coordination with the UN, the delivery . . . of humanitarian assistance to Sarajevo and wherever needed in other parts of Bosnia and Herzegovina’.

July 17

The End of the Cold War: The CFE Treaty, signed on 19 November 1990, enters into force provisionally, allowing veriﬁcation procedures to be implemented.

August 28

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: WEU ministers agree to send a 5,000strong force on a humanitarian mission to former Yugoslavia.

August 28

NATO: Signature of the NATO–Spanish Co-ordination Agreement on Air Defence.

August 28 The Road to European Union: Europe faces a monetary crisis following the –September 16 Danish ‘no’ vote on the Maastricht Treaty and increasingly negative public opinion polls in France. These events make ﬁnancial markets pessimistic concerning the future of the European Exchange Rate Mechanism (ERM) and the broader Monetary Union project. Speculative attacks begin on the overvalued pound and lira, and, by mid-September, the German Bundesbank stops supporting these currencies. As a result, the pound and lira fail to remain within the exchange-rate range permitted by the ERM; they are forced to leave the mechanism. The EC monetary authorities establish a new ERM that has much larger ﬂuctuation bands. Governments realize that a system as tight as the ﬁrst ERM is impossible without a central currency, which implies, however, the abandonment of independent monetary policies. September 2

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: The NAC agrees that Alliance planning resources can be used in support of UN, CSCE, and EC eﬀorts to bring about peace in the former Yugoslavia. The agreement also includes the provision of resources for the protection of humanitarian relief and support for the UN’s eﬀorts to monitor heavy weapons.

1992 [205] September 3

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: An Italian relief plane is shot down over BiH near Sarajevo.

September 12–13

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: The UN begins monitoring heavy weapons in BiH, while the NATO Allies conﬁrm their willingness to support the UN. The complex game of institutional responsibility accelerates in the former Yugoslavia.

September 14

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: The UN Security Council expands the strength and mandate of UNPROFOR to include the provision of support and protection for humanitarian relief eﬀorts conducted by the Oﬃce of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, as well as for convoys of released civilian detainees. The enlarged UNPROFOR is to be deployed into new zones in BiH, and a separate Bosnia and Herzegovina Command is established within UNPROFOR.

September 20

The Road to European Union: A referendum in France only narrowly supports the Treaty on European Union (TEU).

September 22

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: The CSCE Forum for Security Cooperation (FSC) opens in Vienna, whilst the UN General Assembly votes to exclude Serbia and Montenegro. However, Belgrade is invited to apply to join the UN.

October 1

European Defence: A WEU Military Planning Cell is established in Brussels. It is the ﬁrst step on the road to a planning capability independent from NATO. Consequently, the Americans regard the development as the thin end of a French-led wedge designed to undermine the Alliance.

October 1

Nuclear Arms Control: The US Senate ratiﬁes the START Treaty, cutting US and Russian nuclear forces by one-third.

October 2

Nuclear Arms Control: In the US, the Hatﬁeld-Exon-Mitchell amendment enters into force. It imposes a nine-month moratorium on US nuclear testing and places strict conditions on any further US testing. It also requires the President to complete negotiations for a Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty (CTBT) by September 1996.

October 2

NATO: NATO’s new Allied Rapid Reaction Corps (ARRC) is inaugurated at Bielefeld, Germany, by Supreme Allied Commander, Europe (SACEUR) US General John Shalikashvili. UK Lieutenant-General Jeremy McKenzie takes command.

October 9

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: The UN Security Council bans all military ﬂights over BiH except for UNPROFOR ﬂights and other ﬂights in support of UN operations.

October 14

European Defence: The ﬁrst meeting of the WEU Forum for Consultation takes place. It is composed of WEU members and most Central and Eastern European states.

October 14

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: The NAC authorizes the use of NATO airborne early warning aircraft (AWACS) to monitor the UN-mandated ‘noﬂy’ zone over BiH.

[206] the strategic vacation October 20–1

NATO: At a meeting of NATO defence ministers in the Nuclear Planning Group (NPG) at Gleneagles, Scotland, the Alliance’s role in peacekeeping is discussed together with implications for NATO’s planning structures. New political guidelines concerning reduced reliance on nuclear weapons are also agreed.

October 30

NATO Enlargement: The Atlantic Club of Bulgaria becomes the ﬁrst Partner country to be accorded Observer status with the Atlantic Treaty Association (ATA).

October

European Defence: The UK and France establish the Franco-British Joint Commission on Nuclear Policy and Doctrine. Secret by the very nature of the mission, the main purpose of the Commission is to share experience on nuclear safety and security, but operational questions such as the patrol areas of the country’s respective ballistic nuclear submarines are also discussed.

November 3

The United States: Democrat William Jeﬀerson (Bill) Clinton is elected US President.

November 6

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: NATO commits an operational headquarters (OHQ) to support UNPROFOR in BiH. This includes providing a staﬀ of around 100 personnel, equipment, and supplies, as well as ﬁnancial support.

November 9

Conventional Forces Europe: The CFE Treaty comes into force.

November 11

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: The President of Macedonia requests that the UN Secretary-General deploy UN Observers to prevent the ﬁghting that is going on in other parts of former Yugoslavia from spreading to Macedonia. UN envoy Cyrus Vance and EC mediator Lord Owen support this request.

November 20

NATO/European Defence: WEU ministers meeting in Rome cement relations with Iceland, Norway, and Turkey (Associate Members) as well as with Denmark and Ireland (Observers). Greece becomes a full member. NATO Secretary-General Manfred Wörner is invited to attend the meeting. A proposal for the creation of a trilateral, temporary air-maritime force for the Mediterranean is also made at the meeting. European Force (EUROFOR) and European Maritime Force (EUROMARFOR) are born. On IEPG, ministers agree that, ‘a transfer of IEPG functions to WEU would represent an important step towards enhanced cooperation in the ﬁeld of armaments with the aim of creating a WEU European Armaments Agency. The WEU Permanent Council has been mandated to take all necessary steps in the light of the results of the next meeting of IEPG Ministers’.

November 22

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: Enforcement operations begin by NATO and WEU naval forces in the Adriatic in support of UN sanctions.

November 28

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: UN Secretary-General Boutros BoutrosGhali sends an assessment mission to Macedonia that is to report on the possibility and desirability of a deployment of UNPROFOR to that country.

1992 [207] December 3

NATO/European Defence: France and Germany agree that, in case of attack, the Eurocorps can be assigned to NATO for crisis management and humanitarian missions.

December 4

European Defence: At a WEU meeting in Bonn, the thirteen IEPG defence ministers decide ‘to dissolve IEPG and to transfer its functions forthwith to the WEU’. It is a further step on the road to an eventual European Defence Agency (EDA).

December 11

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: The UN Security Council approves a report by the Secretary-General and establishes a UNPROFOR presence in Macedonia.

December 11–12

European Defence: The Edinburgh European Council adopts a ‘Report on Joint Action and the Development of the CFSP in the Field of Security’, which describes in more detail the potential areas or issues in the security ﬁeld suitable for early joint action by the future European Union (EU) envisaged in the declaration of 12 December 1991.

December 15

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: UN Secretary-General Boutros BoutrosGhali requests that NATO prepare contingency plans for possible military operations in the former Yugoslavia. The planning is to include enforcement of the no-ﬂy zone over BiH, together with the establishment of safe havens for civilians in various parts of the country, as well as plans to prevent the spread of the conﬂict to the Serbian region of Kosovo and the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia (FYROM).

December 15–16

The German Question: German Chancellor Kohl visits Moscow and oﬀers extra aid if Russia will accelerate the withdrawal of troops from Germany.

December 17

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: NATO ministers announce their readiness to back further UN action in the former Yugoslavia and agree to strengthen Alliance co-ordination in peacekeeping and to develop practical measures to enhance the Alliance’s contribution in the area.

December 18

NATO Enlargement: NACC foreign ministers and representatives agree to exchange experience and expertise on peacekeeping and related matters and issue the NACC Work Plan for 1993.

December 29

Al-Qaeda: An Austrian tourist and a hotel worker are killed in a bomb explosion in Yemen. A group calling itself al-Qaeda is blamed for the attack. The new terrorism starts.

1993 AT A GLANCE—MAJOR EVENTS AND THEMES

r r r r r r

Czechoslovakia divides peacefully into the Czech Republic and Slovakia. The second Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty (START 2) is signed. Three new NATO Multinational Corps are agreed. The Treaty on European Union (Maastricht Treaty) comes into eﬀect. The Franco-German-led Eurocorps is inaugurated. The Balladur Plan for a European Stability Pact (ESP) for Central and Eastern European states is endorsed. r Russia and the EU sign an agreement on future political relations.

January 1

European Stability: Czechoslovakia peacefully divides into the Czech Republic and Slovakia.

January 3

Nuclear Arms Control: The second Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty (START 2) is signed. Known as the De-Mirving Treaty, it bans multiple warheads on missiles known as Multiple Independent Re-entry Vehicles (MIRVs). As such it is a precursor to Missile Defence, as multiple warheads could swamp such defences. Although the US Senate would ratify the treaty on 26 January 1996 it would be stalled in the Russian Duma (Parliament) for many years in protest over American actions in Iraq and Kosovo. It will eventually be ratiﬁed by the Russians on 14 April 2000 but only on the condition that the Anti-Ballistic Missile (ABM) Treaty is adhered to. After the Americans withdraw from the ABM the Russians will say in 2002 they will no longer be bound by START 2.

January 13

WMD Proliferation: The Chemical Weapons Convention (CWC), which calls for the complete elimination of chemical weapons, is signed by 127 nations.

January 14

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: The NATO Allies agree plans for the enforcement of a no-ﬂy zone over Bosnia-Herzegovina (BiH), should the UN request such action of NATO.

January

The United States: Shortly before having to leave oﬃce, US Defense Secretary Dick Cheney identiﬁes four critical areas of US regional defence strategy for the 1990s that are going to dominate the debate over the so-called Revolution in Military Aﬀairs (RMA) that will steer much of America’s military thinking: strategic defence and deterrence; forward presence; crisis response; and reconstitution.

January 20

The United States: Bill Clinton is inaugurated as US President. Warren Christopher becomes US Secretary of State and Les Aspin is appointed US Secretary of Defense.

1993 [209] January 21

European Defence/NATO: German General Klaus Naumann, Supreme Allied Commander, Europe (SACEUR) John M. Shalikashvili, and French Admiral and Chief of the Defence Staﬀ Jacques Lanxade sign an agreement placing Eurocorps under NATO command in the event of war.

January

European Defence: Chancellor Kohl announces troop cuts below the level agreed by the Two-Plus-Four Treaty of 1990. This causes some consternation amongst the allies as a debate gets underway about burden-sharing in Europe. In fact, the cost of reuniﬁcation and reinvesting in the shattered economy of the Eastern Länder of Germany is proving far more than expected. Inﬂation sets in fuelled by the German Government’s decision to ﬁx the rate for turning old Ostmarks into Deutschmarks at parity.

January

European Defence: The Western European Union (WEU) Secretariat moves from London to Brussels.

January

The Middle East Peace Process: Secret negotiations take place between Israeli and Palestinian delegations in Oslo, Norway.

February 4

Nuclear Arms Control: Soviet successor state Belarus, which holds signiﬁcant former Soviet nuclear capability, ratiﬁes START.2

February 18

Nuclear Arms Control: In an eﬀort to keep highly skilled Russian weapons scientists and technicians employed the US signs an agreement with Russia to purchase highly enriched uranium for twenty years. The Americans are becoming increasingly concerned about so-called ‘loose nukes’ and Russians exporting nuclear technology to adversary states, terrorists, or, increasingly, strategic criminals.

February 24

The Revolution in Military Aﬀairs: The US Joint Chiefs of Staﬀ present the House of Representatives with a report entitled ‘Roles, Missions & Functions of the Armed Forces of the United States’ which lays out the vision of a dominant, technology-rich US military with global reach and precision strike. It also calls for the repositioning of US forces away from Europe.

February 25

European Defence/NATO: US Secretary of Defense Les Aspin and German Minister of Defence Volker Rühe agree on the creation of two GermanAmerican corps. The purpose is to create a multinational force that is a central element of NATO’s new main defence force. Initially, however, cooperation is limited to an exchange of headquarters oﬃcers.

February 26

Al-Qaeda: A car-bomb attack on the World Trade Center in New York kills six people and injures more than 1,000. Al-Qaeda is believed to be behind the attack.

March 15

WMD Proliferation: The Democratic People’s Republic of Korea (DPRK/ North Korea) demands the departure of International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) inspectors and announces its intention to withdraw from the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT). The slow spread of nuclear weapons accelerates.

March 16

Conventional Forces Europe: Italy conducts the ﬁrst joint multinational Conventional Forces Europe (CFE) inspection led by a NATO member state with the participation of North Atlantic Council (NAC) partners Azerbaijan, Hungary, and Poland in Romania.

[210] the strategic vacation March 30

European Defence/NATO: The ministers of defence of the Netherlands and Germany, Relus ter Beek and Volker Rühe, respectively, acting upon the London Declaration of July 1990 and the Rome Declaration of November 1991, sign a common declaration on the creation of a multinational corps. This new corps is designed to involve more than the two initial member states and is wholly in line with NATO’s New Strategic Concept.

April 5

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: WEU member states agree to provide assistance to Bulgaria, Hungary, and Romania in their eﬀorts to enforce UN sanctions on the Danube against Yugoslavia.

April 8

European Defence/NATO: In a landmark legal decision, the German Constitutional Court agrees that German aircrews can remain on NATO airborne early warning aircraft (AWACS) over BiH, even though operations are technically out of the NATO area. The operation is allowed under a UN Security Council resolution.

April 8

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: The NAC agrees that the Alliance will undertake enforcement of a no-ﬂy zone over BiH under UN Security Council Resolution (UNSCR) 816.

April 12

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: NATO begins operations to enforce the no-ﬂy zone over BiH using aircraft from several allied nations from bases in Italy and British and American aircraft carriers in the Adriatic. NATO’s Airborne Early Warning Force (NAEWF) provides ‘top cover’ surveillance for the operation.

April 17

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: The UN Security Council extends the sanctions against Yugoslavia and strengthens their implementation. Certain requirements regulating the shipment to and through areas in Croatia and BiH, controlled by local Serbian authorities, are also put in place.

April 19

US–Russian Co-operation: US combat search and rescue (CSAR) units join their Russian counterparts in Siberia, Russia as part of the ﬁrst US–Russian joint training exercise to take place in Russia since World War Two.

April 21

European Defence: Germany agrees to send 1,600 troops to Somalia to help quell the vicious civil war that has broken out between rival gangs and tribes.

April 23

European Defence/NATO: The two German-US corps are constituted in Giebelstadt, Germany. For the Americans such multinational formations are designed to block the development of European defence outside NATO. Equally, they help to reduce costs, which is the main issue for most Europeans as they reap the so-called Peace Dividend.

April 28

European Defence: The WEU Satellite Information Interpretation Centre is inaugurated at Torrejon, Spain.

April

European Defence: The WEU Military Planning Cell in Brussels becomes operational. It is charged with preparing for possible operations and with keeping an up-to-date list of ‘forces answerable to the WEU’ (FAWEU). It is not, however, an operational headquarters that can run military operations.

April

European Stability: French Prime Minister Edouard Balladur proposes a European Stability Pact to solve disputes concerning ethnic minorities and

1993 [211] other Conference on Security and Co-operation in Europe (CSCE)-related topics. It becomes known as the Balladur Plan. May 6

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: The UN Security Council (UNSC) passes a resolution declaring several cities and towns in BiH, in particular Sarajevo, Tuzla, Zepa, Gorazde, Bihac, and Srebrenica, safe areas, or UN Protected Areas (UNPA). Armed attacks or any hostile act against these safe areas must cease immediately, all Bosnian Serb military or paramilitary units must withdraw from them, and UNPROFOR and international humanitarian agencies in these areas must be fully respected and have unimpeded access to them. The setting for the 1995 Srebrenica massacre unfolds.

May 18

The Road to European Union: In a second referendum, the Danes get the answer right and vote ‘yes’ to the Treaty on European Union (TEU) after obtaining certain exemptions and clariﬁcations. Small countries, apparently, should know their place.

May 19

European Defence: At the Rome meeting of the WEU Council, it is agreed that Eurocorps and a part of the UK-Netherlands Amphibious Force will be FAWEU. In order to ensure the practical transfer of the procurement group, the IEPG, to the WEU, IEPG defence ministers decide at the same meeting to ‘meet at least once a year, before a WEU Council Meeting, to oversee the activities of the Armaments Cooperation Forum, which will henceforth be known as the Western European Armaments Group (WEAG)’. WEAG work will be organized in three panels: Joint Programmes and Equipment, Research and Technology, and Procedures and Economic Matters. It is agreed that Denmark, Norway, and Turkey can continue to participate fully in the group’s activities.

May 22

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: The Joint Action Programme (JAP) is announced by ﬁve permanent and non-permanent members of the UNSC to stop the ﬁghting in BiH. France, Russia, Spain, the UK, and the US also agree to the creation of safe areas for internally displaced persons (IDPs).

May 24

European Defence/NATO: Eurogroup’s training and medical activities are transferred to NATO and its publicity and communications activities to the WEU.

May 25

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: The UNSC passes a resolution establishing the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY).

May 25–6

NATO: NATO defence ministers agree to stabilize shrinking defence budgets which across much of European NATO have declined by 30 per cent compared with the end of the Cold War.

June 8

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: A Joint WEU/NAC session agrees to combine under a single command the NATO and WEU naval forces deployed for the enforcement of the UN embargo against Serbia and Montenegro in the Adriatic.

June 10

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: NATO foreign ministers agree to oﬀer protective air power should UNPROFOR be attacked and should the UN request it.

[212] the strategic vacation June 11

European Stability: The North Atlantic Co-operation Council (NACC) publishes a report on co-operation in peacekeeping and launches a programme on co-operation in preparation of joint peacekeeping activities in support of the UN and the CSCE.

June 15

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: The Joint NATO/WEU Operation Sharp Guard begins. Its task is to monitor the embargo in the Adriatic against former Yugoslavia.

June 21–2

The Road to European Union: At the Copenhagen European Council, the European Community (EC) draws up a report on the future of European security interests and common principles for the future CFSP.

June 21–2

The Road to European Union: EC leaders at the same European Council agree that Central and Eastern European states can join the EC when they have fulﬁlled the Copenhagen Criteria. These criteria comprise: stability of institutions guaranteeing democracy; achievement of rule of law and respect for human rights, including respect for, and protection of, minorities; a functioning market economy, including the ability to cope with competitive pressure and market forces within the EU; and the ability to assume duties of membership, including adherence to aims of political, economic, and monetary union. Moreover, admitting a member must not undermine the dynamic of European integration.

June 21–2

European Stability: Also at the Copenhagen European Council, proposals by France for more-detailed criteria for admission, the Balladur Plan, are endorsed. The Pact on Stability in Europe, as it is oﬃcially called, encourages applicant states to solve minority and border questions by mutual agreement in a common framework and to stimulate regional co-operation among states.

June 22

European Defence: The Belgian Government decides to seek participation in Eurocorps.

June 24

EU–Russian Co-operation: The EU and Russia sign a Partnership and Cooperation Agreement at Corfu. It establishes a framework for bilateral relations, deﬁnes their principal common objectives, and calls for activities and dialogue in a number of policy areas.

June 25

European Defence: Belgium oﬃcially accedes to Eurocorps.

July 3

Nuclear Arms Control: President Clinton extends the US moratorium on nuclear testing and establishes a no-ﬁrst-test policy, which allows for no US nuclear testing as long as other nations do not test.

July 8

The Rwandan Genocide: The Rwandan radio station Radio Télévision Libre de Milles Collines begins broadcasting. It disseminates hate messages and incites the Hutu majority to slaughter the Tutsi minority and opponents of the regime.

July 13

The Nuclear Balance: The ﬁrst French Le Triomphant-class ballistic nuclear missile submarine (SSBN) is rolled out. It is the start of the second generation of British and French nuclear systems that are far more accurate than the ﬁrst generation.

1993 [213] July 22

The Nuclear Balance: Having removed to Russia or destroyed all former Soviet nuclear systems on its territory, Belarus formally accedes to the NPT as a Non-Nuclear Weapon State (NNWS) in accordance with the 1992 Lisbon Protocol to the START Treaty.

July

NATO: NATO commences reorganization from geographic-based to functional commands, the better to enable the Alliance to undertake crisis response operations (CRO) and peace support operations (PSO). Built around Combined Joint Task Forces (CJTF) the re-organization attempts to reorient the Alliance away from territorial defence and main defence forces. Unfortunately, most of NATO Europe is steadfastly refusing to modernize its increasingly obsolescent armed forces.

July

The Nuclear Balance: It is agreed at the Franco-British Summit to make the Franco-British Joint Commission on Nuclear Policy and Doctrine a permanent entity.

August 2

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: In the light of increasing atrocities by the Bosnian Serbs a second US proposal for air strikes against them is accepted by NATO allies.

August 14

The Nuclear Balance: The ﬁrst British Vanguard-class ballistic nuclear missile submarine (SSBN) HMS Vanguard is commissioned. Designed to take the US Trident II D5 missile, the new class is a massive improvement over the old Polaris A4TK system in terms of range and accuracy. To oﬀset the accusation that Britain is vertically proliferating and thus is technically in breach of the NPT the British Government oﬀers to reduce the number of warheads.

August 31

The Collapse of the Soviet Union: The Soviet successor state Russia completes the withdrawal of its troops from Lithuania.

September 1

The Road to European Union: The Convention Implementing the Schengen Agreement come into force. However, since the necessary technical and legal prerequisites are not yet in place, the Common Area of Security and Justice does not exist in practice.

September 6

The Middle East Peace Process: A meeting in Cairo sees the ﬁrst handshake take place between Israeli Prime Minister Yitzhak Rabin and Palestinian leader Yasser Arafat. It is an important development in the Middle East Peace Process.

September 13

The Middle East Peace Process: Rabin and Arafat agree in Washington to a historic peace agreement negotiated in Oslo. Israel recognizes the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO), while the PLO renounces the goal of reconquering the whole of Israel. Israeli troops are to withdraw from the West Bank and Gaza by April 1994, a Palestinian Council with legislative and executive powers is to be elected, and civil responsibilities for Gaza and the West Bank are to be handed over to the Palestinians over a period of ﬁve years. February 1999 is set as the deadline for a ﬁnal settlement.

September 20

European Defence: The Joint Declaration Stating the Conditions for the Use of the European Corps Within the Framework of Western European Union is agreed.

[214] the strategic vacation September 20

Frozen Conﬂicts: NACC representatives meeting in Brussels issue a statement calling the ﬁghting in Georgia to cease and condemn cease-ﬁre violations by Abkhazian forces.

September 21

The Russian Coup: Russian President Boris Yeltsin suspends the Russian Parliament (Duma) and calls for fresh elections to be held on 11–12 December. In what is to all intents and purposes a coup, Vice-President Alexander Rutskoi and the Speaker of Parliament Ruslan Khasbulatov call on the armed forces to resist the suspension. Rutskoi and his supporters then proceed to occupy the Parliament building known, not without irony, as the White House.

September

European Defence: The Euroﬁghter makes its ﬁrst ﬂight.

September

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: At a congress of Bosnian Muslim intellectuals, the term Bosniaks (Bosnians) is adopted to designate the community of Bosnian Muslims.

October 3–4

The Somali Debacle: The US Army Task Force Ranger is ambushed in the Somali capital Mogadishu as it attempts to capture local militia leader Mohammed Farah Aideed. During hours of heavy ﬁghting, eighteen US soldiers and hundreds of Somalis are killed. Pictures of a dead US soldier being dragged through the streets of Mogadishu spark an international outcry.

October 4

The Russian Coup: Troops loyal to Russian President Boris Yeltsin attack the Russian Parliament ending the occupation of the building by hardliners opposed to reforms proposed by the president.

October 4

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: The UNSC extends the mandate of UNPROFOR in Croatia and Bosnia for a further six months. The UNSC also authorizes UNPROFOR ‘to take the necessary measures, including the use of force, to ensure its security and its freedom of movement’.

October 5

The Rwandan Genocide: The UN Assistance Mission for Rwanda (UNAMIR) is established by the UNSC to help parties implement the Arusha peace agreement.

October 7

The Somali Debacle/Al-Qaeda: US President Clinton announces a shortterm reinforcement of US troops in Somalia, as well as a complete withdrawal by 31 March. The message for al-Qaeda is clear: kill Americans and they leave. Given their objective of forcing the US out of Saudi Arabia and away from the Muslim Holy Places this is an important revelation.

October 12

The Road to European Union: The German Constitutional Court gives the go-ahead to German ratiﬁcation of the TEU.

October 12

European Defence/NATO: Belgium signs the SACEUR Agreements on the use of Eurocorps by NATO.

October 21–9

European Defence: Under the code name Ardente 93, 10,000 troops hold joint exercises simulating the evacuation of civilians in Italy’s Tuscany province. Sponsored by Italy and conducted with the participation of France, Greece, the Netherlands, Spain, Turkey, and the UK, Exercise Ardente is the ﬁrst true WEU exercise.

1993 [215] November 1

The European Union: The TEU enters into force, creating the ‘pillar’ structure. The European Community becomes the European Union. The ﬁrst pillar is the Community Pillar, which includes the three European Communities (Economic, Coal and Steel, and Atomic Energy) and deals with the Common Market and a common currency. In the second pillar, which concerns the Common Foreign & Security Policy (CFSP), and the third pillar, dealing with Justice and Home Aﬀairs, decisions are mostly intergovernmental, i.e. by unanimity. EU members agree to develop a CFSP ‘including the eventual framing of a Common defence policy which might in time lead to a common defence’. A Declaration on Western European Union by the ten WEU members that are also members of the EU is annexed to the treaty and states that the ‘WEU will be developed as the defence component of the European Union and as a means to strengthen the European Pillar of the Atlantic Alliance. To this end, it will formulate a common European defence policy and carry forward its concrete implementation through the further development of its own operational role.’

November 5

The European Union: At the Eurocorps inauguration ceremony, German Defence Minister Volker Rühe states that ‘Eurocorps is the central building stone for European defence. We are creating an instrument for a joint foreign and security policy of the Europeans. At the end of the road Europe’s uniﬁcation will be waiting.’

November 11

Pan Am Flight 103: Wider UN sanctions are imposed on Libya, including a travel ban and ﬁnancial sanctions, following Libya’s refusal to hand over suspects in the Lockerbie bombing enquiry.

November 22

European Defence: Noting American concern over the direction of European defence the WEU Council of Ministers in Luxembourg votes for a strong transatlantic partnership and suggests that the WEU should have the possibility of using ‘not only European Allies’ forces and resources but also the collective assets of the Atlantic Alliance such as communication systems, command facilities and headquarters’.

November 22

European Defence: At the same meeting, the WEU also decides to draw up an enhanced status for those consultation partners that have concluded or will conclude a Europe Agreement (framework for bilateral co-operation with associated countries, normally leading to membership) with the EU. The Italian initiative for a European Force (EUROFOR) and a European Maritime Force (EUROMARFOR) covering the Mediterranean is welcomed by the assembled WEU ministers. In a statement, they say that they have ‘welcomed and agreed to study the Italian initiative envisaging a multinational ground force aimed at enhancing the operational signiﬁcance of the air-maritime initiative’.

December 7

European Defence/NATO: It is announced that several Eurogroup subgroups will either be incorporated into NATO or transferred to the WEU and that Eurogroup itself will cease to exist as of 1 January 1994.

December 8–9 NATO: At a NATO defence ministers meeting, the concept of Combined Joint Task Forces (CJTF) is discussed. Ministers stress that they ‘are committed to improving [their] ability to participate in a range of peacekeeping

[216] the strategic vacation operations and to facilitate closer co-operation between NATO and the WEU in this ﬁeld, including the possibility of making Alliance assets available for use in European-led operations following consultations within the Alliance. An aim of the concept of Combined Joint Task Forces is to give further impetus towards achieving this.’ December 9

EU–Russia Co-operation: Russia and the EU sign a bilateral political declaration on future relations.

December 10–11

European Stability: On the basis of the Balladur Plan, the Brussels European Council decides to launch a diplomatic process that should result in the conclusion of a Pact on Stability in Europe and calls upon the Council of Ministers to implement this initiative as a Joint Action. The inaugural conference is set to take place in Paris in April 1994.

December 12

The New Russia: The ﬁrst open multi-party elections in Russia since 1917 agree a new constitution for Russia and increase the president’s power following a vote in favour of 58.4 per cent.

December 14

European Defence: In a sign of the tensions to come NATO and the WEU fail to agree on a practical way to implement proposals for CJTF.

December 19

European Stability: A high-level group presents an adjusted version of the Pact on Stability in Europe to the EU as part of a CFSP plan that involves a three-phase process, including an inaugural Paris conference in May 1994.

December 20

European Stability: The EU Council of Ministers adopts the Pact on Stability in Europe as a Joint Action.

December

European Stability: The UK and Italy make a joint proposal to develop more concrete links between the six Eastern European Associate States of the EU and the CFSP.

December

Pan Am Flight 103: UN sanctions against Libya are tightened following Tripoli’s continuing refusal to co-operate with the investigation into the bombing of Pan Am Flight 103 over Lockerbie, Scotland.

December

Commonwealth of Independent States: Georgia joins the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS).

1994 AT A GLANCE—MAJOR EVENTS AND THEMES

r The debate over European defence intensiﬁes. r A formal decision is made to create a European Security and Defence Identity (ESDI) within NATO. r NATO creates the Partnership for Peace (PfP) programme. r Combined Joint Task Forces (CJTF) are formally agreed by NATO. r The Rwanda genocide grinds across Central Africa. r Eurocorps Headquarters becomes fully operational. r Troops of the Four Powers ﬁnally withdraw from Berlin after forty-nine years.

January 1

The European Union: The European Economic Area (EAA) comes into being, thus creating a zone of free movement of people, goods, services, and capital between EU member states and Norway, Iceland, and Liechtenstein.

January 1

European Defence/NATO: Eurogroup ceases to exist, as most of its subgroups have been incorporated into NATO or transferred to the Western European Union (WEU).

January 10–11

NATO ESDI: At a NATO Summit in Brussels, Heads of State and Government give their ‘full support to the development of a European Security and Defence Identity . . . The emergence of a European Security and Defence Identity will strengthen the European pillar of the Alliance while reinforcing the transatlantic link and will enable European Allies to take greater responsibility for their common security and defence. The Alliance and the European Union share common strategic interests.’ They also ‘support strengthening the European pillar of the Alliance through the Western European Union, which is being developed as the defence component of the European Union’.

January 10–11

NATO Enlargement: The PfP programme is also initiated at this NATO Summit. PfP is a defence co-operation programme aimed at increasing the participants’ ability to act in concert, thereby reinforcing stability and reducing conﬂict. It is also seen by many as the ante-chamber to membership.

January 10–11

NATO ESDI: Also at the Brussels Summit, the CJTF concept is endorsed. Ministers agree that WEU states can utilize the ‘collective assets of the Alliance’ and that the CJTF initiative be developed ‘as a means to facilitate contingency operations, including operations with participating nations outside the Alliance’. CJTF is designed to provide a ﬂexible and eﬃcient multinational, tri-service headquarters capability for non-Article 5 contingency operations, facilitating the use of NATO collective assets by the WEU should NATO choose not to act, thus preventing duplication. It concerns

[218] the strategic vacation short-term, quick-reaction multinational (combined) and multi-service (joint) self-contained contingency elements within NATO, which, on the basis of an ad hoc North Atlantic Council (NAC) decision, could be detached for certain missions and put under the command of the WEU should NATO choose not to participate in an operation but in support of the so-called Petersberg tasks. January 14

The Nuclear Balance: The US, Russian, and Ukrainian presidents sign a Tripartite Statement in Moscow that details the transfer of Ukrainian nuclear warheads to Russia, together with compensation and security assurances. At the same time US President Bill Clinton and Russian President Boris Yeltsin formally end the targeting of long-range nuclear missiles to take eﬀect from midnight 30 May 1994.

January 18

The New Russia: In elections for the Russian Duma large gains are posted by President Yeltsin and his New Russia party.

January 19–20 NATO ESDI: Exercise Mapex takes place to study the capacity of the Headquarters, Allied Rapid Reaction Corps (ARRC) to operate in BosniaHerzegovina (BiH). January 27

NATO—Russia Co-operation: NATO and Russia agree a programme of military co-operation which is signed in Moscow and covers exchanges by senior commanders and military experts, as well as joint exercising and training.

January

NATO ESDI: France agrees that the strengthening of NATO’s European Security and Defence Identity (ESDI) is complementary to the development of NATO and that it must be designed to strengthen the European pillar.

February 3

The United States: William J. Perry replaces Les Aspin as US Secretary of Defense.

February 5

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: A mortar shell explodes in the main market square of Sarajevo, the capital of BiH, killing 68 and wounding more than 200. It is the last straw for the international community. Action is imminent against the Bosnian Serbs.

February 9

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: NATO issues the Sarajevo Ultimatum to Serbs in the wake of the Sarajevo market massacre. Serbs must either pull back all heavy weapons within a 20-km radius from Sarajevo or turn them over to UN control by 20 February. In the event of non-compliance, they will face attack.

February 15

The Nuclear Balance: The UK and Russia agree to re-target nuclear missiles with eﬀect from midnight 30 May 1994.

February 28

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: NATO shoots down four Serbian aircraft violating the no-ﬂy zone established by the UN Security Council (UNSC) on 9 October 1992.

March 4

The Nuclear Balance: Ukraine transfers 60 nuclear warheads to Russia under the Tripartite Statement.

March 9

EU Enlargement: The Council of Ministers of the EU agrees to an annual summit involving the President of the European Council, the President of

1994 [219] the European Commission and the Heads of State of the six EU Associate States. March 9

European Defence: The Council of Ministers also proposes holding one Special Council on Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP) matters during each six-month presidency; meetings for the six Central and Eastern European Associate States with the Troika (i.e. the current, previous, and next holders of the EU presidency aided by the Commission; the Troika represents the EU in external relations under the CFSP); and the opportunity for the Six to take part in Troika démarches and Joint Actions under the CFSP.

March 18

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: Bosniaks and Bosnian Croats sign a peace agreement creating the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina. This reduces the warring parties to two: namely, the Federation and the Republika Srpska.

March 31

The End of the Cold War: The remaining division of the British Army of the Rhine (BAOR) which has been in place since 1955 is replaced by the 25,000strong British Forces in Germany.

April 1

European Defence: The German Heeresführungskommando, the country’s ﬁrst national military command since 1945, is established in Koblenz.

April 6

The Rwandan Genocide: Rwandan President Juvénal Habyarimana and Burundian President Cyprien Ntaryamira are killed as their plane is shot down. This fuels the ongoing violence between Hutu government troops and civilians on the one side, and Tutsi rebels on the other. Extremist Hutus slaughter thousands of Tutsis and Hutu moderates that night. UN forces stand by since their mandate does not allow them to intervene.

April 7

The Rwandan Genocide: Rwandan Prime Minister Agathe Uwilingiyimana, ten Belgian paratroopers guarding her and other government oﬃcials are killed by soldiers. Thousands of Tutsis accused of collaborating with the rebels are killed by Hutu-dominated government troops and militia.

April 21

The Rwandan Genocide: The UN peacekeeping force in Rwanda is cut from more than 4,000 to 270.

April 21–8

European Defence: WEU Exercise Arcade Guard takes place with 2,000 troops in order to validate procedures for deployment to a foreign country under a UN-mandated peace-support mission.

April 27

The Emerging Powers: In the ﬁrst South African election in which all parts of the population can participate on an equal basis, the African National Congress (ANC) under Nelson Mandela wins 62 per cent of the vote.

April 30

The Rwandan Genocide: In one day, a quarter of a million Rwandans ﬂee from the advance of the Tutsi rebel movement the Rwandan Patriotic Front (RPF) and cross borders to neighbouring countries.

May 4

The Middle East Peace Process: Under the terms of the Cairo agreement, Israel agrees to withdraw its troops from Jericho by 13 March and from 60 per cent of the Gaza Strip by 17 March. Further withdrawals and an

[220] the strategic vacation agreement on the status of Jerusalem is foreseen within the next ﬁve years. Self-administration by Palestinians in Gaza and Jericho enters into force. May 9

European Defence: WEU Kirchberg Summit is held at which the Kirchberg Declaration is issued, whereby the Council of Ministers authorizes the WEU to commence work upon a Common European Defence Policy (CEDP).

May 9

European Defence: At the same summit, the WEU gives Associate-Partner status to Bulgaria, the Czech Republic, Estonia, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Romania, and Slovakia, but refuses to give security guarantees.

May 17

The Rwandan Genocide: While the UN Security Council agrees to send a 6,800-strong peacekeeping force to Rwanda to protect civilians, the UN and its most powerful members are showing marked reluctance to step in to stop the unfolding genocide.

May 26–7

European Stability: The Inaugural Conference takes place in Paris of the Pact on Stability in Europe. As part of the Pact European foreign ministers discuss preventing border disputes, the rights of minorities, good relations between states in Central and Eastern Europe, and the strengthening of regional co-operation and democratic institutions.

May 27

The Emerging Powers: Nelson Mandela becomes President of the Republic of South Africa.

May

NATO ESDI: ARRC headquarters is permanently established at Rheindahlen, Germany.

May

NATO ESDI: The two German-American Corps created in 1993 are given a truly multinational structure, going beyond the exchange of headquarters.

June 10

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: A memorandum of understanding is signed between the EU and the city of Mostar, BiH. The EU is to administer the city.

June 22

The Rwandan Genocide: The UNSC backs the deployment of 2,500 French troops to Rwanda and refugee camps in Zaire.

June 24

EU–Russia Co-operation: The EU and Russia sign an Agreement on Partnership and Co-operation.

June 28

European Defence: The defence ministers of the Netherlands and Belgium, Relus ter Beek and Leo Delcroix respectively, sign a Declaration of Common Intent on the Reinforcement of Dutch–Belgian Naval Co-operation in Times of Peace and War and in Times of Crisis and Tension. The agreement calls on both navies to co-operate in operations, logistics, instruction, and training. They also stress the importance of closer co-operation between their air forces.

June 29

European Defence/NATO: The WEU presents a report to NATO on the criteria and modalities for eﬀective use of Combined Joint Task Forces (CJTF). Once the NAC has decided to provide the WEU with a CJTF, NATO will select CJTF HQ elements (including support assets) from one of its major subordinate commands and prepare it for deployment, the control of which will ‘at a certain moment’ be given to the WEU.

1994 [221] June

The Rwandan Genocide: Luxembourg requests that the WEU send an interim intervention force to Rwanda: logistical and technical support is oﬀered by various member states, but the WEU itself demurs, partly due to British objections.

July 1

European Defence: In June Luxembourg announced its intention to join Eurocorps, and on 1 July Spain accedes to Eurocorps.

July 1

NATO ESDI: Denmark reorganizes its forces and creates a new one, the Danish Reaction Brigade, with a view to integrating it into the ARRC by the end of 1995. During the summer of 1994, the Danish Parliament also agrees that if the WEU seeks to use Danish forces that are part of LANDJUT (NATO’s Headquarters Allied Land Forces, Schleswig-Holstein and Jutland), it will permit it to do so.

July 1

European Defence: Eurocorps Headquarters becomes fully operational. Lieutenant-General Helmut Willmann of Germany is the Corps Commander.

July 4

The Rwandan Genocide: After the death of some 1 million people in the genocide in Rwanda, the Tutsi rebel movement the Rwandan Patriotic Front (RPF) takes the capital Kigali. The Hutu Government ﬂees to Zaire. Ethiopian UN troops take over from the French.

July 12

European Defence/NATO: Speaking at celebrations attended by US President Clinton to mark the deactivation of Allied forces in Berlin, German Chancellor Kohl says ‘Europe needs an America that plays a central role in matters of European security, and at the same time, America needs a Europe that assumes greater responsibility for itself and international security.’

July 12

European Defence/NATO: The German Constitutional Court conﬁrms that, if approved by a simple parliamentary majority, the German Government may deploy the Bundeswehr (German Army) for UN and NATO operations ranging from peacekeeping missions to combat operations.

July 14

European Defence: Upon an invitation from French President Mitterrand, German soldiers from Eurocorps take part in the Champs Elysée parade celebrating Bastille Day. The previous occasion when German troops marched in Paris was in triumph after the fall of the city to Nazi Germany in June 1940. It is an important moment of reconciliation.

July 18

The Rwandan Genocide: The genocide in Rwanda comes to an end. The killing, often for revenge, continues, however, in refugee camps, where epidemics kill many more. On 19 July a moderate Hutu-dominated government takes oﬃce in Rwanda.

July

NATO ESDI: The second round of NATO reorganization under the New Strategic Concept begins as the command structure is recast.

July

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: The EU administration of Mostar, BiH, is established. The WEU supports the mission with a police contingent.

August 4

The Rwandan Genocide: The Rwandan Government and the rebel Rwandan Patriotic Front sign a peace agreement that provides for a coalition government.

[222] the strategic vacation August 13

NATO: NATO Secretary-General Manfred Wörner dies in Brussels after a long battle with cancer. Deputy Secretary-General Sergio Balanzino of Italy assumes his duties as Acting Secretary-General.

August 31

The End of the Cold War: The ﬁnal Russian troops evacuate Estonia, which completes Russia’s withdrawal from the three Baltic States, Latvia, Lithuania, and Estonia.

September 1

German Reuniﬁcation: After forty-nine years Russian troops ﬁnally leave Berlin and complete Russia’s withdrawal from Germany.

September 2–10

US–Russian Co-operation: As part of the ﬁrst joint US–Russian military manoeuvres held on Russian territory since the end of the Cold War the armed forces of the two countries engage on peacekeeping training.

September 8

The End of the Cold War: Western Allied troops withdraw from Berlin after forty-nine years of occupation and presence. The changing Status of Forces Agreements (SOFA) of the troops in Berlin acted as a litmus test of the state of a Cold War that is now history.

September 12–16

NATO Enlargement: Forces from thirteen NATO and partner countries hold Operation Co-operative Bridge as part of the Partnership for Peace (PfP) programme in Poznan, Poland. The task of preparing former adversaries for NATO membership is under way.

September 13

NATO: Lt. Gen. John Sheehan of the US Marine Corps (USMC) is appointed Supreme Allied Commander, Atlantic (SACLANT).

September 23

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: The UNSC reinforces and extends its measures regarding sanctions on the areas in BiH under control of Bosnian Serb forces. Meanwhile it suspends, for an initial period of 100 days, certain sanctions against Yugoslavia, citing the Yugoslav authorities’ decision to support a proposed territorial settlement and to close the international border between Yugoslavia and BiH for all goods except certain humanitarian items.

September 28 –October 7

NATO Enlargement: Maritime PfP Exercise Co-operative Venture takes place in the North Sea, with NATO and partner maritime forces conducting peacekeeping, humanitarian, and combat search and rescue operations (CSAR).

September 29–30

European Defence/NATO: French Defence Minister François Léotard attends the Seville NATO ministerial meeting. He indicates a possible rapprochement between France and military NATO, suggesting Paris could rejoin having left it in 1966.

October 1

European Defence: The decision by Berlin to put German Army divisions under the control of the new German Heeresführungskommando passes without comment. It is a long way from the debate over German rearmament and the European Defence Community (EDC) in the 1950s.

October 17

NATO: Willy Claes of Belgium succeeds Manfred Wörner as SecretaryGeneral of NATO.

1994 [223] October 21–8

NATO Enlargement: PfP joint peacekeeping Exercise Co-operative Spirit is held on NATO territory in the Netherlands with twelve participating NATO and partner countries.

October 28

The End of the Cold War: The BAOR is oﬃcially disbanded after almost forty years in Germany.

October

European Defence: In a sign of the rising tensions between so-called Atlanticists and Europeanists British Foreign Secretary Douglas Hurd says of EU security and defence that security ‘goes to the heart of the functions of the nation-state’ and that ‘public opinion would not understand or accept it if these responsibilities appeared to have been surrendered to a supranational body, however worthy’. Commenting upon increased bilateral AngloFrench defence links, he adds that, ‘although both countries diﬀer occasionally . . . neither for Britain nor for France is there attraction in a vision of Europe which erodes national identity’.

October

European Defence: In a masked rebuke to the British at a Franco-Spanish summit, President Mitterrand notes that, ‘contradictions are beginning to emerge [between northern and southern member states of the EU] and we must prevent them from becoming lethal’.

October

European Defence: The French Permanent Representative (Permrep) to the WEU states that, ‘the more the Europeans decide to depend upon the Alliance’s assets, the more they need to have assets of their own for certain key functions so that recourse to NATO’s collective assets does not lead to WEU and the European Union playing a purely superﬁcial role’.

October

The Middle East Peace Process: A peace deal is signed between Israel and Jordan.

November 7–17

European Defence: The ﬁrst Eurocorps exercise takes place. Code-named Pegasus, it is intended to test the interoperability of the corps staﬀ and the 5,000 troops involved.

November 8

The Rwandan Genocide: The UNSC establishes the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda. It is seated in Arusha, Tanzania.

November 11

NATO: Secretary-General Willy Claes issues a statement of concern over the decision by the US to limit its involvement in Operation Sharp Guard and the provision of an arms embargo covering the former Yugoslavia.

November 14

European Defence: The WEU Noordwijk summit endorses a document on a Common European Defence Policy (CEDP) and aims for it ‘to evolve into a comprehensive Common European Defence Policy Statement in the perspective of the Intergovernmental Conference of 1996’. At the same summit, ministers discuss the progress made by Spain, France, and Italy on EUROFOR and EUROMARFOR.

November 14–25

European Defence: In an exercise code-named Tramontana 94, 8,000 troops, mainly French, Italian, and Spanish, but supported by other contingents, from Greece, the Netherlands, and France, and a battalion of Eurocorps, conduct exercises in southern Spain.

[224] the strategic vacation November 18

European Defence: In an attempt to refocus European defence on the practical development of capabilities, the British propose (and it is agreed at the Anglo-French summit at Chartres) the creation of the Franco-British European Air Group (FBEAG), which will designate aircraft in joint missions on a case-by-case basis. The British ﬁnd themselves trying to ensure European defence remains NATO-friendly and ﬁnd ways to restrain a France that wants to move the centre of gravity of Europe’s security and defence back towards the EU.

December 5

The Nuclear Balance: President Leonid Kuchma of Soviet successor state Ukraine signs the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT) as a NonNuclear Weapons State (NNWS) at the Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe (CSCE) Summit Meeting in Budapest. The agreement follows the transfer of all former Soviet nuclear systems to Russia, or their destruction.

December 5–6 CSCE/OSCE: The CSCE is renamed the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE) at the Budapest summit, which also launches a discussion on a common and comprehensive security model for Europe and formally adopts the Code of Conduct on Politico-Military Aspects of Security. December 9–10

European Defence: The Essen European Council discusses a Mediterranean dimension for the Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP). At the meeting, a comprehensive pre-accession strategy is also presented, which includes structured dialogue, concrete plans for adopting conditions in areas such as the single market, and in-depth analysis of agricultural policy.

December 13

NATO ESDI: The Danish Chief of Staﬀ of the Armed Forces and his UK counterpart sign a letter of intent on an aﬃliation between the Danish Reaction Brigade and the 1st UK Armoured Division. The force is intended to be constituted within NATO’s ARRC framework.

1995 AT A GLANCE—MAJOR EVENTS AND THEMES

r Sweden, Austria, and Finland join the European Union. r A Review Conference decides that the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons (NPT) is to continue indeﬁnitely. r The Srebrenica massacre takes place in Bosnia-Herzegovina. r Eurocorps becomes fully operational. r NATO launches Operation Deliberate Forces against the Bosnian Serbs. r The General Framework Agreement on Peace in Bosnia-Herzegovina is signed at Dayton, Ohio, in the US.

January 1

The European Union: Sweden, Austria, and Finland join the EU, bringing its membership to 15.

January 1

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: A four-month long cease-ﬁre begins in Bosnia-Herzegovina (BiH).

January 1

The United Nations: The World Trade Organization (WTO) is established as the successor to the General Agreement over Trade and Tariﬀs (GATT).

January 1

WMD Proliferation: A key target date is missed for the ratiﬁcation of the January 1993 UN Chemical Weapons Convention (CWC). Only twenty countries have thus far ratiﬁed the treaty, which requires a minimum of sixty-ﬁve countries to be enacted.

January 10

European Defence: Towards the end of his time in oﬃce French President Mitterrand publicly wonders whether a European nuclear-deterrence doctrine would be possible. He is rapidly invited by France’s nuclear partners not to do so, particularly the ever more paciﬁst Germans.

January 24

NATO: The North Atlantic Council (NAC) agrees the establishment of a new NATO Standardization Organization (SO) that will promote eﬀective military interoperability between both members and partners.

January 30

European Defence: French Foreign Minister Alain Juppé speaks of dissuasion concertée, i.e. a concerted European deterrence. The concept is not meant to signify a unilateral enlargement of the nuclear umbrella, shared decision-making, or a replacement of the US nuclear guarantee; rather, it signiﬁes a dialogue between partners on equal footing. France wants to integrate nuclear debate in European construction and give it more than an exclusively Atlantic dimension. The reaction is negative across the EU.

January 31

The Nuclear Balance: The US announces a one-year extension of Washington’s unilateral moratorium on the testing of nuclear devices.

[226] the strategic vacation January

European Defence: José Cutileiro of Portugal becomes Secretary-General of the Western European Union (WEU).

February 8

Islamic Fundamentalism: NATO approves plans for a direct dialogue with several North African and Mediterranean countries including Egypt, Israel, Mauritania, Morocco, and Tunisia as part of eﬀorts to combat the emerging threat of Islamic fundamentalism.

February 16

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: The Bosnian Federation agrees to an international plan for the suspension of economic sanctions against Serbia if Belgrade recognizes Bosnia and Croatia on the condition that the border between Bosnia and Serbia is closed.

February 23

European Stability: Belarus suspends the destruction of weapons and violates the Conventional Forces Europe (CFE) Treaty.

February 24

The Southern Dimension: NATO opens talks in Brussels with Morocco, Egypt, Mauritania, Tunisia, and Israel to discuss North African security.

March 1

NATO: The US, France, Germany, and Italy agree to develop the Medium Extended Air Defence System (MEADS) within the framework of the Alliance.

March 6

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: Croatia forms a military alliance with the Bosnian Federation.

March 16

European Stability: Agreement is reached between Slovakia and Hungary over the treatment of their respective minorities.

March 18–20

European Stability: As part of a Pan-European Security Conference meeting in Paris, ﬁfty countries adopt the Stability Pact for Europe to avoid crises. They also agree a raft of measures covering the alignment and control of borders and ethnic minority rights.

March 26

The European Union: The Convention Implementing the Schengen Agreement takes practical eﬀect. Belgium, France, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Portugal, and Spain create a border-check-free zone between their countries.

March 28

European Defence/NATO: During the annual meeting of the defence ministers of Benelux, in Alden-Biezen, Belgium, the Belgians and Dutch agree to an intense programme of co-operation between their navies. The two countries also sign an agreement on the creation of a deployable air task force.

March 30–1

European Stability: At the meeting of Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE) Senior Council a Common and Comprehensive Security Model for the 21st Century is discussed, which includes a comprehensive concept and deﬁnition of security with a focus on human security and freedom from violence.

March

European Defence/NATO: The HQ of the Dutch-German Army Corps is established at Münster, Germany. It is part of a spate of multinational European military formations the main impulse of which is the need to maintain a critical mass of eﬀective armed forces on reduced defence budgets. It is a demand that is exacerbated by the increasingly advanced nature of US armed forces and the problem NATO is having ensuring that all member

1995 [227] nations can work together. It marks the start of the so-called interoperability dilemma. April 6

European Defence/NATO: Britain and the Netherlands sign an exchange of letters regarding common interests in the area of maritime defence and a reaﬃrmation and strengthening of the co-operation between their navies in such areas as logistics, personnel, training, research and development, information, hydrography, oceanography, etc. At the same time, UK Defence Secretary Malcolm Rifkind and Dutch Defence Minister Joris Voorhoeve extend co-operation between air and land forces.

April 11

The Nuclear Balance: The UN Security Council (UNSCR) adopts Resolution 984 which guarantees assistance for signatory non-nuclear weapons states (NNWS) to the 1970 nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT) if they are subjected to nuclear threat or attack.

May 7

France: Jacques Chirac is elected President of the French Republic. He promises to reform France but, after an initial attempt at a rapprochement with NATO, his clashes with the US and Britain come to deﬁne what turns out to be a progressively anti-British and anti-NATO presidency.

May 11

Nuclear Arms Control: The Review and Extension Conference of the Parties to the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons decides that the treaty should remain in force indeﬁnitely.

May 15

European Defence: France, Italy, and Spain sign the EUROFOR and EUROMARFOR Founding Documents for the creation of an army joint rapid reaction force and a European maritime force to provide extra security for the Mediterranean outside the NATO framework.

May 30–1

NATO–Russia Co-operation: At a meeting in Noordwijk, the Netherlands, NATO foreign ministers and their counterparts from the North Atlantic Co-operation Council (NACC), Russian Foreign Minister Kozyrev formally accepts the Russian Individual Partnership Programme (IPP) as part of the PfP Programme. A formal document, ‘Areas for Pursuance of a Broad, Enhanced NATO-Russia Dialogue and Cooperation’ is also initialled.

June 10

European Defence: France, Italy, and Spain decide to launch Helios 1A, the ﬁrst European military observation satellite system. A recent WEU study suggests a reasonably comprehensive satellite surveillance system would cost in the region of $19 billion over 25 years.

June 27

European Defence: France and the UK oﬃcially establish the Franco-British European Air Group (FBEAG).

July 2

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: The UN War Crimes Tribunal formally indicts Bosnian Serbs Radovan Karadzic and General Radko Mladic on charges of genocide and crimes against humanity.

July 6–16

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: Bosnian Serbian forces lay siege to the UN safe haven of Srebrenica and start shelling the city. A few days later, Serbian forces enter the city. Under the command of General Radko Mladic, more than 7,000 Bosnian men are massacred. Many attempt to reach safety by taking to the hills but are captured and slaughtered. An estimated 23,000 women and children are deported to Muslim territory. Dutch peacekeepers,

[228] the strategic vacation ill-prepared, without a clear mandate, and without air support, stand by and, in exchange for fourteen Dutch hostages, hand over about 5,000 Bosniaks, mostly women, children, and the inﬁrm, who sought refuge at a Dutch base. On 16 July, the peacekeepers withdraw. The UN fails in its responsibilities to the Bosnian people. July 7

European Defence: France, Italy, and Spain launch the Helios 1A satellite system.

