A Management System Exempt from Power: Learning to Manage with Consideration for Others

A Management System Exempt from Power Learning to Manage with Consideration for Others Christian Bourion A Management...

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A Management System Exempt from Power Learning to Manage with Consideration for Others

Christian Bourion

A Management System Exempt from Power

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A Management System Exempt from Power Learning to Manage with Consideration for Others Christian Bourion Translated by Nathalie Bazzi

© Christian Bourion 2006 All rights reserved. No reproduction, copy or transmission of this publication may be made without written permission. No paragraph of this publication may be reproduced, copied or transmitted save with written permission or in accordance with the provisions of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, or under the terms of any licence permitting limited copying issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency, 90 Tottenham Court Road, London W1T 4LP. Any person who does any unauthorised act in relation to this publication may be liable to criminal prosecution and civil claims for damages. The author has asserted his right to be identiﬁed as the author of this work in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. First published 2001 in France by Editions ESKA This edition published 2006 by PALGRAVE MACMILLAN Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire RG21 6XS and 175 Fifth Avenue, New York, N.Y. 10010 Companies and representatives throughout the world PALGRAVE MACMILLAN is the global academic imprint of the Palgrave Macmillan division of St. Martin’s Press, LLC and of Palgrave Macmillan Ltd. Macmillan® is a registered trademark in the United States, United Kingdom and other countries. Palgrave is a registered trademark in the European Union and other countries. ISBN-13: 978–0–230–00218–0 ISBN-10: 0–230–00218–8 This book is printed on paper suitable for recycling and made from fully managed and sustained forest sources. A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library. A catalog record for this book is available from the Library of Congress. 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 15 14 13 12 11 10 09 08 07 06 Printed and bound in China

Although power was the main organizational issue at stake until recently, it has become the manager’s worst enemy, an old and obsolete tool and a source of unfairness which creates hatred. Power is the surviving evidence of a bygone age. A management system exempt from power has become the new organizational paradigm, particularly with the increasing number of knowledge workers, whose objectives are to produce ideas rather than obedience. A Management System Exempt from Power suggests a method for increasing and improving this know-how. It is intended for each of us and is about our means to develop the three values of local management – efficiency, empathy and imagination.

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Contents

List of Figures, Pyramids and Tables

ix

List of Questionnaires

xi

Foreword: Managing without Power

1

2

3

xiii

Management and Power: Rivals

1

Rational power and scientiﬁc management Hierarchical power and military management Identity power and corporate culture The weakening of power and participative management The end of power and the development of cooperative management The turnaround of power: be less demanding, be self-demanding Develop your skills through self-knowledge Develop your skills through self-management Develop your skills through emotional intelligence Back to skill-based management, exempt from power A brief overview of Chapter 1

2 3 4 6 7 8 10 11 12 13 15

Expertise:Your First Skill

16

Rational values The expert’s approach Memorandums and emails: technical information Policies and procedures A brief overview of Chapter 2

16 31 33 37 39

Develop Empathy:Your Second Essential Skill

41

Social values The social executive’s approach The doting father approach The Stockholm syndrome A brief overview of Chapter 3

41 51 53 62 66

vii

Contents

viii

4

5

6

Fulﬁl your Creative Genius!

67

Emotional and creative values The project developer’s approach The business lunch Charm Forecasting Threats A brief overview of Chapter 4

67 74 80 82 85 89 89

Solving Problems without Creating New Ones

91

The professional’s approach The manager’s approach The interview The meeting Negotiation A brief overview of Chapter 5

91 94 96 101 104 105

Value Conﬂicts: An Indication of Progress Distance and closeness Flexible and uncompromising attitudes Domineering and permissive attitudes Excessive rigor: a crutch Is egalitarianism a source of unfairness? Is tolerance synonymous with weakness or strength? The barrier between the internal and external environment Discover what is right, not who is right A brief overview of Chapter 6

Epilogue

Local Management: Surﬁng between Communication and Power From communication mediums to management tools From management tools to power tools

107 107 110 113 116 118 120 122 123 124

126 126 128

Notes

130

Chronological Bibliography

138

List of Figures, Pyramids and Tables

Figures 1.1

Change in total rate of trade union membership since the liberation

2.1

The life cycle of a problem

6.1

Optimum psychological distance and efficiency

9 22 115

Pyramids 1 2 3 4 5 6

Organizational power In search of efficiency Empathy, regardless of efficiency Innovating without empathy Integrating efficiency, empathy and imagination Value conﬂicts

15 39 66 89 105 124

Tables 0.1

Management and power

xiv

2.1 2.2

The efficient/inefficient continuum The expert’s preferred methods

21 32

3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5

Reciprocal emotional output Valences and fellow feelings The four reputations of the manager Classiﬁcation of emotional appreciations The doting father’s methods to solve problems

43 45 45 46 54

4.1 4.2

The project developer’s preferred mediums Decisions – events – results

76 87 ix

List of Figures, Pyramids and Tables

x 4.3

The regrets matrix

87

5.1 5.2

The speciﬁc media used by the professional to solve problems The manager’s value system

93 95

6.1 6.2

Advantages and disadvantages of the two attitudes The optimum conditions of the two opposite behaviors

112 116

7.1

Communication, management and power

127

List of Questionnaires

1

Are you a manager exempt from power?

xviii

2

Are you a pure rational?

30

3

Do you know when to use emails or memos?

36

4

Do you know how to use internal policies and procedures?

39

5

Are you kind and sociable?

51

6

Are you always welcoming?

57

7

How do you manage coffee breaks?

59

8

Do you practice conciliation?

61

9

Are you a Stockholm syndrome victim?

65

10

Are you creative?

73

11

How do you resist obstruction?

74

12

Are you a true project developer?

79

13

Is your project cost-cutting?

79

14

Is your project proﬁt-making?

80

15

Are you charming?

84

16

Do you practice forecasting?

88

17

Are you a professional?

94

18

Do you know when to hold an interview?

100

19

Are you an efficient negotiator?

104

20

Are you a psychologically distant manager?

108

21

Are you a psychologically close manager?

109

22

Are you ﬂexible and easily inﬂuenced?

112

23

Are you uncompromising?

116

24

Do you advocate strictness?

117

25

Do you advocate egalitarianism?

119

26

Do you always take the external environment into consideration?

122

27

Do you know how to ﬁnd what is right?

123

xi

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FOREWORD

Managing without Power

Power is generally understood as the ability to supervise situations, put initiatives into action and drive them forward. This ability depends on human, material and especially individual resources. Organizational authority is given by a job description, a status defining the available means and human resources. When a manager is provided with human resources but without the means to command them, he can be said to be exempt from power. Such a way of operating is largely and deliberately applied in public and administrative services. The state has been faced with a major paradox: indeed, one government objective was to reduce managers’ inﬂuence to protect subordinates from power abuse. Subordinates soon understood that they could take advantage of the situation and to tackle this problem, some managers ended up abusing their position of inﬂuence. Thus, in order to best manage in such an organization, we would suggest a second approach based on efficiency, empathy and imagination. A manager has no authority when he is not in a position to sign his order forms, reward, punish, promote or demote, increase or decrease a salary, employ or dismiss people. In other words, none of the major public organizations’ officials, whatever their hierarchical level, and none of the small and medium-sized company managers have power in their hands. A manager without any authority is left with three choices: to abandon his/her managerial responsibilities, control by means of fear or try to establish an organizational culture based on mutual respect and straightforwardness, favoring personal and professional development and thus changing team members into successful individuals. This book argues that the weakening1 of the hierarchical instruments of power in public service organizations is irreversible, thus opening the way to a third type of management based on self-guidance and the maximization of each individual’s creative and other resources. Each individual xiii

Foreword

xiv

must learn to solve problems without creating new ones and have their projects approved, even if they encounter refusal from individuals reluctant to change their habits or working practices. Local management, exempt from power, is based on the development of efficiency, empathy and imagination within each individual.

Table 0.1 Management and power Empowered

Disempowered

Does manage

Management with strong authority bases its efficiency on methods such as reward for good results and sanction or dismisssal for bad results

Management exempt from power, which is typical of local management, develops efficacy, empathy and innovation: ■ The expert ■ The social executive ■ The doting father ■ The professional ■ The manager

Does not manage

People ruling without managing2 develop servility and domination. They give advantage to their political party, the unions that elected them and those they can control: ■ The careerist ■ The impostor ■ The bad executive ■ The domineering ■ The favorite

People ruling without power and without managing let things go and make success and failure a laughing stock

In theory, a management system exempt from power concerns every manager. However, a manager who is truly empowered, who signs his order forms, is not faced with the double constraint of increasing needs and restricted available resources, does not experience psychological pressure, has strong technical expertise taking effect on people management, is free to decide when to come to work,3 is under good protection or in a position to promote or dismiss, will not be concerned by the model described in this work. The suggested model provides a means by which a manager could nevertheless be efficient without any of the means described above; it pays close attention to popularity in order to remain in the job and ﬁnd ideas and projects to progress. The word “manager” designates a position which enables an individual to control the resources4 of the organization. An individual becomes a manager when another individual depends on him or as soon as he is provided with a budget which allows him to control expenses for the company. This responsibility is a

Foreword hierarchical cement, placing the individual between the devil and the deep blue sea. Indeed, the poor availability of resources means reducing expenses, discontent from the ﬁnancial experts and further pressure on the manager. What characterizes the line manager’s position in the ﬁrst place is the continuous psychological pressure5 he is faced with even after working time, at home, at night and during the holidays.6 The pitfalls of local management are invisible. They consist of rationalizing situations, solving problems and ﬁnding resources; moreover the local manager is the only one who takes action on the ground and he is in charge of discussing with his senior managers who would not hesitate to use his transfer as a solution. A worker who deals with reports and quietly accomplishes the requested tasks, although they may be complicated, cannot be deﬁned as a “manager” in our research study. He is viewed as an expert. The local manager cannot trust his individual expertise to manage people. He may be a raw engineer who achieved a scientific training focused on problem-solving, a newcomer to the trade of marketing and negotiation, a designer fresh from art school. He may also be a management trainee, with a certain amount of expertise acquired through experience. But who is to say that a manager, with a problem to solve and then resolving it, even with the best will in the world, won’t bring up new and more complicated problems. A successful manager is characterized by his ability to implement solutions rather than actually finding appropriate solutions, even though both are, of course, linked. The local manager does not beneﬁt from any privileges and therefore needs to pay close attention to his popularity. A higher education degree can provide him with a positive image. If the newly promoted local manager is not a minister’s nephew, the employer’s son, the senior manager’s friend or the husband of the general manager’s daughter7 and is not under the protection of a trade union (which on the contrary tends to view local managers as targets), only efficiency and good results will help him to reinforce his position and, above all, make him popular. His work environment may indeed include privileged individuals who are therefore more powerful and in a better position than he is. It is obvious that the local manager will need to be more than just efficient and that is why popularity is such an important element in this job position. The local manager’s status offers very little power. Job success requires more than good technical, commercial, artistic or financial competency and more than simply making the right decisions or producing good results. The decision must be suitable and acceptable at all levels of hierarchy (above and below). In effect, in this type of organization belonging to an “n” rank in hierarchy means having very little authority over ranks

xv

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Foreword “n-1”, “n-2”. The local manager will be provided with very little means to supervise his “organizational territory”. The cultural weakening of organizational power8 is not only typical of private or public companies producing goods and services. It can be extended to religion,9 the couple,10 the family,11 medicine, the army, the police, justice,12 politics,13 the prison system and all institutions, including government14 itself. In the former paradigm, an individual was respected and feared purely by means of a clear hierarchical positioning and the only authorized response to an instruction, whether given nicely or not, was its execution. These days, when an individual exerts a fragment of responsibility in a major organization, he often realizes that the new paradigm is the exact opposite: the higher he is positioned in the hierarchy, the more criticism he will receive, let alone exposure to the media and the resulting publicity that can instantly ruin a career. Local managers cannot control expenses, they cannot request workers to do a job without negotiating with them, cannot reward or impose sanctions. They are not in a position to recruit or dismiss employees. An employee may never show up at work and yet will still be paid and kept in his job if he gets the right support at the right level of the hierarchy.15 Motivation, competence, work capacity or results16 are not the criteria which determine dismissal or job continuation. Furthermore, the threat of immediate transfer hangs over the local manager like the sword of Damocles. In these conditions, power and control will be replaced by business relationships, privileges, adherence to secret societies, ideas, personal genius, emotional capacities and irrationality, all inﬂuencing decision-making.17 Managers are now dealing with more demanding employees. Major organizations and high schools have also become very exacting: recruitment and admission are based on job interviews and competitive entry exams.18 Decreasing supply and increasing demand favor overqualiﬁcation, which has become a rule in the workplace. A good illustration of this is the hiring of tollbooth attendants with a maths degree! Basic jobs require higher qualifications as they are being held by workers with higher standards of education. For example, the qualiﬁcation required for cashiers in one of the two major home equipment distributors in France is a diploma taken after two years at university and, compared with the second distributor reception department, it has undoubtedly improved the quality of reception. The manager is faced with employees more powerful than he is. Moreover, trade unionists, unlike him, can easily get in contact with head office to which they can directly report and complain if they are not satisfied with the line management. Complaints and threats of strike often bring

Foreword about the manager’s transfer. Above all, avoiding a scandal is a priority for head offices. Slowly, with head office complicity, a culture of opposition and independence is set up. It becomes uncontrollable. As soon as a manager is appointed, the trade unions will try to get rid of him. The line manager is all alone. He can only rely on his competence and knowledge of company policies and procedures. A group of trade unionists reported: “The local manager? He’s just passing through! One puff of wind and off he goes!” (illustrated by a ﬂick of the wrist). The manager is faced with protected employees. In France, a good half of the employees work within well protected organizations. The weakening of personal power is the best thing that can ever happen in a mutual respectful and loyal atmosphere. But when the protection level, increased to separate the work volume from the results and profits, comes with disloyal attitudes, local managers are then faced with an enormous double constraint (together with a subsequent huge amount of stress): they are asked to manage an organization without the means to do so. The more let’s above all avoid scandal French way or weak consensus19 English way is in evidence, the more delicate management will be. Needless to say, those organizations most concerned are the highly protected ones, such as public transport, energy, universities, education. Small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) concerned are characterized by strong family standards. A management approach exempt from power requires a high personal involvement. In this system, relationships, emotions and respect replace rationality and control; the right-hand brain takes over the left-hand brain and the maternal archetype replaces the paternal archetype. 䉴 That morning, the manager, a graduate fresh from school, was called out by a client who he carefully listened to before answering: “Don’t worry, your problem will be taken care of.” The manager asked the receptionist to call for Helen, who replied that Helen was on maternity leave.“Ask for Marianne”, he replied.“But Sir, as working time has been established on the basis of 35 hours per week, Marianne therefore leaves the office at 11:00 on Fridays”, she answered.“Well then, ask for Xavier!” “I can’t, he is on strike’, she said.“I see”, he replied moodily. On noticing François, he called him and explained the situation. “Sorry, but this is not in my job description”, François replied before leaving. Humiliated by such an attitude, the manager turned back and then saw Gilles, whom he asked for help. “I am your man”, answered Gilles. A broad smile spread across the manager’s face, but then Gilles went on: “How much will you pay me for this job?” Disconcerted, the manager argued:“But you are already paid by the company.” “Well, they pay me to be here and you are giving me work to do! This means being paid overtime hours.” Contritely, the

xvii

Foreword

xviii

manager concluded: “I will take care of it myself.” The senior accountant, who was observing the situation from behind his office window, walked in at that precise moment: “I am very sorry, but you are not allowed to handle this. In case of an accident, you will not be insured. Find another solution.” While the manager was analyzing the situation and grasping what management actually meant, roars of laughter interrupted his thoughts. The General Manager, Helen, Marianne, François and Gilles stepped in with some cake and champagne:“Good job, you have made it! You have been successfully tested on your resistance to obstruction, which is a major asset to survive in our organization without overusing tranquillizers! Welcome to France Vacances!”

QUESTIONNAIRE 1 Are you a manager exempt from power? Tick one column for each question using the key below: 1 I completely disagree 2 I mildly disagree 3 I am not sure 4 I mildly agree 5 I completely agree Join up the ticks.The more your proﬁle appears on the right-hand side, the more you have responded positively to the question. 1 1. I am in charge of part of the resources in a public company. 2. I supervise a team of permanent staff members. 3. I work in one of the following sectors: energy, transport, education, administration, ﬁnance. 4. I work in the associative sector. 5. I am a project developer. 6. I am not entitled to dismiss employees. 7. Most of the company employees have at least a degree. 8. The employees are permanent staff members. 9. I am not entitled to reward employees. 10. I must note and report on any refusal. 11. The only means I have at my disposal to reach my objectives are indirect ones. 12. I am under pressure. 13. I have already been obliged to stop a project in order to avoid problems.

2

3

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1 14. My friends are the only ones I trust and rely on. 15. I am struck by how ungratefully some employees behave. 16. The only way to be well regarded is to be efficient. 17. It is impossible to request employees to comply with working hours; either they do or they don’t. 18. I once pointed out to a secretary that she had made four mistakes and two paragraph inversions in a short letter. She answered she would no longer work for me. 19. Employees establish and follow policies and procedures of their own. 20. The company employees work less than 35 hours per week and I do not have the means to hire any additional human resources. 21. An employee once said about a manager: “I can twist him round my little ﬁnger”. 22. Work regulations are a precious support. 23. If you wish to take an unusual or innovative decision, be prepared for a long struggle before it is approved. 24. If you wish to avoid any trouble, say hello to everyone in the company and don’t make any mistakes – no need to work! 25. The company runs very efficient employees, thus requiring very few managerial actions. 26. To be nice and give a free hand is more productive than to explain what is wrong. 27. To hire an employee is a far more complicated than falling in love! When lovers break up, they can remain good friends. No need to bring the case before the courts, no need of redundancy payment notice. 28. My status grants me much less freedom than my employees. 29. My salary will remain equal, whether I apply for a higher position or withdraw from that position. 30. My work ethic is based on mutual respect. 31. I always try to avoid power struggles. 32. I do not care about who is right but about what is right. 33. I never take rumor into consideration and I make my opinion known through individual interviews. 34. I am not clannish and I do not participate in “return the favor” games. 35. I do not trust those persons who negotiate power. 36. I do not discriminate on the basis of my qualiﬁcations. 37. I prefer plurality.

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CHAPTER 1

Management and Power: Rivals The following chapter draws up an account of the research carried out into management.The introduction of “self-management” in this overview has, as a result, signiﬁcantly and not surprisingly changed the usual Anglo-Saxon chronology, based on rationality, human relations and systems – a trilogy commonly referred to for over 30 years. Management sciences have been subjected to many controversial theories and debates – logic as opposed to intuition, reality as opposed to pleasure, public companies as opposed to private companies, head office as opposed to line management, and so on.

Early in the twentieth century, scientific management was based on a rational approach to performance within hierarchical organizations (Taylor 1971). Behavior sciences were put to use in management only in 1966, thanks to MacGregor.20 At the time, management scientists tried to integrate intrinsic human motivations – the pleasure and need to be the cause of things – in their models but they still knew very little about the psyche. In the years following 1975, important developments were made in the fields of psychoanalysis, neuroscience, cognitive psychology and mental processes (Ned Herrmann 1988).21 That progress favored new hypotheses which were essential for understanding organizational behavior. New management approaches were suggested, in which the psyche was placed at the heart of the matter. A new approach to the learning process was suggested as well, based on both reason and intuition, altruism and hatred, strictness and flexibility, power and harmony, security needs and change needs, collective culture sharing and individualism, law-abiding and lawbreaking22 behavior. In short, the new management models took the righthand brain23 into consideration instead of denying it! In 1976, Mintzberg wrote a sensational article – Train Them to Become Managers, not MBAs! – in which he criticized the academicism of those famous American diplomas viewed as standards all over the world. In 1991, Paquet and 1

2

A Management System Exempt from Power Gelinier published, as a cry of alarm, a major work recommending actionbased training, which brought to light different kinds of knowledge, among which was delta knowledge. Academicism was deﬁnitely brought down by Ned Herrmann, a senior training manager at General Electric (based in the US), who deﬁned it as a concept for the handicapped! Management sciences have thus undergone different phases, more or less characterized by parameters viewed as determining the leading management approach and in relation to speciﬁc power issues. Such close and detailed analysis at each stage has undoubtedly increased the understanding of behavior. We shall now demonstrate how these progressive changes in the management approach led to disinterest in power over people, privileging power over oneself.

Rational power and scientiﬁc management In 1957, March and Simon published Organizations (and the Principle of Bounded Rationality), an unequalled work based on more than 150 management models. Simon was rewarded with the Nobel Prize and his work saved rationality from Taylorism – a miracle according to the scientiﬁc community of that time! In 1965, two engineers Keppner and Tregoe published The Rational Manager, which described a method designed to eradicate irrationality from management. In the context of European reconstruction, an approach providing answers to immediate needs was a great success.24 And who would have dared to challenge a model described by such great scientists and technicians! The Americans even entrusted their Department of Defense to McNamara,25 who was the standard bearer of computer-aided management. His approach proved to be a major mistake.26 In 1964, Gore and William timidly called the model into question in Administrative Decision Making. The book underlined that next to the rational model existed the heuristic model, a more unconscious, nearly irrational approach. The authors of The Rational Manager claimed their disapproval in a new edition of their work (p. 188). Simon’s spiritual sons gave the death blow, killing the father in “A garbage can model of organizational choice” (Cohen and March 1972), but did not succeed in replacing the rationalist approach. Indeed, the major drawback of the garbage can model was that it resulted from analyzing overprotected organizations – universities. The ﬁrst true clash came with the amazingly successful book In Search of Excellence27 (Peters and Waterman 1982), which praised the supremacy of instinct over reason and analyzed manage-

Management and Power: Rivals ment in business situations,28 unlike the garbage can model. The authors made a mistake, however, for they maintained that there was a cause and effect relationship with success;29 however, the organizations they investigated experienced major difficulties in the following years.

Hierarchical power and military management War, undoubtedly, favors rational models. In the army, obedience and survival are indivisible.30 Soldiers are confronted with simple situations and clear commands – obey or die. In France, during the Nivelle attack (World War I), a number of soldiers who had refused to go into action were arbitrarily sentenced to death and shot. In the US, Dimock published The Executive in Action (1945) and Lewis and Steward published The Boss (1958). In 1959, Dalton presented his theory in Men Who Manage, followed by Coperman who exposed his vision in The Role of the Managing Director. In 1961, Bourricaud submitted his work followed by Courtois. In 1975, Foucault published Discipline and Punish: the Birth of the Prison. In 1988, Rogers published Waging Business Warfare and, in 1992, the French General Fievet wrote De la stratégie militaire à la stratégie d’entreprise. The Art of War by Sun Tzu was republished by Flammarion in 1988 and The Prince by Machiavelli was republished by Le Seuil in 1989. But the excessive control that took place in organizations created resistance and sabotage. According to the French sociologist Crozier, war continued – in the heart of organizations. He argued that solving problems in the workplace was not as rational as it was said to be, which he illustrated by the power struggles in a French state-owned tobacco company, La Seita. The maintenance workers kept the maintenance and repair problems a secret, disregarding all blueprints and maintenance directions. The maintenance workers were then able to maintain relative autonomy and exert their inﬂuence on others. This proved to be helpful at the workers’ council election (Crozier 1963).31 In the US, a well-known experiment on submission to authority, ﬁnanced by the University of Yale, showed that the more employees are dutiful, the less they are proactive (Milgram 1974). Obedient employees do as they are told without asking any questions. As a result, when a manager is given unquestioned power, he is in a position to request anything from his employees, in 65 per cent of the cases – the ﬁrst source of power was thus brought to light. The concept of power-seeking emerged in 1974 (Maffesoli, Legendre 1976). According to Laborit (1974), the pursuit of power is linked to biological parameters and is thus

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A Management System Exempt from Power inescapable. Laborit established that if individuals share the same territory and experience simultaneous desires for the same object or subject, the result is competition and the forming of a hierarchy, by means of a struggle in some instances.

Identity power and corporate culture During the 1980s, writing on organizational culture flourished but was neglected. In 1992, however, the issue was discussed again, leading to the development of ethics in business (de la Brûlerie, Boatright, Hall, Mousse, Nash 1993; Bennis, Parikh, Lessem, Green, Harvey 1994, and so on). Nowadays, cross-culturalism has become the leading trend, given that major organizations recruit their managers from all over the world. Peters and Waterman related how two engineers they had interviewed had regaled them for more than two hours with trivial details about Bill and Dave (Hewlett and Packard) until they discovered, amazed, that the two engineers had never met Bill and Dave! The stories about the latter were only legends forming part of a collective imagination and common belief. It is true to say that a number of success stories became mythical thanks to a collective imagination. For example, IKEA is known to have given lectures on the rise of its founder, who launched his business from his garage in Almhutt (Sweden), with the help of the postman who delivered his products. But one day, the postman changed his rounds, and the founder of IKEA had to change his work organization, which helped him to create a company which currently sends out 92 million catalogues, in 129 languages! In the middle of the 1980s, the media attributed the spectacular success of some organizations to their strong organizational culture, which led to a large number of publications on the subject (Nizard 1983; Lemaître, Normand 1984; Ramanantsa and Reitter 1985; Degot 1981, 1985; Mothe-Gautrat 1986; Poupart, Ouellet and Simard 1986; Thévenet 1986, 1988, 1993; Tripier 1986; Lapierre 1987; Symons, Aktouf 1988). The concept of the corporate project was analyzed during the same period (Declerk et al. 1980; Fichter 1988). In the years that followed, there was a swing in opinion and the “organizational culture effect” lost its credibility. First, a number of organizations did not seize the opportunity to undertake a collective reﬂection on values, a task even contracted out in some cases. Second, it was observed that progress was actually crippled by the organizational culture. For example, when the French car company Renault and the Swedish car company Volvo reached an agreement, both experienced a cultural clash of

Management and Power: Rivals opinions – the collective approach was extolled by the Swedish, whereas the rational approach was extolled by the French! The Club Med type of management is also illustrative. G. Blitz, the company founder, developed a utopian community in Club Med stemming from his personal experience – the psychological rehabilitation he went through after his traumatizing imprisonment in the concentration camps. This utopian community was based on the egalitarian makebelieve of the promised land – no money, no social classes, no outward distinctive signs and a good mood compulsary for all. In the 1990s, the type of leisure activities sought changed. The individual’s desire to escape from day-to-day life grew into the need for adventure, for unexplored lands and high-risk activities. The company manager, G. Trigano, handed the company over after 30 people were killed in the dramatic 1993 accident. As his son refused an avoidance–avoidance conﬂict,32 he withdrew from the discussions and the necessary decisions and changes were therefore taken by the shareholders. As always, the success of a model is accompanied with the desire to destroy it, as explained by Fromm in his work Anatomy of Human Destructiveness (1973) and the cultural model described above was subjected to strong criticism. It was denounced by the French sociologist Anzieu in L’illusion groupale (1971), followed by many other scientists – Amado, Defrenne and Delvaux denounced the concept of collective identity illusion (1988, French publications). Aubert and de Gaulejac stigmatized a system they named managinaire in French (a word invention resulting from the contraction of management and imagination) (1989). Fichter, the (1988) director of the French bank BRED, clearly disapproved of the concept of the corporate project. Those authors actually understood that corporate culture had given rise to a new organizational strategy – company leaders provided employees in search of meaning with a ready to use one. Designed according to the values of the founder, it could thus be used as a domination medium. The French sociologist Bourdieu (1964, 1966, 1992, 1994) 33 argued that power was a matter of access to resources and extended that theory to art and culture. He demonstrated that art and culture were accessible if they were clearly understood, which required keys for interpretation (1989).34 Without those keys, culture and art remained unintelligible and, even worse, they were seen as manipulation. Defrenne and Delvaux declared without any hesitation that corporate culture was synonymous with work alienation.

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A Management System Exempt from Power The weakening of power and participative management Participative management ﬂourished during the post-war boom period and met with immediate success. The organizational game was described as a win–win game, unlike the powerful Marxist model,35 which viewed it as a zero-sum game. Participative management was never really questioned afterwards, as it concurred with the powerful religious model which emphasized community sharing. Participative management ﬁrst focused on material resources sharing (the Barbu laws on workers’ participation in limited companies, followed by the Vallon, Capitan, Loicho36 team in charge of organizing that participation). Then, the necessity of sharing power by installing collective decision-making was put forward. Eventually, it was demonstrated that such a sharing favored the organizational synergy, thus bringing along productivity.37 Here is a list of sociologists and psychologists who wrote on that issue – theory X and theory Y MacGregor,38 McClelland,39 Maier (1964), Bergeron (1979), The Managerial Grid by Blake and Mouton;40 Dubreuil (1924), Mayo (1947), Argyris (1957), Likert (1971), Herzberg (1962), McGregor (1969), Gélinier (1970), J. Hall, (1971); Langevin et al. (1979), Goetschy (1983), R. Sainsaulieu, (1983), Tixier (1986), Ferenczi (1989), Hermel (1990), Goguelin and Mitrani (1994). The opponents of participative management ironically named it “the all good, all nice and perfect world”. Indeed, a number of problems came into light with practice. In France, participative management had to deal with the widespread Latin culture which combined personal development with rebellion against authority and management with the class struggle.41 When a general manager declared to his employees they could feel free to speak, they knew they had to remain very cautious. Actually, that kind of statement meant: “You can tell me anything I wish to hear about and, above all, you can tell me that I am the best.” Participative management was also found to be quite cumbersome (Douglas Basil 1972). The zero growth period eventually put an end to the participative model. The end of the post-war boom period was followed by increasing unemployment, bankruptcies and overtaxation. In addition, private companies were asked to provide the welfare state with their productivity surplus. These changes led to the return of individualism. Indeed, the transient nature of participation comes within the logic of individual progress. It is based on an intermediary stage of human motivation – social needs – which was analyzed by Maslow in Toward a Psychology of Being (1962, 1968). As explained by Nuttin (1991), the more self-centered need to be the cause of things.

Management and Power: Rivals However, we can say that participative management undoubtedly had a great impact on the human dimension at work and was at the heart of much research.

The end of power and the development of cooperative management Alexrod held a computer tournament of various strategies for the prisoner’s dilemma.42 He invited a number of well-known game theorists from all over the world to submit strategies to be run by computers. Decisions were taken along a unique game principle and over a long period. The experiment demonstrated that when players did not depend on each other, the only way to survive was to favor the tit-for-tat strategy. The computer programs designed with a view to personal power – even by possible means of treachery – ended in failure, whereas the tit-for-tat programs met with success. Alexrod’s very convincing evolutionary theory thus conflicted with Laborit’s theory. However, the weak point was that the theory was built on computer programs that merely caricature human brains. Human decision-making is not based on such a rigid system. Nevertheless, the experiment brought to light a number of aspects that had never been analyzed scientifically until then. It showed that Alexrod’s model was applicable in a country whose culture was powerful enough to lead to rigid decision-making, based on the idea that only what was appropriate was possible. Moreover, the experiment demonstrated that if powerful cultures were confronted for many centuries, those individualistic cultures based on maximum beneﬁts, gained by any possible means, would fail (Lewin) and give way to cooperative cultures. Alexrod eventually proved to be one of the few capable of linking management with ethics from a scientific point of view. In a culture exempt from power, cooperative management is a transitory phase between domination and self-managing. Cooperative management is non-explicit – a tacit agreement – which makes it more difficult to understand. The manager grants the employee a privilege. This is the visible part of the iceberg. The manager then expects his employee to be equal to the privilege; this is the invisible part of the iceberg, which is never clearly stated or written down. Therefore, as it is tacit, it cannot be controlled. Actually, the value underlying cooperative management is straightforwardness (Reichheld 1996; Duluc 2000). In other words, cooperative management is about explicit demands and implicit involvement.

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A Management System Exempt from Power The turnaround of power: be less demanding, be selfdemanding Such a turnaround of power had already been evoked by Christianity and Buddhism. Freud emphasized that aspect, stating that individuals who pursued domination would come to understand that their problems came from the inside and not the outside. That was extended to the organizational world, where actors found out that solid organizational structures depended on solid individual structures. The former management approaches had consisted of analyzing human relations within a collective framework. Power was more or less viewed as part of a hierarchical relationship between two individuals at least, struggling for domination. New models contesting the former analysis were then suggested, which questioned the game played to win power. Emphasis was put on the individual – the self. The concept of power remained, but the stakes changed into a relationship with oneself. A number of former analyses – on imposture among others – had already demonstrated how essential a solid self was, prior to any power games.43 There were controversial debates as well, stating that the importance given to the self had been widely exaggerated (Rojot 2000). 44 A management approach focused on the self establishes that power is ill-founded because it tends to search outside what is inside each individual. When power is no longer placed at the heart of priorities and when hierarchy – acting as mediator between man and work – is abolished, the managing of the self remains and the notion of project takes over. The latest professional success stories – famous start-ups or anonymous but successful companies – are all the result of a strong, determined man/woman who succeeded in developing projects while self-developing. Man’s relationship with authority was even challenged from a spiritual point of view.45 As Mended said, each individual ﬁrst belongs to his age, resulting in a widening gap between generations (Mead 1971). Two issues were deeply questioned: to have to be (Fromm 1978) and to have and to appear – two illusive identity components, dealt with by Defrenne and Delvaux (1990). The need for self-actualization slowly replaced the materialistic needs sought by the previous generations who had suffered war and its consequences and, as a result, constantly feared poverty. This was well described by Elgozy (1970) and Riesman (1969). Marxism was rejected, as it proved to be another tool for power abuse, whose horrors were brought to light with the fall of the Atlantic Wall; as were those who had maintained the ideological illusion, as Levy-Valeni

Management and Power: Rivals

9

described it. The decreasing number of union members, who were well disciplined but realistic individuals, was another subsequent change.