July 23

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: British troops enter the UN safe haven Sarajevo and prevent the Bosnian Serbs from taking Bosnia’s capital city.

August 1

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: Croat and Bosnian Croat forces start shelling the Serb-held Bosnian town of Strmica. Croatia enters the war.

August 30

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: The UN ﬁnally clears NATO to begin sustained air operations against the Bosnian Serbs if they attack the remaining safe areas Gorazde, Tuzla, Bihac, and Sarajevo. The Bosnian Serbs (with the backing of Serbian forces) immediately attack Zepa, Bihac, and Sarajevo. In response NATO Operation Deliberate Force is launched following a deadly mortar attack by the Bosnian Serbs against civilians in Sarajevo. Over eleven days between 30 August and 14 September NATO aircraft ﬂy 3,515 sorties against 338 targets; 1,026 bombs are dropped, with 708 being precision-guided munitions (PGM) and the rest so-called ‘dumb’ munitions. One French aircraft is lost. The Pentagon claims proof of the eﬀectiveness of air power in achieving clear political objectives. The Bosnian Serbs suﬀer a crushing defeat and are brought to the negotiating table.

August 31

European Defence/NATO: The Dutch–German Army Corps becomes operational.

September 1

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: The Agreement on the framework of constitutional arrangements for BiH is signed in New York as the United States lends its full weight to the search for a political solution to the Bosnian ﬁasco.

September 1

European Defence: The FBEAG becomes operational. Based at RAF High Wycombe in the UK, it is initially under the command of a French two-star general.

September 12

Conventional Arms Control: The framework for the Wassenaar Arrangement (named after the suburb of The Hague, the Dutch capital in which the talks were held) is agreed, establishing export controls on certain conventional weapons and dual-use technologies.

September 20

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: NATO formally brings Operation Deliberate Force to a conclusion.

September 28

The Middle East Peace Process: In Washington, Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) Chairman Yasser Arafat and Israeli Prime Minister Yitzhak Rabin sign the Taba Agreement, also named Oslo II. It provides for an extension of self-administration by Palestinians in the West Bank and the Gaza Strip.

1995 [229] September

European Defence: France, Spain, and Italy, plus contingents from several other European countries, conduct Exercise Mistral 95 in southern France.

October 2

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: A change of tactics takes place by Croat President Franjo Tudjman and Serb President Slobodan Miloševi´c. Demonstrating the extent to which the two are exercising control over the situation in Bosnia, a deal is struck over the partition of Eastern Slavonia which places it under Croatian control after a transition period.

October 2

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: The cease-ﬁre in BiH comes into eﬀect.

October 13

Conventional Arms Control: The UN Conference on Conventional Weapons ends in Vienna without any agreement on the proposed global ban on the use of anti-personnel landmines.

October 21

NATO: Willy Claes resigns as NATO Secretary-General following his implication in a political scandal in Belgium concerning the use of funds for the purchase by the Belgian Armed Forces of Italian Agusta helicopters to ﬁnance political activities.

October 27

ESDI/ESDP: A Memorandum of Understanding (MOU) is signed between NATO and the WEU to enable communications to take place directly between the two organizations.

November 1

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: Peace talks start in Dayton, Ohio, in the US over the future of BiH. Present are the parties to the conﬂict, Presidents Tudjman and Miloševi´c, together with a Contact Group made up of the US, Russia, France, Germany, Italy, and the UK. At the talks initial agreement is made to reintegrate Eastern Slavonia into Croatia. US Assistant Secretary of State Richard Holbrooke is the driving force behind and architect of the Dayton talks. The Europeans ﬁnd themselves sidelined.

November 1

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: The UN Security Council (UNSC) suspends sanctions on the former Yugoslavia.

November 4

The Middle East Peace Process: At an Israeli peace rally, Prime Minister Yitzhak Rabin is assassinated by an Israeli extremist opposed to Rabin’s policy towards the Palestinians. Foreign Minister Simon Peres is named Acting Prime Minister. The Middle East Peace Process begins to unravel.

November 13

Al-Qaeda: Car bombs outside a building belonging to a US security/military ﬁrm in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia, kill nine people. Al-Qaeda is thought to be responsible.

November 13

WMD Proliferation: The US Senate Foreign Relations Committee, together with the Armed Services Committee, block the ratiﬁcation of the Chemical Weapons Convention (CWC) on the advice of the US Armed Forces, seriously undermining the value of a UN arms control agreement between over 150 states.

November 15

European Defence: The WEU Council of Ministers adopts a document called ‘European Security: A Common Concept of the 27 WEU States’. The document outlines security challenges and risks facing Europe in the politico-military ﬁeld. It asserts that the WEU can respond to many of these challenges. The concept also identiﬁes ways in which WEU members

[230] the strategic vacation can contribute to security and stability in Europe, in neighbouring areas, and the wider world, with special emphasis on how the WEU can enhance capabilities in the ﬁeld of crisis prevention and management. November 21

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: The General Framework Agreement on Peace in Bosnia and Herzegovina (Dayton Peace Accords) is initialled to end hostilities in BiH and to allow the return of refugees and internally displaced persons (IDPs).

November 22

The UNSC suspends indeﬁnitely most of its sanctions against Yugoslavia. However, the suspension does not apply to the Bosnian Serb party until certain obligations are met by the latter. Also, all hitherto frozen or impounded funds and assets are released under certain conditions. The sanctions against Yugoslavia and the Bosnian Serbs party are to be terminated on the tenth day following the free and fair elections provided for in the Dayton Peace Accords.

November 28

The Barcelona Process: The Barcelona Declaration is signed by eleven Mediterranean states, the Palestinian Authority, and the EU. It contains three chapters, or pillars: politico-security, economic, and cultural issues. The ﬁrst pillar contains a mandate to provide the Mediterranean region with a regional security arrangement.

November 31

European Defence: Eurocorps is declared available for operations.

December 1

NATO: Former Spanish Foreign Minister and Socialist Javier Solana Madariaga is appointed Secretary-General of NATO.

December 3

European Defence/NATO: The US and the EU issue a New Transatlantic Agenda: ‘We are committed to the construction of a new European security architecture in which the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation, the European Union, the Western European Union, the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe and the Council of Europe have complementary and mutually reinforcing roles to play.’ An EU–US Action Plan is also adopted as the framework for EU–US partnership in several areas.

December 5

European Defence/NATO: French Foreign Minister Hervé de Charette announces that France will be more closely involved in NATO’s work and will actively participate in the reformation of the Alliance. France will henceforth take part in meetings of NATO’s Military Committee, while intensifying its working relations with the military structure. Paris also announces that French Defence Minister will also regularly attend the Defence Planning Committee (DPC) and other meetings. Some twenty-nine years after having quit NATO’s core military apparatus France announces its intention to resume its relationship with military NATO.

December 5

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: The North Atlantic Council (NAC) meeting at ministerial level formally endorses the deployment of 60,000 troops to BiH.

December 5

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: In Paris, the presidents of BiH, Croatia, and Serbia sign the General Framework Accord for Peace in Bosnia and Herzegovina. US troops arrive in Tuzla and the UN hands over command of all military operations in Bosnia to NATO. NATO Commander, US

1995 [231] Admiral Leighton Smith, immediately rejects a request by the leader of the Bosnian Serb Assembly, Momcilo Krajisnik, for a nine-month delay before the Bosnian Serb areas of Sarajevo are transferred to Bosniak control. December 7–8 European Stability: The OSCE Ministerial Council meeting in Budapest, Hungary, outlines the Comprehensive Security Model and conﬁrms its willingness to play a role in BiH. December 8

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: Former Swedish Prime Minister Carl Bildt is designated as the High Representative (HR) in BiH. This post is created by the Dayton Peace Accords, in which the parties request the HR to facilitate and monitor their own and others’ eﬀorts in implementing the civilian aspects of the agreement. The HR ‘is the ﬁnal authority in theatre regarding interpretation of [the Dayton Peace Accords] on the civilian implementation of the peace settlement.’

December 14

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: The General Framework Agreement on Peace in Bosnia-Herzegovina is signed in Paris and the post of High Representative is formally created and Carl Bildt is formally appointed.

December 15

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: The UNSC authorizes the deployment of an Implementation Force (IFOR) under NATO as provided for in the Dayton Peace Accords for BiH.

December 19

Conventional Arms Control: Twenty-eight countries sign the Wassenaar Arrangement on the control of armaments and technology export controls.

December 20–1

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: NATO Operation Joint Endeavour starts in Bosnia with the deployment of the Implementation Force (IFOR) which comprises both NATO and partner nations. The civilian component of the international presence, the United Nations Mission in Bosnia and Herzegovina (UNMIBH), is also deployed, and with it the International Police Task Force (IPTF).

December

NATO: Under the US Base Force Plan, all forces are reduced by 25 per cent compared with 1990 force levels. It is not only the Europeans who are cutting their armed forces.

1996 AT A GLANCE—MAJOR EVENTS AND THEMES

r Discussions take place over a strengthened European pillar in NATO. r France conducts and then ceases nuclear testing, after much international protest. r A new EU Intergovernmental Conference (IGC) opens in Turin. r NATO’s European Security and Defence Identity (ESDI) is reinforced within the Alliance at the Berlin summit. r Boris Yeltsin is re-elected President of the Russian Federation. r The Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty (CTBT) is signed. r Bill Clinton is re-elected President of the United States. r The Organisation Conjointe de Coopération en Matière d’Armement or OCCAR is created to smooth European defence procurement. r The NATO Stabilization Force (SFOR) replaces the Implementation Force (IFOR) in Bosnia-Herzegovina.

January

European Defence/NATO: The new Dutch–Belgian Naval Force becomes operational.

January 3

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: US Defense Secretary William Perry ﬂies to Sarajevo to discuss peacekeeping with NATO military oﬃcers and Bosnian leaders.

January 4

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: Negotiations open in Vienna under Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE) auspices on conﬁdence building and arms control measures in Bosnia-Herzegovina (BiH). The parties to the Peace Agreement agree on measures to enhance mutual conﬁdence, reduce the risk of conﬂict, limit military forces, and improve political co-operation.

January 5

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: The Russian Duma votes to deploy Russian forces to BiH to join NATO’s IFOR. However, it is also agreed that special arrangements will apply to the command and control of Russian forces in IFOR.

January 13

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: US President Bill Clinton visits US troops stationed in Tuzla, BiH.

January 13

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: Russian troops start deploying in support of the NATO-led IFOR in BiH.

January 15

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: In a mark of how tense the situation remains on the ground in the former Yugoslavia, the UN Security Council (UNSC) authorizes the deployment of a 5,000-strong force to Eastern Slavonia, supported by NATO air power.

1996 [233] January 17

NATO: The French ambassador to NATO announces more details of France’s new approach to NATO. France will fully participate in its Military Committee, but will not take part in the meetings of the Defence Planning Committee (DPC) or the Nuclear Planning Group (NPG).

January 20

The Middle East Peace Process: Yasser Arafat is elected president of the Palestinian Authority (PA).

January 26

European Stability: The Russian Federation joins the Council of Europe.

January 26

The Nuclear Balance: The US Senate ratiﬁes Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty (START II) and thus paves the way to a reduction of the levels of both American and Russian strategic nuclear missiles to some one-third of the number held at the height of the Cold War.

January 27

The Nuclear Balance: France conducts a nuclear test in the Paciﬁc. The test causes outrage not only in the Paciﬁc region but throughout the world. However, deprived of access to US testing facilities in Nevada, the French have little alternative to testing to maintain the security and safety of their nuclear warheads.

January 29

The Nuclear Balance: Unsettled by the outrage following the French nuclear tests French President Jacques Chirac announces the cessation of the tests claiming that France has the necessary data.

January 31 –February 2

European Defence/NATO: French President Chirac visits the United States, where he stresses the need to reform NATO to make it a ‘more equal partnership’ between Europeans and Americans.

February 12

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: Bosnian authorities approve the release of two Bosnian Serb oﬃcers to the International War Crimes Tribunal for trial for crimes against humanity.

February 26

The wars of the Yugoslav Succession: The BiH Government declares that the siege of Sarajevo is over and that the city is now open.

February 27

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: After being informed by the NATO-led IFOR that Bosnian Serbian forces have withdrawn behind the zones of separation established by the Dayton Peace Accords, the UNSC indeﬁnitely suspends its measures against the Bosnian Serbian party.

February

European Defence/NATO: In a sign of the growing rapprochement between France and the US the two agree that Combined Joint Task Forces (CJTF) can also be under non-NATO command if a prior decision on deployment is made by the North Atlantic Council (NAC) and all NATO members.

March 5

European Defence/NATO: The British newspaper, The Guardian, reports that European allies will take over the military control of some NATO operations from the US.

March 20–1

NATO–Russia Co-operation: NATO Secretary-General Javier Solana visits Moscow to discuss NATO–Russia relations. A Memorandum of Understanding on Civil Emergency Co-operation between NATO and Russia is signed.

[234] the strategic vacation March 29

The European Union: The IGC reviewing the Treaty on European Union (TEU) opens in Turin, Italy. Within that context pressure increases for the role of the Western European Union (WEU) to be deﬁned more clearly, with the WEU founding treaty due for renewal in 1998.

May 2

European Defence/NATO: NATO Secretary-General Javier Solana and WEU Secretary-General José Cutileiro sign the Security Agreement which agrees procedures for the protection and safeguarding of classiﬁed information and other sensitive material shared between the two organizations.

May 7

European Defence/NATO: The foreign and defence ministers of the Western European WEU member states (as well as ﬁve neutral Observer countries and 12 Associate and Partner countries) meet in Birmingham, England and agree to mount peacekeeping operations ‘out of NATO’ area. This means that henceforth WEU members will conduct operations outside of the region covered by the territory of NATO members.

May 7

European Defence: Luxembourg decides to join Eurocorps.

May 10

European Defence: At a working dinner in Bonn, President Jacques Chirac of France and Chancellor Helmut Kohl of Germany emphasize FrancoGerman co-operation on European defence and the need to move it forward within the framework of the EU. However, France and Germany disagree over the role of NATO.

May 15–31

European Stability: The First Conventional Forces Europe (CFE) Treaty Review is held in Vienna. Agreement is reached over the ‘Flank Zone’ problem whereby Russia believed itself to be unfairly disadvantaged in terms of the conventional force balance following the collapse of the Soviet Union.

May 19–21

NATO: NATO and partner countries meet at Petersberg Castle near Bonn to review eﬀorts to destroy and dismantle chemical, nuclear, and conventional weapons around the world.

May 26

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: A major political crisis starts in Albania. All major opposition parties pull out of parliamentary elections only hours before polls close, accusing the ruling Democratic Party of widespread irregularities.

May

European Defence/NATO: In a sign that France’s rapprochement with NATO might be a false dawn the Swiss newspaper Neue Zürcher Zeitung states that French Foreign Minister Hervé de Charette has hinted that French reintegration into NATO’s integrated military structure may be slowed down if Europe’s role in the Alliance does not obtain a more permanent and autonomous basis.

June 2

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: A second round of elections is held in Albania, boycotted by most opposition parties. The ruling Democratic Party wins 87 per cent of the vote. The Socialists refuse to recognize the results and do not take their seats.

June 2

European Defence/NATO: US Secretary of State Warren Christopher asserts that the US will remain the most signiﬁcant power in NATO even if space is created for a more visible role for Europe.

1996 [235] June 3–4

NATO ESDI: At a meeting of the NAC in Berlin, it is agreed to build up the European Security and Defence Identity (ESDI) within NATO as part of the internal adaptation of the Alliance (including a new military command structure). These changes are made in response to the removal of the East– West conﬂict, and they permit European members of NATO to undertake humanitarian and peacekeeping operations without the US through the creation of CJTFs in co-operation with the WEU using NATO assets. The Berlin-Plus process commences.

June 13–14

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: The NAC in Brussels agrees that any follow-up force in former Yugoslavia would be assembled by NATO as a whole. The ministers also agree to hold an urgent review of future military options in former Yugoslavia after the elections in BiH.

June 18

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: Following the implementation of the Agreement on Regional Stabilization contained in the Dayton Peace Accords, sanctions are lifted against former Yugoslavia by the UNSC.

June 19

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: The joint NATO-WEU naval blockade of former Yugoslavia, Operation Sharp Guard, is suspended but not formally terminated.

June 26

Al-Qaeda: Nineteen US airmen are killed in a car-bomb explosion at a US compound in Dhahran, Saudi Arabia. Al-Qaeda claims responsibility for the attack.

June

NATO Enlargement: The Russian response to the NATO meeting in Berlin is supportive of the development of ESDI. However, Russian oﬃcials are still opposed to military structures being built in peacetime in the Czech Republic, Hungary, and Poland if they become members and in the Baltic States should they become full NATO members.

July 1

NATO: NATO establishes the Consultation, Command, and Control (C3) Agency to develop systems for the eﬀective control of military coalitions engaged on complex operations and to assist partner nations preparing for membership.

July 2–3

NATO Enlargement: At a meeting of the Council of Baltic Sea States, Russia reiterates its opposition to NATO’s enlargement eastwards.

July 3

The New Russia: Boris Yeltsin is re-elected President of the Russian Federation.

July 19

NATO: The NAC approves the NATO Standardization Programme designed to promote the convergence and harmonization of the structure and practices of Alliance and partner armed forces across some ﬁfty standardization objectives. The Programme is also part of preparations by those partners wishing to be NATO members.

August 27

The New Russia: An agreement is signed in Moscow bringing the conﬂict in Chechnya to an end. The conﬂict started in November 1991 when Chechnya declared independence from Russia. In 1994 President Yeltsin sent in Russian forces and a violent and bloody conﬂict ensued. However, after failing to force the Chechens into submission contacts between Chechen

[236] the strategic vacation separatists and Russian special envoy Alexander Lebed lead to a suspension of hostilities. September 24

Nuclear Arms Control: The ﬁve declared nuclear powers Britain, China, France, Russia and the US sign the Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty (CTBT).

September 25–6

European Defence/NATO: NATO defence ministers meet informally in Bergen, Norway. Discord between France and the US over the threat by France not to reintegrate into the NATO military structure unless two top command posts are given to Europeans dominates the meeting. Russia– NATO relations are also on the agenda; Russia welcomes co-operation with NATO but does not endorse NATO’s expansion to the East.

October 1

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: The UNSC formally ends the sanctions against Yugoslavia and the Bosnian Serbs that have been suspended since the Dayton Peace Accords of 1995.

October 2

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: The WEU Council ends the Danube Embargo Enforcement Operation against the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (FRY).

October 19

The New Russia: Russian President Boris Yeltsin removes from oﬃce his recently appointed Secretary of the Security Council Alexander Lebed and replaces him with the Speaker of the Duma Ivan Rybkin. Lebed is apparently paying a price for having been the principal architect of the Chechen agreement which raised the ire of Russian nationalists.

October 19–25 The Middle East Peace Process: President Chirac of France visits the Middle East. He conﬁrms European and French commitment to the Middle East and the Middle East Peace Process and calls for a larger European role in the latter. This does not amuse the Americans. November 5

The United States: William (Bill) Clinton is re-elected President of the United States.

November 12

European Defence Procurement: L’Organisation Conjointe de Coopération en Matière d’Armement (OCCAR) is created through an administrative agreement among France, Germany, Italy, and the UK to render the process of transnational European defence procurement more rational and eﬃcient.

November 14

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: An international conference to assess the implementation of the 1995 Dayton Peace Accords is held in Paris.

November 14

NATO ESDI: The Spanish Parliament endorses Spanish participation in NATO’s new military structure, bringing an end to Madrid’s semi-detached status within the Alliance.

December 2–3 OSCE: An OSCE summit in Lisbon on European security issues adopts a Declaration on a Common and Comprehensive Security Model for Europe for the 21st Century. The declaration outlines security challenges facing the participating states and possibilities for co-operative approaches in meeting them, approves the Framework for Arms Control and the Development of the Agenda of the Forum for Security Co-operation, and calls on the

1996 [237] Permanent Council to elaborate a mandate for the appointment of an OSCE representative on freedom of the media. December 4–5 The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: A Peace Implementation Conference for Bosnia-Herzegovina is held in London. December 9

European Defence: German Chancellor Kohl and French President Chirac sign an agreement on mutual security and defence, in which they state their readiness to undertake a dialogue on the function of nuclear deterrence in the context of European defence policy.

December 10

NATO Enlargement: A ministerial meeting of the NAC in Brussels conﬁrms NATO readiness to organize and lead a Stabilization Force (SFOR) in BiH, subject to a UNSC mandate. Ministers also announce further steps to be taken in the internal and external transformation of the Alliance in preparation for the July 1997 Madrid Summit. NATO issues a statement on the stationing of nuclear forces.

December 12

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: The UNSC unanimously authorizes deployment of the NATO-led SFOR and a UN civilian operation in BiH for 1997. The International Police Task Force (IPTF) can thus continue to operate, as the mandate of UN Mission in Bosnia-Herzegovina (UNMIBH) is extended until 21 December 1997.

December 17

United Nations: Ghanaian diplomat and long-time UN insider Koﬁ Annan is formally selected to become Secretary-General of the United Nations. There is a whiﬀ of controversy as Annan was head of the UN Department of Peacekeeping Operations (DPKO) during the Rwandan genocide. It was widely regarded as not his ﬁnest hour.

December 20

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: The mandate of the NATO-led IFOR in BiH expires. IFOR is replaced by the NATO-led SFOR.

1997 AT A GLANCE—MAJOR EVENTS AND THEMES

r r r r r r r r r r

Koﬁ Annan becomes UN Secretary-General. Bill Clinton begins his second term as US President. The ﬁrst round of NATO enlargement is agreed. US President Clinton and Russian President Yeltsin meet in Helsinki, Finland. Operation Alba takes place in Albania as the country collapses. The Chemical Weapons Convention (CWC) comes into force. Tony Blair becomes British Prime Minister. The NATO–Russia Permanent Joint Council is established. The Czech Republic, Hungary, and Poland are invited to join NATO. EU Amsterdam Treaty is signed.

January 1

The United Nations: Koﬁ Annan is appointed Secretary-General of the United Nations.

January 15

The Albanian Crisis: The collapse of a pyramid savings system triggers riots in the Albanian capital Tirana and leads to the virtual collapse of governance in the country.

January 15

The Middle East Peace Process: Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu and Palestinian Authority (PA) President Arafat sign an agreement under which Israel is to hand over 80 per cent of Hebron to the PA.

January 19–21

NATO–Russia Co-operation: Talks open in Moscow between NATO Secretary-General Javier Solana and Russian Foreign Minister Yevgeny Primakov on a NATO–Russia Founding Document that will formalize relations between the Alliance and the successor state of the Soviet Union.

January 20

The United States: Bill Clinton is sworn in for his second term as US President. Madeleine Albright becomes US Secretary of State and Republican William S. Cohen Secretary of Defense.

January 21

Conventional Forces Europe: Talks to revise the 1990 Conventional Forces Europe (CFE) treaty begin in Vienna, Austria.

January 24– late March

The Albanian Crisis: Riots in Albania spread over the whole southern half of the country after the collapse of a pyramid savings scheme. More than 10,000 people ﬂee to Italy. The country approaches a state of anarchy. More than 360 people are killed and 3,500 injured.

February 4

NATO Enlargement: US President Bill Clinton says in his State of the Union address that NATO enlargement is vital, together with a stable relationship with Russia.

1997 [239] February 5–6

NATO Enlargement: Secretary-General Javier Solana meets Turkish President Suleyman Demirel and Prime Minister Necmettin Erbakan in Ankara to discuss NATO enlargement and Turkey’s role in Europe. Turkey has expressed some concern over NATO’s eastward expansion that it fears will marginalize Ankara.

February 12

The Chechen Wars: Chechen separatist leader Aslam Maskhadov is sworn in as the new Chechen President in Grozny, Chechnya.

February 18

NATO: The new US Secretary of State Madeleine Albright attends her ﬁrst NATO foreign ministers Meeting in Brussels and proposes the creation of a permanent NATO–Russia Brigade. The response to the proposal is at best lukewarm.

February 20

European Stability: The NATO allies propose making major changes to the CFE Treaty by calling for limits to be imposed on individual countries as opposed to regions. The Alliance also accepts Russia’s demand that territorial (rather than national) limits be imposed on troop deployment. Such a change would prevent NATO from massing troops on Russia’s border in any one area.

March 11

European Defence: A Western European Union (WEU) Assembly Colloquium is held in Athens, Greece, to discuss security implications of NATO and EU enlargement.

March 13

The Albanian Crisis: In a letter to the EU presidency, the Albanian Government requests the deployment of an international force to stabilize the country.

March 20–1

NATO Enlargement: President Clinton and President Yeltsin meet in Helsinki, Finland, to discuss NATO–Russia relations and European security.

March 24

The Albanian Crisis: The EU Council of Ministers agrees to send an advisory mission to Albania but rules out any major military or police commitment.

March 27

The Albanian Crisis: The Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE) Permanent Council ‘appreciates that certain participating States are willing to meet the oﬃcial request . . . made by the Albanian authorities . . . for assistance in resolving the security situation in Albania’.

March 28

The Albanian Crisis: The UN Security Council (UNSC) welcomes the deployment of an Italian-led Multinational Peace Force (MPF) to Albania (Operation Alba) to monitor the delivery of humanitarian aid and to maintain order, and gives the MPF a three-month mandate.

April 2

European Stability: Baltic defence ministers meeting in Vilnius, Lithuania discuss the formation of a joint peacekeeping battalion (BALTBAT), together with a joint naval squadron (BALTRON).

April 9

The Albanian Crisis: Socialist parliamentarians in Albania end their boycott and take up their seats in Parliament.

April 15

The Albanian Crisis: Operation Alba begins as the Italian-led 6,000-strong MPF arrives in Albania.

[240] the strategic vacation April 15

European Defence/NATO: Non-WEU members Turkey and Norway are permitted to take part in a WEU-led operation using NATO equipment.

April 15

The Albanian Crisis: Leka I, the pretender to the Albanian throne, returns to his country and calls for a referendum on reintroducing the monarchy.

April 17

NATO Enlargement: Poland announces it will reduce its armed forces from 220,000 to 180,000 over seven years to meet NATO standards and in preparation for NATO membership.

April 24

WMD Proliferation: The Chemical Weapons Convention (CWC) is approved by the US Senate. And, having been ratiﬁed by at least sixty-ﬁve states for 180 days, as required in the treaty, the CWC comes into force on 29 April.

May 1

Britain: New Labour and Tony Blair win UK elections with a landslide vote in their favour. On 2 May Tony Blair takes oﬃce as the youngest British Prime Minister in a century.

May 27

NATO–Russia Co-operation: The Founding Act on Mutual Relations, Co-operation, and Security between NATO and the Russian Federation is signed in Paris, establishing the NATO–Russia Permanent Joint Council. The Founding Act ‘deﬁnes the goals and mechanism of consultation, cooperation, joint decision-making and joint action that will constitute the core of the mutual relations between NATO and Russia’ and states that ‘NATO and Russia do not consider each other as adversaries. They share the goal of overcoming the vestiges of earlier confrontation and competition and of strengthening mutual trust and cooperation’ and that ‘NATO and Russia will work together to contribute to the establishment in Europe of common and comprehensive security based on the allegiance of shared values, commitments and norms of behaviour in the interests of all states’. The Permanent Joint Council will hold two annual meetings of foreign ministers and two of defence ministers, as well as monthly meetings of ambassadors or special representatives. The Joint Council may also meet, as appropriate, at the level of Heads of State or Government. Areas for consultation and co-operation include issues such as conﬂict prevention, crisis management, and conﬂict resolution; peacekeeping operations; strategy; defence policy and military doctrines; arms control; nuclear safety; non-proliferation of weapons of mass destruction (WMD); air traﬃc; size and role of conventional forces; armaments; civil-emergency preparedness and disaster relief; terrorism and drug traﬃcking; and public understanding of NATO–Russia relations.

May 30

NATO Enlargement: The concluding meeting of the North Atlantic Cooperation Council (NACC) and the inaugural meeting of its successor, the Euro-Atlantic Partnership Council (EAPC), take place. The EAPC brings together the nineteen NATO Allies and twenty-seven partner countries from Central and Eastern Europe and Central Asia and the Caucasus, as well as Switzerland, Ireland, Finland, Sweden, and Austria.

1997 [241] May

The Albanian Crisis: The WEU Council formally decides to send a Multinational Advisory Police Element (MAPE) to Albania in the framework of the MPF. The mission is to provide advice and train instructors.

June 16–17

The European Union: The Amsterdam European Council agrees upon a new EU treaty, the Treaty of Amsterdam. It incorporates the WEU’s Petersberg tasks into the Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP), opens the possibility of the WEU’s full integration into the EU and for a common defence, and creates the post of Secretary-General of the Council/High Representative for the CFSP. The Amsterdam treaty also provides for CFSP operations to be ﬁnanced from the Community’s budget. However, this does not apply to operations with military or defence implications. In a declaration annexed to the treaty, it is agreed to set up a policy-planning and early-warning unit under the authority of the High Representative for the CFSP.

June 19

The Albanian Crisis: The UNSC prolongs the mandate of the MPF until 13 August.

June 20–2

G7/G8: Russia oﬃcially joins the G7, making the partnership of elite industrialized countries the G8.

June 26

Conventional Arms Control: The Conference on Disarmament (CD) in Geneva agrees to open global negotiations with the aim of the progressive elimination of landmines. Australian Ambassador John Campbell is appointed Special Co-ordinator by the sixty-one participating states. Separate negotiations on a global landmine ban, initiated by Canada, continue in Brussels.

June 29 and July 6

The Albanian Crisis: The Socialist Party wins 100 out of 155 seats in the Albanian elections. The Socialists say that Albania will be a parliamentary democracy. A referendum on restoring the monarchy is also held; only a third of voters are in favour.

July 8–9

NATO Enlargement: At the historic NATO Madrid summit, former enemies the Czech Republic, Hungary, and Poland are invited to join the Alliance.

July 11

NATO: US Army General Wesley Clark replaces General George Joulwan as Supreme Allied Commander, Europe (SACEUR).

July 16

NATO: The co-ordination of the assistance for dealing with ﬂooding in Poland is undertaken as part of NATO’s Disaster Relief Policy at the request of the Polish Government.

July 18

NATO–Russia Co-operation: The ﬁrst meeting takes place in Brussels of the NATO–Russia Permanent Joint Council (PJC) at ambassadorial level. Agreement is reached on organizational and procedural arrangements.

July 22

European Defence: The WEU issues the Declaration on the Role of the Western European Union and its Relations with the European Union and the Atlantic Alliance. It is an important step on the road to the WEU becoming the defence arm of the EU.

July 23

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: Slobodan Miloševi´c becomes President of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (FRY).

[242] the strategic vacation August 13

The Albanian Crisis: Operation Alba’s mandate ends; all MPF troops leave Albania.

September 1

The European Union: The Dublin Convention comes into force. It determines which state is responsible for examining applications for asylum lodged in one of the EU member states.

September 26

NATO–Russia Co-operation: The foreign ministers of Russia and NATO countries meet for the ﬁrst time at the NATO–Russia Permanent Joint Council.

October 2

The European Union: The EU’s Amsterdam Treaty is signed by all the member states. However, the treaty must be ratiﬁed by national parliaments before it can become law.

October 9

NATO Enlargement: Ukraine and Hungary become the ﬁrst non-NATO countries to open diplomatic missions to the Alliance at NATO HQ in Brussels.

October 24

NATO–Russia Co-operation: The Russian Chief of the General Staﬀ, General Kvashnin, takes part in the third meeting of the NATO–Russia Permanent Joint Council. General Kvashin issues a statement welcoming the appointment of Lieutenant-General Zavarzin as Russia’s Military Representative (Milrep) to NATO.

November 16

NATO Enlargement: Hungarian citizens vote 85 per cent in favour of joining NATO.

November 17

Al-Qaeda: Fifty-eight people are killed in a bomb attack at the Egyptian holiday resort of Luxor. Al-Qaeda is responsible.

November 18

European Defence: WEU foreign and defence ministers meet in Erfurt, Germany, and agree to harmonize the EU and WEU presidencies as the ﬁrst step to the EU taking over the WEU.

December 1

EU–Russia Co-operation: Signed already in June 1994, the Agreement on Partnership and Cooperation between the EU and Russia enters into force.

December 1–11 Climate Change: More than 160 states gather in Kyoto, Japan, to conclude an amendment to the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change, the Kyoto Protocol. Under the protocol, industrialized countries will reduce their collective emissions of certain greenhouse gases by 5.2 per cent compared to 1990. The US refuses to sign. December 3

NATO–Russia Co-operation: The NATO–Russia Permanent Joint Council holds its ﬁrst meeting of defence ministers.

December 16

NATO Enlargement: At a historic session of the North Atlantic Council (NAC), NATO foreign ministers sign the Protocols of Accession for the Czech Republic, Hungary, and Poland in the presence of their foreign ministers.

December 18–19

OSCE: The OSCE Ministerial Council agrees to draft a European Security Charter covering human security.

1998 AT A GLANCE—MAJOR EVENTS AND THEMES

r r r r

The Kosovo Crisis begins. Al-Qaeda attacks US embassies in Nairobi and Dar es Salaam. Gerhard Schröder is elected Chancellor of Germany. Iraq temporarily ends co-operation with the UN Special Commission (UNSCOM) and then obstructs its work. r The Anglo-French St Malo Declaration on European defence is issued. r The US and Britain launch air strikes against Iraq.

January 15

Missile Defence: A Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) report estimates that an Intercontinental Ballistic Missile (ICBM) threat to the US is ‘unlikely’ but still worthy of attention.

March 2

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: The British presidency of the EU calls for mutual restraint by Serbs and Albanians in Kosovo as the province of Serbia begins to descend into inter-ethnic chaos.

March 9

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: The Contact Group, comprising the foreign ministers of France, Germany, Italy, the Russian Federation, the UK, and the US, ‘call[s] upon President Miloševi´c to take rapid and eﬀective steps to stop the violence and engage in a commitment to ﬁnd a political solution to the issue of Kosovo through dialogue’. Speciﬁcally, the Contact Group requests that he ‘withdraw the special police units and cease action by the security forces aﬀecting the civilian population’ within ten days. The Contact Group asserts that ‘the principles for a solution of the Kosovo problem should be based upon the territorial integrity of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, and be in accordance with Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE) standards, Helsinki principles and the UN Charter. Such a solution also must take into account the rights of the Kosovo Albanians and all those who live in Kosovo.’ It ‘support[s] an enhanced status for Kosovo within the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia which a substantially greater degree of autonomy would bring and recognize[s] that this must include meaningful self-administration’.

March 31

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: The UN Security Council (UNSC) adopts Resolution 1160 (14 to 0, with China abstaining), imposing an arms embargo on Yugoslavia as the situation deteriorates in Kosovo.

April 10

Northern Ireland: The Northern Ireland Good Friday Agreement is signed by the Irish and UK Governments after multi-party negotiations. It provides for devolution of powers to a Northern Ireland Assembly and Executive

[244] the strategic vacation and establishes North–South as well as UK–Ireland bodies. It also provides for decommissioning of weapons and a reduction of British security forces. Moreover, bodies on human rights and equality are set up, and major police and criminal justice reforms are agreed. April 20

Pan Am Flight 103: Libyan leader Muammar al-Qaddaﬁ agrees to hand over two Libyan Pan Am suspects for trial by a Scottish court in a neutral country.

April 20

European Defence: French, German, Italian, Spanish, Swedish, and UK defence ministers issue a joint statement to the eﬀect that they intend to make the harmonization of requirements of their armed forces a priority in order to avoid a duplication of acquisition, research, and technological development policies.

April 27

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: EU foreign ministers conﬁrm their adherence to the UN arms embargo against Yugoslavia and also agree to ban the export of police equipment and armoured vehicles to Serbia and to deny visas to Serbian oﬃcials. However, the ministers reject a proposal to freeze export credits already approved for Serbia.

April 29

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: The Contact Group, with the exception of Russia, agrees to freeze the ﬁnancial assets held abroad of the governments of Yugoslavia and Serbia (Serbia, although the dominant power, is technically part of Yugoslavia). Between May and July more than 13,000 refugees from Kosovo pour into Albania as ethnic cleansing by Serb militias increase, backed by the Yugoslav Army (JNA).

May 22

Northern Ireland: The Good Friday Agreement is endorsed in a parallel referendum by the populations of both Northern Ireland and the Republic of Ireland.

May 28–9

NATO: Establishment takes place of the Euro-Atlantic Disaster Response Coordination Centre (EADRCC) at NATO as part of the Euro-Atlantic Partnership Council (EAPC).

May 29

NATO–Russia Co-operation: The NATO–Russia Permanent Joint Council meeting in Luxembourg condemns recent nuclear tests conducted by India and Pakistan as ﬂagrant breaches of the Non-Proliferation Treaty and associated test ban treaties.

June 5–8

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: President Miloševi´c is given further warnings by the international community to curb the escalating violence in Kosovo.

June 11

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: NATO defence ministers meet in Brussels. They agree to continue the Stabilization Force (SFOR) in BiH beyond the end of its current mandate on 20 June, subject to a resolution from the UNSC.

June 12

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: The Contact Group calls for an immediate ceaseﬁre in Yugoslavia, the withdrawal from Kosovo of all Yugoslav and Serbian security forces, the admission of international monitors to the province, and fresh talks between Yugoslav and ethnic Albanian leaders in Kosovo.

1998 [245] June 15

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: The Cardiﬀ European Council of the EU endorses the demand that Serbia halt military operations against civilians in Kosovo.

June 15

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: Operation Determined Falcon, an exercise designed to demonstrate NATO force and intimidate the Serbs, takes place over Albania and Macedonia, involving 85 aircraft from thirteen member countries. It meets with limited success.

June 24

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: British Prime Minister Tony Blair warns that NATO air strikes and ground forces remains an option unless Serbian and Yugoslav security forces are withdrawn from Kosovo.

June 24

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: NATO begins planning for military action against Miloševi´c.

July 6

European Defence Procurement: France, Germany, Italy, Spain, Sweden, and the UK sign the Letter of Intent (LOI) to facilitate cross-border restructuring of defence industries. Six working groups are established to study speciﬁc aspects.

July 15

Missile Defence: The US Commission to Assess the Ballistic Missile Threat to the United States (headed by Donald Rumsfeld) releases its report. It estimates that these ‘newer threats in North Korea, Iran and Iraq . . . would be able to inﬂict major destruction on the US within about ﬁve years of a decision to acquire such a capability (10 years in the case of Iraq)’. It also suggests that such attacks would come with ‘little or no warning’. Furthermore, ‘Concerted eﬀorts by a number of overtly or potentially hostile nations to acquire ballistic missiles with biological or nuclear payloads pose a growing threat to the United States, its deployed forces and its friends and allies.’ The report explicitly criticizes the CIA assessment of January: ‘The threat to the U.S. posed by these emerging capabilities is broader, more mature and evolving more rapidly than has been reported in estimates or reports by the intelligence community.’

July 15–17

The International Criminal Court: The Statute of the International Criminal Court (ICC) is adopted in Rome. The US is not keen as it believes the court could be used to indict members of US forces engaged on operations.

July

Pan Am Flight 103: The US and UK agree to hold the trial of the Libyan Pan Am suspects in a third country under Scottish law.

August 7

Al-Qaeda: Two hundred and ﬁfty-seven people are killed and more than 5,000 injured in two car-bomb explosions near the US embassies in Nairobi, Kenya, and Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. Al-Qaeda is believed to have conducted the attacks.

August 20

Al-Qaeda/Afghanistan: In retaliation for the Nairobi and Dar es Salaam attacks and after rejecting a Sudanese proposal for UN on-site inspections, US President Clinton orders cruise missile strikes on a compound housing supporters of Osama bin Laden in Afghanistan and a pharmaceutical factory in Sudan. The US believes that the factory produces chemical weapons, but doubts soon emerge whether this is really the case.

[246] the strategic vacation August 24

Pan Am Flight 103: Britain and the US propose that the Lockerbie trial be conducted by a Scottish court in the Netherlands. The Dutch Government agrees. On 26 August the Libyan Government accepts the terms of the Lockerbie trial.

August 31

WMD Proliferation: North Korea launches a Taepodong 1 missile which ﬂies over Japan before falling into the Paciﬁc Ocean. A new era of weapons proliferation has begun. In spite of Pyongyang’s claims that the missile was carrying a satellite it is clear that it is a crude attempt to intimidate the Japanese in advance of the 50th anniversary of the communist state’s founding. It fails. The Japanese refuse to sign an agreement on sharing the cost of providing Western nuclear reactors to the North Koreans, and lodge a formal protest.

September 9

European Defence: After failing to agree set up to Organisation Conjointe de Coopération en Matière d’Armement (OCCAR) as a subsidiary body of the Western European Union (WEU) Britain, France, Germany, and Italy sign a treaty, at the Farnborough Air Show, UK, giving legal personality to OCCAR. This enables the organization to enter into contracts and is an important step on the way to an European Defence Agency (EDA) charged with transnational defence procurement.

September 24

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: NATO defence ministers meet in Vilamoura, Portugal, and approve an activation warning (ACTWARN) authorizing Supreme Allied Commander, Europe (SACEUR) General Wesley Clark to ask member nations for the forces necessary to carry out military intervention in Kosovo if need be.

October 13

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: In the face of increasing tension in the ethnic absence of compliance by the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (FRY) with UN Security Council Resolution (UNSCR) 1119, the North Atlantic Council (NAC) reviews the situation in Kosovo and issues activation orders (ACTORDs) for both limited air strikes and a phased air campaign in Yugoslavia after approximately 96 hours.

October 13

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: The NAC reaﬃrms for Belgrade to fully comply with UNSCRs 1119 and 1203 and conﬁrms the ACTORD for limited air operations subject to decisions by the NAC and covering a phased air campaign. The NAC calls for Kosovar Albanians also to comply with UNSC Resolutions.

October 13–15

NATO–Russia Co-operation: The NATO Air Defence Committee holds a ﬁrst joint exercise with the Russians at Kayseri airbase in Turkey. The purpose of the exercise is to load a NATO mobile air defence radar into a Russian Illyushin 76 heavy transport aircraft in preparation for peace support operations (PSOs).

October 15–23 The Middle East Peace Process: Palestinian leader Arafat, Israeli Prime Minister Netanyahu, and US President Clinton negotiate the Wye Agreement. They agree on the principle of ‘land for peace’: Israel is to withdraw from a further 13 per cent of the West Bank and to free 750 Palestinian prisoners. The Palestinian Authority pledges to prevent attacks on Israel and Israeli citizens. It is the high-water mark of the Middle East Peace Process.

1998 [247] October 24–5

European Defence: After an informal European Council at Pörtschach, Austria, Tony Blair declares at a press conference: ‘There was a willingness, which the UK obviously shares, for Europe to take a stronger foreign policy and security role . . . A Common Foreign and Security Policy for the European Union is necessary, it is overdue, it is needed and it is high time we got on with trying to engage with formulating it.’ He adds: ‘we need to make sure that the institutional mechanism in no way undermines NATO but rather is complementary to it.’

October 26

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: The Dutch military is cleared of trying to cover up the failings of its troops during the 1995 fall of the Bosnian UN Protected Area (UNPA) of Srebrenica.

October 27

Germany: Gerhard Schröder of the Social Democratic Party is elected German chancellor and Joschka Fischer of the Green Party appointed Deputy Chancellor and Federal Foreign Minister.

October 27

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: NATO Secretary-General Javier Solana notes improvements in the security and humanitarian situation in Kosovo.

October 31

The Run-Up to the Iraq War: Iraq ends co-operation with the UN Special Commission (UNSCOM) charged with ensuring that the regime of Saddam Hussein does not develop weapons of mass destruction (WMD). All inspectors are ordered out of Iraq.

November 4

European Defence: The British newspaper The Guardian reports that EU defence ministers agreed at an informal meeting in Vienna that, in the words of Austrian Defence Minister Werner Fasslabend, the EU ‘simply [has] to be willing and able to get to grips with European crises and conﬂicts, if necessary also by [its] own eﬀorts’.

November 6

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: Unarmed OSCE observers arrive in Kosovo as part of an advanced force to monitor the situation on the ground.

November 13–14

The Run-up to the Iraq War: US President Clinton orders air strikes against Iraq but holds oﬀ at the last minute as Iraq promises renewed unconditional co-operation.

November 18

The Run-up to the Iraq War: UNSCOM inspectors return to Iraq.

November

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: Upon a request by the EU, the WEU Satellite Centre embarks upon ‘general security surveillance’ of the Kosovo region.

December 3–4 European Defence: The UK and France issue the St Malo Declaration, which states: ‘the Union [EU] must be given appropriate structures and a capacity for analysis of situations, sources of intelligence, and a capability for relevant strategic planning, without unnecessary duplication, taking account of the existing assets of the WEU and the evolution of its relations with the EU. In this regard, the European Union will also need to have recourse to suitable military means (European capabilities pre-designated within NATO’s European pillar or national or multinational European means outside the NATO framework).’ This marks a major shift in UK attitudes towards the European defence project. The UK eﬀectively lifts its decades-long objections to the EU acquiring an ‘autonomous’ military capacity so long as European

[248] the strategic vacation defence remains NATO-compatible. The Declaration is soon followed by many further-reaching declarations and proposals. December 7

European Defence: Concerned about the impact upon NATO US Secretary of State Madeleine Albright endorses the Franco-British St Malo initiative but says that it is important that this happen subject to ‘three Ds’, i.e. no diminution of NATO, no discrimination of non-EU NATO members and no duplication of eﬀorts or capabilities. The term ‘three Ds’ later comes to mean ‘no duplication, no discrimination, and no de-coupling’.

December 9–16

The Run-up to the Iraq War: UN weapons inspectors from UNSCOM leave Iraq after reporting that their work has been obstructed.

December 11–12

European Defence: The EU European Council in Vienna, the ﬁrst after St Malo, ‘welcomes the new impetus given to the debate on a common European policy on security and defence’. The need to establish the necessary capabilities to conduct a Common Foreign & Security Policy (CFSP) is for the ﬁrst time speciﬁcally mentioned as ‘[t]he European Council considers that in order for the European Union to be in a position to play its full role on the international stage, the CFSP must be backed by credible operational capabilities’.

December 16

The Middle East Peace Process: Under pressure by Orthodox extremists, Israeli Prime Minister Netanyahu announces that he will stop implementing the Wye Agreement.

December 16

The Run-up to the Iraq War: The US and Britain launch air strikes against Iraq to force it to comply fully with UN weapons inspections and to degrade the country’s military capability.

1999 AT A GLANCE—MAJOR EVENTS AND THEMES

r The Rambouillet Talks on Kosovo take place. r The Kosovo War and NATO Operation Allied Force is launched to expel the Serbs from Kosovo. r Poland, Czech Republic, and Hungary join NATO. r The EU Amsterdam Treaty comes into force. r NATO 50th anniversary summit takes place in Washington. r Miloševi´c is indicted. r The Serbs are defeated and withdraw from Kosovo. r The Stability Pact for South Eastern Europe is created. r Croatian President Franjo Tudjman dies. r The EU’s Helsinki Declaration and Headline Goal found the European Security and Defence Policy (ESDP).

January 1

The European Union: The European single currency (Euro) is adopted by eleven member states of the European Union as part of European Monetary Union (EMU).

January 1

NATO: NATO formally launches its 50th anniversary celebrations (1949–99).

January 14

WMD Proliferation: The US imposes sanctions on three Russian scientiﬁc institutions that are suspected of helping the Iranian nuclear weapons programme.

January 25–6

Missile Defence: Serious disagreements persist throughout US Secretary of State Albright’s visit to Moscow over the crisis in Kosovo and a possible US missile defence system.

February 6

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: Peace negotiations on Kosovo open at a chateau near Rambouillet, France.

February 15

European Stability: Abdullah Öcalan, leader of the Kurdistan Workers’ Party, is taken back to Turkey after being captured by Turkish Special Forces in Kenya.

February 17

NATO Enlargement: The Partnership for Peace (PfP) Training Centre in Ankara, Turkey is oﬃcially designated as such by NATO with the aim of enhancing military co-operation and interoperability. The main focus of its work is equipment compatibility and to ensure practical working conditions between the armed forces of NATO and Partner countries.

[250] the strategic vacation February 23

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: The Rambouillet talks are adjourned. The proposed deal, which foresees substantial autonomy for Kosovo within Serbia, has not been endorsed by the parties to the talks.

March 1

NATO: NATO’s new military command structure is activated, shifting the posture of the Alliance from geographical to functional commands. The centrepieces are Allied Command Operations (ACO) and Allied Command Transformation (ACT). The number of headquarters is reduced from sixtyﬁve to twenty with emphasis on the generation of multinational, joint, and ﬂexible forces. The structure is also designed to ensure NATO can accommodate the changing political landscape driven by the emergence of the European Security and Defence Identity (ESDI), as well as the accession of new members.

March 12

NATO Enlargement: Poland, the Czech Republic, and Hungary join NATO. They are the ﬁrst former Warsaw Pact members to do so.

March 13–14

European Defence: At an informal EU foreign ministers meeting, the German presidency submits a proposal entitled ‘Strengthening the Common Policy on Security and Defence’. The Germans felt somewhat left out of the St Malo Declaration and are keen to re-establish their credentials as leaders of European defence during their presidency. Unfortunately, their military eﬀort does not match their rhetoric.

March 15–19

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: The Rambouillet peace talks resume. The Kosovar Albanians accept the Western proposal, but the Serbs do not. International observers are told to leave Kosovo.

March 19

Pan Am Flight 103: In a letter to the UN Secretary-General, Koﬁ Annan, Libya indicates that suspects in the 1988 bombing of Pan Am Flight 103 over Scotland will be made available to the UN Secretary-General.

March 22

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: US Special Envoy Richard Holbrooke, architect of the Dayton Peace Accords, travels to Belgrade to convince President Miloševi´c to accept the peace deal proposed at Rambouillet, but the Yugoslav President refuses. The way is now open for war.

March 24

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: NATO begins Operation Allied Force, which is aimed at destroying Yugoslav air defences. Yugoslavia responds by declaring a State of War. Airbases in Italy are used by eight countries. The campaign is led by the US, with support from Canada, France, Germany, Italy, the Netherlands, Spain, and the UK.

March 25

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: Yugoslavia responds to the attacks against its territory by severing relations with France, Germany, the UK, and the US. Government authorities also state that forty military installations have been targeted; none are destroyed but ten soldiers are killed.

March 27

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: Large numbers of ethnic Albanian refugees start leaving Kosovo for Albania and Macedonia, forced out of their homes by Serbian forces and paramilitaries in the North and West of Kosovo. A NATO spokesman declares that ‘dark things are happening’ in the province of Kosovo. NATO aircraft continue to carry out attacks on targets in Yugoslavia on a daily basis throughout April. The aim of reducing civilian

1999 [251] casualties hampers attempts to eliminate air defence systems in Yugoslavia. However, the Serbs are proving a tougher nut to crack than expected. April 5

Pan Am Flight 103: The two Libyan Pan Am bombing suspects are handed over to UN representatives and arrive in the Netherlands for trial before a Scottish court. On the same day, the UN Security Council (UNSC) suspends sanctions against Libya.

April 6

Pan Am Flight 103: The Libyan Pan Am bombing suspects make their ﬁrst appearance before the Scottish court set up in the Netherlands.

April 13

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: As the Serbs dig in, calls are made for more NATO aircraft by Supreme Allied Commander, Europe (SACEUR) US General Wesley Clark. Some in NATO question the need.

April 23–5

NATO: The 50th-anniversary summit of NATO leaders is held in Washington. Surprisingly, the Final Communiqué of the summit, inspired by events in Kosovo, shows a much greater acceptance of the EU’s eﬀorts to build up its own security and defence than the new Strategic Concept, adopted at the same summit. While the Strategic Concept reﬂects a view that sees the European capability as developing within ESDI, under Western European Union (WEU) command and with NATO providing headquarters, logistics, intelligence, etc., the summit communiqué ‘acknowledge[s] the resolve of the European Union to have the capacity for autonomous action so that it can take decisions and approve military action where the Alliance as a whole is not engaged . . . applaud[s] the determination of both EU members and other European Allies to take the necessary steps to strengthen their defence capabilities, especially for new missions, avoiding unnecessary duplication . . . [and] note[s] Canada’s interest in participating in such operations’. The summit also launches the Defence Capabilities Initiative (DCI), designed to ensure that NATO can deal with every kind of security challenge, from crises such as the one in Kosovo to the defence needs of member states. Five overlapping areas for improvements are identiﬁed: mobility and deployability, sustainability, eﬀective engagement, survivability, and interoperable communications. The summit also gives tentative support for EUled Berlin-Plus missions and formulates the principle of ‘separable but not separate forces’.

April 28

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: Montenegro continues to oppose the Serbian-based Miloševi´c regime, but NATO continues to attack targets in Montenegro, leaving the situation in the Yugoslav province in a state of ﬂux.

May 1

The European Union: Ratiﬁed by all EU member states, the EU’s Amsterdam Treaty enters into force. The Troika ceases to exist. It is replaced by the presidency, assisted by the Secretary-General of the Council in his capacity as the High Representative for the CFSP, and by the member state next in line for the presidency. These three parties will from now on represent the EU in external relations.

May 2

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: Three US soldiers are released by Yugoslav authorities, their release having been negotiated by US civil-rights leader Revd Jesse Jackson.

[252] the strategic vacation May 6

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: General Principles on a Settlement to the Conﬂict in Kosovo are adopted by the G8 foreign ministers in Bonn.

May 7

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: The Chinese Embassy in Belgrade is attacked in error by NATO cruise missiles, killing three Chinese nationals and injuring twenty. China claims the attack was deliberate.

May 10

European Defence: EU defence and foreign ministers agree to create a crisis management capability to tackle crises such as the Balkans.

May 10

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: The WEU De-mining Assistance Mission to Croatia (WEUDAM) starts operations.

May 10–11

European Defence: WEU ministers meet in Bremen, Germany. They agree to take the necessary steps to allow the EU to have direct and indirect access to WEU resources It is a further step to subsuming the WEU within the EU.

May 24

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: President Miloševi´c is indicted with four other senior Serbian leaders on charges of crimes against humanity and war crimes at the UN’s International Criminal Tribunal on Yugoslavia (ICTY). This is the ﬁrst time that a sitting Head of State is indicted for war crimes.