Trade union membership (% of employees)

40 36 32 28

1968

1977

24

1981 1953

20

1958

16 12 Years

8 49

53

57

61

65

69

73

77

81

85

89

93

95

Figure 1.1 Change in total rate of trade union membership since the liberation Source: Sociologie des syndicats, Andolfatto and Labbé (p. 29, 2000) éditions La Découverte – 9 bis, rue Abel-Hovelcaque, 75013, Paris.

The older generation, undergoing a more than 70 percent income tax rise, turned away from economy and the younger generation turned away from ideology. Individuals focused on their inner life. Psychology took over and led to Symbolism, as Malraux had predicted. In 1980, Blin published The Knowledge of Self and Others, and in 1984, Touraine wrote Return of the Actor: Social Theory in Postindustrial Society. In 1985, Aubrey, head of the French journal Autrement, wrote about the pursuit of self-command. In 1991, Nuttin maintained that the actor’s true and deep motivation was to be the cause of things and appreciate the result of his actions. Once this is established, who else but a company leader has the means to feel deeply motivated? This questioning led to the idea that each individual had to become a leader – a leader of his own enterprise: himself. A number of famous schools that trained people to become managers provided a few additional courses on self-awareness and self-development, which were a great success. Those courses referred to American scientists (Argyris 1957, 1963, 1970; Rogers 1978; Maslow 1964, 1968, 1969), Canadian scientists (Blondin 1983) and French scientists (Donnars 1982, 1985, 1986, 1991 and Salomé) who dealt with personal development and whose theories were built on Maslow’s universal model and communica-

10

A Management System Exempt from Power tion models (transactional analysis approach and Alto’s work). Comparative teachings on spiritual aspects46 were also worked out. The rising generation was grappling with that endless question – What is the point of learning to manage others if one neglects to manage oneself? In 1935, the father of modern management, Drucker, commented: “Is it worth being the richest cadaver in the cemetery?” In 1999, he ended his work Management Challenges for the 21st Century47 with a chapter entitled “Managing oneself– know your strength and values – focus on contribution”. He established that the productivity of knowledge workers48 depended on their ability to manage themselves. In 1992, Chaize declared that an organization progressed only if the necessary changes were initiated from the inside and were made by aware leaders and employees, and Parikh published Managing Your Self: Management by Detached Involvement. In 1999, ESKA editions published a series entitled Self-Management. In 2000, Aubrey introduced the notion of psychopoïesis, following Varela’s49 autopoïesis, and Turner and Hevin introduced the four main principles of self-management. In the ﬁrst place, self-management constituted a personal approach to learning and creation. Resulting from combined personal development and management theories, self-management rejected power and focused on autonomy – deliver thyself! The ultimate goal of self-management, with regards to creation, is that each individual has to build a life project, whatever its size. The self-management approach was not only intended for rich and wealthy people, it concerned everyone in the workplace, at each level of the hierarchy. A number of private training organizations50 provided new learning tools, among them the life strategy interview.51

Develop your skills through self-knowledge The evolution of management briefly described above led to different approaches based on the same objective, that is, to improve self-management. However, each management model was developed along a speciﬁc theme, including the structures of personality, a long-standing theme and probably the most recurrent one. Later on, management was considered from the point of view of the process – involved and more delicate to deal with. The ﬁrst process-based model was the black box (Gagné et al. 1988), followed by our model – Emotional Logic and Decision Making (Bourion 2000). We viewed the black box as a transparent box and demonstrated that the outward discontinuity was a continuous process in reality and that the instant of decision within that continuum could be described accurately.

Management and Power: Rivals Our arbitration approach to management exempt from power is based on that moment of decision. The vast majority of models were thus designed according to the structures of personality. A logic of structures was established; it touched on behavior, personality being the starting point. Based on old classiﬁcations – emotionalism, occupation and a tendency to conceal one’s reactions – these models aimed to get as close as possible to organizational behavior. Some of these embodied generous and ambitious goals, like selfknowledge – a tool for personal development – and knowledge of others, aimed to improve people’s tolerance. There are a number of tests and work performed on the issue. Myers-Briggs52 worked on typological indicators, based on Jung’s concepts and adapted by Cauvin and Cailloux,53 including 16 indicators used to define dominant behavior,54 extraversion/introversion, sensation/intuition, thoughts/feelings, judgment/perception. Through transactional analysis, other indicators were brought to light, such as Kahler and Collignon’s test (1994),55 based more specifically on work behavior – empathic, workaholic, persevering, rebellious, dreamy, promoter, and so on. The HBDI test, designed by Herrmann and Vuillemin,56 described how the person uses his brain, which was followed by a number of other tests based on HBDI and developed by small consultancy firms, among them the Potentia Test and the Team Management Consultancy Test. Eventually, a number of typologies were established within the ﬁeld of management, whose backdrop was the search for the philosopher’s stone – discover the secret of the manager who changes whatever he touches into gold (Lambert 1968; Chalvin 1971; Woot 1984; Bennis and Nanus 1985; Blake and Mouton 1987; Walter 1988; Jacoud and Metsch 1991; Burke 1991; Thévenet 1992 and Sallenave 1993). The management models returned to the “know thyself” of Socrates, Montaigne and Confucius, supported by Duruz (1985).

Develop your skills through self-management Management was later on approached from the point of view of the process. In France, that trend was developed by theorists based in Nancy. The black box was an introduction to the process approach. In the 1970s, Gagné57 launched the small business concept in Canada, which brought on the self-management concept. A small informal group of theorists58 collaborating with Professor Castagné59 (Institut National Polytechnique de Lorraine) worked out a self-management model designed to enable each individual to develop an efficient enterprise of self, which conveyed a new

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A Management System Exempt from Power message: You must ﬁrst learn to manage yourself. Their key work clearly illustrated the turnaround of power – from outside to inside the individual. Management values – that is, objectives, efficiency, productivity, creation and so on – were maintained but applied to self-management. The individual was considered an autonomous decision center. Former management theories had said that the unit to manage was the organization. The setting-up of delegation brought supervisors to split up the organization into autonomous business units. The Nancy theorists60 extended the idea of the business unit to the individual, whom they considered the smallest autonomous business unit of the organization, with its own resources, goals and objectives to achieve.61 The approach was found to be innovative from an educational aspect and became a training tool, which managers beneﬁted from. Furthermore, that outwardly simple model actually concealed a change in the central paradigm. The Castagné team implicitely approved a very modern theory stating that only those intrinsic motivations of pleasure to manage or pleasure to be the cause of things could make individuals want to work efficiently on a long-term basis. On the other hand, the suggested model did not take into account emotions as an autonomous source of information.62 Individuals may be led by emotions to subject themselves to a double constraint; indeed, life is not managed like an organization and many of an individual’s best life actions result from generosity, love or gratuitousness. Finally, the approach did not look into the problem of self-management and unlearning processes in case of failure. The theorists admitted the principle of separating the outside from the inside (Besson 1998), but the notion of inside was not integrated, nor was the connection made between the two aspects. The approach based on emotional processes leading to increased competency made that connection. The former models had indeed remained within the framework of a limitating rationality.

Develop your skills through emotional intelligence In 1995, Goleman established that a substantial part of an action depended on our ability to acknowledge our emotions and named it emotional intelligence. He was awarded a prize for his work by the American Psychological Association (APA) at the San Francisco Congress in 1998, to which he had been invited to open the session. In 2000, we presented a description of that emotional process, which we view as being a synthesis between a situation, its deﬁnition and its subsequent decision.

Management and Power: Rivals Emotional logic describes the emotional dimension of decisionmaking in a project situation, which is probably more typical of knowledge workers. On opening the sacrosanct black box to flush out the hidden ghost, we discovered that the self-manager is a man of projects before all, whose essential motivation is to be the cause of things. The selfmanager gains meaning from his experience thanks to his emotions and his actions are based on that meaning turned, when possible, into projects. We have thus placed ourselves at the heart of an interactionist theory. This conceptualized the individual who guides his life in such a way that his life projects coincide with organizational projects and vice versa. The project acts as a mirror aimed to repair the individual’s lack of self-image. Man and project appear as being indivisible. Our research has demonstrated that an individual experiences personal changes through the realization of projects. His symbolic and emotional output are his best guides to help him understand what he is undergoing inside. He feels gratified when he learns something new and when he progresses from one project to another and from one learning to another. Two major chapters (pp. 201–72) of Emotional Logic and Decision Making have been devoted to the failure model. Given the global economical situation, the understanding of failure is an essential component of learning, provided that the experience of failure, although unpleasant, is properly interpreted. Indeed, the emotional man, the man of projects, is not confronted with the problem of motivation. He uses his existential frustration – a bottomless pit – to ﬁnd a meaning to life (Frankl 1988).

Back to skill-based management, exempt from power In 1995, Champy declared that the best way to hold power was to give it up. Theories on managerial power ﬁnd their origins in the management of workers, of whom Taylor had a mechanistic conception. These theories placed hierarchy at the heart of the system. Hierarchy had two purposes: to establish control over workers by a reputable skilled manager and enable decision-making along the manager’s views, whether or not it fitted in with the subordinate’s views. Power was exerted through participative, democratic or authoritarian management. Our model of management exempt from power is based on an autonomous management of self. The decision taken is that which accords with the most skilled and experienced individual – the individual himself or his manager. Our approach aims to encourage individuals to selfappraise their professional development. The model presented in Manage-

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A Management System Exempt from Power ment without Power is a skills growth model. The role of hierarchy is seen as a coaching role or a substitute for inexperienced individuals. This model constitutes a new approach to power and management, which we view as rivals. First we have developed the mirror learning concept – professional actions and achievements contribute to create a reﬂection of self, they provide a meaning for our intuitive behavior, which thus ameliorates and reduces relationships based on domination, to be replaced by efficiency, empathy and imagination. We also emphasize the ability to solve problems without creating additional ones. We stress the important position we give to the imagination, a key value resulting from the individual’s capacity to ﬁnd a meaning for his actions. Imagination is the best medium to question and manage ourselves, and put our path right, thus favoring personal development through conﬂicts of transition. In this way, the individual may progress and remain a constant resource for himself and the organization. Six basic life strategy models have been identiﬁed as a starting point, however, each individual must realize his highest level and establish a synergy between himself and relationship games and between work, others and himself. The internet generation (Tapscott 2000) has grown up online, and ten years from now in the US and about twenty years in Europe, models focused on hierarchy will undoubtedly encounter difficulties. Hierarchy is not appropriate in an innovation-based economy; the internet generation is project-oriented and used to immediate action and reaction. Autonomous individuals will need to work within an environment that safeguards autonomy and yet favors networking. 䉴 “If you hesitate between art and industry, join us!” This is the Nancy school slogan. Three major schools – ICN Management School, Art College and School of Mining Engineering – were grouped to create ARTEM,63 thanks to the support of political and university authorities. This unique experiment in the French educational network brought a new managers’ training concept that provided simultaneously three types of education. In October 2000, students from the three schools volunteered to attend the ICN workshops. The teachers’ initial feedback was that the exchanges had been very productive. This new type of organization is a mix of diversiﬁed values, such as reason, intuition, conviction, innovation and art. Let us hope that it becomes a true source of imagination for the generations to come, the warden of a temple that resists rationalism and its powerful supporters.

Management and Power: Rivals A brief overview of Chapter 1

5. Power over oneself 4. Power sharing 3. Identity power 2. Hierarchic power 1. Rational power

Pyramid 1 Organizational power

1. The evolution of the power concept we have described in this chapter appears in the research that has been carried out. We could say that the West made a bad start with Taylorism. Developed by a neurotic endlessly counting his footsteps, the theory was applied by manufacturers who rapidly perceived the beneﬁts of such a model. 2. Inhuman tasks can be executed only by means of increased levels of hierarchy. But increasing internal conflicts turn the situation to the workers’advantage. 3. A number of workers created organizations in which they breathed a new ideal – corporate culture. Such an embryo of integration could have enabled management to get out of the zero-sum game. 4. Initially based on ﬁnancial resource sharing, participative management established the premise of power and decision-sharing. Given the increasing complexity of work situations, it became obvious that local managers were the only ones who were faced with reality and the practical aspects of work and who therefore knew what and what not to do. 5. The zero-growth period led to the development of spirituality and the return of individuality, which was the starting point of an extraordinary journey, a search for personal competency and development.

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CHAPTER 2

Expertise: Your First Skill Experts and professionals work along the same particular logic: efficiency is their source of gratiﬁcation. Efficiency concerns, above all, problem-solving. Depending on their personal resources, experts and professionals may adopt either a conservative or an innovative attitude, but what best nurtures their emotions is security.This approach is opposite to that taken by the project developer, whose work satisfaction consists of taking risks and innovating; including dealing with problems, to which experts and professionals are very hostile. However, only professionals use management methods, whereas experts focus solely on the technical aspects of the problem.

Rothschild used to say: “there are three ways to ruin yourself – hazard games, women and experts.The ﬁrst two are undoubtedly more pleasant but the third is the most efficient”.

Rational values A newly hired line manager who is assigned a team supervision is initially faced with the following dilemma – how to take into consideration the need for results64 together with relationship and motivational aspects? The senior manager is confronted with another problem – will the line manager, in the long term, create more problems than he solves or vice versa? Before answering these questions,65 let us first define these two standards – the ability to solve problems, combined with the ability to avoid additional ones. The line manager’s basic assignment is to solve problems. Problems are his work measure unit and problem resolution is the indicator of his efficiency. The senior manager who hires a line manager expects two possible situations: either the latter will solve more problems than he creates or he will create more problems than he solves.

16

Expertise: Your First Skill The unionized team’s basic function – if the workplace is subject to many conﬂicts and struggles – consists of emphasizing the line manager’s inadequate behavior or the problems he has created, thus encouraging management to transfer him. He will be replaced by another manager who will probably experience the same situation. These successive changes reinforce the teams’ autonomy and tranquillity. The manager’s know-how is thus determined by the implementation of resolution programs. This implementation and the possible subsequent difficulties it may bring are the main pitfalls of the manager’s profession. The first question is: what is a problem? It is a norm deviation. Usually, the deviation appears in the guise of a stimulus – unsatisfied customer, work fallen behind schedule, strikes and so on. The norm is not necessarily formalized. The actions taken by the manager to solve the problems indicate that the norm deviation has become unacceptable. These are some examples: ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■

The supplier refuses to deliver since downpayments have not been made The order form does not comply with the speciﬁcations Return rate is increasing Turnover is decreasing Equipment is out of order and the aftersales are still being waited for The company customer’s account is drastically increasing Line of bank overdraft has been exceeded Customers’ claims are increasing. 䉴 I did my ﬁrst training in Benin. The company I was working for had chosen to provide school materials and equipment by means of the company stalls, sort of seasonal shops, since the few existing supermarkets were expensive and did not always sell quality products. At that time, we were setting up a monitoring department and we had yet to work out operating procedures. Sylvie, a Beninese, did not have the official status of manager but was our de facto team leader. She was a domineering person and thought she was always right. We had an easy job. We were in charge of the shops and had to report on stocklist variations and accounting miscalculations. We were faced with many problems. For example, a number of shop supervisors were not efficient managers; goods or money regularly went missing. We also encountered disloyal attitudes. We told Sylvie about our concerns. She would not forward any of our reports, however, she did not want any trouble. She was becoming blunt and I began to feel powerless. There is nothing worse than working oneself hard for nothing and feeling inefficient. But Sylvie was not

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A Management System Exempt from Power willing to face up to her responsibilities and was becoming hostile. In view of the difficulties we were experiencing, the general manager held a meeting to discuss the situation and it degenerated into strong accusations. The general manager seized the problem and entrusted us with a new legitimacy, which enabled us to solve the problems efficiently. At the end of my training period, the general manager explained to me that he knew how bad-tempered Sylvie was, which was the reason why he did not appoint her head of department. I commented that since we were trainees, we could not stand up to her. That training period made me realize how subtle the leader’s position is – to manage without being despotic, to motivate teams, to avoid taking arbitrary decisions, to be nice but not overliberal and eventually be legitimated de facto and not only by means of a status. 䉴 A group of hikers had a walk organized in the Saharan part of south Morocco. The hikers enlisted a guide’s services and the hotelier helped with translation matters. The agreed itinerary was designed in such a way that the hikers could walk at their own pace. They would cross the main road in midcourse and a bus would wait for the ones who wished to stop. In fact, the guide did not understand French at all but did not say anything about it. Each time someone asked him something, he would nod, add “Inshallah” and walk the group through another itinerary. The sirocco got up unexpectedly and the temperature exceeded 45°C. In mid-course, the hikers had drunk all their water supply. On realizing that the sirocco had risen, the hotelier followed his intuition, ﬁlled his four-wheel drive with drinks and drove to collect the hikers who had spread out over several kilometers. Fortunately, there was more fear than real harm. However, the hotelier reported the guide’s mistake, and the latter was dismissed. The tour operator decided to provide their future hiking clients with mobiles to improve security. These are the deviations which nearly led to a critical situation: 1 temperature rise 2 water shortage 3 itinerary longer than initially planned 4 guide acting as if he understood the clients’ language. 䉴 Japanese managers make the company standards unclear for their employees so that they continuously feel in the wrong, and then the employees end up believing that the only way to avoid punishment – since they always feel in the wrong – is to submit totally to the manager’s wishes.66

In the 1980s, Bernard Tapie was invited to give a lecture at the Centre Supérieur des Affaires. One of the attendees asked him how he measured the value of a manager. He answered:

Expertise: Your First Skill the manager’s measurement unit is the amount of money he earns, this is how you know if he is efficient. A manager cannot say: “Money does not mean anything to me”. Imagine if an athlete told you he did not care about timing. But having said this, I must admit that some people do not give much importance to money. However, I have experienced both situations – with and without money – and I can tell you that I’d rather be rich! In addition, I must say that I more often meet well-known scientists in four-star hotels than in campsites!67

The general manager focuses on financial results, whereas the line manager’s concerns are more practical. This is the main difference between them. There are a great number of line managers in France; their immediate target is high-quality job performance. They are less concerned by ﬁnancial aspects and thus do not necessarily establish the connection between their activity and the organization turnover. They are focused on their local budget and their teams. They have to deal with the quality of service provided, customer satisfaction and the volume of resources involved. In most cases, line managers do not even know the clients. The perception of the relationship becomes internal; they value it on the basis of their work and their subjective feeling. The measurement unit of their efficiency is not based on proﬁt but on the resolution of dilemmas. Issue-related efficiency is determined by the amount of psychological and physiological effort involved, from the moment a problem is acknowledged to its deﬁnitive resolution. The deﬁnitive nature of resolution is an additional indicator of efficiency. People-related efficiency is determined by the ability to anticipate, formalize and solve a number of problems in a given period of time. The efficiency norm depends on the results obtained in the short, medium and long term; it is established by unbiased data expressed in value, volume, quantity or cost. Thus, efficient managers possess a deep knowledge of many execution processes (know-how), are skilled in ﬁnding solutions for unexpected situations (Simon 1974) as well as having the ability to anticipate or innovate. An efficient resolution program68 meets the following requirements: 1. the manager notices a norm deviation 2. he applies an execution program when the problem is clearly identiﬁed 3. he ﬁnds solutions for unexpected situations 4. he then deﬁnitively solves the dilemma 5. he uses little effort to solve the problem 6. if the resolution process suffers damage, it has to be repairable

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A Management System Exempt from Power 7. the action undertaken to solve a critical situation must not create new and more complicated problems. Here are a number of situations illustrating the requirements mentioned above. 䉴 A training supervisor gets a telephone call from the hotelier who informs him that the booking just conﬁrmed differs from the dates agreed on previously (1). The manager calls over the secretary whom he believes at the root of the problem (2). But the secretary is not aware of the situation. He then calls up the production manager (PM) for whom the training has been organized (3). The latter says that he will make the necessary modiﬁcations and forward them. The following day, the PM rings up the hotelier who says he has already received the modifications by fax (4). The PM calls back the secretary and requests that such information be copied to him (5 and 6) in the future, for the sake of efficiciency and gives her the procedure to follow in order to avoid such situations (7). 䉴 A manager meets a worker who informs him of a problem with the parking. The manager clariﬁes the situation (1 and 2) but does not forward the information to the foreman (point 7 not fulﬁlled). The foreman requests an explanation from the worker who, in his opinion, has not followed the instructions. The worker says he has followed the boss’s instructions! As the foreman has been repeatedly confronted with this situation, he decides to hand in his resignation and the manager loses one of his best workers (7 not fulﬁlled). 䉴 A production manager receives a telephone call from his senior manager, who requests that his friend’s order be dealt with ﬁrst. To meet this requirement, the production manager puts another customer’s order on hold and so creates another problem (point 7 not fulﬁlled). 䉴 Dissatisﬁed with his secretary who has been making a lot of mistakes, the manager spoke sharply to her. In the afternoon, the secretary left the office on seven days’ sick leave (point 7 not fulﬁlled). 䉴 An SME manager systematically intervenes when products are sold to customers with whom he has good relationships. He is charismatic and well appreciated by the customers. He sometimes gives higher discounts than the ones decided by the commercial department, which the customers do not mention! The marketing men often complain between themselves about this situation but the converstation always ends the same way: “He’s the boss …”. One morning, one of the best marketing men in the company

Expertise: Your First Skill hands in his resignation. He cannot put up with the situation any longer (point 7 not fulfilled).

The valence of a situation Emotional output is made up of various emotions related to a situation, an object or a subject. Let us consider emotions in a practical situation, that is, problem resolution. If the individual involved in the resolution process expresses his emotions as follows: “I love that work, it provides me with great satisfaction”, we may conclude the situation valence is positive.

Table 2.1 The efficient/inefficient continuum Points

Efficient

Inefficient

1

Focuses his efforts on problem-solving

Focuses his efforts on ﬁnding solutions to go on working without being upset

2

Follows up the issue

Does not follow up the issue

3

Limits his efforts to what is necessary

Spends too much effort to solve the issue

4

Works at keeping the resolution process efficient

Does not hesitate to damage the resolution process

5

Solves problems without creating additional Implements solutions without ones examining their possible consequences

In other words, the more we feel drawn towards a situation, the more positive the valence will be and vice versa. When emotions concern an individual, we do not refer to valence but to liking or disliking. Thus, feelings such as warmth and friendship are to people what valence is to a situation (a form of attraction). The valence of identiﬁed job-related problems is in theory positive – known problems are the ones we are not afraid to deal with and believe to be manageable, even if the situation does not initially seem under control. In such a context, managers do not avoid problems; they are, on the contrary, viewed as a possible source of gratiﬁcation.

The life cycle of a problem The life cycle illustrated in Figure 2.1 by a reverse curve is typical of a

21

A Management System Exempt from Power

22

critical situation when it is not managed. The norm is represented by the upper horizontal and the x-axis shows the irreversibility level of the situation. The trajectory of the situation shows how the problem deviates from the norm to irreversibility (accident, for example) if the manager does not implement successful solutions. Points A, B, C, D, E, and F are the symbolic limits which typically show how the situation worsens when the problem is not dealt with. At the starting point (AB segment), the norm deviation is nearly imperceptible and impossible to explain – is it a mere turbulence or a forewarning? According to Kuhn (1962),69 the actor, especially the scientiﬁc actor, is physiologically incapable of giving a meaning for the change noted in the AB segment.

The anticipated trajectory: the norm

The degree of deviation

A

Time

B C

Signs

Tendency

Problems

Conﬂict

Failure

D E

F

Situation becomes irreversible

Figure 2.1 The life cycle of a problem

䉴 The Pearl Harbor attack is probably one of the best illustrations of this theory. The soldiers in charge of aerial surveillance had spotted hundreds of Japanese bombers on their radar screens. At ﬁrst they thought it was a radar defect and checked the system; it was running well. Then they informed the lookout posts of the critical situation but no one believed them and no one gave the alert on time. The Japanese had planned to attack on a Sunday morning, banking on surprise to win the battle. 䉴 The critical situation experienced by Damart was blamed on ongoing postal strikes. Damart did not understand that its problems actually came from an aging clientele.

Expertise: Your First Skill 䉴 The Club Med management used the economic crisis to explain the problems they faced, which obscured the true reason – the type of leisure activities sought by customers had changed into adventure-type activities, which at that time Club Med did not provide. 䉴 Daum blamed its growing difficulties on the competition from eastern countries, and did not question the company’s creativity.70

If the signs of AB segment persist, they become a trend – the BC segment. At this stage, the problem has not yet surged in the manager’s organization or department, however, he may notice that warnings are continuously ﬂashing. The manager may consider these a mere bug in the system. Such thinking may make him ignore what the trend exactly shows. On the other hand ampliﬁcation may cause the manager to forecast a worsening of the problem and anticipate possible conﬂicts and failure. When the cycle reaches the CD segment, it means that the situation has worsened and is now spreading over the organization. The problem has become perceptible and clearly identiﬁed by each person in the workplace. Solving the problem becomes the priority to limit the deviation and avoid any additional worsening of the situation. The conﬂict phase represented by the DE segment may result from an early resolution protocol established before or during the trend stage, meaning that an action had been undertaken by the manager before the problem was widely acknowledged. In this context, the CD segment is skipped over. Managers are then confronted with a dilemma – what to do? Indeed, an anticipated action is essential but since the problem has not yet become visible to all employees, they might block the resolution program. Two answers may be provided for the question raised. In the first place, a continuous negotiation is essential to make employees aware of both the situation and the action needed. But in the long term, a discrepancy will recur as it is cumulative. Employees have become so highly protected that they no longer see external risks. To re-establish this perception, they must be exposed to the situation or job legislation must be modified. For example, the right to strike may freeze the decision-making process while it has become crucial for the organization. If the manager decides to leave the situation as it is, or if the resolution program brings about additional problems, conﬂicts will increase. Only clever negotiations will then retrieve the situation (see Gehin’s71 work on this subject).

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The execution program We have outlined two types of situations – known and unknown situations.72 The description above concerns those identified situations dealt with by implementing an execution program. Unknown situations require another type of action. Let us ﬁrst examine the execution program of identiﬁed situations: 1 2 3

4 5 6 7

Identiﬁcation of a problem – norm deviation Fact checking (generally telephone calls will be enough) Persons to inform. Depending on the seriousness of the deviation, the problem may either be solved directly, or require intervention from a higher level Prior to implementing the execution program, the nature of the problem needs to be examined. Is it a collective or an individual issue? Next is it a people-related or procedure-related problem? An individual issue will need an individualized procedure and a collective issue will require a collective procedure73 The choice of the medium to implement the execution program – written or oral communication?

The situation must then be kept under control to avoid repetition. The risk level depends on frequency. Is it an unusual critical event or is it the ﬁrst of many?

The resolution activity program The resolution activity concerns the manager who is faced with a new and unknown situation. He ignores what the resolution protocol is and therefore uses an apprenticeship activity characterized by a search for information. In this particular context, the manager does not implement solutions out of nothing that correspond to a so-called optimum. He draws on his know-how to develop the germ of a solution. This process is far from being optimal but it is the only possible one in such an environment. The process conforms to the rationality of proximity – to draw on what we know or what we already have. The manager will use existing resources and try to get the best out of them. Depending on his creativity, the manager will succeed in adapting his resources to the unknown situation. The manager progresses along a logic of capillarity. High-quality knowhow favors adaptability to unknown work environments and acquisition of

Expertise: Your First Skill new know-how. This information research can be profitable to the manager, who acquires new knowledge, becomes more confident and eventually succeeds in solving the unknown situation – which he will become aware of afterwards. But he does not progress blindly. A number of values favor an ongoing situation assessment, which is experienced from an emotional point of view and expressed by success or failure. “To make do with what one has got” shows that these values may change as well. They can be modiﬁed in accordance with the experience acquired. If the situation progresses positively, the manager may raise the norm, if negatively, he may lower the norm. In some instances, the manager may be brought by hazardous circumstances to change his values and this may recast his professional development. Accidents and important setbacks may have the same result on the manager’s values. Eventually, the manager’s progression may come to a dead end. He might not be in a position to go any further and this limitation may cause different types of reaction – coming out of one’s ideal and adapting oneself to an undesired reality.74 The resolution activity program is as follows: 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

The manager is confronted with a new situation He uses and searches apprenticeship activity for information He establishes a resolution program If the research is simple, he raises the level of the norm to be reached and improves the program The norm is lowered if the research is difficult He implements the resolution program If the program is followed by changes considered satisfactory, return to step 1 If the program is followed by changes considered insufficient, return to step 6.

The sphere of possible actions The sphere of possible actions comprises all the strategies applicable before the situation becomes irreversible. The earlier the problem is dealt with, the easier the resolution and wider the sphere of feasibility. On the other hand, the more logic is taken into consideration, the more the sphere of possible actions is restricted. The sphere of possible actions is extended when a resolution program is envisaged from a rational point of view, with no consideration for relational aspects – which might create further prob-

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A Management System Exempt from Power lems.75 When a critical situation gets close to the point of no return (PNR), a breach occurs. Just before reaching the point of no return, the sphere of possible actions is still huge. Just after the point of no return is reached, the sphere deﬁnition changes; it is no longer external and situation-related; it becomes subject-related. The sphere of possible actions becomes internal and the individual faced with the problem is left with only one possibility – to change his own norms. 䉴 The mechanism we have just described is clearly illustrated in the following example. The Egyptian priests used to close the access to the pyramid funeral chambers when they left by setting on ﬁre the struts that sustained huge blocks of stones. The blocks therefore collapsed and blocked the way to the chambers. 䉴 A more recent example concerns atomic plants. The point of no return must not be reached because the situation is uncontrollable. For this reason, security procedures must be increased to prevent reaching the PNR. 䉴 A supermarket employee is caught stealing some chocolate and is dismissed. In this situation, the manager is faced with an approach-avoid type of arbitration which leads to a number of options. He is aware that the sanction – dismissal – is disproportionate but he also knows that such an event is known by all the staff. If the manager chooses not to punish the employee, he may symbolically deny employees who have never given way to temptation and thus somehow encourage employees who have not yet been caught. If the manager implements the punishment provided for in the company policies and procedures, he shows his respect for the policies and invokes fear. If he does not implement the sanction, either his popularity will be increased if the work atmosphere is based on truthfulness and trust, or he will be seen as a weak and despised manager if the work atmosphere is based on fear, hatred and conﬂict.

The point of no return The point of no return on the problem trajectory is reached when the norm deviation becomes so important that a breach occurs and there is no possible return to the previous norm. A problem can be viewed as a ﬁre – the sooner it is taken care of, the easier and cheaper it is to deal with. The point of no return can be considered like a watershed. Decisions taken

Expertise: Your First Skill before this point – top part of the curve (Figure 2.1) – may contribute to reduce the deviation, get closer to the norm and eventually solve the problem. But after this point – bottom part of the curve – there is no possible return to the initial standard, whatever strategies are used, whatever resources and means are involved and whatever decisions are taken. Then the situation requires a complete change – the norm change.

The norm change Human organizations work along norms thanks to which human behavior is foreseeable and thus manageable. When a norm deviation occurs, it will either have a negative impact resulting in a possible setback (negative valence of the deviation) or a positive impact leading to a new and more efficient norm (positive valence of the deviation). 䉴 The Belgian company Donnay was a world leader in the manufacture of wooden tennis rackets. The company used to sell up to one million rackets with Borg’s trademark. When carbon ﬁbre was discovered and acknowledged to be lighter and more effective, the family company nevertheless decided to go on manufacturing wooden rackets in the Ardennes, while its competitors chose to have rackets manufactured in Asia, with a 50 percent reduction in cost. Tapie bought the company, sold it to the Walloon region and the company went into liquidation. 䉴 The Swiss owned 90 percent of the world watch market, their standard was mechanical watches. When quartz watches were introduced, the Swiss turned that new standard down. The same situation occurred when polaroid and silkscreen printing were introduced and when the inventors of the Espace car proposed their new model. Subsequently, the Swiss lost a new watch market to the advantage of the Japanese company Seiko; Kodak lost parts of market share to the advantage of the polaroid inventor who created Rank Xerox; Citröen and Peugeot decided to abandon the Espace car project which was adopted by Hanon – the inventor of the R5 car – and became the third revolutionary vehicle of the twentieth century after the model T Ford and the Jeep. Similarly, Bill Gates initially refused the proposal that made him one of the richest men in the world. Gates had ﬁrst addressed IBM to Kidall, from DRI. But Sams was so insistent that Gates ended by accepting to develop the IBM PC operating system, which initially was not part of his know-how. In the following years, Gates bought Paterson’s operating system and improved it.76

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A Management System Exempt from Power 䉴 I was hired in a newly created central buying office as assistant to the product manager of the women’s department and worked in collaboration with her two assistants from the purchasing department. I was soon well integrated and my job became very interesting, especially when I was left alone, with the product manager on maternity leave and her two assistants on holiday. As they had been satisﬁed with my work, they informed me of all pending issues which they entrusted me to follow up. In the beginning of September, the fabrics to be delivered by our Polish supplier came in behind schedule and were rejected by our clothes designer and our quality department because of their poor quality. In addition, as September meant business resumption and shopping period, the clothes designers and the purchasing department had to travel to New York, Amsterdam and London to ﬁnd out about the future trends. Thus I was left alone at work. As if this were not enough, I encountered a number of serious problems. The linen line was a complete disaster. The ﬁrst protoypes had been badly made and the fabrics, together with the accessories, did not correspond to the initial requirements. On top of that, our American agent was insisting on having everything approved rapidly as the supplier was ready to start production. But I could not accept the prototypes and accessories since they did not correspond to the quality department and clothes designer’s requirements. The dilemma I was faced with was that, on the one hand, our agent was assuring me that the Polish supplier could not do any better; if I refused the prototypes, the linen collection would be cancelled and the company would have to start from scratch again with another supplier. On the other hand, the Polish supplier had been highly recommended by our general management and we were faced with a tight schedule. The story does not end there; that day, our Hong Kong commercial agent in charge of centralizing all the orders for the Asian suppliers kept on calling me on the phone because his email was out of order. And believe me, when two people are discussing technical aspects on the phone in a language that is not their mother tongue, there can be difficulties. So, I could not get in touch with anybody, time was ﬂying and things were getting worse! For many months I had seen my colleagues being confronted with similar situations, so I had to imagine what they would have done in my place. The linen collection was considered the key line of the summer collection. Before being sent to Poland for production, the linen line had unsuccessfully been taken care of in Asia. We were left with one solution – work with the French textile manufacturers, which meant two problems: ﬁrst, we had to ﬁnd the material for them, second, French manufacturers were more expensive. I quickly found a manufacturer but still had to ﬁnd the fabrics. I looked up the product manager’s notes and found a list of potential suppliers. In the afternoon, the manufacturer gave me his answer and I examined the cost. There was actually very little difference in cost with the Polish supplier while the quality was much higher! I then had to calm down the Polish supplier and inform the agent on the changes.

Expertise: Your First Skill On their return, I informed the purchasing department manager and the asistant on the decisions I had taken. In the meantime, I had received the prototype jeans from the Polish and the prototype linen range from the French; both met the requirements. The manager was satisfied with my work, congratulated me and suggested that I ﬁnalize the job and negotiate the prices. 䉴 The anticipation of norm changes, which only a few individuals have speculated on successfully, is a difficult task. There are almost no scientiﬁc works to rely on to reproduce the invention process. However, it has been shown that the discovery process is closely linked with the emotional process and that imagination is favored in a hearty, permissive and relaxed atmosphere. Moreno’s intuition made him strongly believe in the smart card invention for which he registered a patent. He was not the smart card “biological parent” as he would admit, but he was the one who believed in the invention, the foster parent who, like for a child, is the one who counts! He struggled for about ten years before gaining success. He borrowed money from his friends, got into debt but one day, things got better and when I met him at ICN, he was earning about a billion French cents a day! He had become a rich and inﬂuential person, who however did not draw a lesson from his misadventure. He tried to theorize on the creation process with his “théorie du bordel ambiant” and attempted to apply his theory by launching Innovatron, an association which gathered a number of outstandingly intelligent thinkers from prestigious schools who attempted to work out a machine to invent. Moreno had experienced the process – to be keen on a project, which ended in ﬁnancial success. We know, however, that a proﬁt-oriented action does not favor the creation of new concepts or new ideas! Money brings only money! Creation is like love: Stop looking for it and you will ﬁnd it! 䉴 I have loved fashion ever since I was a child. In the summer of 1999, I joined Dior’s couture house in Paris for sales training during which I was asked to extend my training period. But I wanted to work abroad and I was recommended a person who could help me and who I wrote to. Nobody believed my project would work out positively and that I would be selected to go for training in London. In April 2000, the person I had contacted informed me I had been selected. During the interview, I had the feeling the job had been kept for me! My interviewer ﬁrst explained how the couture house was run and then asked me whether I would be interested in supervising one of their boutiques. My professional life became very satisfying. I often felt lonely when I had to take important decisions. But I never listened to defeatists. Today, I can say that I have obtained what I desired because I have always known what was important to me. I know who I am, what my ambition and my value are. And I believe the objectives that I pursue are realistic ones.

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QUESTIONNAIRE 2 Are you a pure rational? Tick one column for each question using the key below: 1 I completely disagree 2 I mildly disagree 3 I am not sure 4 I mildly agree 5 I completely agree Join up the ticks. The more your proﬁle appears on the right-hand side, the more you have responded positively to the question. 1 1. I do not believe in God. 2. Human resource training is rubbish. 3. Intuition? I do not believe in intuition; one day, a scientiﬁc explanation will be found. 4. Women are like classical music: love them but do not try to understand them. 5. People work to get a salary and managers have the work contract terms enforced; there is nothing emotional. 6. I like ﬁnance. 7. I like mathematics, I like preciseness. 8. I dislike philosophy. 9. I like ideas that are easy to understand, are well devised and clearly expressed. 10. People listen to themselves too much. 11. Graphologists should be sent to jail. 12. I do not have any speciﬁc qualiﬁcations or diplomas – I am a self-made person. 13. Life is easy: determine what your main objectives are and summon up all the necessary resources to get there. 14. If your child has problems at school, just tell him to work more. Emotions and psychology are just nonsense. 15. I say what I think. 16. I met my wife through a marriage bureau. We are very happy together – she does what I want. 17. Regarding children, that’s easy: if they get good results at school, I reward them, if not, I punish them. 18. I like this type of accurate, plain and straighforward questionnaire.

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Expertise: Your First Skill The expert’s approach I have often heard experts give opposing advice but I have never heard an expert admit he was wrong! What is typical of an expert? Let us imagine that a number of problems requiring expertise have arisen in an organization, that is, for technical, computer or audiovisual issues, and the manager hires an expert solely on the basis of his know-how. It is highly probable that the problems will remain unsolved and even be increased by additional relationship difficulties, because the expert does not take people into consideration. The expert makes a separate group with those people working in his area of specialization. Any other individual is regarded as an outsider. When action is needed, he intervenes without informing the head of the department involved. He selects candidates according to their specialization without considering human aspects, except when the candidate happens to be a friend. The expert usually provides never ending and incomprehensible explanations. The following anecdote on students from prestigious high schools sums up what I mean: “Do you know how these students are distinguished from others? Well, when you ask them to solve a problem, they solve it with a bonus: three additional problems no one will ever be able to solve!” The expert’s horizon is made up of breakdowns and problem-solving related to his ﬁeld of specialization. He is the one who decides when to respond to calls upon him. Whether he is a computer scientist, an accountant, a lawyer, a highly qualiﬁed engineer, architect or artist, he is described as someone who has great expertise and interest in a speciﬁc area. Problem resolution seems obvious and easy for such an individual. Usually very intelligent, the expert considers criticism a threat and lack of understanding a sign of stupidity, tending to depress him or make him become aggressive. He is very good at ﬁnding solutions but very bad at implementing them. The expert has one major problem: human beings! To repair broken down machines and develop programs is certainly interesting and enriching, except that the owners of the broken machines are often stressed and bad-tempered. Instead of being thankful for the expert, they often charge him with being responsible for the situation, given that they have very little understanding of the problem. These types of conﬂict occur especially during job transitions leading to promotion and increased responsibilities. In the first place, the expert wishes to apply for higher responsibilities. But once promoted, he realizes he cannot work peacefully anymore. His job provides him with less happiness because he finds himself overwhelmed with heavy responsibilities and he becomes accountable for results for things he did not create. He then acknowledges that such

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a position is not suited to him. A position requiring high expertise brings about less pressure for the expert than a position with high responsibilities. In the expert’s eyes, the relationship is not an aim in itself, but a resource, a means or an obstacle. When a situation becomes critical and the relational and rational dimensions cannot both be taken into consideration, the expert goes straight to the point, solves the problem and afterwards analyzes what new difficulties he might have brought about. To avoid problem repetition, he then attempts to place the human dimension under a double constraint in order to limit as much as possible any misplaced and uncontrollable initiative.

Table 2.2 The expert’s preferred methods Causes problems

Solves problems Yes

Yes

No

Email Memo Policies and procedures

No

The expert is not well appreciated. He is a sort of “yours truly” called upon when things go wrong. In organizations based on a strong emotional culture, the expert is not popular. In organizations based on participative management, he is tolerated because he takes on the thankless work. Within organizations characterized by a strong project-based culture, he is often rejected and viewed as a spoilsport. As a result, the expert may suffer from his unpopularity and feel depressed. In some cases and according to his personality, he may fall ill and obtain sick leave – the organization then realizes the importance of his job. He may also show anger and get into a power struggle by using his expertise to block the organization. Undoubtedly, the expert is the one who needs to progress most to become an efficient and successful line manager and team supervisor. Unless this progress is accomplished, his efficiency in terms of team working and capacity to favor colleagues’ performance is rated at 25 percent.77 In fact, an expert is most efficient when he has the opportunity to work alone, he is not suited to team management.

Expertise: Your First Skill 䉴 “I do not know what happened to Jean. He was widely enthusiastic but since he has been appointed to this new job, he no longer burns with zeal.” Nothing happened to Jean actually, nothing but the consequence of the oldest management dogma and mythical rules that fix the expert’s salary below the manager’s (P. Drucker Le plein emploi des talents Video 1968). In the ﬁlm Louis Fabre, Industrial Engineer, the foreman Dumont well illustrates the expert’s logic and Louis Fabre is a perfect representation of the pure project developer. The ﬁlm shows the anxiety and upheaval caused by launching a project which is not clearly understood. A scene in the film shows Dumont saying about the workers: “they are working for money and our job is to have contract terms respected. I do not see anything emotional about this.”

Memorandums and emails: technical information The written method of conveying information is difficult to handle, and brings a number of sensitive issues to the fore. To best use the writing medium, a number of rules must be followed: 1 2 3 4

5

6 7 8

avoid written information, especially during conﬂicts never write in a highly emotional state avoid written announcements relating to unexpected changes, and only write to conﬁrm these changes information transmitted through a speciﬁc medium must be answered in the same medium. Oral information must remain oral: no written answer or comment but an interview, for example. However, an answer to a letter may be either oral or written, taking into consideration point 1 frequent written messages are seldom read. As a result, it can be a practical way of transmitting information without creating emotional upheaval a written piece of information must never reﬂect an emotional state and must remain strictly factual conﬁdential information must never be included in written documents a letter must be read over carefully before being published, bearing in mind that any written information can be used against its author in case of conﬂict.

It is not wise to channel intelligence via memos, which should be used only to confirm or remind. Announcements concerning changes should

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A Management System Exempt from Power also be avoided. A change announced in a memo may irritate opponents of the change and even annoy those who have agreed on the content. But, on the other hand, a memo is a safeguard: no one can argue that they weren’t aware of information after it has been written down and sent out to everyone concerned. Memos often contain expectations that are unrealistic and impossible to meet. In this way, all the memo addressees ﬁnd themselves in a situation of possible misdemeanor. A memo can thus be used against its addressees. 䉴 An organization refused to meet with a student from a prestigious high school because he had arrived too late. The student sent an email to his schoolfellows describing his indignation. One reply suggested that he needed to look to his behavior instead of accusing the organization, to which the student replied in strong terms. The problem was that his reply, together with his references, was circulated at the European level. We can easily imagine what impact that had on his job research. 䉴 The internal newsletter of a public organization working with incumbent state employees circulated the year results, demanding a 5–10 percent increase. An accounting expert, who considered the increased demand would bring about an unbearable additional amount of work, requested a public apology from the management and emailed the information to the 200 company employees. A year later, he repeated the same behavior, complaining that he had been informed of an important project by the internal newsletter. What he did not know was that the project had been announced during a meeting he had decided not to attend. 䉴 In 1993, I was supervising the university educational department and I wished to create a collection of internal handbooks. My project was refused three times in three years. I eventually decided to circulate a memo, which stated:“the budget allocated to education will be reserved for the creation of handbooks this year”. I knew no one read memos and that the few who did usually thought they were approved by the management. My memo did not cause any reaction, so I went on and created the first handbook, which proved to be a success. The following year, four books were published, and the next twenty-ﬁve, eight of which were accepted by four national and one international editors. Today, the budget allocated to the creation of handbooks is 40 percent higher than what I had initially requested and a permanent post has been created for this activity.

Expertise: Your First Skill 䉴 This story begins in a little old Sicilian village in which time seems to have stood still. Its inhabitants were austere and rigid, and believed that sex before marriage was a sin and the family was the highest priority. That was the environment I grew up in, as a perfect little girl. In June 1996, I was 18 years old, had successfully passed my A levels and had a boyfriend, which my father was made aware of, unfortunately, and despite my greatest precautions. On learning about the relationship, my father made a deal with me: either I broke up with my boyfriend, or I had to abandon my ambition to leave home and carry on with my studies. It is important to remember that in Sicilian families, daughters only leave home to get married. So, in my father’s eyes, it was already a major concession. My father opened a drawer, took out some writing paper, an envelope and dictated my boyfriend’s address (I still wonder how he got it). He had that expression on his face and that look in the eye I knew so well, depriving me of all resistance. He handed me the pen, but I had tears in my eyes and could not write a single word down. He was so eager to have the matter settled that he dictated a cruel and inhuman letter, giving false reasons to explain my wish to break up, indicating that I did not have any genuine feelings for my boyfriend. I had lost. How could anyone believe the true story after such a letter? How could a father impose such a situation on his daughter and force her to write such lies? I was admitted to attend the special classes preparing to the grandes écoles and began in September. Some of my friends told me how shocked my boyfriend had been on receiving my letter, after which he never dared contact me again. I had avoided a conﬂict with my father, but I must confess that even today, I feel bad about the letter. 䉴 J., the manager, used to communicate with his team by means of salmon pink paper notes. Many years later, J., who had retired and whose company no longer existed, learnt that his numerous written messages used to be called Mr J.’s Bibliothèque Rose (Bibliothèque Rose is a famous French collection of children’s books). In France, managers hire candidates on the basis of their CV and they also request a handwritten letter of motivation. This business practice has triggered many arguments. The opponents of such a practice question graphological analysis and the essential purpose of a work contract. In their eyes, the aim of a contract is to “buy a job”. Private matters should not concern the employer. In reality, things are not that simple. Indeed, the characteristics of management have changed over the years, leading to a management system exempt from power. For this reason, managers need as much information as possible on a candidate, including his personality, temper and behavior. A hiring is legally irreversible and since managers have little control and abilitiy to impose sanctions, it has become necessary to analyze candidates’ personality to best ensure an adequate hiring. Let us use the following example to illustrate this: two computer scientists,

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A Management System Exempt from Power both with the same level of qualiﬁcation, apply for a job. One of them is perceived as a loyal person reporting to his manager whenever a problem arises. The second candidate is viewed as a fusspot and a gossipy person. We can reasonably assume that the HR manager’s choice will be inﬂuenced by these candidates’ behavior. In addition, we have observed that, nowadays, a candidate’s know-how – his execution programs – is less important than his resolutary capacity, certainly for jobs requiring high qualiﬁcations or knowledge jobs. We may thus conclude that imposing know-how on a job description is no longer sufficient today to ensure successful hirings.

QUESTIONNAIRE 3 Do you know when to use emails or memos? Tick one column for each question using the key below: 1 I completely disagree 2 I mildly disagree 3 I am not sure 4 I mildly agree 5 I completely agree Join up the ticks. The more your proﬁle appears on the right-hand side, the more you have responded positively to the question. 1 1. The use of a memo must be restricted to conﬁrm decisions or information that has been previously discussed. 2. New information and decisions must never be announced in writing, unless the intention is to let the information go unremarked. 3. One must never write anything in a high emotional state. 4. If I receive a letter including explicit questions, I reply by writing. 5. If I am sent an emotional letter, I do not answer in writing but I might suggest meeting the author of the letter. 6. I never include conﬁdential information in a written communication. Conﬁdential information is to be transmitted orally only. 7. When I need to write a document, I always remember that my writing can be turned against me. 8. The more frequently memos are sent, the less important they become. 9. Keep your emotions for love letters. 10. Oral communication is the best medium to safeguard information. Once written down, anybody may have access to it. 11. To write that we are the best is the best way to lose our clients.

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1

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12. To have your picture included in a column is certainly the best way to please yourself and be rejected by those who do not have the same privilege. 13. The most important aspect of writing is the symbolism of its implicit meaning. One is not always aware of this second meaning and may, as a result, obtain the opposite of the results expected. 14. Directions for use should be written with the objective of putting the client’s mind at ease and assuring them that they bought the right product. The same should be done in a memo.

Policies and procedures Company policies and procedures concern the use of parking, photocopiers, telephone and internet, as well as the settlement of claim forms and expenses. Two contradictory arguments explain why policies and procedures are so sensitive and why those in charge of having rules enforced often behave in a paradoxical way. The ﬁrst argument is that policies are essential to prevent the organization from expense abuse or increased accidents. The second argument is that the restrictions brought by policies and procedures are often experienced as humiliating. Isn’t it humiliating to pay a restaurant bill with one’s own money even though it is not an expensive one? Isn’t it annoying to discover that the company car park is full and some of the cars parked there belong to the manager’s son or wife? Paradoxical behaviors can be explained as follows: usually, individual problems require individualized solutions and collective problems necessitate collective solutions. But, very often, this basic rule is not applied by those in charge of enforcing policies and procedures. If an individual abuses his power and no one questions such behavior, policies and procedures may, as a result, become more restrictive, thus affecting all employees, including those who respected the policies. Rules are always established on the basis of problems encountered at the individual level. Since the majority of employees comply with security and organizational norms, they usually do not feel concerned by policies and procedures. But if one employee deviates from the company norms, it becomes necessary to draft memos and policies to prevent repeated abuses. This is how policies and procedures are built up. Official and legal documentation must also be taken into consideration while deﬁning organizational rules. Policies and procedures by nature follow events and are updated only when a number of problems occur, which necessitate amending the established rules.

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A Management System Exempt from Power As we have mentioned, hot issues are parking, photocopiers, telephone and emails. How does a manager ensure that his employees close the big heavy door when they leave the office? By displaying the monthly central heating bill! Parking problems are often encountered within organizations, for example an employee’s son used to park his car in the company car park while he went shopping, despite there being few places left. Some employees used to park two or three of their vehicles in the company car park. In the university I was teaching in, a senior lecturer circulated a memo on the use of the car park. One of his colleagues reacted strongly to the memo and decided to resign from the non-statutory courses he was giving. I also remember a ﬁght between an employee who had deﬂated the tires of a student’s car, who, in return, had done the same. The student was president of an association and he had been given permission to use the car park. Photocopiers are a sensitive issue as well; they are expensive. For example, the university I was teaching classes in used to restrict the use of photocopiers to helping out only. Once, as our printing office was overbooked, the administrative department extended the time limit for printing to one week. As a result, everyone used the photocopiers to print their work, the budget exploded and the photocopiers broke down! Use of the telephone is another touchy matter. The university I taught in used to allow us to make international phone calls, until a Chinese teacher left behind a 10,000 FF telephone bill! 䉴 In France, the restriction of rights is the result of a belief that organizational accidents or problems can be prevented by increasing policies and procedures, which then ensure a high level of security. What in fact is the reality? We see a vicious circle in that an increased level of regulation brings about restrictions in use, which lead to a reduction in expertise and action limitation, and hence increased anxiety and insecurity. For example, environmentalists have established a series of restrictions – period of time or zone limitations78 – on motorbike scrambling, hunting, walking, mushroom picking, hang gliding and so on. In parallel, we have noted a slight increase in criminality, tranquillizer prescriptions and suicide among young people. So, on one hand, open spaces generate noise nuisance and exhaust fumes, but, on the other hand, they provide a place for emotional expression and give young people a feeling of existence. Such limitations on space lead to negative emotions, nervous breakdowns or aggressiveness. Unfortunately, it seems that no one has correlated these two aspects.

Expertise: Your First Skill

39

QUESTIONNAIRE 4 Do you know how to use internal policies and procedures? 1 2 3 4 5

I completely disagree I mildly disagree I’m not sure I mildly agree I completely agree

Join up the ticks. The more your proﬁle appears on the right-hand side, the more you have responded positively to the question. 1 1.

Policies and procedures are often so strict that mistakes are inevitable. This is why policies are often obsolete.

2.

Internal policies should be designed to determine what needs to be done to ensure the good running of the organization.

3.

Policies and procedures should appear as being useless; this would mean that employees behave in accordance with the needs of the organization.

4.

In case of resource shortage and when the organizational game is a zero-sum game, rules become the only way to establish priorities and deal with shortage.

5.

Policies and procedures are necessary to ensure security.

6.

According to human rights legislation, what is not forbidden is authorized.

7.

As far as organizational policies are concerned and contrary to point 6, what is not authorized is forbidden.

8.

Internal policies are legitimate only if their author is considered legitimate.

A brief overview of Chapter 2

3. 3. E-mail Email 2. Memo 1. The expert

Pyramid 2 In search of efficiency

2

3

4

5

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A Management System Exempt from Power 1. In the ﬁrst place, the young manager needs to acquire a certain degree of expertise. A number of managers will use this expertise throughout their professional life. 2. Experts – those executives who never take the human dimension into consideration – show a strong preference for written communication. A number of them do not hesitate to use email to convey their emotional state. 3. Memos and emails are sensitive mediums. The basic rule is that they must be used to transmit professional information only. 4. Internal policies and procedures are useful when they are well known and applied. However, within a management system exempt from power, it is nearly impossible to make an employee abide by the rules, unless security or legal aspects are at stake.

CHAPTER 3

Develop Empathy:Your Second Essential Skill The social and doting father executives feel intensely gratiﬁed by friendship and love.They are not overly concerned with technique and expertise, and since they usually have few solutions to suggest in such ﬁelds, they easily accept them from others.This type of management has a positive impact, rated at 60 percent in terms of colleagues’ efficiency.

Social values Dossiers simply need to be solved and then closed. There are no emotional aspects involved. In this case, the solution brought to the problem indicates that the norm deviation has been corrected. But when a manager in charge of a dossier is confronted with a situation involving other individuals, subordinates or colleagues, the context then changes considerably. Indeed, each individual involved is made aware of the situation and its possible effects. His concern and sensitivity impact on his potential, his emotions and adaptability, among others. Managers must take this aspect into consideration, since the company results depend on managers’ capacity to develop each employee’s potential and intelligence.79 This cannot be achieved in an unhappy work atmosphere.80 Thus, we may distinguish the necessary condition of resolution, which is the case resolution, from the satisfactory condition of resolution, which consists of making sure that the resolution program does not produce a discouraging work atmosphere. Let us now examine how positive feelings towards a manager and positive valence regarding a project arise and persist or die out. At the political level, for example, it has often been noted that in the absence of detailed information on a candidate, it is his degree of popularity, more than his program, that plays an essential part in the vote. Television has profoundly changed the style, look and behavior that candidates must

41

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A Management System Exempt from Power display to win elections. Some politicians are very much at ease and convincing during local meetings but project a poor image of themselves on television, whereas other candidates are badly perceived during local meetings while being very popular in the media.

Fellow feelings and professional relationships Fellow feelings are those positive emotions that colleagues, subordinates, senior managers or clients experience towards a manager. Hostility is the opposite feeling. In the same way, a manager may develop positive or negative feelings towards his colleagues or subordinates. Thus, it is a twoway relationship. Fellow feelings are usually rated in terms of image or reputation. Fellow feelings are measured by the energy spent on showing interest or warm feelings to an individual. This interest can be verbalized, but it may be expressed in other ways, such as with a handshake, a smile and so on. Hostile feelings are more difficult to rate because they are seldom expressed straightforwardly. They usually arise through rumors. On the other hand, these two variables can easily be rated through questionnaires, such as: “Choose the three people you like best in the company” and “Choose the three people you like least in the company”. A brief automatic data processing provides an accurate sociogram of emotional ties, which are symbolized by entangled arrows. These rating methods were popular until they had a disastrous impact on individuals who were particularly sensitive to relationship aspects. Indeed, without any explanation, some of them ended up believing that no one appreciated them. To reduce the choice to three favorite colleagues81 for reasons of easy processing negates the usefulness of the method. Actually, the only appropriate method would be to ask each employee to rate his fellow feelings for all his colleagues and vice versa,82 with a rating of 1 to 5,83 for example. 䉴 In a large provincial town, a company president requested an enquiry into his popularity. No one ever knew why or who advised him to do this. But we discovered that, on learning he was viewed more as a slave-ship captain than a company president, and since he was already exhausted by the continuous struggle for the survival of his company, he sold it and changed his occupation. His comment was: “So, this is how my employees consider me. Well, now they will have to manage on their own; I’ve had it”. Fellow or hostile feelings take on exaggerated importance when the concerned individual realizes the gap between reality and what he believes people think of him. There

Develop Empathy: Your Second Essential Skill are many examples in the past illustrating how public ﬁgures deeply affected by smear campaigns ended up breaking down and even committing suicide in some cases.84

Table 3.1 Reciprocal emotional ouput Colleague’s emotional output

Manager’s emotional output Positive

Negative

Positive

The manager and his The manager is hostile to subordinate have mutual fellow his subordinate who feelings appreciates him very much!

Negative

The manager appreciates his They both feel hostile subordinate who does not like towards one another him at all!

䉴 I trained as manager in one of the 200 Nicolas wine shops. Nicolas had a good reputation and was known for its high quality stock, its good advice and its efficient home deliveries. Our delivery man was Maurice, he was ﬁfty, nearly two meters high, he wore a little mustache and had sparkling, yet sometimes nasty eyes. His nickname was the Warrior. I remember the day he opened his mouth, I thought: “this is going to be a tough collaboration”. I can still hear him saying: “Hey you guys, I’ve been in the bloody job for 30 years, I don’t have any time to waste on students. I know students. They’re all jerks”. As if this was not enough, he barked at me because one of the bottles was not in but beside the box! Another day, I got a call from a lady client telling me that Maurice had hurled the 2FF tip at her. Maurice had a bad temper, but he was always on time, he was a strapping and swift worker and he knew Paris by heart! His problem was the smile he never had on his face and the arguments that were increasing and to which I could not ﬁnd any solution! Sometime later, Maurice went on holiday. When he came back, the weather was very hot. There was Maurice, entering the shop, sweating and exhausted by the day he had spent driving his truck. Without a word, I handed him a Coca-Cola. He gave me a sideways glance, the ghost of a smile and thanked me half-heartedly, wiping his mouth with the back of his hand. From that day on, there was no more conﬂict, Maurice came to work whistling and saying hello and I ended my training period in the best conditions.

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We all display emotion towards other individuals and appreciate and even strive for positive emotions. The previous anecdote illustrates how positively a little gesture can impact on an individual, making him feel happy and thus changing his behavior! Maurice’s attitude is very much an expert’s attitude. He likes problem resolution but he is not keen on relationships, which he considers a source of difficulty. Unlike him, other individuals strive for relationships which are viewed as a source of gratification. What we have depicted must be seen as a caricature, however. It is not immutable and, as will be explained in the following section, the emergence of a new value can modify the whole system.

Pressure and stress have a bad inﬂuence on behavior Let us suppose that a manager encounters a problem with a negative valence, that is, the loss of a major client or a notice from the bank. According to the seriousness of the problem, the manager may show negative emotions. According to his nature, experience and the type of situation he is confronted with – unknown or well known – he might endure a certain amount of pressure. The manager will have to give instructions in this context and he might behave negatively towards others, whereas he should explain the situation as calmly as possible and remain positive.85 This is the heart of the problem: how to remain pleasant when a deviation is observed, that is, unachieved tasks or inefficient work, and when one realizes that it has occurred on several occasions, with negative consequences?

Appraising the manager from the relationship viewpoint 1

2 3

Usually, employees (with the exception of immediate colleagues) ignore what the manager does, because in hierarchical systems, the information on results circulates from the lowest to the higest levels and not the reverse. Employees only have relationship information on which to form an opinion of their superior. The manager is valued if he is friendly, says hello in the morning, easily lends a hand, has regard for and encourages his employees, avoids unpleasant remarks in public, recognizes his employees’ work quality, efforts and so on.

Develop Empathy: Your Second Essential Skill Table 3.2 Valences and fellow feelings Valence Fellow feelings Positive

Negative

Positive

The professional

The relational

Negative

The expert

The story maker

䉴 It was the third week of my training period. The manager requested more and more from me. I had new products to establish, the last shelf of the counter needed to be rearranged (less important products are generally put on the last shelf), and so on. Every morning, the manager inspected the counter and checked if the work had been done correctly. He was an expert at noticing mistakes but he seldom made positive comments. We knew we had to compromise with his behavior.

Table 3.3 The four reputations of the manager Manager’s behavior

Surbordinate’s emotional output

Considered competent

Considered incompetent

Positive

He is a good fellow!

He is a nice enough fellow!

Negative

He is a poor guy!

He is a nasty fellow!

Appraising subordinates from the relationship viewpoint Fellow feelings towards a subordinate depend on a number of subjective judgments which are not connected with work efficiency but with the manager’s emotions: 1 2 3

Or

the manager views his subordinates in positive terms he finds him pleasant and therefore develops agreeable emotions towards him these positive emotions lead him ﬁrstly to perceive his subordinate’s positive actions.

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1 2 3

the manager views his subordinate in negative terms he ﬁnds him unpleasant and therefore develops disagreeable emotions towards him these negative emotions lead him ﬁrstly to consider his subordinate’s negative actions.

Table 3.4 Classiﬁcation of emotional appreciations Manager appraised by his subordinate from a relational angle

Subordinate appraised by his manager from a relational angle Positive

Negative

Positive

The manager is shown signs of friendship

The manager is shown signs of submission from his subordinate

Negative

The manager is shown signs of suspicion

The manager is shown signs of aversion

Emotional judgments are changed at many levels. First, an individual working in an organization must be judged on the basis of his achievements and not on the feelings he inspires. The only valuable references are his results, his ideas and his projects, since they are key factors of success. For example, if a general manager takes unpopular and drastic measures – with the exception of redundancy86 – resulting in beneﬁts to or recovery of the company, he can be considered an efficient general manager. However, in the public sector, it has been observed on many occasions that such a manager was dismissed on the basis of arguments that did not relate to his achievements.

Compassion “If one wishes to gain consideration in this country, it is better to be poor and ill than rich and healthy” (Hessel).87 This statement can be explained as follows: emotional suffering prompts compassion. Emotional and material well-being usually spark off jealousy, envy and sometimes hatred. As he becomes successful and famous, an individual usually loses his friends and becomes a rival. “In the eyes of those who were his mentors, he becomes a rival overnight and a similar change occurs with his colleagues, who become distant and cautious. The individual is torn between his new responsibilities and his need to remain popular” (Zaleznik 1963, 2.42–4).

Develop Empathy: Your Second Essential Skill 1 2 3 4

the more a manager is successful the more rapid his ascent the more unpleasantly he is perceived – he generates fear and envy in some cases the more criticism and the more rivals he is faced with.

䉴 I learnt that one of my acquaintances I had not seen for a long time had successfully passed an elite French entrance examination. This examination is particularly difficult to pass given that both great skills and allegiances are needed to join this select corps, which includes less than a hundred people and only makes a few offers every two years. In addition, my acquaintance had obtained a high rank. On learning the good news, I immediately looked up in the directory to get his phone number, without success. I therefore sent him a telegram to congratulate him. Some time later, he called me up and we had a long conversation. He confessed he had been very moved by my telegram and that there had been very few people who had congratulated him. On the contrary, he had been subjected to unpleasant comments, aversion and jealousy from those who had been his colleagues.

The likeable absentee Only absent managers are described as being likeable. Argyris (1970) demonstrated that positive feelings are inversely adjusted to problems involving two individuals simultaneously. A study in two factories established that only those individuals with whom there were no relationships were considered kind and friendly.88 Here is the negative reputation program: 1 2 3 4 5 6

the more problems there are to solve the more the manager needs to anticipate the more he solves problems the more the resolution program involves a number of individuals the more this involvement needs to establish relationships the more the manager will be described by many in negative terms. Here is the positive reputation program:

1 2

the fewer problems there are to solve the less the manager needs to anticipate

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A Management System Exempt from Power

48

3 4 5 6

the less he solves problems the less the resolution program involves other individuals the less this involvement needs to establish relationships the more the manager will be described by many in positive terms.

Sex appeal According to Herzberg’s ﬁndings, if information is analyzed according to gender, the previous analysis remains more or less unchanged for men. It is different for women; they have a stronger need for relationships within the work environment, given that they are a source of great satisfaction. The progress and value changes brought by women’s work have never been emphasized enough. When the workplace was made up only of men, rational values came ﬁrst and less importance was given to relationships. It changed considerably with the increasing number of women at work. We have observed that a management approach focused on relationships brings about a performance level rated at 60 percent. This establishes that local management is very well suited to women.

Friendly managers have strong social aspirations “I envy aggressive people, their attitude shows they do not need anyone” (anonymous). Maslow’s hierarchy of needs favors the idea that the analysis described above has been carried out on individuals whose aspirations depend on their protection needs. This implies that the results must be called into question if the level of ambition rises to social aspirations. In close relationships, there is often a reciprocal relationship, even if it is strongly unbalanced. Fellow feelings towards an executive do not depend on the efforts he makes to make friends. In some cases, it is the opposite. In addition, given that such feelings are not inﬂuenced by efficiency, we may therefore establish that fellow feelings can be deﬁned as an independent variable. Once this is taken into consideration, managers should not feel too concerned about their popularity. However, no one can manage in the long term and remain psychologically strong without others’ consideration and respect. Thus, the key point is how this independent variable inﬂuences the individual concerned. We can argue that the more his ego is solid, the more he will be capable of accepting others’ feelings and appreciation.

Develop Empathy: Your Second Essential Skill 1 2 3 4

the more an individual feels efficient the better his self-esteem the more he is capable of accepting others’ feelings and appreciation the more he is emotionally independent.