May 28

European Defence: At an informal meeting in Bonn, EU defence ministers establish a working group charged with elaborating defence convergence criteria that some hope will eventually pave the way to common defence. It is the ﬁrst time since the failed European Defence Community (EDC) that such a concept has been revisited. At the very least it is hoped such criteria will help overcome the appalling waste and duplication in the European defence eﬀort.

May 28

NATO: The North Atlantic Assembly (NAA) oﬃcially becomes the NATO Parliamentary Assembly (NATO PA).

May 29

European Defence: The Franco-German Defence and Security Council meets in Toulouse. The two countries agree to co-operate more closely in operational and armament matters in order to harmonize these areas. They also state the need for an adaptation of Eurocorps so that it can be transformed into a European rapid reaction corps.

June 2–3

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: The President of Finland, Martti Ahtisaari (EU envoy), and Viktor Chernomyrdin (Special Envoy of the President of the Russian Federation for the Balkans) hold talks in Belgrade with Yugoslav President Miloševi´c, who accepts the terms of the peace agreement they table based on the 6 May General Principles.

June 3

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: The Serbian Parliament accepts the peace plan proposed by the G8.

June 3–4

European Defence: At the Cologne European Council, it is decided to develop decision-making procedures for a Common European Security and Defence Policy (CESDP) within the context of the CFSP and to develop capacities to undertake operations. The Heads of State and Government conﬁrm the St Malo Declaration and recognize that to pursue the CFSP, ‘the Union must have the capacity for autonomous action, backed up by credible military forces, the means to decide to use them, and a readiness

1999 [253] to do so, in order to respond to international crises without prejudice to actions by NATO’. They commit themselves ‘to further develop more eﬀective European military capabilities. The maintenance of a sustained defence eﬀort, the implementation of the necessary adaptations and notably the reinforcement of our capabilities in the ﬁeld of intelligence, strategic transport, command and control’. EU leaders agree to limit the EU defence capacity to the Petersberg tasks, comprising ‘the full range of conﬂict prevention and crisis management tasks’. Furthermore, they ‘recognise the need to undertake sustained eﬀorts to strengthen the industrial and technological defence base’. The Summit also conﬁrms the need to convene an Intergovernmental Conference (IGC) to consider the ‘left-over’ institutional issues that need to be settled before enlargement. June 4

European Defence/NATO: NATO Secretary-General Javier Solana is appointed to the post of High Representative for the EU’s Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP) with responsibility for developing the Union’s security arm. He is replaced at NATO by British Defence Secretary Lord George Robertson.

June 8

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: G8 foreign ministers meet in Cologne and agree to the text of a draft UN Security Council (UNSC) resolution to bring the war in Kosovo to an end, incorporating the main points of the peace deal worked out by the EU envoy (Ahtisaari) and the Russian envoy (Chernomyrdin).

June 9

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: A Military Technical Agreement, based essentially on the G8 peace plan, is signed by NATO’s International Security Force KFOR (Kosovo Force), the Yugoslav Government and the Serbian Government. It foresees a cessation of hostilities, the gradual withdrawal of all Serbian forces from Kosovo within eleven days, and the arrival of an international security force in the province.

June 10

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: The Stability Pact for South Eastern Europe is adopted in Cologne. More than forty partner countries and organizations undertake to strengthen South-Eastern European countries ‘in their eﬀorts to foster peace, democracy, respect for human rights and economic prosperity in order to achieve stability in the whole region’. EuroAtlantic integration is promised to all the countries in the region. The Stability Pact is a political declaration of commitment and a framework agreement on international co-operation to develop a shared strategy for stability and growth for these countries. A Special Co-ordinator is tasked to bring the political strategies of the partners in line to co-ordinate existing and new initiatives. He chairs the most important instrument of the Pact, the so-called Regional Table. Under the Regional Table, three Working Tables operate: one on democratization and human rights; a second on economic reconstruction, co-operation, and development; and a third on security issues, which is split between security and defence and justice and home aﬀairs. Structures and working methods are modelled on the former Conference on Security & Co-operation on Europe (CSCE) process. The states of South-Eastern Europe are on an equal footing with international organizations and ﬁnancial institutions under the Pact.

[254] the strategic vacation June 10

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: The NATO air campaign in Kosovo is suspended. The Kosovo War ends with NATO victorious as a British-led force prepares to enter the province. On 10–11 June Serbian troops withdraw from Kosovo. It is the end of the dream of a Greater Serbia that has kept Miloševi´c in power since 1987. Over 1,000 NATO aircraft ﬂew over 38,000 combat missions. The UN reported that over 800,000 people had ﬂed their homes. A NATO spokesperson paraphrased the Alliance’s ﬁrst secretarygeneral Lord Bruce Ismay many years before when he said NATO’s task was to keep the Serbs out and the peacekeepers in, and to get the refugees back.

June 10

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: Resolution 1244 is adopted by the UNSC. It authorizes the Secretary-General ‘to establish an international civil presence in Kosovo in order to provide an interim administration for Kosovo under which the people of Kosovo can enjoy substantial autonomy within the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia’. It also provides for an international security presence to be established in Kosovo.

June 11

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: Russian armoured vehicles unexpectedly cross from BiH into Yugoslavia towards the border with Kosovo, creating a ﬂurry of diplomatic activity between the US and Russia.

June 11–14

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: Russian troops move ﬁrst to occupy Pristina airport as British, French, German, US, and Italian Kosovo Force (KFOR) troops deploy across the province to their respective zones. A potentially dangerous confrontation between British and Russian troops is averted by the pragmatism of the two commanders. The non-Russian troops are welcomed by ethnic Albanians. Yugoslav military withdrawals from Kosovo continue.

June 18

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: The Americans and Russians announce that they have reached an agreement on a role for Russian troops in KFOR.

June 20

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: NATO declares that the withdrawal of regular Yugoslav forces from Kosovo has been completed and that the air campaign is over.

June 21

European Defence/NATO: The EU and NATO issue the Bonn Declaration, which speaks of a ‘full and equal partnership between Europe and the United States in solving regional and global issues’ in economic, political, and security aﬀairs. The EU and NATO agree on principles and mechanisms for early recognition of potential transatlantic diﬀerences of opinion, particularly in the ﬁeld of trade.

July 20

European Defence: An Anglo-Italian joint declaration on arms procurement is made. It includes a peer review to measure progress; a road map for more eﬀective defence procurement, including the harmonization of military requirements and collaborative arms procurement; and the promotion of defence, including restructuring. Increasingly, the shape of European defence is being fought over by the French and Germans on one side and the British and Italians on the other.

July 29–30

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: The Stability Pact for South Eastern Europe holds its ﬁrst summit meeting of Heads of State or

1999 [255] Government from thirty-nine countries and the representatives of seventeen international organizations in Sarajevo to discuss Balkan reconstruction. Bodo Hombach is appointed Special Co-ordinator of the Stability Pact. July

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: The WEU Satellite Centre concentrates its work in Kosovo on ﬁnalizing a geographic information system, creating a digital map of the entire Kosovo region that can be used to assist in several aspects of reconstruction work (including de-mining). This system is made available to the Geneva International Centre for Humanitarian De-mining (GICHD).

July

European Defence Procurement: The six working groups established by the Letter of Intent (LOI) of 1998 on the transnational restructuring of defence industries present their report. An executive committee is set up to draft a framework agreement.

August 2

NATO: Former British Defence Secretary Lord Robertson becomes NATO Secretary-General.

September 1

EU Enlargement: President of the European Commission Romano Prodi invites a High-Level Group (HLG) comprising former Belgian Prime Minister Jean-Luc Dehaene, former German Federal President Richard von Weizäcker, and former UK Minister of State for Trade and Competitiveness in Europe Lord Simon of Highbury to give its views on the institutional implications of EU enlargement.

September 5

Middle East Peace Process: Palestinians and Israelis sign an agreement on the implementation of the Wye Agreement in Sharm el-Sheikh. A further 11 per cent of the West Bank is to be under Palestinian control as of 20 January 2000. Negotiations on the deﬁnite status of the autonomous areas are to resume no later than 13 September 1999, and are to lead to the conclusion of a comprehensive agreement on all permanent-status issues within one year from the resumption of status negotiations.

September 10

European Stability: Leaders of more than twenty Black Sea and Baltic states gather in Yalta, Ukraine, to discuss the security aspects of European political integration.

September 18

European Defence: Javier Solana of Spain (former NATO Secretary-General) is appointed EU High Representative for the CFSP, and the transfer of WEU assets to the EU is announced, as the WEU as an organization is considered to ‘have completed its mandatory function’. It is the beginning of the end of the WEU that has existed in two forms since 1948.

September 22

NATO: A joint corps composed of three NATO members, Denmark, Germany, and Poland, is inaugurated in Szczecin, Poland. Entitled Multinational Corps North-East, it is designed to augment NATO’s common defence, as well as undertake peacekeeping and humanitarian operations. Preparations for the Corps’ ﬁrst exercise, ‘Crystal Eagle’, is underway as part of preparations for full operational capability (FOC) by the end of 2000. The Corps operates under a rotating command, with Danish General Henrik Ekmann appointed to command for the ﬁrst two years.

[256] the strategic vacation September 24

The New Russia: Russian warplanes begin bombing targets in the separatist province of Grozny as the situation in Chechnya deteriorates.

September 30

NATO: NATO’s new Joint Headquarters Southwest (JHQ Southwest) in Madrid is oﬃcially opened by NATO Secretary-General Javier Solana. The activation of the headquarters reﬂects Spain’s decision to join NATO’s integrated military structure, with JHQ Southwest subordinated to the regional headquarters Allied Forces Southern Europe. The new HQ is one of twenty new operational headquarters under the restructuring of NATO’s command structure. Two new HQs are already open: the Joint Headquarters SOUTHEAST (Izmir, Turkey) and the Joint Headquarters SOUTHCENT (Larissa, Greece).

October 8

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: General Klaus Reinhardt of Germany becomes the commander of Kosovo Force (KFOR), replacing LieutenantGeneral Sir Michael Jackson of the UK.

October 12

Al-Qaeda/Afghanistan: General Pervez Musharraf takes power in Pakistan after a coup d’état. He is to play a pivotal role in the American-led Global War on Terror in the aftermath of 11 September 2001.

October 14

NATO: NATO’s new Secretary-General, Lord Robertson, arrives at NATO HQ in Brussels.

October 14

European Defence Procurement: The merger of German Daimler Chrysler Aerospace and French Aerospatiale Matra SA is announced. The two companies are to form the European Aeronautic, Defence and Space Company (EADS), which will be the world number three behind Boeing and Lockheed Martin. Civilian aircraft-maker Airbus will in time become a subsidiary of EADS.

October 18

European Defence: Javier Solana takes oﬃce as EU High Representative for the CFSP.

October 18

EU Enlargement: The group of high-level experts appointed by European Commission President Romano Prodi presents its report on the institutional implications of EU enlargement in view of the upcoming IGC. They propose a treaty in two separate parts: a basic treaty with aims, principles, general policy, citizens’ rights, and the institutional framework, and another treaty with all other clauses from the existing treaties. The high-level group calls for an extension of qualiﬁed majority voting (QMV) and proposes that the EP should have the power of co-decision where QMV applies in the ﬁrst pillar. The legal capacity of the EU to act as a unit in all external relations must be established. On ﬂexibility, the experts judge that the treaty clauses are too complex and that there are so many conditions that they are unworkable. Closer co-operation should be possible without the right to veto but with due respect for the interests of non-participating states. It should be open to all members that fulﬁl the conditions and should not be used in a way that loosens ties between member states. The CFSP should be included in the scope of closer co-operation. They also assert that the intergovernmental conference (IGC) must consider defence. New institutional arrangements on defence will be needed, and they should ﬁt into a single institutional framework and not be set up as a fourth pillar.

1999 [257] November 3

NATO: General Joseph W. Ralston, US Air Force, succeeds General Wesley K. Clark as SACEUR. Clark’s tour of duty is cut short and although the Pentagon denies it, it is believed that the US Joint Chiefs of Staﬀ did not appreciate Clark’s leadership of military NATO.

November 4

European Stability: The Council of Europe goes into emergency session to discuss the new Russian oﬀensive in Chechnya.

November 8

Middle East Peace Process: Negotiations on the status of the West Bank start between Israelis and Palestinians.

November 10

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: Information is reported on mass graves in Kosovo and the exhumation of 2,018 bodies begins for identiﬁcation.

November 10

EU Enlargement: The European Commission presents a report entitled ‘Adapting the Institutions to Make a Success of Enlargement’.

November 15

The European Union: For the ﬁrst time ever, EU defence ministers meet with EU foreign ministers at the General Aﬀairs Council (GAC) in Brussels. It is the start of eﬀorts to give European defence an eﬀective command mechanism at the highest levels.

November 18–19

OSCE: The Charter for European Security is adopted at the Organization for Security & Co-operation in Europe (OSCE) Istanbul summit. It adopts the Platform for Co-operative Security to enhance co-operation between the OSCE and other international organizations and institutions. It develops the OSCE’s role in peacekeeping operations, creates a Rapid Expert Assistance Co-operation Team and expands the OSCE’s ability to carry out police-related activities. Moreover, it establishes an Operations Centre at the Secretariat to facilitate eﬀective preparation and planning of rapid deployment of OSCE ﬁeld operations. A Preparatory Committee to improve the consultation process within the OSCE is also set up. Thirty OSCE participating states also agree to adapt the Conventional Forces Europe (CFE) Treaty to the changes brought about after the end of the Cold War.

November 19

European Defence: In preparation for the subsuming by the EU of most of the tasks of the WEU, EU High Representative, Javier Solana is appointed Secretary-General of WEU.

November 22

European Defence: Eurocorps’ Common Committee decides to transform the Eurocorps into a rapid reaction corps.

November 22–3

European Defence: The WEU Luxembourg Declaration: ‘Ministers reaﬃrm their readiness . . . if the Union so wishes, to continue to provide the Union with access to an operational capability and to elaborate and implement decisions and actions of the Union which have defence implications.’ Ministers also express ‘their willingness to allow bodies of the Council of the European Union direct access, as required, to the expertise of the Organisation’s operational structures, including the WEU Secretariat, the Military Staﬀ, the Satellite Centre and the Institute for Security Studies’. They agree ‘to authorise the transmission of all WEU’s work and analyses, particularly those of the Military Staﬀ, to the High Representative for the Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP) and the other appropriate bodies of the

[258] the strategic vacation Council of the European Union taking into account the relevant security arrangements’. November 23

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: US President Clinton visits Kosovo.

November 25

European Defence: In view of the upcoming Helsinki European Council, and to overcome some creeping tensions in the Anglo-French relationship, the UK and France issue a Joint Declaration on European Defence, stressing that Helsinki must ‘take a decisive step forward for the development of [European] military capabilities and for the setting up of the political and military instruments necessary to use them.’ They declare their intention ‘to develop standing arrangements for setting up multinationalised cells within the UK’s Permanent Joint Headquarters and France’s Centre Operationnel Interarmées (proposed as options to command EU-led operations) including oﬃcers from other EU countries’.

November 30

European Defence: In light of the upcoming Helsinki European Council, France and Germany declare at a summit in Paris that they have decided to compare their respective plans concerning the reinforcement of their capacities in the ﬁelds of intelligence, strategic mobility, command and control, and communications, and to continue to develop their military capacities in this domain. In the intelligence ﬁeld, they state their determination to pool ‘existing or future means, including in the space area, in order to constitute common European capacities’. France and Germany also establish a European Air Transport Command. By making separate agreements with other key actors France is trying to ensure it is at the centre of the power relationships underpinning European defence.

November

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: The Serbian minority in Kosovo continues to be targeted by ethnic Albanians. Tensions persist.

December 2

European Defence Procurement: The Spanish aerospace and defence company CASA signs an agreement to join European Acronautics, Defense and Space Company (EADS).

December 3

European Defence: On the eve of the Helsinki summit France, Italy, and Spain launch Helios 1B, the second European military reconnaissance satellite. For France the imagery could not be clearer. France wants to go much further with European defence than Britain by ultimately replacing NATO with a strategic European security and defence policy.

December 10

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: President Franjo Tudjman dies in Croatia. Along with Serbia’s Miloševi´c he was one of the architects of the Balkan tragedy and his passing opens up the way for progress.

December 10–11

European Defence: The European Council in Helsinki issues the Helsinki Declaration and sets an objective of having an operational military capacity, by 2003, to deploy within 60 days and to sustain for at least one year 50,000 to 60,000 military personnel capable of undertaking the full range of Petersberg Tasks. This objective becomes known as the Helsinki Headline Goal (HHG). A decision is also taken to establish new political and military bodies and structures within the Council to enable the EU to guarantee the necessary political guidance and strategic direction of such operations.

1999 [259] Speciﬁcally, a standing Political and Security Committee (PSC), a Military Committee, and a Military Staﬀ will be established within the Council. As an interim measure, EU leaders establish an interim Political and Security Committee, an interim body of military representatives of member states’ chiefs of defence, to give advice to the interim PSC as required, and a detachment of military experts from member states to assist in the work on ESDP and to form the nucleus of the future Military Staﬀ. EU leaders also call on the European Commission to create a civilian rapid reaction facility and pledge to devote particular attention to developing the capabilities necessary to ensure eﬀective performance in crisis management: deployability, sustainability, interoperability, ﬂexibility, mobility, survivability, and command and control. The European Council also expresses its will to develop ‘appropriate arrangements’ for consultation and co-operation with NATO and aﬃrms the principle of full consultation, co-operation, and transparency between the EU and NATO, as well as necessary dialogue, consultation, and co-operation with non-EU European members of NATO. On institutional implications of enlargement, the European Council decides that the upcoming intergovernmental conference (IGC) should look at the issues of the size and composition of the Commission, the weighing of votes in the Council, the extension of qualiﬁed majority voting (QMV), and other institutional adjustments necessary in relation to the above. December 17

The Run-up to the Iraq War: The UNSC replaces UNSCOM in Iraq with the United Nations Monitoring, Veriﬁcation, and Inspection Commission (UNMOVIC). UNMOVIC’s mandate is the veriﬁcation of Iraq’s compliance with Resolution 687 (1991), i.e. its disarmament, and in the longer run ongoing monitoring, veriﬁcation, and inspections. Like UNSCOM, UNMOVIC is a subsidiary body of the Security Council, but unlike UNSCOM it reports directly to the Security Council and not to the Secretary-General. The Security Council also provides for a renewable 120-day suspension of sanctions against Iraq to be put in place if and when the latter co-operates in all respects and if the ongoing veriﬁcation and monitoring scheme is operational.

December 31

Putin’s Russia: Vladimir Putin becomes acting President of the Russian Federation. He is a former agent of the Soviet intelligence service, the KGB.

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PART SEVEN A Brave New Century?

2000–2007

2000–2007 A Brave New Century: In November 2000 a new kind of American president is elected from an old kind of American political dynasty. The seventh age of European security and defence is born. If Margaret Thatcher was famous not for turning, George W. Bush is famous for not compromising. American interest and the export of the American idea are to be the American way in a world divided neatly into friends and enemies. Beyond the endless ruminations of the chattering classes little attention is paid. American presidents always enter the White House with big ideas and, so the dictum goes, are rapidly forced by what former British Prime Minister Harold MacMillan called ‘events’ to live with the world as it is, not as they would like it to be. That truism is to be tragically proven, but not without struggle. There is one other towering political ﬁgure that emerges, cowering in an Afghan cave, once again to challenge America the idea—Osama bin Laden. On a cold, crisp working morning in September 2001 he works his tragic creed. Thousands of ordinary Americans and friends are making their way to their oﬃces in New York and Washington. As the day gets under way they sip their coﬀees and talk their talks. They check their emails and prepare their days. Within an hour thousands of them are dead. Those that survive have their lives damaged forever, as does the country and the world in which they live. Al-Qaeda changes the world in the white hot rubble of the World Trade Center. America goes to war. Europe does not. Europeans make all the right noises. Britain stands ﬁrm with its old ally, but of all the Europeans it is just about the only one that can. Europe meanwhile retreats into itself to get on with the important business of managing the enlargement of the EU; the drafting of a possible European constitution, and

[262] a brave new century? the consequences of a single currency underpinned by a one-size-ﬁts-all interest rate policy. However, Europe cannot hide as America’s Global War on Terror brings the reality of the lost 1990s and the strategic vacation comes to an abrupt end for Europeans. As America gears up for war the reality of the many missed capability promises and the many cancelled armaments programmes come home to roost as the gap between Europe’s rhetoric and its reality as a security actor become all too apparent. Leaving both NATO and the EU compromised, Europeans go to Afghanistan, but with never enough troops to do the job asked of them. And then comes Iraq. The 2003 Iraq War brings an end to the old transatlantic relationship and, indeed, the old Europe, as an activist Bush White House splits an already fragile Europe to its political core. The newly resurgent Britain is at one and the same time strengthened by Europe’s expansion to the east, but weakened by a commitment to American policy profoundly out of step with British and European public opinion. America too is about to learn a painful lesson about the limits of US power. For the world’s only hyper-power the rhetoric of the new administration seems to imply that somehow the US is truly a hegemon. America will once again make the world safe for democracy by exporting democracy. After all, they did it in Europe after World War Two. Didn’t they? The belief of the neocons and their allies is simple. Such is American power that its ability to bring order is greater than that of the rest of the world to create disorder. In the dusty back streets of such places as Fallujah in Iraq, such hubris is ground into the sands of Arabia. As the seventh age of European security and defence unfolds, Europe today stands on a strategic crossroads. The Old Continent is for the ﬁrst time in ﬁve hundred years no longer the centre of power or conﬂict, with Asia the most dynamic driver of change on the planet. The global war on terror is mutating from a strategic manhunt into a new Thirty Years War. Europe has choices to make. Are Europeans again to be satellites of the US, bit-part security actors to America’s leading role? Or can Europeans ﬁnd a way to create a credible security and defence capability that will secure Europe’s many interests? Will France and Germany ﬁnd it in themselves to embrace Britain in a new trirectoire? Nothing will happen without the leadership of Europe’s most powerful security actor, but will Britain ever be ‘European’ enough to grasp its opportunity? If the founding of NATO ended, once and for all, American isolationism, is Europe able to escape the Euro-isolationism that its obsession with institutions and its refusal to prepare for a new, big security world have condemned it?

a brave new century? [263]

America also has choices to make. Is it open to the pragmatism and partnership that the world is imposing on it? Can it adapt its strategic leadership to accommodate properly the role of friends and partners in a world in which one cannot be eﬀective if one is not also legitimate? Have the American people the political stomach for the new long haul that has just begun? On the morning of 11 March 2003, commuters are jostling for space on several packed trains on their way to work in Madrid. In a few minutes 191 are dead. On the morning of 7 July, 2005 commuters are jostling for space on trains and buses as they make their way to work on an everyday day in everyday London. Within a few minutes 56 are dead. It is a type of journey shared by millions of Europeans every day of their working lives. It is a death now shared by thousands . . .

2000 AT A GLANCE—MAJOR EVENTS AND THEMES

r An EU Toolbox Meeting takes place on a European Security and Defence Policy (ESDP). r The Kosovo Force (KFOR) continues its work amidst ongoing Serb–Albanian conﬂict. r Vladimir Putin becomes the new President of the Russian Federation. r Yugoslav President Slobodan Miloševi´c is replaced by Vojislav Kostunica. r ESDP Capabilities Commitment Conference takes place in Brussels. r The Nice European Council agrees the Nice Treaty on European Union.

January 26

EU Enlargement: The European Commission presents a follow-up on its report ‘Adapting the Institutions to Make a Success of Enlargement’.

January 31

The European Union: Sanctions are imposed on Austria by the EU due to the presence of the far-right Freedom Party in a national coalition government. The sanctions have more of a psychological than a practical impact. They involve a freezing of bilateral relations; there are to be no contacts or ambassadorial meetings at the intergovernmental level, and Austrian candidates will not be supported when EU international oﬃces are assigned. On 4 February the sanctions against Austria come into force.

February 6

The Chechen Wars: Russian forces take control of Grozny, the capital of the separatist Russian Republic of Chechnya.

February 7

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: NATO is accused of breaching international law during the Kosovo conﬂict in a report published by Human Rights Watch, owing to the US and UK’s use of cluster bombs. It is also suggested that NATO might have contravened international humanitarian law by attacking targets of questionable military legitimacy and by not taking adequate measures to warn civilians of impending attacks.

February 14

The European Union: The EU Intergovernmental Conference (IGC) opens in order to ‘carry out a comprehensive review of the provisions of the Treaties on the composition and functioning of the institutions’ before enlargement, as demanded in the Amsterdam treaty. Belgium, France, and Italy want the conference to agree on a ‘signiﬁcant extension of recourse to qualiﬁed majority voting’.

February 23

ESDI/ESDP: In an attempt to harmonize NATO’s European Security & Defence Identity (ESDI) and the EU’s ESDP the ﬁrst joint crisis management exercise between NATO and the Western European Union (WEU) is completed. The purpose of the exercise (CRISEX) is to test crisis management mechanisms and consultation arrangements, enabling the WEU to use NATO assets and capabilities on a peace support operation (PSO).

2000 [265] February 24

Putin’s Russia: Acting Russian President Putin dismisses his prime minister and cabinet ‘for administrative and political reasons’. President Putin clearly intends to be Russia’s strong man.

February 28

ESDP: At an informal meeting of EU defence ministers, two papers are presented. The Toolbox Paper, initiated by Richard Hatﬁeld of the British Defence Ministry, lays the groundwork for the Capabilities Commitment Conference of November 2000. The UK Food for Thought Paper elaborates the Headline and Capabilities Goals.

February

The Chechen Wars: Allegations emerge of widespread torture of Chechen civilians in Russian military camps.

March 14

NATO’s Political Role: Algeria joins the NATO Mediterranean Dialogue, becoming the seventh participant. Designed to enhance security and stability in the region, the Dialogue promotes an eﬀective security relationship throughout the Mediterranean area. Six other members are Egypt, Israel, Mauritania, Morocco, Tunisia, and Jordan.

March 23–4

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: The Lisbon European Council agrees that sanctions against the Serbian regime will remain in force as long as President Slobodan Miloševi´c is in power. Javier Solana and EU External Relations Commissioner Chris Patten are both given the mandate to oversee the Balkan policy of the EU. EU leaders also decide to establish a committee for civilian crisis management by or at the Feira European Council of June 2000.

March 26

Putin’s Russia: Vladimir Putin is elected full President of the Russian Federation.

March

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: Violence continues in the ethnically divided town of Mitrovica in Kosovo between Serbs, ethnic Albanians, and the NATO-led KFOR peacekeeping force, which struggles to keep the two sides apart.

April 4

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: KFOR peacekeepers clash with Serbs as tension in the disputed Serbian province of Kosovo continue to rise.

April 17

Middle East: Israel informs the UN Security Council (UNSC) that it will withdraw from Lebanon by July 2000.

April 18

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: The ﬁve-nation Eurocorps takes command of the NATO-led KFOR for six months, replacing NATO’s LANDCENT HQ.

April 18

NATO: Following a request from the Hungarian Government NATO’s EuroAtlantic Disaster Relief Co-ordination Centre (EADRCC) takes command of ﬂood relief operations and issues an urgent international appeal for some 2,000,000 sandbags. The rapid response from Alliance and partner countries led to the request being cancelled two days later.

May 3

NATO: General Wesley Clark formally hands over command of Supreme Allied Powers Europe (SHAPE) to General Joseph Ralston at a ceremony in Mons, Belgium, SHAPE’s HQ.

May 7

Putin’s Russia: Vladimir Putin is inaugurated as the new President of Russia.

[266] a brave new century? May 7

ESDI/ESDP: EU foreign ministers meeting informally in the Azores decide to back plans for joint EU–NATO working groups on security issues, military capabilities, arrangements for EU use of NATO assets, and permanent EU–NATO arrangements.

May 16

Middle East: Israel withdraws its troops from southern Lebanon.

May 22

ESDP: The EU Council of Ministers establishes the Committee for Civilian Aspects of Crisis Management. It is to provide information, make recommendations, and give its opinion to the Political and Security Committee (PSC).

May 22

NATO: NATO establishes a Weapons of Mass Destruction (WMD) Centre at NATO HQ in Brussels, Belgium. Designed to enhance consultations over proliferation, the Centre is part of the Initiative on Weapons of Mass Destruction that was approved at NATO’s April 1999 Washington Summit.

June 6

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: Alija Izetbegovic announces that he will step down as President of Bosnia-Herzegovina (BiH) for health reasons.

June 7

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: Amnesty International releases a report accusing NATO of violating the laws of war during the air campaign against Serb forces in Kosovo.

June 7

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: NATO Secretary-General Lord Robertson rebuﬀs Amnesty International allegations that the Alliance broke the laws of war during the Kosovo war, saying that such allegations are ‘baseless and ill-founded’. Robertson notes that Carla del Ponte, Chief Prosecutor of the UN’s International Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia, had informed the UNSC that she was ‘very satisﬁed there was no deliberate targeting of civilians or unlawful military targets by NATO during the bombing campaign’. She also suggests that ‘there is no basis for opening an investigation’. NATO does, however, acknowledge that a few mistakes were made that led to civilian casualties. Human Rights Watch, the independent human rights group, estimates that between 488 and 527 civilians lost their lives. Lord Robertson says that whilst NATO deeply regrets the loss of innocent life such incidents ‘must be weighed against the atrocities that NATO’s action stopped’.

June 19–20

ESDI/ESDP: Feira European Council: ‘Principles and modalities for arrangements have been identiﬁed to allow non-EU European NATO members and other EU accession candidates to contribute to EU military crisis management. Principles for consultation with NATO on military issues and modalities for developing EU–NATO relations have also been identiﬁed in four areas covering security issues, capability goals, the modalities for EU access to NATO assets, and the deﬁnition of permanent consultation arrangements.’ The European Council also endorses the Presidency Report on Strengthening the ESDP and identiﬁes four spheres in which to develop priority areas for intervention: police, rule of law, civilian administration, and civilian protection. Concerning police, European leaders undertake to be able to provide by 2003 up to 5,000 police oﬃcers for international missions across the range of conﬂict-prevention and crisis-management

2000 [267] operations. The European Council also adds the issue of enhanced co-operation to the agenda of the next IGC. July 11–25

Middle East Peace Process: Palestinian leader Yasser Arafat, Israeli Prime Minister Ehud Barak, and US President Bill Clinton participate in a summit at Camp David, US. It fails over the status of Jerusalem.

July 27

European Defence Procurement: France, Germany, Italy, Spain, Sweden, and the UK sign a Framework Agreement Concerning Measures to Facilitate the Restructuring and Operation of the European Defence Industry.

August 12

The Kursk Incident: A torpedo aboard the Russian nuclear-powered submarine ‘Kursk’ explodes, causing the vessel to sink in the Barents Sea. All 118 crew die and questions are raised about the safety of the Russian nuclear submarine ﬂeet.

August 21

The United Nations: The UN Brahimi Report on peacekeeping (‘Report of the Panel on United Nations Peacekeeping Operations’) is published. It calls for ‘clear, credible and achievable mandates’ and insists that ‘peacekeepers, once developed, must be able to carry out their mandates professionally and successfully and must be capable of defending themselves, other mission components and the mission mandate, with robust rules of engagement, against those who renege on their commitments to a peace accord or otherwise seek to undermine it by violence’. The report also recommends ‘a substantive increase in resources for Headquarters support of peacekeeping operations’, and makes several proposals for structural adjustments to the UN Department of Peacekeeping Operations.

September 1

Missile Defence: NATO Secretary-General Lord Robertson notes the US decision to continue the testing and development of National Ballistic Missile Defence (BMD) system, and insists upon the importance of consultation with allies. The Missile Defence saga reappears and with it transatlantic tensions.

September 5

NATO: Supreme Allied Commander, Atlantic (SACLANT), LieutenantGeneral William F. Kernan, formally takes up his position during a change of command ceremony at Norfolk, Virginia, US, the home of Allied Command, Atlantic (ACLANT).

September 6

NATO Enlargement: The Slovenian Language Training Centre opens as a Partnership for Peace (PfP) Training Centre, oﬀering courses to all partner countries that wish their personnel to learn English. It is agreed that a French module will be also be available. This is the seventh national training centre under PfP. There are six other training centres in Austria, Sweden, Switzerland, Turkey, Romania, and Ukraine all with the mission to improve interoperability between the forty-six members of the EuroAtlantic Partnership Council (EAPC).

September 12

The European Union: The EU lifts the diplomatic sanctions against Austria but says the participation of the far-right Freedom Party in Austria’s government is still a ‘grave concern’.

September 19

ESDI/ESDP: The ﬁrst meeting is held between the North Atlantic Council (NAC) and the interim PSC.

[268] a brave new century? September 24

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: Presidential, parliamentary, and local elections take place in Yugoslavia.

September 28

Middle East Peace Process: Israeli opposition leader Ariel Sharon visits the Haram al-Sheif compound in Jerusalem, where the al-Aqsa Mosque one of the holiest places of Islam is located. Palestinians feel provoked. Violent riots in Jerusalem, the West Bank, and Gaza mark the beginning of the second Intifada.

September 28

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: The Yugoslav Election Commission says Slobodan Miloševi´c’s party has won parliamentary elections. The opposition claims irregularities and victory. It calls for ﬁve days of non-violent protest. Miloševi´c announces he wants to stand for a second round of presidential elections on 8 October.

October 5

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: The Yugoslav High Court annuls the 24 September election results. Mass protests continue, and opposition forces take over the parliament building and state-run media.

October 6

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: The Yugoslav High Court declares opposition candidate Vojislav Kostunica winner of the presidential elections. That same day Miloševi´c surrenders power. On 7 October Kostunica is inaugurated as the new President of Yugoslavia.

October 9

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: EU foreign ministers meet in Luxembourg and agree to lift the oil embargo, ﬂight ban, and other ﬁnancial and travel restrictions against Serbs, except for Miloševi´c and his family.

October 14

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: Alija Izetbegovic, the last of the three war-time leaders in the Balkans, steps down as President of BiH. The other two were Slobodan Miloševi´c in Serbia/Yugoslavia and Franjo Tudjman in Croatia.

October 14

Al-Qaeda: An attack on the American guided-missile destroyer USS Cole in Yemen kills seventeen and injures thirty-nine. Al-Qaeda claims responsibility for the attack.

October 16–17 Middle East Peace Process: Israeli Prime Minister Ehud Barak and Palestinian leader Arafat meet in Sharm el-Sheikh, but the summit breaks down almost immediately. Violence in the occupied territories and against Israel continues. October 18

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: The new command arrangements are agreed for KFOR and Stabilisation Force (SFOR) in BiH which ﬁrmly establishes a chain of command between Supreme Headquarters Allied Powers Europe (SHAPE) and Allied Forces SOUTH (AFSOUTH), NATO’s southern regional command based in Naples, Italy. The new command structure is in line with NATO’s overall reform which is designed to enable SHAPE to concentrate on strategic European matters and AFSOUTH to make better use of its regional expertise and thus take full command of all land, air, and sea forces engaged on KFOR and SFOR.

October 25

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: Representatives of South-Eastern European countries, EU External Relations Commissioner Chris Patten and

2000 [269] Stability Pact Special Co-ordinator Bodo Hombach, meet in Skopje, Macedonia. Kostunica attends as the new President of Yugoslavia. November 7

The United States: In the US presidential election between Republican George W. Bush, son of the former president and Al Gore, no winner can be declared, as the result in Florida is not yet clear. Neither candidate has enough electoral votes. The Al Gore campaign requests a recount because of irregularities.

November 10

OSCE: The Federal Republic of Yugoslavia is admitted to the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE) as the 55th participating state.

November 11

The United States: The George W. Bush campaign takes legal action to stop the recount. A legal battle ensues about the questions of whether recounts should take place; if so, then in which counties; by which means; and by what date.

November 13

ESDP: The Western European Union (WEU) Council of Ministers in Marseille decides that the WEU will cease most activities. The Petersberg Tasks are assigned to the EU, together with WEU agencies. Western European Armaments Group (WEAG) defence ministers also agree to the accession of Austria, the Czech Republic, Finland, Hungary, Poland, and Sweden as full members of WEAG.

November 14–15

ESDI/ESDP: NATO defence ministers agree on EU proposals concerning EU–NATO permanent arrangements for consultation and co-operation.

November 20–1

ESDP: Capabilities Commitment Conference in Brussels: EU defence ministers pledge their initial commitments to the European Rapid Reaction Force (ERRF). The member states commit themselves, on a voluntary basis, to making national contributions corresponding to rapid reaction capabilities identiﬁed for attaining the Headline Goal. These commitments are set out in the Force Catalogue. One hundred thousand troops, 400 aircraft, and 100 ships are pledged on this day. Also, a number of areas are identiﬁed at the conference in which eﬀorts will be made to upgrade existing assets, investment, development, and co-ordination, so as gradually to acquire or enhance the capabilities required for autonomous EU action. This conference constitutes the ﬁrst stage of the process of reinforcing military capabilities for crisis management by the Union with the purpose of achieving the Headline Goal.

December 7–11

ESDP: At the European Council in Nice, France, three new permanent bodies are set up: the Political and Security Committee (PSC), the EU Military Committee (EUMC), and the EU Military Staﬀ (EUMS). The Presidency Report on ESDP makes a proposal to NATO for permanent arrangements for EU-NATO consultation and co-operation. The report also includes paragraphs on incorporation of certain WEU functions into the EU (Satellite Centre and Institute for Security Studies, direct management by the EU of a police technical co-operation mission in Albania, to take over from the WEU’s Multinational Advisory Police Element), the achievement of the Headline Goal, and of civilian crisis-management objectives. The Treaty of Nice adopted at this European Council states, ‘The common foreign

[270] a brave new century? and security policy shall include all questions relating to the security of the Union, including the progressive framing of a common defence policy, which might lead to a common defence, should the European Council so decide. . . . The policy of the Union in accordance with this Article shall not prejudice the speciﬁc character of the security and defence policy of certain member states and shall respect the obligations of certain member states, which see their common defence realised in the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO), under the North Atlantic Treaty and be compatible with the common security and defence policy established within that framework. The progressive framing of a common defence policy will be supported, as member states consider appropriate, by cooperation between them in the ﬁeld of armaments.’ December 12

The United States: The US Supreme Court makes a ﬁnal decision in the legal battle regarding the US election and ﬁnds that manual recounts are unlawful. Florida is thus called for Bush, who now has enough votes to win the presidency. On 13 December Al Gore accepts the US Supreme Court decision and makes his concession speech.

December 14–15

ESDI/ESDP: At the NAC meeting in Brussels, no agreement is reached on permanent arrangements between the EU and NATO. This is due to Turkish dissatisfaction with its participation in EU-led operations. Turkey, concerned about a possible EU intervention in Cyprus or the Aegean Sea area, seeks a say in decision-making and shaping of EU operations with NATO assets or ERRF operations, to which it has pledged over 20,000 troops.

December 16

Bush’s America: George W. Bush nominates Colin Powell as US Secretary of State and Donald Rumsfeld as Secretary of Defense.

December 31

The International Criminal Court: The US signs the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court (ICC) on the last day on which it is open for signature. The US accepts the ICC but with profound reservations, particularly on the part of the new administration.

2001 AT A GLANCE—MAJOR EVENTS AND THEMES

r r r r r r r r

NATO–EU joint meetings begin in earnest. A conﬂict breaks out in Macedonia. Plans for a new US missile defence system are unveiled. Tony Blair is re-elected British prime minister. The First Putin–Bush meeting takes place. NATO Operation Essential Harvest to disarm combatants begins in Macedonia. Al-Qaeda attacks the United States. NATO Operation Amber Fox to protect civilian observers takes place in Macedonia. r Operations commence in Afghanistan against al-Qaeda and the Taliban. r Operation Eagle Assist deploys NATO radar planes to patrol the skies over the United States. r Laeken European Council declares the European Rapid Reaction Force (ERRF) Operational.

January 1

Nuclear Arms Control: The Treaty on Open Skies comes into force.

January 9–10

ESDI: The North Atlantic Council (NAC) meets. The US and the UK reject demands by Italy, Germany, Greece, and Norway to abandon the use of depleted uranium. This follows widespread debate and media coverage of the possible environmental health risks associated with the use of depleted uranium munitions by NATO in the Balkans.

January 10

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: Biljana Plavsic (former President of Republika Srpska) voluntarily surrenders to the International Criminal Tribunal for Yugoslavia (ICTY) to face charges that include genocide and crimes against humanity.

January 11

Missile Defence: The Commission to Assess United States National Security Space Management and Organization headed by Donald Rumsfeld presents its report. It states that the US has ‘an urgent interest in promoting and protecting the peaceful use of space and in developing the technologies and operational capabilities that its objectives in space require’. The US President should ‘have the option to deploy weapons in space to deter threats to, and if necessary, defend against attacks on U.S. interests’.

January 20

Bush’s America: George W. Bush is inaugurated as US President. Vice President is Richard (Dick) Cheney, the former Secretary of Defense under Bush senior. Former Chief of the Joint Staﬀ General Colin Powell is the new Secretary of State. The former youngest ever Secretary of Defense (1974–6),

[272] a brave new century? Donald Rumsfeld, becomes the oldest ever Secretary of Defense, and Condoleezza Rice is appointed National Security Adviser. January 22

ESDP: The EU Council of Ministers conﬁrms the setting up of three essential components of the ESDP: the Political & Security Committee (PSC), the EU Military Committee, and the Military Staﬀ (EUMS).

January 26

Bush’s America: Donald Rumsfeld and Colin Powell are sworn in as US Secretary of Defense and Secretary of State, respectively.

January 28

European Defence Procurement: The Organization for Joint Armaments Co-operation Convention comes into force. The organization, which is often named after its French acronym OCCAR (Organisation Conjointe de Coopération en Matière d’Armement), aims at greater eﬃciency in the management of collaborative defence-equipment programmes. France, Germany, Italy, and the UK are members.

January 31

ESDI/ESDP: The ﬁrst meeting takes place between the NAC and the EU PSC as part of the EU–NATO strategic dialogue. These ﬁrst faltering steps towards a working EU–NATO relationship are devoted to procedure and formalities.

February 5–6

Middle East Peace Process: Ehud Barak loses elections in Israel; the old warhorse Ariel Sharon becomes the new Prime Minister. A General in the Six Day War and the architect of the Sabra and Shatila massacres of Palestinian refugees in Lebanon in 1982, he is no friend of the Palestinians.

February 17

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: The ﬁrst clashes take place in the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia (FYROM) between government forces and ﬁghters of the rebel movement National Liberation Army (NLA) near the village of Tanusevac. The rebels demand a new Macedonian constitution with better rights for Albanians and international mediation of the conﬂict. Former ﬁghters of the Kosovo Liberation Army are also among the ranks of the NLA.

February 24

The Chechen Wars: A mass grave is discovered in Chechnya near a major Russian military base. The number of bodies is unknown and disputed (20– 200).

February 26

ESDP: EU foreign ministers sign the Treaty of Nice, agreed upon at the European Council in December 2000. The treaty introduces the possibility of closer co-operation in the ﬁeld of the Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP), with the exception of military matters and defence policy. The ministers also create the Civilian Rapid Reaction Mechanism (CRRM) to enhance the EU’s civilian capacity to intervene fast, easily, and eﬀectively in crisis situations in third countries. According to External Relations Commissioner Chris Patten, the CRRM ‘will act as a catalyser allowing [the EU] to mobilise resources within hours or days rather than weeks or months’.

February 26

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: Macedonian security forces try to take control of Tanusevac. The situation escalates into a lengthy exchange of ﬁre.

March 1

ESDP: Lieutenant-General Rainer Schuwirth of Germany is appointed the ﬁrst Director-General of the EU Military Staﬀ (EUMS). UK Major-General Graham Messervy-Whiting is appointed his deputy and Chief of Staﬀ.

2001 [273] March 12

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: Amid renewed tension between ethnic Serbs and Albanians in Southern Serbia, NATO brokers a cease-ﬁre. It does not resolve the renewed crisis.

March 14

ESDI/ESDP: The EU PSC and the NATO NAC meet. The situation in Kosovo dominates discussions.

March 14

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: Troops of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (FRY) enter the Ground Safety Zone (GSZ), the 5-km strip of southern Serbia that borders Kosovo, for the ﬁrst time since their withdrawal from Kosovo. The move takes place with NATO’s agreement and reﬂects improved relations between the Alliance and Belgrade. It follows the decision by the NAC to proceed with the phased reduction of the GSZ.

March 19

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: EU foreign ministers meet to discuss the crisis in Macedonia and the possible role of the EU in helping to solve it. In an unprecedented move, NATO Secretary-General Lord Robertson is also invited to the meeting in order to synchronize actions by the two organizations.

March 22

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: A high-level EU delegation headed by Swedish Foreign Minister Anna Lindt and including Belgian Foreign Minister Louis Michel, Javier Solana, and EU External Relations Commissioner Chris Patten arrive in Macedonia for talks with the two parties to the conﬂict.

March 28

Climate Change: President Bush announces that the US will not ratify the Kyoto Protocol. The parties to the protocol need to account for at least 55 per cent of total 1990 carbon dioxide emissions before the treaty can enter into force. Thus, US refusal to ratify constitutes a fatal blow to the protocol. The refusal also deals a blow to America’s internationalist credentials.

April 9

European Security and Defence Policy (ESDP): General Gustav Hägglund from Finland is appointed the ﬁrst Chairman of the EU Military Committee (EUMC).

April 11

ESDP: The British newspaper The Guardian reports that a ‘House of Commons report describes plans for a European Rapid Reaction Force as confused and lacking democratic accountability’.

April 18

ESDP: The Framework Agreement Concerning Measures to Facilitate the Restructuring and Operation of the European Defence Industry comes into force between France, Germany, Italy, Spain, Sweden, and the UK.

April 21–8

NATO Enlargement: The ﬁrst of a series of events takes place to celebrate the 10th anniversary of North Atlantic East–West co-operation in the framework of the North Atlantic Co-operation Council (NACC) and the EuroAtlantic Partnership Council (EAPC) (as of 1997).

April 24

NATO Enlargement: Israel signs a security agreement with NATO, the ﬁrst of the seven participants in NATO’s Mediterranean Dialogue to have such an agreement.

May 1

Missile Defence: US President Bush makes a speech in which he advocates deep unilateral cuts in the US nuclear arsenal and at the same time

[274] a brave new century? announces his determination to construct a system of national missile defence. This casts doubt on the future of the 1972 Anti-Ballistic Missile (ABM) Treaty with Russia. According to Bush, it is safe to leave the ABM behind. Bush asserts that, ‘Unlike the Cold War, today’s most urgent threat stems not from thousands of ballistic missiles in the Soviet hands, but from a small number of missiles in the hands of these states, states for whom terror and blackmail are a way of life.’ May 8

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: The ﬁrst ﬁnancing decision under the new European Commission’s Crisis and Rapid Response Mechanism (CRRM) is taken. It concerns housing reconstruction in the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia (FYROM).

May 14

ESDI/ESDP: The German and Dutch defence ministers, Rudolf Scharping and Frank de Grave respectively, sign a Memorandum of Understanding on Mutual Co-operation to Reinforce European Air Transport Capacities, which ‘enables the Netherlands to call upon Germany to facilitate the deployment of Netherlands forces in future crisis response or humanitarian assistance operations.’ The Netherlands will provide funds to Germany to strengthen the latter’s strategic air-transport capabilities in support of international operations in areas of air-to-air refuelling, medical evacuation, and handling and reception capabilities.

May 15

European Defence Procurement: The thirteen Western European Armaments Group (WEAG) members sign a memorandum of understanding entitled ‘European Undertakings for Research Organisations, Programmes and Activities’. It is an umbrella arrangement for collaboration in research and technology.

May 29–30

ESDI/ESDP: NATO defence ministers meet in Hungary. Their discussions focus on the situation in Macedonia (FYROM), NATO–EU co-operation, particularly EU access to NATO planning capabilities and military assets under the Berlin-plus arrangements. Relations with Russia are also discussed, as well as missile defence and the proliferation of WMDs.

June 5

ESDP: The Headquarters of Eurocorps starts adopting a rapid reaction corps structure.

June 7

Britain: New Labour wins UK general elections. Tony Blair starts his second term as Prime Minister.

June 7–8

NATO: NATO defence ministers meet in Brussels. US Secretary of Defense Rumsfeld argues for the utility of missile defence against rogue states and that the US considers the 1972 ABM treaty obsolete. NATO’s European Security and Defence Identity (ESDI) is also discussed amid American concerns over the direction of European defence in the EU. Ministers also review the progress in implementing the Defence Capabilities Initiative (DCI) and identify a number of deﬁciencies. These are ‘eﬀective engagement and survivability of Alliance forces such as in the areas of suppression of enemy air defence and support jamming; combat identiﬁcation; intelligence, surveillance, and target acquisition (including the Alliance Ground Surveillance system); air weapons systems for day/night and all weather operations; air defence in all its aspects, including against theatre ballistic missiles and

2001 [275] cruise missiles; capabilities against nuclear, biological, and chemical (NBC) weapons and their means of delivery, and NBC detection and protection’. June 10

ESDI: Swiss voters narrowly vote in favour of legislation to allow Swiss troops on international peacekeeping missions to be armed and to allow more automatic and balanced procedures for training of the Swiss military with NATO forces.

June 11

ESDP: The EU Military Staﬀ (EUMS) is declared operational.

June 12

ESDI/ESDP: The NATO Military Committee and the EU Military Committee (EUMC) meet for the ﬁrst time at NATO headquarters. They exchange information on issues such as NATO assets and capabilities, the NATO command structure, the future force structure, and NATO’s DCI, ESDP, its exercise programme, and command and control of EU operations.

June 12

Missile Defence:US President Bush arrives on a European tour. He ﬁrst meets Spanish Prime Minister José María Aznar and then attends a NATO summit. He advocates missile defence and receives support only from the Italian and the UK Prime Ministers, Silvio Berlusconi and Tony Blair respectively.

June 13

NATO: A NATO summit meeting takes place in Brussels. The question of NATO’s role in the Macedonian situation dominates discussions.

June 14

Climate Change: US President Bush meets EU leaders in Gothenburg, Sweden, where disagreements between the Europeans and the Americans over the Kyoto Protocol on global warming dominate.

June 15

NATO: President Bush delivers a speech in Warsaw in which he argues for the integration of Central and Eastern European countries in European and Atlantic institutions and for a greater role and responsibility of Europe in European security: ‘I believe in NATO membership for all of Europe’s democracies that seek it and are ready to share the responsibilities that NATO brings. . . . All nations should understand that there is no conﬂict between membership in NATO and membership in the European Union. My nation welcomes the consolidation of European unity, and the stability it brings. We welcome a greater role for the EU in European security, properly integrated with NATO . . . the basis for our mutual security must move beyond Cold War doctrines. . . . We must confront the shared security threats of regimes that thrive by creating instability, that are ambitious for weapons of mass destruction, and are dangerously unpredictable. In Europe, you’re closer to these challenges than the United States. You see the lightning well before we hear the thunder. Only together, however, can we confront the emerging threats of a changing world.’

June 15–16

The European Union: The European Council in Gothenburg, Sweden, is also attended by the leaders of twelve applicant states. The EU is ‘committed to developing and reﬁning its capabilities, structures and procedures in order to improve its ability to undertake the full range of crisis prevention and management tasks’. To this end, EU leaders agree among other things to improve early-warning procedures. The European Council also sets up speciﬁc targets for the Committee for Civilian Aspects of Crisis Management and adopts the EU Programme for the Prevention of Violent Conﬂicts.

[276] a brave new century? June 15–20

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: Negotiations between Macedonian and Albanian Government parties on the crisis in Macedonia fail.

June 16

US–Russian Relations: Russian President Vladimir Putin and US President George W. Bush meet for the ﬁrst time in Ljubljana, Slovenia. They get on well.

June 19

European Defence Procurement: At the Le Bourget Air Show, a Memorandum of Understanding (MOU) on a joint A400M Strategic airlift aircraft programme is signed by the defence ministers of Belgium, France, Germany, Luxembourg, France, Spain, Turkey, and the UK. Portugal is also interested but has not yet ﬁnished its internal approval process. Germany’s participation is subject to parliamentary approval.

June 20

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: Macedonian President Boris Trajkovski requests NATO assistance in the face of the deteriorating security situation in his country.

June 20

Al-Qaeda/Afghanistan: In an attempt to shore up his political legitimacy, General Pervez Musharraf assumes the title of President of the Islamic Republic of Pakistan.

June 23

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: NATO Secretary-General Lord Robertson urges the Macedonian Government to stop its oﬀensive against ethnic Albanian rebels. He describes the oﬀensive as ‘complete folly’ and speaks of ‘unacceptable resort to violent action’. ‘New outbreaks of violence, from whichever side,’ Robertson says, ‘are madness at this sensitive time.’

June 24

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: EU High Representative Javier Solana wins a ceaseﬁre in Macedonia.

June 28

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: Former Yugoslav President Slobodan Miloševi´c is handed over for trial to the International Criminal Tribunal on Yugoslavia (ICTY) at The Hague. Nationalist demonstrations erupt in Belgrade as a result.

June 28

ESDP: The Western European Union (WEU) Council holds its last meeting. The WEU now takes up a residual status in Brussels. Only the WEU Assembly will endure, which will style itself the European Security and Defence Assembly. However, the modiﬁed Brussels Treaty of 1955 continues, together with its robust automatic armed assistance clause Article V.

June 29

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: NATO approves operation Essential Harvest for Macedonia.

June

Nuclear Arms Control: The Russian and Belarusian ratiﬁcation procedures for the Open Skies Treaty are completed.

June

ESDP: The Helsinki Process Catalogue is issued. It lists forty military capability shortfalls in attaining the Helsinki Headline Goal. Indeed, only 104 of 144 capability targets in the Helsinki Headline Goal have been met.

July 2

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: Talks aimed at producing a political settlement to the crisis in Macedonia are opened by EU Special Representative in FYROM François Léotard and Special Envoy of the President of the United States James Pardew.

2001 [277] July 3

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: Miloševi´c makes his ﬁrst appearance before the International Criminal Tribunal on Yugoslavia (ICTY).

July 16

ESDP: The EU Council of Ministers adopts two Joint Actions relating to the transfer of the WEU Satellite Centre (Torrejon) and the Institute for Security Studies (Paris) to the EU, to become eﬀective on 1 January 2002.

July 19

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: Peace negotiations in Macedonia are suspended by the Albanian parties.

July 26

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: NATO Secretary-General Lord Robertson and EU High Representative for the CFSP Javier Solana travel to Macedonia to stop deepening hostilities in that country. On 28 July peace talks on Macedonia resume in Ohrid.