How to be unpleasant The best way to appear disagreeable is to make oneself feared. To do this, frequent bad moods and unpredictible attitudes are good components. However, it is essential to put threats into action, or the opposite result may occur – employees end up despising the manager instead of fearing him. Another way is to never let subordinates really know what is expected from them or what pleases the manager. In this way, the manager will ﬁnd more reasons to complain. One may also be nice and sweet in a hostile environment and behave the opposite in a warm and friendly context! More generally speaking, the best way to be feared is to display differences between one’s thoughts and one’s behavior. In this way, a manager is sure to create suspicion and mistrust.

How to discourage colleagues An increasing feeling of powerlessness followed by high stress have been observed in organizations working on the basis of strong psychological distance. Pearlin (1961) weighed up the feeling of powerlessness experienced by the staff of a psychiatric hospital. He found there were two main causes leading to powerlessness: 1 2

a great distance between managers and subordinates instructions given in such a way that reciprocal inﬂuence is avoided or denied (Argyris 1970).

Brown (1970) and Katz, Weiner and al. (1970) demonstrated that stress was the result of powerlessness and not the consequence of a situation. Merton (1940) showed that the bureaucratic model led to a weakening of individualized relationships (March and Simon 1971). We may thus maintain that the feeling of powerlessness, the root of stress in critical situations, is increased in systems that favor efficiency and avoid the development of friendly relationships.

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1 2 3 4 5

the more an organization becomes bureaucratic the more distance between managers and subordinates the more instructions are given in such a way that reciprocal inﬂuence is denied the more feelings of powerlessness the more people will feel discouraged in critical situations.

How to gain respect The need for respect implies that one expects from others a particular type of emotion. It may take many forms, that is, respect, friendship, recognition or esteem. Thus, there is no specific formula, but one must avoid pretending or acting in conflict with one’s true feelings. Indeed, this behavior automatically leads to a double constraint and therefore a feeling of mistrust. 1 2 3

act respectfully be consistent, avoid criticizing others behind their backs deal with problems with courage and simplicity.

What favors fellow feelings: 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

the fewer problems there are to solve the lower the level of anticipation the less the manager solves problems the less it involves individuals in the organization the less this involvement needs to establish relationships the more the people concerned have social aspirations the more the management is made up of women the more the manager needs the respect of others the more he is described as being friendly and agreeable by many employees.

What favors hostility: 1 2 3 4 5

the higher the level of anticipation the more problems there are to solve the more the manager is involved in the problem resolution the more it involves individuals in the organization the more the management is made up of men

Develop Empathy: Your Second Essential Skill 6 7 8 9

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the less the manager has social aspirations the less he needs the respect of others the more he is psychologically distant the more he is described as being disagreeable by many employees.

QUESTIONNAIRE 5 Are you kind and sociable? Tick one column for each question using the key below: 1 I completely disagree 2 I mildly disagree 3 I am not sure 4 I mildly agree 5 I completely agree Join up the ticks. The more your proﬁle appears on the right-hand side, the more you have responded positively to the question. 1

2

3

4

5

1. You may tell me about anything, as long as you say it nicely. 2. I like to charm and attract others. 3. I love sending or receiving greetings and best wishes. 4. One must not cause pain. 5. The harder the task, the nicer it has to be requested. 6. Do you keep in mind your colleagues’ chidren’s ﬁrst names and birthdays? 7. Do you know more than 10 colleagues’ birthdays by heart? 8. Love should always be written in capitals. 9. You will never be caught unprepared when it comes to place your guests at your table. 10. Your children were taught to say hello even before being toilet trained. 11. Are you fond of animals? 12. I love weddings because they are occasions to meet the whole family.

The social executive’s approach Both rational and social logic are applied to correct a norm or a need deviation but rational logic is centered on problem resolution, whereas social logic is applied to avoid problems. The social executive is popular within

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A Management System Exempt from Power administrations. The great advantage of such a manager is that he makes even the most uninteresting task pleasant. The social executive has little to do with the professional or the expert, who are both outstandingly efficient with regard to negotiations. The social executive focuses on the relationship dimension. The number of efficient colleagues is raised to 60 percent under this type of management.

The basic behavior: avoid scandals, be friendly to everyone The social executive’s position can be compared with a work of art placed in the reception hall of a ﬁnancial organization – it has to be pleasant to look at, without excessive character, in order to please all customers and shock no one.89 For this reason, the social executive works at being nice to everyone90 – too nice in some cases. Indeed, it is almost impossible to correct bad results without hurting some people so he must be conﬁdent. 䉴 This French manager was very friendly and well appreciated. He was often in the shop and rarely in his office. Clients loved to deal with him and he talked to everyone. When he was asked something, he usually agreed – when he was in a good mood. But the company was in debt and the reports piling up on his desk didn’t make pleasant reading. Redundancy was a possible solution but it was not acceptable in a little town where everyone knew everyone. The manager dreaded the annual board meeting that was going to take place. What he hated most was to be confronted with a conflict of values – the need to choose between two solutions, neither of which met his values. His priority was to his employees. He was conscious of his limits concerning direct problem resolution. For that reason, he capitalized his colleagues’ and subordinates’ skills and used methods that were convenient for all.

As we have mentioned, management based on social aspects brings about a level of performace rated at 60 percent. Although the social manager encounters problems within organizations mainly focused on results and projects, he nevertheless succeeds in obtaining high positions thanks to his relationship capacities. However, his lack of knowledge regarding technical aspects hinders his activity.

Develop Empathy: Your Second Essential Skill The doting father approach The doting father’s priorities are harmony, trust and conﬂict avoidance, with the risk of letting employees undertake inadequate actions in some cases. Such an executive has learnt from experience that it is almost impossible to get involved in conﬂicts and still maintain harmony. He is loath to contradict or hurt people because he prioritizes human relationships and views work as a necessary evil. He has given up trying to put paths right. Let us examine what characterizes the doting father. He is a nurse for the soul: he avoids hurting his employees and makes himself available to help when problems arise. If necessary, he takes on his colleagues’ or subordinates’ work to lessen their difficulties and maintain a harmonious work atmosphere. By choosing to please others and be friendly with everyone, he lives up to his deep tendencies and dodges the emotional trouble inherent in direct problem resolution. He is considered an efficient emotional regulator. Unlike the social executive who ignores the critical reports piling up on his desk, he tackles problems but uses different means in order to lessen the seriousness of the situation. The doting father looks at things from their positive angle. When he is faced with a conﬂict between rational and social values, he has a typical compromising attitude – “There is a problem obviously, but it is not that serious”. The doting father is close to the professional. He also appreciates the social executive. On the other hand, he avoids experts and troublemakers, who he considers too complicated and too negative. The doting father feels particularly at ease in a management system based on participation. He is viewed as a reliable individual, except in organizations focused on efficiency and thus favoring professional executives and project developers. The doting father is very adaptable. His management system, based on comfort and integration, raises performance to 60 percent. 䉴 The film Louis Fabre, Industrial Engineer, presents a typical doting father, Clément, who barely gets along with Fabre, the project developer. Fabre gets on well with Dumont who is an expert. In Milgram’s work, submission to authority is also described, that is, the doting mother caught between her compassion for the victim and her compliance with authority: the nurse administers electric shocks while suffering and crying with the victim. She tries to convince the experimenters to interrupt the shocks but never thinks of taking this responsibility herself as she thinks she can not disobey just because she does not agree with the task she has been given.

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Table 3.5 The doting father’s methods to solve problems Causes problems

Solves the problem Occasionally

Moderates its seriousness

Welcome Coffee break

Mitigation Stockholm syndrome

Yes No

The welcome The welcome is the social executive’s main strength. He always welcomes employees, subordinates and colleagues. If someone enters his office, he puts his work aside and does not answer telephone calls during the interview. The person feels listened to and taken into consideration. The welcome is cultural in Asia. If one compares the schedule of a 36year-old Japanese manager91 with that of his French counterpart, similarities can be found, that is, interviews, meetings, phone calls and so on, but there are two major differences: 1

2

To welcome people seems to be a continuous task for the Japanese manager, unlike the French manager. The Japanese manager greets close friends, general managers and company executives and so on. At the end of the day, he has a drink with his clients, colleagues or friends. He gets home between 02:00 and 04:00am. He nevers sees his children and sleeps the whole weekend to recover. The quality of welcome is valued according to the welcomed one’s appreciation. Does he feel at ease and reassured or does he feel anxious, suspicious, like an intruder? The expert behaves differently during interviews. He does not hesitate to make long phone calls and emphasizes the importance of his position by gesticulating all around. This attitude reveals a symbolic contempt for the people he is talking to. One must know how to welcome people. There are three basic principles: first, one must know the person’s name (or first name). Some organizers or commercial agents learn the participants’ names by heart before any meeting or interview. I once met a teacher who knew 260 names by heart and associated them with the students’ pictures so he could answer each questioner by name at the end of the lecture. Second, one must always look the person in the eyes when

Develop Empathy: Your Second Essential Skill shaking his hand and, thirdly, a handshake must be given with the right amount of pressure, not too limp so as to signify weakness and not too forceful so as to break the person’s ﬁngers! 䉴 I was fascinated by the African continent. For that reason, I decided to send my CV to a number of companies all over Africa. I received a proposal from a company in Ivory Coast. My dream was becoming reality. However, I was aware that I did not know anyone over there, I had to travel alone, I was white and I needed to have my vaccinations renewed. Having spent an anxious night in a cheap hotel and after an unforgettable taxi ride, I arrived at the agency. There I was, in front of a delightful secretary telling me that no trainee was expected for the summer period, that I certainly had been mistaken but I could wait for the boss, who was expected to return any minute. I spent two hours waiting, during which time I made friends with a man who became my guide and who gave me the following information: 1. Betty (the secretary) was not a trustful person; she would either forget things or make fun of people, especially when they were Westerners! 2. If I had waited for the boss, I would have waited a long time; he was in France on business! 3. In Africa, if I did not take the initiative, nothing, deﬁnitely nothing would happen and I would end up being stuck in the same place for ever. In the ﬁrst two days after my arrival, I recieved anonymous telephone calls, I was given the wrong documents and patently wrong information. This situation lasted until a colleague explained to them that “the white woman” was only a trainee and she was not going to “steal” the job. 䉴 On leaving the supermarket, I noticed I had a ﬂat tire. So, I went to a car dealer to have it repaired. In reception, a young pretty woman was working at her desk, her head buried in her computer. I had the feeling I was bothering her. I approached her with a smile on my face, she looked at me, attended to me kindly, dealt with my problem and went straight back to work. Deﬁnitely, I was bothering her. I then looked for a place to sit and told myself I would not become their client, given the way I had been welcomed. This was odd, because I was in a garage selling and repairing the type of car I had. I suddenly felt guilty: was it because I had not bought my car from here? 䉴 I went to the printing house reception desk. The secretary did not know me since my assistant usually dealt with them. I had urgent and personal photocopies to be done. They represented a small sum of money. The secretary submitted my request to the technician who answered that he was too busy. He had sunken eyes, a forehead crossed by two large wrinkles and thin lips. He probably was a scrupulous technician but did not seem keen on

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A Management System Exempt from Power human contact. I walked to him, introduced myself, said that I had been one of their major clients for two years and that I had never asked anything personal until then. He asked me to step back and not to come close to the photocopier. I thought this showed a lack of respect, all the more so since I had been very polite. In addition, I was only asking for ﬁve color copies. Annoyed, I advised my assistant to ﬁnd another supplier. In fact, the technician had asked me to step back because he was dealing with conﬁdential documents. 䉴 I went to the nearest railway station and looked for the ticket office; there it was, nicely decorated with miniature trains. I had to collect the children’s tickets, they were leaving for a skiing holiday. While I was standing there, I was told that it was not open yet. I decided to go shopping. When I came back, there was another man waiting at the ticket office to collect his tickets. He had been pushed back: there were two minutes left before opening time. I did not know what the officer said to him, but the man stood beside me and began to chat: “I am in the nuclear ﬁeld and I have to travel often for my job. I spend 60 hours away from home and now I need to travel to the south”. He added he was very angry about the way he had been treated. Next came my turn. The clerk sharply told me to wait and did not even offer me a seat. I asked for my daughter’s ticket, my son’s ticket and the reduction card for teenagers aged between twelve and twenty-five. The clerk complained, saying I had to make a global booking because he was going to spend too much time on his computer to enter one data set after another. 䉴 I arrived at a car dealership in a big town and spoke to a salesman. He greeted me warmly, with a big smile on his face. He made me feel at ease, important and he appeared trustful. Sometime later, I had a phone conversation with the salesman and once again, I had a good impression. He knew my ﬁrst name. My relationship with him became excellent and he never let me down when I needed his help. I never had any problems with the company and all the salesmen showed great skills and empathy for their clients, whether it was in the sales, rental or repair department. The result was that I bought two cars within a period of three months. 䉴 I had just arrived at the Novotel located at Chiang Mai, in Thailand, in which I had booked a room from Paris. A young lady offered me a seat and took my order. It was very warm in Chiang Mai. She came back with downcast eyes and kneeled down to serve us our drinks. She appeared so submissive – I felt like the prime minister! 䉴 A manager who travelled to Japan related the following story, which I admit, I have doubts about. He and a friend had been invited to a Japanese company and everyone knows that welcome traditions based on harmony and respect are essential in Japan and observed better than in any other part

Develop Empathy: Your Second Essential Skill of the world. The manager witnessed a strange scene: he saw his friend bowing to a Japanese employee and the latter bowing lower in return. His friend then bowed again and the Japanese bowed, even lower. After a few minutes, the manager asked: “Do you know who this man is? – He is the elevator attendant”. 䉴 I had just successfully passed the common entrance examination to switch from a prep school to a public school. Exceptional circumstances had brought my family to travel to France and move close to Dinan, a charming medieval town. Everything seemed odd to me. I had been used to wearing a uniform everyday and there I was, confronted with young French students, dressed in normal clothes. In my former school, everyone knew me and I was well regarded by my teachers. In that public school, I knew no one and thought no one knew me. In my class, there were only three new students and we had to introduce oursleves. When my turn came, the whole class and the teacher burst out laughing, saying all together: “David W. Feldsted, prep school, Essex!” I confess I needed some time to recover from such a welcome! 䉴 I was in charge of drawing up ﬁles at the education offices. I used to accept the young students’ ﬁles, even if a piece of information was missing, knowing that their licence would be available only after they had passed their last exams. But most of my colleagues refused those ﬁles, because they were not complete. 䉴 In Lelouch’s ﬁlm Itinéraire d’un enfant gâté, one scene shows Belmondo giving his ﬁrst management lesson to Anconina and teaching him how to say hello with a real interest in his listener. 䉴 The following took place in Gabon. It was 04:50pm. I had just arrived in Libreville where I had traveled for work purposes. I went to the post office to buy stamps for my children’s stamp collection. I asked the clerk: “I would like a stamp like this one, please, and a stamp like that one, and another one like that one, and …” The clerk raised his eyes and said: “you are tiring me and it is nearly time to close.”92 And he stuck the “position closed” notice under my nose!93

QUESTIONNAIRE 6 Are you always welcoming? Tick one column for each question using the key below: 1 I completely disagree 2 I mildly disagree

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I am not sure I mildly agree I completely agree

Join up the ticks. The more your proﬁle appears on the right-hand side, the more you have responded positively to the question. 1

2

3

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5

1. When someone rings my doorbell, I always answer, whatever I am doing. 2. When I am called on the phone for marketing enquiries, I always answer politely that I am not interested. 3. When I answer the phone, I always give my name ﬁrst and then ask who is speaking. 4. If a bore keeps me on the phone while I am busy working, I say as nicely as possible: “I am sorry but I have to hang up, I will call you back as soon as possible”. 5. When I reach a tollbooth, I say hello to the attendant and add something pleasant. 6. When I have to queue in a shop, even though I am annoyed, I ﬁrst say hello. 7. When I feel anxious because my husband/wife has come home too late, I avoid being aggressive and welcome him/her with a kiss and a smile. 8. When I am in a meeting with colleagues, I avoid answering the phone or making calls because I know it is disrespectful. 9. When I am on the phone with an angry person, I say nothing until he has ﬁnished and then I calmly resume the problem. 10. I spend time with newly hired employees and make them visit all our departments. 11. I try to make myself available for those who come in my office.

The coffee break A coffee break is a moment of belonging. If you join in a coffee break and you are not welcome, you will notice it immediately because everyone around you will suddenly become silent and feel uncomfortable. This break in working time favors free relationships. The coffee break is an emotional moment. It reveals the atmosphere and friendships within the workplace. To suppress such a moment is a mistake. Conversely, if coffee breaks are made up of malicious gossip, they must no longer be maintained for they would contribute to demoralize the employees. In order to avoid coffee break abuses, it is recommended, as a compromise, to have them organized in one or more offices but not in the established cafeteria.

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QUESTIONNAIRE 7 How do you manage coffee breaks? Tick one column for each question using the key below: 1 I completely disagree 2 I mildly disagree 3 I am not sure 4 I mildly agree 5 I completely agree Join up the ticks. The more your proﬁle appears on the right-hand side, the more you have responded positively to the question. 1 1.

The coffee break is an easy way to measure emotions in the workplace.

2.

The coffee break does not mean time lost but time saved.

3.

The coffee break is like good wine, it must not be abused.

4.

You have to earn your coffee break! Bad results means no more coffee break.

5.

It is important that employees avoid putting their coffee cups on computers.

6.

The coffee break reveals what the true work atmosphere is, better than any official meeting.

7.

Coffee machines have been placed in many offices.

8.

Coffee is a stimulating drink.

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Conciliation The more I acknowledge what my own and other’s true reality is, the less I am willing to organize everything at all costs (Rogers, 1968).

In the face of critical issues, conciliation is considered dangerous behavior as regards efficiency, but it has a tranquillizing effect on the individual. Conciliation means denying or lessening the nature of the problem. It is quite similar to burying one’s head in the sand. This behavior induces colleagues and subordinates to underestimate the expectations of the organization and make mistakes, given that they have not truly appreciated the level of performance requested. The following story illustrates what conciliation is: A madman and a psychiatrist enter an elevator. As the madman hates elevators, he rapidly shows signs of agitation and becomes so aggressive that he ends up beating up the psychiatrist, in front of the

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dumbfounded elevator attendant. The madman leaves and the attendant asks the psychiatrist why he did not react. He answers: “That is his problem.” 1 2

the manager notices that a subordinate has broken the rules he points this out to the subordinate but largely reduces its effects.

We have defined conciliation as an inefficient but nice behavior. Regarding inefficiency, however, there are a number of counter-examples which can determine the field of validity of our definition. Let us, for example, examine the following adages: One must always help up the beaten opponent. There should always be a way out during negotiations. From this, we can see that the two behaviors are conciliatory and preferable to a hardline solution. We have focused on the usual relationships between a manager and his subordinates. If a manager wishes his employees to learn and progress, he must let them make mistakes without making things easier for them. In this case, we implicitly place ourselves in the process of problem resolution. Conversely, if we examine the result of the situation, the punishment is brought by bad performance – failure or accident. Therefore, there is no need to aggravate things. Parents, for example, know that if their child is harmed while practicing his favorite sport or hobby – which might be his fault – they must not aggravate the situation by driving the point home but must give him their support. Conciliation is the rule for managers who have a high degree of responsibility or are in the public eye. They are in a position to do this since they have subordinates to do the dirty work. By means of conciliation, they capitalize on their popularity, which the organization may need in case of conﬂict with the employees. Most of the time, this approach is based on a Karpmann triangle – the department in charge of enforcing unapplicable or unrealistic measures ﬁnds the means to have them postponed. This method can be useful for imposing an unpopular decision when it is essential for the survival of the company.

Extending the application ﬁeld When applied to education or social work, conciliation will be positive if it observes the proprieties, assuming that things are said kindly and with

Develop Empathy: Your Second Essential Skill compassion, but it is essential that the problem is not misrepresented or its importance denied. One of the areas in which there has been a major debate is on the alleviation of the pain and suffering of the terminally ill. As a result of media pressure, the medical profession has created and developed palliative care centers, in which the main purpose is not to cure but alleviate the suffering and pain of terminally ill patients. This constituted major progress, not only from a practical but also from an ethical point of view – showing a greater consideration for the individual. Unfortunately, lawmakers have not taken this to its logical conclusion in allowing a terminally ill patient to put an end to his life.94 At least it is no longer a matter of: Death is a suffering imposed by God and no one has the right to escape it. 䉴 When a major error happens, I do not deny the situation, nor does it depress me. I listen and think about the problem: if it is a professional issue, the solution is nearly always easy to ﬁnd, because I have an efficient assistant who always alerts me before the situation becomes irreversible. When it comes to my children, it is more difficult. Most of the time, I need to intervene in school matters and undertake actions with the school teachers and principal. Once, my daughter was brutally kicked by a fellow student. I wanted to meet the school principal to let him know what had happened, but my daughter feared retaliation; she was even afraid to be scolded by the principal. It took me some time to understand her reaction but I ﬁnally realized she was suffering from Stockholm syndrome. Unfortunately the same thing happened again and this time I told the principal, who then informed the violent child’s parents. I was just eager to put an end to the situation. Later on, the child’s mother called me. She was being victimized and tried to make me feel guilty. I expressed my sympathy, saying that I understood her distress but did not want her child to harm my daughter again.

QUESTIONNAIRE 8 Do you practice conciliation? Put 1 2 3 4 5

a tick in one column for each question using the key below: I completely disagree I mildly disagree I am not sure I mildly agree I completely agree

Join up the ticks. The more your proﬁle appears on the right-hand side, the more you have responded positively to the question.

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1 1.

When someone you were just speaking about in very bad terms comes in and explains the situation, you tone down your voice and say it is not that serious.

2.

An employee tells you that everyone is against him and you know he is right, but you tell him he is imagining things.

3.

An employee is caught stealing for the third time. You cover up for him because he is single-handedly bringing up his child.

4.

During an appraisal, you do not hesitate to overestimate the appraisal report but you avoid pointing out and analyzing the negative points.

5.

You like acting as an intermediary or an arbitrator in cases of conﬂict.

6.

Each time your wife/husband mentions a problem concerning the children, you say that it is not that serious.

7.

You are good at oiling the wheels.

8.

When an employee complains about a punishment, you explain that you are trying your best for the company and you do this so well that the employee nearly ends up thanking you!

9.

You would never tell a dying relative that he was going to die. You would rather say that he is imagining things.

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The Stockholm syndrome I have sometimes wondered if those who harmed me most were my friends or my enemies (Rogers 1968).

In a hostage situation, when victims and kidnappers have been kept in close contact for a certain amount of time, it has been observed that once they are freed, the hostages tend to defend their kidnappers and support them against the police. Police and terrorists are no longer valued according to their intentions but according to their behavior, as demonstrated here below: Intentions

Pleasant behavior

Save the victims Destroy the victims

Violent behavior Police assault

Contacts Terrorists/hostages

This syndrome can be compared to appeasement, but in this case, the victim defends the kidnapper who is at the root of his trauma. This reverse attitude results from exceptional circumstances that alter the perception of who does right and who does wrong. These circumstances can be described as follows:

Develop Empathy: Your Second Essential Skill 1 2

3 4 5

Victims and kidnappers must remain in isolation95 for a certain amount of time This isolation leads to an intense physical closeness, for example, being forced to go to the toilet or wash in front of each other, or an intense psychological closeness, such as the naked model confronted with the art photographer. Intense, difficult situations draw individuals towards each other If 1 and 2 are observed for long enough, a particular complicity grows, over and above that which is required The kidnapper can then impose nearly anything he wishes on his consenting victim, who may even ﬁnd pleasure in the situation Once the kidnapper is caught by the police, he will probably be defended by his victim.

The Stockhom syndrome is the modern version of Haitian bewitchment, by which an individual designates a victim and puts him at his mercy. The difference is that the victim in the Stockholm syndrome is consenting. The victim is in a state of hypnosis and dependence,96 which is proﬁtable to the persecutor. In the animal world, a similar behavior has been observed: once the desert snake has captured the attention of the jerboa, the latter is paralyzed. Given the ﬁght or ﬂight syndrome, we can argue that sight is a source of inhibition for animals. This has been proved with tigers.98 This phenomenon is seldom found in French organizations but is frequently noted in Japan, where the culture is based on obedience and submission from childhood onwards. However, the phenomenon may appear when a manager and his subordinate are brought to work close to each other for at least eight hours per day, a period of time favoring the emergence of a couple-based relationship. 1 2

the manager notices that an employee has broken the rules he does not correct he employee, in fact he defends and protects, saying that it isn’t that serious.

Or 3 4

the subordinate suffers from his manager’s persecuting behavior he considers it normal and defends his manager from those who critisize him.

The Stockholm syndrome may also work on the basis of the Karpmann triangle model.

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Status before

Status after

Terrorists

Persecutors

Victims

Hostages

Victims

Saviors

Police

Saviors

Persecutors

We have deﬁned the Stockholm syndrome as being inefficient but well tolerated, since our implicit hypothesis is based on the relationships between subordinates and managers confronted with intentional or repetitive mistakes. Obviously, if a subordinate is supported by his manager after he has committed an error, he might have the idea that his manager allows himself be taken advantage of. If, in addition, the subordinate becomes unpleasant and his manager reacts by “going easy” on him, the syndrome may become not only dangerous but also unhealthy for the organization. However, the predominant religious model in Europe favors this syndrome – love your enemies, turn the other cheek and so on.99 In the same way, as far as legal protection for children is concerned, forgiveness is more efficient than harshness, insofar as the judge discerns that the offender did not realize the seriousness of his act and he is truly sorry. Why and how is it that the religious and legal models are the opposite of management models? The reason is that the manager’s stakes are different. Forgiveness is convenient for the religious models since they are aimed to favor unconditional emotional relationships, even proﬁtable for those individuals who develop hatred for others. Forgiveness becomes pathological within the context of organizations, given that each employee is requested to contribute to a global result. Transition conflicts – on harshness and forgiveness among others – will also be referred to and analyzed at the end of this book.100 䉴 I was given the opportunity to witness the Stockholm syndrome. We had organized a winter seminar with the ﬁrst year students. The seminar was taking place in a big chalet, surrounded by snow, which reinforced our sense of isolation. On the Friday evening that followed our arrival, the students invited the teachers to a party. During the party, one of the teachers101 was invited to sit on a large sofa which the students had placed on an improvised stage. The only information he was given was:“you will have nothing to do but sit.” He accepted. The lack of information did not seem to worry him. We may objectively argue that he had taken a risk and subjectively say that the trusting relationship he had established with his students was strong enough to accept the challenge. But when the play began, the audience (students and

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teachers – about 200 people) discovered that the teacher had been given the role of a big, hairy, gruff, friendly animal that aped humans, and, as if this was not enough, one of the students had to pretend to castrate him. At the end of the play, I went to see the teacher and asked him why he had accepted the part without knowing exactly what it was about. Surprisingly, he defended and supported his students, declaring that youth needed to have its ﬂing.102

QUESTIONNAIRE 9 Are you a Stockholm syndrome victim? Put 1 2 3 4 5

a tick in one column for each question using the key below: I completely disagree I mildly disagree I am not sure I mildly agree I completely agree

Join up the ticks. The more your proﬁle appears on the right-hand side, the more you have responded positively to the question. 1 1. The meaner someone is to you, the nicer you are to him. 2. You avoid bothering or criticizing your opponents because you fear their reactions. 3. Those who you dislike most are those who get what they want from you. 4. You always ﬁnd excuses for employees who have neglected their work or their responsibilities. 5. Fear makes you as meek as a lamb. 6. When I was a child, I used to be nice to naughty kids to avoid their aggressive behavior. 7. One must try to understand criminals; they are not so different from us, they just have not been as lucky. 8. In the schoolyard, I used to be possessive and unpleasant with my best friend. 9. I easily identify myself with others. 10. I often feel guilty when my success goes beyond others’ results. 11. What is a criminal? Were not Resistance ﬁghters also killers? And yet, they were treated like heroes at Liberation. 12. I love people. 13. If I am hit on the left cheek, I turn the other one. 14. In Victor Hugo’s book Les misérables, there is a passage I particularly appreciate, that is when the priest hands the candlesticks to Jean Valjean while he is being arrested. 15. Tolerance and compassion are two of the most noble virtues. 16. I am sometimes viewed as a masochist.

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A brief overview of Chapter 3

6. 6. Stockholm Stockholm syndrome syndrome 5. Mitigation 5. Appeasement 4. Coffee 4. The coffee break

3. The welcome 3. Welcome 2. The doting father 1. The social executive

Pyramid 3 Empathy, regardless of efficiency 1

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3 4 5

6

Social values are essential in large organizations. They help to oil the wheels. To work with a trusting social manager is far easier and more positive than to work with an expert who is convinced of his superiority and never pays compliments. The doting father has, in addition, a project for you. It might be inadequate but it remains a very kind and positive attitude. What a succesful association the doting father and the expert could form if only they got along! The welcome is essential in management, mostly in international management in which cultural differences are barriers. Coffee breaks are an occasion to discuss various issues. Such a break enables each actor to develop his knowledge of self and mutual trust. Forgiveness consists of reassuring an individual about himself, but it must not spare him from confronting his errors, which is essential in self-development. The human dimension in management was a key success factor during the post-war boom period. It was replaced by creativity, creation and imagination, the only values that may, today, ensure the survival of organizations. This point will be developed in the next chapter.

CHAPTER 4

Fulﬁl your Creative Genius! The project developer’s logic is undoubtedly the most demanding but most useful logic. Indeed, everyone in an organization must ensure its smooth running, either by solving problems, or adopting harmonious behavior.The project developer’s talent is as a visionary, which he puts into practice by developing projects. However, as he creates new norm deviations, he makes everyone suffer.Thus he may be attacked, reviled and taken action against. His success will depend on his resistance to obstruction.

What are most highly qualiﬁed managers usually assigned to? Have a close look: they solve daily problems while they should strive to ﬁnd new opportunities for their organization and build the future instead of defending the past! (Peter Drucker; comments taken down by C. Kerdellant)

Emotional and creative values A project constitutes an intentional norm increase or norm change. In fact, a new norm is that part of ourselves that solely exists in our imagination. A project creation reﬂects the will to accomplish something difficult, which requests the surpassing of all persons involved. The project developer seems to create projects but in reality, self-development is the true purpose. Conversely, the individual working on a project he has not created will ﬁnd the task more difficult to take on. A project is a solution to a problem that does not yet exist. It is a way to take the lead over competitors and put them offside for a while. It is a way to keeping control of a problem by provoking it. Like an intentional ﬁre which is easier to bring under control, a project is more easily manageable than an urgent measure, which must be suited to an unexpected situation. Projects are synonymous with change. In other words, a project developer is a troublemaker. We have demonstrated that a problem is a norm deviation, in the sense that a norm exists and that everything must be done to have this norm applied and complied with. The manager’s role is to take all necessary action and 67

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A Management System Exempt from Power establish measures to have norms applied. A norm change is usually seen as the ultimate solution when a norm deviation is unsolvable. All these mechanisms of learning, resulting from experience103, lead to the development of available human capacities. The desire to improve the organization and go further by raising its standards leads to the project creation (Descartes, César, d’Hebermont 1996; Bucci 1998; Moinet, Hannequin, Le Poultier 2000). A project is a surprising notion in the sense that its characteristics are similar to those of the problem. Indeed, if a norm is increased according to the results, it leads to a deviation and it is precisely what deﬁnes a problem. However, as the problem is unknown – at least at the beginning – it is a test and generates fear. For this reason, a project can be rejected by a number of people – the less experienced or less qualiﬁed ones in particular. Thus, the project developer is a troublemaker, but for a good reason. A project is, by nature, a source of complications – “If you think that you can feel at ease now you have solved the problem, well don’t, because I have got a new one for you!” This is why it is essential to distinguish the nature of the project according to who suggests it – colleagues or manager. A colleague’s project includes their know-how, their aspirations and their capacity to take action; it will not exclude the fear of taking risks. Fear will become part of their desire to change and put an end to the boredom resulting from increased skills. They may also wish to end the suffering caused by waiting or idleness. A project can also lie within the scope of the counter-fire theory.104 Usually, the project must come ahead of the demand. By self-imposing such a new norm, the person provides himself with the necessary means to safely acquire the adequate level of competency. This enables him to avoid urgent adaptation.105 A manager’s project usually results from the need to ensure the survival of the organization or get ahead of competitors. If colleagues have not thought of the project themselves or if they refuse it, it is essentially because there is a gap between this new project and what is considered possible and feasible, considering the current level of expertise. It can also be because the project seems to require too much effort and energy. The wider the gap between the previous norm and the project norm, the stronger the reaction. Behind any collective reaction there is a norm perceived as being impossible to live up to. As the norm level is increased by the project, employees are obliged to adapt themselves; those who do not become losers – incapable of improving themselves.