August 13

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: The Ohrid Framework Agreement is signed between the Macedonian Government and the National Liberation Army. It includes raising the percentage of ethnic Albanians in the Macedonian police force, increasing the status of the Albanian language so it can be used in oﬃcial institutions, and improving the constitutional status of ethnic Albanians and other minority groups.

August 15

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: NATO authorizes partial deployment of a Task Force to Macedonia.

August 22

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: NATO launches Operation Essential Harvest in Macedonia, and the full deployment of a 3,500-troop force to collect and destroy rebel arms is thus authorized. On 27 August NATO’s Operation Essential Harvest in Macedonia begins it activities.

September 11

9/11: Al-Qaeda attacks the United States in New York and Washington. Some 2,800 people die as two hijacked planes are ﬂown into the World Trade Center, another hits the Pentagon, and a fourth crashes in a ﬁeld in Pennsylvania. This is the ﬁrst time since 1812 that the US has faced a lethal attack by a foreign force on its own territory. As an immediate result, air travel across the United States is—for the ﬁrst time ever—suspended totally for several days for fear of follow-up attacks. Soon afterwards, Bush declares a Global War on Terror.

September 12

9/11: The UN Security Council (UNSC) unanimously adopts a resolution recognizing terrorism as a ‘threat to international peace and security’.

September 12

9/11: NATO invokes Article 5, under which an attack on one member state is considered an attack on all nineteen members.

September 12

9/11: President of the European Commission Romano Prodi convenes an emergency meeting to discuss implications of 9/11.

September 13

9/11: The NATO–Russia Permanent Joint Council issues a joint statement condemning the attacks of 11 September.

September 19

9/11: The European Commission proposes a European arrest warrant and a common deﬁnition of terrorism, as well as related penalties to tackle crossborder crime, including terrorism.

[278] a brave new century? September 21

9/11: An extraordinary European Council declares that ‘The ﬁght against terrorism will, more than ever, be a priority objective of the European Union.’ An action plan is adopted to this end. It identiﬁes a series of measures: joint investigation teams of police and magistrates from throughout the EU; a common list of terrorist organizations; co-operation agreements on terrorism between Europol and the relevant US authorities; a specialist antiterrorism team within Europol; Eurojust, a co-ordination body composed of magistrates, prosecutors, and police oﬃcers; and routine exchange of information between member states of Europol.

September 21

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: The Macedonian authorities request continued NATO assistance.

September 23

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: Operation Essential Harvest completes its work of disarming the ethnic Albanian National Liberation Army (NLA) in Macedonia, and Operation Amber Fox is to take over. The mission changes from the collection of weapons to the protection of civilian observers.

September 26

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: The UNSC gives Operation Amber Fox in Macedonia an initial three-month mandate. On 27 September NATO Operation Amber Fox is deployed.

September 28

9/11: The UNSC decides on a range of measures that nations must take against terrorism.

September 29

9/11: The EU warns that retaliation for the attacks against the US must be ‘targeted’ and ‘proportional’ to remain legitimate under the authority of UNSC Resolution 1368.

September

ESDP: The European Air Transport Co-ordination Cell in Eindhoven, set up by the seven members of the European Air Group, becomes operational.

October 3

ESDI/ESDP: Russian President Putin meets with senior EU oﬃcials and NATO Secretary-General Lord Robertson. It is agreed that the EU will inform Russia of discussions within the EU Political and Security Committee (PSC). Putin hints that Russia will not oppose NATO expansion to the Baltic region due to his country’s growing co-operation with the organization.

October 3

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: French General Marcel Valentin becomes head of NATO-led KFOR operations in Kosovo.

October 4

Putin’s Russia: A Russian airliner en route from Tel Aviv to Novosibirsk is accidentally hit by a Ukrainian missile ﬁred during military exercises, killing all seventy-eight people on board.

October 4

9/11: NATO responds positively to a US request for help in the ﬁght against terrorism by introducing a number of measures to support the US.

October 7

9/11/Afghanistan: Owing to the continuing refusal of the Taliban Government in Afghanistan to surrender Osama bin Laden and other al-Qaeda members, the US, UK, Australia, Canada, France, and Germany begin military operations against the country. Operation Enduring Freedom is underway.

2001 [279] October 8

The Kursk Incident: The sunk Russian nuclear submarine Kursk is raised. Russia is still claiming that a Western submarine was in collision with the Kursk and contributed to its sinking. All Western evidence points to the use of dangerous propellants in torpedoes.

October 8

9/11/Afghanistan: British Prime Minister Blair establishes a War Cabinet to supervise Britain’s participation in the US-led military action in Afghanistan.

October 9

9/11: NATO launches Operation Eagle Assist by deploying Standing Naval Forces Mediterranean (STANAVFORMED) to the eastern part of the Mediterranean and announces the sending of ﬁve airborne early-warning aircraft (AWACS) to the US. The latter is the ﬁrst time NATO assets are deployed to defend the continental United States.

October 18

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: NATO Secretary-General Lord Robertson, EU High Representative Javier Solana, and Organization of Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE) Chairman-in-Oﬃce Mircea Dan Geoana (as well as SACEUR General Joseph Ralston) travel to Macedonia to urge government oﬃcials to resume the country’s political process.

October 19

9/11: EU leaders meet at an informal European Council in Ghent, Belgium, to discuss EU enlargement, the introduction of the Euro, and a proposed European Constitution. They also make a declaration on follow-up to the 11 September attacks and the ﬁght against terrorism and endorse a ‘road map’ of all measures and initiatives to be taken in the ﬁght against terrorism. Following up on the Action Plan endorsed on 21 September, EU leaders approve practical details of the common arrest warrant and the common deﬁnition of terrorist oﬀences, as well as anti-money-laundering measures. They also agree on increased co-operation between Europol, Eurojust, intelligence services, police forces, and judicial authorities, which should enable them to draw up the requested list of terrorist organizations by the end of the year. During the meetings, disagreement among EU leaders concerning US military action in Afghanistan becomes apparent.

October 26

9/11: NATO launches Operation Active Endeavour, deploying parts of its STANAVFORMED to patrol the eastern Mediterranean and monitor shipping.

November 9–10

9/11: Police in Strasbourg arrest six suspected members of an Islamic fundamentalist cell believed to be linked to Osama bin Laden.

November 13–15

Missile Defence: Russian President Putin meets US President Bush in Washington and at Bush’s Texas ranch. They fail to reach an agreement on the missile defence shield sought by the US.

November 19–20

ESDP: EU foreign and defence ministers meet in Brussels to discuss capability improvements. They agree a European Capability Action Plan (ECAP). It is intended to remedy the ﬁfty-ﬁve identiﬁed shortcomings in the development of European crisis-management capabilities. The conference makes several proposals, including making available forces and capabilities that have not yet been declared; making existing capabilities more eﬀective and eﬃcient; seeking creative responses outside traditional military

[280] a brave new century? procurement programmes; and co-producing, ﬁnancing, and acquiring capabilities particularly for large-scale or very speciﬁc projects. The ECAP is based on four principles: enhanced eﬀectiveness and eﬃciency of European military capability eﬀorts, a bottom-up approach to European defence cooperation, co-ordination between EU member states and co-operation with NATO, and the importance of broad public support. The conference decides to set up panels of experts to analyse remaining deﬁciencies and identify speciﬁc solutions. November 25

9/11/Afghanistan: US troops move into southern Afghanistan. Troops in the US-led coalition include forces from Australia, Canada, Japan, Turkey, the Czech Republic, France, Italy, the Netherlands, Poland, Spain, the United Kingdom, and Germany, which is undertaking its ﬁrst military action outside Europe since World War Two.

December 2

ESDP: Greece asserts that the long consultation process that is foreseen with non-EU countries, i.e. Turkey, during a crisis would compromise the decision-making authority of the EU. Greece does not want Turkish involvement.

December 2

ESDI/ESDP: Turkey endorses the Ankara Compromise, elaborated by the UK, the US, and Turkey, on the participation of European non-EU states in EU crisis-management operations. Under the compromise, Turkey would be given a consultative role in the European Rapid Reaction Force (ERRF) decision-making process. The Compromise it is hoped will open up the way to agreement on EU access to NATO assets under the Berlin-plus process that Turkey has been blocking.

December 5

9/11/Afghanistan: The participants in UN talks on the future of Afghanistan sign the Bonn Agreement. It provides for an Interim Authority to be established on 22 December. The Interim Authority is to be composed of an Interim Administration, a Special Independent Commission for the Convening of the Emergency Loya Jirga (great assembly), and a Supreme Court of Afghanistan. The Loya Jirga is to be convened within six months of the establishment of the Interim Authority, and is to decide on a Transitional Authority, including a broad-based Transitional Administration, to lead Afghanistan until a fully representative government can be elected through free and fair elections, which are to be held no later than two years after the Loya Jirga convenes. Within 18 months of the establishment of the Transitional Authority, a Constitutional Loya Jirga is to be convened to adopt a new constitution for the country. The participants also ‘request the United Nations Security Council to consider authorizing the early deployment to Afghanistan of a United Nations mandated force. This force will assist in the maintenance of security in Kabul and its surrounding areas. Such a force could, as appropriate, be progressively expanded to other urban centres and other areas.’

December 7

NATO–Russian Co-operation: NATO foreign ministers announce the creation of a NATO–Russia Council (to replace the Permanent Joint Council) to strengthen Russia’s voice in NATO. Russia seeks, but fails to get, a veto over NATO activities. It is hoped such strengthened co-operation with

2001 [281] Russia will ease Russian concerns over the next NATO enlargement to the three Baltic States, Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania. December 13

Missile Defence: Bush announces US withdrawal from the 1972 Anti-Ballistic Missile (ABM) Treaty. Russian President Putin says this step by the US does not pose any threat to the security of the Russian Federation. However, he calls Bush’s move a mistake and calls for the rapid creation of ‘a new framework of our strategic relationship’.

December 14–15

ESDP: European Council in Laeken, Belgium. The main topic under discussion is a plan to draft an EU Constitution. Former French President Valéry Giscard d’Estaing is appointed Chairman of the Convention on the Future of Europe, which is drafting the Constitution. On ESDP, the Presidency Conclusions state that ‘the EU is now capable of conducting some crisis-management operations’. The European Rapid Reaction Mechanism (ERRM) is thus declared operational. However, the draft Presidency Report on ESDP also asserts that ‘To enable the European Union to carry out crisis-management operations over the whole range of Petersberg Tasks, substantial progress is to be made.’ This includes reaching an agreement on EU–NATO relations, which fails, however, due to Greece’s objecting to the Ankara Compromise giving Turkey access to the EU crisis management decision-making process. To assuage the British, Americans, and others, EU leaders also assert that the European Rapid Reaction Force (ERRF) ‘does not imply the creation of a European Army’. The European Capabilities Action Plan (ECAP) is also launched to help oﬀset the military capability shortfalls identiﬁed in the Helsinki Force Catalogue.

December 18

The Global War on Terror: NATO defence ministers meet to discuss how the Alliance will adapt to the war on terror, notably addressing how to increase the organization’s ability to dispatch forces out of NATO areas.

December 18

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: US Secretary of Defense Rumsfeld announces that US troops in Bosnia will be reduced from 3,100 to 2,000 in 2002.

December 18

European Defence Procurement: The contract for the Airbus A400M military heavy lift aircraft is signed, as are more-detailed arrangements for the management of programmes within OCCAR.

December 20

Afghanistan: The UNSC authorizes the establishment of an International Security Assistance Force (ISAF) for Afghanistan.

December 21

Afghanistan: The ﬁrst British troops arrive in Afghanistan to set up ISAF, of which it will be the ﬁrst lead nation.

2002 AT A GLANCE—MAJOR EVENTS AND THEMES

r r r r r r r r r r r r r r

Co-operation between Russia, the EU, and NATO increases. The conﬂict in Macedonia continues. EU Police Mission in Bosnia-Herzegovina (BiH) is established. Yugoslavia ceases to exist and Serbia and Montenegro is formed. French President Jacques Chirac is re-elected. Russian President Putin and US President Bush meet in Moscow. The NATO–Russia Council is formed. A transatlantic row breaks out over the International Criminal Court (ICC). Gerhard Schröder is re-elected Chancellor of Germany. France and Germany propose a Common Security and Defence clause in the proposed EU Constitutional Treaty. NATO Prague summit: Bulgaria, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Romania, Slovakia, and Slovenia are invited to join the Alliance. The EU–NATO Berlin-Plus agreement on EU use of NATO assets. The EU–NATO Declaration on the European Security and Defence Policy (ESDP) is issued. The ﬁnal report of the European Convention Working Group on Defence is completed.

January 1

ESDP: Eurojust, a co-ordination body composed of magistrates, prosecutors, and police oﬃcers, is launched by the EU.

January 1

ESDP: The two Western European Union (WEU) subsidiary bodies, the Torrejon Satellite Centre and the Institute for Security Studies become EU agencies.

January 10

Afghanistan: The British oﬃcially assume command of the International Security Assistance Force (ISAF) in Kabul, Afghanistan.

January 16

The Global War on Terror: Two additional E-3A Airborne Early Warning and Control Systems (AWACS) aircraft are deployed by NATO to support US homeland security, following a request by the United States. The aircraft join ﬁve other NATO AWACS that have been conducting operations over the United States since 9 October 2001.

January 17

The Global War on Terror: US authorities transfer the ﬁrst detainees from Afghanistan to the US Naval Base at Guantánamo Bay, Cuba. In time, and in spite of condemnation from friends and allies, citizens from over thirty states will be incarcerated.

2002 [283] January 29

The Global War on Terror: In his State of the Union address, US President Bush, speaking of North Korea, Iraq, and Iran, states that, ‘states like these, and their terrorist allies, constitute an axis of evil, aiming to threaten the peace of the world’.

February 1–3

The Iraq War: Munich Conference on Security Policy: US Deputy Secretary of Defense Paul Wolfowitz, citing Donald Rumsfeld, says that ‘the mission must determine the coalition’, not vice versa, and that otherwise, ‘the coalition is reduced to the lowest common denominator’. He advocates ‘ﬂexible coalitions’, i.e. ‘diﬀerent coalitions for diﬀerent missions’.

February 3–4

The Global War on Terror: A NATO–Russia conference on combating terrorism is held.

February 7

The Global War on Terror: The US announces that it will apply the ‘principles’ of the Third Geneva Convention to captured members of the Taliban, but refuses to consider them prisoners-of-war (POWs) under the convention. However, the US also states that it considers the Geneva Conventions inapplicable to captured members of al-Qaeda, although it insists such detainees will be treated humanely.

February 11–12

European Defence Procurement: An opening gathering is held in Brussels for the European Capabilities Action Plan (ECAP). Nineteen panels are set up, each headed by one or two member states. The panels are to submit a report in March 2003.

February 12

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: The trial of former Yugoslav President Slobodan Miloševi´c opens at the International Criminal Tribunal on Yugoslavia (ICTY) in The Hague.

February 18

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: NATO’s North Atlantic Council (NAC) extends Operation Amber Fox for a further three months at the request of the Government of Macedonia.

February 18–19

ESDP: EU foreign ministers, meeting as the General Aﬀair’s Council (GAC), announce the EU’s readiness by 1 January 2003 to follow up on the UN International Police Task Force (ITPF) in BiH. The Spanish presidency seeks ‘to enable Defence Ministers to discuss certain agenda items, limited to issues covering military capabilities’, at the GAC.

February 26

The Middle East Peace Process: Saudi Crown Prince Abdullah launches an initiative calling for normalization of all Arab relations with Israel in return for Israeli recognition of an independent Palestinian state based on the 1967 borders, with East Jerusalem as its capital.

February 28

ESDP: The European Airlift Co-ordination Cell set up by the European Air Group (EAG) (comprising Belgium, France, Germany, Italy, Spain, the UK, and the Netherlands) is oﬃcially inaugurated at Eindhoven Air Base.

February 28

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: The Steering Board of the Peace Implementation Conference (PIC) accepts an EU oﬀer for a European Police Mission (EUPM) in BiH. At the same meeting of the PIC, Lord Ashdown is designated as the new Special Representative, succeeding Wolfgang Petritsch.

[284] a brave new century? February 28

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: NATO troops from the Stabilization Force (SFOR) make two attempts to arrest Radovan Karadzic, the most senior war crimes suspect still at large in BiH. They fail.

March 1–15

European Security and Defence Identity (ESDI): NATO tests its ability to handle two simultaneous operations (a collective defence operation and a crisis response) in Norway and Poland.

March 5

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: The UN Security Council (UNSC) welcomes the acceptance by the Steering Board of the PIC of the oﬀer made by the EU to set up a European Union Police Mission (EUPM) in BiH from 1 January 2003, to follow the end of UN Mission in Bosnia-Herzegovina (UNMIBH) mandate.

March 11

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: The EU Council establishes the EUPM, which is to take over the mission of the UN’s International Police Task Force (IPTF) in BiH. Lord Ashdown is appointed EU special representative in BiH.

March 11

The Global War on Terror: At a Council of Ministers meeting, EU foreign ministers issue a declaration on the terrorist attacks of 11 September, stating that: ‘Actions taken against those responsible for these barbaric acts and their accomplices are not targeted against any people or religion. They aim at the reinforcement of international security and the rule of law as well as the security of the countries aﬀected by the scourge of terrorism. The global ﬁght against terrorism represents, more than ever, a priority goal for the European Union.’

March 12

The Middle East Peace Process: The UNSC speaks for the ﬁrst time of an independent Palestinian state, ‘aﬃrming a vision of a region where two states, Israel and Palestine, live side by side within secure and recognised borders’.

March 14

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: The leaders of Serbia, Montenegro, and Yugoslavia sign an Agreement in Principle in Belgrade to maintain a joint state under the name of Serbia and Montenegro.

March 15–16

ESDI/ESDP: The Barcelona European Council declares the EU’s availability to take over NATO’s operation in the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, ‘on the understanding that the permanent arrangements on EU–NATO cooperation (Berlin plus) would be in place by then’. It is decided that the EU Presidency, the Secretary-General/High Representative and Greece will hold meetings in an eﬀort to promote a settlement of the participation issue.

March 27–8

The Middle East Peace Process: The Arab League endorses Saudi Crown Prince Abdullah’s peace initiative. However, Jordan and Egypt do not attend the meeting.

March

ESDP: The nineteen European Capability Action Plan (ECAP) panels start their work of addressing the twenty-one Helsinki shortfalls in military capabilities that are regarded as essential to the achievement of the Headline Goal and the European Rapid Reaction Force (ERRF). There were forty such shortfalls identiﬁed by the Helsinki Process Catalogue and this represents a step back from the original objective rather than progress towards overcoming weaknesses.

2002 [285] March

The Nuclear Balance: The International Atomic Energy Authority (IAEA) establishes the Nuclear Security Programme (NSP) to assist member states to improve the safety and security of nuclear and radiological materials.

April 10

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: The Netherlands Institute for War Documentation publishes an oﬃcial report on the Srebrenica massacre. It ﬁnds that ‘humanitarian motivation and political ambitions drove the Netherlands to undertake an ill-conceived and virtually impossible peace mission’, and it blames the Dutch peacekeepers for handing over Muslim civilians to Serbian forces and says that the UN failed to give the troops enough support to defend the city’s inhabitants. Although the report blames former Serbian President Miloševi´c for the disintegration of Yugoslavia, it also states that ‘no evidence had been found that suggests the involvement of the Serbian authorities in Belgrade [in the killings in Srebrenica]’.

April 15

Middle East Peace Process: Israel announces that it will build a ‘security fence’ to prevent Palestinian terrorists from reaching Israeli territory. In size and ambition similarities with Berlin Wall and the Iron Curtain are not misplaced as Israel tries to end its experiment of being a Middle Eastern state and increasingly looks to Europe for assimilation.

April 16

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: Dutch Prime Minister Wim Kok endorses the ﬁndings of the Srebrenica Report, which he commissioned in 1997, and resigns with his entire cabinet taking collective responsibility. Queen Beatrix, however, immediately asks him to form a caretaker administration until the elections scheduled for 15 May. On 17 April the Dutch Army Chief of Staﬀ General Ad van Baal also resigns over the Srebrenica massacre.

April 30

ESDI/ESDP: EU High Representative Javier Solana, NATO SecretaryGeneral Lord Robertson, and the Chairman of the Political and Security Council (PSC), Ambassador Carlos Maria Casajuana, meet at NATO HQ in Brussels for NATO–EU talks on security issues.

May 5

France: President Jacques Chirac decisively defeats far-right candidate JeanMarie Le Pen to take the French presidency for a second term.

May 6

The International Criminal Court: The US declares that it ‘does not intend to become a party to the [Rome Statute of the ICC]’, and that accordingly, it ‘has no legal obligation arising from its signature on December 31, 2000’. Not only does this decision profoundly undermine the eﬀectiveness of the ICC but causes severe ructions in the transatlantic relationship. In essence it demonstrates the diﬀerence between the institution-focused Europeans and the leadership-focused Americans. The main concern of the Americans is that US soldiers will be hauled before the court. However, the jurisdiction of ICC is only triggered when states have not dealt with a complaint themselves.

May 8

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: NATO Secretary-General Lord Robertson meets in Brussels with EU High Representative Javier Solana, together with EU Special Representative in BiH, Lord Ashdown. The situation on the ground remains tense.

[286] a brave new century? May 13

ESDP: EU defence ministers participate for the ﬁrst time in a meeting of the EU GAC. The introduction of European defence into the EU Council of Ministers building in Brussels, Justus Lipsius, has been a shock for both the EU and the armed forces and much time is spent by the two sides trying to understand each other.

May 14–15

ESDI/ESDP: NATO and EU foreign ministers meet in Iceland and discuss use of Alliance capabilities and infrastructure by the EU under the Berlin-plus mechanism. Turkey again rejects the proposal on the grounds that Ankara will have insuﬃcient say over EU operations many of which it believes will probably happen near Turkey. Little progress on the issue is made.

May 16

9/11: NATO’s Operation Eagle Assist ends in the United States and with it the protection of US air space by the Alliance.

May 21

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: NATO member countries agree to extend Operation Amber Fox in Macedonia as the situation on the ground between Macedonians and ethnic Albanians remains tense.

May 22–8

ESDP: The ﬁrst EU crisis-management exercise (CME02) involving all EU capitals, the Council, the Commission, and High Representative Javier Solana takes place. It also makes use of the Torrejon Satellite Centre and its capacity to collect and collate both military and civilian satellite information.

May 23–4

Nuclear Arms Control: US President George W. Bush and Russian President Vladimir Putin meet in Moscow. They sign the Treaty of Moscow or Treaty on Oﬀensive Strategic Reductions (SORT), reducing stockpiles of nuclear weapons by two-thirds over ten years, and agree to co-operate on energy policy and anti-terrorism measures. Diﬀerences between the two countries remain, primarily over trade and nuclear non-proliferation.

May 28

NATO–Russia Co-operation: At a NATO summit in Rome, the new strengthened NATO–Russia Council is formed from the NATO–Russia Permanent Joint Council. The objective is to ensure that ‘NATO member states and Russia will work as equal partners in areas of common interest.’ Other issues discussed include nuclear non-proliferation, missile defence, and combating terrorism.

May 29

EU–Russia Co-operation: The EU formally recognizes Russia as a market economy at a Russia–EU summit in Moscow. However, serious disagreements persist over the future status of Russia‘s Kaliningrad Region which is separated from Russia by Poland and the Baltic States. Moscow is concerned about rights of access if those states join the EU.

June 17

ESDP: The EU GAC agrees on the ﬁnancing of EU operations that have military or defence implications and the balance between EU and national contributions.

June 18

The International Criminal Court: Objecting to the possible subjection of American military personnel in the Balkans to the jurisdiction of the ICC, the US presents two draft resolutions to the UNSC to exempt peacekeepers from the ICC. The opposition of some Security Council members to these

2002 [287] proposals leads to the US’s threatening to withdraw from peacekeeping operations in the Balkans. June 20

Afghanistan: The command of the NATO-led International Security Assistance Force (ISAF) in Afghanistan passes from the British to Turkey as Major-General John McColl hands over command to Major-General Hilmi Akin Zorlu. ISAF is still ﬁnding its feet and for the moment operations are restricted to the area around Kabul, the capital.

June 21–2

ESDP: At the Seville European Council, EU member states agree to commit police forces to the EU Police Mission (EUPM) in BiH, together with capacities to rebuild civil society and the rule of law such as judges, prosecutors, and legal administrators. The scope of the ESDP is broadened to include the ﬁght against terrorism. It is the ﬁrst time ESDP is given a strategic mission beyond peacekeeping in the Balkans. The EU also indicates its willingness to take over from NATO in Macedonia and a President Report is presented on the EU programme for the prevention of violent conduct. It is also agreed that the GAC should become the EU’s primary strategic body and thus becomes the General Aﬀairs and External Relations Council (GAERC).

June 25

ESDI/ESDP: The NAC and the EU Political and Security Committee (PSC) meet at EU headquarters in Brussels. Discussions focus on NATO and EU contributions to the international ﬁght against terrorism, the situation in the Balkans, and progress made in initiatives for NATO–EU co-operation. The meetings are not proving easy as both France and the US jealously guard the prerogatives of their respective champions, the EU and NATO. Turkish obstructionism does not improve the working atmosphere.

June 27

The Nuclear Balance: At the G-8 2002 Kananaskis Summit in Canada, the Global Partnership Against the Spread of Weapons of Mass Destruction is created to seek additional resources and partners for non-proliferation, disarmament, counter-proliferation, and nuclear safety projects in Russia and other former Soviet states. Partnership donors pledge $17bn towards a $20bn target.

July 1

The International Criminal Court: Having been ratiﬁed by sixty states, the Rome Statute of the ICC comes into force. The Americans continue to refuse to be bound by the court.

July 12

The International Criminal Court: A compromise is eventually reached on the question of the jurisdiction of the ICC over peacekeepers (UNSC Res. 1422). This compromise agreement allows the US to drop its demand that the UN Security Council grant US citizens serving in UN peacekeeping mission’s permanent immunity from investigation or prosecution by the new court. The UNSC meets the same day to extend the mandates of the NATOled Stabilization Force (SFOR) and the UN Mission in BiH (UNMIBH) until 31 December with the unanimous passing of Resolution 1423.

July 15

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: The Presidents of BiH, Croatia, and Yugoslavia hold a landmark summit meeting in Sarajevo to seek practical compromises between the three new states and to avoid future bloodshed. It is not an easy meeting as the atmosphere of the war, with its 200,000 dead, hangs over the meeting. However, it is a start.

[288] a brave new century? July 15

The Global War on Terror: Pakistani troops enter the Tirah Valley in the Khyber Tribal Agency region for the ﬁrst time since independence in 1947. The force proceeds into the Shawal Valley of North Waziristan, and later South Waziristan. The move follows long negotiations with tribal chiefs in the region held only on the condition that aid and development work will follow. However, a number of the Waziri sub-tribes regard the incursion as an attempt to subjugate them and refuse to hand over foreign militants in their midst. Relations progressively break down as Islamabad tries to impose some form of authority and under American pressure capture suspected alQaeda militants. It marks the gradual descent into the Waziristan War which breaks out in 2004 between the Pakistani armed forces and rebel tribesmen.

July 16

European Defence Procurement: The European Advisory Group on Aerospace presents a report entitled ‘Strategic Aerospace Review of the 21st Century’ to the President of the European Commission, Romano Prodi. The report makes recommendations at the European level for Europe to attain a competitive aerospace industry, which the group regards as essential for a successful European economy.

July 18

ESDP: Judging that, ‘the development of the European Security and Defence Policy is not making suﬃcient progress’, and that, ‘there is, however, no doubt that public opinion in our countries is convinced of the need for a European defence’, Belgian Prime Minister Guy Verhofstadt proposes in a letter to Tony Blair and Jacques Chirac the creation of a limited EU planning and command capability, the setting up of a European Armaments Agency (EAA), the introduction of a collective defence guarantee among the ﬁfteen member states and an EU operation in Macedonia, despite the unresolved problem of EU use of NATO assets and capabilities. Verhofstadt adds, ‘over the last few months, I have perceived a risk of re-nationalisation of defence policies . . . the danger persists, in my opinion, in seeing both the European Union and NATO turn into “toolboxes” for supporting ad hoc coalitions’. Consequently, ‘we must re-launch the idea of a European defence and rekindle the Saint-Malo spirit’. Belgium wants to move ESDP towards a more supranational structure that will foster further European integration and limit the inﬂuence of the big powers. Britain and France agree that they should remain in the driving seat. Equally, France agrees with Germany that the EU should have a separate planning capability to NATO, something that both the Americans and British regard as duplication of Alliance assets and thus a waste of already limited European defence investment. For the British there is also a deeper concern. They are so integrated into the American command and control system that too much ESDP could jeopardize the future of NATO and with it Britain’s privileged position. In such an event Britain would have to pay a lot more for its defence eﬀort or fall in line with the French and Germans. ESDP is becoming the stuﬀ of high politics.

July 30

ESDP: At a Franco-German summit on defence and security in Schwerin, Germany, the two countries, ‘intending to give a new impulse to ESDP’, state that they favour harmonization, among the ﬁfteen member states, of the planning of military requirements and the ‘bundling’, wherever possible, of capacities and resources. They also conﬁrm their commitment to the

2002 [289] A400M heavy-lift aircraft and sign an agreement to create a satellite-assisted Franco-German reconnaissance system. July

Military Transformation: The British Defence Ministry publishes ‘UK Strategic Defence Review—A New Chapter’. Among the key elements described are: an integrated approach across government to dealing with asymmetric threats before they reach the UK; network-centric capability; developing further the ability to act rapidly, at a distance, and in areas with little infrastructure in counterterrorist operations; and, on home defence, an improved ability to deal with rogue aircraft and to provide improved security on the ground.

August 14

Weapons of Mass Destruction (WMD) Proliferation: The National Council of Resistance of Iran (NCRI) reveals to the IAEA that Iran possesses two undisclosed nuclear facilities. At Natanz the Iranians have constructed a uranium enrichment facility, whilst at Arak a heavy water plant. The slide begins towards the ﬁrst strategic nuclear crisis of the twenty-ﬁrst century.

September 10

ESDP: The mandate of the Working Group on Defence of the European Convention, chaired by Michel Barnier of France, is published. It calls for a Solidarity Clause in the proposed EU Constitutional Treaty that some interpret as the start of a common defence clause similar to the automatic armed assistance Article V of the 1955 modiﬁed Brussels Treaty. The British and others suspect that France has not given up its hope to undermine and eventually replace NATO.

September 10

The United Nations: Switzerland is admitted to the United Nations.

September 16

NATO: NATO members begin the ratiﬁcation of a major agreement allowing the Allies to share information from Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs) during military operations.

September 17

The Iraq War: Iraq says it will allow weapons inspections by the United Nations Monitoring, Veriﬁcation and Inspection Commission (UNMOVIC) to resume operations. This takes place against a backdrop of strong rhetoric from Washington about the growing threat of Iraqi WMD and the need to enforce Iraqi compliance with UN resolutions, by force if need be.

September 17

The Iraq War: The US publishes its National Security Strategy, which focuses on spreading freedom and democracy, the ﬁght against terrorism and the spread of WMD, global economic growth, and the transformation of national-security institutions in the US. Saddam Hussein’s Iraq is prominent among the threats identiﬁed therein.

September 22

The Iraq War: Amid a growing split between an assertive US and an increasingly anti-war Germany. Chancellor Gerhard Schröder comes from behind, using anti-war rhetoric and is elected to a second term as Chancellor of Germany. For France this is a chance to re-energize the Franco-German axis within the EU that had been showing signs of weakening in the run-up to EU enlargement in May 2003. Henceforth France will always side with Germany on matters of European defence and the Iraq War primarily to weaken both NATO and the British who stand to gain inﬂuence with EU enlargement.

[290] a brave new century? September 23

NATO: Four European Military headquarters are oﬃcially designated by NATO as rapidly deployable headquarters at a ceremony on 23 September at the Supreme Headquarters Allied Powers Europe (SHAPE) in Mons, Belgium.

September 24

The Iraq War: Tony Blair launches a report that concludes that Iraq could deploy WMD within 45 minutes. It proves in time to be misleading, inaccurate and comes back to haunt the Blair regime, and contributes to the suicide of one of Britain’s most respected arms control experts David Kelly. It is believed he feels he has been instrumentalized by the Blair Government, as the responsibility for making the case for the punishment of Iraq moves from analysis by British Intelligence to the Downing Street ‘spin’ machine.

September 30

The International Criminal Court: The EU Council of Ministers adopts guidelines for member states regarding how to deal with possible agreements with the US regarding conditions and procedures for the surrender of individuals to the ICC.

October 4

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: The EU and BiH sign an agreement on the activities of the EU Police Mission (EUPM). According to the agreement, the EUPM will have a mandate until the end of 2005.

October 4–5

ESDP: In a speech at an informal meeting of EU defence ministers in Rethymnon, Greece, Javier Solana makes an assessment of progress and shortfalls in the Helsinki process. The Union’s military deﬁciencies, which have been studied by several groups of experts within the European Capabilities Action Plan (ECAP) since April 2002, are acute in force projection, precision weapons, and intelligence and will only be overcome gradually. The gap between ambition, rhetoric, and reality in European defence grows.

October 12

The Global War on Terror: Bomb attacks in a club on Bali kill 202 people, 164 of whom are foreign nationals, of which 88 are Australian citizens. Al-Qaeda’s complicity is assumed, as it is soon apparent that the attacks have been carried out by Islamists linked to the Indonesian group Jemaah Islamiyah.

October 24–5

ESDI/ESDP: At the European Council in Brussels, the EU says that it is determined to reach an agreement with Turkey regarding forthcoming enlargement (especially with respect to Cyprus’s membership) and on the question of the EU’s access to NATO’s infrastructure. The presidency conclusions refer to the principles and provisions of the Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP) that non-EU European allies have to respect and abide by. The Brussels Document, also called the Nice Implementation Document, is also issued. It contains modalities for implementing the Nice provisions on the involvement of non-EU allies in the ESDP. In contrast with the earlier Ankara compromise, it contains a mutual pledge that NATO military crisis management will not be used against the EU or an EU member state and that no action will be taken that violates principles of the UN Charter.

November 3

Turkey: The moderate Islamist Justice and Development Party (AKP) wins general elections in Turkey. AKP leader Tayyip Erdogan cannot take oﬃce as prime minister, however, as he was banned from holding any elected oﬃce when he was convicted of Islamist sedition in 1998. The Turkish Army, the

2002 [291] self-appointed guardians of the secular constitution of Kemal Ataturk look on nervously. November 8

The Iraq War: UNSC Resolution 1441 gives Iraq one ﬁnal opportunity to comply fully with its international obligations. The Security Council imposes an enhanced inspection regime because of Iraq’s material breach of its obligations under Resolution 187 (1999) and because of its failure to cooperate with UN inspectors and the IAEA. The resolution also recalls that the UNSC ‘has repeatedly warned Iraq that it will face serious consequences as a result of its continued violation of its obligations’.

November 11

EU–Russia Co-operation: The main issues discussed at a Russia–EU summit include the ﬁght against terrorism, Russia’s conduct in the conﬂict in Chechnya, and the type of travel documents that should be issued to Russian citizens travelling between the Kaliningrad Region and the rest of the Russian Federation once Poland and Lithuania, which surround Kaliningrad, become EU members in 2004.

November 19

ESDP: EU foreign ministers meet at a Civilian Crisis Management Capability Conference on the sidelines of the General Aﬀairs and External Relations Council (GAERC) ‘to [review] progress achieved and challenges ahead in developing the EU’s civilian crisis management capacity’.

November 21

ESDP: The French and German foreign ministers, Dominique de Villepin and Joschka Fischer, respectively, issue a joint proposal to the European Convention in which they call for a section on ‘common security and solidarity’ in the treaty. They also argue for ‘enhanced co-operation’ in the ESDP, i.e. ﬂexibility within the EU that would allow groups of member states to co-operate more closely with other members. Their proposal further includes sections on military capacities and a European armament policy.

November 21–2

ESDI/ESDP: At the NATO Prague summit Bulgaria, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Romania, Slovakia, and Slovenia are invited to join. NATO Heads of State and Government also approve new, more speciﬁc commitments on operational capabilities, replacing the Defence Capabilities Initiative (DCI), considered too ambitious and overtaken by 9/11. The DCI thus becomes the Prague Capabilities Commitment (PCC). Furthermore, it is agreed to set up a 21,000-strong NATO Response Force (NRF), deployable within a few days, as the spearhead of a larger force. The Turkish President makes a declaration at the summit, expressing Turkey’s readiness to start preparing for a joint NATO–EU crisis-management exercise in 2003. In a statement on Iraq, ministers pledge their ‘full support for the implementation of Security Council resolution 1441 [of 2002] . . . [and] recall that the Security Council in this resolution has warned Iraq that it will face serious consequences as a result of its continued violation of its obligations’.

November 25

The Global War on Terror: The US Department of Homeland Security is established. It is intended to consolidate the work of agencies engaged in homeland security and end the inter-agency disputes or turf battles for which Washington is infamous. It will meet with only moderate success as the Global War on Terror covers the competence of so many US government departments.

[292] a brave new century? November 25

WMD Proliferation: The Hague International Code of Conduct against Ballistic Missile Proliferation (ICOC) is inaugurated. The ICOC calls for greater restraint in developing, testing, using, and spreading ballistic missiles. However, the ICOC does not prohibit states from owning ballistic missiles, nor from beneﬁting from the peaceful use of outer space. The objective is rather to increase transparency and reduce mistrust between states through conﬁdence-building measures, such as informing other signatories to the Code of scheduled missile launches.

November 27

The Iraq War: UN inspections in Iraq resume with the United Nations Monitoring, Veriﬁcation and Inspection Commission (UNMOVIC) under Executive Chairman Hans Blix (Sweden).

November 29

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: Following a request by Macedonian President Boris Trajkovski, NATO agrees to continue supporting the country with a new mission after 15 December, which is to ‘assist the government of the FYROM in taking ownership of security throughout the country’.

December 1

Middle East Peace Process: A group of left-wing, moderate Israeli and Palestinian leaders launch the Geneva Initiative. They propose a detailed peace plan that includes the renouncement by Palestinians of the right of return, shared sovereignty of Jerusalem, withdrawal of Israeli troops from most of the Palestinian territory occupied in 1967 and the evacuation of around 30 per cent of settlers.

December 7

The Iraq War: Iraq provides UNMOVIC with a 122,000-page declaration supposedly of all its weapons and missile programmes. However, the document is very rapidly revealed as duplicitous and full of omissions and falsehoods. Far from easing the pressure on Baghdad it only to increases it.

December 12–13

EU Enlargement: At the European Council in Copenhagen accession negotiations for EU membership are concluded with Cyprus, the Czech Republic, Estonia, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Malta, Poland, the Slovak Republic, and Slovenia. The Council endorses a Presidency Proposal entitled ‘European Defence: NATO/EU Consultation, Planning and Operations’. Javier Solana formally transmits the text of the Nice Implementation Document to NATO. EU leaders also indicate the ‘Union’s willingness to lead a military operation in Bosnia following SFOR’ (NATO-led Stabilization Force in Bosnia) and ‘conﬁrm the Union’s readiness to take over the military operation in FYROM (Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia) as soon as possible in consultation with NATO . . . ’

December 13

ESDI/ESDP: The NAC gives the go-ahead for the advancement of all outstanding issues regarding EU–NATO relations. NATO Secretary-General Lord Robertson transmits the ﬁnal text of the NAC decision to the EU. The way is now open for the early implementation of the Berlin-plus arrangements for the EU to use NATO assets during EU-led operations. It is some seven years after the idea was ﬁrst agreed at the 1996 NATO Berlin summit.

December 13

WMD Proliferation: The US State Department accuses Iran of ‘actively working to develop nuclear weapons capability’.

2002 [293] December 16

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: NATO Operation Allied Harmony takes over from Amber Fox in Macedonia.

December 16

ESDI/ESDP: NATO Secretary-General Lord Robertson, and SecretaryGeneral of the EU Council and High Representative for the CFSP Javier Solana, sign a formal framework for co-operation: the EU–NATO Declaration on ESDP. It provides for the ‘fullest possible involvement’ of nonEU members of NATO with the ESDP. Thus, the Berlin-Plus permanent arrangements on EU access to NATO’s planning, logistics, and intelligence for operations in which NATO as a whole is not involved are ﬁnally agreed after three years of diﬃcult negotiations. Solana declares that the EU aims to be ready by the end of February 2003 to take over the military operation in Macedonia and that, together with NATO, the EU is going to analyse the possibilities for an EU military role in BiH after the SFOR mission. A joint exercise with NATO, scheduled for November 2003, is also to be prepared.

December 16

ESDI/ESDP: The ﬁnal report of the European Convention Working Group on Defence is issued, reviewing the legal context and the developments in European Security and Defence Policy since the Cologne European Council in June 1999, the progress made and the gaps remaining. It proposes the creation of a European Armament and Strategic Research Agency, as well as a Solidarity Clause between EU member states.

December 27

The Chechen Wars: Chechen suicide bombers kill eighty people at the Russian Government Headquarters in Grozny.

December

Turkey: An amendment of the Turkish Constitution is passed that allows AKP (Justice and Development Party) leader Erdogan to stand for elections.

2003 AT A GLANCE—MAJOR EVENTS AND THEMES

r The EU undertakes three missions under the European Security and Defence Policy (ESDP): the EU Police Mission (EUPM) in Bosnia-Herzegovina, Operation Concordia in Macedonia, and Operation Artemis in the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC). r Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (FRY) is dissolved and Serbia and Montenegro established. r The US and UK invade Iraq. r Libya renounces weapons of mass destruction (WMD). r The European Security Strategy (ESS) is agreed and then published.

January 1

ESDP: The EUPM is launched in Bosnia-Herzegovina (BiH), taking over from the International Police Task Force (IPTF). The EUPM is given a mandate for three years to monitor, mentor, and inspect the police in BiH to ensure that they are a legitimate, professional, and executive force. The mission has no executive power and focuses on ﬁghting organized crime and corruption and ensuring the security of returning refugees.

January 10

WMD Proliferation: North Korea gives notice of its withdrawal from the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT). The decision follows US accusations that Pyongyang had restated an enriched uranium weapons programme and the subsequent decision by the US to stop fuel oil shipments that it had commenced under the 1994 Agreed Framework.

January 14

The Iraq War: Tony Blair says that Iraq’s WMD programme is ‘active, detailed and growing’, that ‘[t]he policy of containment is not working’, and that ‘[t]he case for ensuring Iraqi disarmament . . . is overwhelming’.

January 15

Military Transformation: The French Assemblée Nationale adopts the Loi de Programmation 2003–8, which contains signiﬁcant increases in defence. These increases will be used to modernize forces in the ﬁelds of reconnaissance, command, and force protection; to increase the ‘moyens d’action dans la profondeur’; to amplify research eﬀorts to respond to new threats; and to restore the operational availability of forces. These eﬀorts should allow ‘France to contribute signiﬁcantly to the constitution of a multinational force.’

January 15

NATO: Civil–Military Cooperation (CIMIC) Group North, which is based in the Netherlands, formally receives its status as an international NATO military headquarters. Taking civil–military co-operation to a new level of ambition and sophistication, it had started as a multinational initiative launched by the Alliance to which six members responded: the Czech Republic, Denmark, Germany, the Netherlands, Norway, and Poland.

2003 [295] January 15

CFSP/ESDP: Shortly before the oﬃcial celebrations for the 40th anniversary of the Elysée Treaty, and as part of the Franco-German contribution to the European Convention on a future EU Constitutional Treaty, Paris and Berlin jointly publish a paper on the future institutional architecture of the EU. It is a self-evident attempt to re-establish Franco-German leadership of the EU.

January 17

NATO: US General James L. Jones, the new Supreme Allied Commander Europe (SACEUR), formally takes over from General Ralston at a change of command ceremony at Supreme HQ Allied Powers Europe (SHAPE), Mons, Belgium. He is the ﬁrst US Marine Corps oﬃcer to hold the post, emphasizing the importance the Alliance places on advanced expeditionary warfare.

January 18–19

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: Macedonian President Boris Trajkovski formally requests that the EU take over the military mission from NATO.

January 20

The Iraq War: France announces its opposition to a UN Security Council (UNSC) resolution that would allow military action against Iraq, saying that at this moment nothing would justify the use of military force. Foreign Minister Dominique de Villepin states that he believes that the inspections have frozen Iraq’s weapons programmes.

January 22

ESDP: The 40th anniversary of the Elysée Treaty: celebrations provide Germany and France with the opportunity to announce a number of common projects. On the ESDP, the two countries ‘propose to further develop the ESDP into a European Security and Defence Union (ESDU), which should also contribute to strengthening the European Pillar of the Alliance’ and pledge their commitment to advance the EU’s rapid reaction capacity; common utilization of funds, resources, and personnel; a common threat analysis; prevention of, and ﬁght against, terrorism; a common armaments co-operation policy; and the common training of personnel. Germany and France also repeat their willingness to further the areas highlighted in their proposal on 21 November 2002. They also present joint proposals for EU reform, including for a dual presidency (of the Commission and the European Council) and qualiﬁed majority voting in the Common Foreign and Security Policy(CFSP) but not in ESDP. On a number of other issues they intend to ‘intensify in exemplary fashion their bilateral co-operation within the Union’. Projects cover issues such as cultural exchanges; harmonization of legislation and policies, e.g. in international bodies such as the UNSC; the opening of joint Franco-German embassies; and, in the area of defence, the harmonization of military requirement planning and the pooling of capabilities and resources. Franco-German summits will in future take the form of a German–French Council of Ministers. The German–French Defence and Security Council, the 15th anniversary of which the two countries are celebrating, and its committee, takes place on the same day of. France and Germany aim for their projects ‘to create a basis for European policies’.

January 22

The Iraq War: At the Elysée Treaty anniversary, France and Germany also adopt a common position on the use of force in Iraq, saying that they will do everything they can to avert a war in Iraq. Russia asserts on the same day that, ‘there is no evidence that would justify a war in Iraq’.

[296] a brave new century? January 24

The Global War on Terror: The US Department of Homeland Security begins operations.

January 27

ESDP: The EU Council of Ministers adopts a Joint Action to deploy a military mission in Macedonia with recourse to NATO assets and capabilities.

January 27

The Iraq War: The United Nations Monitoring, Veriﬁcation and Inspection Commission (UNMOVIC) presents its ﬁrst report. Even though several questions remain unanswered and full Iraqi co-operation on substance is still lacking, UNMOVIC so far has no proof that Iraq possesses illegal weapons.

January 28

The Iraq War: After the weapons inspectors report that Iraq has not yet shown a genuine acceptance of the need to disarm, Russian President Putin slightly modiﬁes Russia’s position on Iraq. Russia will now support military action if Iraq’s reluctance to co-operate fully with the inspections continues. But he insists on a UN mandate for such military action and on giving the inspectors more time.

January 29

NATO Enlargement: NATO begins accession talks with seven states as part of the formal process of joining the Alliance. The states are Bulgaria, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Romania, Slovakia, and Slovenia.

January 30

The Iraq War: Eight European leaders (the Czech Republic, Denmark, Hungary, Italy, Poland, Portugal, Spain, and the UK) send an open letter to the US (entitled ‘United We Stand’) that backs the US position on Iraq. The letter states that, ‘The Iraqi regime and its weapons of mass destruction represent a clear threat to world security’, and it insists that the international community ‘must remain united in insisting that his regime be disarmed’ and that ‘the Security Council must maintain its credibility by ensuring full compliance with its resolutions’.

February 1

The European Union: The EU Treaty of Nice comes into force. Many Europeans hope it will be supplanted by a European Constitution (EU Constitutional Treaty). However, for such an important step to be made the Constitutional Treaty must be ratiﬁed by all member states and there is a growing belief amongst many EU citizens that the elite-led process is taking place without their full consent.

February 4

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: The Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (FRY) is renamed Serbia and Montenegro, as the state’s new constitution comes into force. The constitution foresees a loose union between the two parts of the country, with the option for each member to break away from the union after three years.

February 4

ESDP: In the midst of a sharp deterioration in Anglo-French relations in the build-up to the Iraq War, France and the UK sign a joint Declaration on Strengthening European Co-operation in Security and Defence at Le Touquet. Agreeing that ‘the potential scope of ESDP should match the worldwide ambition of the European Union’s Common Foreign and Security Policy and should be able to support eﬀectively the EU‘s wider external policy objectives to promote democracy, human rights, good governance and reform’, they ‘propose that the European Union should set new capability

2003 [297] objectives’, and that to ‘support this, an inter-governmental defence capabilities development and acquisition agency could be established in the EU’. The two countries also emphasize that they ‘regard developing the capacity for rapid reaction as a European priority’ and that ‘air-naval capabilities are a key element in power projection’. In the midst of crisis they lay the foundations for the European Defence Agency (EDA) February 5

The Iraq War: US Secretary of State Colin Powell convenes a meeting of the UNSC to present an ‘accumulation of facts and disturbing pattern of behavior’ that allegedly ‘demonstrate that Saddam Hussein has made no eﬀort . . . to disarm as required by the international community’ and that ‘Saddam Hussein and his regime are concealing their eﬀorts to produce more weapons of mass destruction’. Powell presents various intelligence sources, including recorded conversations between Iraqi oﬃcials, satellite pictures, and human sources, to convince his audience that Iraq still possesses and is further developing biological and chemical weapons, that it is seeking to develop nuclear weapons, that it is developing delivery systems for all these weapons, and that it is collaborating with al-Qaeda, providing them with a base and help with the acquisition of WMD.

February 5

The Iraq War: Ten Central and Eastern European states and future members of NATO issue a statement expressing support of the US position on Iraq. Asserting that the US has ‘presented compelling evidence to the United Nations Security Council detailing Iraq’s weapons of mass destruction programs, its active eﬀorts to deceive UN inspectors, and its links to international terrorism’ and that ‘it has now become clear that Iraq is in material breach of UN Security Council Resolution 1441’, the ten countries are ‘prepared to contribute to an international coalition to enforce its provisions and the disarmament of Iraq.’

February 6

The Iraq War: While British Foreign Secretary Jack Straw states that ‘time is now very short’ to avoid war in Iraq, French Foreign Minister Dominique de Villepin asserts that the weapons inspections have shown ‘signiﬁcant results’ and have not yet been ‘explored to the end’. He advocates a strengthening of the inspection regime. According to de Villepin, France does not rule out recourse to force, but the risks and uncertainties of such an option would need to be addressed clearly beforehand.

February 6

The Iraq War: NATO’s North Atlantic Council (NAC) meets to consider a US proposal to task NATO military authorities to begin planning deterrent and defence measures in relation to a possible threat to Turkey.

February 8

NATO–Russia Co-operation: NATO and Russia sign a submarine rescue agreement covering mutual help and co-operation over submarine crew search and rescue at sea.

February 10

The Iraq War: In a joint declaration on Iraq, Russia, Germany, and France state that they ‘favour the continuation of the inspections and a substantial reinforcement of their human and technical capacities through all possible means and in liaison with the inspectors. . . . Russia, Germany and France are determined to ensure that everything possible is done to disarm Iraq peacefully.’

[298] a brave new century? February 10

Afghanistan: A Dutch and German command under Lieutenant-General Norbert van Heyst (Germany) takes over the NATO-led International Security Assistance Force (ISAF) in Afghanistan from Turkey. Van Heyst’s deputy is Brigadier-General Rob Bertholee (the Netherlands). The new command is resorting to NATO planning and logistical structures.

February 10

The Iraq War: Turkey invokes Article 4 of NATO’s founding treaty, the 1949 North Atlantic Treaty, by which the Alliance will consult whenever any member feels that the territorial integrity, political independence, or security of any NATO country is threatened. Ankara wants Alliance support in the event of Iraqi aggression against Turkey.

February 12

The Iraq War: France details its proposal for a strengthened inspection regime in Iraq in the so-called Non-Paper.

February 14

The Iraq War: The chief UN weapons inspector in Iraq, Hans Blix, presents a report on the activities and ﬁndings of the United Nations Monitoring, Veriﬁcation and Inspection Commission (UNMOVIC) to the UNSC. Blix judges the Iraqis to be more proactive in their co-operation. He questions some of Powell’s arguments, such as his interpretation of satellite images and the assertion that Iraq has a nuclear-weapons programme. Blix also says that the Iraqis have not received early warning of inspections.

February 14

The Iraq War: According to UK Foreign Secretary Jack Straw, the UNMOVIC report proves that Iraq is still in material breach of its obligation and that a peaceful solution of the crisis would ‘require a dramatic and immediate change by Saddam’. He states that the twelve years since Resolution 687, which obliged Iraq to disarm, have been ‘a period of humiliation’ for the Security Council and that the behaviour of the Security Council visà-vis Iraq sends a signal to proliferators elsewhere.

February 14

The Iraq War: French Foreign Minister Dominique de Villepin’s reaction to the weapons inspectors’ report is quite diﬀerent to that of Straw: he asserts that ‘real progress is beginning to be apparent’, that France is convinced ‘that the option of inspections has not been taken to the end’, and ‘that the use of force would be so fraught with risks for people, for the region and for international stability that it should only be envisioned as a last resort’. He also asserts that ‘given the present state of [France and its Allies’] research and intelligence, nothing allows [them] to establish the alleged links between al-Qaeda and the Iraqi regime’.

February 15–16

The Iraq War: More than 10 million people demonstrate worldwide against a possible war in Iraq. Most of the demonstrations take place in Europe, with the largest in Rome, where some estimate up to 3 million protesters. Demonstrations in Madrid, Barcelona, and London each attract about 1 million people.

February 16

The Iraq War: Belgium, France, and Germany issue a statement on Iraq stressing that, ‘the use of force can only be the last resort and that not all options oﬀered by UN Security Council Resolution 1441 have, as yet, been fully exploited’. They also state that Belgium and Germany have agreed ‘to invite the military authorities to provide military advice on prudent defensive contingency planning in support of Turkey’ but that the

2003 [299] implementation of the measures to be proposed would need a new decision by the North Atlantic Council. The battle-lines within the Alliance are being established. February 17

The Iraq War: Extraordinary European Council on the crisis in Iraq: ‘We are committed to the United Nations remaining at the centre of the international order. We recognise the primary responsibility for dealing with Iraqi disarmament lies with the Security Council. . . . War is not inevitable. Force should be used only as a last resort. It is for the Iraqi regime to end this crisis by complying with the demands of the Security Council. We reiterate our full support for the ongoing work of the UN inspectors. They must be given the time and resources that the UN Security Council believes they need. However, the inspections cannot continue indeﬁnitely in the absence of full Iraqi cooperation. . . . The Iraqi regime alone will be responsible for the consequences if it continues to ﬂout the will of the international community and does not take this last chance. . . . We recognize that the unity and ﬁrmness of the international community . . . and the military buildup have been essential in obtaining the return of the inspectors. In [the] regional context . . . the European Union reiterates its ﬁrm belief in the need to invigorate the peace process in the Middle East and to resolve the Israeli– Palestinian conﬂict.’

February 18

The Iraq War: President Chirac says that the ten EU accession states that have supported the American stance on Iraq have ‘missed a great opportunity to shut up’. Signatories to two open letters engineered by the British and Spanish Chirac calls the behaviour of the ten states ‘childish’ and ‘dangerous’. It is not French diplomacy’s greatest moment.

February 19

The Iraq War: NATO’s Defence Planning Committee (DPC) authorizes the Alliance’s military authorities to deploy NATO early-warning aircraft (AWACS), missile, chemical, and biological defences to Turkey.

February 21

ESDI/ESDP: The Anglo-Italian summit takes place in Rome against the backdrop of the build-up to the Iraq War with both countries solidly behind the US. Dating from July 1999 the Anglo-Italian relationship has emerged within the EU as a balance to the Franco-German axis and particular emphasis is placed on the capability dimension of European defence, as well as equanimity between NATO and ESDP. Speciﬁc reference is also made to the challenges in the Mediterranean area.

February 24

The Iraq War: France states that a new UNSC resolution on Iraq, sought above all by the US and UK, is ‘neither useful nor necessary’ and that France opposes such a resolution as long as the weapons inspectors are making progress. However, France also says that the possible use of its veto is ‘not an issue’.

February 27

ESDI/ESDP: An Anglo-Spanish summit takes place in Madrid at which a joint statement is issued by Prime Ministers Blair and Aznar calling for a stable ‘chair’ of the European Council and an end to the rotational presidency system which has proved cumbersome and often ineﬀective. France also supports such changes, leading the press to dub it the ‘ABC proposal’,— Aznar, Blair, and Chirac.

[300] a brave new century? February

The Darfur Tragedy: The Sudan Liberation Army (SLA) and the Justice and Equality Movement (JEM) take up arms against the Sudanese Government, claiming that the Darfur region has suﬀered years of political, economic, and social marginalization. After a string of military victories in spring 2003, the Sudanese Government arms Arab Janjaweed militia and instructs them to clear civilian population bases of African tribes thought to be supporting the rebels. By 2006 some 1.5 to 2 million civilians are displaced with at least 180,000 killed, probably substantially more.

March 1

ESDP: The European Capabilities Action Plan (ECAP) Working Groups present their ﬁnal reports on progress to oﬀset European military capability shortfalls and their recommendations for future work.

March 2

The Iraq War: The UK and the US say that they might use force against Iraq even without a second UNSC resolution if it is to be vetoed as a matter of principle by France. They also describe Iraq’s promise to destroy al-Samoud 2 missiles as ‘propaganda’ and ‘a cynical attempt to divide the Security Council’.

March 5

The Iraq War: Russia, Germany, and France issue a declaration stating that the objective of full and eﬀective Iraqi disarmament can be achieved by inspections, but that the latter need to be speeded up. They insist that they ‘will not let a proposed resolution pass that would authorise the use of force’.

March 7

The Iraq War: The Head of UNMOVIC Hans Blix, and the Head of the International Atomic Energy Authority (IAEA) Mohamed el-Baradei, present another report to the UNSC. France reacts to the report by proposing that inspectors should prioritize their disarmament tasks and present progress reports every three weeks and that a schedule for assessing the implementation of the inspectors’ work programme should be established. France again states that it ‘will not allow a resolution authorising the automatic use of force to go through’. De Villepin also asserts that France does ‘not subscribe to what may be the other objectives of a war’ and insists that, ‘there is nothing today that indicates a link between the Iraqi regime and alQaeda’ and that it is convinced that a military intervention in Iraq would not make the world a safer place. It is a long way from the day after the attacks on New York and Washington when he Monde Stated, “Nous Sommes Tous Americans”.

March 9

Turkey: In the midst of war scares the Islamist party the Justice and Development Party (the AKP) wins Turkish by-elections in which AKP leader Erdogan gains a parliamentary seat.

March 10

The Global War on Terror: NATO’s Operation Active Endeavour is expanded to include escorting civilian ships through the Strait of Gibraltar where it is believed an al-Qaeda attack could be planned.

March 10

The Iraq War: France and Russia declare that they are ready to use their veto in the UNSC if the US and the UK demand a vote on a resolution that would authorize the use of force against Iraq.

March 11

Turkey: Tayipp Erdogan is appointed Prime Minister of Turkey.

2003 [301] March 11

The International Criminal Court: The International Criminal Court (ICC) is inaugurated in The Hague.

March 11

WMD Proliferation: Tehran declares its opposition to the signing of Additional Protocols to the Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT) that would permit unannounced inspections by the IAEA. However, Iran does indicate a willingness to agree to such protocols if sanctions are dropped.

March 13

The Iraq War: UK The States say that a diplomatic solution for the Iraq crisis is ‘probably less likely than at any time’ and the prospects of the use of force ‘more likely’, blaming France’s intransigent stance on a possible second UNSC resolution.

March 14

ESDI/ESDP: In spite of the poor state of the transatlantic relationship the EU formally adopts the Berlin-Plus agenda under which NATO may support EU-led operations. It is a mark of NATO’s endurance that even in the midst of crises the patient work of alliance continues.

March 14

ESDI/ESDP: A NATO–EU Agreement on Security of Information is signed. It provides for full and eﬀective consultation and co-operation between NATO and the EU on the basis of classiﬁed information exchanged between the two parties. This is an important step in the implementation of the Berlin-Plus Agreement.

March 17

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: NATO decides to terminate Operation Allied Harmony in Macedonia as of 31 March in view of the upcoming planned EU takeover of operations in the Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia (FYROM).

March 17

ESDI/ESDP: A Comprehensive Framework for EU–NATO Permanent Arrangements is ﬁnalized and adopted. It provides details on EU access to NATO resources for EU operations through Berlin-Plus.

March 17

The Iraq War: The US and UK fail to obtain UNSC backing for a military operation in Iraq. The US advises United Nations UNMOVIC inspectors to leave Iraq.

March 18

The Iraq War: UNMOVIC weapons inspectors are withdrawn from Iraq.

March 19

The Iraq War: In a meeting shortly before the announced military action against Iraq is to begin, French Foreign Minister Dominique de Villepin insists that the choice between the peaceful disarmament of Iraq through continued inspections and the use of military force is one ‘between two visions of the world’. The transatlantic relationship has reached what is probably its worst moment.

March 20

The Iraq War: The war begins as the US and UK launch air strikes against Iraq. On 21 March 100,000 American and 23,000 British ground troops invade Iraq. They are supported by forces from Poland, Australia, South Korea, Romania, Spain, Portugal, and Italy with a host of smaller countries willing to oﬀer support after the invasion.

March 21–2

European Defence Procurement: The Brussels European Council ‘recognises the role that defence and security-related R&D (research & development)could play in promoting leading-edge technologies and thereby

[302] a brave new century? stimulate innovation and competitiveness; welcomes the Commission’s Communication “Towards an EU Defence Equipment Policy”; invites the Council to analyse the role of defence R&D procurement in the context of the overall R&D activities in the Union, including the possible creation by the Council of an intergovernmental defence capabilities development and acquisition agency’. This paragraph is the starting point for work on the idea of an EU agency in the ﬁeld of armaments and defence capabilities which in time will lead to the European Defence Agency Council. March 27

ESDP: The European Parliament (EP) Committee on Foreign Aﬀairs, Human Rights, and Common Security and Defence Policy issues a Report on the New European Security and Defence Architecture, listing the many priorities and deﬁciencies that European defence must confront if it is to close the gap between what it can do and what it needs to do.

March 27

The Iraq War: US Ambassador to the UN John D. Negroponte says that the use of military force against Iraq is legitimate since it is authorized under UNSC Resolution 678 (1990). He also insists that the coalition aspires to liberate, not occupy, Iraq; that Iraq must be disarmed and its terrorist infrastructure destroyed; that its territorial integrity and structure as a uniﬁed state must be preserved; and that a process of economic and political reconstruction leading towards prosperity and freedom must begin.

March 31

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: The EU’s mission Operation Concordia is launched in Macedonia with NATO support. Thirteen EU member states contribute personnel and fourteen non-EU countries participate in the mission, which consists of 350 personnel and is scheduled to end on 30 September 2003. The purpose is to support the Ohrid peace agreement and more generally to support the emergence of a stable and secure environment. The mission, which was established on the basis of a host-state request and Security Council Resolution 1371, constitutes the EU’s ﬁrst use of NATO assets and capabilities.

April 7

NATO: Six NATO countries (Czech Republic, Denmark, Germany, the Netherlands, Norway, and Poland) formally establish Civil–Military Cooperation (CIMIC) Group North, boosting the Alliance’s civil–military cooperation capability increasingly regarded as essential to achieving political objectives in complex political environments such as Afghanistan. It is evident that military power alone is of limited utility and that all national and coalition means are needed to generate success. Known by the British as the Comprehensive Approach, military action must also combine with stabilization and reconstruction if the security space is to be ﬁlled eﬀectively.

April 9

The Iraq War: Baghdad falls to advancing American forces. Whilst the war is over, the stabilization and reconstruction of Iraq is only just beginning. It will prove a long and bumpy road.

April 10

WMD Proliferation: North Korea becomes the ﬁrst state ever to withdraw from the Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT). North Korea had once before announced withdrawal, on 12 March 1993, but suspended that notice before it came into eﬀect.

2003 [303] April 14–15

The Iraq War: The coalition in Iraq declares that the military phase of the conﬂict is over.

April 15

The Global War on Terror: The EU Council of Ministers adopts a targeted initiative to respond eﬀectively to the international threat of terrorism. The initiative implies a certain criticism of the American approach, which many Europeans regard as unnecessarily aggressive and likely to further alienate potential adversaries. It is also reﬂective of the fact that in some countries such as France the Muslim population numbers some 8 per cent of society and many European governments are concerned about the radicalization of Muslim youth.

April 16

Afghanistan: NATO decides that it will take over the command of the International Security Assistance Force (ISAF) mission in Afghanistan from national headquarters. It is NATO’s ﬁrst command outside Europe and for some a sign of the Alliance’s emerging global role as a planning and command hub for military coalitions.

April 16

EU Enlargement: An informal EU summit is held in Athens for the signing of accession treaties with Cyprus, the Czech Republic, Estonia, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Malta, Poland, Slovakia, and Denmark. Europe must prepare for a new role as an exporter of security rather than a mere consumer.

April 23

EU Enlargement: Turkish Cypriot leader Rauf Denktasch allows Turkish Cypriots to cross the ‘green line’ and visit the South, and Greek Cypriots to visit the North. It is part of a deal that the EU is attempting to broker to ensure Turkish Cypriots beneﬁt from Cyprus’s entry into the EU. The Greek Cypriots are not so sure.

April 29

ESDP: The leaders of Belgium, France, Germany, and Luxembourg meet in the Brussels suburb of Tervuren to discuss increasing EU defence cooperation. They call for the creation of a European Security and Defence Union (ESDU) and a new rapid reaction force. The latter would be built around the Franco-German Brigade and supplemented by Belgian commandos and units from Luxembourg, and it can also be reinforced by troops from other interested countries. They also pledge to set up autonomous EU military headquarters by 2004. The fact of Britain’s exclusion from the meeting and its timing in the aftermath of the Iraq War leaves no doubt that this is an attempt to distance European defence from the British. However, European defence makes no sense without the British, who are by far Europe’s strongest military power.

April 30

Middle East Peace Process: The EU, the UN, Russia, and the US publish the so-called Performance-Based Road Map to a Permanent Two-State Solution to the Israeli–Palestinian Conﬂict, which foresees a ﬁnal and comprehensive settlement by 2005.

May 1

The Iraq War: President Bush announces the end of major combat operations in Iraq on an American aircraft carrier with the words, ‘Mission Accomplished’. However, the President stops short of saying the war is over. It is just as well.

May 6

The Iraq War/Civil War: US President Bush announces the appointment of Paul Bremer as Presidential Envoy to Iraq. Bremer is to ‘oversee Coalition

[304] a brave new century? reconstruction eﬀorts and the process by which the Iraqi people build the institutions and governing structures that will guide their future . . . ’ Bremer will also be responsible for setting up the Coalition Provisional Authority (CPA). May 7

ESDI/ESDP: In an major speech in New York, EU High Representative Javier Solana underlines the importance of the transatlantic relationship and its intrinsic strength by talking of Europe and America as partners of choice.

May 11

The Iraq War/Civil War: The Washington Post reports that a CPA has been set up by the US in Iraq. It is to restore security and stability in Iraq and to oversee the country’s reconstruction and return to civilian rule. On 13 May US Secretary of Defense Rumsfeld designates Paul Bremer as CPA Administrator.

May 13

The Global War on Terror: Three simultaneous bomb explosions occur in a residential area largely inhabited by Westerners in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia, killing 34 people and injuring some 200 more. Al-Qaeda is involved in the attacks.

May 19

ESDP: The EU General Aﬀairs and External Relations Council (GAERC) holds a conference on the European Capabilities Action Plan (ECAP). On the European Rapid Reaction Force (ERRF), EU defence ministers declare that the EU ‘now has operational capability across the full range of Petersberg tasks’ but that this capability remains ‘limited and constrained by recognised shortfalls’. The Council establishes ﬁfteen project groups that are to focus on ‘implementation of concrete projects, including solutions through acquisition or other solutions such as leasing, multinationalisation and considering possibilities for role specialisation’.

May 22

ESDI/ESDP: German Defence Minister Peter Struck issues new guidelines on defence policy. The main tasks of the Bundeswehr are identiﬁed as prevention and management of international conﬂicts and the internal ﬁght against terrorism. Future deployment cannot be limited territorially or in terms of intensity. Conscription is maintained. International armed deployment will only take place with NATO allies and partners from the UN, NATO, and the EU. ESDP does not replace NATO; it is merely a necessary complement thereto. The commitment to rapid military reaction within the framework of NATO and the EU makes rapid political decision-making at the national level indispensable.

May 22

The Iraq War/Civil War: A UNSC resolution gives the occupying powers in Iraq a mandate to administer the territory of Iraq and at the same time reminds them of their responsibilities and obligations towards the population and the country.

May 31

WMD Proliferation: US President George W. Bush launches the Proliferation Security Initiative (PSI) in Krakow, Poland. This multilateral strategy is designed to ‘prevent the ﬂow of WMD, their delivery systems, and related materials on the ground, in the air and at sea to and from countries of proliferation concern’. As an initiative PSI is also designed to bolster existing proliferation agreements.

2003 [305] June 3

ESDI/ESDP: At the Madrid NATO–EU ministerial meeting the EU Presidency and the NATO Secretary-General issue a joint statement conﬁrming the progress made on the Berlin-Plus arrangements for the use of NATO assets by the EU and the NATO–EU Agreement on Security of Information.

June 5

ESDP: The EU agrees to send 1,400 troops to Bunia, Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC), as an Interim Emergency Multinational Force (Operation Artemis). This mission, which is backed by a UNSC resolution, constitutes the ﬁrst EU military deployment outside Europe that is independent from NATO. France acts as the lead nation. The EU Military Committee (EUMC) is responsible for the military direction of the mission, whilst strategic direction is undertaken by the EU Political and Security Council (PSC). The Security Council mandate for Artemis runs until 1 September to allow the UN Secretary-General to strengthen the UN mission in the country (MONUC) in the meantime.

June 10

The Global War on Terror: The EU PSC adopts Basic Principles for an EU Strategy against Proliferation of Weapons of Mass Destruction, which include an Action Plan for the implementation of the Basic Principles.

June 11

NATO Enlargement: As part of NATO’s extending political footprint NATO Secretary-General Lord Robertson and the President of Georgia, Eduard Shevardnadze, inaugurated the Virtual Silk Highway Project with a videoconference between NATO HQ and the Georgian capital, Tbilisi.

June 12–13

NATO: At a meeting in Brussels of the NAC at defence ministers level the new NATO Command Structure is approved, together with plans for a 21,000-strong robust, rapidly deployable advanced expeditionary force known as the NATO Response Force (NRF). NATO will henceforth be organized around two strategic commands, Allied Command Operations (ACO) and Allied Command Transformation (ACT).

June 12

ESDP: Operation Artemis is launched and 1,400 mainly French troops are deployed to Bunia, Etruria, in the DRC. Although run from a French military headquarters, Paris is keen to demonstrate the utility of the EU as a security actor and the role of Europeans as a force for good in Africa. However, the force is of such restricted size and the mission of such limited scope and duration that it looks to all intents and purpose as a piece of French grandstanding. It is not the ﬁrst nor last example.

June 13

ESDP: The European Commission issues a report on the Convention on the Future of Europe: ‘the new provisions on the common foreign and security policy, together with the creation of an EU Foreign Aﬀairs Minister, will help to enhance the Union’s role on the international stage . . . the provisions on defence will make it possible to improve military capabilities and will enable those member states which are willing and able to do so to engage in structured cooperation that will strengthen the credibility of the EU’s foreign policy’. However, ‘The Commission has to conclude that the result is not always as ambitious as it would have liked . . . [and that] there are still shortcomings on some important matters’, such as qualiﬁed majority voting (QMV), institutional balance and clariﬁcation of the role of institutions, economic governance and external representation, and the possibility to

[306] a brave new century? revise the Constitution by a reinforced majority procedure without recourse to national ratiﬁcation procedures. June 16

The Global War on Terror: The EU PSC presents its Basic Principles for an EU Strategy against Proliferation of Weapons of Mass Destruction to the EU Council of Ministers.

June 19–20

ESDP: At the Thessaloniki European Council EU High Representative Javier Solana presents a draft for a European Security Strategy (ESS), which is accepted, and he is encouraged to produce a ﬁnal document by the end of the year. A Declaration on Non-Proliferation of Weapons of Mass Destruction, including the Basic Principles and the Action Plan, is adopted. The Italian Presidency is tasked to draw up plans for establishing an EU agency in the ﬁeld of armaments. Giscard d’Estaing presents the draft Treaty Establishing a Constitution for Europe. The draft is accepted as a working basis for the Intergovernmental Conference (IGC) that is to be convened to agree on a deﬁnitive treaty.

June 21

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: At the EU–Western Balkans Summit in Thessaloniki, Greece, the EU, and Accession and Candidate States in the region reaﬃrm the commitment of all to building peace through democracy. Speciﬁcally, they commit themselves to ‘The Thessaloniki Agenda for the Western Balkans: Moving Towards European Integration’ as the agenda for the developing relationship.

June 25

The Global War on Terror: A transatlantic summit between the EU and NATO is held in Washington. It leads to the signing of Mutual Legal Assistance and Extradition Agreements and to the launch of a Transatlantic Aviation Act. A Joint Initiative against the Proliferation of WMD is also undertaken. Discussions focus on the implementation of the Middle East Road Map.

July 10

The EU Constitutional Treaty: Under the leadership of former French president, Valéry Giscard d’Estaing, the European Convention concludes its work by adopting by consensus a draft treaty establishing a Constitution for Europe, which includes a Charter of Fundamental Rights.

July 13

The Iraq War/Civil War: Iraq’s Governing Council is established by the CPA and meets for the ﬁrst time.

July 18

The EU Constitutional Treaty: Valéry Giscard d’Estaing hands over the draft European Constitution to the Italian Presidency.

July 21

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: The EU Council of Ministers extends Operation Concordia in Macedonia to 15 December in accordance with a request by the Government in Skopje.

July 27

European Defence Procurement: Italy ratiﬁes the Framework Agreement for the restructuring of the European defence industry establishing the so-called Letter of Intent (LOI). Involving six EU countries, France, Germany, Italy, Spain, Sweden, and the UK, the LOI is vital to eﬀective transnational defence procurement as it establishes the basis for security of supply, agreed export provisions, security of information, joint research and technology, treatment of technical information, the harmonization of military requirements,

2003 [307] and the legal framework. The LOI also further paves the way to the European Defence Agency (EDA). July 29

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: Given the lessons learned from Operation Concordia in FYROM, the EU and NATO agree to strengthen their co-operation over crisis management in the Western Balkans. Speciﬁcally, having agreed to take over the operation from NATO in Macedonia the EU expresses interest in taking over from the Alliance in BiH within the framework of the Berlin-Plus arrangements to form the follow-on operation to the Stabilization Force (SFOR).

August 11

NATO Afghanistan: NATO takes over control of the International Security Assistance Force (ISAF) in Afghanistan from Germany and the Netherlands. The force is now led by Lieutenant-General Götz Glimeroth. Canadian Major-General Andrew Leslie is his deputy.

August 14

The Iraq War/Civil War: UNSC Resolution 1500 is passed, thereby establishing a United Nations Assistance Mission (UNAM) in Iraq.

August 19

The Iraq War/Civil War: The UN headquarters in Baghdad is attacked by al-Qaeda. The Special Representative of the UN Secretary-General in Iraq, Sergio Vieira De Mello, is killed, along with twenty-two colleagues.

August 27–9

WMD Proliferation: Six-Party Talks begin to resolve the crisis caused by North Korea’s nuclear weapons programme. The states involved are China, South Korea, North Korea, the US, Russia, and Japan.

August 29

ESDP: At an informal meeting of EU defence ministers in Rome, Italy, the UK circulates a so-called ‘non-paper’ as a basis for discussions on the future of the EU’s ESDP. The paper focuses on relations with NATO and the setting up of headquarters during military operations. In many ways the paper is a British response to the Tervuren initiative of 29 April by France, Germany, Belgium, and Luxembourg.

September 1

ESDP: Operation Artemis in Bunia, DRC, ends, and responsibility is transferred back to the UN mission in DRC (MONUC).

September 4

European Defence Procurement: The ﬁrst steps are taken by the EU towards the creation of an EDA through the setting up of an ad hoc Preparation Group. The Group is charged with the creation of an intergovernmental agency in the ﬁeld of defence capabilities development, research, acquisition, and armaments procurement.

September 4

The Nuclear Balance: The PSI is launched to promote international cooperation to interdict WMD-related shipments and stop proliferation ﬁnance. More than seventy nations become engaged in PSI activities to prevent transfers of WMD-related materials, including the interdiction of a German ship in the Mediterranean, called the BBC China, in October 2003. This leads to the eventual unravelling of the A. Q. Khan (a Pakistani scientist) nuclear proliferation network and helps Libya decide to renounce its WMD and long-range missile programmes.

September 12

Pan Am Flight 103: Following Libya’s settlement of outstanding claims and ﬁfteen years after the bombing of Pan Am Flight 103 some UN sanctions against Libya are lifted.

[308] a brave new century? September 12

WMD Proliferation: The IAEA demands the full co-operation of Iran with its investigations, as well as greater transparency and the cessation of uranium enrichment by 31 October. The US announces that failure to comply will lead to Iran being referred to the UNSC and possible sanctions.

September 16

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: Macedonian authorities invite the ‘EU to assume responsibility for an enhanced role in policing and the deployment of an EU Police Mission’.

September 20

ESDP: In an attempt to begin healing the rift opened up by the Iraq War and the Tervuren meeting British, French, and German leaders meet at an informal summit in Berlin. They do not reach agreement on Iraq, but diﬀerences on the issue of independent EU military headquarters diminish. Tony Blair accepts the principle that the EU should have autonomous military planning and operational capacities. A joint paper states: ‘We are together convinced that the EU must be able to plan and conduct operations without the backing of NATO assets and NATO capability. . . . Our goal remains to achieve such a planning and implementation capacity in consensus with the 25 [member states] but also in a circle of interested partners.’ Other EU member states start to become concerned that what will emerge is a controlling trirectoire of the big three European powers.

September 24

ESDP: The EU and the UN issue a Joint Declaration on Crisis Management. The two organizations ‘agree to establish a joint consultative mechanism at the working level to examine ways and means to enhance mutual co-ordination and compatibility’ in the areas of planning, training, communication, and best practices. UN legitimization of EU operations, while not formally required, remains essential if Europeans are to act. However, the EU is concerned that the UN is simply incapable of an eﬃcient response to crises.

September 29

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: The EU agrees to conform with the request made by Macedonia to establish a police mission in the country by December 2003.

October 3–4

ESDP: At an informal EU defence ministers meeting in Rome, France, proposes the formation of a European police force. Javier Solana speaks of the development of a new capabilities objective, including ensuring that forces declared are usable in real operations as a mid-term objective for 2010. He sees 2010 as a reasonable target date for signiﬁcant progress in ﬁlling the gaps identiﬁed in the ECAP exercise. EU defence ministers also discuss the plan to establish independent EU military headquarters. The UK comes forward with the idea to establish the EU HQ at the same location as the NATO HQ, in Mons, Belgium. At the same meeting, it is agreed that the EU will take over peacekeeping in BiH from NATO in 2004.

October 4

The EU Constitutional Treaty: An IGC begins to ﬁnalize the proposed EU Constitutional Treaty.

October 10

WMD Proliferation: Javier Solana appoints Annalisa Giannella (Italy) as his Personal Representative covering all matters relating to WMD proliferation. Such proliferation, particularly as it pertains to non-state actors, is of increasing concern to the EU and its member states.

2003 [309] October 13

NATO Afghanistan: The mandate of the International Security Assistance Force in Afghanistan was initially limited to security assistance to the Kabul Area of Operations. However, UNSC Resolution 1510 extends ISAF’s mandate to support the Government of Afghanistan beyond Kabul.

October 15–16

ESDI/ESDP: The US ambassador to NATO, Nicholas Burns, describes the recent EU plans to step up autonomous EU defence and to establish independent military headquarters as the ‘most signiﬁcant threat to NATO’s future’ and demands an emergency meeting of all NATO members on the issue.

October 16

The Iraq War/Civil War: The UN Security Council (UNSC) recognizes the Governing Council and its ministers as the principal bodies of the Iraqi interim administration and calls upon the CPA ‘to return governing responsibilities and authorities to the people of Iraq as soon as practicable’. The resolution also mandates the UN to ‘strengthen its vital role in Iraq’.

October 16–17 ESDP: At the European Council, Brussels, the EU commits itself to play a signiﬁcant role in the political and economic (but not security) reconstruction of Iraq and seek a positive outcome of the Donors’ Conference planned for Madrid on 24 October. October 20

ESDI/ESDP: A NATO meeting on the proposed EU strategic military headquarters ends inconclusively, but US fears are somewhat eased.

October 20

ESDP: The Government of the DRC again addresses a request to the EU for assistance in setting up an integrated police unit.

October 21

WMD Proliferation: Britain, France, and Germany, the so-called EU-3, broker a deal with Iran to suspend uranium enrichment, albeit temporarily. As part of the agreement Iran also agrees to ‘address and resolve . . . all requirements and outstanding [IAEA] issues’, as well as to sign and ratify additional protocols. As part of what becomes known as the Tehran Agreement, Iran also agrees to nuclear inspections and full co-operation with the IAEA.

October 24

NATO Afghanistan: The German Bundestag votes to send German troops to Kunduz, Afghanistan as part of a peacekeeping force in a Provincial Reconstruction Team (PRT). It is the ﬁrst time ISAF is to operate outside Afghanistan’s capital, Kabul, and marks the beginning of the attempt by the Alliance to stabilize the whole country.

October 28

The EU Constitutional Treaty: Finnish Foreign Minister Erkki Tuomioja attacks the way in which some articles covering the CFSP in the EU’s draft Constitutional Treaty have been prepared and interpreted by the bigger member states. Reﬂective of the mood amongst most of the smaller member states of the EU it attacks an increasingly assertive trirectoire of Britain, France, and Germany.

November 3–23

European Stability: Following parliamentary elections in Georgia, opposition parties and tens of thousands of demonstrators demand that President Edouard Shevardnadze (Soviet Foreign Minister 1985–1990 and 1991) resign and that the election results be annulled because of falsiﬁcations.

November 5

ESDP: EU High Representative Javier Solana takes part in a meeting of the EU Chiefs of Defence Staﬀ (CHODs) on the military implications

[310] a brave new century? of the European Security Strategy (ESS). He notes that 2003 marks the fulﬁlment of the Headline Goal and the start of the EDA. He also calls for a Headline Goal 2010 to maintain momentum and ensure relevant EU military capabilities. November 6

EU–Russia Co-operation: At an EU–Russia Summit in Rome both sides agree to the strengthening of dialogue and co-operation on political and security matters. With enlargement to the Baltic States and Poland the status and situation of the Russian enclave of Kaliningrad is continuing to cause problems between Moscow and Brussels.

November 10

The EU Constitutional Treaty: A conference takes place of the representatives of the twenty-ﬁve EU member states in response to the questionnaire distributed by the Italian Presidency seeking to evaluate which parts of the draft Constitutional Treaty require clariﬁcation and/or amendments. Subsequently, a series of documents is circulated that amend the text of the Convention by incorporating most of the suggestions received. Of particular interest is the role and powers of the proposed EU Minister for Foreign Aﬀairs.

November 11

CFSP/ESDP: An article by the foreign ministers of Sweden (Leila Freivalds) and Finland (Erkki Tuomoja) again expresses concern about the future shape of CFSP from the point of view of small, non-aligned member states of the EU.

November 15

The Global War on Terror: Bomb attacks in Istanbul, Turkey, kill 30 and injure at least 400. Al-Qaeda is suspected.

November 17–18

European Defence Procurement: The EU Council of Ministers sets up an Agency Establishment Team to create an agency in the ﬁeld of developing defence capabilities, including in the areas of research, acquisition, and armaments, in the course of 2004. The EDA is born. On ECAP, the Council, stressing the need for an approach identifying objectives, timelines, and reporting procedures, asks for the development of an ECAP road map to monitor progress and to allow redirection of work if necessary.

November 19–25

ESDI/ESDP: The ﬁrst joint EU–NATO crisis-management exercise, CME/CMX 03, takes place. It focuses on the strategic management of civilian and military instruments for an envisaged EU-led operation with recourse to NATO assets and capabilities.

November 20

The Global War on Terror: Bomb attacks in Istanbul, the second series within a week, kill twenty-seven people. Al-Qaeda is suspected.

November 22

European Stability: Protesters in Georgia storm the parliament building in Tbilisi. On 23 November Georgian President Shevardnadze steps down, and a group of three reformers, consisting of Mikheil Saakashvili, Nino Burjanadze, and Zurab Zhvania, takes power ad interim.

November 24

ESDP: At the Franco-British Summit in London the two countries issue the declaration on ‘Strengthening European Co-operation in Security and Defence’ which calls upon the EU to develop a rapid reaction capability in support of UN operations and the establishment of an agency to enhance European capabilities. The joint work between

2003 [311] the two countries on the development of new aircraft carriers is also noted. November 25

European Stability: The Georgian Supreme Court annuls the results of part of the parliamentary elections of 2 November, namely those mandates allocated through proportional representation (the mandates allocated through majoritarian constituencies were not challenged).

November 25

CFSP/ESDP: The Italian Presidency of the EU issues a proposal on defence for the proposed constitution. It speaks of ‘structured cooperation’ for defence issues, i.e. that decisions in the CFSP can be taken by qualiﬁed majority voting, thereby enabling so-called ‘pioneer groups’ to lead the ESDP forward. The Italian presidency also proposes to add a reference to the provisions on mutual defence to the eﬀect that co-operation in this area has to conform to NATO commitments.

November 26

ESDP: France, Germany, and the UK reach a deal on autonomous EU headquarters at a defence ministers meeting in Naples. They also agree a new force concept that becomes known as Battle Groups, i.e. rapid-deployment joint tactical groups of around 1,500 soldiers each that would be deployed mainly in support of UN operations.

November 26

NATO: The Alliance launches the Multinational Chemical, Biological, Radiological, and Nuclear (CBRN) Defence Battalion to protect deployed NATO forces from such attacks.

November 28–9

The EU Constitutional Treaty: At an EU foreign ministers meeting in Naples, a proposal by the Italian Presidency allows a breakthrough in the deﬁnition of ESDP in the Constitutional Treaty. The proposal suggests permitting member-states to proceed at their own discretion. However, whilst structured co-operation can involve a small number of participating member states it is the Council of Ministers as a whole that retains the right to decide on permitting such an approach in any given instance and the expansion of membership of any such group. Ministers also agree to set up independent European military headquarters at NATO’s military headquarters at Mons, Belgium. The headquarters will be called upon only when NATO is not involved in an operation and national headquarters need assistance. The presidency proposal also eliminates the term ‘mutual defence’, which has worried neutral countries (and the UK), from the draft Constitution. However, the conference reaches no compromise on the issue of the allocation of votes in the Council.

November 29

ESDI/ESDP: France, Germany, and the UK present a joint paper to other EU defence ministers that ‘sets out how the collective capability of the EU can be strengthened, including the ability to plan and run certain operations, and describes how consideration of the options involved would take place between UN Partners and NATO Allies’. The three countries, ‘in order to improve the preparation of EU operations having recourse to NATO assets and capabilities under the Berlin-Plus arrangements . . . propose that a small EU cell should be established at the Supreme Headquarters Allied Powers Europe (SHAPE) and to invite NATO to establish liaison arrangements at the EU Military Staﬀ (EUMS). This will also ensure full transparency

[312] a brave new century? between EU and NATO embodying their strategic partnership in crisis management.’ The paper also proposes that the EUMS enhance its earlywarning, situation-assessment, and strategic-planning capacity. Regarding autonomous EU operations, the countries propose to use national headquarters, which can be multinationalized, or, when necessary, to draw on the collective capacity of the EUMS. A civilian–military cell within the EUMS is to act as an operations centre. France, Germany, and the UK also make proposals on structured co-operation. November 29

WMD Proliferation: Iran announces suspension of its uranium enrichment programme.

November 30

European Stability: Following the resignation of Shevardnadze, the Georgian Parliament sets 4 January 2004 as the date for extraordinary presidential elections.

December 1

The EU Constitutional Treaty: The Italian Presidency issues several revised documents on European defence in the wake of the 28–9 November Naples meeting. In contrast to the proposals made at the meeting, the new texts reintroduce the words ‘mutual defence’ and speak of a minimum number of participants required for structured co-operation in defence.

December 1

NATO: The Alliance’s new Multinational Chemical, Biological Radiological and Nuclear (CBRN) Defence Battalion reaches Initial Operational Capability (IOC).

December 2–3 CFSP/ESDP: At a Conference of Euro-Mediterranean Foreign Ministers, a new general approach of the EU to instability in the broader Mediterranean area is addressed, including human security, human rights, and democratization, as well as Iraq and post-conﬂict stabilization therein. December 4

CFSP/ESDP: The EU’s Partnership with the Arab World is launched in Brussels. As such the Partnership is the most concerted eﬀort yet made by both the European Council and the European Commission to promote reform and good governance in what the Americans would later call the Broader Middle East.

December 4

CFSP/ESDP: As the political pace accelerates towards the creation of a European Constitution a joint letter from the foreign ministers of four nonaligned states, Finland, Ireland, Austria, and Sweden, expresses concern over any possible mutual defence clause in the revised CFSP that could infringe upon their traditional neutrality.

December 4

ESDI/ESDP: At the EU–NATO ministerial meeting in Brussels the two organizations conﬁrm their commitment to maintaining the peace in the Western Balkans and congratulate each other on the success of the ﬁrst joint crisis management exercise CME/CMX03. The exercise took place 19– 23 November to test the Berlin-Plus arrangements for the use of NATO assets by the EU. Both NATO and the EU agree on the need to enhance military capabilities.

December 12–13

ESDP: The Brussels European Council approves the EU defence planning document on an autonomous EU civilian–military planning cell that was introduced as a joint paper by the UK, France, and Germany on

2003 [313] 29 November. EU leaders also adopt the new Headline Goal 2010 and agree on an EU Strategy Against Proliferation of Weapons of Mass Destruction. December 12–13

CFSP/ESDP: The Brussels European Council approves a report drafted by the oﬃce of EU High Representative for the CFSP Javier Solana, entitled ‘A Secure Europe in a Better World—European Security Strategy’. The European Security Strategy (ESS) identiﬁes terrorism, the spread of weapons of mass destruction (WMD), and instability as the sources of the greatest danger to the EU. The ESS also states that: ‘Europe should be ready to share in the responsibility for global security and in building a better world. . . . An active and capable European Union would make an impact on a global scale. In doing so, it would contribute to an eﬀective multilateral system leading to a fairer, safer and more united world.’

December 12–13

The EU Constitutional Treaty: The Brussels European Council fails to ﬁnalize the European Constitution because of serious disagreements over the allocation of votes to each member state. While Germany and France want to change the distribution of votes agreed at the 2000 Nice Summit better to take into account population size, Poland and Spain prefer to stick to the Nice structure.

December 13

The Iraq War/Civil War: Saddam Hussein is captured outside Tikrit in Iraq by US military forces.

December 15

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: EU Operation Concordia is completed in FYROM and is replaced by the EU Police Mission’s Operation Proxima.

December 15

ESDP: The EU PSC agrees to support the setting up of an integrated police unit in the DRC with a three-strand approach comprising rehabilitation and refurbishing of a training centre and the provision of basic equipment; training of the unit; and follow-up, monitoring, and mentoring of the concrete implementation of the unit’s mandate after the initial training phase.

December 18

WMD Proliferation: Iran signs the Additional Protocol to the NonProliferation Treaty (NPT), although the Iranian Parliament must still ratify the Protocol before it enters into legal force.

December 19

The Global War on Terror: US President Bush and UK Prime Minister Blair announce that, after nine months of negotiations between Libyan leader al-Gaddaﬁ and US and UK diplomats, Libya has agreed to renounce its nuclear and chemical weapons programmes and the production of relevant delivery means. Libya will also ‘immediately and unconditionally’ welcome international inspectors.

December

The Global War on Terror: Two assassination attempts take place against President Pervez Musharraf of Pakistan and are traced to opponents in Waziristan. The government in Islamabad responds by intensifying military pressure in the region. However, Pakistani forces sustain heavy casualties.

December

Iraq War/Civil War: The number of post-war US casualties in Iraq reaches 344.

2004 AT A GLANCE—MAJOR EVENTS AND THEMES

r r r r r r r r r r r r r r r r

Iraqi armed resistance against the US-led occupation intensiﬁes. The EU Battle Group concept is presented to member states. Madrid is attacked by terrorists. A new reformist government takes over in Georgia. Seven new member states formally join NATO. Ten new member states formally join the EU. The EU’s Headline Goal 2010 is formally adopted charting the way forward for European Defence. Iraqi civilian Interim Government replaces the Coalition Provisional Authority (CPA). Javier Solana is nominated as EU Foreign Minister upon entry into force of EU Constitutional Treaty. A European Gendarmerie Force (EGF) is created. The EU Constitution is signed. George W. Bush is re-elected US President. Yasser Arafat dies. The Orange Revolution takes place in Ukraine EU military Operation Althea is launched in Bosnia-Herzegovina (BiH). The Asian Tsunami strikes.

January 4

Afghanistan: An Afghan Loya Jirga adopts a new constitution that endows Afghanistan with a strong president, a new parliament, and national elections. It also promises positions in government to tribal leaders and warlords, many of whom are regarded as part of the problem.

January 4

European Stability: Opposition leader Mikheil Saakashvili is elected President of Georgia with more than 96 per cent of the vote in an extraordinary presidential election called in the wake of the resignation of former President Shevardnadze.

January 5

NATO: NATO’s new Secretary-General, Jaap de Hoop Scheﬀer of the Netherlands, takes up his post at the start of an initial four-year term of oﬃce.

January 6

NATO Afghanistan: NATO expands its role in Afghanistan as part of Stage 2 of the International Security Assistance Force (ISAF) at a ceremony held in the provincial capital of Kunduz. The event sees the Kunduz Provincial Reconstruction Team (PRT), which is led by Germany, come under NATO

2004 [315] command, and represents the ﬁrst step in the expansion of the Alliance’s mission across the country. January 9

European Stability: Georgia’s Acting President, Nino Burjanadze, announces that repeat parliamentary elections will take place on 28 March.

January 13

Iraq War/Civil War: A soldier in the 372nd Military Police Company based at Abu Ghraib Prison near Baghdad, Iraq, formally reports the abuse of prisoners under US Army investigation.

January 25

European Stability: Mikheil Saakashvili takes oﬃce as Georgian President.

January 28

European Defence Agency: Javier Solana appoints Briton Nick Witney as Head of the Agency Establishment Team for the European Defence Agency (EDA).

February 2

Middle East Peace Process: Israeli Prime Minister Sharon announces a unilateral withdrawal from all settlements in Gaza, independent of a possible peace agreement with the Palestinians.

February 6

Putin’s Russia: An attack on the Moscow metro leaves forty people dead. The Russian authorities blame Chechen separatists for the attack.

February 9

NATO Afghanistan: Lieutenant-General Rick Hillier of Canada takes over command of ISAF in Afghanistan. The operation is still under NATO command. Hillier’s deputy is Major-General Werner Korte of Germany.

February 10

ESDP: France and the UK submit their joint proposal for 1,500-strong Battle Groups, or Technical Groups, as France calls them, to the EU PSC. The Battle Groups are the readily available military formations that form the centrepiece of the Headline Goal 2010 proposal. As such, Battle Groups are presented as an advance on the original Helsinki Headline Goal of 1999, and with it the 60,000-strong ERRF. However, in reality it is a pragmatic recognition that the ERRF will not be attained and thus makes a virtue out of necessity.

February 11

ESDP: The German defence minister announces that Germany will participate in the proposed Battle Groups.

February 12

NATO: Agreement is reached on a strategic sea-lift capability for the Alliance when nine NATO nations sign an agreement with the NATO Maintenance and Supply Agency (NAMSA) to provide such a capability for the rapid deployment of forces.

February 14

The Middle East: Former Lebanese Prime Minister, Raﬁk Hariri, is killed by a car bomb along with fourteen others. Widely believed to be behind the attack, Syria is forced to withdraw its forces from Lebanon. A subsequent UN investigation seems to support the allegations and Lebanon begins to slide once more into political instability.

February 16–18

Emerging Powers: India and Pakistan hold low-level bilateral talks. Higherlevel talks over the issue of Kashmir are scheduled for later in the year.

February 18

ESDP: The EU PSC asks the EU Military Committee (EUMC) for an opinion on the technical aspects of the Battle Group concept.

[316] a brave new century? February 19

The Middle East: Israeli Prime Minister Sharon’s plan for withdrawing all settlements from the Gaza Strip and four from the northern West Bank wins a clear majority in a cabinet vote. However, each evacuation of a settlement is subject to a prior assessment of the situation. Implementing a decision by the Israeli Supreme Court, the cabinet also approves a modiﬁed line for the security fence between Israel and the West Bank, which will now be closer to the ‘green line’.

February 23

ESDP: The EU Council of Ministers approves a decision to create a new mechanism for administering the common costs of EU-led missions with military or defence implications. This new mechanism should reduce the time needed to launch a mission, as it eliminates the need for a separate Council decision on the ﬁnancing of common costs for every operation.

February 25

CFSP/ESDP: In a speech in Helsinki, Finland, entitled ‘The European Strategy—the Next Steps?’ EU High Representative Javier Solana reaﬃrms that the European Security Strategy (ESS) is built on the four concepts of responsibility, prevention, capability, and partnership. He emphasizes that a Union of 450 million people with 25 per cent of the World’s Gross Domestic Product must have global responsibilities.

March 1

The Iraq War/Civil War: Iraq’s Governing Council announces that it has agreed on an interim constitution.

March 2

The Iraq War/Civil War: Suicide attacks on Shia Muslims in Karbala and Baghdad during the religious festival of Ashoura kill at least 169 people.

March 8

The Iraq War/Civil War: Iraq’s Governing Council signs an interim constitution.

March 11

EU Enlargement: Greek and Turkish Cypriots fail to agree a peace deal and with it the status of Turkish Cypriots within the EU.

March 11

The Global War on Terror: A series of bomb attacks on commuter trains in Madrid kills 191 people. The Spanish Government instantly blames the radical Basque separatist movement ETA. However, it soon becomes apparent that Islamists have carried out the attack. Al-Qaeda comes to Europe.

March 14

The Global War on Terror: Elections in Spain are won by the SocialDemocratic opposition. Voter turnout is unusually high, and the ruling Conservatives pay a price for blaming ETA for the bomb attacks despite indications that al-Qaeda was involved. Many US commentators see the election result as giving in to terrorist blackmail since the Conservatives have supported US policy on Iraq while the Social-Democrats have not.

March 14

Putin’s Russia: Vladimir Putin is elected to serve a second term as Russian President. Concerns in the West are growing about the increasingly antidemocratic nature and tone of Putin’s government. It is equally apparent that Putin is surrounding himself with Siloviki, the old security apparatchiks, to reinforce an increasingly oppressive regime.

March 15

ESDP: The Group of Personalities, consisting of high-level industry executives and policy-makers, presents a report called ‘Research for a Secure Europe’ to the President of the European Commission, Romano Prodi. The report calls for an increase in European funding for, and co-ordination of,

2004 [317] security-related research. Speciﬁcally, the report recommends the creation of a European Security Research Programme with a minimum funding of 1 billion Euros for the development of security-related technology. March 15

The Iraq War/Civil War: The newly elected Prime Minister of Spain, José Luis Rodríguez Zapatero, promises to pull Spanish troops out of Iraq as soon as it becomes feasible.

March 16

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: Riots break out in Kosovo after ethnic Serbs are blamed for the drowning of two ethnic Albanian children.

March 20

Iraq War/Civil War: Charges are ﬁled against six US soldiers following the showing by US TV network CBS 60 Minutes II of graphic photos of prisoner abuse at Abu Ghraib prison.

March 22

EU Enlargement: Macedonia applies for EU membership. However, tension still exists with EU member Greece who insists that Macedonia be known as the Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia (FYROM). A province of Greece is also known as Macedonia.

March 22

The Middle East: Israel kills Hamas leader Sheikh Ahmed Yassin in an air strike. With Israeli concern over the growing inﬂuence of Islamists in the Palestinian controlled areas, the security situation between Israel and the Palestinian Authority (PA) deteriorates.

March 22

The Global War on Terror: Former US terrorism adviser Richard Clarke accuses US President Bush of not having taken the al-Qaeda threat seriously before 9/11. He also asserts that there was no reason for the US to have gone to war in Iraq in 2003.

March 25–6

The Global War on Terror: The European Council in Brussels adopts a Declaration on Combating Terrorism. It focuses on making better use of existing agencies and policies rather than setting up new bodies in the wake of the Madrid attacks. It does, however, appoint a counter-terrorism coordinator, Gijs de Vries from the Netherlands, and calls for the integration of an intelligence structure on terrorism within the Council Secretariat and the strengthening of border controls. The declaration also puts forward the idea of keeping records of telephone and internet operators, and it urges progress on a database of persons suspected of terrorist involvement and other serious crimes. Moreover, the document contains a Declaration on Solidarity Against Terrorism, which, however, is but a ‘political commitment’ and leaves it to each state ‘to choose the most appropriate means to comply with this solidarity commitment towards the aﬀected State’.

March 28

European Stability: The united National Movement-Democrats bloc of Saakashvili, Burjanadze, and Zhvania wins a majority of 67.75 per cent in a rerun of the parliamentary elections in Georgia that were initially held in November 2003 but annulled because of widespread falsiﬁcations.

March

Global War on Terror: Heavy ﬁghting breaks out at Azam Warsak, near the South Waziristan town of Wana as Pakistani troops confront some 400 militants in several fortiﬁed settlements. It is believed that Osama bin Laden’s deputy, the Egyptian Ayman al-Zawahiri, is among those trapped by the Pakistani Army. However, he is not captured.

[318] a brave new century? April 1

Cyprus: Talks fail between Greek and Turkish Cypriot leaders on a UN peace plan that would foresee a loose union between the two parts of the island.

April 1

The Darfur Tragedy: The conﬂict in southern Sudan begins to make the headlines in the West as the oppression of the non-Arab population in the Darfur province becomes critical. In time more than 200,000 people will be killed by the Sudanese Army and Government-backed militias such as the Jangaweed.

April 2

NATO Enlargement: In a historic event that is probably the last act of the Cold War, former Warsaw Pact countries Bulgaria, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Romania, Slovakia, and Slovenia join NATO. The Alliance now has twenty-six members.

April 3

The Global War on Terror: Islamist suspects in the Madrid bombings die as they blow up the building where they are hiding after it is surrounded by police. One police oﬃcer also dies.

April 5–6

ESDP: At an informal meeting, EU defence ministers and chiefs of defence staﬀ give a very positive response to the Battle Group proposal. They set a target date of 2007 for achieving the ﬁrst operational groups, which should be deployable worldwide within ﬁfteen days and for up to four months until larger units can be deployed. The number of groups is expected to be between six and ten.

April 15

The Iraq War/Civil War: Spain begins withdrawing its troops from Iraq. Some in the West accuse the Spanish of having given in to terrorism.

April 16

NATO: As part of an ongoing eﬀort to upgrade NATO’s common military capabilities the North Atlantic Council (NAC) agrees to purchase a cuttingedge air–ground surveillance (AGS) system for deployment in spring 2005.

April 17

The Middle East: Israel kills Abdel Aziz al-Rantissi, who replaced Yassin as Hamas leader. The security situation on the ground in the Palestinian territories deteriorates.

April 23

WMD Proliferation: The US lifts sanctions on Libya, rewarding the country for its decision to abandon its WMD programmes.

April 24

Cyprus: Greek Cypriots vote ‘no’ in a referendum on a peace agreement submitted by UN Secretary-General Koﬁ Annan. Paradoxically the vote excludes Turkish Cypriots from the beneﬁts of EU membership as the EU will involve them only if they are part of a united Cyprus. The Turks are in favour of the Annan Plan.

April 26

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: Macedonian President Boris Trajkovski tragically dies in a plane crash, leaving Macedonia once again unstable.

April 28

Iraq War/Civil War: US Secretary of Defense Donald H. Rumsfeld briefs Congress on the Taguba Report. Major-General Antonio M. Taguba conducted formal investigations into the activities of the 800th Military Police (MP) Brigade at Abu Ghraib prison. The report is damning but does not consider responsibility at the highest level of command.

April 28

The Nuclear Balance: The UN Security Council (UNSC) adopts Resolution 1540. It requires states to enact and enforce national legal and regulatory

2004 [319] measures to prevent proliferation of WMD, their delivery systems, and related materials, as well as establish ﬁnancial controls to prevent the ﬁnancing of such transactions. April 29

The Iraq War/Civil War: Pictures and videos emerge of mistreatment of Iraqi prisoners by US troops at Abu Ghraib prison. Subsequent investigations reveal that these practices are widespread and have been going on since October 2003. The Schlesinger Report, one of the several military investigations launched by the US, states: ‘There is no evidence of a policy of abuse promulgated by senior oﬃcials or military authorities. Still, the abuses were not just the failure of some individuals to follow known standards, and they are more than the failure of a few leaders to enforce proper discipline. There is both institutional and personal responsibility at higher levels.’ In contrast, investigations by Amnesty International ﬁnd a ‘systematic pattern of torture and ill-treatment’.

April

Global War on Terror: The Pakistani Government signs the ﬁrst of three truce agreements with tribes in South Waziristan. In eﬀect, the truces represent a defeat for the Pakistan Government and Army in the Waziristan War. As such, it represents a major blow both for a stable Afghanistan and the Global War on Terror.

May 1

EU Enlargement: Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, the Czech Republic, Slovakia, Slovenia, Poland, Hungary, Malta, and Cyprus join the EU. It is a historic day for the EU and Europe. However, much concern persists as to how a European Union of twenty-ﬁve member states will function. A lot will depend on the ratiﬁcation of the Constitutional Treaty, much of which is devoted to the reform of Europe’s institutions to enable them to work for twenty-ﬁve members.

May 6–7

NATO: National Armaments Directors (NADs) from the twenty-six NATO countries agree several proposals to enhance the ability to protect Alliance populations and armed forces from terrorist attacks. It is increasingly evident that if NATO members cannot protect their peoples they will be unable to protect their forces.

May 11

The Iraq War/Civil War: Al-Qaeda in Iraq behead US civilian Nick Berg and distribute a video of the act.

May 17–18

ESDP: Whilst noting that ‘further progress will be required on the recognised shortfalls and deﬁcits from the 2003 Headline Goal’, the Council of Ministers approves Headline Goal 2010. The Battle Group concept is included in the new Headline Goal. The European Capabilities Action Plan (ECAP) Road Map and the Capability Improvement Chart 2004 are also endorsed.

May 21

Iraq War/Civil War: In an eﬀort to limit the worldwide damage to the reputation of American occupying forces in Iraq, the US releases 454 detainees from Abu Ghraib prison, near Baghdad, Iraq. It is probably too late.

May 26

The Nuclear Balance: The US Department of Energy launches the Global Threat Reduction Initiative (GTRI) to accelerate eﬀorts to identify, secure, remove, and facilitate the disposal of high-risk vulnerable nuclear and radiological materials around the world.

[320] a brave new century? May 28

The Iraq War/Civil War: Ayad Allawi, a former member of Iraq’s interim Governing Council, is elected by the latter to become Interim Prime Minister after the handover to civilian rule scheduled for 30 June.

June 1

The Iraq War/Civil War: Iraq’s Governing Council chooses one of its members, Ghazi Mashal Ajil al-Yawer, as the new President of the Iraqi Interim Government. The Governing Council is then dissolved by its members.

June 1

NATO Afghanistan: NATO assumes control of Kabul International Airport. A ceremony held at Kabul International Airport on 1 June marked the formal transfer of authority over the airport to the NATO-led International Security Assistance Force (ISAF).

June 8

Iraq War/Civil War: The UNSC unanimously approves Resolution 1546 endorsing a ‘sovereign interim government’ in Iraq.

June 9

G8: The G8 presents the so-called Greater Middle East Initiative, a programme initiated by the US to promote democracy in the region. The initiative is criticized by some of the region’s countries for not having been discussed and elaborated with them.

June 13

The European Union: Elections to the European Parliament (EP) are held in the twenty-ﬁve EU member states.

June 16

NATO: NATO takes control of the skies over the Euro 2004 football championship in Portugal using its E-3A AWACS airborne early warning aircraft to protect against possible terrorist threats.