Fulfil your Creative Genius! The pleasure to be the cause of things According to interaction theory, developed by Nuttin, the main source of motivation is to be the cause of things. Following that idea, only project creators may truly feel motivated. Nuttin introduced the basics of psychology within management, emphasizing imagination and project development at each organizational level. Castagné’s approach is similar. Furthermore, project creation entails competition with oneself. Indeed, competition, in sport or organizations, is characterized by two norms: performance level and risk level. The level of performance measures the results achieved and the level of risk determines the dangers incurred, that is, to the competitor’s life, health or safety. In any given activity, an increase in performance level always leads to an increase in risk. There are two main types of competition: competition with others and competition with oneself. Of course, both are found in the same event, but not in the same proportions. Let us compare, for example, tennis and bungee jumping: the ﬁrst entails beating an opponent while the second is a competition with oneself. Easy situations are very common, where the competition is hard and the risk of being beaten by a stronger opponent is signiﬁcant. A way to escape this is to choose risky situations, which are less common and in which self-competition prevails. Risky situations are often chosen by individuals who fear competition with others and who have to prove something by competing against themselves. In the face of competition, there are two possible attitudes: either rational logic or more emotional logic. In the first case, the person is solely concerned by external challenges. In the second case, the persons’s concern and motivation are focused on internal challenges, with risk as a norm. This leads him to get involved in high-risk activities, in which the performance level is not valued by the same criteria. Narcissus’s mirror106 provides him with a positive reﬂection of himself. The feeling of emptiness is the result of a primeval narcissistic wound, sometimes named primary narcissism. Individuals striving for an image of self are ﬁrst concerned by self-actualization. The project becomes their mirror, their inseparable double. These individuals may devote their entire life to their project – to the point where they can become ill – to establish what we call a secondary narcissism. To better understand such a process, let us recall the concept of emotional logic. The feeling of emptiness is unbearable, it prevents the feelings of serenity and happiness, therefore creating a tremendous energetic potential. Indeed, to satisfy his feeling of existence, the project developer not only devotes his life to his project but also involves his imagination, all his resources and sometimes takes such great risks that he

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A Management System Exempt from Power seems to be mad.107 Numerous personality flaws made up of chronic emotional deﬁcits are at the root of an insatiable desire to battle and create. Great careers – not only in the artistic domain – result from eccentric shortcomings compensated for by a continual confrontation with difficulties. Biologists have shown that when a human being is active – even pointlessly so – the nervous system lessens negative emotions. To be active and do things is in itself valuable. The feeling of powerlessness comes from the inability to be loved or valued by people one has therefore no opportunity to despise. Moreover, this feeling gives rise to a tremendous need to be admired. This need sustains an inexhaustible motivation to be in the foreground. The primary feeling of self-awareness is acquired during childhood, through the ﬁrst interactions with the environment. A lack of this primary feeling sustains the powerful need to feel useful. To fulﬁll this need, the grown-up individual will volunteer for useful actions aimed at the community and use all his efforts. Personality disorders linked to continuous anxiety often result from the individual’s desire to get involved in many actions and help anyone he can in order to avoid inaction – an intolerable state for such an individual. The project can be shaped in many different ways but it is always based on self-competition and on the need to surpass oneself. For some people, a project, although it is a test, is seen as being attractive – a promise of pleasure. They aspire to tackle more and more difficult problems.108 Many different mechanisms may be at the origin this process. First, the logic of counter-fire shows that by creating a project one escapes an uncontrollable emotional situation and substitutes it with a more risky but intentional and controlled action. It may be the positive valence resulting from self-improvement and learning – as seen in various ﬁlms, such as Apocalypse Now (Coppola 1979), Itinéraire d’un enfant gâté (Lelouch 1988) and City of Joy (Joffé 1993). Accidents, the loss of a loved one and miraculously surviving a disaster are irreversible, unmanageable and shocking events, which can be lessened by giving a meaning to the situation. In this way and to respond to the intense emotions resulting from irreversibility, people create great and generous projects. The emptiness is not sufficient. This feeling exists in the person’s internal environment but it needs an opportunity in the external environment. The feeling of emptiness may remain dull for a long time and then suddenly encounter an opportunity. According to a common belief, each human being is given this opportunity two or three times in his life and it is essential that he seizes it. How do emptiness and opportunity lead to project creation? It is the question of sense making that each individual must face up to, without having immediate answers. This aspect transcends the human being. To

Fulfil your Creative Genius! chase after opportunities is the best way to let them slip when they arise. An opportunity does not have a meaning in itself, apart from how the project developer views it. The project developer endures emptiness. This feeling generates a desire, which influences his interpretation of the external environment. This desire is at the root of meaning. This is why behind any great project there is a man or a woman. Men are said to be project developers more often than women because they cannot compensate for this emptiness by giving birth.

The conﬂictual crux of the logic of the project Once the project is out in the open, a conﬂict arises with an entire structure.109 Colleagues who view the project as an opportunity to reinforce their privileges will consider it positively. Its opponents are those who feel threatened by the project: it creates additional work, they do not know how to deal with it, or the project is not theirs and it involves resources they wish to use for other purposes. Each member of the organization views the project according to expected drawbacks. Very few people view it in the interest of the organization. The speculative aspect of this reasoning does not make things easier. Thus, a conﬂict emerges, whose strength is proportional to the norm deviation brought about by the project. The emotional hardness resulting from the new situation can be softened by expressing one’s emotions. Since those who are not the project originators may, as a result, suffer intolerable emotions, it is essential to favor participation so that emotions may be given free rein to. A slow process of appropriation through participation facilitates the future success of the project. However, the participative phase must be launched only when the project has become irreversible, or it might contribute to its rejection. This process requires patience. In large, conservative organizations, innovative projects are difficult to set up. The French state education system is illustrative – a number of French ministers used to implement reforms during holiday periods! 䉴 Before going their separate ways Pierre and François wanted to create a new association, with connections to organizations by means of the new technologies. The creation of an association implies uncertainty and courage. Nevertheless, Pierre and François needed the recognition of their fellow students and a new association was an excellent medium. Many students joined them, a little hastily and without true personal affinities. Soon, there was an opportunity to create an internet site to supervise the training. It was not exactly what the initial project had envisaged but it was an opportunity

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A Management System Exempt from Power to seize. That new priority did not meet everyone’s agreement and those who had just joined in decided to leave the association. Next came a major disagreement on the choice of the project execution program. Pierre favored a collective system and wanted to organize meetings and debates, whereas François mainly relied on himself and wanted to get on with the project realization. At the end of the holiday period, he had completed the ﬁrst database. As expected, his work was strongly criticized by those who had not taken part in it, illustrating the famous adage: only those who do nothing cannot be criticized. François was hurt by their reactions and decided to stand back. But he was also aware that his work was of high quality and interesting; so he thought of a way to exclude the critical, non-working participants but they eventually retired from the project on their own initiative. 䉴 When I was a trainee in the bank sector, I had a dream: to work in Tahiti. I had sent numerous applications although I knew there were almost no job opportunities there. Tahiti only had three banks and Polynesian regulations favored local workers. But luckily, I had sent a job application to the Société Générale while it was buying back the Wespac. The merging of the two groups created a need for trainees in the computer department, among others. So after numerous refusals, I received a positive answer. At that time, I did not know that it would become one of my greatest experiences. I had the opportunity to leave for Tahiti and take all necessary information and contacts to settle in the Island. I had taken the risk of not being paid. When I arrived, the managers realized they had lost all documents and information related to my application. I was thus given uninteresting tasks to begin with. I then applied to work at the property department, which was my field of specialization and the manager advised me to request a salary, as the little money I had saved was rapidly dwindling. My training was renewed with a salary for another month and I was entrusted with the creation of Excel programs. Indeed, the Wespac employees worked on Lotus. But the most important thing that I discovered was that interpersonal relationships were a key factor of success. I had to learn to use the “tu” with everyone, including the manager, as in Tahiti, everyone did! 䉴 At the end of the 1970s, IBM had reached its peak and looked down on PC projects, believing that products in the future would be big computer machines. Each time a project was submitted to management, it was turned down. Eventually, at the beginning of July 1980, Cary asked Lowe and Sams to set up a task force to create the IBM PC. The team settled in Boca Raton, Florida and Sams contacted a man call Bill Gates. Gates agreed to design the computer but refused to use DOS and sent Sams to his rival, Kidall. Sams wasn’t well received by Kidall, who became angry and forced Gates to either take the two contracts or withdraw from the project. Gates did not have sufficient knowledge concerning DOS, therefore he bought Paterson’s and

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adapted it. At the end of September, Gates went to Boca Raton to present the product and instead of asking for the agreed million dollars, he suggested a percentage of the sales. IBM’s management were satisﬁed by the proposal, given that they did not believe in the success of the project. We all know what happened next: the IBM PC was brought out in August 1981 and Bill Gates became one of the richest men in the world.110

QUESTIONNAIRE 10 Are you creative? Put 1 2 3 4 5

a tick in one column for each question using the key below: I completely disagree I mildly disagree I am not sure I mildly agree I completely agree

Join up the ticks. The more your proﬁle appears on the right-hand side, the more you have responded positively to the question. 1 1. Life is aimed for creation. 2. During a meeting, I make notes while listening. 3. I always need to create something. 4. The future must be anticipated. 5. I am fond of original and innovative products. 6. I practice art, music, painting and sculpture. 7. I enjoy playing with children. 8. I am a piece of my own art, in a way. 9. Which products will be a hit in ﬁve years from now? They will be those we have made! 10. Organizations are full of people who are averse to innovation – such an attitude signs their death warrant. 11. I enjoy being alone. 12. I have learnt to do without the others’ approval. 13. I dress with ﬂair. 14. I do not bother if a solution sparks laughs, as long as it is efficient. 15. My parents created companies or were art teachers. 16. Without creative people, we would still be drawing water from the well in a bucket. 17. The best contributors to the development of a community are those who suggest new ideas.

2

3

4

5

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1

2

3

4

5

18. I am keen on establishing connections between different areas. 19. My vocabulary is colorful. 20. I easily ﬁnd the hidden meaning of things. 21. There is a complete analogy between sport, travel and management. 22. I feel at ease in any type of social environment.

The project developer’s approach If you want to work for 3M, you will need to suggest at least three innovations per year! The project developer’s priorities are problem-solving and project achievement but he makes enemies, the worst of them being the troublemakers because they fear change. His friends are those who are in favor of his project. His art in selling his project is outstanding. When he encounters disagreements, he excels in alerting his opponents to the danger of their opinions and if someone stands up to him, there will be a clash of personalities. He knows how to go over the heads of subordinates who are not quick witted or aware enough. He needs resources and he is good at ﬁnding them or even using other people’s. Whether he charms to obtain respect or gets angry, the project developer is, above all, a stressed executive. He is not at ease with relationships.

QUESTIONNAIRE 11 How do you resist obstruction? Put 1 2 3 4 5

a tick in one column for each question using the key below: I completely disagree I mildly disagree I am not sure I mildly agree I completely agree

Join up the ticks. The more your proﬁle appears on the right-hand side, the more you have responded positively to the question.

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1 1.

Are you the type of person who passes the same examination again simply because you cannot stand failing?

2.

If your arguments are rejected, do you involve tremendous efforts to change opinions?

3.

Your handbasin is leaking and you are repairing it for the third time: do you try again or call the plumber?

4.

If a man/woman refuses a date with you, do you insist until he/she changes his/her mind?

5.

You are practicing your favorite sport and trying something new: do you try again and again even if you feel you will never succeed?

6.

If a storekeeper does not give you a discount – even for 1 percent – do you insist until he agrees, simply for the sake of asking?

2

3

4

5

The project developer is close to the manager, the doting father and the troublemaker. First, the project developer is a former troublemaker who has created a project. To have his project agreed, the project developer may need to resort to power, although it is not his main ambition. If he cannot carry out his project, he ends up pacing about like a caged animal and as he is an emotional individual, he will most probably argue with members of the organization, including the manager. He appreciates experts and professionals, their lack of imagination, as long as they put themselves in the service of his project. But they undoubtedly become enemies if they insist on complying with procedures, to the detriment of his project. Innovation, successful projects and self-actualization are essential for the project developer. He is a warrior, the type of individual who changed the world into what it looks like today. Without his capacity to take risks, most of us would still be drawing water from the well with a bucket. Since newness and change are mostly feared, the project developer knows he will have many enemies, but he is well armed. His defense varies according to his opponent’s resistance, but his entire strategy is based on obtaining the right decision. He embraces the objectives of the organization but considers social logic as a millstone around his neck and views the troublemaker as a nuisance. In his value system, creation prevails over friendly feelings. He does not always benefit from this choice but gets all the drawbacks. The reason for his choice is that he feels ﬁred up by the project, he likes work and challenges and dreads inactivity. It is biological. Another reason is that his high level of expertise allows him to suggest more and more improvements. Employees do not appreciate working with him and he is not brimming over with motivational techniques. In the project developer’s eyes, the relationship is never

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viewed as an aim in itself, but as a resource or an obstacle. He is needed in the organization because he has wind in his sails and a great deal of imagination but he is not highly appreciated. He is not a good team manager because he is too focused on the project and follows his own intuition. He gets the worst results, only 25 percent of highly effective colleagues work for him.

Table 4.1 The project developer’s preferred mediums Causes problems

Solves problems Yes

Yes

Short-circuit Exaggeration

No

Business lunch

No

䉴 While returning from my holidays, I made a detour via the French countryside to visit a supplier who was spending his holidays doing up the cottage he had often spoken to me about, located near La Mothe. When I arrived, I discovered a charming XVth century little cottage, hidden behind brambles and in an incredible state of disrepair. The plaster was hanging off the walls and the main front had a enormous crack. Many jobs had been started around the place and none of them had been completed. There was a tremendous amount of work to be done, which would have required the intervention of numerous professionals. The shed was ﬁlled with the spare parts of two English classic cars that had been dismantled and were covered with dust. On noting my surprise, the owner told me: “this is about the only place in the world where I can forget about work and get my strength back. I do not know what I would do if I did not have this cottage.” He then looked for his mobile in his pockets and commented: “Oh, I have left it in Paris again!” 䉴 It all began when I saw a notice at the sports office advertising a windsurﬁng competition. On the day of the competition, I had doubts on discovering the site and the weather conditions. There were huge waves and a ﬁerce wind, but I had seen worse. I was handed a sailboard and I began the competition. But I soon noticed that the board I had been given was different from mine. I fell off it and could not drag the sail up out of the sea. So I decided to hang onto the board and let the waves drag me back to the beach. But the high waves threw me against the rocks and the board was crushed. I was exhausted, injured and utterly confused, and the competition

Fulfil your Creative Genius! supervisors were yelling at me. It was a tough moment. The next day, I got a new board and reached the semi-ﬁnals. A year later, I entered another windsurﬁng competition and was considered one of the best competitors. 䉴 That day, my only aim was to be on time for the ICN entry interview, a four-hour train journey from Lyon to Nancy. I went to the Part-Dieu metro station, but it was packed. I waited until a guard announced that there was a bomb alert. I left the metro and searched for a bus, but there were none. Then a young lady hailed a taxi and I asked if I could share with her. The taxi driver understood that it was urgent and left immediately. But there was a huge traffic jam. There were eight minutes until the train departed. I asked the taxi driver to stop, paid him and ended running to the railway station. I arrived breathless one minute before the train left. The ticket collector noticed that my ticket hadn’t been stamped and I had to give him endless justiﬁcations …The stress was so intense that it took me some time to get my breath and nerves back. 䉴 At 22 years old, Jérôme had so many ﬁnancial problems that he decided to leave home. He took the coach, then sleeping in the streets but always looking impeccable he walked around the industrial area of Poitiers where he offered his services to 131 companies. Eventually, he was hired by one of the companies for three days to help with the stocktaking. Each day he arrived before time and worked two or three hours’ overtime. At the end of the last day, his manager told him that he admired his work and attitude, but didn’t have a job for him but one of his friends did: thus began Jérôme’s commercial career. 䉴 The project was launched while many internal conﬂicts were disrupting the company. It had no speciﬁc objectives or rules and was proposed as a potential major improvement for the organization. It had been suggested by an external consultant, an expert in computing, who ignored everything about fear and anxiousness, those feelings that can devastate a community. That sorcerer’s apprentice abused his sleeping partner’s gullibility by experimenting with something he had never attempted before. The project copied the procedures which had been established when it was necessary to computerize an entire organization, that is, Corig Merise. Was it a bad project? No one ever knew since it failed. However, the failure brought a number of interesting points to the fore. The success of a project means following a proﬁt-making or a cost-cutting logic. A cost-cutting project has to be carried on even if it meets with ﬁerce opposition. Thus, since the necessary means for the project had not been thoroughly analyzed, the employees adopted a zero-sum game logic and began to ﬁght against each other to increase their own share. If even well-thought out and proﬁt-making projects encounter problems,

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A Management System Exempt from Power imagine how much worse it would be if one hadn’t taken stock of the available financial resources. A winner-loser project like the project described above is a war weapon, which employees fantasize about, viewing it as a means to take control and throw individuals out. I endured that pernicious and stressful atmosphere for 18 months and began to have health problems. The worst aspect of the situation was that the project developer had not thought of objectives or ﬁnancial resources. It was a sort of May 1968 revolution, but there were no celebrations. The employees worked for months and months writing their reports, which turned out to be useless. In addition, those who had been fantasizing about taking the lead discovered that their managers were the only ones in charge of developing the two or three applicable and costless projects. 䉴 I have never succeeded in striking a balance between my professional and personal projects. I successfully carried out all my professional projects but I had to drop many personal ones. Actually, what made the difference between the two areas was the means that were available. In my professional activity, I started up projects which were followed up by the organization. I did not have to deal with financial problems. For personal projects, I had to find ﬁnancial resources by myself and at some point, I had to choose between giving up or ruining myself. I never took the second option, whereas others did. I used to work out my project until the prototype stage was reached but things usually went wrong afterwards. The cost of mass production and marketing are colossal. Moreover, I took great pleasure in building prototypes but I was quite reluctant to manage a company with its inherent dayto-day issues. In addition, I know I would have found it difficult to admit, for example, that my products were unmarketable. The project I mostly worked on was a computer product. Thanks to the product proﬁts, I had a rapid return on my initial investment, but unfortunately not on the three years I spent creating the product. 䉴 I was working as a young assistant at the law faculty. I had previously spent some time in the USA learning about their education system and courses. On my return, I was convinced that speciﬁc management courses had to be added to the traditional law and economics courses. At that time, the management section did not exist. The faculty was ruled by an assembly, in which the number of law teachers was excessive.111 In the past, they had succeeded in stopping the development of economics. I presented my project to the assembly and was supported by a young dean who agreed with the aims and objectives of my project. But there were a number of young teachers who behaved in the same way as others had with economics. My project failed. Twenty years later, the economics section having lost threequarters of its students, one of my former fellow students told me that I was

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ahead of my time. I left the faculty for the IAE, which is closer to the reality of organizations.

QUESTIONNAIRE 12 Are you a true project developer? Put a tick in one column for each question in the following questionnaires using the key below: 1 I completely disagree 2 I mildly disagree 3 I am not sure 4 I mildly agree 5 I completely agree Join up the ticks. The more your proﬁle appears on the right-hand side, the more you have responded positively to the question. If a project is essential for the organization: 1.

I do not hesitate to cause annoyance.

2.

I do not hesitate to short-circuit my opponents.

3.

I do not hesitate to convince my colleagues of the validity of my project.

4.

I do not hesitate to get into conﬂict with those who are opposed to my project.

5.

I do not hesitate to threaten people.

6.

I do not hesitate to exaggerate the risks of inaction.

7.

I do not hesitate to make big personal sacriﬁces.

8.

I do not hesitate to make personal investments, even if it creates an imbalance in my budget.

1

2

3

4

5

1

2

3

4

5

QUESTIONNAIRE 13 Is your project cost-cutting? If a project is essential for the organization: 1.

We will reorganize the work.

2.

Redundancies may be necessary.

3.

It is a game of musical chairs.

4.

If our products were manufactured elsewhere in Europe other than France, we would not have any problems, as here overheads are the highest in Europe.

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If a project is essential for the organization: 5.

We have not been capable of innovating at the right moment; now, either we change or fail.

6.

The French government literally crushes companies like ours, therefore we will manufacture our products abroad.

7.

Since the project has been announced, there have been continuous strikes.

8.

We might have to withdraw the project, but the situation will get worse and there is little probability that the company will survive.

1

2

3

4

5

1

2

3

4

5

QUESTIONNAIRE 14 Is your project proﬁt-making? 1.

We will be granted funds thanks to this project.

2.

In France, the subsidy system is the most developed in the world, but no one knows how to beneﬁt from it.

3.

This project will put us ahead of our competitors.

The business lunch If we look at management books, we note that the more an activity is described, the less it is essential and vice versa. The topic of the business lunch has never been included in the grandes écoles programs, nor described in management books, except one, which is out of print today. Yet, the business lunch is a real institution, outside work, which helps one person to learn about another. “The business lunch creates an opportunity to discover what is not discussed in the workplace and contributes to establish and reinforce trustful relationships” (Levit, 1991 p. 188). In a business lunch, more extensive and wide-ranging views are more easily expressed than in usual meetings. However, ﬁnal decisions should not be taken during business lunch, but rather afterwards. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

the more the process needs time the more people are involved the more different the cultures the more trust is a prerequisite the more one participates in business lunches with clients providing the client broached the matter the more the business lunch favors the establishment of objectives.

Fulfil your Creative Genius! In a number of cultures, when large businesses are negotiated, many business lunches and teas are organized. Speciﬁc rituals are observed, in some cases, according to the cultures involved. 䉴 I was invited for a meal in Paris and asked to choose between a Chinese or a French restaurant. While I was eating, he watched my manners. I avoided drinking wine and when I lifted the glass to my lips, I carefully wiped my mouth with my napkin: I knew we would discuss prices at the end of our meal. It was an excellent and straightforward meeting, but a tough negotiation. He said: “You were trained as a buyer.” I took it as a compliment because I was bitterly defending the interests of my company. I obviously passed the test, since he invited me again with his wife. 䉴 I had an appointment in Paris at 12:30. I took the train and then a taxi to get to his office. We had lunch with his Parisian team in an overcrowded basement and I carefully observed everyone’s behavior. He was about 50 years old, whereas his team members were less than 30 years old. The conversation began with chat about nothing in particular but I noticed that the team members were very cautious. He was the only one who did not show the slightest restraint. I had the feeling I had been invited to a 1960 car factory, and that I was having lunch with the foreman and his workmen. 䉴 I was having lunch in Massa – Morocco – with a potential subcontractor and I was sitting on a pouf, at a coffee table eating couscous with my hands. I noticed the atmosphere was uneasy but I could not explain why. Years later, however, while I was eating in an inn in the Spanish Saharan region, I understood what had happened, what the left hand meant and why everyone in this region ate with the right hand only. In Morocco, I had not known this – and I was left-handed. 䉴 A French organization sent out ﬁve engineers to sell a plant to a southern country that initially favored France more than the USA. The engineers landed on a Thursday with a return scheduled on the following Sunday. The American organization sent one member only but he remained in the country for two months, had lunch with all the key contacts and established positive and long-term relationships with them. It is easy to ﬁgure out who won the contract. 䉴 I went to Annecy to meet my ﬁrst client. My agent had informed me that if the client appreciated me, he would invite me to his home, which he did. We had just began to have dinner, when his wife, a tall lady, turned to me and peremptorily asked: “So, what is your opinion of my husband’s work?”. Although he had been a student at one of the most prestigious French engi-

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neering colleges, the client made himself as inconspicuous as possible – he looked like a little boy. I answered that I greatly appreciated his work. That is how we won one of our greatest contracts, which provided us with work for two years. 䉴 I was invited to have lunch with the department head and a candidate he wanted me to test. The candidate was one of his friends. During lunch, I did not discover anything particular or odd about the candidate. First, he did not say a word. Second, a business lunch is not the best opportunity to test a candidate. It can be organized at the end of an interview, but deﬁnitely not before. Thus, his friend was hired and he proved to be one of the less efficient staff members.

Charm Charm, winning individuals over in a professional context, can be described as follows: while it is intended to ensure the success of a commercial action – to buy a product or obtain an agreement – a charming attitude implies a relational involvement which is not the true purpose of the transaction. The charmed person hopes to gain fellow feelings and recognition for his agreement and he usually ends up disappointed. He feels betrayed, a feeling leading perhaps to anger, hatred and even revenge. The person who thought he was appreciated now feels rejected and betrayed and he might, as a result, betray his colleague in return. Most betrayals are based on emotional aspects. When the winning over is done respectfully, the process is different. For example, the project developer uses a great deal of energy and effort to win over his opponents and he does his best to ﬁnd the right and appropriate arguments. In this way, his colleagues are persuaded by the project and impressed by his talent. Charm can be deﬁned as the use of verbal and non-verbal language to obtain something a person would not usually agree to (Lowen 1987). The charmer wins others over in speciﬁc ways. Charm is essential for a child: it is his survival strategy. If he fails to charm, he resorts to anger. Dependent individuals resort to one of these two behaviors all their lives. In most cases, seduction is a natural process, which the less favored one brings into play in a power struggle, that is, the salesman confronted with a possible buyer. First the charmer disturbs. The person being charmed gets an internal warning but does not take it into consideration. The charmer has a good knowledge of

Fulfil your Creative Genius! the whole process – not by means of his intelligence but by means of his limbic brain.The charmer’s task consists in obtaining from the other what he is willing to give; such a mechanism is actually quite obscure. This means that both the charmer and the charmed play an essential part in the seduction process (Donnars, 1985, pp. 6–7).

Charm and betrayal are all the more pernicious, since they are based on trust. Narcissism is the minimum and necessary love that any human being needs to maintain a strong internal structure. Narcissism is the love of self. The charmer is a fragile individual as he does not have this minimum love of himself. Thus he needs to obtain it from others. Above all, he fears indifference; an intolerable feeling for such an individual. A number of famous charmers committed suicide, one of the most astonishing is Marilyn Monroe who seduced some of the most famous men of the time. Actually, their fragility is what makes them win over others, but they are not conscious of it. Here is Dr Donnars’ (1985) illustrative account: It is not an easy task to turn 1, 2, 3 or 10 women into prostitutes … When I was a young doctor, I worked at the jail La Santé and met a number of procurers … I was very surprised to discover that most of them were neither handsome, neither intelligent nor brave, but they all had that particular expression in the eyes that seemed to say: “love me please”. Once, one of the most persuasive of them – he had managed to get delicious food in jail – confessed that his main problem was that he did not feel self-conﬁdent at all. And he was right!

At a commercial level, seduction is a sublimation of emotional deﬁcits. “Love me” becomes “Buy me”. 1 2 3 4

an individual is in a situation of negotiation he is in the less favored position such a position unconsciously triggers an emotion based on feelings of being abandoned and calls for help his colleague responds to these emotions and he suddenly feels an urgent need to help, to do him a favor.

As he is not conscious of the manipulation, the person answers the demand positively. This leads him to buy a product or service he does not truly need, at a higher price than he would usually pay.

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QUESTIONNAIRE 15 Are you charming? Put 1 2 3 4 5

a tick in one column for each question using the key below: I completely disagree I mildly disagree I am not sure I mildly agree I completely agree

Join up the ticks. The more your proﬁle appears on the right-hand side, the more you have responded positively to the question. 1

2

3

4

5

1. I perceive what my clients are ready to agree on. 2. Hesitating people are those with whom we win the best contracts. 3. The act of selling something to a client is like buying his personality. 4. Everything is in the eye and in the smile. 5. The client is always right. 6. A long talking tires out the listener who ends up in a hypnotic state. 7. To listen with attention and empathy produces a transfer of positive feelings. The one who is listened to feels appreciated. 8. I love to admire myself in the mirror for hours. 9. A person is charmed when all his/her senses are affected. 10. One must pay close attention to the way he/she is dressed up. 11. Colors must be well matched. 12. The most important thing is to please the other person. 13. Seduction implies paying close attention to the person and imitating him/her. 14. You must appreciate the person you want to charm. The person senses that he is appreciated, which disconcerts him/her. 15. Pleasing someone means appearing to be how the person wants you to be. 16. A good bargain is rapidly dealt with. 17. Charm is a non-aggresive weapon but a weapon all the same.

By means of hypnosis, an individual can exert his control over another’s will. Communication is based on verbal langage but contains emotional aspects which try to reassure or disturb the person, without his knowing it. By using this process, the charmer transcends the person’s defensive attitude and thus inﬂuences his decisions. The efficiency of this process depends on the level of trust between the hypnotist and his subject.

Fulfil your Creative Genius! Otherwise, the hypnotist must ﬁrst establish a transfer in his favor.112 The hypnotic process is based on endless and exhausting talking which provides the person with information but also tires him. As a result, the subject momentarily loses his clear-mindedness. Hypnosis weakens the individual’s power to say no by secretly introducing a transfer process. Hypnosis does not work well with everyone. The potential victim must have very little energy and the best moment for a successful hypnosis is in the evening, after dinner. The countermeasure is refusing evening meetings when the purpose is to buy something. The victim must not be on the defensive and his home therefore seems to be the most appropriate meeting place. The countermeasure is not to let the salesman enter one’s home. Once the protagonists have made themselves comfortable, the hypnosis session may begin. It is a long talk spread over two or three hours, focused on the product beneﬁts. As the talking goes on, the hypnotized person’s energy weakens and his defenses are lowered. But the mesmeric dependence does not last long and the salesman must obtain an agreement promptly. Therefore, he may behave in different ways: he may suggest, for example, that the person signs an agreement immediately after the “hypnosis”. However, the Scrivener law has blocked such a process by providing a seven-day period to repeal a contract.

Forecasting Forecasting is being alert to the possible progress of the situation and pointing out the dramatic consequences which could result from dropping the project. Forecasting is the application of both Savage’s theory on the minimax and the psychological theory on rumor. Forecasting means to anticipate an accident or a critical situation in order to prevent it. All possible critical situations are envisaged when forecasting the future. The minimax approach consists of analyzing the situation – resulting from a decision – from its less favorable angle. According to the analysis, the decision may be changed in order to avoid subsequent risky situations. Thus, the preeminence of little actions on big disrupting projects actually results from a mathematic demonstration of optimization. This is the only method to trigger an action when most of the organization members have become apathetic. Another key point is to inform the greatest amount of people of the possible risks. Forecast information creates a high level of fear. By using this strategy, the manager hopes his decision will be viewed with relief once the risky situation is avoided. The problem then appears as minor compared to what was initially feared. Forecasting is like

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A Management System Exempt from Power doping, which is to be used only in exceptional circumstances to remain fully efficient and credible. Forecasting must be realistic as well, otherwise it can be interpreted as a dramatizing attitude. On the other hand, this method can lead to rumors which can spread outside the organization. It is not recommended when there are local financial problems. Indeed, this can result in distrust from banks or suppliers if they are made aware of such rumors. 䉴 The management committee was organizing the third year seminar, which had to take place in the south Morrocan desert. During the previous seminar, while we were crossing the Atlas mountains, three out of the ﬁve buses we were driving broke down – the tires had burst. I therefore suggested that we landed at Ouarzazate, which was located in the south of the region, thus avoiding the dangerous ascent by bus. Our debate then focused on the interpretation of the “burst tires” episode. Those, including myself, who favored the Ouarzazate solution argued that such an event was the forerunner of more critical situations, that is, the bus corners badly, leaves the road and falls in the gully. The other members, like the Arab organizer, maintained that burst tires was a usual, normal and not very dangerous event. Eventually, the most secure solution was retained. The dramatic consequences I had depicted prevailed over the small probability of an accident. 䉴 I noticed that a mass marketing group was establishing a number of supermarkets in the Lorraine region, resulting in the closing down of many little local groceries belonging to their group. I therefore questionned their business developer who explained that if they did not adopt that strategy, others would in their place. Such a logic seemed very paradoxical to me.

The analysis of a situation must include a list of all possible critical and damaging events, such as a product launch followed by 0 percent sales, widespread strikes or cash shortage. The less the manager has control over these possible events, the more he needs to take such a list into consideration. Let us imagine three decisions and three events leading to the results indicated in Table 4.2.113 Look particularly at the third decision, which may result in either a disaster or the largest profit. For each event, the regrets are calculated, column by column, by comparing what occurred with what could have occurred. In each column, there is a most favorable situation (see bold ﬁgures).

Fulfil your Creative Genius! Table 4.2 Decisions – events – results e1

e2

e3

d1

–5

+2

+5

d2

+30

–10

+6

d3

+80

+60

–100

Conventionally, the zero regret is attributed to the situation in bold. The other regrets are obtained by calculating the deviation in absolute value between the zero regret situation and the other situations, in the same column. For example: (e1, d2) = 50 = 80 – (+30), (e1, d1) = 85 = 80 – (–5), and so on.

Table 4.3 The regrets matrix e1

e2

e3

d1

85

58

1

d2

50

70

0

d3

0

0

106

Let us now read the regrets matrix horizontally. On each line, that is for each decision, there is a less favorable situation. The forecasting approach consists of considering the case as it is and choosing between the three decisions, in order to limit, as far as possible, the problems. d1

85

d2

50

d3

106

The ﬁrst decision brings about a situation in which the highest level of regret is 85. In the second situation, the highest level of regret is 50 and in the third situation, the highest level of regret is 106. Since the objective is to minimize regrets as much as possible, the choice falls on the second decision. 1 2

The manager must take a decision and evaluate the consequences of the various possiblities. He evaluates the worst in each case as if it was highly probable.

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3

In order to do so, he highlights the worst aspects so that everyone becomes aware of them.

He chooses the situation in which the worst remains manageable. Forecasting is well suited to a management system exempt from power, as it enables the minimization of risks and is a safeguard. Indeed, managing without power does not exclude the notion of responsibility, on the contrary! A manager – even if he is exempt from power – may be used as a fall guy and he is not free from being called into question.