June 17–18

The EU Constitutional Treaty: The Brussels European Council agrees on a text for a European Constitution and endorses the new Headline Goal 2010. EU leaders also agree to take over the Stabilization Force (SFOR) in BiH from NATO. Regarding the ﬁght against terrorism, the EU leaders decide that they will review their anti-terrorism action plan and road-map (endorsed in September and October 2001 respectively) twice a year, starting in December 2004. The European Council also agrees ‘to take forward work on the establishment of a civilian/military cell within the EU Military Staﬀ ’ ‘of a small EU cell at SHAPE and NATO liaison arrangements with the EUMS’ and of ‘an operations centre’. EU leaders insist ‘that this [operations centre] will not be a standing HQ, that the main option for autonomous military operations remains national HQ and that a decision to draw on the collective capacity of the EUMS would be taken, upon the advice of the Military Committee, in particular where a joint civil/military response is required and where no national HQ is identiﬁed’. EU leaders also review progress of the follow-up to the European Security Strategy, particularly welcoming the focus on eﬀective multilateralism.

June 18

WMD Proliferation: The International Atomic Energy Authority (IAEA) condemns Iran’s refusal to comply with the inspection regime by permitting access to all its nuclear sites. In response, Iran accuses the EU-3 (Britain, France, and Germany) of violating the October 2003 Tehran Agreement.

June 21

The Darfur Tragedy: EU High Representative Javier Solana announces the sending of EU observers to Sudan and the Darfur region as the humanitarian situation deteriorates.

2004 [321] June 24

WMD Proliferation: Iran informs the EU-3 (Britain, France, and Germany) that it intends to resume its uranium enrichment programme. This decision eﬀectively negates the October 2003 agreement between the EU-3 and Tehran.

June 26

The Transatlantic Relationship: At the EU–US Summit at Dromoland Castle, Scotland, the EU and US issue declarations covering Sudan and the leading role of the African Union therein, together with a declaration covering peace, progress, and reform in the broader Middle East and Mediterranean. A Declaration is also issued on support for the people of Iraq. Like most EU–US summits the meeting is strong on declarations but short on substance.

June 28

The Iraq War/Civil War: Iraq ostensibly returns to civilian rule, as the CPA is dissolved and power transferred to the Iraqi Interim Government.

June 28

ESDP: The EU and the UN Development Programme (UNDP) establish a strategic partnership to strengthen their ‘ability to deliver eﬃcient, highquality aid to developing countries, particularly in the areas of governance, conﬂict prevention and post-conﬂict reconstruction’.

June 28

ESDP: The EU Council of Ministers, following an invitation by the Georgian Prime Minister on 3 June, decides to launch a rule-of-law mission to Georgia, EUJUST THEMIS, ‘to support the Georgian authorities in addressing urgent challenges in the criminal justice system’.

June 28–9

NATO: At the Istanbul summit, NATO Heads of State and Government decide to: expand ISAF in Afghanistan, including provision of several additional Provincial Reconstruction Teams (PRT); to conclude operations in BiH; to oﬀer assistance to the Government of Iraq with the training of its security forces; to enhance the contribution of Operation Active Endeavour in the Mediterranean in the ﬁght against terrorism; and to further transform the Alliance‘s military capabilities. NATO leaders also agree ‘an enhanced set of measures to strengthen [their] individual and collective contribution to the international community’s ﬁght against terrorism’. Moreover, they decide to enhance the Mediterranean Dialogue and to oﬀer to co-operate with the countries of the broader Middle East region through the Istanbul Co-operation Initiative. Concerning the transformation of the Alliance’s military capabilities, NATO leaders state that the NATO Multinational CBRN (Chemical, Biological, Radiological, Nuclear) Defence Battalion has become operational, that the NATO Response Force (NRF) will reach initial operational capability later in 2004, that the implementation of NATO’s streamlined command arrangements is on track, that the implementation of the Prague Capabilities Commitment (PCC) is progressing and that they are ‘examining options for addressing missile threat to Alliance territory, forces and population centres through an appropriate mix of political and defence eﬀorts.’ An Istanbul Declaration entitled ‘Our Security In a New Era’ is also issued. It states that ‘Collective defence remains the core purpose of the Alliance. But the threats that NATO faces have changed substantially. . . . NATO is transforming its military capabilities in order to adapt to the changing strategic environment. . . . But transformation is a process, not an event.’

[322] a brave new century? June 29

The EU Constitutional Treaty: Meeting at the level of Heads of State or Government, the EU Council of Ministers decides that Javier Solana will be EU Foreign Minister when the EU Constitution comes into force.

July 9

The Middle East: The International Court of Justice (ICJ) renders an advisory opinion, requested by the UN General Assembly, on the Legal Consequences of the Construction of a Wall by the Israelis in the Occupied Palestinian Territory. The ICJ says the construction of the wall is contrary to international law. The Israelis insist the wall aﬀords their population vital protection against terrorist attack.

July 12

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: The EU Council of Ministers decides to replace NATO’s Stabilization Force (SFOR) in BiH in 2004 with an EU Force (EUFOR) dubbed Operation Althea. After meeting with Iraqi Foreign Minister Hosyar Zebari, the Council also agrees to establish, conditions permitting, an EU exploratory mission to Iraq that will concentrate, in particular, on bolstering of rule of law and civilian administration.

July 12

European Defence Agency: A Council Joint Action is issued establishing the EDA with the aim of developing defence capabilities in the ﬁeld of crisis management, promoting and enhancing European armaments cooperation, strengthening the European defence industrial and technological base (DTIB), and creating a competitive European defence equipment market. The EDA will also be responsible for liaising with the research activities of the European Commission and for leadership in ‘strategic technologies’ for future security and defence capabilities.

July 16

ESDP: EUJUST THEMIS, the EU’s ﬁrst rule-of-law mission, is launched in Georgia.

July 22

The Darfur Tragedy: The US Senate passes a resolution describing events in Darfur, Sudan, as constituting genocide.

July 23

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: The restored bridge over the River Neretva is inaugurated in Mostar, BiH. The destroyed bridge was once a symbol of the ethnic division in Mostar and the country as a whole. It is hoped the restored bridge can become a symbol of reconciliation.

August 2

NATO: NATO begins deployment of its Multinational Chemical Biological Radiological and Nuclear (CBRN) Battalion to Greece to assist the Greek authorities to provide eﬀective security against terrorist attack for the 2004 Olympic and Paralympics Games.

August 9

The Darfur Tragedy: After conducting a fact-ﬁnding mission in Sudan, an EU delegation contradicts the Americans by stating that, although tragic, the situation in Darfur does not amount to genocide.

August 9

NATO Afghanistan: Eurocorps, headed by French Lieutenant-General JeanLouis Py, takes over command of the International Security Assistance Force (ISAF). Dutch Major-General Leonardus van der Born is his deputy. The operation remains under NATO control.

August 14

Iraq War/Civil War: The main elements of NATO’s Training Implementation Mission (NATO TIM) in Iraq arrives in Baghdad to discuss its contribution

2004 [323] to the training of Iraqi forces. Training of selected headquarters personnel begins immediately. August 24

Putin’s Russia: Two Aeroﬂot airliners are destroyed in Rostov-on-Don almost simultaneously, leaving eighty-nine dead. Chechen suicide bombers are suspected of having carried out the attacks.

August 26

The Iraq War/Civil War: After three weeks of ﬁghting between US troops and the Shia militia under Shia leader Moqtada al-Sadr in Najaf, Grand Ayatollah Ali Sistani negotiates a ceaseﬁre. However, al-Sadr and the Mahdi Army are a political force to be recognised. The conﬂict also marks an acceleration in the proxy war Iran is waging against US and British forces in Iraq.

August 29–31

The Iraq War/Civil War: The EU conducts an exploratory mission in Baghdad. The purpose of the mission is to consider options for speciﬁc forms of EU engagement in the areas of police, rule of law, civilian administration, and elections.

August 31

Putin’s Russia: An attack takes place on a Moscow metro station with eleven people killed. Chechen suicide bombers are again suspected.

September 1

Putin’s Russia: Chechen rebels take over a school in Beslan, North Ossetia, taking some 1,200 people hostage. The hostages are packed into a small gymnasium with no food or water. After two days, Russian Special Forces storm the building following the shooting of ﬂeeing hostages by the attackers. Three hundred and thirty-nine hostages and all but one of the hostagetakers die in the ensuing ﬁre ﬁght.

September 4

The Darfur Tragedy: EU foreign ministers oﬀer to send police oﬃcers to Darfur should the African Union (AU) wish them to do so. EU ministers also agree to put more pressure on the Sudanese Government to protect the civilian population, but do not impose sanctions.

September 9

WMD Proliferation: At talks with Iran in the Netherlands, the Defence Ministers of France, Germany, and the UK, Michèle Alliot-Marie, Peter Struck, and Geoﬀ Hoon respectively, issue a two-month ultimatum for Iran to stop its uranium-enrichment activities.

September 13

European Defence Agency: The EU Council of Ministers adopts staﬀ provisions and a budget for the EDA. On the basis of the report on the ﬁrst EU exploratory mission to Iraq, ministers also agree ‘that the suggested activities that the EU could engage in, in the civilian crisis management areas of police, rule of law and civilian administration should be further examined and elaborated’. Planning for an EU civilian crisis-management fact-ﬁnding mission to Iraq is therefore to be started. This mission should prepare a package of concrete assistance proposals.

September 17

ESDP: France, Italy, the Netherlands, Portugal, and Spain issue a Declaration of Intent to create a European Gendarmerie Force (EGF) within the framework of the European Security and Defence Policy (ESDP) and to provide Europe with the capability to conduct full police missions under the Petersberg Tasks of rescue and humanitarian assignments, peacekeeping, and the role of combat forces in peacemaking.

[324] a brave new century? September 20

ESDP: France, Italy, the Netherlands, Spain, and Portugal sign an agreement creating a European Gendarmerie Force to be based in Vicenza, Italy.

September 23

European Defence Agency: The European Commission’s Green Paper on defence procurement is launched. The purpose of the consultation document is to clarify the rules governing arms companies and markets and to propose measures to improve and ﬁnd eﬃciencies therein to reduce the spiralling unit cost of armaments. Fragmentation of the market and duplication of eﬀorts are undermining the cost-eﬀectiveness of already tight European defence budgets. The Green Paper proposes streamlining the existing legal framework, under Article 296 of the Treaty on European Union, which leaves defence procurement matters almost wholly in the hands of national governments.

September 28

WMD Proliferation: Speaking at the UN General Assembly, North Korea’s Vice Foreign Minister Choe Su Hon says that his country has turned plutonium from 8,000 wasted fuel rods into weapons-grade nuclear material. This is the ﬁrst time that North Korea has publicly declared that it has nuclear weapons.

September 30

Climate Change: The Russian Government endorses the Kyoto Protocol and sends it to the Russian Parliament, the Duma, for approval.

October 6

EU Enlargement: The European Commission publishes its Report and Recommendation for Opening Accession Negotiations with Turkey. The report supports the need for such negotiations but also identiﬁes the many reforms that Ankara must enact before membership would be possible, such as freedom of speech, protection of minorities, and the democratic control of armed forces. The report also reaﬃrms the sensitive nature of Turkish accession in many EU member states.

October 9

Afghanistan: Afghan voters elect Hamid Karzai, the leader of the Transitional Authority, as President of Afghanistan.

October 11

CFSP/ESDP: The EU’s General Aﬀairs and External Relations Council (GAERC) approves the operational plan (OPLAN) for Operation Althea in BiH, the EU’s largest military operation to date. It also conﬁrms the EU Action Plan for Combating Terrorism by highlighting the need to improve the exchange of information between the strengthened EU Situation Centre (EU SitCen), the Intelligence and Security Services of the member states and the Europol, together with the re-engagement of Europol’s Anti-terrorism Task Force. It also notes progress on establishing the European Border Management Agency (EBMA).

October 13

NATO: At an informal meeting of NATO Defence Ministers in Romania NATO Secretary-General Jaap de Hoop Scheﬀer and Supreme Allied Commander, Europe (SACEUR) General James L. Jones jointly announce that the NATO Response Force (NRF) has achieved initial operational capability (IOC). Consequently, the NRF is declared able to undertake the full range of missions for which it was designed. As a high-readiness and technologically advanced force the NRF combines elite land, air, and sea units into a single force that can be deployed anywhere in the world in ﬁve days and then sustained for up to a month across the mission spectrum from collective

2004 [325] defence, acting as an ‘initial entry’ force for a larger follow-on force, or to demonstrate the Alliance’s determination and ability to act eﬀectively in the early stages of a crisis. At IOC the NRF numbers some 17,000 troops but by Full Operational Capability (FOC) at the end of 2005/early 2006 it will number some 25,000. Moreover, because the land, air, and maritime components of all involved NATO members rotate through the NRF the force acts as a vehicle for the military transformation of the Alliance. October 21

WMD Proliferation: France, Germany, and the UK oﬀer Iran ‘valuable nuclear technology’ if it ceases all its uranium-enrichment activities.

October 22

Climate Change: The Russian Duma approves the Kyoto Protocol. Russian ratiﬁcation allows it to enter into force. The US is conspicuous by its refusal to ratify, even if many are beginning to doubt the worth of such a Protocol.

October 24

The Darfur Tragedy: EU High Representative for the CFSP Javier Solana visits Sudan and declares that the EU will support the planned African Union (AU) peace operation, to be known as the African Union Mission in Sudan (AMIS) with approximately $100 million.

October 26

The Middle East: The Israeli Parliament, the Knesset, approves Prime Minister Sharon’s plan unilaterally to abolish all settlements in the Gaza Strip and four more in the West Bank.

October 29

The EU Constitutional Treaty: EU leaders sign the Treaty Establishing a Constitution for Europe in Rome. Some key institutional changes with regard to the CFSP have found their way into the Constitution, including the creation of the post of European Minister for Foreign Aﬀairs, who will be responsible for carrying out the Union’s external policy as a whole, and the creation of a European Armaments, Research, and Military Capabilities Agency. Furthermore, a Solidarity Clause in the event of a terrorist attack or natural disaster is included. The Petersberg Tasks are expanded to include disarmament, military advice, post-conﬂict stabilization, and the ﬁght against terrorism, including actions carried out on the territory of third countries. New forms of ﬂexibility and co-operation are made possible in defence matters: the Council can entrust a group of member states with a mission to uphold the Union’s values; a permanent structure of co-operation can be created between countries that meet criteria and subscribe to commitments regarding military capability; closer co-operation in the ﬁeld of reciprocal defence is introduced; and a start-up fund for military defence independent of the Union budget is set up. Also, a procedure to allow rapid access to appropriations in the Union budget is deﬁned. CFSP procedures are largely left untouched, however.

October 29

The Global War on Terror: Al-Jazeera broadcasts a new video of al-Qaeda leader Osama bin Laden, in which the latter asserts that ‘the motivations are still there for what happened to be repeated’ and that American citizens hold their security ‘in their own hands’. He also says that, ‘Any nation that does not attack us will not be attacked.’

October

ESDP: The Franco-German-Italian-Spanish Helios 1B satellite that was launched in 1999 is allowed to disintegrate because of power problems.

[326] a brave new century? November 2

Bush’s America: George W. Bush wins a second term in US presidential elections. He defeats Democrat contender John Kerry largely on the back of middle America’s concerns over security and Americans committed to a policy in Iraq that becomes known as ‘staying the course’. However, growing numbers of Americans are disillusioned by events in Iraq as the death toll of American forces continues to rise.

November 2

WMD Proliferation: The EU-3 France, Germany, and the UK, issue a statement calling on Iran to cease its uranium-enrichment activities in exchange for nuclear technology, access to nuclear fuel, increased trade, and assistance with regional security concerns. Iranian President Mohammad Khatami states Iran’s willingness to reach an agreement as long as the country’s right to peaceful nuclear technology is recognized.

November 2

Islamic Fundamentalism: Controversial Dutch ﬁlm director Theo van Gogh is killed by a Dutch Islamist extremist of Moroccan origin. This spurs a debate on the integration of Muslim immigrants in Western societies, particularly in Europe.

November 4–5 CFSP/ESDP: The EU’s European Council in Brussels reviews preparation for the Mid-Term Review of the Lisbon Strategy, as well as the Freedom, Security, and Justice programme. Discussions are also held with Prime Minister Allawi of Iraq as part of the European Council Declaration on the Relationship Between the EU and Iraq which proposed a raft of measures to support the reconstruction of Iraq. November 6

The Iraq War/Civil War: US and Iraqi troops storm the city of Fallujah, where several thousand insurgents have been entrenched for months. Led by the US Marines a major battle ensues, but many insurgents evade death or capture.

November 11

The Middle East: President of the Palestinian Authority Yasser Arafat dies in a hospital in Paris. Rawdi Fattuh becomes new caretaker President of the PA and Mahmud Abbas new Chairman of the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO).

November 11

The EU Constitutional Treaty: The Lithuanian Parliament approves the European Constitution.

November 11

NATO: NATO Secretary-General Jaap de Hoop Scheﬀer addresses the UNSC in New York. It is the ﬁrst time a NATO secretary-general has been accorded the honour of addressing the UNSC in formal session.

November 14

The Middle East: Elections for a new President of the PA are scheduled for 9 January 2005.

November 14

The IAEA publishes an agreement between Iran, France, Germany, and the UK. Iran reaﬃrms its commitment not to acquire nuclear weapons and agrees ‘on a voluntary basis, [to] continue and extend its suspension to include all enrichment-related activities’. Meanwhile, Iran’s right to develop nuclear technology for peaceful purposes is recognized.

November 15

Bush’s America: US Secretary of State Colin Powell announces that he will step down from his post. On 16 November US President Bush nominates his

2004 [327] National Security Adviser, Condoleezza Rice, as the new Secretary of State in his second term. November 15

WMD Proliferation: Iran agrees to the so-called Paris Agreement with the EU-3 (Britain, France, and Germany) and suspends uranium enrichment.

November 22

ESDP: At a military capability commitment conference in Brussels, EU defence ministers review progress of, and the way ahead for, Battle Groups and the European Capabilities Action Plan (ECAP). Initial commitments for the Battle Groups are outlined. Ministers agree that during the initial operational capability period, set for 2005–6, the EU should at any time be able to undertake at least one Battle Group-sized operation. Full operational capability is set to be reached in 2007. EU defence ministers also adopt guidelines on the EDA work programme for 2005.

November 22

WMD Proliferation: Iran oﬃcially suspends all its nuclear activities including uranium enrichment.

November 23

ESDP: EU defence ministers back the formation of Battle Groups.

November 23

European Stability: Ukrainians take to the streets in great numbers after the government-supported candidate, Prime Minister Viktor Yanukovych, is declared the winner of the presidential election, although exit polls show a clear lead for the opposition candidate, Viktor Yushchenko. The protests are soon called the Orange Revolution, after the colour of the opposition parties, which dominates the rallies. The EU calls for a repeat election, but Russian President Putin sees no reason to do so. The split between Russia and the West widens.

November 24

WMD Proliferation: Iran demands that it be allowed to continue research and development with centrifuges during the suspension of its nuclear activities. The EU rejects this demand. And, on 27 November Iran declares that, ‘suspension of enrichment is an illogical demand’.

November 30

WMD Proliferation: Iranian top negotiator Hassan Rowhani says that Iran has not given up its right to enrich uranium, as the suspension of all its nuclear activities is only a temporary measure during the IAEA inspections of Iranian nuclear sites.

December 1

European Stability: The Ukrainian Parliament passes a vote of no conﬁdence in Prime Minister Yanukovych. The vote requires the signature of President Leonid Kuchma to become eﬀective, however.

December 2

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: EU Operation Althea is launched in BiH, replacing the NATO-led SFOR.

December 2

UN Reform: The UN Secretary-General’s High-Level Panel on Threats, Challenges and Change issues a report entitled ‘A More Secure World: Our Shared Responsibility’. The report addresses such issues as the use of force, peace-building, conﬂict prevention, and reform of the UN, and it also emphasizes the need for collective security. However, it is widely viewed as too little, too late.

December 3

European Stability: The Ukrainian Supreme Court rules on a claim ﬁled by opposition candidate Yushchenko that the second round of the election was

[328] a brave new century? indeed fraudulent and the results cannot stand. The ruling goes into great detail about the types of violations that occurred. December 7

Afghanistan: Hamid Karzai is sworn in as Afghanistan’s President.

December 8

European Stability: The Ukrainian Parliament adopts a reform package introducing changes to the electoral law, paving the way for a rerun of the presidential election, and constitutional changes transferring some powers from the president to parliament. This constitutes a compromise between government and opposition demands. President Kuchma immediately signs the reform package into law and mass demonstrations in Kyiv end.

December 8–9 The Global War on Terror: The NATO–Russia Council agrees on an action plan against terrorism. Ministers also sign a memorandum of understanding on Russia‘s participation in NATO’s anti-terrorism operation in the Mediterranean, known as Operation Active Endeavour. December 9

The Global War on Terror: British police announce the prevention of an attack in London on the scale of the Madrid bombings.

December 9

ESDP: The EU Council of Ministers decides to launch a Police Mission in Kinshasa, DRC, EUPOL KINSHASA. The mission will monitor, mentor, and advise on the setting up and the initial running of an integrated police unit in Kinshasa.

December 13

ESDP: At a meeting of the EU’s General Aﬀairs and External Relations Council (GAERC) on ESDP, Civilian Headline Goal 2008 is agreed to enable the EU to develop civilian crisis management capabilities and capacities.

December 15

The Iraq War/Civil War: The election campaign for the Iraqi National Assembly gets under way.

December 16–17

CFSP/ESDP: The Brussels European Council agrees to start accession negotiations with Turkey on 3 October 2005. EU leaders also endorse the Civilian Headline Goal 2008. Civilian missions under the ESDP should be deployable within thirty days and can be deployed autonomously, jointly, or in close collaboration with military operations.

December 18

ESDP: The Helios A2 satellite is launched as a successor to the Helios 1B. It will serve the space-based Security surveillance needs of France and other involved European nations. However, it is a limited system and does not compare with the equivalent American capability.

December 20

The EU Constitutional Treaty: Hungary’s Parliament approves the European Constitution.

December 26

The Asian Tsunami: An underwater earthquake some 160 km west of the Indonesian island of Sumatra and some 1,600 km in length causes a huge tsunami that spreads across the Indian Ocean and as far as Africa’s eastern coast. The countries directly aﬀected include Indonesia, Sri Lanka, India, Thailand, the Maldives, Malaysia, Myanmar, Bangladesh, Somalia, Kenya, Tanzania, the Seychelles, South Africa, and Yemen. Around 300,000 people die or are missing (including several thousand foreign tourists); some 1.5 million are displaced, homeless, and/or left with no livelihood. Around

2004 [329] 125,000 are injured. An enormous international relief eﬀort gets under way in the following days. December 26

European Stability: Ukrainians are again asked to elect a new president.

December 31

The Asian Tsunami: In the wake of the tsunami disaster, France’s President Chirac calls for a humanitarian rapid reaction force for natural disasters to be set up by Europe and the UN. It is agreed European military capabilities will be used to aid the victims of the Asian tsunami.

December

ESDP: The EU sends a fact-ﬁnding mission to the DRC to examine diﬀerent options for an EU response, including through the ESDP, in the ﬁeld of security-sector reform, including army integration and training.

December

Iraq War/Civil War: The number of post-war US casualties in Iraq during 2004 reaches 894 killed. The total ﬁgure is 1,238.

2005 AT A GLANCE—MAJOR EVENTS AND THEMES

r r r r r r r r r r r

Mahmud Abbas wins presidential elections in the Palestinian Authority (PA). Popular elections in Iraq for a Transitional National Assembly are conducted. Israeli–Palestinian ceaseﬁre is agreed in Egypt. The EU Constitutional Treaty is rejected by French and Dutch voters. Hardliner Mahmoud Ahmadinejad is elected President of Iran. London is attacked by terrorists. Iran pushes ahead with the enrichment of uranium in spite of international condemnation. Hurricane Katrina all but destroys the American city of New Orleans. Israel withdraws from Gaza. The South Asian Earthquake occurs. NATO expands the International Security Assistance Force (ISAF) into western Afghanistan.

January 7

The Asian Tsunami: At an extraordinary meeting of the EU’s General Aﬀairs and External Relations Council (GAERC) it is agreed to implement a series of measures to bring aid to the victims of the 26 December tsunami. Speciﬁc emphasis is made on helping the aﬀected areas to recover and to prevent a reocurrence of such a catastrophe.

January 9

The Middle East: Chairman Mahmud Abbas wins popular elections and becomes President of the Palestinian Authority (PA), succeeding Yasser Arafat.

January 10

European Stability: Ukraine’s Central Election Commission declares opposition candidate Victor Yushchenko the winner of the repeat presidential election, but his opponent Victor Yanukovych appeals the decision.

January 12

The Iraq War/Civil War: The US announces that it has abandoned its search for WMD in Iraq.

January 16

The Emerging Powers: Zhao Ziyan, a reformist former Chinese Prime Minister and General Secretary of the Chinese Communist Party, dies. He was ousted from the party for opposing the use of military force against the Tiananmen demonstrators in 1989.

January 17

CFSP/ESDP: EU High Representative for the CFSP Javier Solana appoints Michael Mathiessen (Denmark) as his Personal Representative on Human Rights.

January 18

European Stability: The Ukrainian Supreme Court allows the publication of the repeat presidential election results, making them legal. On 20 January

2005 [331] the Ukrainian Supreme Court rejects Yanukovych’s last of a series of appeals against the result of the repeat presidential election. January 20

Bush’s America: George W. Bush is inaugurated for a second term as US President.

January 23

European Stability: Victor Yushchenko is sworn in as Ukrainian President.

January 24

CFSP/ESDP: In a speech to the Konrad Adenauer Foundation entitled ‘Shaping an Eﬀective EU Foreign Policy’, EU High Representative Javier Solana again conﬁrms the proliferation of WMD and terrorism as the main challenges the EU will face. However, he also points to the emergence of new great powers China, India, Brazil, and South Africa as ‘oﬀering attractive new areas for co-operation’.

January 25

The EU Constitutional Treaty: The Italian Chamber of Deputies approves the European Constitution.

January 26

Bush’s America: Condoleezza Rice is sworn in as US Secretary of State.

January 28–9

The EU Constitutional Treaty: At an informal meeting in Luxembourg, European justice and home aﬀairs ministers discuss a plan for a central register of criminal convictions but express concern over costs and data protection. At the same meeting, ministers do agree that the new Permanent Internal Security Committee, to be created under the Constitution, should promote and strengthen operational co-operation between police and other internal security authorities.

January 30

The Iraq War/Civil War: The Iraqi people elect a Transitional National Assembly. Voter turnout is between 60 and 75 per cent on average, according to the Independent Election Commission of Iraq, but very low in Sunni areas. The United Iraqi Alliance, a Shia-led list backed by Grand Ayatollah Ali Sistani, wins over 47 per cent of the vote. Second is a united list of Kurdish parties, with around 25 per cent of the vote. Interim Prime Minister Allawi’s list of secular Shia wins just under 14 per cent of the vote. On the same day, 260 insurgent attacks take place in the country, killing at least forty-four people.

January 31

CFSP/ESDP: The EU’s External Relations Council welcomes the November 2004 election of the Ukrainian President Victor Yuschenko, the elections for the Iraqi National Assembly on 30 January 2005, and the parliamentary elections in the PA.

February 1

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: EU High Representative Javier Solana signs an agreement with Moroccan Ambassador to the EU Menouar Alem on the participation of Moroccan forces in Operation Althea, the EUs military crisis management operation in BiH.

February 1

EU Enlargement: An Association Agreement between the EU and Croatia comes into force. It is the ﬁrst step for Croatia on the road to eventual EU membership.

February 1

The EU Constitutional Treaty: The Slovenian Parliament approves the European Constitution.

[332] a brave new century? February 1

EU Enlargement: The European Commission agrees to start membership negotiations with Croatia on 17 March 2005 under the condition that the latter co-operates with the International Criminal Tribunal for Yugoslavia (ICTY), by handing over indicted war criminals.

February 1–3

Military Transformation: NATO holds Exercise Allied Reach 05 at NATO’s Joint Warfare Centre in Stavanger. The exercise features a simulated scenario that examines planning, operational, and capability issues related to the deployment of the NATO Response Force (NRF).

February 3

European Stability: Georgia’s Prime Minister Zurab Zhvania dies from apparently accidental gas poisoning. Georgia’s President Mikheil Saakashvili takes over his post ad interim.

February 4

European Stability: Yuliya Tymoshenko, one of the leaders of the Ukrainian Orange Revolution, is conﬁrmed as Prime Minister by the Ukrainian Parliament.

February 8

The Middle East: Israeli and Palestinian leaders agree a ceaseﬁre at a summit in Egypt.

February 9–10 NATO Afghanistan: At an informal meeting in France, NATO defence ministers agree to gradually take over full command of ISAF in Afghanistan and to expand the Alliance’s presence into the west of the country. However, they fail to agree to expand training of the Iraqi military in Iraq itself. Ministers also review and discuss the Alliance’s ability to ﬁeld complex military operations when and where necessary, including the planning and ﬁnancing of operations, the decision-making processes, and the ‘usability’ of member countries’ forces. February 10

WMD Proliferation: The Pyongyang Government in North Korea claims to possess nuclear weapons. A new and dangerous chapter opens in the unfolding story of the proliferation of WMD.

February 12

ESDI/ESDP: At the Munich Conference on Security Policy, German Chancellor Schröder asserts that, ‘As part of the European Union, Germany today feels that it shares responsibility for international stability and order. . . . We Germans are living up to this responsibility. . . . However, this responsibility also brings with it a right to be involved in decision-making. Our wish to see Germany become a permanent member of the UN Security Council derives from the need to base responsibility on legitimacy.’ On the transatlantic partnership, Schröder says that it ‘must take such changes into consideration. And, to be honest, it does so insuﬃciently at present. . . . [NATO] is no longer the primary venue where transatlantic partners discuss and coordinate strategies. The same applies to the dialogue between the European Union and the United States, which in its current form does justice neither to the Union’s growing importance nor to the new demands on transatlantic co-operation.’ He proposes ‘a high-ranking panel of independent ﬁgures from both sides of the Atlantic to help us ﬁnd a solution’. Also he stresses that ‘A strong European pillar guarantees Europe’s loyal partnership in the transatlantic alliance and its willingness to share the burden of the task. This is also in the vested strategic interest of the US.’

2005 [333] February 13

NATO Afghanistan: Turkey takes over command of the International Security Assistance Force (ISAF) from Eurocorps. Lieutenant-General Ethem Erdagi takes over from Lieutenant-General Jean-Louis Py of France. Turkey already led ISAF from June 2002 to February 2003. NATO remains in charge of the mission.

February 16

Global Warming: The Kyoto Protocol enters into force. One hundred and forty states are party to the agreement. The European Commission welcomes the coming into force of the Kyoto Protocol, designed to ensure the international community can combat global climate change. Whilst all the Europeans agree on the dangers of global warming, the United States and several developing countries refuse to sign the protocol.

February 20

The EU Constitutional Treaty: Some 76.73 per cent of Spanish voters endorse the European Constitution in a referendum.

February 21

The New Transatlantic Relationship: In announcing ‘A Partnership for Action’, EU High Representative Javier Solana stresses the importance of the forthcoming visit of President Bush on 22 February as an opportunity to ‘relaunch an action-oriented transatlantic partnership’. Given the divide that exists between the Bush Administration and much of Europe, not much is expected of the visit.

February 21–2 The New Transatlantic Relationship: US President George W. Bush visits NATO Headquarters and the European Union. Indeed, it is the ﬁrst such visit of a serving US president to the European institutions and signiﬁcantly the ﬁrst major tour of President Bush at the start of his second term of oﬃce, indicating a desire on his part to mend the ﬁssures in the transatlantic relationship that opened up over Iraq. March 1

CFSP/ESDP: Greece’s Foreign Policy and Defence Council adopts a new defence doctrine. The document cites terrorism, illegal arms trade, regional destabilization and organized crime in general as the biggest security and defence challenges. This means that for the ﬁrst time since 1974, Turkey does not ﬁgure as the biggest threat to Greece. The new doctrine also replaces the uniﬁed defence area Greece–Cyprus, which stipulated that any attack on Cyprus would be considered a casus belli for Greece, with a promise to support Cyprus on all levels in the event of an emergency.

March 2

European Defence Agency: The Steering Board of the European Defence Agency (EDA) formally support the European Commission’s Green Paper on Defence Procurement. The Board asks that the Agency be permitted to develop the work. The 2005 programme of work on the European Defence Equipment Market (EDEM) issues is also approved by the Steering Board.

March 7

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: Agreement is reached between the EU and the Republic of Albania to enable Albanian forces to participate in the EU military crisis management operation in BiH (Operation Althea), as part of the Committee of Contributors.

March 7

Iraq War/Civil War: The European Council issues a Joint Action, entitled EUJUST LEX, that launches an EU mission to Iraq designed to promote integrated police, civilian administration, and rule-of-law training.

[334] a brave new century? March 8

Putin’s Russia: The former Chechen President and rebel leader Asklan Maschadov is killed by Russian security forces as the mobile phone he is using is traced and an air-to-ground missile locks onto it.

March 12

WMD Proliferation: In a change of tone if not policy US President George W. Bush supports the EU lead in negotiations with Iran over the uranium enrichment programme and oﬀers to lift the US veto on Iran’s joining the World Trade Organization (WTO) in the hope that such incentives will help Iran comply with the demands of the International Atomic Energy Authority (IAEA). It is also a mark of how split the great powers are over how to deal with Tehran as Russia and China take an increasingly strong position against the use of punitive sanctions.

March 16

Missile Defence: NATO inaugurates the Active Layered Theatre Ballistic Missile Defence (ALTBMD) Programme as part of Alliance eﬀorts to ﬁeld an ALTBMD capability by 2010.

March 18

CFSP/ESDP: At an informal meeting of EU defence ministers in Luxembourg High Representative Javier Solana calls for the EU to increase its support to the African Union (AU), especially as the latter tackles crises in the DRC and Darfur.

March 25

Global War on Terror: The Foreign Aﬀairs Committee of the British House of Commons issues a report accusing Britain’s closest ally of ‘grave violations of human rights’ in its treatment of prisoners in Guantanamo Bay, Afghanistan, and Iraq.

March 29–31

NATO: As a mark of the evolution of the Alliance into a strategic security institution Secretary-General Jaap de Hoop Scheﬀer travels to New Zealand to discuss security co-operation.

March 31 –April 2

NATO: NATO and Australia agree to enhance co-operation during a visit to Australia by NATO Secretary-General Jaap de Hoop Scheﬀer. The cooperation includes the signing of an agreement over the exchange of classiﬁed information which, it is hoped will open up further co-operation.

March

The Darfur Tragedy: The UN Security Council (UNSC) refers the situation in Darfur to the International Criminal Court (ICC) for investigation. However, the Sudanese government continues to oppose ICC involvement as a gross breach of its sovereignty.

April 5

Iraq War/Civil War: An informal power-sharing arrangement is established between Kurds and Shia as the new government opens with a Shiite Prime Minister, Ibrahim al-Jaafari, and a Kurdish President, Jalal Talabani. Importantly, the Sunni minority, long used to ruling Iraq, has boycotted the process.

April 10

CFSP/ESDP: The EU, mandated by the United Nations, launches a police mission to Kinshasa, the capital of the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC). Known as EUPOL KINSHASA the mission is designed to monitor, mentor, and advise the newly formed Integrated Police Unit (IPU) to ensure it acts according to international best practice.

April 13

The Nuclear Balance: The UN General Assembly (UNGA) adopts the International Convention for the Suppression of Acts of Nuclear Terrorism,

2005 [335] otherwise known as the Nuclear Terrorism Convention, focused on preventing the unlawful possession or use of nuclear devices or materials by non-state actors. April 14

CFSP/ESDP: The ﬁrst EU–UN Exercise (EST 05) is held to reﬁne crisis management procedures between the EU and the Department of Political Aﬀairs (DPA) and the Department of Peacekeeping Operations (DPKO). While the EU reserves the right to act independently if it deems it necessary, UN sanction for most EU operations is seen as a vital prerequisite. Support for the UN is the logical extension of such a policy.

April 20

CFSP/ESDP: In a bid to support the ﬂagging Middle East Peace Process the EU creates a Co-ordinating Oﬃce for the Palestinian Police (EU COPP). This puts into practice the June 2004 decision to ‘support the Palestinian Authority in taking responsibility for law and order and, in particular, in improving its civil police and law enforcement capacity’.

April 22

CFSP/ESDP: The Steering Board of the EDA agrees today that the Agency should assume the project management and research and technology responsibilities of the Western European Union’s Western European Armaments Group (WEAG) and Western European Armaments Organization (WEAO).

April 26

NATO: The heads of civil protection and civil emergency planning organizations from across the Alliance and partner countries agree a joint plan for improving civil preparedness against terrorist attacks.

April 26

NATO: A new logistics capability is agreed for the Alliance and signed at NATO Headquarters. As a result NATO is to create a multinational logistics capability to facilitate the more eﬃcient movement of troops in the event of missions or exercises.

April 27–8

NATO: At a meeting of NATO’s Conference of National Armaments Directors (CNAD) the Alliance agrees a raft of projects better to equip forces with new capabilities that themselves aﬀord cutting-edge technologies to the armed forces of NATO members.

April 27–8

NATO: At the same CNAD meeting the Alliance Ground Surveillance (AGS) Programme is reinforced by a $23 million contract with a consortium of major defence manufacturers known as the Transatlantic Industrial Proposed Solution (TIPS).

May 4

Global War on Terror: Pakistani commandos capture Abu Faraj al-Libbi, who is rumoured to be third in command of al-Qaeda after Osama bin Laden and Ayman al-Zawahiri. It is believed al-Libbi replaced Khalid Shaikh Mohammed after his arrest in March of 2003 in connection with the 9/11 attacks. The Pakistani Government believes al-Libbi played a key role in the attempts to assassinate President Pervez Musharraf in December 2003.

May 10

EU–Russia Co-operation. At the 15th EU–Russia Summit held in Moscow, Russia, the Common Economic Space and the Common Space of Freedom, Security, and Justice are discussed, as well as a Common Space of External Security. The Common Space concept is an attempt to involve Russia closely in the aﬀairs of the EU without giving it veto rights over EU policy.

[336] a brave new century? May 13

Central Asia: Uzbek troops open ﬁre on pro-democracy demonstrators in the eastern city of Andijan, killing hundreds.

May 23

CFSP/ESDP: At a meeting of the General Aﬀairs & External Relations Council (GAERC) at defence minister level a new Requirements Catalogue was approved to gauge the enhancement of European military capabilities under the EU Capability Development Mechanism.

May 24

WMD Proliferation: Oﬃcials from the EU-3 (Britain, France, and Germany) meet with their Iranian counterparts in Geneva, Switzerland, to discuss the implications of Iran’s possible resumption of uranium processing at a nuclear facility at Isfahan. The EU-3 warns Iran that such an act would see them support Iran’s referral to the UN Security Council (UNSC). Iran agrees to suspend uranium processing while it awaits a new European proposal.

May 24–5

NATO Enlargement: A broad security agenda is under discussion as the 46nation Euro-Atlantic Partnership Council Security Forum meets for the NATO’s ﬁrst time in Are, Sweden.

May 26

The Darfur Tragedy: During an International Donors’ Conference at Addis Ababa, EU High Representative Javier Solana and European Commissioner Louis Michel outline a substantial aid package to ease the humanitarian crisis. The proposal includes planning support, as well as logistics, air transportation, and training, and improved air surveillance.

May 27

WMD Proliferation: The Five-Yearly Review Conference of the nuclear NonProliferation Treaty (NPT) ends without substantive agreement due to tensions between the nuclear ‘haves’ and ‘have-nots’ over the precise meaning of Article 6, the so-called Disarmament Clause. The latter are not convinced that the established nuclear powers are serious about general and comprehensive nuclear disarmament. They are right.

May 29

The EU Constitutional Treaty: The French people vote ‘no’ to the ratiﬁcation of the EU Constitutional Treaty in a referendum, eﬀectively condemning the treaty to failure. This immediately prompts the resignation of Prime Minister Jean-Pierre Raﬀarin, who is replaced by Dominique de Villepin. The presidency of Jacques Chirac is also gravely undermined. Not only is this the ﬁrst occasion the French have rejected a foundation European treaty, but reﬂects a mood that is found across Europe as ordinary Europeans express dissatisfaction with what has become an elitist project. It also leaves the reform of the institutions in tatters, vital to managing a Union with twentyseven members with the accession of Romania and Bulgaria in January 2007.

June 1

The EU Constitutional Treaty: Echoing their French counterparts, the people of the Netherlands vote ‘no’ to the ratiﬁcation of the Constitutional Treaty in a referendum. Contrary to the claims of some the need for unanimous approval by all member states for a founding treaty to become law eﬀectively ends the Constitutional Treaty in its current form.

June 8

CFSP/ESDP: Following an oﬃcial request from the government of the DRC, the EU agrees to the establishment of an EU Advisory and Assistance Mission for Security Reform based in Kinshasa to promote good practice by the DRC Government. The mission is mandated for an initial 12-month period.

2005 [337] June 9

The Darfur Tragedy: The North Atlantic Council (NAC) approves NATO support for African Union (AU) forces in Darfur. Speciﬁcally, NATO will assist the AU to expand its peacekeeping mission in Darfur by airlifting additional AU peacekeepers into the region and assisting with training.

June 9

Military Transformation: At a meeting of defence ministers at NATO HQ in Brussels new ideas are discussed for the further transformation of the Alliance’s military capability in the light of likely operations.

June 10

NATO–Russia Co-operation: Ministers of Defence from the twenty-six NATO countries and Russia discuss defence reform and military cooperation, as well as the ﬁght against terrorism and broader aspects of international security. Agreement is reached over the need for improved military interoperability between Russian forces and those of NATO.

June 12

Iraq War/Civil War: The EU’s rule-of-law mission for Iraq EUJUST LEX becomes operational with a mandate for twelve months. The mission is devoted to training in the ﬁeld of the management of criminal investigations, a representative group of senior oﬃcials drawn from the judiciary, police, and prison service.

June 20

The New Transatlantic Relationship: At the EU–US Summit in Washington, US, a declaration is issued entitled ‘The European Union and the United States Working Together to Promote Peace, Prosperity and Good Governance in Africa’. A summit declaration is also issued on the 60th anniversary of the signing of the San Francisco Charter and the founding of the UN in which both the US and EU call for a renewal of the UN.

June 22

NATO Enlargement: The United Arab Emirates (UAE) formally joins the Alliance’s Istanbul Cooperation Initiative (ICI) which is designed to promote security sector reform and good security governance in the broader Middle East region.

June 22

The Iraq War/Civil War: An Iraq International Conference, co-hosted by the EU and the US, is held in Brussels to establish priorities and strategy during the transition period prior to election. The conference addresses three main themes: the political process, economic challenges and reconstruction, and public order and the rule of law.

June 24

WMD Proliferation: Mahmoud Ahmadinejad, the radical and conservative mayor of Tehran, easily wins a presidential election in a run-oﬀ against former President Akbar Hashemi Rafsanjani to become President of the Islamic Republic of Iran. Dissent against the fundamentalist rule of the Ayatollahs is quickly suppressed and Iran’s uranium enrichment programme becomes a priority, as does Iranian support for Shia insurgents in Iraq.

July 1

European Stability: Given reduced violence in Northern Ireland as a result of the Peace Process and the pressing need to redeploy its overstretched armed forces, the British Government announces a reduction of troop levels in the Province from 10,500 to 5,000 over two years.

July 5

The Emerging Powers: At a meeting of the Shanghai Co-operation Organization (SCO) China, Russia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, and Uzbekistan call for the US and coalition members to set a date for withdrawal

[338] a brave new century? from bases in Uzbekistan and Kyrgyzstan that are supporting operations in Afghanistan. July 7

Global War on Terror: A series of co-ordinated bomb blasts strikes London’s public transport system during the morning rush hour. At 8.50 a.m., three bombs explode within 50 seconds of each other on three London Underground trains. A fourth bomb explodes on a bus at 9.47 a.m. in Tavistock Square. Fifty-two people are killed and 700 injured. The terrorists are identiﬁed as three British-born Muslims of Pakistani origin and a Jamaica-born Muslim convert brought up in England. A new and chilling form of attacker stalks the streets of Western capitals.

July 8

The Nuclear Balance: The UN Convention on the Physical Protection of Nuclear Material (CPPNM) is amended to require of states a legal obligation to secure nuclear materials in storage and during transport, and to criminalize acts of sabotage against civilian nuclear facilities.

July 18

The Darfur Tragedy: Following a request from the AU, the EU agrees to aﬀord timely assistance to support of the AMIS II (African Union Mission in Sudan). Fundamentally, the EU insists upon the principle of African ownership and the need to ensure the AU is successful in its eﬀorts to address the crisis in the Darfur region of Sudan. Strong on rhetoric and weak in substance, the AU force is poorly-equipped and ill-trained and lacks any mandate above observing the genocide that is unfolding before it.

July 18

CFSP/ESDP: A Council Joint Action is issued by the EU in Brussels establishing the European Security and Defence College (ESDC). The ESDC is a network of national institutes, colleges, academies, and institutions designed to provide training of key civilian and military personnel to promote a common understanding of ESDP.

July 21

Global War on Terror: Four bomb attacks aimed at disrupting London’s public transport system fail. The attacks occur only two weeks after the 7 July bombings. The Metropolitan Police state that the intention was to cause large-scale loss of life. Thankfully, only the detonators exploded, with only one minor injury reported.

July 22

Global War on Terror: Police in London shoot and kill a man they suspect of being a terrorist on a mission. Jean Charles de Menezes is in fact an illegal Brazilian immigrant who is later found to have no connections to any terrorist group.

July 22

Global War on Terror: In the popular Egyptian resort of Sharm el-Sheikh a series of bombings kill eighty-nine people, many of them tourists.

July 26

WMD Proliferation: Iran’s outgoing President Khatami declares that it is Iran’s intent to resume part of its nuclear fuel cycle programme, regardless of European proposals, in pursuit of what he insists is Iran’s right to peaceful nuclear energy.

July 29

Global War on Terror: In a co-ordinated operation specialist British police units arrest all four of the main bombing suspects from the 21 July attempted bombings. Interestingly, the authorities use live coverage of the arrival of the ‘specialists’ to convince the terrorists that they should surrender.

2005 [339] July 31

WMD Proliferation: The Iranian Government formally announces that it will resume uranium enrichment as part of a ‘peaceful’ nuclear programme.

August 2

WMD Proliferation: President Khatami of Iran steps down and President Mahmoud Ahmadinejad succeeds him. Relations with Tehran, rarely smooth, are about to get far more diﬃcult.

August 5

WMD Proliferation: The EU proposes economic and political co-operation if Tehran agrees to abandon its programme to process nuclear fuel.

August 6

WMD Proliferation: Tehran rejects the EU proposal and the Europeans cancel further negotiations.

August 8

WMD Proliferation: Iran resumes processing uranium at its nuclear facility at Isfahan.

August 14

The Asian Tsunami: In the aftermath of the Asian Tsunami the Indonesian Government and rebels of the Free Aceh Movement sign a peace agreement that is mediated by former Finnish President Martti Ahtisaari.

August 28

Iraq War/Civil War: The Iraq Parliament approves a draft constitution.

August 29

Hurricane Katrina: Hurricane Katrina bursts poorly constructed and maintained levees protecting the American city of New Orleans. The city is ﬂooded and 1,600 are killed in Louisiana and Mississippi. Many experts put the cause of Katrina down to global warming.

September 5

The Emerging Powers: At the 8th China–EU summit in Beijing the two sides celebrated thirty years of diplomatic relations.

September 7

The Emerging Powers: The Council of the European Union and the Republic of India issue a Political declaration on the India-EU Strategic Partnership which highlights the shared common values and beliefs that make India and the EU are ‘natural partners in the modern inter-connected world’. As part of the Strategic Partnership an Action Plan is adopted that emphasizes the need jointly to ﬁght terrorism, the vital role of multilateralism as expressed through the United Nations. To that end, an EU–India Security Dialogue is established on global and regional security issues, disarmament, and nonproliferation. For all the rhetoric there is little of substance in a relationship between two regional powers that have minimal direct security contact. The EU’s strategic pretence gathers pace.

September 9

The Asian Tsunami: The EU launches the EU Monitoring Mission in Aceh (the Aceh Monitoring Mission) to oversee the reconstruction and humanitarian work and to ensure the peace process holds.

September 12

The Middle East: Israel completes it withdrawal from the Gaza strip and physically removes all signs of a permanent Israeli presence in both Gaza and four settlements in the northern West Bank. Military disengagement from the northern West Bank is completed ten days later.

September 15

The Asian Tsunami: The EU, together with contributing countries from the Association of South East Asian Nations (ASEAN), together with Norway and Switzerland, deploys the EU monitoring mission in Aceh, Indonesia.

September 18

NATO Afghanistan: Overseen by NATO’s International Security Assistance Force (ISAF), elections to Afghanistan’s National Assembly take place

[340] a brave new century? together with elections for provincial councils. NATO deploys a 2,000strong Election Support Force (ESF) throughout the election campaign. September 20

WMD Proliferation: In a surprise move North Korea agrees to give up its ‘existing nuclear weapons’ and returns to the Non-Proliferation Treaty after direct talks with the US. Such direct talks have been a constant demand of Pyongyang.

September 21

EU Enlargement: The EU warns Turkey that it cannot proceed with open accession negotiations unless Ankara recognizes all EU member states. Turkey signed the Ankara Agreement Protocol on accession talks with the proviso that this protocol did not entail ‘any form of recognition of the Republic of Cyprus’. The issue of Cyprus, its recognition by Turkey, and its refusal to allow Cypriot access to Turkish ports is to bedevil the accession negotiation. Talks are further complicated by the Greek and Cypriot refusal to recognize the Turkish enclave on the island that the Turks enforced following their invasion in 1974.

September 21

Iraq War/Civil War: An EU–Iraq Joint Declaration on Political Dialogue is signed in New York.

September 24

WMD Proliferation: In the face of Iran’s resumption of uranium enrichment the IAEA again warns Iran of possible referral to the UNSC if it does not desist.

September 25

WMD Proliferation: Iran rejects the IAEA resolution.

September 28

WMD Proliferation: In a bid to halt mounting speculation that a US military strike against Iran might be being contemplated, UK Foreign Secretary Jack Straw says that military action against Iran is ‘inconceivable’. In eﬀect, Straw is indicating that should such action go ahead Britain will not support it.

September 30

Central Asia: The EU imposes sanctions on Uzbekistan some ﬁve months after pro-democracy demonstrators were killed by government forces at Andijan.

October 1

Global War on Terror: Three Islamist suicide bombers attack two resorts in Bali, Indonesia, killing thirty-two people, most of whom are tourists.

October 3

EU Enlargement: The EU begins accession negotiations with Turkey and Croatia. They are likely to be long and hard.

October 3

Energy Security: The EU–Russia Permanent Partnership Council (PPC) on Energy holds its ﬁrst ever meeting in London to discuss energy security and Europe’s need for oil and gas. Energy security is established on the strategic security agenda.

October 6

The Darfur Tragedy: NATO’s Darfur mission in support of the AU in Darfur is extended until March 2006. NATO’s main tasks include providing airlift support for the rotation of peacekeeping troops, as well as additional training.

October 8

The South Asian Earthquake: An earthquake centred on both Pakistani and Indian Kashmir kills at least 75,000 people. In time, NATO’s new NATO Response Force (NRF) is despatched to join the humanitarian mission.

2005 [341] October 12

NATO: To promote eﬀective interoperability between its forces, NATO agrees to a standard architecture for air and ground intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance (ISR) assets.

October 13

WMD Proliferation: Iran agrees to resume talks with the EU-3, Britain, France, and Germany. Over its intention to resume the nuclear-fuel cycle.

October 13

European Defence Agency: At a meeting of EU defence ministers at RAF Lyneham, UK, it is agreed that spending on defence-related Research and Technology must increase and better collaboration be organized to improve economies of scale. Ministers also agree that the EDA must be able to initiate projects as soon as possible. Ten member states also issue a statement that they will create an ad hoc group, to be supported by the EDA, that will consider new approaches to solving the EU’s shortfalls in military capabilities.

October 19

The Iraq War/Civil War: The trial of former Iraqi President Saddam Hussein begins in Baghdad, Iraq.

October 20

The Global War on Terror: Bomb attacks in Delhi, the Indian capital, kill more than sixty people.

October 25

The Middle East: UN investigator Detlev Mehlis releases a report on the assassination of the former Lebanese Prime Minister Raﬁk Hariri. The report suggests a strong Syrian involvement in the killing. Syria denies involvement but such is the outrage in Lebanon and beyond that the stranglehold that Damascus has hitherto exercised starts to fail.

October 25

The Iraq War/Civil War: The New Iraqi Constitution drafted by the transitional government, which oﬀers Kurds, Shia, and Sunni strong autonomy is approved by a popular referendum. Brieﬂy hope mounts that a legitimate balance of power can be achieved in the country. The violence continues, however.

October 26

WMD Proliferation: In a widely broadcast speech, Iranian President Ahmadinejad declares Israel should be ‘wiped oﬀ the map’. The speech causes outrage around the world and puts Iran’s nuclear ambitions in a new political context.

November 2

The Global War on Terror: US journalist Dana Priest reports in the Washington Post that the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) is incarcerating terror suspects in secret prisons in Eastern Europe, beyond legal jurisdiction, with the objective of gaining valuable intelligence. In the article she claims that ‘The CIA has been hiding and interrogating some of its most important alQaeda captives at a Soviet-era compound in Eastern Europe, according to U.S. and foreign oﬃcials familiar with the arrangement.’ She also identiﬁes sites in Thailand, Afghanistan, and Guantanamo Bay in Cuba. The facilities, known as ‘black sites’ in classiﬁed White House, CIA, Justice Department, and congressional documents, are known by only a handful of oﬃcials in the United States, as well as the President and a few top intelligence oﬃcers in the host countries.

November 7

The Middle East: In a marked expansion of the role of the CFSP, the EU agrees to monitor the Rafah border crossing between Gaza and Egypt in what becomes known as the EU Border Assistance Mission (EU BAM Rafah).

[342] a brave new century? November 7

CFSP/ESDP: As part of the Moldovan-Ukrainian Border Joint Council Action, the EU begins deployment of a customs control and monitoring mission on the Transnestrian segment of the Moldova–Ukraine border. This initiative not only marks an important step in the normalization of relations between the two countries but is also a pivotal element in the EU’s ﬁght against weapons, goods, and human traﬃcking, smuggling, organized crime, and corruption.