QUESTIONNAIRE 16 Do you practice forecasting? Put 1 2 3 4 5

a tick in one column for each question using the key below: I completely disagree I mildly disagree I am not sure I mildly agree I completely agree

Join up the ticks. The more your proﬁle appears on the right-hand side, the more you have responded positively to the question. 1 1. In each situation, I ﬁrst try to anticipate the worst. 2. Then, I compare various possibilities and I try to eliminate the ones that would lead to the worst. 3. Even if it is least probable, the worst must never become possible. 4. I secure all procedures in order to exclude the worst. 5. In life, there are good risks and bad ones. 6. Take good risks and avoid the bad ones. 7. To run a stoplight because you are late is a bad risk. 8. To ring to say that you might be late is a good risk. 9. A bad risk is a strategy which – if it fails – signiﬁcantly aggravates a situation. 10. If you have doubts, then it is better to leave, you are not ready. 11. I practice an aerial sport, in which the least mistake is fatal. 12. I am a skipper and I have acquired a strong sense of security. 13. I love life and I fear death. 14. I am very careful about unsecure environments. 15. To be brave does not lie in confronting risk but in thwarting it. 16. Maximum security must be ensured in a child’s environment. 17. Do you know how to appreciate the skills of a good pilot? It is if he is still alive twenty years later.

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Fulfil your Creative Genius! For example, the manager’s responsibility can be called into question from a legal point of view. Like the Americans, the French have become fond of ﬁnancially proﬁtable court actions. Thus new behavior indicates the decline of ethics in our society. Consequently, fewer and fewer candidates apply for high job positions. Thousands of schools lack principals and this phenomenon may last unless regulations on legal responsibility are changed. In 2000, there were a number of amendments on this issue.

Threats While forecasting consists of emphasizing the worst to avoid critical situations, threats re-establish a power struggle in order to obtain a given behavior. A threat always includes two parts, the first is the undecided condition, that is, if such an event occurs, and the second is the punishment, that is, I shall then take the following action. Threats are followed by actions only in particularly serious and urgent situations. However, in these situations, even threats become useless since the seriousness of the situation is a warning in itself. In most cases, threats are used when the threatener no longer controls the situation and this loss of control has probably more internal than external causes. Threats therefore reflect a weakness. In any case, threats must be realistic and applicable, otherwise they become inefficient.114

A brief overview of Chapter 4

5. Threats 4. Forecasting 3. Charm 2. The business lunch 1. The project developer’s approach

Pyramid 4 Innovating without empathy

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1 2

3 4 5 6

The project developer has become the man who organizations need, replacing the manager keen on participation. His project is the projection of his imagination onto the organization. It is the implementation of an idea. To achieve this, the project developer will have to struggle with all those who are reluctant to change habits. But he has the necessary means to battle with his environment. The business lunch is an opportunity to establish contacts and useful relationships. Charm is the project developer’s best asset to gain support and approval. Forecasting is being alert to a possible worsening of the situation if no action is undertaken. This approach is based on the science of danger. Threat is close to forecasting, but threat is focused on individuals, whereas forecasting is focused on situations.

CHAPTER 5

Solving Problems without Creating New Ones The manager’s durability results from his integration of a dual system of values: passion for work well done but also solidarity and service. Most of the time, at least in Germany, these values are based on religious aspects.

The professional’s approach The professional does not rely on domination. He works to slowly improve his domain. He is not the type of individual who causes sudden changes. When the organization hires new employees, he makes sure that procedures are well applied and he intervenes only at the end of the hiring process to give his opinion to the human resource manager. When he encounters a serious problem with a subordinate, the professional does not mention it to anyone and he analyzes the situation with the subordinate himself. Usually, this attitude restores trust and settles the problem. The professional knows how not to hurt people’s feelings. He also expects them to make mistakes. He does not favor an employee just because he has worked with him for a long period but he takes the employee’s family environment into consideration. When a conﬂict breaks out, he does ask why, but ﬁnds the best solution! He does not lose his temper and remains focused on the problem. He listens to others, which does not mean that he always agrees. During an interview, he does not hesitate to give his opinion on others’ work and achievements. He never lets situations worsen but he does not solve problems himself. He runs the organization by supporting the executives who often encounter difficulties with employees who are reluctant to change. He is always efficient at work and almost never talks about work at home. In particular instances, however, he may seek his wife’s advice. He clearly distinguishes his professional and private life. The sports he practices and the clubs he participates in reﬂect his tastes or sense of helping the community. In making decisions, he emphasizes training and security. He is capable of delegating work, together with its 91

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ﬁnancial aspects and their inherent responsibilities. If he wishes to undertake an action but encounters difficulties, he explains and re-explains his strategy and modifies his position bit by bit. He avoids dramatization, unless it is essential. He has many business lunches during which he establishes short and middle-term relationships with his major clients, among others. He is an efficient negotiator and a well-regarded executive. To exert his leadership efficiently, the professional needs to acknowledge his own motivations, have a strong identity, constant reactions and a high selective capacity. The operational criterion of self-awareness is the capacity to receive and provide information with minimum distortion (Argyris 1970). It is essential that the professional knows exactly what he is and what he is not. Is the idea that a given individual can modify and adapt his management approach an unrealistic myth or an operational theory? In any case, self-esteem is undoubtfully an essential variable regarding this problem. Self-esteem provides the individual with the feeling that he is valuable. Argyris (p. 24) established the conditions required to increase self-esteem: 1 2 3 4

the individual must be capable of deﬁning his own objectives these objectives must be closely linked with his core aspirations the individual must be capable of designing strategies to reach his objectives the level of aspiration must be realistic. The general manager can occasionally be distant and emotionally menacing. He may also, in other circumstances, be close to his subordinates, familiar and even demagogical.The ﬁrst attitude can be destructive and in the second, the general manager may be incapable of imposing himself (Trepo, 1973, 2.44–7). Frequent behavior changes have a negative impact on subordinates as they need a secure environment. This is contrary to Fiedler’s theory (1960) which recommends varying the psychological distance according to subordinates’ achievements (Zaleznik, 1966, 2.42–12).

Be careful of management based on orders and favors To give orders constitutes a double constraint, because whatever the resulting issue is, it will be negative. Either the subordinate complies with the request and develops servile and thus prejudicial behavior, or he tends towards passive resistance. To grant favors and rewards is also detrimental

Solving Problems without Creating New Ones insofar as it favors the development of an unsuitable system of values and mercenary attitudes. Moreover, this method might be repeated, imitated and thus become expensive. Eventually, it serves individual purposes that are more or less remote from the organizational objectives. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

the more the manager knows how to deal with their mistakes the more he develops social relationships the less he manages by giving orders or granting favors the more he inspires a global vision the more his team members have a strong personality the more he changes things slowly and successively the more he listens, the more he will learn the more efficient he will be.

The professional who is respectful of others always takes into consideration emotional aspects when he needs to have problems solved and actions undertaken. When he is faced with a problem, his only concern is to ﬁnd the best approach to tackle it with his colleagues and subordinates. The professional has great self-control. He knows that he must not be too emotionally involved when he practices management. Thus, the issue here is more about methods than behavior, since methods result more from appropriate training than from adaptability. The professional communicates by means of memos or policies and procedures, but he handles them much better than the expert.

Table 5.1 The speciﬁc media used by the professional to solve problems Creates problems

Solves problems Yes

No

Yes No

Interviews, meetings

The professional is usually well appreciated in any environment. However, he encounters a number of difficulties in young project-oriented companies with rapid growth, which are made up of emotionally involved people. Indeed, an even-tempered manager, focused on procedures, is perceived as a spoilsport by young Turks or young talented creators. On the other hand, if they get along, they become most competitve. The professional secretly admires the project developer who has a talent he has not – a great imagination.

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QUESTIONNAIRE 17 Are you a professional? Put 1 2 3 4 5

a tick in one column for each question using the key below: I completely disagree I mildly disagree I am not sure I mildly agree I completely agree

Join up the ticks. The more your proﬁle appears on the right-hand side, the more you have responded positively to the question. 1

2

3

4

5

1. I appreciate myself as I am. 2. I clearly deﬁne my expectations. 3. I spend a great deal of time explaining, listening and informing. 4. I know when to take a break. 5. I am respectful of the individuals I work with, including the less efficient ones. 6. I always try to assign tasks in accordance with each employee’s competency. 7. I do not give orders. 8. I do not grant favors. 9. I do not believe in big projects which cause chaos. 10. I would rather practice management based on progressive and continuous improvements. 11. I always try to explain the company goals so that they are understood and shared by all employees. 12. Each day brings about new learning. 13. I can cope with contradiction. 14. My questioning is not focused on who is right but on what is right.

The manager’s approach The manager seldom resorts to domination. He has the same skills as the professional but he has a project. In short, he has both the professional and the project developer’s management tools and none of their shortcomings. A study of a 66-year-old top French manager’s schedule holds no surprises: business breakfasts, correspondence, telephone calls, talks, preparatory meetings, talks with the government, meetings, business lunches, conferences and so on (Papin, p. 406).

Solving Problems without Creating New Ones Inspire a vision, set out a project The manager must set out a vision of the company’s future, which must be shared but not imposed. Individuals who share a common vision develop mutual trust; they turn their efforts and work towards common objectives. They may even become a team … Let your colleagues get involved in this team. Once a consensus is obtained, formulate your strategy (Sallenave, 1993).

Table 5.2 The manager’s value system Value orientation

High efficiency

High level of empathy

The manager High creation

Low efficiency

Low level of empathy

Develop a dream team and give them power This issue is about empowerment. Individuals with strong personalities and who share the same vision and the same culture are the ones who bring about success if they are empowered. However, empowerment requires cautiousness – power must not be used for personal purposes. Sallenave advises avoiding giving power to individuals inclined to negotiate it. Corporate culture can lead to a strong vision of the future if it is shared by all, otherwise it is no more than a pet theory. According to Théodore Levitt (1991), the only way to establish a strong organization is to work out a way for less efficient employees to leave the organization. According to Spencer, each year a number of managers should be sacked, from the lowest to the highest level of hierarchy, including the chairman. But such methods can result in losing know-how, which may be costly.

Drive without turning the wheels sharply An efficient manager does not take strategic decisions (Wrapp, 1985).

Each manager has his own pet theory and a specific management plan focused on particular points. Managers who have a global vision of their organization are the only ones who succeed in solving problems in one

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A Management System Exempt from Power area without creating even more complicated ones in another area. An organization is a system based on interdependence. The manager who has a global vision of his organization and the business world is cautious about revolutionary changes.115 He is more in favor of slow, progressive changes. Indeed, a global vision also gives a complex vision of the confusion which accompanies uncertainty regarding results. Moreover, a manager who has a global vision of work takes the human factor into consideration; human beings are admittedly capable of adaptation, but to their own rhythm and according to their own emotional nature. In these conditions, only a management approach based on slow moves favors success without major disruption, which would require a great deal of effort and energy to re-establish trust.

The interview The purpose of an interview is to solve individual problems, whereas a meeting is for solving collective issues. The interview is seldom used as a management tool. This formal approach creates intense emotions for the individual involved (questioning, stress, fear, anxiousness and so on). The interval between being called and the interview can be difficult to deal with, and can aggrevate stress, especially if the subject of the interview is not disclosed and it is to solve a human problem or conﬂict. The efficient use of this management tool requires two things: the ﬁrst is knowing how to conduct an interview and the second is knowing when it is necessary to resolve problems. 䉴 The three of them were staring at me, they were on the lookout for any mistake I could possibly make … Slowly, I felt less self-conﬁdent. A heavy silence grew between us, which I attempted to ﬁll by smiling but this seemed to have no effect at all. I had the feeling that my situation was getting worse by the minute. I was taking part in a simulated selection interview, the purpose of which was to show us the reality of the selection entrance exams for the grandes écoles. There I was, a complete innocent, facing my examiners and nervously waiting for their questions. I was hurt by their quite negative feedback, while my fellow students seemed to have better results. When I look back on it, I realize that I had been mistaken from the beginning. I had the wrong idea of the established norm. Indeed, I must say that I am Senegalese and that, in our culture, a teenager must only answer the questions and never ask, nor participate in the questioning.

Solving Problems without Creating New Ones 䉴 Her fixed-term contract was ending and since she had satisfactorily achieved her work, she requested an interview with the HR manager. The interview was disappointing, since the manager listened to her but did not make any comments, or promises. Nevertheless, she eventually obtained an open-ended contract, but the HR manager could not conﬁrm anything prior to the general manager’s decision. Although he knew she would be hired, he was not in a position to tell her about this. In addition, he was aware that she would certainly be questioned by her colleagues at the end of the interview, given its formal nature. 䉴 One morning, the head of agency summoned me into his office. He did not look as usual. We had an excellent relationship and I knew he appreciated me. Nevertheless, on noticing his strange attitude, I ﬁrst thought a client had been complaining about me. But not at all! The head informed me that the foreman’s position in the technical department was available and advised me to apply for the job. I was taken aback and thought it was a joke. I was speechless – my trial period was not over yet. I left the office in a state of shock, but most ﬂattered. I did not take long to decide and I refused the proposal. On the agreed date, I officially declined the offer and explained my reasons – basically, I was more interested in commercial rather than technical jobs – convinced that he would understand my position. “Let us say you did not tell me anything. I will give you another month but you better make the right decision then. Have a nice day!” The tone of his voice was harsh, cold and distant. He seemed dissatisﬁed, although I could see he was trying to contain himself. It was a difficult period, nothing seemed to go right, I suffered from insomnia and was very stressed. I knew that if I refused such an offer, I would not be promoted for years and yet, if I agreed, I would have to leave the commercial department to start a less interesting job. A month passed and I had the ﬁnal interview. I entered the manager’s office without knowing what I was going to say but, surprisingly, I agreed to take the job. “You made the right decision, you will not have any regrets, believe me!” Apart from this, I do not remember a single word of what was said during the interview. Indeed, I never regretted my decision but I do hope I will never experience such a situation again. 䉴 I was working as a head of department and I had tremendous problems with one of my subordinates who either never complied with my requests or argued that had he not received my instructions. Therefore, I decided I would type everything down during his appraisal and have the document signed by both of us. This method prevented any possible uncertainty or neglect. 䉴 I was nine when I had my ﬁrst interview. I was studying in a small classroom at l’Ecole des Roches.116 At that time, the school was in the middle of a vegetable garden and as we were always hungry, one of the day pupils, who

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was more daring than we were, suggested that we picked some strawberries. I was summoned by the head and I remember that the chief supervisor terriﬁed me and that a man was witnessing the scene and smiling nicely at me. He was the principal. Undoubtedly, the formal nature of the meeting made me understand the seriousness of my disobedience. However, years later, I discovered that during my interview with the head, all of them were doing their best to stop laughing! Although they played their part as educators, they could not help being amused by the situation and my attitude, which I still remember 45 years later.

An interview – whatever the nature of the problem discussed – must always enable the two people to express their respective point of views.117

When is an interview necessary? When a problem is reported indirectly to a manager, it is essential that he organizes an interview with the individual directly concerned to get his point of view or explanation before taking any decision, even in urgent cases. The time interval between calling for an interview and the interview itself must be established. The more trivial the problem, the shorter the interval. If the issue is related to authority or compliance with authority, the time interval should be extended. Indeed, the need to wait allows the emergence of various emotional states that will weaken the interviewee’s aggressiveness and reactiveness.

Pitfalls of an interview If a report is made to the general manager, which bypasses a manager placed at the intermediary level of the hierarchy, the interview becomes inefficient and dangerous. In this situation, the general manager needs to establish the truth. To do so, he must either organize two separate interviews with each protagonist or interview them together if he suspects that the information is uncertain or false. 1 2 3

An employee A, under B’s supervision, requests a meeting with C who is B’s manager. He reports his relationship problems with B and thus bypasses him. If C agrees to hold the interview, he shows distrust towards his colleague B.

Solving Problems without Creating New Ones 4 5 6

To limit the consequences of such a distrust, C must listen but make no comments. Then, C must interview B to obtain his version of the facts. If C perceives that he was given false or inaccurate information, he can therefore interview both A and B at the same time. But this will put an end to their collaboration.

Pitfalls of the public interview Individual issues require individual solutions and collective issues must be dealt with collectively. In some cases, when there is a high level of pressure, two individuals can discuss an issue that concerns only them while there are other people around them. If the two individuals are a manager and a subordinate, there is a high probability that such a discussion will end badly. If the problem concerns the subordinate, he might feel humiliated being questioned publicly.118 In addition, if he has little resistance to frustration and problems with authority, he might, in return, humiliate his manager by answering him back.119 䉴 As soon as I felt better, I decided to have an interview with my manager to ﬁnd an agreement. It proved to be a major mistake! The interview took place in the worst conditions. I had informed him of my request during a break. He insisted that we talked in the workshop, in the presence of my colleagues. He began by listening and then burst out in anger! The problem was that his anger was actually directed at the people I was working with. He accused them of using me as a fall guy to express their discontent. I was trapped! I discreetly reported to the senior management. They informed me that they knew what was going on in the workshop. They were waiting for the person in question to make a mistake in order to proceed in accordance with the rules. 䉴 I was starting my job as project developer. One day at lunch time, I was sitting close to the participants attending the committees organized for the day when the general manager came in. Sitting at the other side of the table and about ten meters from me, he began to tell me off about a problem I did not grasp since it was very noisy around us. I would lie if I said it did not bother me, but I was not unsettled. First I was surprised and then I felt compassion; obviously he was acting in such a way because he was not bold enough to confront me one to one in his office. The group helped him to feel secure and protected him from my reactions which he knew would be frank. Years later, I had dinner with one his successors – I had become operational manager– and a number of our department members had been invited as well. The successor

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began to discuss with me an issue related to my work. Everyone could hear and our discussion was not appropriate on such an occasion. I had acquired vast experience and I had learnt to react accordingly. As I felt the situation was unfair and humiliating, I ﬁrst contained myself but soon interrupted him and suggested sharply that we continued our conversation in my office.

QUESTIONNAIRE 18 Do you know when to hold an interview? Put 1 2 3 4 5

a tick in one column for each question using the key below: I completely disagree I mildly disagree I am not sure I mildly agree I completely agree

Join up the ticks. The more your proﬁle appears on the right-hand side, the more you have responded positively to the question. 1 1. Never during a meal when other people are present. 2. Never during a meeting. 3. An individual issue must never be discussed in a meeting. 4. Interview discussions must remain conﬁdential in order to maintain a trusting atmosphere. 5. When information is reported to me in an emotional context, I always check it with the individual involved prior to making a decision. 6. Prior to making a decision involving an employee, I discuss it with him/her, especially if the decision can be viewed as a sanction against a work problem. 7. I am suspicious of rumors. Information from an unidentiﬁed source is difficult to handle without veriﬁcation. 8. When a problem becomes acute, I root out the evil by discussing it during an interview. 9. In front of my children, I always agree with my husband even if he is not right and I wait until I am alone with him to give my opinion. 10. If someone comes into my secretary’s office while we are discussing an issue, I stop talking and wait until he leaves to resume the conversation. 11. If a personal issue is brought to the fore in a meeting, I put off the subject for a further interview with the employee concerned. 12. When I am informed that someone made comments about me, I call this “someone” up to hear their side of the story. 13. If an employee has a problem he relates to everyone but me, although I am the only one who can help, I wait until he makes the effort to come and see me.

2

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5

Solving Problems without Creating New Ones The meeting In a management system exempt from power, meetings are subtle management tools. (Only pointless meetings are easy to manage.) A great number of training courses and books have focused on this issue. They include numerous rational recommendations, whereas meetings are often very emotional. In most cases, these recommendations are almost always impossible to apply in practice. Local meetings are not board of directors’ meetings. They are often emergencies, held at the end of the day, which is about the only time when everyone is available. But even then, managers are late since they have to deal with a backlog of work. Very often, the participants who most need to attend such meetings, that is, those who do not agree with company policy or who are not well informed, do not show up – their absence is another sign of their disapproval and discontent. Managers always lack time to prepare for meetings, they often need to improvise and they would appreciate guidance in such situations. Recommendations should not be based on ideal situations, that is, a general manager who has the whole morning to prepare his meeting. In many books, it is suggested that an agenda is distributed to all participants. Is an agenda really necessary? The answer is yes and no, since it depends on the degree of trust established between the participants. These books also recommend sticking to the agenda. But Argyris (1970) argued the opposite, stating that this work method drove everyone to despair and created a sense of alienation. As a rule, meetings are held to communicate the same information to everyone at the same time. This gives each participant the opportunity to react, submit questions or give his opinion, which creates a group dynamic. But unfortunately, unless meetings are compulsory, those who would most beneﬁt from them are those who do not attend, or they are those participants who always remain silent or always take the ﬂoor! A meeting can be painful when the aim is the approval of a project, because the project details can be openly criticized, which is demoralizing and unfair for its author, all the more since criticisms are often personal releases. One advantage – or inconvenience – of meetings is that they shed light on the personality of each participant and on the major disagreements between them. Arriving at a meeting implies there will be a number of hands to shake and this type of detail must be taken into consideration, especially in the context of pressure and urgency. 䉴 When the minister arrived, we instinctively placed ourselves one behind another. He began to shake hands but there was a time lag between who he

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A Management System Exempt from Power looked at and who he shook hands with, so that he was shaking one hand and looking at the next person. That day, I realized that such little details could be perceived as being very humiliating. 䉴 I had just taken over the management of the company. One of our department heads was a young lady, who was very willing and convinced of the virtue of communication. She used to hold a lot of meetings, each of which was prepared according to a speciﬁc agenda. But she was soon overwhelmed by the number of interesting but contradictory proposals from the team members and she felt frustrated because she could not stick to her agenda. The following year, she decided to cancel all the meetings, apart from two, one at the beginning and one at the end of the year. She found that her department worked just as well, and with much less frustration. 䉴 I decided to have meetings shortened as soon as I had the opportunity to do so. However, I noticed that extended meetings were liberating for the participants, who could forget the boss’s weighty presence for a while. I also understood that meetings favored the development of a consensus that was essential for the management of a large and diversiﬁed group. I realized that people got to know and appreciate each other when they could get bored together. In reality, and contrary to my initial perception, meetings were not a waste of time. (Roger Martin, cited by Papin, p. 402) 䉴 On beginning our training, we all gathered in the meeting room to attend a worldwide presentation of the company and we were given information on speciﬁc points relating to the production unit. The purpose of the meeting seemed very positive in the ﬁrst place, but in reality the information we were given was mentioned in the company information leaﬂet we had already read. The only additional information we received was about security in the workshop, which was illustrated by a number of real and apt examples. At the end of the meeting, we were all seized by an undeﬁned feeling of discomfort, which became clear afterwards: during the whole meeting, the management had treated us as an ordinary workforce – we had to be very careful during handling since work accidents were very expensive for the company. The management had also insisted that we worked as quickly as possible because delays also meant additional costs! Thus, it was explained that we had to stay in our position in the hierarchy but we were never told about our role and our contribution to the manufacturing process. 䉴 The head of the foundation came to visit us and we took the opportunity to hold a management meeting, at the end of which a proposal was made to buy a speciﬁc piece of equipment at a very good price. We had to take a prompt decision to put in a global order for all members of the foundation. I therefore asked the teachers to vote. Everyone voted in favor except one

Solving Problems without Creating New Ones person. I asked him to explain why and he said that he was actually in favor of the purchase but did not appreciate being forced to make a hasty decision.120 䉴 In the face of a major disrupting problem, I decided to set up a meeting and sought the views of all those seated round the table. When it was the turn of a colleague who had been hostile before the meeting, he said he had nothing to declare, but that he was very satisfied to have been given the opportunity to express his views. 䉴 Our foundation was run along a participative management approach. The head invited someone who was unknown in our group to present a new product line created in South America. On discovering both an unknown individual and a new project they were not connected with, the foundation members were shocked, they thought they were being manipulated and turned the meeting into a pure psychodrama, which put an end to the project. 䉴 During one of our committee meetings, our chairman refused to give the ﬂoor to a participant who had been asking to intervene for the third time. The chairman was not aware that the participant had been designated to take over from the head of the foundation. Irritated by the chairman’s attitude, he left the meeting. Half of the assembly followed him. A great deal of negotiation, work and phone calls were necessary to avoid a major conﬂict and a possible split within the organization because of that incident. 䉴 A young scientist set up a meeting to review the situation with his colleagues but no one turned up. I decided to circulate a memo reminding everyone that attendance at meetings was compulsory, which was quite banal but triggered off intense and violent reactions; the more a colleague felt upset, the more aggressive he was. The head had to circulate another memo to calm people down. 䉴 A manager taking a keen interest in participative management decided to set up a meeting with the whole staff and a consultant to think the approach over. The result was that everyone participated and voted against his project! (July 3, 2000 Interview) 䉴 Because I had made an error in a control procedure, I was immediately accused by the manager on the basis of supposed intentions. I thus called him to explain what had led me to make such a mistake. He calmly listened to me but the next morning he brought up the problem for discussion with great fury and declared I was trying to put pressure on him.

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The examples given above show how difficult meetings are. However, this subject is the most easily and frequently taught and greatly appreciated by trainers. In the ﬁrst place, it is easy to debate since the training session itself constitutes a meeting, thus facilitating simulation. Second, there are numerous excellent application exercises on the subject – the famous NASA exercise, the games “le fou”, “le jeu du carré”, “Bavelas”, and so on. To ﬁlm the sessions is also productive: the trainers can be very accurate in their feedback. In addition, these filmed sessions are the manager’s sole opportunity to be ﬁlmed in a meeting and to get an expert’s feedback on his behavior.

Negotiation The approach based on negotiation consists of looking at a problem from the other’s point of view. For example, an efficient lawyer uses this process and always begins by considering the arguments of the opposing party. However, the results and efficiency of this method are inﬂuenced by the nature of the situation involving the manager and his team. This approach must be avoided if it leads to a zero-sum game (one loser, one winner). Two key questions must be raised prior to negotiation: what is the company policy regarding dismissal and how loyal are the employees towards the company? The notion of inequality between opponents is well illustrated by the following caricature about the occupying forces during World War II: “Give me your watch, I will tell you what time it is!” Negotiation is recommended when it leads to a win–win result. Negotiation may also be used in a lose–lose game, given that the protagonists will have to ﬁnd an agreement to manage the negative result for both of them. We have observed that shortage facilitates negotiation, whereas growth makes it more difficult and favors conﬂict.

QUESTIONNAIRE 19 Are you an efficient negotiator? Put 1 2 3 4 5

a tick in one column for each question using the key below: I completely disagree I mildly disagree I am not sure I mildly agree I completely agree

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Join up the ticks. The more your proﬁle appears on the right-hand side, the more you have responded positively to the question. 1

2

3

1. Negotiation is seeking an advantageous position for both protagonists. 2. It is essential to consider one’s opponent’s point of view when negotiating. 3. The result must be proﬁtable for both parties. 4. When the negotiation leads to a zero-sum result, the best solution is to designate the beneﬁciary along a sharing out agreed by both parties. 5. If no agreeement is reached, it has to be discussed again prior to any new negotiation. 6. If no solution is found, only a conﬂict may decide between the opponents. 7. Emotional aspects are prejudicial to negotiation and can lead people to overreact about unimportant details. 8. One must adapt oneself to the other’s customs and to do so, one must know him and not offend him. 9. In reality, only honesty matters. 10. If the person shows signs of distrust, it is essential to re-establish a good atmosphere and relationship before beginning the negotiation. 11. Successful negotiations are often the result of particular links between people, known by them only, that is, they belong to the same club or association or they went to the same school, and so on. 12. A bad compromise is preferable to a good trial. 13. A professional and sympathetic attitude makes things easier. 14. If one loses his temper, he loses the negotiation.

A brief overview of Chapter 5

5. Negotiation 4. Meeting 3. Interview 2. Managers 1. Professional executives

Pyramid 5 Integrating efficiency, empathy and imagination

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1

2 3

4

5

Professionals have integrated both the social managers’ and experts’ values. Usually, they are reliable individuals because they make very few mistakes. They do not have the project developer’s imagination, meaning that these two executives are very complementary. Managers have integrated the three dimensions. The ﬁrst and preferred management tool at this level is the interview. A decision involving an individual must not be taken without discussing it with him ﬁrst. If the decision concerns a group, it has to be debated in a meeting. The easiest meetings to manage are those inessential ones – meetings aimed at getting people to know each other. Negotiation is a subject of analysis in itself. Negotiation is an inescapable and constant reality.

CHAPTER 6

Value Conﬂicts: An Indication of Progress Many experts who became managers related that they encountered difficulties with team management because they did not know enough about social and emotional aspects. Indeed, the expert’s success is based on rational methods, while a successful integration of social and emotional aspects requires avoiding rationality and preconceived solutions. The social and doting fathers who grew into project developers became aware that changing others’ habits created many conﬂicts and they admitted it was a difficult task.The project developers who became managers realized that their former behavior was actually difficult to deal with.They confessed that they could have avoided many of their project developer excessive attitudes. A number of these executives have thought of resigning and others have persisted but all of them have experienced value conﬂicts, which is the subject we now discuss.

Distance and closeness The choice between a distant and a familiar attitude at work is a question of maturity. If a manager behaves informally with an immature employee, the latter might infer that he is privileged! Professor Fiedler (1960, 1964, 1966, 1967, 1971, Washington University) gathered all the characteristics of a distant behavior and drew up a portrait of the psychologically distant manager (PDM), placed at one extreme of the continuum:

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1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

The psychologically distant person requests and obtains great freedom of action from his seniors He establishes formal relationships with them He prefers to work with ambitious subordinates He establishes formal relationships with his subordinates He would rather ﬁnd information formally than informally He is clever at ensuring quiet and peaceful interpersonal relationships He expects his subordinates to make a number of mistakes or take a number of initiatives He values his subordinates on the basis of their work achievements He tends to be reserved and distant within the organization.

According to Rogers (1968), professionalization is a means of establish a psychological distance, which prevents an individual from being caught in the trap of positive emotions openly expressed to another member of the organization. As stated by Argyris (1970), a management system based on fear and close consideration for details, conformism and distrust tends to be favored when managers behave according to organizational values – to focus on objectives, to be rational, to repress and control one’s emotions and so on – and thus ignore the feelings they inspire. As stated by Fiedler, the PDM is efficient only if he is informally accepted by all members of the organization. Otherwise, he will not be listened to and, as a result, he will not be in a position to inﬂuence others.

QUESTIONNAIRE 20 Are you a psychologically distant manager? Put 1 2 3 4 5

a tick in one column for each question using the key below: I completely disagree I mildly disagree I am not sure I mildly agree I completely agree

Join up the ticks. The more your proﬁle appears on the right-hand side, the more you have responded positively to the question. 1 1.

I avoid being on familiar terms with my colleagues.

2.

I establish formal relationships with my seniors.

3.

I remain distant and reserved with my subordinates.

2

3

4

5

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1 4.

I ask for information by writing.

5.

I work on alternative procedures to anticipate subordinates’ possible errors.

6.

I value my colleagues on the basis of their work and not their behavior.

7.

Within the organization, I am rather reserved.

8.

I choose my friends outside the organization.

9.

I do not listen to rumors.

2

3

4

5

Closeness The psychologically close manager (the PCM) devotes most of his efforts to his relationships. All the characteristics of such behavior have been gathered by Fiedler who drew up the proﬁle of the PCM, placed at the other extreme of the continuum: “The PDM is a work expert whereas the PCM is an expert in relationships.” The PCM’s approach is the following: 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

He aims to ensure good relationships, even to the detriment of work He has frequent interviews with his subordinates He favors informal relationships He prefers informal discussions to formal meetings He tends to be domineering and possessive towards his subordinates He only delegates minor tasks He tends to choose his friends among his colleagues and subordinates.

QUESTIONNAIRE 21 Are you a psychologically close manager? Put 1 2 3 4 5

a tick in one column for each question using the key below: I completely disagree I mildly disagree I am not sure I mildly agree I completely agree

Join up the ticks. The more your proﬁle appears on the right-hand side, the more you have responded positively to the question.

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1 1.

I am quite familiar with my colleagues.

2.

I would rather have an informal discussion with my superior than a formal interview.

3.

I am very straightforward with my subordinates.

4.

I ask for information orally and I conﬁrm my request by writing afterwards if necessary.

5.

I am easily disrupted by colleagues’ mistakes which I had not anticipated.

6.

I evaluate my colleagues according to their behavior.

7.

I usually behave warmly within the organization.

8.

I have many friends at work.

9.

I do not like rumors but I admit they hurt me.

2

3

4

5

Unfortunately such a manager experiences numerous situations in which the two criteria are opposed: if he works solely to inspire fellow feelings, he might reject useful decisions. A young manager must quickly understand that he cannot simultaneously maintain his even-temperedness and ask his team to improve their results. It is one or the other. For example, politicians must often choose between making the right decision and being hated or making other decisions and being re-elected. A number of theories advocate resignation or evasion for the sake of peacefulness. We would argue that this choice belongs to each individual concerned, knowing however that the organization demands consistency. In other words, no one is forced to accept the responsibility of managing others to achieve a task but if someone agrees to such a responsibility, he must take it on as best as he can.