November 8

European Stability: The French Government declares a state of emergency and imposes curfews in several French cities after twelve days of rioting and car-burning by mobs, many of whom are poor immigrants or ﬁrstgeneration French citizens. The riots spark a debate about the opportunities available and the nature of immigration and law and order in France which has always rejected multiculturalism in favour of the fostering of French identity.

November 10

The Global War on Terror: Suicide bombs in Amman, Jordan, attack several major hotels and a wedding party and kill ﬁfty-nine people. Responsibility is claimed by a new group, al-Qaeda in Mesopotamia. The attacks spark anti-al-Qaeda protests in Jordan but is believed to have been planned by a Jordanian—Abu Musab al-Zarqawi, the leader of al-Qaeda in Iraq.

November 14

The Middle East: The European Council establishes an EU Police Mission for the Palestinian Territories. The operation is to begin started on 1 January 2006 and will last three years. Code-named EUPOL COPPS, its objective is to lend support to the Palestinian Authority in achieving eﬀective, unbiased policing.

November 15

The Iraq War/Civil War: US troops discover a secret jail operated by the Iraqi Interior Ministry holding over 200 abused prisoners. It is further evidence that Iraq is spliting along sectarian lines as the detainees are overwhelmingly Sunni Muslims.

November 15

The Middle East: The US Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice secures IsraeliPalestinian agreement over border controls for the Gaza Strip designed to balance Tel Aviv’s security needs and the ‘sovereignty’ rights of the Palestinians.

November 15

The Middle East: Israel and the PA conclude an Agreement on Movement and Access, which includes principles for the operation of the Rafah crossing between Gaza and Egypt.

November 17

WMD Proliferation: In a setback to European eﬀorts to ﬁnd a negotiated solution to the problem of Iran’s nuclear programme, Iran restarts uranium processing at its Isfahan site.

November 18

WMD Proliferation: Mohammed el-Baradei, director of the IAEA, says that documents have come to light in Iran that demonstrate Tehran has obtained plans to build a nuclear weapon from the renegade Pakistani scientist A. Q. Khan.

November 18

CFSP/ESDP: The MILEX 2005 military exercise is held and marks the ﬁrst time the EU has used an operational headquarters (OHQ) outside the NATO framework to plan and conduct a large-scale EU crisis management

2005 [343] exercise. The objective is to improve and test the EU’s crisis management capabilities. November 21–2

CFSP/ESDP: At a meeting of EU defence ministers in the framework of the Capabilities Improvement Conference priorities for future action are agreed to enhance the military preparedness of the ESDP. These include the ‘targeting’ of ‘high priority’ military capability shortfalls, better co-ordination of support between member states, and the sharing of best practice among member states to recruit civilian personnel as part of ESDP civilian crisis management. However, too many EU member-states are failing to generate the military capabilities to which they committed under Headline Goal 2010.

November 22

European Stability: Angela Merkel takes oﬃce as Chancellor of the Federal Republic of Germany (FRG) after a closely fought election from which emerges a ‘grand coalition’ involving the two main political parties, the CDU and SPD. Such coalitions rarely prove easy to manage.

November 23

NATO: After the strains between the US and Germany over Iraq, Angela Merkel, the new German Chancellor, visits NATO HQ twenty-four hours after her appointment. She calls for a strong transatlantic relationship and emphasizes the importance of NATO as a political alliance.

November 23

NATO Afghanistan: In a mark of its displeasure over Western criticism of its domestic suppression of opposition, the Uzbek Government tells NATO they can no longer use Uzbek airspace in support of operations in Afghanistan.

November 24

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: On the eve of the completion of the EU Police Mission to the Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia (EUPOL PROXIMA), the European Council, in agreement with the Macedonian Government, decides to establish the EU Police Advisory Team (EUPAT), with a mandate until May 2006, to reinforce eﬀorts to establish European standards of policing.

November 24

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: The European Council decides to extend the EU Police Mission in BiH until December 2007.

November 27–8

CFSP/ESDP: At the 10th Anniversary of the Euro-Mediterranean Partnership in Barcelona, Spain, a new Code of Conduct on Countering Terrorism is adopted.

November 30

The Middle East: The EU Border Assistance Mission at the Rafah crossing point (EU BAM Rafah) begins its monitoring mission with a mandate for twelve months.

December 1

CFSP/ESDP: EU Border Assistance Mission to Moldova and Ukraine is established as a reaction to the joint letter of the presidents of Moldova and Ukraine dated 2 June 2005 calling for additional EU support in overall capacity building for border management, including customs, on the whole Moldova–Ukraine border.

December 5–6 OCSE: The 13th Meeting of the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE) Ministerial Council takes place at which the International Convention for the Suppression of Acts of Nuclear Terrorism is adopted,

[344] a brave new century? together with the Border Security and Management Concept and a statement issued on the situation in Georgia. December 7

United Nations: As a result of what it regards as a pro-Ethiopian stance by the UN, the Eritrean Government orders US, Canadian, European, and Russian members of the UN peacekeeping force to quit the country.

December 8

NATO: NATO foreign ministers meeting in the NAC at NATO HQ in Brussels, Belgium conduct a thorough review of the transatlantic relationship and outstanding strategic political issues.

December 8

NATO Afghanistan: At the same meeting of NATO foreign ministers in the NAC Stage 4 of the International Security Assistance Force (ISAF) is agreed whereby Alliance forces will extend their mandate across Afghanistan. A robust British-led 6,000-strong NATO Security Force is to be created to enable Alliance forces to take stabilization and reconstruction missions into the Pashtun tribal heartlands in Southern Afghanistan (Uruzghan and Helmond provinces). NATO commanders are increasingly concerned that aid and development is not being delivered fast enough and to suﬃcient levels to prevent the Pashtun, the Taliban, and al-Qaeda from making common cause.

December 8

NATO Afghanistan: NATO and Russia launch an Afghanistan CounterNarcotics Training Centre (UNODC/ICMP) following a meeting of foreign ministers in the NATO–Russia Council. The objective is to launch a pilot project on counter-narcotics through the training of Afghan and Central Asian personnel. Opium production increases 49 per cent over 2005 and provides some 92 per cent of world supply, with the ‘Opium GDP’ representing 27 per cent of the total economy and 36 per cent of the legal economy.

December 14

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: EUPOL PROXIMA in Macedonia completes its mission and is terminated.

December 15

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: The EU launches the EU Police Advisory Team (EUPAT) in Macedonia. EUPAT has thirty police advisers to support the development of a professional police service under the auspices of the EU Special Representative (EUSR) and in partnership with the Government in Skopje. The main areas of competence are monitoring and mentoring with priority given to border control, public peace and order and accountability, the ﬁght against corruption and organized crime.

December 15

The Iraq War/Civil War: Parliamentary elections are held which for the ﬁrst time see participation by Sunni voters. Long the rulers of Iraq under Saddam, the Sunni leaders believe they made a mistake by boycotting previous elections. However, the Shiite-led United Iraqi Alliance (UIA) gains the most votes but no overall majority, which sets a pattern for weak minority governments in Baghdad further destabilizing the already chronic political situation. The UIA’s leader Prime Minister Ibrahim al-Jaafari struggles to form coalition government amid ongoing sectarian violence and strong opposition to his own leadership.

December

The Iraq War/Civil War: The US post-war death toll in 2005 reaches a ﬁgure of 862, with 2,100 killed during the entire conﬂict.

2006 AT A GLANCE—MAJOR EVENTS AND THEMES

r r r r r r r r r r r r r r r r

Russia threatens to cut gas supplies to Ukraine and much of Western Europe. Israeli Prime Minister Ariel Sharon suﬀers a stroke and is incapacitated. Hamas defeats hitherto dominant Fatah in Palestinian Parliamentary elections. Iran removes International Atomic Energy Authority (IAEA) seals from centrifuges and begins enriching uranium. The Cartoon War begins. The US allows India to purchase American nuclear technology even though New Delhi is not a party to the Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT). The UN’s Responsibility to Protect (R2P) mandate is conﬁrmed by the UN Security Council (UNSC). The situation in Darfur worsens. Al-Qaeda in Iraq leader Abu Musab al-Zarqawi is killed. The Israel–Hezbollah War breaks out and much of Lebanon is infrastructure is destroyed. NATO expands the International Security Assistance Force across Afghanistan as part of ISAF Stage 4 and faces ﬁerce resistance in the south. North Korea tests a nuclear device. Saddam Hussein is executed. The NATO Response Force (NRF) is declared fully operational. US Secretary of Defense Donald Rumsfeld resigns. The Iraq Study Group (ISG) calls for a new US policy towards Iraq.

January 1

Energy Security: In an apparent attempt to intimidate the new Ukrainian Government Russia reduces gas supplies to Ukraine over a pricing dispute. Moscow wants to increase the price fourfold. However, the stratagem backﬁres as supplies are also aﬀected to key clients in Western Europe who immediately raise concerns about Russia’s use of energy as a strategic lever.

January 4

Energy Security: Russia promptly backs down in its dispute with Ukraine over gas supplies in the face of mounting Western concerns.

January 4

The Middle East: Israeli Prime Minister Ariel Sharon, veteran of the Six Day War and the Yom Kippur War, is incapacitated by a stroke. The mayor of Tel Aviv, Ehud Olmert, takes over as Acting Prime Minister. Sharon is never to regain consciousness and with his political passing what little chance there is of an accommodation with the Palestinians seems also to pass.

January 10

WMD Proliferation: Iran removes IAEA seals on centrifuges and other vital equipment and resumes uranium enrichment at its Natanz nuclear facility.

[346] a brave new century? January 13

The Global War on Terror: The US launches an air strike on Damadola, in the Bajaur tribal area in Waziristan, Pakistan, close to the Afghan border and kills eighteen people. The attack follows evidence that Ayman al-Zawahiri, al-Qaeda’s number two, is present, but later forensic evidence suggests that is not the case. However, at least ﬁve high-ranking alQaeda foreigners are killed, including Midhat Mursi, an al-Qaeda bomb expert.

January 16

WMD Proliferation: The ﬁve permanent members of the UN Security Council (UNSC) meet in London to discuss the Iranian nuclear crisis, a possible referral of Tehran to the Security Council and sanctions thereafter. There is little agreement between the Permanent Members as to how best to proceed. These are divisions within the UNSC that Tehran notes and skilfully exploits.

January 25

The Middle East: In a groundbreaking and ground-shaking political victory Hamas defeats the hitherto dominant Fatah Movement in the Palestinian parliamentary election to gain control of the Palestinian Authority. Only Fatah President Abbas retains overall control of external relations, but the Hamas victory further strains relations with an Israel it is committed to destroy. The EU and US immediately suspends aid because of Hamas support for terrorism.

January 26

NATO Afghanistan: Britain announces plans to deploy a further 4,000 troops to Afghanistan, as part of the new NATO Security Force (NSF) in preparation for operations in the south of the country. This brings the UK’s total contribution to 5,700.

January 31

Energy Security: In a statement not without irony, given his ‘big oil’ roots, and amid concerns over US reliance on external sources of supply, US President George W. Bush, in his annual State of the Union Address, calls upon Americans to end their ‘addiction to oil’. However, he cites technology rather than a reduction in consumption to be the solution.

January 31 –February 1

NATO Afghanistan: During the Afghanistan Conference held in London, UK, NATO reconﬁrms its long-term commitment to Afghanistan. Moreover, the international donors present at the conference agreed a ﬁveyear ‘Afghanistan Compact’, which commits both the Afghan Government and the international community to benchmarks in areas such as security, economic development, and better governance. The statement is at odds with a NATO some 2,000 troops short according to its commanders in Afghanistan.

February 4

WMD Proliferation: The Board of Governors of the IAEA call for IAEA Director-General Mohammed al-Baradei to refer Iran to the UNSC for its persistent ﬂouting of the IAEA inspections regime. Iran is one step closer to having sanctions imposed upon it but calculates that the international community is far too split for eﬀective action. It is correct.

February 5

The Cartoon War: Several Nordic embassies in the Middle East are attacked following the 2005 publication in a Danish newspaper of a cartoon that is deemed to depict the Prophet Mohammed disrespectfully. The cartoons also provoke protests in Europe. Indeed, for devout Muslims any such depiction

2006 [347] is blasphemous and the outrage emphasizes the cultural gap between secular Europe and much of the Muslim World. February 10

NATO Enlargement: NATO and defence ministers from the Mediterranean Dialogue countries Algeria, Egypt, Israel, Jordan, Mauritania, Morocco, and Tunisia discuss reinforcing practical co-operation at a meeting in Taormina.

February 17

The Iraq War/Civil War: The Iranian Foreign Minister calls for the UK to leave Iraq, citing not only Britain’s past involvement in the region but also alleged British incursions into Iran itself.

February 22

The Iraq War/Civil War: An attack is carried out on the Shia Golden Mosque by Sunni insurgents, possibly inspired by Abu Musab al-Zarqawi, the leader of al-Qaeda in Iraq; many are killed. The mosque is the holiest place for Shia in Iraq, and the attack triggers widespread violence as Iraq accelerates its decline into civil war.

March 2

The Emerging Powers: During a visit by US President Bush to New Delhi, he agrees to allow India to import US nuclear technology in exchange for opening its civilian nuclear facilities to international inspections. Not a member of the NPT, India has long ﬂouted its strictures. The decision by President Bush is seen by many allies as undermining the NPT and possibly opening the way to a new multilateral nuclear arms race, particularly in South and East Asia.

March 4

The Global War on Terror: Pakistani forces commence a major assault on pro-Taliban elements in the Tribal Areas in the North-West Frontier region. Islamabad says that forty-six militants and ﬁve soldiers are killed, although some reports put the death toll at over seventy.

March 8

WMD Proliferation: The Board of Directors of the IAEA formally refers Iran’s nuclear programme to the UNSC.

March 9

The Iraq War/Civil War: The US announces plans to close Abu Ghraib prison, notorious for the abuse of Iraqi prisoners by US personnel.

March 10

European Stability: The EU and Russia sign a joint document to enhance bilateral co-operation in space.

March 11

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: Former Yugoslav President Slobodan Miloševi´c dies in a cell in The Hague, Netherlands, during his trial for crimes against humanity. He is regarded by many as the architect of the Balkan tragedy, and his death brings a sorry chapter in Europe’s history to a close. However, hardline Serb nationalists claim he has been poisoned and hold demonstrations.

March 12

The Darfur Tragedy: African foreign ministers agree to an extension of the mandate of African Union (AU) troops in Darfur for a further six months. The decision defers the question of deploying a more robust UN force with a NATO and/or possible EU presence. However, the relatively weak rules of engagement (RoE) of the AU force are not changed.

March 22

European Stability: In a historic decision the Basque separatist group ETA announces a ‘permanent’ ceaseﬁre after a thirty-eight-year campaign of violence against the Spanish state, and opts for the political process. This

[348] a brave new century? follows secret negotiations with the Spanish Government in the wake of the Islamist attack on commuters in Madrid which eﬀectively negated European political terror as a weapon. March 28

The Middle East: Ariel Sharon’s newly formed political party Kadima wins 29 out of the 120 available seats in the Israeli parliamentary elections, making it the strongest party. In the absence of Sharon it is diﬃcult to know what Kadima stands for, but its new leader Ehud Olmert promises to govern in the spirit of Sharon. For the main opposition party Likud, the elections are a disaster as they win only twelve seats.

March 29

United Nations: Former Liberian leader Charles Taylor is arrested attempting to ﬂee from exile in Nigeria. He is caught on the border with Cameroon in possession of a large amount of diamonds and cash and then ﬂown to Sierra Leone for trial by a Special UN Court on war crimes charges.

March 29

WMD Proliferation: In an attempt to ratchet up pressure on Iran short of sanctions, the UNSC issues a Presidential Statement urging Iran to suspend all nuclear enrichment activities. In reality the UNSC is deeply split.

April 6–7

NATO Enlargement: At a high-level NATO–Mediterranean Dialogue meeting in Rabat, Morocco, discussion takes place over co-operation and future prospects. This is the ﬁrst so-called ‘26+7’ meeting to take place in a Mediterranean Dialogue country.

April 24

The Global War on Terror: Three suicide bombers believed to be linked to al-Qaeda kill twenty people in the Sinai resort of Dahab, Egypt.

April 25

CFSP/ESDP: The UNSC adopts Resolution 1671 (2006), authorizing the temporary deployment of an EU force to support the UN Operation in the Democratic Republic of Congo (MONUC) in support of elections.

April 26

The Global War on Terror: A report by the European Parliament (EP) claims that the CIA ﬂew 1,000 undeclared ﬂights over European territory since 2001 as part of its ‘unusual rendering’ of terrorist suspects to secret interrogation sites in Eastern Europe.

April 27

NATO Enhancement/Enlargement: In preparation for the November Riga Summit, NATO discusses the launching of possible Global Partnerships at a meeting in Soﬁa, Bulgaria, of Alliance foreign ministers with the aim of strengthening and expanding NATO’s relations with non-member countries. Discussions also begin on the possible next wave of NATO enlargement to Albania, Croatia, and Macedonia (the Adriatic Three), as well as Ukraine and Georgia.

April 28

United Nations: The UNSC passes a resolution conﬁrming the UN’s new Responsibility to Protect (R2P) mandate. R2P conﬁrms that each individual state has the responsibility to protect its populations from genocide, war crimes, ethnic cleansing, and crimes against humanity, and that the international community, through the UN, shares that responsibility. Importantly, R2P conﬁrms a new concept of state sovereignty by stating that in the event that national authorities are manifestly failing to protect their populations from genocide, war crimes, ethnic cleansing, and crimes against humanity the international community can intervene.

2006 [349] May 3

The Global War on Terror: Zacarias Moussaoui, the only person indicted for 9/11 attacks on Washington and New York, is given a life sentence.

May 4

NATO Afghanistan: The HQ of NATO’s Allied Rapid Reaction Corps (ARRC) takes command of the International Security Assistance Force (ISAF) in Kabul, Afghanistan, as ISAF prepares to extend its writ across the country.

May 5

The Global War on Terror: Widely criticized for his stewardship, Porter Goss resigns as Director of the CIA.

May 5

The Darfur Tragedy: The Darfur Peace Agreement (DPA) is signed. Little more than a truce between the Sudanese Government and the opposition groups in Darfur, it does however hold out the prospect, at least for a time, of improved access for humanitarian aid. Not all opposition groups sign up to the Agreement though, and it begins to unravel almost as soon as it is signed.

May 15

WMD Proliferation: Following an extensive diplomatic eﬀort led by the British, and following Libya’s abrogation of any nuclear ambition, the US restores full diplomatic relations with Tripoli for the ﬁrst time since the mid1980s when the Reagan Administration accused President Gaddaﬁ of being a state sponsor of terrorism.

May 15

CFSP/ESDP: The Headline Goal 2010 Capabilities Improvement Chart 1/2006 makes for sorry reading. Of sixty-four Capability Shortfalls and Catalogue Deﬁcits identiﬁed in the Force Catalogue of Headline Goal 2010 covering Land, Maritime, Air, Mobility, and ISTAR (intelligence, surveillance, target acquisition, and reconnaissance), seven have been formally solved, four are showing signs of improvement, and ﬁfty-three have not changed since the process began in November 2001. It is where reality meets rhetoric.

May 15

The Darfur Tragedy: Following the 5 May partial peace agreement the AU agrees to transfer the peacekeeping force to UN control.

May 20

The Iraq War/Civil War: The new Iraq Government, headed by Prime Minister Nouri al-Maliki, is sworn into oﬃce. Al-Maliki promises the use of ‘maximum force’ to deal with the ongoing insurgency and sectarian violence. It is to prove an empty promise.

May 21

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: In what marks the true end of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (FRY) and the ﬁnal humiliation for erstwhile Serbian regional ambitions, voters in Montenegro vote to secede from Serbia-Montenegro. The dream of a greater Serbia is ﬁnally quashed.

June 4

The Wars of the Yugoslav Succession: In a statement on Montenegro’s declaration of independence from Serbia, NATO states that it respects the result of that referendum that led to the declaration as representative of the democratic will of the Montenegrin people.

June 7

The Iraq War/Civil War: Abu Musab al-Zarqawi, the leader of al-Qaeda in Iraq, is killed when US forces attack a safe house in which he is hiding.

June 8

NATO Enhancement: At a meeting of the North Atlantic Council (NAC) at defence minister level new planning targets are agreed for NATO countries, to enable them better to conduct a greater number of smaller-scale

[350] a brave new century? operations. It is the latest development of the Defence Planning Process (DPP) that began back in the 1950s. June 12

CFSP/ESDP: The EU launches Operation EUFOR RD Congo, giving military support to MONUC to guarantee a peaceful environment during forthcoming elections.

June 19

The Global War on Terror: The US Supreme Court rules against the US Government and its claim that enemy combatants held at Guantanamo Bay are not entitled to the protections of the Geneva Convention. The decision is a major embarrassment for the Bush Administration.

June 21

Energy Security: European Commission President José Manuel Barroso, President of the European Council and Austrian Chancellor Wolfgang Schüssel, and US President George W. Bush meet at the EU–US Summit in Vienna to discuss foreign policy co-operation, economic and trade questions, and other global challenges. Topping the agenda is energy security which is becoming an ever more important topic.

June 22–3

NATO Enhancement: The NATO Response Force (NRF) demonstrates its capabilities at Flamingo Bay on the Cape Verdean island of São Vicente. The demonstration includes an amphibious landing, precision air attack, and a Special Forces assault, supported by a naval bombardment. American F-16 and Spanish Harrier aircraft attack mock terrorist camps, whilst a helicopter assault by Turkish Special Forces reinforces the attack. Spanish marines storm a beach, whilst a German frigate bombards enemy positions. The demonstration is the highlight of NATO’s Steadfast Jaguar exercise to test the NRF as it prepares for Full Operational Capability (FOC). When fully operational, the NRF will be tasked with missions ranging from humanitarian relief to full-scale combat operations anywhere in the world within a short timeframe.

June 28

The Middle East: Israel begins Operation Summer Rains in the Gaza Strip to interdict the launching of missiles into southern Israel. It is the ﬁrst major penetration by Israeli forces since Tel Aviv unilaterally withdrew from Gaza.

July 1

CFSP/ESDP: Under the auspices of the European Defence Agency (EDA) the EU introduces the European Defence Equipment Market (EDEM) with the aim of aﬀording European armed forces, and by extension taxpayers, better value for money in the procurement and acquisition of armaments. Founded on a Code of Conduct and a Code of Best Practice in the Supply Chain, its object is to obtain the best equipment at the most aﬀordable prices in the shortest time. Previously, the European defence procurement process has been noteworthy for the complete opposite. The Code is to be applied by twenty-two of the twenty-four EDA member states: Austria, Belgium, Cyprus, Czech Republic, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Ireland, Italy, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Malta, Netherlands, Poland, Portugal, Slovakia, Slovenia, Sweden, and the UK. Only Hungary and Spain opt not to take part initially.

July 5

WMD Proliferation: North Korea conducts a series of seven test launches, including a short-range Nodong-2 missile and one long-range intercontinental Taepodong-2 missile. The Taepodong-2 missile fails within

2006 [351] two minutes of launch and crashes into the Sea of Japan. Whilst doubts remain as to Pyongyang’s ability to strike a target 6,000 km distant it is evident that Taepodong-2 could in theory achieve such a range. July 5

NATO Enhancement: In a sign of the Alliance’s expanding remit NATO’s NAC issues a Statement on North Korea and expresses therein grave concerns over North Korea’s (DPRK’s) launch of a Taepodong-2 and other missiles.

July 7

The Global War on Terror: The US Department of Defense issues an internal memo stating that henceforth prisoners in Guantanamo Bay (labelled as enemy combatants) will be treated in accordance with the Geneva Conventions.

July 8

The Nuclear Balance: US President George W. Bush and Russia’s President Vladimir Putin launch the Global Initiative to Combat Nuclear Terrorism. With the objective of denying terrorists access to nuclear and radioactive material, the Initiative is designed to prevent a ‘secret and sudden attack’ through the eﬀective control of such material, the interdiction of traﬃcking networks, and the punishment of those involved.

July 11

The Global War on Terror: Seven bombs explode in eleven minutes on trains in and around Mumbai, India; 209 people lose their lives and over 700 are injured. Kashmiri separatists are blamed, with Pakistan accused of supporting them.

July 12

The Global War on Terror: The Bush Administration, bowing to the US Supreme Court, agrees to apply the Geneva Conventions to all terrorist suspects in US custody.

July 12

The Global War on Terror: Following the attacks, India’s Minister of State of External Aﬀairs E. Ahamed announces that India will suspend talks with Pakistan until President Pervez Musharraf abides by his 2004 promise to end all support for cross-border terrorism. However, Prime Minister Manmohan Singh also conveys India’s willingness to be ﬂexible with Pakistan following Musharraf ’s statement that ending the three-year long peace process would signal a victory for the separatist terrorists.

July 12

The Global War on Terror: NATO condemns the terrorist attacks in India. In a letter to the Indian ambassador to Belgium NATO Secretary-General Jaap de Hoop Scheﬀer expresses his condolences and condemns what he calls the barbaric attacks in Mumbai and Srinagar on 11 July.

July 12

The Middle East: A war breaks out between Hezbollah paramilitary forces in Lebanon and Israel following months of bombardment of northern Israel by increasingly sophisticated Iranian sourced surface-to-surface missiles and the capture by Hezbollah of two Israeli soldiers; three others are killed. Israeli attempts to rescue the abducted soldiers fail with ﬁve more of its soldiers being killed. Israel responds with massive air strikes and artillery ﬁre on Lebanese civilian infrastructure, which Israel claims is being used by Hezbollah. Lebanon formally charges Israel with seeking collective punishment in direct contravention of the Fourth Geneva Convention. An Israeli air and naval blockade, and a ground invasion of southern Lebanon

[352] a brave new century? follow. Hezbollah in turn launches waves of rockets into northern Israel and engages the Israel Defense Forces (IDF) in guerrilla warfare from hardened positions. Over 1,500 people are killed, many of them Lebanese civilians, much of Lebanon’s infrastructure is severely damaged, with some 900,000 Lebanese and 300,000 Israelis displaced as a result of the conﬂict. Even after hostilities cease some 256,000 Lebanese remain internally displaced, with much of South Lebanon uninhabitable due to unexploded cluster bombs. The Israeli Defence Force (IDF) is widely perceived to have failed further weakening an already unstable Olmert government. July 15

NATO–Russia Co-operation: NATO Secretary-General Jaap de Hoop Scheffer welcomes the US–Russia Global Initiative to Combat Nuclear Terrorism.

July 18

The Darfur Tragedy: An International Conference is held in Brussels on Darfur, co-hosted by the EU, the UN, and the AU, to raise awareness and to seek pledges of support from donor states.

July 31

NATO Afghanistan: NATO’s ISAF expands, as part of ISAF Stage 4, by taking command of the Southern region of Afghanistan from US-led Coalition forces operating under Operation Enduring Freedom (OEF). In keeping with the ISAF mandate the objective is to extend NATO’s stabilization and reconstruction mission across Afghanistan. However, to do so NATO must now enter the heartlands of the Pashtun, from which the Taliban draws much of its support. Led by the British, the NATO Security Force rapidly ﬁnds itself engaged in ﬁerce ﬁghting against a coalition of Pashtun and Taliban determined to resist what they regard as foreign penetration.

July 31

The Global War on Terror: Two bombs are left on packed trains in Germany in Dortmund and Koblenz. However, the devices are identiﬁed before they can explode. German police conﬁrm that the ﬁnd represents a failed terror attack.

August 1

EU Enlargement: At a meeting in Salzburg on the Stability Pact for South East Europe, Croatian Prime Minister Ivo Sanader aﬃrms Croatia’s aim to join the EU in 2008.

August 11

The Middle East: The UNSC unanimously approves Resolution 1701 in an eﬀort to bring hostilities between Israel and Hezbollah to an end. The resolution, which is approved by both Lebanese and Israeli governments in the following days, also calls for the disarming of Hezbollah, for Israel to withdraw, and for the deployment of Lebanese soldiers and an enlarged United Nations Interim Force in Lebanon (UNIFIL).

August 14

The Middle East: Israel’s war with Hezbollah ends when a UN-brokered ceaseﬁre comes into eﬀect. Although both sides take losses in the ﬁghting, much of Lebanon is devastated and for the ﬁrst time since 1973 the invincibility of Israeli forces is called into question. Hezbollah, on the other hand, is strengthened in much of the Arab world as both a political and military force.

August 17

The Middle East: The Lebanese Army begins deploying in southern Lebanon, ostensibly as a buﬀer between Hezbollah and the IDF. In reality the weakened political situation in Beirut makes it unclear to what extent the Lebanese can play such a role.

2006 [353] August 30

The Global War on Terror: Following several terrorist attacks in Turkey, NATO’s NAC issues a statement of condemnation.

August 31

The Darfur Tragedy: UNSC Res. 1706 extends the mandate of the UN mission in Sudan (UNMIS) which has 10,000 personnel charged with monitoring the North–South Comprehensive Peace Agreement. The resolution ‘invites’ the consent of the Sudanese Government to the deployment of 20,600 UN peacekeepers to the region as part of a reinforced UNMIS that would take over from the African Union’s currently overstretched African Mission in Sudan (AMIS). However, the ruling National Congress Party (NCP) in Khartoum continues to rejects the proposed UN deployment out of hand.

September 5

The Global War on Terror: In what amounts to a defeat for the Pakistani Army and a blow for the American-led global war on terror, the Waziristan Accord in Miranshah, North Waziristan, is reached. It is an agreement between tribal leaders and the Pakistani Government to end all ﬁghting between them. The agreement requires the Pakistani Army to withdraw and not return and to hand over all weapons and equipment seized during recent operations. Islamabad will also compensate tribal leaders for any loss of life and property and permit ‘foreigners’ (which is a euphemism for al-Qaeda and other foreign jihadis) to remain in the region. Moreover, some 2,500 prisoners are to be released from Pakistani custody.

September 6

The Global War on Terror: US President George W. Bush states that the use by the CIA of a global secret prison network must continue. However, he also notes that fourteen top-level terrorism suspects were transferred to Guantanamo Bay the same week, that the CIA prisons were now empty, and that all detainees will be aﬀorded the protection of the Geneva Conventions.

September 7

The Global War on Terror: The Pentagon changes policy over the use of harsh interrogation tactics. US personnel are henceforth forbidden from using forced nudity, hooding, military dogs, and ‘water-boarding’ to elicit information from captured detainees. The Defense Department also accepts international standards of humane treatment for all detainees in US military custody, the ﬁrst time there has been a uniform standard for both enemy prisoners of war and the so-called unlawful combatants linked to al-Qaeda, the Taliban, and other terrorist organizations.

September 8

The Middle East: The Israeli air and sea blockade of Lebanon is lifted.

September 12

NATO Enhancement: NATO moves to acquire 3 C-17 strategic airlift aircraft as a Letter of Intent (LOI) is publicly released by thirteen NATO allies to launch contract negotiations for the purchase of the aircraft. Eventually, ﬁfteen allies and one partner state (Sweden) agree to join the initiative.

September 16

The Global War on Terror: At the summit of the Non-Aligned Movement in Havana, Cuba, Indian Prime Minister Manmohan Singh and Pakistani President Pervez Musharraf make a joint statement announcing that the two countries will resume formal peace negotiations and establish a joint agency to tackle terrorism.

[354] a brave new century? October 1

The Middle East: The IDF claims to have completed its withdrawal from Lebanon. However, the UN Force in Lebanon (UNIFIL) denies this, saying that the IDF is still operating near Ghajar, a small town on the border.

October 3

CFSP/ESDP: At a meeting of European Union defence ministers in Levi, Finland, the Long-Term Vision (LTV) report of the EDA is presented. It is designed to serve as a compass for defence planners as they develop ESDP military capabilities over the next twenty years. The report highlights the need for the EU to be able to project power, and that success will only be possible through eﬀective civil–military co-operation. It is also agreed that the LTV should form the basis for new proposals from the EDA on an ESDP Capability Development Plan, including a European Defence Research and Technology (R&T) Strategy and related priorities as part of a strengthening of the European Defence, Technological, and Industrial Base (EDTIB).

October 3

CFSP/ESDP: EU defence ministers consider the Joint Investment Programme (JIP) on Force Protection as a way to spend more and spend better limited defence budgets on critical areas of Defence R&T.

October 5

NATO Afghanistan: Having expanded into southern Afghanistan in July, NATO’s ISAF broadens its operations into Eastern Afghanistan with a total of twenty-four Provincial Reconstruction Teams (PRTs) together with their supporting structures. However, the British Commander of ISAF, Lieutenant-General David Richards, says that he needs at least 2,000 more troops which must not be constrained by ‘national caveats’ that limit their use and utility.

October 9

WMD Proliferation: North Korea announces that it has conducted its ﬁrst nuclear test. However, the blast is less than one kiloton, which is smaller than expected, and US oﬃcials suggest that it may have been an unsuccessful test. China is only given twenty minutes’ notice of the test, and subsequently warns Japan, Russia, and the United States.

October 16

WMD Proliferation: The US conﬁrms the North Korean nuclear test but claims it is a failure with only part of the device having detonated.

October 31

The Iraq War/Civil War: 672 US personnel have been killed in Iraq in 2006, with total US death reaching 2,772.

November 5

The Iraq War/Civil War: Former Iraqi President Saddam Hussein is sentenced to death by hanging.

November 8

The Global War on Terror: Partly as a result of the war in Iraq, the Democratic Party gains control of both Houses of Congress in the US mid-term elections, dealing a severe blow to the presidency of George W. Bush who will now have to work with the opposition. His standing internationally is diminished.

November 8

The Global War on Terror: In the wake of the Republican defeat in the US mid-term elections Donald Rumsfeld resigns. Widely regarded as the failed architect of the Iraq War, he is replaced by Robert Gates as Secretary of Defense. Gates served under George H. W. Bush, the current president’s father, and his appointment is seen as conﬁrmation that the

2006 [355] ‘realist-internationalists’ have regained control at the expense of the neoconservatives. November 23

CFSP/ESDP: In a speech at The Hague, Netherlands, EU High Representative Javier Solana calls on Europeans to engage security beyond Europe’s borders. He states, ‘The idealism behind the EU’s foundation is vital to deﬁning who and what we are today. And it helps to appreciate the value of the European Union as a force for good in the world. We have carefully built a zone of peace, democracy and the rule of law of more than 500 million people. Now we have to extend that zone further. And to answer the call for Europe to act. To promote peace and protect the vulnerable. That is the aim of the Common Foreign and Security Policy’.

November 28

NATO Enhancement: NATO signs a contract with the Science Applications International Corporation (SAIC) of the US to prepare an Integrated Test Bed for the Alliance’s Future Active Layered Theatre Missile Defence (ALTBMD).

November 28–9

NATO: At the Riga Summit of Heads of State and Government, the Comprehensive Political Guidance (CPG) is approved, establishing a planning framework for future Alliance military capabilities and Intelligence requirements to better enable the Alliance to project stability. The CPG also conﬁrms terrorism, proliferation, failing states, and regional crises as the main challenges to the Alliance, together with the misuse of new technologies and the disruption of the ﬂow of vital resources. The 25,000-strong NATO Response Force (NRF) is declared fully operational and Partnership for Peace (PfP) status oﬀered to BiH, Montenegro, and Serbia. NATO also declares its willingness to extend membership to Albania, Croatia, and Macedonia in 2008 should they be ready. A new NATO Training Cooperation Initiative is also launched for Partners in the Middle East and Mediterranean. However, the most contentious issue is the demand of the British, Canadians, and Dutch that other allies remove caveats preventing the ﬂexible use of forces to support these three hard-pressed allies in Afghanistan. France, Germany, Italy, and Spain agree that their forces can move to support allies but only in extremis. Moreover, little discussion takes place over a Global Partnership with states such as Australia, Japan, New Zealand, and Sweden.

November 30

The Iraq War/Civil War: In a meeting in Amman, Jordan, with Iraqi Prime Minister al-Maliki, US President George W. Bush rejects calls for a ‘graceful exit’ and insists the US will stay the course. However, it is increasingly evident that the Americans are beginning to shift the blame onto the Iraqis for the failed security situation. Moreover, President Bush has only limited time to control the extent and timeframe of America’s presence. As a sign of the shifting realities, the Iraqis keep Bush waiting for a day in preparation for a visit as they begin to look for allies after the US withdrawal.

December 4

The Iraq War/Civil War: Hardline US Ambassador to the UN, John Bolton announces that he will quit the post. Appointed only temporarily, Bolton knows he will not get the support of the Democrat-controlled Congress and thus is unlikely to be conﬁrmed in post.

[356] a brave new century? December 6

The Iraq War/Civil War: The Iraq Study Group (ISG) presents its ﬁndings. A very senior, bipartisan of grouping of ‘Wise Men’ headed by former Secretary of State James Baker and former Congressman Lee Hamilton, the ISG is charged with ﬁnding new options in Iraq. Three options are apparent— leave immediately, stay the course, or begin a graduated withdrawal of US forces. The Group is profoundly split over which course of action to take but ﬁnally agrees that pressure must be increased on the Iraqi Government to take control on the ground. They also recommend renewing contact with Syria and Iran to ﬁnd a solution, a move the Bush White House rejects. However, the focal point of the report is the call for the bulk of US forces to be withdrawn by early 2008, while leaving some 15,000 US personnel to train the Iraqi security forces.

December 23

WMD Proliferation: The UNSC imposes limited sanctions on Iran for failing to comply with demands that Tehran ceases attempts to enrich uranium cease. The sanctions ban the supply of nuclear-related technology and materials and impose an asset freeze on key individuals and companies. The vote takes place more than two months after Britain, France, and Germany introduced the draft resolution, which demonstrates the extent to which the major powers are split. It is a split that Iran is only too willing to exploit.

December 30

The Iraq War/Civil War: At dawn in Baghdad, Saddam Hussein is executed. He is responsible for the murder of thousands of fellow Iraqis, but his execution is nevertheless greeted with expressions of regret from Western powers, many of which had asked for the sentence to be commuted to life imprisonment. Filming of Saddam’s last moments and the botched execution only serve to heighten concerns over the humiliation of Saddam as he faced the gallows.

2007 AT A GLANCE—MAJOR EVENTS AND THEMES

r r r r r

Romania and Bulgaria join the EU. President Bush announces a troop surge in Iraq. President Putin warns of a unipolar world. The US estimates some 200,000 people have been killed in Darfur. UN Security Resolution 1747 is passed calling on Iran to cease uranium enrichment. r The Berlin Declaration is issued by EU leaders. r President Putin threatens to cut co-operation under the Conventional Forces Europe Treaty over missile defence.

January 1

EU Enlargement: Romania and Bulgaria join the EU, bringing the membership up to twenty-seven. Not only does the expanded membership reinforce the need to reform the EU’s institutions, but the readiness of the two countries for EU membership is also questioned. The pressure increases at the very least to resurrect those parts of the now moribund Constitutional Treaty dealing with the streamlining of EU decision-making. With an EU now at twenty-seven many fear that decision-making will become almost impossible.

January 5

WMD Proliferation: Chinese President Ju Hintao calls upon Iran to make a serious response to the demands of the international community that Tehran cease the enrichment of weapons-grade uranium.

January 10

The Iraq War/Civil War: In a televised address to the US people, President George Bush announces his intention to increase US force levels in Iraq by 20,000. Known as the ‘troop surge’, the announcement is implicit criticism of the Iraq Study Group which had called on the US to begin preparing for the withdrawal of forces by 2008. Focused on Baghdad, the plan has three phases: to clear the ground in Baghdad of insurgents; to control Baghdad; and eventually to develop the infrastructure and thus improve the quality of life of Baghdad residents. It is not envisaged that US forces will reach full strength before June 2007

January 29

NATO–EU Relations: Whilst suggesting that likening NATO–EU relations to a ‘frozen conﬂict’ is an exaggeration, NATO Secretary-General Jaap de Hoop Scheﬀer does call for a ‘New Chapter’ in NATO–EU relations. He calls on both institutions and their champions to make real the NATO–EU Strategic Partnership that exists in name only. He highlights ﬁve areas that he believes provide the basis for eﬀective collaboration: improved co-operation in Kosovo; a concerted approach in Afghanistan; the harmonization of military

[358] a brave new century? transformation; a comprehensive dialogue about future security challenges; and a dialogue over the enlargement processes of the two organizations. February 8

Afghanistan: At a meeting in Seville, Spain, the NATO Secretary-General and senior NATO commanders urge members to commit more troops to Afghanistan to defeat an expected spring oﬀensive by the Taliban. However, whilst the US and Britain pledge extra troops they singularly fail to persuade the other NATO members to send reinforcements, thus exacerbating the divide within the Alliance over burden-sharing. Indeed, whilst the Secretary-General promises increased resources for reconstruction and development in Afghanistan, together with new equipment for the Afghan National Army (ANA) and the police, the marked lack of support from most NATO members calls into question the long-term viability of the mission. New NATO commander, US General Dan McNeil, states that he needs a minimum of 2,000 extra troops to defend Afghanistan’s border with Pakistan.

February 10

The Emerging Powers: At the Munich Security Conference, Russian President Putin warns of a US that is trying to establish a ‘unipolar world’. He accuses the US of having overstepped its borders in all spheres—economic, political, and humanitarian. In the presence of US Secretary of Defense Robert Gates and senior American politicians such as John McCain and Joe Lieberman, he calls for the reconsideration of the entire architecture of world security. At the same time, Putin brusquely brushes aside concerns about his commitment to democracy and freedom of speech.

February 20

WMD Proliferation: A day before the UN deadline for Iran to stop enriching weapons-grade uranium, Iranian President Mahmoud Ahmedinejad rejects all international calls to suspend the fuel cycle. However, he calls for talks provided there are no preconditions. The demand takes places just as the head of the IAEA Mohammed el-Baradei warns about the pace at which Iran’s nuclear programme is developing.

March 6

Darfur: In its annual human rights assessment the US estimates some 200,000 people have died as a result of the conﬂict in the Sudan.

March 15

The Emerging Powers: In a marked change of policy, the Iranians seize ﬁfteen British Royal Navy personnel that they claim trespassed into Iranian national waters whilst boarding ships in the long-disputed Shatt al-Arab waterway. London vigorously denies the claim.

March 24

WMD Proliferation: The UN Security Council (UNSC) agrees to sanction Iran for not having halted enrichment of uranium. The sanctions block Iranian arms exports and freeze assets of individuals and companies engaged on the Iranian nuclear programme. However, whilst UNSC Res. 1747 reinforces the December 2006 sanctions, it again reveals a profound split between Permanent Members of the Security Council over how to deal with Iran. The US and UK wanted a more robust set of measures but were frustrated primarily by the Chinese and Russians.

March 25

CFSP/ESDP: On the occasion of the ﬁftieth anniversary of the signature of the Treaties of Rome in Berlin the gathered EU-heads of state and government issue the Berlin Declaration. The Declaration states that ‘We [the

2007 [359] EU] are facing major challenges which do not stop at national borders. The European Union is our response to these challenges. . . . We will ﬁght terrorism, organized crime and illegal immigration together. We stand up for liberties and civil rights also in the struggle against those who oppose them. Racism and xenophobia must never again be given any rein. We are committed to the peaceful resolution of conﬂicts in the world and to ensuring that people do not become victims of war, terrorism and violence. The European Union wants to promote freedom and development in the world. We want to continue to drive back poverty, hunger and diseases. We want to take a leading role in that ﬁght. We intend jointly to lead the way in energy policy and climate protection and make our contribution to averting the global threat of climate change.’ The Declaration also calls for institutional changes by the time of elections for the European Parliament (EP) in 2009. However, divisions over the scope of such changes are already apparent between those led by Germany, who wish to pursue a more ambitious agenda of institutional reform, and those led by the British, who demand an end to such abstract debates and highlight the need for the EU to improve the lives of its people. The likely outcome is a shortened Treaty of Europe that will permit suﬃcient changes to the institutional structure to permit better functioning of the now twenty-seven-strong EU. April 4

The Emerging Powers: As a ‘gift’ to the British people on the eve of Easter, the Iranians release the ﬁfteen British naval personnel. However, relations with the West are poor.

April 23

WMD Proliferation: The EU agrees an arms embargo on Iran together with a package of restrictions following Iran’s refusal to cease enrichment of uranium. At the same time it is agreed that Javier Solana, the EU’s High Representative, will meet with Iran’s Chief Negotiator Ali Larijani.

April 26

Missile Defence: Russian President Vladimir Putin threatens to halt cooperation with other European states under the Conventional Forces Europe (CFE) Treaty unless plans are halted to develop a limited missile defence system in Europe. Signed in 1990 in the immediate aftermath of the Cold War, CFE is seen as the cornerstone of military stability in Europe. Putin says that ‘The threat of causing mutual damage and even destruction increases many times.’ This is not just a defence system, President Putin states, but part of the American strategic nuclear capability.

April 27

Missile Defence: NATO foreign ministers meeting in Oslo agree that proposals for a limited missile defence system based in Europe do not upset the strategic balance in Europe, and NATO Secretary-General Jaap de Hoop Scheﬀer aﬃrms that the principle of the indivisibility of security is strongly supported by the Alliance, saying that discussions on missile defence would continue within NATO in full transparency.

April 27

Missile Defence: Russian President Vladimir Putin warns that American plans to build a missile defence shield in Eastern Europe increases the danger of ‘mutual destruction’ and warns Poland and the Czech Republic of the consequences. Both countries have expressed a willingness to permit the US to site missile bases and radar on their territory.

[360] a brave new century? April 29

Darfur: A Global Day of Action takes place to highlight what one British minister, Peter Hain, calls genocide in Darfur. Celebrities, politicians, and ordinary citizens the world over join forces to demand greater action from the international community to stop the killing. China faces particular criticism for blocking action in the UNSC and a seeming willingness to tolerate any abuses of human rights by the regime in Khartoum. Sudan is a signiﬁcant supplier of oil to China.

April 29

Afghanistan: In a major push by some 3,000 NATO forces the Taliban are attacked near Sangin in the Western Afghan province of Herat. NATO reports some eighty-seven Taliban killed. This ﬁgure is in addition to the forty-nine reported killed on 28 April. Three members of the coalition are reported killed in action.

May 7

France: Nicolas Sarkozy is elected rightist President of France. Taking 53 per cent of the vote he promises to be “president of all the French people”. In a victory speech he tells his, “American friends that they can rely in our friendship . . . France will always be next to them when they need us”.

June 23

The EU Constitutional Treaty: EU leaders agree on the text of a Reform Treaty to replace the failed Constitutional Treaty. However, much of the Constitutional Treaty is preserved. The main points are: a full-time President of the European Council to serve a term of two and a half years; the proposed EU Foreign Minister is dropped to be replaced by an EU High Representative of the Union for Foreign Aﬀairs and Security Policy with increased powers compared with the current High Representative; less power for the member-states to veto proposals; more oversight power for the European Parliament; a legal personality for the European Union; and a slimmed down European Commission from 2014. Member-states will no longer automatically have at least one European Commissioner. At British insistence national control over foreign policy, justice and home aﬀairs is to be retained. The Intergovernmental Conference (IGC) charged with the taking the Treaty forward has also been tasked to agree on the following declaration: “The conference conﬁrms that the fact that the European Union has a legal personality will not in any way authorise the Union to legislate or to act beyond the competence conferred upon it by the member-states in the treaties”. Fifty-three years on from the failure of the European Defence Community (EDC) the struggle in Europe between nationalists and federalists continues. It is the eternal story of European security and defence.

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Index

Abbas, Mahmud 329, 345 Abdullah, Crown Prince 283, 285 Acherson, Dean 15 Action Committee for the United States of Europe 51, 119 Adamec, Ladislav 173 Aden 76, 90 Adenauer, Konrad 12, 17, 22–3, 25, 27, 31, 36, 39–41, 43–4, 49, 54, 55–6, 66, 76, 81, 89 Afghanistan 102, 165, 166, 169, 244, 262, 282, 286–7, 298, 302 constitution 314 elections 324, 338 Interim Authority 280 International Security Assistance Force (ISAF) 282 NATO in 307–9, 314–15, 331–2, 338, 342–3, 345, 348, 351, 353, 357, 359 Operation Enduring Freedom 278–9 USSR in 130–1, 133, 138 African Union (AU) 325, 333 African Union Mission in Sudan (AMIS) 325 Agreement on the Prevention of Nuclear War 113 Ahmadinejad, Mahmoud 336, 337, 338, 340, 357 Ahtisaari, Martti 251, 338 Aideed, Mohammed Farah 213 Ailleret, Charles 83 Airbus A400M 276, 281, 288 al-Jaafari, Ibrahim 343 Al-Jazeera 325 al-Libbi, Abu Faraj 334 al-Malaki, Nouri 354 al-Qaeda 178, 206, 208, 213, 234, 241, 244, 259, 268, 277–8, 283, 304, 310, 316, 319, 334, 341, 345 al-Rantissi, Abdel Aziz 318

al-Sadr, Moqtada 322 al-Yawaer, Ajil 319 al-Zarqawi, Abu Musab 341, 346, 348 al-Zawahiri, Ayman 317, 334, 345 Albania 50, 93, 185, 189, 200, 202, 233, 237–40, 276, 332, 347 Albright, Madeleine 237–8, 246, 248 Alexander, Earl 38 Algeria 48, 51–2, 265, 346 Algerian War 66, 76 Allawi, Ayad 319, 326, 330 Allen, Richard 141 Alliance Ballistic Theatre Missile Defence (ABTMD) 163 Alliot-Marie, Michèle 323 Alphand, Hervé 28, 31 Amnesty International 268 Andreotti, Giulio 183–4 Andropov, Yuri 133, 146, 148, 150 Anglo-American relations 30, 60 Anglo-French relations 34, 79, 95–6 Anglo-Italian relationship 299 Annan, Koﬁ 236, 237, 318 Anti-Ballistic Missile (ABM) Treaty 99, 109, 147, 194, 207, 274, 281 Arafat, Yasser 167, 212, 227, 232, 237, 245, 267–8, 329 Argentina, Falklands invasion 145 Armenia 193, 197, 201 Armstrong, Neil 69, 96 Ascheson 17, 27, 34 Ashdown, Lord Paddy 283, 285 Asian tsunami 328, 329, 338 Aspin, Les 207, 208, 217 Association of South-East Asian Nations (ASEAN) 90, 338 Atlantic Treaty Association 47 Attlee, Clement 5, 9, 25, 31 Australia 48, 72, 77, 85, 278, 280, 301, 333

[364] index Austria 10, 269 in EFTA 63, 70 Freedom Party 264, 267 joins EU 224 Azerbijan 192, 197, 201, 208 Aznar, Jose Maria 275, 299 Baghdad Pact 49, 63 Baker, James 168, 354 Balanzino, Sergio 220 Bali bomb 290, 339 Balladur, Edouard 209 Balladur Plan 209, 211, 215 BALTBAT 238 BALTRON 238 Barak, Ehud 267, 268, 272 Barnier, Michel 289 Barroso, José Manuel 349 Baruch Plan 7 Batista, Fulgencio 61 Battle Groups 311, 315, 318, 326 Beatrix, Queen 285 Begin, Menachem 127 Belarus 183, 188, 192, 194, 201, 211, 225 Belgium 11, 30, 32, 56, 76–7, 119 Brussels Treaty 3 Cruise missiles 140, 151 defence cuts 119 EDC 31, 38 Eurocorps 211 founding member of EEC 23 INF Treaty 164 NATO 16 North Atlantic defence talks 13 North Atlantic Treaty 4 Schengen Agreement 155, 182 see also Dutch-Belgium Berg, Nick 319 Berlin 2, 7 agreement over 109 blockade 3–4, 13, 16 capital 189 disco bomb 159 East 43 second crisis 60–1, 65, 74–5, 80, 85 troop withdrawal 221 Wall 74–5, 137, 172 Berlin Declaration on German Unity 57 Berlusconi, Silvio 275

Bermuda Conference 44–5 Bertholee, Robert 298 Bevin, Ernest 8, 10, 11, 17, 27 Bidault, Georges 10, 41, 44 Biesheuvel, Barend 127 Bikini Atoll 8 Bildt, Carl 230 bin Laden, Osama 244, 259, 278–9, 317, 325, 334 biological weapons 97 Biological Weapons Convention (BWC) 119 Blair, Tony 177, 239, 245, 274–5, 279, 288, 290, 294, 299, 308, 313 Blix, Hans 292, 298, 300 Blum, Leon 9 Bolton, John 354 Bosnia 227, 229 Boszia-Herzegovina 177, 196, 200–1, 204, 221, 227, 231, 234, 243, 283–5, 287, 294, 306, 324, 342 ceaseﬁre 228 creation of 218 Mostar 322 no-ﬂy zone 206 peace accord 301–2 safe areas 210 Sarajevo 217, 232 Boutros-Ghali, Boutros 198, 205, 206 Bowie, Robert 71, 72 Bradley, Omar 17 Brandt, Willy 68, 88, 97, 104, 111, 117 Bremer, Paul 303, 304 Brezhnev, Leonid 69, 83, 101, 109, 113, 118, 133, 146, 150 Brezhnev Doctrine 69, 94 Britain see United Kindgom British Army of the Rhine (BAOR) 59, 163, 198, 218, 221 Brosio, Manlio 83, 107 Brown, Harold 123 Brussels Treaty of Economic, Social, and Cultural Collaboration 3, 10, 11, 13, 48, 50 Brzezinski, Zbigniew 123 Bulganin, Nikolai 49, 59 Bulgaria 8, 50, 172, 173, 179, 180, 185, 191, 194, 209 ATA observer 205 Comecon 14

index [365] defence spending 168 delegate to NAC 185 joins EU 356 and NATO 291, 296, 318 in UN 9 and WEU 219 Burgess, Guy 17 Burjanadze, Nino 310, 315 Burns, Nicholas 308 Bush, George Herbert Walker 167, 175, 181, 194, 199, 202 Bush, George W. 167–8, 170, 187, 193, 261, 268–71, 273–7, 279, 281, 283, 286, 303–4, 313, 317, 325–6, 330, 332–3, 345–6, 350, 352–4, 356 Butterﬁeld, Alexander 113 Byrnes, James F. 7, 8 Cambodia 103, 127, 129 Camp David Accords 127, 129 Campbell, John 240 Canada 16, 53, 72, 108, 151 in Afghanistan 278, 280 EDC observer 31 North Atlantic defence talks 13 North Atlantic Treaty 4 nuclear weapons 6 supports BAOR 163 Capability Improvement Chart 2004 319 Carlos, Juan 120 Carrington, Lord 145, 151, 153, 159, 162, 166 Carter, James Earl (Jimmy) 102, 121–4, 127–9, 138–9 Carter Doctrine 138 CASA 257 Casajuana, Carlos Maria 285 Castro, Fidel 61, 62, 74 Ceau¸sescu, Nicolae 173 Central Treaty Organization (CENTRO) 63 Chechnya 234–5, 254, 256, 264, 265, 272, 291, 293, 315, 323, 333 chemical weapons 97, 160, 168 Chemical Weapons Convention (CWC) 207, 224, 239 Cheney, Richard (Dick) 169, 207, 271 Chernenko, Konstantin 133, 150, 154 Chernomyrdin, Viktor 251 Chiang Kai-Shek 17 China, see also US-China

China, People’s Republic of (PRC) 17, 80, 107, 124, 336 Belgrade embassy 251 Cultural Revolution 87 Gang of Four 122 Nixon in 106, 108 nuclear weapons 83, 91 recognized 127 table tennis 108 talks on North Korea 305 Tiananmen Square 169–70 and US 128 China, Republic of (ROC) 5 China-EU summit 338 Chirac, Jacques 161, 163, 178, 226, 232, 233, 235–6, 285, 288, 299, 328 Choe Su Hon 324 Christopher, Warren 207, 233 Churchill, Winston 3, 5–8, 12, 27, 33–4, 36, 43–5, 49, 75, 101 Civilian Rapid Reaction Mechanism (CRRM) 272, 274 Claes, Willy 221, 222, 228 Clappier, Bernard 28 Clark, Wesley K. 240, 245, 250, 255, 265 Clarke, Richard 317 climate change 241, 275 Clinton, William Jeﬀerson (Bill) 176, 205, 207, 211, 213, 217, 220, 231, 235, 237, 238, 244, 245, 246, 256, 267 Collective Self-Defence 12 Colombia 108 Colombo, Alessandro 143 Colombo, Emilio 141 Combined Joint Task Forces (CJTF) 232 Comecon 14, 15, 186, 190 Cominform 10, 53 Common European Defence Policy (CEDP) 219 Common European Home 157 Common European Security and Defence Policy (CESDP) 251–2, 257, 266 Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP) 104, 147, 175, 199, 206, 218, 223, 240, 247, 272, 310, 312–13 Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty (CTBT) 204, 235 Confederation of Independent States (CIS) 176, 196–7, 200, 215

[366] index Conference of Berlin (Potsdam) 5 Conference on Chemical Weapons 168 Conference of the Crimea 5 Conference on Security and Co-operation in Europe (CSCE) 110, 113, 120, 127, 140, 223 CFE 168, 169 Conference on Economic Co-operation 180 Conference on the Human Dimension 181–2 on CSBM 150 Cultural Forum 157 Emergency Mechanism 189 enlargement 192 environmental protection 172 and EPC 140 fosters human contacts 159 Helsinki Final Act 120, 121 institutionalization of 185 Parliamentary Assembly 188 Congo, Democratic Republic of 333, 335, 347, 349 Constantine II 90 Conventional Forces in Europe (CFE) Treaty 168, 182, 184, 189, 198, 203, 205, 225, 237–8 Council of the Baltic Sea States 200, 234 Council of Europe (CoE) 16, 27, 232 Craxi, Bettino 155 Croatia 187, 189–90, 200, 227, 229, 287 CSCE 200 and EU 330–1, 339, 351 and NATO 347 recognition 193–7, 199, 225 Cuba: Bay of Pigs 74 Guantánamo Bay 282, 333, 349–51 missile crisis 66, 68, 77, 134 Revolution 61, 62 Cutileiro, José 225, 233 Cutler, Robert 43 Cyprus 71, 318, 339 crisis 81, 82 and EU 292, 303, 319 Turkish invasion 117 Czech Republic 207, 234, 269 and EU 292, 303, 319

and NATO 240, 249 and WEU 219 Czechoslovakia 2, 11, 50, 174, 193, 207 Charta 77 123 Comecon 14 defence spending 168 delegate to NAC 185 open borders 180 Prague Spring 69, 92–4 Velvet Revolution 173 Danish Reaction Brigade 220 Darfur 299–301, 318, 320, 322, 323, 325, 333, 335, 337, 346, 348, 351–2, 357, 359 Dayton Peace Accords 177, 229–30, 232, 234–5 de Bosch, Miláns 141 de Charette, Herve 229, 233 de Cuéllar, Javier Pérez 196 de Gasperi, Alcide 12, 39, 42, 43, 47 de Gaulle, Charles 42, 44, 59–63, 66–7, 76, 79, 83, 85–7, 92, 95–6, 105 de Grave, Frank 274 de Hoop Scheﬀer, Jaap 314, 324, 326, 333, 350–1, 356, 358 de Menezes, Jean Charles 337 de Michelis, Gianni 190 de Villepin, Dominique 291, 295, 297, 298, 300, 301 Dehaene, Luc 254 Delcroix, Leo 219 Dell, Edmund 127 Demirel, Suleyman 238 Deng Xiaoping 121, 122, 124, 127, 170 Denktasch, Rauf 303 Denmark 77, 119, 149, 182, 210 cartoon 345 Council of Baltic Sea States 200 defence cuts 119 EDC observer 31 and EEC 97, 108, 112 EFTA member 63, 70 joins EU 303 and NATO 16, 220, 254 North Atlantic defence talks 14–15 North Atlantic Treaty 4 and WEU 202, 205, 220 depleted uranium 271 détente 109, 142

index [367] Dooge, James 151 Dooge Committee 155 Dubˇcek, Alexander 68, 92, 93 Dulles, John Foster 41, 42, 45, 54, 60, 62 Dumas, Roland 196 Dutch-Belgium military co-operation 225 Dutch-Belgium Naval Force 231 Dutch-British military co-operation 226 Dutch-German Army Corps 225, 227 Dutch-German co-operation 274 Eden, Anthony 23, 34, 37, 44, 48–9, 55–6 Egypt 90, 103, 109, 114, 142, 225, 265 bombs 337, 347 Camp David Accords 127, 129 and NATO 346 Eisenhower, Dwight D. 22–3, 30, 33, 38–9, 41–2, 44–6, 49, 54, 56–7, 60, 63, 65, 73 Ekmann, Henrik 254 el-Baradei, Mohammed 300, 341, 345, 357 Elysee Treaty of Friendship 79 Endarma, Guillermo 174 Enola Gay 6 Erbakan, Necmettin 238 Erdagi, Ethem 332 Erdogan, Tayyip 290, 293, 300 Erhard, Ludwig 81, 88 Eritrea 342 Estonia 171, 181, 187, 191, 192, 280 Council of Baltic Sea States 200 and EU 292, 303, 319 and NATO 291, 296, 318 and WEU 219 Euro 104, 248 Euro-Atlantic Partnership Council (EAPC) 239, 243 Euro-Atlantic Partnership Council Security Forum 335 Euro-Mediterranean Partnership 342 Eurocorps 177, 201–2, 206, 211, 213–14, 220, 233, 251, 256, 265, 274, 322 Euroﬁghter 213 Eurogroup 210, 214, 216 euromissiles 101–2, 114, 118, 122, 124, 154, 158–9, 161 crisis 95 Cruise 123, 125, 129, 130, 138 double-zero option 163 INF Treaty 143, 144, 148, 155, 156, 166

LRTNF 126–7, 129–30, 139, 141–3, 144, 148–9, 161 Pershing 129, 130 European Aeronautic, Defence and Space Company (EADS) 255, 257 European Air Transport Co-ordination Cell 278 European Air Transport Command 257 European Airlift Co-ordination 283 European Atomic Energy Community (Euratom) 50, 53, 56, 59, 64, 85, 90 European Bank for Reconstruction and Development (EBRD) 188 European Border Management Agency (EBMA) 324 European Capabilities Action Plan (ECAP) 279–81, 283, 284, 290, 310, 319, 326 European Co-operation for the Long Term in Defence (EUCLID) 171 European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC) 16, 14, 22, 25, 26, 42, 85, 90 European Community (EC) 135, 198 European Defence Agency (EDA) 171, 306–7, 310, 323, 332, 340, 352 European Defence Capability Initiative 253 European Defence Community (EDC) 20, 28–9, 37 Article 38, 42 end of 48 established 39 and France 40, 41–5 Military Committee 34 Paris Conference 31–3 treaty 38 and West Germany 36 European Defence Equipment Market (EDEM) 332, 349 European defence industry 152, 163, 273 European defence procurement 235, 243–5, 254, 267, 272, 274, 276, 283, 288, 301, 306, 310, 332 European Economic Area (EEA) 216 European Economic Community (EEC) 23, 53, 85, 90, 159, 199 Agreement on the European Economic Area (EEA) 194 Davignon Report 97, 103, 104, 113 Declaration on Combating Terrorism 317

[368] index European Economic Community (cont.) Economic and Monetary Union 185 enlargement 100–1, 110, 112, 141, 158 EPC 104 extraordinary meeting on Iraq 299 Political Union 185 Three Wise Men 127, 130 towards the Single Market 155 Treaty of Rome 23, 56, 59 and UK 79, 88, 101 and USSR 156 European Exchange Rate Mechanism (ERM) 203 European Free Trade Area (EFTA) 63, 70, 194 European Gendarmerie Force (EGF) 323 European Identity 115 European Monetary Union (EMU) 248 European Movement Conference 16 European Organization for the Development and Construction of Space Vehicle Launchers (ELDO) 76, 111, 113, 119, 139 European Parliament (EP) 39, 118, 129, 147, 150, 190, 320 European police force 308, 313 European Political Co-operation (EPC) 101, 113, 142, 151, 155, 158–9 European Political Community (EPC) 39, 42 European rapid reaction corps 251 European Rapid Reaction Force (ERRF) 269, 281, 304, 315 European Rapid Reaction Mechanism (ERRM) 281 European Recovery Program (ERP) 10 European Security and Defence College (ESDC) 337 European Security and Defence Identity (ESDI) 176, 216–17, 234 European Security and Defence Policy (ESDP) 176, 272, 287, 288, 293, 295, 296–7, 341–2, 352–3 Helios A2 satellite 328 Toolbox Paper 265 European Security and Defence Union (ESDU) 295, 303 European Security Research Programme 317

European Security Strategy (ESS) 305, 316 European Space Agency (ESA) 77, 111 Ariane 147, 151 European Space Research Organization (ESRO) 77, 111, 119, 139 European Stability Pact 209 European Union (EU) 110 Amsterdam Treaty 250 Ankara Compromise 280, 281 Barcelona Process 229 Berlin Declaration 357–8 Bonn Declaration 253 Border Assistance Missions 342 Capabilities Improvement Chart 319, 348 Capability Development Mechanism 335 Co-ordinating Oﬃce for the Palestinian Police 335 (EU COPP) 334 Committee for Civilian Aspects of Crisis Management 266, 275 constitution 281, 296, 306, 308, 310, 311–13, 319–21, 325, 326, 328, 330–2, 335 creation of 177, 180–1 crisis-management 286, 308, 341 criteria for joining 211 draft treaty 150 Dublin Convention 241 enlargement 217, 224, 255–6, 264, 290, 292, 303, 317, 319, 324, 328, 330–31, 339, 351, 356 EUFOR ED 349 EUJUST LEX 332, 336 EUJUST THEMIS 321–2 EUMC 272, 273, 304 EUMS 272, 275 EUPM 287, 290, 294 EUPOL PROXIMA 343 EUROFOR 205, 214, 226 EUROFPR 222 Eurojust 282 EUROMARFOR 205, 214, 222, 226 ﬁnancing missions 316 General Aﬀairs Council (GAC) 258, 283, 285–6 General Aﬀairs and External Relations Council (GAERC) 287, 291, 328, 329 on international terrorism 302 Joint Investment Programme (JIP) on Protection 353

index [369] Military Committee (EUMC) 269 Military Staﬀ (EUMS) 269 nuclear policy 224, 236 Operation Althea 322, 324, 327, 330 Pact on Stability in Europe 215 pillars 199, 213–14 Police Advisory Team (EUPAT) 342, 343 police missions 283–4, 327–8, 333, 341 Political and Security Committee (PSC) 269, 272, 305 Programme for the Prevention of Violent Conﬂicts 275 Schengen Agreement 155, 212, 182, 225 single market 194 takes over WEU 241, 251, 254, 256 Treaty of Amsterdam 240, 241 Treaty of Nice 296 troops to Bunia 304–5, 307 and WEU 196 on WMD 305 European Union-Iraq Joint Declaration 339 European Union-NATO relations 275, 266, 269–70, 272, 281, 284, 292–3, 310–12 European Union-Russian co-operation 211, 215, 219, 286, 291, 346, 309–10, 334 European Union-Russian Permanent Partnership Council (PPC) 339 European Union-United Nations exercise 334 European Union-United States Summits 320–1, 336, 349 evil empire 147 Falklands War 144–5 Fasslabend, Werner 246 Finland 8, 9, 182, 200, 224, 269 Fischer, Joschka 246, 291 FitzGerald, Garrett 151 Flank Zone 233 Ford, Gerald R. 117, 118 Four-Power Foreign Ministers Conference 7, 10, 14–15, 46, 51, 62–3, 106, 109 France 11–12, 30, 32, 56, 77, 80, 119, 151, 226, 227, 315 accepts Pleven Plan 28–9 in Afghanistan 278, 280 in Alliance Eurogroup meeting 121 Bermuda Conference 44–5

boycotts 95, 96 Brussels Treaty 3 defence spending increase 294 and EDC 20, 31, 38, 40, 41–5 empire 3, 14 empty-chair policy 86, 87 EU constitution 335 Euroﬁghter 157, 162 founding member of EEC 23 Four Power Conference 7 and Indo-China 42 Mediterranean Fleet 62 and NATO 16, 96, 221, 225, 232, 233, 235 withdrawal from military 80, 83, 86, 87–8, 89 North Atlantic defence talks 13 North Atlantic Treaty 4 nuclear weapons 6, 24, 59, 66, 68, 70, 76, 82, 84, 89, 106, 154–5, 157, 199, 201, 211–12, 232 satellite 257 Schengen Agreement 155, 182 SEATO 48 state of emergency 341 student demonstrations 92 Suez Crisis 54–5 US missiles in 58 see also German-French Franco 120 Franco-American relations 13, 21, 29, 50, 67 Franco-British European Air Group (FBEAG) 222, 226, 227 Franco-British Joint Commission on Nuclear Policy and Doctrine 205 Franco-German relations 14, 17–18, 25, 66, 79, 180, 233, 289, 295 Free Territory of Trieste 8 Freivalds, Leila 310 Fyfe, Sir David Maxwell 34 G7/G8 151, 287 Greater Middle East Initiative 320 plan for Serbia 251–2 Russia joins 240 on terrorism 160 Gagarin, Yuri 74 Gaillard, Felix 59 Gates, Robert 353, 357 Gelb, Leslie 124

[370] index General Agreement over Trade and Tariﬀs (GATT) 224 Genscher, Hans-Dietrich 141, 143, 197 Geoana, Mircea Dan 279 Georgia 188, 212, 309, 310, 331 and CIS 197, 215 criminal justice system 321–3 CSCE 200 elections 314–15, 317 joins NACC 204 and NATO 347 Tashkent Agreement 201 German Democratic Republic (GDR) 47 defence spending 168 demonstrations 136, 171 recognition 52, 97 German Treaty 38 German-French Defence and Security Council 165 German-US corps 209 Germany 10, 11–13 in Afghanistan 278, 280 Battle Groups 315 Berlin status 7 bombs 351 Council of Baltic Sea States 200 and EDC 31, 42–3, 46–7 fear of 2 free elections 37, 43, 48 joins UN Security Council 331 member of OEEC 18 military 209, 218, 220 and NATO 20, 21, 29, 45, 225, 254 ratiﬁes TEU 213 rearmament 16, 20, 25, 26, 27–8, 29–30, 31 reuniﬁcation 8, 176, 179–80, 183–4, 188, 189, 208, 221 status 33 zoned 5, 7, 8–9, 16 see also Berlin; Dutch-German; Franco-German Germany, East 39, 50, 73 elections 46 recognition 111 and UN 109 USSR troops in 56 Germany, Federal Republic of (FRG) 9, 16, 47, 50, 83, 97

Germany, West 76, 77, 119, 151 army 51, 53, 54 coalition government 88 EDC 38, 46 Euroﬁghter 156 founding member EEC 23 GDR refugees 171–2 INF Treaty 164 and NATO 29, 32, 48 nuclear weapons 44, 76 occupation ended 48 and Poland 105 recognition 111 status 36 Tornado 122 troop strength 40 and UN 109 US nuclear weapons in 50, 59 US troops in 56 Giannella, Annalisa 308 Giraud, André 161 Giscard d’Estaing, Valéry 117, 142, 281, 306 Glaspie, April 183 Glenn, John 76 Glimeroth, Götz 307 Global War on Terrorism 262, 282–3, 284, 287–8, 291, 302, 304, 327 Gorbachev, Mikhail Sergeyevich 134, 136, 153, 155–9, 162–8, 170–2, 179–80, 183–4, 187, 192–3, 198 Gorbachev-Reagan summit 160 Gore, Al 268–9, 270 Goss, Peter 348 Greece 2, 9, 71, 149 defence 332 joins EEC 141 military coup 90 and NATO 33, 37, 139, 205 Olympic and Paralympic Games 322 relations with Turkey 162, 280–1, 316, 317, 318 and reuniﬁcation of Cyprus 117 and WEU 162, 202 Grenada 148 Gromyko, Andrei 85, 124, 150, 154, 156, 171 Grosz, Karoly 163, 166, 171 Gruenther, Alfred 43, 46, 54 Guantanamo Bay 282, 333, 349–50

index [371] Guevara, Che 60 Gulf War, First 183–5, 186–8 Habyarimana, Juvénal 218 Hägglund, Gustav 273 Haig, Alexander 141, 142, 145, 151 Hain, Peter 359 Hamilton, Alexander 3 Hamilton, Lee 354 Hariri, Raﬁk 315, 340 Harmel, Pierre 88, 93 Harmel Plan 93, 95 Harmel Report 67, 91 Hatﬁeld, Richard 265 Havel, Vaclav 174 Healey, Denis 85 Helsinki Final Act 123 Herriot, Edouard 39 Herter, Christian 62, 72 hijacking 104 Hillier, Rick 315 Hintao, Ju 356 Hirsch, Etienne 25, 28 Holbrooke, Richard 228, 249 Hombach, Bodo 253, 268 Honecker, Erich 137, 172 Hoon, Geoﬀ 321 Hot Line 68, 80 Hoxha family 185 human rights 120 Hungary 8, 50, 165, 168, 173, 193, 208–9, 225, 234, 269 Comecon 14 crisis 22–3 defence spending 168 delegate to NAC 185 elections 180 and EU enlargement 292, 303, 319, 328 ﬂood relief 265 and NATO 240–1, 249 open borders 170 Revolution 54 in UN 9 and WEU 219 Hurd, Douglas 222 Husak, Gustav 173 Iceland 4, 14–15, 16, 202, 205 ICOC, Ballistic Missile Proliferation 292

Ikle, Fred 141 Independent European Programme Group (IEPG) 153, 167, 200, 206 India 117, 340, 346, 350 India-Pakistan relations 86, 315 Indo-China 42, 46, 47 Indonesia 90 inﬂation 118 Integrated Military Structure (IMS) 25 Intergovernmental Committee on European Integration 50, 53 Intermediate Nuclear Forces (INF) Treaty 136, 142, 157, 162, 163, 164, 189 International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) 208, 284, 289, 320, 326, 339, 341, 344–6, 357 International Committee of Movements for European Unity 12, 21–2 International Court of Justice (ICJ) 321 International Criminal Court (ICC) 244, 270, 285, 286, 287, 290 International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY) 210, 271, 276–7, 283 International Police Task Force (IPTF) 236 International War Crimes Tribunal 232 Iran 49 elections 336 Islamic Fundamentalism 128, 129 nuclear facilities 289, 292–3, 300, 307, 309, 312, 323, 324–7, 333, 335, 337–41, 344–5, 346, 347, 355, 357 release British navy personnel 358 signs NPT 313 Iran-Iraq war 139, 167 Iraq 49 Abu Ghraib Prison 315, 317, 318–19 abused prisoners 341 air strikes against 247 Coalition Provisional Authority (CPA) 303–4, 306, 309, 321 constitution 316, 338, 340 elections 328, 343 Fallujah 326 Governing Council 319 interim government 320–1 invades Kuwait 183 military training 322, 331 power-sharing 333

[372] index Iraq (cont.) Shia Golden Mosque 346 Transitional National Assembly 328, 330 troop surge 356 weapons inspections 246–7, 291, 292, 298, 300–1 WMD 295, 329 Iraq war 260, 302–3 demonstrations against 298 US and UK attack 301 Ireland: and EEC 108, 112 ESA 119 North Atlantic defence talks 14–15 and WEU 202, 205 Iron Curtain 2, 7, 75, 180 Islamic Fundamentalism 128, 129, 130–1, 139, 169, 225, 326 Ismay, Lord Bruce 22, 37, 38, 57, 253 Israel 54, 56, 113–15, 156, 167, 208, 225, 265, 273 Camp David Accords 127, 129 elections 272, 347 foils hijackers 104 founded 4, 12 Gaza 218, 338, 349 killing of Hamas leaders 317, 318 and Lebanon 126, 127, 145–6, 155, 265–6, 350–1 and NATO 346 security fence 285, 316, 321 settlements 315–16, 325 Six Day War 90 troop withdrawal 292 see also Middle East Peace Treaty Italy 8, 32, 53, 56, 76, 77, 119, 151, 226, 227 CFE inspection 208 Cruise missiles 142 EDC 31, 38 EU constitution 330 Euroﬁghter 156 founding member of EEC 23 Gladio 183, 184–5 INF Treaty 164 Iraq war 301 and NATO 16, 225 North Atlantic defence talks 14–15 North Atlantic Treaty 4 satellite 257

Tornado 122 in UN 9 US nuclear weapons in 62 USS Biddle 83 Izetbegovic, Alija 266, 268 Izvestiya 32 Jackson, Jesse 250 Jackson, Sir Michael 255 Japan 1, 6, 72, 151, 307 Jaruzelski, Wojciech 135, 143, 148 Johnson, Lyndon B. 81, 84, 90 Jones, James L. 295, 324 Jordan 90, 104, 222, 265, 341, 346 Joulwan, George 240 Joxe, Pierre 201 Juan Carlos 141 Juppé, Alain 224 Kádár, János 166 Kalinin, Mikhail 6 Karadzic, Radovan 226, 284 Karzai, Hamid 324, 327 Kashmir 315, 339 Kazakhstan 194, 197, 201, 336 Kelly, David 290 Kennan, George 2, 7, 10–11 Kennedy, John F. 65, 72–3, 74, 77–8, 80–1, 96, 123 Kernan, William F. 267 Kerry, John 325 Khaled, Leila 104 Khan, A. Q. 307 Khasbulatov, Ruslan 213 Khatami, Mohammad 325, 337–8 Khmer Rouge 127 Khomeini, Rahallah Musavi 128 Khrushchev, Nikita 24, 42, 44, 49, 50, 51, 53, 57, 59, 60, 62, 63, 71–2, 73, 77, 83 Kiesinger, Kurt Georg 88 King, Tom 183 Kissinger 97, 108, 110, 112, 113 Kohl, Helmut 135, 146, 163–4, 183, 194–5, 206, 208, 220, 233, 236 Kok, Wim 285 Korea 46 Korean Airlines KAL 007 134, 148 Korean War 19, 26, 28, 29 Korte, Werner 315

index [373] Kosovo 178, 206, 242–3, 245, 248–9, 252–3, 257, 264, 317 Kostunica, Vojislav 268 Kosygin, Aleksei 90 Kozyrev 226 Kranz, Egon 172 Kravchuk, Leonid 196 Kuchma, Leonid 223, 327 Kuwait 183 Kvashnin, General 241 Kyoto Protocol 241, 273, 275, 324, 332 Kyrgyzstan 192, 197, 336 Laniel, Joseph 43 Lanxade, Jaques 208 Larijani, Ali 358 Latvia 181, 187, 192, 280 Council of Baltic Sea States 200 and EU 292, 303, 319 and NATO 291, 296, 318 and WEU 221 Le Duc Tho 110, 112 Le Pen, Jean-Marie 285 Lebanon 126–7, 145–6, 155, 265–6, 315, 340, 350–1 Lebed, Alexander 235 Leiberman, Joe 357 Leka I 239 Léotard, François 221, 276 Leslie, Andrew 307 Liberia 347 Libya 159, 172, 195, 200, 243, 250, 307, 348 Limited Test Ban Treaty (LTBT) 80 Lindt, Anna 273 Lipsius, Justus 285 Lithuania 171, 186–7, 191, 192, 212, 280 Council of Baltic Sea States 200 and EU 292, 303, 319 and NATO 291, 296, 318 and WEU 219 Long Telegram 2, 7, 10 Long-Range Theatre Nuclear Forces (LRTNF) 102, 126–7, 129–30, 138–9, 141–4, 148–9, 157, 161 Lukanov, Andrei 179, 185 Luns, Joseph 107, 151 Luxembourg 11, 30, 32, 56 Brussels Treaty 3 EDC 31, 38

and Eurocorps 220, 233 founding member EEC 23 NATO 16 North Atlantic defence talks 13 North Atlantic Treaty 4 Schengen Agreement 155, 182 Maastricht Treaty see Treaty on European Union (Maastricht Treaty) McCain, John 357 McColl, John 287 McCormick, Lynde D. 36 Macedonia 192, 196, 199, 206, 272, 276, 301–2, 318 and EU 273–4, 302, 306–8, 317, 342 and NATO 278–9, 283, 286, 292, 301, 306, 347 McKenzie, Jeremy 204 Maclean, Donald 17 Macmillan, Harold 56, 57, 60, 77, 78, 259 McNamara, Robert 73, 85 McNeil, Dan 357 Makarios 81 Malaysia 90 Malenkov, Georgi 42, 49, 50 Malta 292, 303, 319 Mandela, Nelson 218, 219 Mansﬁeld, Mike 106 Mao Zedong 87, 121, 122 Marjolin, Robert 127 Markovic, Ante 190 Markussen, Per 153 Marshall, George C. 2, 9–10, 15 Marshall Plan 10–11 Martino, Gaetano 49 Maschadov, Asklan 333 Maskhadov, Aslam 238 Massive Retaliation 14, 20, 44, 46, 48, 68, 72 Mathiessen, Michael 329 Mauritania 225, 265, 346 Mayer, René 41, 42, 43 Mazowiecki, Tadeusz 171 Mehlis, Detlev 340 Meisc, Stjepan 193 Mendès-France, Pierre 47 Merchant, Livingston 80 Merger Treaty 85, 90 Merkel, Angela 342 Messervy-Whiting, Graham 272

[374] index Michel, Louis 273, 335 Middle East Peace Conference 194 Middle East Peace Process 218, 247, 272, 283–4, 292, 331, 341 agreements 208, 212, 227, 245–6 Gaza 218, 338, 349 Geneva Initiative 292 Jerusalem 267–8 Road Map 303 West Bank 245, 256, 258 Middle East Peace Treaty 221 military-industrial complex 66, 73 Miloševi´c, Slobadan 137, 169, 198, 228, 240, 242–3, 249, 251, 253, 257, 265, 268, 276–7, 283, 285, 346 Mitchell, John 110 Mitterrand, François 135, 142, 164, 194, 198, 220, 222, 224 Mladenov, Petar/Petre 172, 183 Mladic, Radko 226 Moldova, Tashkent Agreement 201 Moldovan-Ukrainian Border Joint Council Action 340–1 Molotov, Vyacheslav 6, 8, 10, 156 Monnet, Jean 8, 12, 22, 25, 26, 28, 49, 51, 119 Montenegro 196, 250, 348 Montgomery, Bernard Law 14 moon landing 69, 96 Morocco 225, 265, 346 Moscow Olympic boycott 139 Moussaoui, Zacarias 347 multilateral force (MLF) 67, 72, 79, 80, 81, 82–4, 85–6 Munich Olympic Massacre 109 Munich Security Conference 357 Mursi, Midhat 345 Musharraf, Pervez 255, 276, 313, 334, 350, 352 mutually assured destruction (MAD) 62, 65, 73, 145 Mutually Balanced Force Reductions (MBFR) 93, 103, 107, 110, 112, 114, 120, 169 Nagy, Imre 170, 172 Nasser, Abdul Gamal Abd 23, 51, 54 National Security Council 14 NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization): ACO 305

ACT 305 in Afghanistan 307, 308–9, 314–15, 331–2, 338, 342, 343, 345, 348, 351, 353, 357, 359 Alliance Convention of Citizens 76 Allied Command, Atlantic (ACLANT) 38 Allied Command Europe (ACE) 32 Allied Command Europe Rapid Reaction Corps (ARRC) 189, 195, 198, 204, 217, 219–20 Allied Command Operations (ACO) 249 Allied Command Transformation (ACT) 249 ALTBMD 333 Article 4 298 and Australia 333 AWAC 123 battleﬁeld nuclear systems 136 birth of 4, 17 Bonn Declaration 253 burden sharing 106 Canadian Brigade (CAST) 166 CBRN 311–12, 322 CCMS 97 CIMIC 302 Civilian Status Agreement (CSA) 33 CNAD 334 Combined Joint Task Forces (CJTF) 212, 214–15, 216 Committee on Nuclear Planning 85–6 communications satellite 103, 106, 127 Composite Force to reinforce Northern Norway 166 Comprehensive Concept of Arms Control and Disarmament 170 Comprehensive Political Guidance (CPG) 354 Consultation, Command and Control (C3) 234 Contractual Agreements 33 conventional forces 74 Council Deputies 27 CRISEX 264 Declaration on Conventional Arms Control 161 Defence Capabilities Initiative (DCI) 250 Defence College 34, 89 Defence Committee 25, 29, 30, 32 defence expenditure 45

index [375] Defence Financial and Economic Committee 32 Defence Planning Committee (DPC) 88, 115 Defence Planning Process (DPP) 33, 86, 348 Defence Planning Questionnaire (DPQ) 86 deploys forces to Turkey 299 Disaster Relief Policy 240 enlargement 20, 33, 37, 194, 200, 202, 205, 234, 238, 239, 240–1, 249, 280, 291, 296, 318, 336, 346, 347 and ESDI 234 Eurogroup 94, 105, 121 EWG 166 Flexible Response 68, 83, 86, 91, 116 forces 35, 47 Forward Base System 107 Forward Presence 22, 175, 182 Forward Strategy 29, 48 and France 221, 232, 233, 235 France withdraws from military 80, 83, 86, 87–8, 89 headquarters 37–9, 63, 88–90, 254–5, 290, 294 High-Level Group (HLG) 126 High-Level Task Force on Conventional Arms Control 160 IMS 159 Independent European Programme Group (IEPG) 121 and international law 264, 266 International Security Assistance Force (ISAF) 286–7, 302–3, 314, 320 interoperability dilemma 225–6 ISR assets 339 Istanbul Cooperation Initiative (ICI) 336 KFOR 268, 278 Long-Term Development Plan (LTDP) 126–7 Maintenance and Supply Agency (NAMSA) 315 MARAIEMED 94 Massive Retaliation 44, 48, 68, 72 Mediterranean Dialogue 265 Medium Extended Air defence System (MEADS) 225 Military Committee 88

Military Implications Team (MIT) 114 Multinational Corps North-East 254 multinational logistics capability 334 NAEWF 209 NAVOCFORMED 96 New Look Strategic Concept 48 New Strategic Concept 195, 209 on North African security 225 nuclear capability 46, 50 Nuclear Planning Group (NPG) 88, 89, 114, 124, 126, 148, 205 Operation Active Endeavour 279, 300 Operation Allied Force 249–50 Operation Eagle Assist 279, 286 Operation Enduring Freedom (OEF) 351 Parliamentarians 51 Parliamentary Assembly (PA) 251 Partnership for Peace (PfP) 216, 221, 248 Polaris 71, 74 Political Implications Team (PIT) 14 protection against terrorism 319 research fellowships 182 Response Force (NRF) 291, 305, 324, 331, 349 SACLANT 80 Science Committee 59 simultaneous operations 284 Stabilization Force (SFOR) 236, 243, 268, 284 STANAVFORLANT 92 STANAVFORMED 113, 201 Standardization Organization (SO) 224 Standardization Programme 234 Statement on Conventional Arms Control 165 Status of Forces Agreement (SOFA) 32 Supreme Headquarters Allied Powers Europe (SHAPE) 32, 290 Temporary Council Committee (TCC) 33 to upgrade capabilities 318 training centres 267 Transatlantic Industrial Proposed Solution (TIPS) 334 and Warsaw Pact 179 Weapons of Mass Destruction (WMD) Centre 266 and Western Union 18, 30 and WTO 92, 162

[376] index NATO-EU relations 287, 301, 304, 306, 356–60 NATO-Mediterranean Dialogue 347 NATO-Russia co-operation 176, 217, 226, 231–2, 237–41, 243, 245, 278, 280, 286, 297, 327, 336, 351 Naumann, Klaus 208 Nazibullah, Mohammed 169 Negroponte, John D. 302 Netanyahu, Benjamin 237, 245, 247 Netherlands 11, 30, 32, 56, 76, 77, 119, 209 Brussels Treaty 3 Cruise missiles 142, 143, 151 defence spending 119, 139 and EDC 31, 33, 38 EFTA 70 EU constitution 335 founding member of EEC 23 INF Treaty 164 NATO 16 North Atlantic defence talks 13 Schengen Agreement 155 USS Biddle 83 see also Dutch New Schuman Plan 34 New Zealand 48, 72 Nguyen Van Thieu 110 Nigeria 108 Nixon, Richard Millhouse 63, 93, 96, 97, 101, 103, 108, 109, 112, 114, 117 Nobel Peace Prize 184 Non-Aligned Movement 352 Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT) 68, 93, 96, 103, 208, 211, 223, 313, 346 Noriega, Manuel 174 Norstad, Lauris 54, 72 North Atlantic Co-operation Council (NACC) 176, 194, 197, 200, 239 North Atlantic Council (NAC) 22, 32 Channel Command 37 Committee of Three on Non-Military Co-operation 53, 54–5 Forward Strategy of Forward Presence 28 Long-Term Defence Programme (LTDP) 124 Mutually Balanced Force Reductions (MBFR) 103 nuclear weapons 57–8 North Atlantic Treaty 4, 15–16

North Korea 208, 245, 294, 302, 307 missiles 349–50 nuclear weapons 324, 331, 339, 353 Norway 31, 53, 238 Council of Baltic Sea States 200 and EEC 97, 108, 109 EFTA 63, 70 NATO 16 North Atlantic defence talks 14 North Atlantic Treaty 4 and WEU 202, 205 Ntaryamira, Cyprien 218 nuclear accidents 107 Nuclear and Space Talks (NST) 152 Nuclear Test Ban Treaty (NTBT) 68, 80 Öcalan, Abdullah 248 OCCAR 245 Ogarkov, Nikolai 145, 152 oil embargo 100, 114, 115, 116 Olmert, Ehud 344, 347 Open Skies 51, 169–70, 179, 180, 195, 200, 271, 276 Operation Carte Blanche 51 Oppenheimer, Robert 23 Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) 72 Organization for European Economic Co-operation (OEEC) 12, 18, 63 Organization for International Economic Co-operation 186 Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) 114, 115, 116 Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE) 91, 223, 235, 256, 269, 342 outer space 151 Owen, Lord David 205 Pahlevi, Mohammed Reza 128 Pakistan 49, 165, 346, 352 and al-Qaeda 334 coup 255 ﬁghting in South Waziristan 317, 319 SEATO 48 troops enter Tirah Valley 287–8 US air strike 345 Palestine 114, 284

index [377] Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) 126, 145, 156 Palestinian Black September 109 Palestinians 4, 12, 167, 208 elections 326, 345 intifada 164, 268 see also Middle East Peace Treaty Pan Am ﬂight 103 167, 195, 200, 215, 243–4, 249–50, 307 Panama 174 Pardew, James 276 Paris Peace Conference 8 Partial Test Ban Treaty (PTBT) 80 Patten, Chris 265, 268, 272, 273 peace support operation (PSO) 264 Peres, Simon 228 Perez de Cuellar, Javier 198 Perle, Richard 141, 144 Perry, William J. 217 Petritsch, Wolfgang 283 Philby, Kim 17 Philip, André 14, 16 Philippines 48, 90 Pinay, Antoine 39, 49 Pineau, Christian 23, 55 Pipes, Richard 141 Plavsic, Biljana 271 Pleven, René 28, 29, 40 Pleven Plan 28, 32 Pol Pot 127 Poland 50, 171, 193, 208, 234, 269 Comecon 14 defence spending 168 delegate to NAC 185 and EU 292, 319 Iraq war 301 martial law 148 and NATO 239, 240, 249, 254 Solidarnosc 134, 139, 169–70 and West Germany 105 and WEU 219 Polish Committee of National Liberation 9 Pompidou, Georges 85, 96, 116 Poos, Jacques 190 Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine (PFLP) 104 Portugal 117, 158, 167, 173, 180 EFTA 63, 70 football championship 320

Iraq war 301 NATO 16 North Atlantic defence talks 14–15 North Atlantic Treaty 4 and WEU 167 Powell, Colin 270, 271, 272, 297, 298, 326 Power, Sir Arthur John 37 Powers, Gary 65, 71 Pozsgay, Imre 171 Priest, Dana 340 Primakov, Yevgeny 237 Prince Eugen 8 Prodi, Romano 254, 255, 277, 288, 316 Proliferation Security Initiative (PSI) 304, 307 Prussia 10 Putin, Vladimir 258, 259, 265, 276, 278, 279, 281, 286, 296, 316, 327, 350, 357, 358 Py, Jean-Louis 322, 332 Qaddaﬁ, Muammar al- 167, 243, 313, 348 qualiﬁed majority voting (QMV) 130, 143, 255, 264, 305 Rabin, Yitzhak 212, 227, 228 Rafsanjani, Akbar Hashemi 336 Ralston, Joseph W. 255, 265, 279, 295 Rankin, Boris 192 Reagan, Ronald 102, 134, 139, 141–2, 146, 151–2, 157, 160, 164, 166–7 Reinhardt, Klaus 255 reparations 9 Reuter, Paul 25, 28 Reynaud, Paul 27 Rice, Condoleeza 272, 326, 330, 341 Richards, David 353 Ridgway, Matthew Bunker 38, 43 Rifkind, Malcolm 226 Robertson, Lord George 252, 254–5, 266–7, 273, 276–9, 285, 292–3, 305 Rogers, Bernard 129, 154 Rogers, William 113 Romania 8, 50, 173, 181, 208, 209 Comecon 14 joins EU 356 and NATO 291, 296, 318 in UN 9 and WEU 219 Roosevelt, Franklin D. 1, 5, 14

[378] index Rosenbergs 17 Rowhani, Hassan 327 Rühe, Volker 201, 208, 209, 214 Rumsfeld, Donald H. 120, 244, 270, 271–2, 274, 281, 283, 304, 318, 353 Rusk, Dean 74 Russia 336 airlines destroyed 322 Beslan school attack 323 Council of Baltic Sea States 200 coup 213 elections 215 endorses Kyoto Protocol 324 energy lever 344 exporting nuclear technology 208 Kursk incident 267, 278–9 metro attack 315, 323 re-target nuclear missiles 217 talks on North Korea 307 troops in Kosovo 253 see also NATO-Russia; United States-Russia; USSR Russian Federation 198, 199 and Council of Europe 232 Tashkent Agreement 201 Russian Soviet Federal Socialist Republic (RSFSR) 182, 190 Rutskoi, Alexander 213 Rwandan genocide 213, 218–20, 222 Rybkin, Ivan 235 Saakashvili, Mikheil 310, 314, 315, 331 Saar Treaty 56 Saar/Sarre region 48, 51 Sadat, Anwar el- 103, 109, 127, 142 Saddam Hussein al-Majit al-Tikriti 139, 176, 183, 289, 298, 313, 340, 353, 355 St Malo Declaration 246 Saint-Laurent, Louis 13 Sanader, Ivo 351 Saudi Arabia 304 Scharping, Rudolf 274 Schlesinger, James 116, 120 Schmid, Carlo 27 Schmidt, Helmut 102, 117, 123, 125 Schroder, Gerhard 246, 289, 331 Schultz, George P. 145, 146, 150, 154, 160 Schuman, Robert 12, 14, 17, 22, 26, 27–8, 34, 41

Schuman Plan 25, 26 Schüssel, Wolfgang 349 Schuwirth, Rainer 272 Science Applications International Corporation (SAIC) 354 Scowcroft, Brent 168 Seabed Arms Control Treaty 106 Serbia 137, 169, 196, 201, 225, 229 Serbia and Montenegro 284, 296 Shalikashvili, John M. 204, 208 Shanghai Co-operation Organization (SCO) 336 Sharon, Ariel 268, 272, 315, 344, 347 Sheehan, John 221 Sheppard, Alan 74 Shevardnadze, Eduard 156, 160, 163, 173, 183, 185, 305, 309, 310, 312, 314 Shinwell, Emanuel 27, 30, 35 Shushkevich, Stanislau 196 Simenas, Albertas 187 Simon, Lord 254 Sinatra Doctrine 171 Singapore 90 Singh, Manmohan 350, 352 Single European Act (SEA) 104, 135, 158–9 Sino-Indian War 77 Sino-Soviet Nuclear Agreement 62 Sino-Soviet split 71, 77, 96 Sistani, Ali 322, 330 Six Day War 100 Slovak Republic 207, 292 Slovakia 219, 225, 291, 296, 303, 318, 319 Slovenia 189–90, 200 and EU 292, 319 and NATO 291, 296, 318 recognition 193–7, 199 Smith, Leighton 229 Soames, Christopher 95, 96 Solana Madariaga, Javier 229, 232–3, 237–8, 246, 252, 254–6, 265, 273, 276–7, 279, 285–6, 290, 292–3, 303, 305, 308–9, 312–13, 315–16, 320–1, 325, 329–30, 332–3, 335, 353, 358 Somalia 213 South Africa 218 South Asian earthquake 339 South East Asia Treaty Organization (SEATO) 47–8 South Korea 301, 307

index [379] Soviet bloc, formation 9–10 Spaak, Paul-Henri 12, 49, 50, 57, 74 Spaak Report 53 Spain 77, 119, 120, 158, 167, 173, 180, 203, 226, 227 coup 141 elections 316 EU constitution 332 and Eurocorps 220 Euroﬁghter 156 Iraq war 301 Madrid bombing 263, 316, 318 and NATO 142, 145, 159, 203, 235 satellite 257 Tornado 122 and WEU 167 withdraws troops from Iraq 318 Spinelli, Attiero 139, 142 Spoﬀord, Charles M. 27, 29 Spoﬀord Proposals 30, 31 Srebrenica massacre 285 Stability Pact for Europe 225 Stability Pact for South Eastern Europe 252, 253 Stalin, Josef 3, 5, 7, 9, 37, 39, 42 Stikker, Dirk U. 74, 83 Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (SALT) 99, 103, 109, 110, 125, 129 Strategic Arms Reduction Talks (START) 143, 145, 149, 151, 157, 170, 181, 202, 204–5, 207, 211 Straw, Jack 297, 298, 339 Struck, Peter 304, 323 Sudan see Darfur Suez Canal 120 Suez crisis 22–3, 54–5, 56 Svoboda, Ludvik 92 Sweden 77, 119, 182, 269 Council of Baltic Sea States 200 EFTA 63, 70 joins EU 224 Switzerland 63, 70, 77, 119, 275, 289 Syria 90, 114, 315, 340 Taguba, Antonio M. 318 Taiwan 108 Tajikistan 192, 336 Talabani, Jalal 333 Taliban 283

Tashkent Agreement 201 Taylor, Charles 347 Tejero, Antonio 141 ter Beek, Relus 209, 219 Thailand 48, 90 Thatcher, Margaret 102, 129, 134, 136, 139, 153, 158, 159, 259 theatre nuclear forces (TMF) 124 Thorneycroft, Peter 81, 82 Tibbetts, Paul 6 Tindemans, Leo 118 Tito, Jose/ip Broz 13, 137, 138 Torrejon Satellite Centre 282 Tower, John 169 Trajkovski, Boris 276, 292, 295, 318 Treaty of Dunkirk 2, 9, 10–11 Treaty on European Union (Maastricht Treaty) 175, 196–7, 199, 203, 204, 210, 213, 233 Treaty of Friendship, Co-operation and Mutual Assistance 155 Treaty on Oﬀensive Strategic Reductions (SORT) 286 Treaty of Rome 23, 56, 59 Truman, Harry S. 1, 5, 9, 10, 12–15, 17, 25, 27, 33, 34, 36, 38 Tudjman, Franjo 228, 257, 268 Tunisia 225, 265, 346 Tuom(i)oja, Erkki 309–10 Turkey 2, 9, 49, 149, 238, 248, 293, 298 bombs 310 coup 139 elections 290–1, 300 and EU 290, 324, 328, 339 invades Cyprus 117 military coup 71 NATO 33, 37 relations with Greece 162, 280–1, 316, 317, 318 USS Biddle 83 and WEU 202, 205 Turkmenistan 194, 197 Tymoshenko, Yuliya 331 Ukraine 188, 192, 196, 331 elections 328, 329–30 gas supplies 344 and NATO 241, 347

[380] index Ukraine (cont.) nuclear warheads 217 Tashkent Agreement 201 United Kingdom 26, 30, 71, 76, 77, 119, 151 in Afghanistan 278, 280 Baghdad Pact 49 Battle Groups 315 Bermuda Conference 44–5 Brussels Treaty 3 Cruise missiles 138 decolonization 76, 90, 92 defence expenditure 27, 119, 183 and EDC 34, 37, 47 and EEC 79, 88, 97, 101, 108, 112 EFTA 63 empire 3, 14 ends conscription 57 Euroﬁghter 156 foils terrorist attack 327 in Germany 5 INF Treaty 164 on Iraq’s WMD 294 London bombs 263, 336–7 NATO 16 North Atlantic defence talks 13 North Atlantic Treaty 4 Northern Ireland 242–3, 336 Nuclear Test Ban Treaty 80 nuclear weapons 6, 8, 24, 39, 50, 56–7, 66, 68, 77–8, 82–3, 154–5, 157, 211–12, 217 Polaris 71, 74, 78, 82 Seabed Arms Control Treaty 106 SEATO 48 Strategic Defence Review 289 Suez Crisis 54–5 Tornado 122 Trident 212 troops in Afghanistan 345 US B-29 bombers in 13 US nuclear weapons in 59 USS Biddle 83 WMD report 290 see also Franco-British United Nations (UN): Assistance Mission (UNAM) 307 Atomic Energy Commission 7 attacked in Iraq 307 Brahimi Report 267 Charter 2, 5, 6, 15

Conference on Disarmament 127 CPPNM 337 Development Programme (UNDP) 321 East and West Germany 109 Force in Cyprus (UNFICYP) 82, 117 General Assembly 71–2 Germany joins Security Council 321 Implementation Force (IFOR) 230 Interim Force in Lebanon 126 (UNIFIL) 126, 127 International Police Task Force (ICTY) 283 International Security Assistance Force (ISAF) 281 on Iraq 320 Khrushchev attends 71 membership of 9 Monitoring, Veriﬁcation and Inspection Commission (UNMOVIC) 259, 289, 296, 298, 301 and NPT 226 Nuclear Terrorism Convention 333–4 peacekeeping in Yugoslavia 197 Protection Area (UNPA) 210 Protection Force (UNPROFPOR) 200–2, 204, 205–6, 213 reform 327 Resolution 678 302 Resolution 1540 318 sanctions 229 Security Council (UNSC) 5 Special Commission (UNSCOM) 246 Switzerland joins 289 Ten-Power Disarmament Committee 70–1 United Arab Emirates (UAE) 336 United States of Europe 8 Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs) 289 Uri, Pierre 28 United States 5, 85, 128, 151 9/11 259, 277–80, 286 in Afghanistan 278, 280 air strike on Damadola 345 attacks Libya 159 B-52 bomber 51 Baghdad Pact 49 Base Force Plan 230 Bermuda Conference 44–5 casualties in Iraq 313, 328, 343, 353

index [381] Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) 242, 244, 340, 347, 352 chemical weapons 160, 183 Conference on Conventional Weapons 228 defence cuts 189 Department of Homeland Security 291, 296 and EDC 31, 33 elections 268–70, 325, 353 euroﬁghter 159 Flexible Response 74 Forward Base System (FBS) 104, 107, 120, 144 Global Protection Against Limited Strikes (GPALS) 187, 194 Global Threat Reduction Initiative 319 Global War on Terror 260, 281 Gulf of Tonkin Resolution 83 Hatﬁeld-Exon-Mitchell amendment 204 homeland security 282 Hurricane Katrina 338 interrogation tactics 352 invades Panama 174 Iraq Study Group (ISG) 354–5 McMahon Act 8, 60 Massive Retaliation 46, 74 missiles 267, 273–5, 279, 281 Mutual Defense Assistance Act 17 National Security Council (NSC) 43 National Security Strategy (NSS) 179, 289 and NATO 16, 77, 225 neutron bomb 124, 126 non-proliferation treaty 92 North Atlantic Treaty 4 not party to ICC 285, 286, 287 nuclear policy 211, 224 nuclear technology for India 346 nuclear tests 23, 25, 39 nuclear weapons 6, 33, 34 Nuclear Weapons Employment Policy 142 Polaris-class submarine (SSBN) 63, 71, 73 Policy Document NSC-68 19, 25 Responsibility to Protect (R2P) 347 Resolution 99 32 Revolution in Military Aﬀairs (RMA) 207 Schlesinger Doctrine 116

Seabed Arms Control Treaty 106 SEATO 48 security pacts 12, 13 shoots down Iranian airliner 166 Short-Range Emergency Plan (Half Moon) 16 in Somalia 213 Strategic Defence Initiative (SDI) 134, 147, 150, 154, 157, 160, 162 Suez Crisis 54–5 table tennis 108 talks on North Korea 307 troops in West Germany 56 Truman Doctrine 10 U2 spy plane 65, 71 USS Biddle 82, 83 War Powers Act 114 Warner-Nunn Act 195, 199 Watergate 101 Watergate Aﬀair 109, 110, 113, 117 see also Franco-American; German-US United States-China relations 97 United States-Russia co-operation 209, 221 USSR 2, 7, 39, 103, 156 in Afghanistan 102, 130–1 agriculture 165 armed forces 32 arms reduction 193 Chernobyl disaster 159–60 communications satellite 85 Congress of People’s Deputies 167, 169–70 conventional forces 86 coup 191 CPSU disbanded 192, 195 de-Stalinization 53 defence spending 168 delegate to NAC 185 end of 166–7 expansionist 10 in Germany 5 inspectors at NATO exercises 163 invasion of Afghanistan 138 non-proliferation treaty 92 Nuclear Test Ban Treaty 80 nuclear tests 4, 17, 23, 44 nuclear weapons 6, 90 oﬀered aid 10 political pluralism 179 recognizes GDR 47

[382] index USSR (cont.) Seabed Arms Control Treaty 106 Sputnik 23, 57 Strategic Rocket Force (SRF) 63 submarine in Swedish waters 142 troops in East Germany 56 unilateral weapons reduction 155–6 withdrawal from Afghanistan war 166, 169 see also Russia Uwilingiyimana, Agathe 218 Uzbekistan 192, 197, 334, 336, 339 Valentin, Marcel 278 van Baal, Ad 285 van den Broek, Hans 190, 194, 196 van der Born, Leonardus 322 van Eekelen, Wim 170 van Gogh, Theo 326 van Helmont, Jacques 28 van Heyst, Norbert 298 van Zeeland, Paul 12 Vance, Cyrus 123, 124, 205 Vandenberg, Arthur 12 Verhofstadt, Guy 288 Vieira De Mello, Sergio 307 Vietnam 48, 81, 83, 85, 121, 129 Vietnam War 67, 92, 93, 101, 103, 108–9, 110, 112, 114, 121 Visegrad Group 187 Vladivostock Summit 118 von Schwerin, Graf 27 von Weizäcker, Richard 254 Voorhoeve, Joris 226 Vredeling, Henk 121, 161 Walesa, Lech 134, 185 War in the Paciﬁc 6 Warsaw Pact(Warsaw Treaty Organization (WTO)) 21, 50, 53, 92–3, 103, 155, 162, 176, 180, 188, 190 Weinberger, Casper 141 Western European Armaments Group (WEAG) 210, 269 Western European Union (WEU) 21, 48, 93 CEDP 222 CJTF 219 CRISEX 264 end of 269

enlargement 180 and EU 196 exercise 213 Forum for Consultation 202 French boycott 95 join Gulf action 163 last meeting 276 MAPE 239 Military Planning Cell 199, 204 Naval Co-ordination Authority 187 Operation Clean sweep 166 out of NATO area 233 on Persian Gulf 165–6 Petersberg Declaration 202 Platform on European Security Interest 163–4 reactivation 151, 152 Satellite Data Interpretation Centre 190 Satellite Information Interpretation Cell 209 Spain and Portugal join 167, 173 taken over by EU 241, 251, 254, 256 Turkey applies to join 162 Western European Charter 161 WEUDAM 251 Western Union 11–13, 21, 25, 48 Defence Committee 12, 18 and NATO 30 Permanent Military Committee 12, 14 Willmann, Helmut 220 Wilson, Charles, E. 41 Wilson, Harold 83 Witney, Nick 315 Wohlstetter, Albert 62 World Trade Organization (WTO) 224, 333 Wörner, Manfred 166, 173, 183, 205, 220, 221 Wynaendts, Henry 191 Yanukovych, Viktor 327, 329 Yassin, Ahmed 317, 318 Yeltsin, Boris 181–2, 189–91, 198, 199, 202, 213, 217, 234–5, 238 Yemen 76, 90 Yom Kippur War 100, 113–14 Yugoslavia 2, 8, 13, 53, 138, 287 elections 267–8

index [383] Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (FRY) 201 wars of succession 177, 187–207, 209–13, 217–21, 224–6, 242–6, 248–53, 255–7, 264, 268, 272–4, 276–9, 281, 283–7, 293, 295–6, 301–2, 306–8, 317, 322, 332, 342 Yushchenko, Viktor 327, 329, 330

Zapatero, Jose Luis Rodriquez 317 Zavarzin, Lieutenant-General 241 Zebari, Hosyar 322 Zhao Ziyan 329 Zhivkov, Todor 172 Zhou Enlai 108, 121 Zhvania, Zurab 310, 331 Zorlu, Hilmi Akin 287