Flexible and uncompromising attitudes From an emotional point of view, subordinates may lose their motivation with an uncompromising manager but they know their place. However, if they succeed in inﬂuencing their manager, their motivation and enthusiasm increase but they might wish to put themselves in the manager’s shoes. From a rational point of view, a manager who appears to be ﬂexible is given more information, which enables him to make the right decisions. Conversely, employees are much less inclined to forward information to an uncompromising manager. In addition, given the huge increase of infor-

Value Conflicts: An Indication of Progress mation circulating continuously, managers are more in need of nuancing their attitude and decisions. 䉴 The general manager described here was thought to be very flexible. When he was appointed to his new position, he knew no one, he had no friends or influential relationships within the organization. Therefore, everyone thought he would be easily inﬂuenced. In reality, his approach was to carefully consider everyone’s ideas and then select the best proposals, which caused a great deal of frustration. Indeed, many of his colleagues and subordinates had thought that since he listened, he therefore agreed! But they discovered this was not always the case121 and became critical of his attitude, which made life difficult for the manager. On the other hand, there were signs that there was a high level of motivation in the organization: many employees remained in the office during lunch time and projects were plentiful. However, since many employees seemed to be putting themselves in the manager’s shoes, a number of conﬂicts arose. Projects were emerging all over the organization but came to nothing, although many were innovative and engaging. The manager often worked until after 8:00pm. Everyone in the organization was free to comment and criticize the results, which the manager took into account to bring the necessary amendments. But those whose ideas the manager made use of were frustrated because he showed little recognition and those whose ideas were not taken into consideration were unhappy because of the manager’s lack of clear-sightedness. To calm the situation down, the manager was replaced by an uncompromising manager. Since he already knew a number of people in the organization, he worked at reinforcing his image.122 He added another link in the chain to put more distance between himself and his staff. He was perceived as a man who did not need any suggestions as he knew exactly what he wanted. Those who tried to inﬂuence him realized it was difficult. People felt less motivated and there were fewer projects. The few projects that were created came from the highest level of the hierarchy, they gave rise to many shortcuts, they were quickly launched and imposed on the lowest levels but they left the employees indifferent. Nevertheless and paradoxically, there were positive changes, as there was less conflict and competition within the organization. The negative aspects touched on motivation. No one stayed at work during lunch time anymore. Even the general manager’s motivation changed. He often had the feeling that the members of the organization were not with him. Most of his colleagues felt they were taking exaggerated risks if they dared to criticize a project. Two years later, there were many warning signs indicating problems in the organization. At that moment, the manager decided to disclose a project he had been working on conﬁdentially and which dramatically changed the future of the organization.

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Table 6.1 Advantages and disadvantages of the two attitudes The manager’s attitude Results

Close to others and ﬂexible

Distant and uncompromising

Advantages

■

■

High creativity High emotional involvement and motivation

Manager not inﬂuenced nor moved by criticism ■ Few conﬂicts ■ Even-temperedness ■ Manager feared by his subordinates

■

■

■

Disadvantages

A lot of critical information and contradictory projects ■ Many conﬂicts ■ Manager under constant pressure

Little creativity Little emotional involvement and motivation

■

QUESTIONNAIRE 22 Are you ﬂexible and easily inﬂuenced? Put 1 2 3 4 5

a tick in one column for each question using the key below: I completely disagree I mildly disagree I am not sure I mildly agree I completely agree

Join up the ticks. The more your proﬁle appears on the right-hand side, the more you have responded positively to the question. 1 1.

Colleagues and subordinates often come to speak with me.

2.

People trust me; they often tell me their problems and criticize my decisions.

3.

I often wonder who is right.

4.

My employees can easily meet me outside formal meetings.

5.

When people conﬁde in me, I consider it a mark of trust.

6.

It occasionally happens that I change my mind. Actually, it is quite hard for me to maintain my opinion against others.

7.

Employees know that I take, or try to take, their grievances into consideration as much as I can.

8.

I give my own views last.

9.

I need time to form an opinion on a subject or a problem.

2

3

4

5

Value Conflicts: An Indication of Progress Domineering and permissive attitudes Fiedler cited the case of a US airforce base commander who changed his behavior according to his subordinates’ results. When he was close to his officers, they felt secure and did not worry about the unit’s efficiency. As soon as he changed and became distant, his subordinates felt more anxious and tried to ﬁnd out what was wrong in the unit. At the same time their performance level increased notably. Fiedler’s model, shown in Figure 6.1, can be summarized as follows: Points A B C D E F I J, which are spread over the continuum of psychological distance, indicate the most efficient optimum behavior, given three key aspects of the situation: positive/negative manager–subordinate relationship; the subordinate’s formal/informal work structure; and the manager’s strong/weak empowerment (is he empowered to reward his employees, can he review salaries, can he dismiss, and so on?). The two situations, at the extremes of the continuum (the weakest – point D – the strongest – E) are better dealt with by domineering managers (D and E). In universities, the manager’s position is usually weak (no reward system) and the structural aspect of work is informal. In this context, the most efficient attitude (point J) is permissiveness if there is a positive relationship with the subordinate, and domineering behavior is most efficient if the relationship is negative.

You are inclined to be permissive: is this attitude appropriate? ■

A and B

1 2 3 ■

1 2 3

Your colleagues’ work is structured. Your relationship with your colleagues is rather uneasy. Given the situation, you obtain the best results.

J Your colleagues’ work is undeﬁned. Your relationship with your colleagues is positive. You achieve excellent results. In all other cases, you will obtain less good results if you don’t change to a more formal management system.

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You are rather formal: is this attitude appropriate? ■

1 2 3 4

■

1 2 3 4

D You are not in a position to reward your subordinates. Your colleagues’ work is deﬁned on an informal basis. Your relationships are rather negative. Given the situation, your style is most appropriate to obtain the best results.

E F and I Your relationships with your colleagues are positive. Your colleagues’ work is deﬁned on a rather formal basis (E and F). The work is not deﬁned formally but you are strongly empowered (I). Given the situation, your style is most appropriate to obtain the best results.

Your style is in the middle of these two extremes 1 2 3 4

You have established positive relationships with your colleagues. Your work is not formally deﬁned. You are in a position to reward your subordinates. Given the situation, you obtain the best results.

Fiedler’s model sheds light on both the social executive’s and the project developer’s efficiency. In our research, the power variable is low, the social executive establishes positive professional relationships and the project developer is inclined to develop negative professional relationships. Fiedler’s diagram shows that the project developer is concerned by B and D and that the social executive is concerned by F and J. We note from the diagram that the project developer does not obtain positive results when his colleagues’ work is formally structured (B) but obtains very high results with colleagues whose work is not formally determined. The social executive produces good results (J) if his colleagues’ work structure is informal and bad results if formal.

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Superior–subordinate relationships

Positive

Negative

Type of subordinate’s work Structured

Informal

Structured

Informal

Possibility of reward from the superior (power of position) Strong

Weak

Strong

Weak

Strong

Weak

Authoritarian, active, formal leader

D

E

F I

C B A

Optimum points

J

Permissive, passive, considerate leader

Figure 6.1 Optimum psychological distance and efficiency In organizations based on an informal work structure, efficient management depends on the quality of the relationships established between the manager and his colleagues or subordinates. If the relationship is positive, the manager can adopt a social attitude but if the relationship is negative, the manager must then adopt the project developer’s behavior. In organizations based on a formal work structure, the relationship can be exploited if the relationship is positive.

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Table 6.2 The optimum conditions of the two opposite behaviors Nature of work

Nature of the relationship

Formal

Informal

Positive

Professionals or project developers

Doting fathers or social executives

Negative

Doting fathers or social executives

Professionals or project developers

QUESTIONNAIRE 23 Are you uncompromising? Put 1 2 3 4 5

a tick in one column for each question using the key below: I completely disagree I mildly disagree I am not sure I mildly agree I completely agree

Join up the ticks. The more your proﬁle appears on the right-hand side, the more you have responded positively to the question. 1 1.

People hesitate to conﬁde in me.

2.

I only listen to my close friends, who usually agree with me.

3.

If I ask for someone’s opinion and he says publicly that he does not agree with me, I hate him and I take my revenge.

4.

I establish a work atmosphere in which no one dares to express him/herself.

5.

My decisions are seldom criticized.

6.

My sole concern is to apply what seems best without consideration for any other matter.

7.

“Do a good job and let them talk” is my attitude.

8.

I do not need to be told what to do, but others must do as I ask.

9.

It is essential that people view me as someone who is impossible to inﬂuence.

2

3

4

5

Excessive rigor: a crutch According to Hiram’s legend – Hiram is the architect who designed the

Value Conflicts: An Indication of Progress temple of Jerusalem, the symbol of all human constructions – this magnificent work of art rested on two pillars framing the entrance: one pillar represented strictness while the other symbolized forgiveness. This ancient allegory refers to the continuum on which are placed the human attitudes adopted by individuals who have power over others: to choose a position halfway between the two extremes. But is it truly a choice? An individual who feels unimportant usually strives towards strictness. Ayatollahs and dictators are the most immature and complex individuals. Their only choice is strictness as they are not psychologically strong enough to suffer a dissonance between their views and reality. Respect for the letter of the law and rules is essential for their survival. Only profoundly mature leaders can choose between strictness and forgiveness. To forgive and condemn revenge requires a strong inner personality. The choice of forgiving or taking revenge often arises when a manager wins a conﬂict. His decision depends on his emotional state. For example, if the manager fears his opponent, he may wish to eliminate him and act out of revenge even if the conﬂict turns to his advantage. A manager with a strong personality does not react with the same degree of fear and he is therefore capable of choosing between a number of decisions. This is not to say that mercy is a better attitude than harshness. Once again, it depends on the individual’s personality. Confronted by an immature individual, only strictness reﬂects strength, to show mercy would be synonymous with weakness and cowardice. For example, juvenile delinquents provide a clear illustration of the necessity of deciding between severity and mercy. The decision must be based on the cause of the delinquency. If the child’s violence results from dramatic suffering and has become his only means of survival, there is a risk that a severe judgment would increase his difficulties and bring about more hatred. On the other hand, if violence results from perversion – the pleasure to harm – then severity is essential. Psychiatrists commonly say: “Enforce the law, nothing but the law, but all the law”.

QUESTIONNAIRE 24 Do you advocate strictness? Put 1 2 3 4 5

a tick in one column for each question using the key below: I completely disagree I mildly disagree I am not sure I mildly agree I completely agree

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2

3

4

5

1. The police should impose more sanctions. 2. More and more people compromise. And from one compromise to another, we end up doing nothing! 3. This is not a banana republic! What do these shady deals mean? 4. My wife and I are facing problems. To be honest, I am not surprised when I think about who she is! 5. I am keen on mathematics because it is a rigorous science. 6. Psychology is the science of the sick. 7. I have hidden traps in my garden. 8. It is essential that people view me as an uncompromising person. 9. Nowadays, people are allowed to do what they like. 10. The best solution is to establish rules and punish those who do not comply with them. 11. Tolerance is not an appropriate word in our world. 12. Kill them all, God will know his own. 13. Love is useless, it is the virtue of the weak. 14. Look at where tolerance and permissiveness have led the young today. 15. Someone who breaks the law knows there will be a sanction in return. If he is unpunished, he loses his point of reference. 16. Severe sanctions must be applied for minor mistakes. In such a way, major mistakes will be avoided. 17. Woe to the vanquished!

Is egalitarianism a source of unfairness? Egalitarianism is one of the major values of the religious model – the parable of those last-minute workers who earned the same salary as those who slaved away in the sun. One must go to Palestine to grasp such a reality. But the parable contained another message – it is never too late to be converted! However, although collective interests must prevail within organizations, it is not recommended to focus solely on collectiveness and constantly fear the accusation of favoritism. Indeed, this attitude leads managers to establish egalitarian systems, in which all employees are paid in the same way, whatever their work results, and are treated equally concerning salary increase or promotion. So, if an excecutive with a high level of responsibility is promoted, those who have not benefited from such an advantage feel frustrated. They often react by spreading rumors, such as, “this is favoritism” or “she used her sex appeal to get promoted”.

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Consequently, to avoid this risk, managers would be unfair to the most capable employees rather than risk the criticism of the rest. This practice is no longer a management system without power but a management system without courage. Egalitarianism is a profoundly generous ideal on paper, but in practice it is completely perverse. Egalitarianism at work is based on the principle that the salary is not proportional to results but to the amount of effort involved! What happens when a skilled and well-paid employee no longer makes any effort? The answer according to the religious model is the parable of talents: it produces very bad results! However, in France, in the name of social justice, taxation is the highest in the world; 60 percent of the average French person’s income is deducted, 80 percent for the so-called most fortunate classes! This tremendous sharing out gives rise to abuse. For example, in the overseas territories, the introduction of income support created a short supply of sugar cane workers. Indeed, since they earned as much as the income support, they no longer felt the need to work. The story goes that when income support (abbreviated in French to RMI and pronounced Remy) was brought in to remote regions, people would welcome Europeans by saying: “Thanks to Mr Remy, thanks to Mr Remy!”

QUESTIONNAIRE 25 Do you advocate egalitarianism? Put 1 2 3 4 5

a tick in one column for each question using the key below: I completely disagree I mildly disagree I am not sure I mildly agree I completely agree

Join up the ticks. The more your proﬁle appears on the right-hand side, the more you have responded positively to the question. 1 1.

Equal time attendance means equal salary.

2.

Inefficient employees deserve to get the same salary as efficient employees, given that salary is their only means of subsistence.

3.

In our organization, employees who take long breaks and those who work at lunch time are treated equally. I ﬁnd this appropriate, since it means that the organization trusts its employees. Each employee can adjust his work rhythm to his biorhythm.

2

3

4

5

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2

3

4

5

4. Teachers who give university courses and in-house training are not more useful than teachers who prefer to focus on their private teaching. 5. If the most qualiﬁed employees are made a more interesting offer in another company, they should be allowed to leave. 6. We are one big family. 7. No decision must be taken before consulting all persons concerned. 8. We resort to the voting system to take a decision. 9. Each employee must be given the opportunity to start from his own qualiﬁcations and slowly progress through work and experience. 10. One cannot state that a system is inefficient because a few perverse individuals have abused it. 11. It is normal to impose high taxation on the private sector – where people work hard – to enable the public sector to provide employees with easy working conditions. 12. Men are born unequal but egalitarianism makes them equal. 13. Egalitarianism protects the weak against the strong.

Is tolerance synonymous with weakness or strength? It is said that Del Vasto declared that tolerance was the most despised virtue because it created weak individuals. In local management, it is often said that it is better to say things face to face instead of speaking behind people’s backs. This contradicts the adage that it is not always good to tell the truth. There is a limit to tolerance. Let us consider, through the following examples, the limits to observe in order to avoid the emergence of violent attitudes. 䉴 I left home and was driving on a quiet road at 50km/h, the authorized speed limit, when a young driver came up behind me at more than 100km/h and hooted his horn like a madman to make me get out of the way, which I did not do. Down the road, he overtook me, then stopped sideways and got out, armed with two knuckledusters! Terriﬁed (I had the roof of my car down so had no protection against the knuckledusters), I reversed but he ran to catch me up – I discovered later that he was a young army regular who was fond of sports. As he had run away from his car, I found a way to get out, but then he hit my car with his knukleduster and broke my wing mirror. But the most incredible thing happened afterwards. On entering the police station to register my complaint against him, I saw him leaving the police station! He had just registered a complaint against me saying that I had ferociously attacked him. He got eight days’ sick leave and I was considered a delinquent.

Value Conflicts: An Indication of Progress Fortunately, policemen are used to such a behavior. The “injured” party was called in for a second assessment and his little game was discovered. 䉴 I was finalizing a complex blending of the candidate selection process, based on a methodology affecting more than two hundred members of the jury. One day during that period, while I was having lunch, I overheard a comment made by one of my newly hired colleagues. He was smugly saying that he did not comply with the procedures and that he went his own sweet way. On hearing this, I tried to explain why it was essential, for obvious ethical reasons, that all the members of the jury worked in the same way. He bluntly replied that I could go to hell! 䉴 Two hundred of us were staying in a Moroccan hotel located on the edge of the desert. It was seven in the morning. The Moroccan guide had asked us to get up at four o’clock to leave before it got too hot. We had been waiting for our breakfast for three hours. It seemed there was a problem concerning the number of cups available in the hotel. I went to the Moroccan guide and suggested that he asked the hotelier to buy more cups for next year. Once again I was told to go to hell! 䉴 I went to see the River Kwai and I remember that, while visiting the museum devoted to the Japanese extermination camps, I was stunned to discover the abominations suffered by those who had built the railway. In Nagisa Oshima’s ﬁlm, a scene shows David Bowie pretending to shave every morning in order to survive the atrocious conditions of the Japanese camps. 䉴 During my Kenyan trip, I was told that when the English jailed the Masai, they were surprised to discover that the Masai could not tolerate jail and therefore died rapidly: they couldn’t accept the idea of the length of time. When wild animals are captured and put into zoos, we also notice the appearance of various types of behavior, from death to absence of reproduction. Freud used to relate that when he went to a new town, the ﬁrst places he visited were the zoo, the prison and the psychiatric hospital. Such visits gave him precious insights into the prevailing culture.

The following example might provide you with the true meaning of tolerance: “He comes to my house, he makes love to my wife, he cleans himself up with the curtains, he kills my dog and rapes my daughter. Then he goes to my cave, he ﬁnds three little barrels of which he makes seven little tubs. But how did he make the seventh? This is intolerable!” “This is intolerable” expresses the individual’s state of complete exhaustion. His limits have been reached and he cannot go beyond them. Such a limit varies from one individual to another.

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The barrier between the internal and external environment The internal environment and the external environment are limited by a kind of barrier. Depending on which side of the barrier we place ourselves (Saussois, Besson 1998; Turner and Hevin 2000; Bourion 2000), we may have totally opposite views. For example, if we look at things from the point of view of the organization and its market, the market is the external environment and the organization is the internal environment. If we are talking about a manager, the internal environment is his psyche and the external environment is made up of the problems with which he is confronted. These entities have an essential inﬂuence on arbitration. If the internal environment prevails, the priority is to please people and answer their daily grievances, even if it is detrimental for the positioning of the organization. This choice is not critical for grant-aided organizations or those protected by a monopoly. On the other hand, to give priority to the external environment, that is, clients, obliges employees to adapt themselves and change rapidly, which creates uncomfortable and painful situations. The problems which resulted from the major change of government system in Russia are a clear example of this issue. 䉴 The prices of French telecommunications and traveling have been among the highest for thirty years. The end of the monopoly brought progressive price reductions, but the employees of those organizations struggled and they went on continuous strikes to block the effects of competition and have salaries adjusted to the standards of the market. 䉴 In 1999, a university admitting many foreign students decided to adapt its teaching programs to international standards, thanks to which the exchanges between the university and foreign schools increased every year. But further to management changes, the previous standard was applied again and the following year, the number of foreign students attending the university courses was reduced by 20 percent.

QUESTIONNAIRE 26 Do you always take the external environment into consideration? Put 1 2 3

a tick in one column for each question using the key below: I completely disagree I mildly disagree I am not sure

Value Conflicts: An Indication of Progress 4 5

123

I mildly agree I completely agree

Join up the ticks. The more your proﬁle appears on the right-hand side, the more you have responded positively to the question. 1 1.

Even though we are doing good work, we must continuously think of improvements.

2.

By establishing high prices – thanks to our monopoly – we have encouraged our potential competitors to invest in our area.

3.

Traveling to the USA is essential to be kept informed on the latest changes in our sector.

4.

Whenever a change can be made, start it as soon as possible so as not to have to do it under pressure.

5.

Don’t put off until tomorrow what can be done today.

6.

New product ideas and new projects must be carefully analyzed, especially if they are negatively perceived by others.

7.

Vigilance is all the more necessary in quiet periods because when critical situations arise, there is no time left to think.

8.

God helps those who help themselves.

9.

When one is in a privileged position, one must do everything possible not to abuse it.

2

3

4

5

Discover what is right, not who is right A managerial position implies pressure and disinformation. When problems arise, employees – apart from close colleagues – meet with the manager to inﬂuence him – even unconsciously – and bypass intermediary executives, which places these executives in a double constraint. If the manager does not think in terms of what is right but who is right, he may ﬁnd himself caught in a web of contradictory information, which makes his task difficult. People who practice disinformation are most efficient during interviews. In meetings, disinformation is not possible, since everyone concerned with the problem is present and can therefore either conﬁrm the information or invalidate it during the discussions.

QUESTIONNAIRE 27 Do you know how to ﬁnd what is right? Put a tick in one column for each question using the key below: 1 I completely disagree 2 I mildly disagree

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124 3 4 5

I am not sure I mildly agree I completely agree

Join up the ticks. The more your proﬁle appears on the right-hand side, the more you have responded positively to the question. 1 1.

It is essential that employees feel conﬁdent enough to come and discuss their ideas and views with their manager.

2.

The best way to check information is to organize a meeting and let the participants debate the subject.

3.

The manager must avoid giving his opinion, since it might stop others expressing their views if they are different to the manager’s.

4.

Allow controversy to emerge and listen carefully to the debate. It is the best way to understand the problem.

5.

Each of us is biased. For this reason, a good manager should always listen to everyone.

6.

If you do not have any arguments against your project, your arguments in favor of the project become worthless.

7.

One cannot become truly aware of a problem if one refuses to be inﬂuenced.

8.

An independent manager is not a manager. To be a manager means to be dependent on employees, executives and above all clients.

9.

To discuss a solution is an opportunity to take it over and this is motivating.

A brief overview of Chapter 6

6. Who is right or what is right? 5. Priority to the external or internal environment? 4. Harshness or forgiveness? 3. Domineering or permissive attitudes? 2. Flexible or uncompromising attitudes? 1. Closeness or distance?

Pyramid 6 Value conﬂicts

2

3

4

5

Value Conflicts: An Indication of Progress 1

2

3

4 5

6

The young manager’s increasing know-how depends on three values – efficiency, empathy and creativity – which ﬁrst correspond to his aptitude and inclinations. When he begins his career, he is endowed with one of these values, and he must aquire the others. Each period of his career, centered on a position or an assignment, requires the prevalence of one value, without losing the other values. The transition from one period to another causes value conﬂicts. Should a manager be close to his colleagues or distant? Closeness is not recommended with immature colleagues, but is possible with mature individuals. Should a manager be ﬂexible or uncompromising? A ﬂexible manager who listens to his employees is very motivating. Colleagues and subordinates feel supported and regarded. However, this has a downside as conﬂicts arise more often. In most cases, severity is synonymous with weakness, except when complying with the law. Because of internal pressure, clients may be taken less into consideration. However, they are the ones to whom the organization is accountable and they must remain a priority. Unfortunately, the unions have often forgotten this aspect. When a manager has doubts on a conﬂicting issue, he should conﬁde in his colleagues, then hold a meeting and listen to each one’s opinion. He should think of what and not who is right.

125

EPILOGUE

Local Management: Surﬁng between Communication and Power In the face of reality and daily problems, managers use a number of tools to complete their task.We would suggest that managers apply a management system exempt from power in the ﬁrst place, before getting into power struggles.This approach allows personal development, which legitimates, through quality, everyone’s position and occupation within the organization.

We were in the general manager’s office when the head of a very old, major company in the East told me: “I do not agree on your title: 123 manager? This is not a profession! It is a question of charisma!” This comment clearly illustrates the difference between management and power. We do not learn power, we hold it! Individuals who have a strong inﬂuence and great resources at their disposal often believe that the exercise of power is innate and that it is a matter of charisma! However, a charismatic124 leader often experiences, without knowing, a continuous learning process, which is all the more rich and effective when he is confronted with various different management areas. To illustrate the controversial debate on these two management concepts, let us quote Jacques Brel’s interview, in Knokke (Belgium), in 1971: “There is no artist! There is 5 percent talent and the rest is work and sweat: of this I am sure!”

From communication mediums to management tools Our grandes écoles provide a large number of communication training courses but fewer local management training courses, which are often assimilated and considered part of communication courses. Moreover, there are many books on communication – transactional analysis being the topic most written about – whereas there are very few books on local management methods and practices. The common belief is that no one learns to become a local manager! We believe it is essential to distinguish 126

Local Management: Surfing between Communication and Power between these areas. The solution to a problem is radically different depending on whether it is a management or a communication problem. Management issues cannot be tackled like communication problems. Indeed, communication consists of learning how to use a technique, it does not work on the contingent model: communication is about how and not when to use one method instead of another method. Let us analyze a seminar on communication. The seminar organizer suggests a problem that needs solving and he ﬁlms the discussion in the meeting. This method is useful because it helps trainees to become aware of their behavior. But, in practice, a problem is not dealt with in the same way. Once the problem is identiﬁed, the best resolution program must be found and implemented and meetings are not considered the best tool for resolution. A meeting can be characterized as a bulldozer in a garden. Everyone knows that a garden needs bulldozing once every ten years. In a management system exempt from power, problems are usually made worse by meetings instead of being resolved. Using the bulldozer analogy again: it also unearths all sorts of little plants and what happens then? They die! Meetings mobilize negative energies and favor fear. In most cases, criticism is focused on the meeting organizer, whereas it is the choice of the method used that should be questioned.125 If an apprentice gardener tries to cut a branch with a pair of scissors, he will not be told that he does not know how to use them but that he needs a pair of secateurs! Indeed, errors do not result from the inefficient use of a tool, they are caused by the use of an inappropriate tool. Errors do not result from wrong choices but from incorrectly formulated problems.

Table 7.1 Communication, management and power Nature of the problem

Medium used for resolution

Communication

Management

Power

Communication

Appropriate answer

Close answer

Problem underestimated

Management

Close answer

Appropriate answer

Inappropriate answer

Power

Problem overestimated

Close answer

Appropriate answer

A resolution process based on choosing the appropriate tool and method results from a local management process and not a communication process. This process is essential to avoid additional and even more complicated problems. While there are a number of books about power, there is a lack of

127

128

A Management System Exempt from Power theories on local management tools. Management cannot be taught by means of practical cases only. Models are necessary to understand the ins and outs of a management act. There is no “guidance”126 to handle efficiently selection, promotions, interviews, meetings, memos and business lunches. Very few analyses deﬁne them as tools, which need learning and training, but they take 90 percent of the manager’s time! A young manager often feels that he runs the business with the luck of the draw! Among the few theories and models that do exist, we would say that Meier’s model on the different management styles provides us with interesting indications. This model emphasizes three decision aids – consensus, order or consultation – according to the level of trust the manager has in the organization and the type of problem tackled, that is, more or less technical or human. Here is a typical example: a young manager books a restaurant to have lunch with his staff and does not understand why everyone reacts glumly. The mistake? Everyone knows he should have let the staff choose the restaurant. The difference I see is between individuals who are concerned about doing their work well – in this case, the appropriate management approach consists of providing these employees with conditions favoring their intrinsic motivation – and individuals who aim to do as little as possible, who criticize and discourage those who do work. The ﬁrst type of individuals are reliable and thus easily manageable. The second type must be managed in such a way that they do the least harm possible.

From management tools to power tools As we said, there are numerous detailed books about power. Unfortunately, they often give a negative image of the manager, insofar as these books – at least in France – are in line with a zero-sum Marxist logic, which is, admittedly, one reality among many. It is difficult to analyze problems related to power because most people hide them or disguise them in management issues. A power issue always has two aspects. The ﬁrst aspect is emotional. Indeed, when an individual feels strong and well balanced, he usually does not seek power for the sake of power! The second aspect is related to the corruption of values. When an individual acts in accordance with the values of the organization, he does not feel the need to establish systems based on power. In large state organizations, power is not clearly distributed and as it often seems non-existent, it is not subject to any control. This is the worst situation, since any decision and any change, however small, lead to a power struggle.127

Local Management: Surfing between Communication and Power We have been given the opportunity to observe and analyze different management styles within various state and semi-state organizations. The worst was an organization managed without power and without means. It was losing its position in the market because its products did not match demand but were what the organization was capable of producing. Although it pretended to be managed democratically, 128 the employees faced continuous conflicts. To survive, employees had to have good manners, belong to powerful clans and always think about preparing a struggle against another clan. The organization is ruled with a feudal type of power. Today it is a graveyard. We analyzed another organization, which was also managed without power and without means but it was smaller, calmer and in a ﬂourishing market. The organization was based on a family and social style of management. This organization is still active, lively and ﬂourishing. The last organization we investigated was exempt from power but it had a major potential. Successive general managers had high ethics and values. Conﬂicts related to individuals did not have high priority and did not inﬂuence decisions. There were a number of conﬂicts in practice, but these were value conflicts necessitating compromises. Ideas, projects and developments were the top priorities of this organization. Today, it is one of the best in its sector. We hope that it remains so and resists the Icarus syndrome. Through our experience, we have developed a model – local management, placed between communication and power. We believe it will constitute an interesting approach in the future, as management will progressively become a true occupation and will thus put an end to the natural laws of predation. At the heart of our model is a new kind of manager, who refuses to play power games, who focuses and build his career on efficiency, empathy and creativity.

129

Notes

Foreword 1 The legal restrictions placed on management, aimed at stabilizing the employment situation, and favoring leisure or health, can be compared with the driving restrictions aimed at improving security, economy or the environment. Driving restrictions were initially focused on the driver’s external environment. Later on, with the progress made in electronics, restrictions were placed on the inside of vehicles, such as the ABS system added to the braking system. 2 Power without management will be the subject of a new work, which will probably be entitled: Power Abuses. 3 When the French government decided to bring the legal working time down from 39 hours to 35 hours per week, research was carried out on the subject which showed that in a number of categories of the public utilities, people already worked less than the initial legal working time. 4 A number of employees do not have managerial status, although they have managerial responsibilities and others do have managerial status but no managerial responsibilities. 5 This type of pressure is never mentioned in the job description of the manager, although it is its main characteristic. 6 Many line managers say that, during their holiday period, they need at least one week to switch off. Some of them are less lucky, they need two! 7 A statement was released by Sup de Co Grenoble (a French provincial grande école) entitled: “A diploma is a good thing, but do not forget the manager’s daughter!” Sup de Co Grenoble demonstrated that the reality of competition was perverted by all sorts of privileges. In France, a provincial college does not have the rank of the famous and prestigious HEC (top French business college) and therefore needs to develop a personal and professional skills strategy, which includes “the manager’s daughter”. 8 This deterioration of the line manager’s power is the result of a slow double process: at the organizational level, the beginning of industrialization and mechanization brought along painful and difficult tasks, low wages and no social security. Many line managers behaved badly. But since those factors favored the creation and development of major family fortunes, they led to a simpliﬁed image of the manager – a 130

Notes

9

10 11 12 13

14

15 16

17

18

19

manager is guilty without his knowing. At the family level, the father’s weakness or absence, which has been reinforced by the mother’s solitude (increase of divorces requested by the wife) has helped to create adults who do not easily integrate rules (weakening of the principle of reality) and who have become more demanding at the emotional level (increase of the principle of pleasure). The religous system is the ﬁrst system which totally lost its power. But while other systems have been adjusted to a new reality, the religious system has retreated from the modern world, which is not without consequences for its power and authority. Increase of divorces requested by the wife. Fathers have become increasingly absent, weak or permissive. Doctors, police officers and lawyers have also begun to strike in France, which is new and quite unusual, given the ethics of their profession. In France, a number of ministers belonging to the same ministry were forced to resign after having attempted to implement a reform they considered essential. The reform was not negative in itself – many of those who demonstrated against it had not even read about it – but it was a reform – a change of habit – and for those who went on strike, it was a fabulous opportunity to openly express their aggression; they had the powerful feeling they could mess everything up – for a while, they could thus forget their own individual fears. The prisoner’s game has showed that when there is no more external authority, only internal power – a highly responsible behavior – can ensure the stability of a situation or an organization. But the paternal entity has been wounded, resulting in the emergence of immature collective behavior. There is a high risk that such collective immaturity gives rise to extremism or a dictatorial system. French lawmakers have begun to tackle the problem of ﬁctitious employment. Line managers all have the same pet hate – an employee hired because his job proﬁle corresponds to the task but who decides, once his trial period is over, to take advantage of the organization and work as little as possible.This employee does not play the game, he lets others do his work and criticizes them. The problem is that there is no solution for such a situation. According to Marty’s work, if participative management is carried to the extreme (one person, one vote), sexual relationships within an organization may be inﬂuenced by the needs of a majority. By pure chance, I received the corrected version of a nursing auxiliary entry interview, which was of a higher quality than the entry interview for the highest competitive exam for teachers. Never say unpleasant things, never criticize openly, and support others unreservedly.

Chapter 1 20 Leadership and Motivation, from p. 173 on. 21 Ned Herrmann died on December 25, 1999. 22 If an individual is subjected to a double constraint, psychiatrists usually declare that only transgression may help them get out of a sadomasochist relationship. 23 Although the notion of right-hand brain became popular thanks to Mintzberg, it was not much referred to at that time. 24 One of the worldwide management bestsellers.

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132

Notes 25 The book The Best and the Brightest will put an end to the “myth”. 26 Kaufmann W. W. (1964) The McNamara Strategy, New York, Harper & Row. 27 This can easily be explained from an emotional point of view: to go from the lefthand brain (rationality) to the right-hand brain (intuition) always feels like release, while the reverse is perceived as asceticism. 28 The book advocates the teaching of human resources against the teaching of ﬁnance (p. 50), simplicity against complexity (p. 83), intrinsic motivation against external motivational factors (p. 90), the management of ambiguity against prediction (p. 107), action against thought (p. 134), parceling against unity (p. 140), love of the client against exploitation (p. 170), project autonomy against submission to hierarchy (p. 214), law breaking against law abiding (p. 225), integration of failure against sanctions (p. 231), ﬂexibility against inﬂexibility (p. 303), and so on. 29 Two-thirds of the 57 companies (IBM, Levi’s, Boeing, Atari, Avon, Amoco, among others) which were investigated experienced major difficutlies or went bankrupt. 30 The book Soumission à l’autorité (1974) provides us with a striking example – a Vietnam war veteran marked forever by this principle and capable of obeying any type of instruction. 31 Le phénomène bureaucratique, Seuil, 1963. 32 Ne comptez pas sur moi pour tuer le père, nouvel obs, August 5, 1998. 33 Un art moyen, Éditions de Minuit, L’amour de l’art, Éditions de Minuit. Les règles de l’art, Éditions Seuil. Libre-échange, Éditions Seuil. 34 La noblesse d’état. Grandes écoles et esprit de corps, éditions de Minuit. 35 In France, the Marxist inﬂuence was stronger than in Germany. The zero-sum game theory dominated the subconscious, whether it was in the framework of the state or within organizations. 36 It is, however, important to note that participation in the results of the expansion would have been at the request of General De Gaulle, that is to say, during the only period when French politics were not dominated by feuding parties. 37 Well-being and productivity have never been formally linked, as Simon had noted in 1957.We would argue that this does not mean that there is no connection between the two aspects. We believe that the research methods used to establish such a link are archaic and not suited to the interpretation of emotional information such as satisfaction. 38 MacGregor 1969, La dimension humaine de l’entreprise, Gauthier-Villars. 39 The Two Faces of Power, 1970. 40 Blake and Mouton 1969, Les deux dimensions du management, les Éditions d’Organisation, Paris. Blake and Mouton 1984, Surviving arises through participative management, International Management, February. 41 Here is a story that used to be told at that time: a company in which controversy and opposition dominated used to launch three products per year until the management decided to hire a consultant to restore harmony within the workplace, which the consultant successfully achieved. People became more respectful, more considerate towards each other and no longer raised their voices. At the same time, the company’s creativeness weakened, fewer and fewer products were proposed and, eventually, the company went into liquidation. 42 Each player is given the choice between playing trust or distrust. If both participants play distrust, they simultaneously lose. But if one of the two plays trust and the other

Notes

43 44 45

46

47 48 49 50 51

52 53 54 55 56

57 58 59 60

61

one plays distrust, the bad one wins and the nice one loses. In addition, the sum won or lost is twice as high than in the other cases. To choose between the game and the self ➝ to undertake. Review Personnel, February, no. 407 p.17. The young generation established a more intimate relationship with God. Youth called religious intermediaries and hierarchy into question. The Church – the widest organization that ever existed – lost its sympathizers. Indeed, when the Church witnessed the Nazis’ atrocity without reacting but condemned sexuality, thousands of priests gave up, all the more since they were aware of people’s sexual misery. The new generation turned away from censors and adopted new kinds of spirituality, from Buddhism, new age to personal development with one credo: Ask and you will receive. Organization leaders and students from prestigious schools went into retreat to analyze thoroughly the major difficulties they were confronted with in arbitration issues. Spirituality penetrated management and decision-making systems. L’avenir du management, 1999, p. 170, Village mondial. Work includes two activities – physical and intellectual.The knowledge worker’s tasks are essentially made up of intellectual activities requiring extended knowledge. Varela (1974) deﬁnes autopoïesis as a system that generates itself. In Paris, [email protected] The individual is placed at the heart of such a type of interview.There are not good or bad methods, like in a selection interview during which one needs to be cautious about what he says. Indeed, words may become possible traps, they can easily trigger negative feelings. The interviewer focuses on the individual and then provides him with advice on the way to achieve his project. I have been applying this method with many executives in search of a job for a number of years and what struck me most was that they were not aware of the richness of their route. I have also pointed out a major difficulty in symbolizing that richness and presenting it according to the aim of the project. Introduction aux types psychologiques, 5th édition, ECPA, 1995. Deviens qui tu es, Le souffle d’or, 1994. ISTJ, ISFJ, INFJ, INTJ, ISTP, ISFP, INFP, INTP, ESTP, ESFP, ENFP, ENTP, ESTJ, ESFJ, ENFJ, and ENTJ. Comment leur dire; la Process Communication, 1994, InterEditions, Paris. Left-hand brain and right-hand brain; neocortex and archeocortex, defining four processes: logical, organizational, emotional and creative, each of these processes being added to one use level: avoidance, dilettante, expert or ﬁrst level. www.GAGNELANGEVIN.com. Gagné, Langevin, Combes, Sartori. Died on September 12, 1991. To train young teachers in this new logic, Castagné had education stays organized in Canadian universities, where researchers were more advanced. The result of that inititiative was the creation of a school within the management institutions of the Nancy 2 University. In 1988, Herrmann went a step beyond and penetrated the human psyche. He considered the only true decision center was the human brain. Thus, within one century, the decision center went from the organization (March and Simon) to the brain (Herrmann).

133

Notes

134

62 Other than ins and outs.The emotional logic integrates intrinsic, energetic and motivational information. 63 Art, artis, artem. Accusative of the Latin word art: defines art as an object or a ground for action. Artem actualizes the true managerial process, developed by the right-hand brain, which commands irrational mechanisms such as intuition, belief, love and conviction – a revolution!

Chapter 2 64 Knowing that in some win–win situations, both work hand in hand. 65 How to make allowances between results, obligations and social and motivational quality? How to remain friendly and adopt a motivational attitude without losing one’s efficiency? 66 Nothomb, Stupeur et tremblements, 22/10/99, conférence ICN. 67 Les mécanismes de la réussite, Dominique Frischer’s television broadcast (Undated). 68 In this definition, a problem is a norm deviation. To solve this deviation means improving a result but it can also mean changing a norm. According to Simon, the norm will be lowered if the solution is difficult to ﬁnd and it will be increased if it is easy. In other words, we may say that norms are changed according to the levels of experience. 69 Kuhn (1962, 1970, 1983) in La structure des révolutions scientifiques, published by Flammarion, has demonstrated that the prevailing paradigm is so imprinted in the brain that it becomes nearly impossible to detect the signs that indicate a paradigm change. He suggested an experiment which has become famous; within a short period of time, he showed playing cards to his audience who always indicated the right cards but did not notice that now there were red spades and black hearts among the cards, as these new cards did not conform to the playing cards paradigm. However, more of these wrong cards were added in the game and if they were shown during a longer period of time, the audience eventually identiﬁed them. 70 Kerdellant 2000, p. 273. 71 Méthodes de communication interpersonnelle, Géhin, ed. ESKA, 1999. 72 Emotional Logic and Decision Making, p. 82–96. 73 See chapter on methods. 74 Emotional Logic and Decision Making, p. 93. 75 In the absence of logic, the sphere of possible actions is made up of numerous and inappropriate “Let us just try this or that”. 76 Kerdellant, Le prix de l’incompétence, Denoël 2000. 77 Along the Shibaura Electric model. 78 Realignment with other European countries has often been citied regarding environmental issues. But why is it not applied to oil prices, social security contributions, working time and taxation? At least organizations would be given the means to compete on equal terms.

Notes Chapter 3 79 Konosuke Matsushita, head of Matsushita, had the following words to announce our defeat: “The industrial West will lose the battle and you will ﬁnd yourselves defenceless, because the defeat rests within yourselves: you are infected by Taylorism.We are post-Taylorists and we know that an organization needs to mobilize the intelligence of all to survive” (Les nouveaux Gourous, Boursier, Ramsay, 1991, p. 135–6). 80 For this reason, Japanese managers’ priority is to maintain harmony within the workplace. 81 The three best and the three worst. 82 A matrix chart is then obtained, which has as many entries as people questioned. The reading of the total per line and per column gives an indication of the global coefficient of fellow feelings or hostility towards the colleague concerned. 83 0: not at all, 1: a little, 2: fairly, 3: more than fairly, 4: a lot, 5: completely. 84 There are two famous cases in France – a labor secretary and a prime minister. In the ﬁrst case, we are positive about premeditation, since before committing suicide, the labor secretary posted about a dozen letters to his colleagues to inform them of the reason for his deed. 85 Given that stress has become a worldwide problem, we may easily imagine the importance of such a process, which is the channel through which stress passes from one person to another. 86 An organization is made up of a given number of employees.To value the quality of a problem resolution means that we must compare what is comparable. For example, if a general manager takes over a company with 20,000 employees and 2 millions FF deﬁcit and turns it into a company with 2000 employees and 500,000 FF credit, it would be wrong to conclude he has been efficient. The only statement we can make is that he has managed to ensure the survival of part of the organization. 87 Founder of the FNAC, Antenne 2, Les mécanismes de la réussite, 1985. 88 We have come to the following paradoxical conclusion, which we can draw many lessons from: popularity is inversely proportional to the frequency of contacts between the manager and his subordinates. The only way to be both efficient and appreciated is to work alone, to establish the least number of relationships and only in a speciﬁc context, such as in situations of consensus or in professional situations with no critical stakes. Examples: draughtsmen, computer designers and so on. But then, can this be still considered management? 89 Does he have an air of saintliness? Jesus Christ said he hated the half-hearted, so according to the religious model, the answer would be no. But since his values based on friendship prevail over ﬁnancial values, we may as well answer yes to this question. 90 This does not mean that a nice executive is inefficient! 91 Papin, 1995; p. 404. 92 With a delicious singsong accent, rolling his r’s. 93 To start with, “5 hours less…” suggests 5 hours less 10 (minutes). Thus, the phrase can be used for all intervals of time between 4 and 5 o’clock. So, then, to close the office at “4.05” is the same as closing at “5 hours less 55 minutes”.The same as shutting at 5.00. Logic? 94 There has been much debate on the issue of death and suffering in France. French lawmakers tend to treat their citizens like children. Although it was widely acknow-

135

Notes

136

95

96 97 98 99 100 101 102

ledged that suffering was unbearable, it took a long time to change things within hospitals and get persmission to alleviate patients’ suffering. Isolation is what basically causes such an unsettling. Sects understand how to use isolation to turn people into followers and slaves. Since the victims consent to their martyrdom, the resort to law becomes difficult. As far as sects are concerned, the only solution is to have the follower separated from his guru for a period of 15 days.The victim is then again in a position to express his own desire. A similar type of syndrome has been observed when employees are forced to work too many extra hours for the sake of the organization. Emotional Logic and Decision Making, p. 168–72. Emotional Logic and Decision Making, p. 148. Emotional Logic and Decision Making, p. 148, 149. Emotional Logic and Decision Making, p. 152–3, 187–9. Chapter 6. He was the only teacher who had established a psychologically close relationship with his students for an entire semester. But we could see tears in his eyes and the tone of his voice revealed how traumatizing that abuse of trust had been for him.

Chapter 4 103 104 105 106 107 108

109 110 111 112 113

114

Emotional Logic and Decision Making, p. 85–100 Emotional Logic and Decision Making, p. 132, 133. Emotional Logic and Decision Making, p. 104, 105. Emotional Logic and Decision Making, p. 133–8. Many great inventors were first considered mad, especially in the conservative medical ﬁeld. According to many research results, individuals who avoid easy situations and choose difficult projects often have a higher IQ than the majority of people (Fraissé and Piaget 1963). Is it preferable to be an early mover or a fast follower? Caroll, cited by Kerdellant, 2000, p. 104–111. Among them Roman Law experts. In France, the system is so cumbersome that when a ﬁeld is acknowledged by all, it has usually reached its declining phase. The hypnotist aims to inﬂuence the subject to take the place of an important, absent or symbolic person in the future victim’s psyche. The method described is known as the regrets method, or minimax method, or the Savage criterion. It is the only mathematical method that models the humain brain’s capacity to project itself into the future, which enables the individual to realize or imagine how things may be perceived. Fortiﬁed by this type of information, the individual then returns to the present.The information – the regrets – may then be integrated with current choices. This method is almost continuously and unknowingly used.While developing his project, each time the project developer detects an event he wishes to avoid above all, he works along the minimax model, even if, actually, there is no need to calculate speciﬁc values. The use of threats may be critical for both the threatener and the threatened. If the threatener resorts to an undecided condition, he will have to execute it.The most

Notes efficient way to make oneself respected is to explain what measures will be taken if a certain type of event occurs. In this way, each individual concerned knows where he stands and there is no need for threats.

Chapter 5 115 But if he takes over from a manager who has not brought any progress for 15 years, he will need to impose major and therefore traumatic changes, whereas continuous vigilance would have enabled a slow and acceptable evolution. 116 In those days, English educational principles were applied with kindness and strictness. Such a system gave a strong feeling of security, since it excluded the notion of discretion. 117 See Méthodes de communication interpersonnelle, S. GEHIN, 1999, ESKA, p. 103–141. 118 In such a situation, a Japanese can feel like murdering someone – or committing suicide. 119 “Qui est le responsable?” (Images pour la formation) is a good illustration of such an attitude. We would advise it to trainers. We would also recommend the following analysis on anger: De la colère du manager au management de la colère, ESKA, 1997, 147 Dominique Michalon and Loïc Roche. 120 Meetings are frequently held in organizations based on participative management. A number of employees use meetings to block or hinder the institutional running of the organization, which is already very cumbersome. This requires the use of complex bypassing strategies.

Chapter 6 121 They confused listening with approving. 122 Pearlin (1961, p. 139–40, cited by Argyris, 1970, p. 62) showed that such a position led employees to a feeling of powerlessness and increased depression.

Epilogue 123 My ﬁrst manuscript was entitled The Profession of Manager. 124 A charismatic individual is, above all, a natural and lifelike person! But to be natural is not natural, it needs to be learnt! 125 In his last book, Drucker also questioned the efficiency of meetings. 126 The only extensive training available is training for reception personnel. 127 According to Marty’s work, if participative management is carried to the extreme (one person, one vote) and in the absence of power, sexual relationships within an organization may be inﬂuenced by the needs of a majority. 128 Crozier, 1984. Les sociétés démocratiques sont-elles encore gouvernables?, in Ordre et désordre, Rencontres internationales de Genève, no. 21, Editions de la Braconnière.

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1900–1939 1900, MACHIAVELLI N., (revised 1980) Le Prince et autres textes, Gallimard, Paris. 1916, DEWEY J., Democracy and Education, Macmillan, New York. 1923, SCOTT W.D., Personnel Management; la conduite du personnel, A.W. Shaw, New York. 1924, DUBREUIL H., La République industrielle, Bibliothèque d’édition. 1931, MAIER N.R.F., Reasoning in humans, II. The solution of a problem and its appearence in consciousness, Journal Comp. Psychology, 12, 181–94. 1931, MAYO E., The Human Problems of Industrial Civilization, Macmillan, New York. 1935, LEWIN K., A Dynamic Theory of Personality, McGraw-Hill, New York. 1937, COASE R.H., La nature de la ﬁrme (Prix Nobel d’économie en 1991). Revue française d’économie, 1987. 1938, MARX K., Le capital, Imprimerie Floch. 1939, DOLLARD J. et al., Frustration and Aggression, Yale University Press, New Haven, CT. 1939, PIGORS P.J.W., McKENNEY L.C. and ARMSTRONG T.O., Social Problems in Labor Relations, McGraw-Hill, New York. 1939, ROETHLISBERGER F.J., Management and the Workers, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA. 1939, DRUCKER P., The End of Economic Man, Butterworth/Heinemann, London.

1940–1949 1942, BAVELAS A., Morale and the Training of Leaders, in G. Watson (ed.) Civilian Morale, Houghton Mifflin, Boston, MA.

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1950–1959 1952, MAIER N. R.-F., Principes des Relations Humaines, Editions d’Organisation, Paris. EINSTEIN A., Conceptions scientiﬁques, morales et sociales, Editions Flammarion, Paris. 1953, VAES U., La hiérarchie dans la structure de l’entreprise. 1957, ARGYRIS C., Personality and Organisation: The conﬂict between system and the individual, Harper & Row. MARCH J.G. and SIMON H.A., Organizations, John Wiley, New York. MAIER N.R.F., Principes des relations humaines, Editions d’Organisation, Paris. 1958, LEAVITT H.-J., Psychologie des fonctions de direction dans l’entreprise, Editions Hommes et Techniques. LEWIS R. and STEWARD R., The Boss, Phoenix House, London. TANNEBAUM M., How to choose a leadership style, Harvard Business Review, March. 1959, CONTY J.M., Psychologie de la décision, Editions d’Organisation, Paris. EMERY F.E., Characteristics of Socio-Technical Systems, Tavistock, London.

1960–l963 1960, FIEDLER, F.E., The Leader’s Psychological Distance and Group Effectiveness, in Group Dynamics. 2nd edn, Harper & Row, New York. 1961, BOURRICAUD F., Esquisse d’une theorie de l’autorité, Plon, Paris. TANNENBAUM WECHLER MASSARIK, Leadership and Organisation, McGrawHill, New York.

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1962, HERZBERG F., Le travail et la nature de l’homme, Entreprise moderne d’edition, Paris. WILLIAMS J.-D., La stratégie dans les actions humaines, les affaires, la guerre, les jeux, Editions Dunod, Paris. 1963, ARGYRIS C., Exploration in Human Competence, Department of Industrial Administration, Yale University. BROWNE COHN, Chefs et meneur, P.U.F., Paris. CROZIER M., Le phénomène bureaucratique, Editions du Seuil, Paris. SLOAN A.P., My Years with General Motors, Garden City/Doubleday, NewYork. ZALEZNIK A., The dilemmas of leadership, Harvard Business Review, July/August 1963, (transl. HEC Montreal, in Encyclopédie du management, Centre d’enseignement supérieur des affaires, France Expansion).

1964 CROZIER M., Le phénomène bureaucratique, Editions du Seuil, Paris. FIEDLER F.E., A contingency model of leadership effectiveness, in L. Bercowitz (ed.) Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, Academic Press, New York. MASLOW A., Motivation and Personality, Harper & Row, New York. WEBER M., The Theory of Social and Economic Organization, Free Press.

1965–1967 1965, FOURASTIE J., Les 40,000 heures, Laffont-Gonthier, Paris. KEPNER C.H. and TREGOE B.B., The Rational Manager, authors’ imprint (transl. Editions d’Organisation, Paris, 1972). 1966, FIEDLER, F.E., The Effect of Leadership and Cultural Heterogeneity on Group Performance: A Test of Contingency Model, Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 2: 237–64. ZALEZNIK A., Human Dilemmas of Leadership, Harper & Row, New York. 1967, DRUCKER P., L’efficacité, objectif no. l des cadres, Editions d’Organisation, Paris. FIEDLER F.E., A Theory of Leadership Effectiveness, McGraw-Hill, New York.

1968 DEMONQUE-EICHENBERGER, La participation, Editions France-Empire. DRUCKER P., Bien connaître votre affaire et réussir, Editions d’Organisation, Paris. GELINIER O., Le secret des structures compétitives, Editions Hommes et Techniques.

Chronological Bibliography GELINIER O., La direction participative par objectifs, Editions Hommes et Techniques. HAIRE P., Psychologie et commandement dans l’entreprise, Editions d’Organisation, Paris. LAMBERT P., Management ou les 5 secrets du développement, C.L.E.

1969 ANZIEU D. and MARTIN J.-Y., Les styles de commandement, in La dynamique des groupes restreints, P.U.F., Paris. BLAKE R. and MOUTON J., Les deux dimensions du management, Editions d’Organisation, Paris. MACGREGOR D., La dimension humaine de l’entreprise, Gauthier-Villars. MARCH J.G. and SIMON H.A., Les organisations, Editions Dunod, Paris.

1970 ARGYRIS C., Participation et organisation, Editions Dunod, Paris. CYERT J.L. and MARCH J.G., Processus de décision dans l’entreprise, Editions Dunod, Paris. ELGOZY G., Les damnés de l’opulence, Calmann-Levy, Paris. JARDIM A., The First Henry Ford, MIT Press, MA. LARCON J.P. and REITTER R., Structures de pouvoir et identité de l’entreprise, Nathan. SILVERMAN D., La théorie des organisations, Editions Dunod, Paris. SIMON H.-A., Administrative Behavior, Macmillan, New York. WOODWARD J., Industrial Organization Behaviour and Control, Oxford University Press, Oxford.

1971 CHALVIN D., Autodiagnostic des dirigeants, Editions Hommes et Techniques, Paris. CRENIER M. and MONTEIL B., Principes de management, University of Quebec. LICKERT R., Le gouvernement participatif de l’entreprise, Gauthier-Villars. MARCH J.G. and SIMON H.A., Les organisations. Editions Dunod, Paris. MEAD M., Le fossé des générations, Denoël-Gonthier. MEIGNEZ R., Pathologie sociale de l’entreprise, Gauthier-Villars. LEVINSON H., L’art de diriger, Publi-Union. SKINNER B. F., Par-delà la liberté et la dignité, Editions H.M.H., Montreal.

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TAYLOR F. W., La direction scientiﬁque des entreprises, Editions Dunod, Paris.

1972 COHEN M.D. and MARCH J.C., A garbage can model of organizational choice, Administrative Science Quarterly, 17: 1–25. FRIDENSON P., Histoire des usines Renault, Editions du Seuil, Paris. KEPNER C.-H., TREGOE B.-B., Le manager rationnel, Editions d’Organisation, Paris. WATZLAWICK J., HELMICK-BEAVIN D. and JACKSON D., Une logique de la communication, Editions du Seuil, Paris.

1973 LAURIN P., Le management manuel, McGraw-Hill, New York. LEVISON H., Les cadres sous pression, Editions d’Organisation, Paris. LOBROT M., Pour ou contre l’autorité, Gautiers-Villars, Paris. THOENIG J.C., L’ère des technocrates, Editions d’Organisation, Paris. TREPO G., Les racines du centralisme dans l’entreprise, revue ManagementDirection, no 37 in Encyclopédie du management, Centre Supérieur des Affaires de Jouis-en-Josas, France Expansion. SCOTT W. and MITCHELL T., Organisation des structures de l’entreprise: analyse des comportements, Publi-Union.

1974–1976 1974, LAWRENCE P.R. and LORSCH J.W., Organizations and Their Members: a Contingency Approach, Harper & Row, New York. LOUE L., L’anesthésie sociale dans l’entreprise, Payot. MacGREGOR D., La profession de manager, Gauthier-Villars. 1975, FOUCAULT M., Surveiller et punir: la naissance de la prison, Gallimard, Paris. MACGREGOR D., Leadership et motivation, Ent. moderne d’édition (EME). ZALEZNIK A. and KETS DE VRIES M., Power and the Corporate Mind, Houghton Mifflin, Boston. 1976, DRUCKER P., Vidéo sur la prise de décision, Images pour la formation. LEGENDRE P., Jouir du pouvoir, Editions Minuit. MAFFESOLI M., Logique de la domination, P.U.F., Paris. MINTZBERG H., Planiﬁer à gauche et gérer à droite, Harvard l’Expansion, no 3: 74.

Chronological Bibliography SIMON P. and LAROSE R., La gestion des organisations, Thème 2, University of Quebec, Montreal.

1977–1978 1977, CHALVIN D., L’entreprise négociatrice. Le pouvoir peut-il se pratiquer? Editions Dunod, Paris. DRUCKER P., La nouvelle pratique de la direction des entreprises. Editions d’Organisation, Paris. CROZIER M. and FRIEDBERG E., L’acteur et le système, Editions du Seuil, Paris. 1978, FROMM E., Avoir ou être?, Laffont, Paris. SCHUMACHER E.F., Small is Beautiful (Une société à la mesure de l’homme), Editiions du Seuil, Paris.

1979 BERGERON J.L., Un cadre théorique pour l’étude de la relation entre la participation et la motivation au travail, Relations Industrielles, 34: 471–88. BOUDON R., Effets pervers et ordre social, P.U.F., Paris. DUPONT J.B., GENDRE F., BERTHOUD S. and DESCOMBES J.P., La psychologie des intérêts, P.U.F., Paris. LANGEVIN J.L., TREMBLAY R. and BELANGER L., La direction participative par objectifs, Laval University Press. LARCON J.P. and REITTER R., Structure de pouvoir et identité de l’entreprise, Nathan, Paris.

1980–1981 1980, BATESON, G., Vers une écologie de l’ésprit: la double contrainte? Editions du Seuil, pp. 42–9. BLIN C., La connaissance de soi et des autres, Editions du Hameau. BOSTON CONSULTING GROUP, Les mécanismes fondamentaux de la compétitivité, Editions Hommes et Techniques, Paris. DECLERK R., EYMERY P. and CRENER M.A., Le management stratégique des projets, Editions Hommes et Techniques, Paris. SERRES M., Le parasite, Grasset. 1981, BEAUCHARD J., La dynamique conflictuelle, comprendre et conduire les conﬂits, Réseaux. DEGOT V., L’entreprise comme système culturel, Revue française de gestion, 11 December: 461.

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LEGRES J. and PEMARTIN D., Pratiques des relations humaines dans l’entreprise, Editions d’Organisation, Paris. WATZLAWICK P., La nouvelle communication, Editions du Seuil, Paris. YUKL G., Leadership in Organization, Prentice Hall, Eaglewood Cliffs, NJ.

1982–1983 1982, BOLTANSKI L., Les cadres, Editions de Minuit. BURKE M., Les styles de vie des cadres et des entreprises, InterEditions, Paris. PETERS T. and WATERMAN R., Le prix de l’excellence: Les secrets des meilleures entreprises (InterEditions/Dunod, Paris, 1999). WAITLEY D., Attitude d’un gagnant: Un monde different, Quebec. 1983, GROUX G., Les cadres, Editions La Découverte Maspéro. PIVETEAU J., Mais comment peut-on être manager? I.N.S.E.P. SIMON H.-A., Administration et processus de décision, Economica. ZYSMAN, L’industrie française entre l’Etat et le marché, Bonnel, Paris.

1984 ARCHIER G. and SERIEYX H., L’entreprise du troisième type, Editions du Seuil, Paris. AXELROD R., The Evolution of Cooperation, Basic Books, New York. BELLENGER L., Etre constructif dans les négociations et les discussions, Entreprise moderne d’édition. BLAKE R. and MOUTON J., Surviving Arises through Participative Management, International Management, February. GELINIER O., Stratégie d’entreprise et motivation des hommes, Editions Hommes et Techniques, Paris. MINTZBERG H., Le manager au quotidien, Editions d’Organisation, Paris. RIBEILL G., Les cheminots, Editions La Decouverte. TOURAINE A., Le retour de l’acteur, Fayard. WOOT de Ph. et al., Proﬁl de dirigeant, Cabay-Economica.

1985 AUBREY B., Les nouveaux guerriers: la quête de la maîtrise de soi, Autrement. BENNIS W. and NANUS B., Diriger. Les secrets des meilleurs leaders, InterEditions, Paris. CANNAC Y.H., La bataille de la compétence, Editions Hommes et Techniques, Paris.

Chronological Bibliography CHANLAT A. and DUFOUR M., La rupture entre l’entreprise et les hommes, Editions Québec-Amériques. C.P.D.C.M.Q. (under the direction of) Les guerriers de l’émergence, Editions QuébecAmériques. DEGOT V., La gestion symbolique, Revue française de gestion, 52: 5–18. DELAIRE G., Commander ou motiver, Editions d’Organisation, Paris. DRUCKER P., Les entrepreneurs, Editions J.-C. Lattés. DURUZ N., Narcisse, en quête de soi, Mardaga. ISENBERG D.-J., Comment réfléchissent les dirigeants?, Harvard l’Expansion, spring, 85: 34–44. KETS DE VRIES M.F.R. and MILLER D., L’entreprise névrosée, transl. by Georges Landière from The Neurotic Organisation, Jossey-Bass, for the American Edition, 1984, and McGraw-Hill, New York. MCCORMACK M.H., Tout ce que vous n’apprendrez jamais à Harvard, Editions Rivages. PERNIN D., La gestion des hommes, Editions Hommes et Techniques, Paris. WRAPP E., Un bon dirigeant ne prend pas de décisions stratégiques, Harvard l’Expansion. 37: 28.

1986 BENABOU C. and ABRAVANEL H., Le comportement des individus et des groupes dans l’organisation, Gaëtan Morin, Quebec. CARLZON J., Renversons la pyramide, InterEdition, Paris. CRIBBIN J., Le Leadership. Ce qui différencie un véritable dirigeant d’un simple directeur, Editions de l’Homme, Paris. GUENDET G., EMERY Y. and NANKOBOYO F., Motiver aujourd’hui, Editions d’Organisation, Paris. HAGEGE C., L’homme de parole, Fayard. KETS de VRIES M., Comment rendre fous vos subordonnés, in Le comportement des individus et des groupes dans l’organisation, pp. 339–50. LEVIN P., Les cycles de l’identité, InterEditions, Paris. MENDEL G., On est toujours l’enfant de son siècle, Laffont, Paris. MINTZBERG H., Le pouvoir dans les organisations, Editions d’Organisation, Paris. MULLER J.L., Le pouvoir dans les relations quotidiennes, Editions Hommes et Techniques, Paris. TICHY N. and DEVANNA M., The Transformational Leader, John Wiley, New York. TOFFLER A., S’adapter ou mourir (L’entreprise face au chaos du futur), Editions Denoël, Paris.

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1987 BLAKE R. and MOUTON J., La troisième dimension du management, Editions d’Organisation, Paris. CHANLAT J.-F. and SEGUIN F., L’analyse des organisations: une anthologie sociologique, Gaëtan Morin, Paris. DONNADIEU G., Management interculturel et leçons de l’histoire, Editions Flammarion, Paris. JOULE V. and BEAUVOIS J.-L., Petit traité de manipulation a l’usage des honnêtes gens, P.U.F., Grenoble. LAPIERRE L., Imaginaire, gestion et leadership, Gestion, Paris. LABORDE G., Inﬂuencer avec intégrité, InterEdition, Paris. LEAVITT H. J., Le manager défricheur, Editions d’Organisation, Paris. LEFTON R.-E., Motivation efficace par l’entretien d’appréciation, McGraw-Hill, New York. LEVY-VALENI E.A., A la gauche du Seigneur ou l’illusion idéologique, Editions Bibliophane, Paris. ROLLAND G., Le temps des leaders, Editions d’Organisation, Paris. ROWAN R., Intuition et management, Editions Rivages, Les Echos.

1988 AMADO G., Cohésion organisationnelle et illusion collective, Revue française de gestion, pp. 37–43. FICHTER J-L., Non au projet d’entreprise! Revue française de gestion, 68: 85–92. FRANKL V., Pour découvrir un sens à sa vie, Editions de l’Homme, Paris. GAGNE R., LANGEVIN J.L., COMBES J.E., SARTORI D. and CASTAGNE M., A chacun sa propre entreprise performante au sein de l’entreprise, Publi-Union. HERMEL P., Le management participatif, Editions d’Organisation, Paris. HERRMANN N., The Creative Brain, Ned Herrmann Group. HERRMANN N., Les dominances cérébrales et la créativité, Retz. HERSEY P., Le leader situationnel, Editions d’Organisation, Paris. VILLETTE M., L’homme qui croynit au management, Editions du Seuil, Paris. WALTER M., Votre personnalité de manager. Editions d’Organisation, Paris.

1989 AKTOUF O., Le management entre traditions et renouvellement, Gaëtan Morin, Montreal.

Chronological Bibliography AUBERT N. and de GAULEJAC V., De la logique donnant-donnant à l’existence du toujours plus: le système managinaire, Connexions, 54: 127–43. DRUCKER P., Les nouvelles réalités. De l’Etat providence à la société du savoir, InterEditions, Paris. FERENCZI T., Défense du consensus, Editions Flammarion, Paris. GOGUELIN P., Le management psychologique des organisations, Editions les Hommes et l’Entreprise. d’IRIBARNE A., La logique de l’honneur. Gestion des entreprises et traditions nationales, Editions du Seuil, Paris. LORINO P., L’économiste et le manager, Editions La Decouverte. MINTZBERG H., Formons des managers, non des M.B.A.!, Harvard l’Expansion 51: 84. MORGAN G., Image de l’organisation, Editions Eska, Paris. TENIERE-BUCHOT P.-F., L’ABC du pouvoir Agir Bâtir Conquérir … et Sourire, Les Editions d’Organisation, Paris. WIEVIORKA M. and TRINH S., Le modèle EDF, Editions La Découverte.

1990 BLANCHARD K. and LORBER R., Le Manager Minute au travail, Editions d’Organisation, Paris. ETCHEGOYEN A., Les entreprises ont-elles une âme?, Bourin Jouillard. KOTTER J., Le leadership, InterEditions, Paris. NUTTIN J., Théorie de la motivation humaine (1991) P.U.F., Paris. SAINSAULIEU R., L’entreprise, une affaire de societe, F.N.S.P., Paris. WATERMAN R., Les champions du renouveau, InterEditions, Paris. WEBER M., L’éthique protestante et l’esprit du capitalisme, Pocket.

1991 BENNIS W., Profession, leader, InterEditions, Paris. BOURNOIS F., La gestion des cadres en Europe, Editions Eyrolles. BURKE M., Styles de pouvoir, Editions Dunod, Paris. GELINIER O., Fonctions et tâches de direction générale, Editions d’Organisation, Paris. Groupe l’Expansion, Motivation des cadres: valeur clé de l’entreprise, Harvard l’Expansion. JACOUD R. and METSCH M., Diriger autrement, les cinq réflexes du leader, Editions d’Organisation, Paris. KETS de VRIES M., Profession: leader, McGraw-Hill, New York.

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LECERF O., Au risque de gagner: le métier de dirigeant, Editions Fallois. LEVITT T., Réﬂexions sur le management, Editions Dunod, Paris. MARCH J. G., Décisions et organisation, Editions d’Organisation, Paris. MORIN P., Le management et le pouvoir, Editions d’Organisation, Paris. PAQUET G. and GELINIER O., Le management en crise pour une formation proche de l’action, Economica. VUILLEMIN L., Une enquête sur les préférences mentales de 99 managers français, Communications et langages, pp. 37–45.

1992 AXELROD R., Donnant-donnant, Editions Odile Jacob. BRUSLERIE H. de la, Ethique, déontologie et gestion de l’entreprise, Economica. CHAIZE J., La porte du changement s’ouvre de l’intérieur, Calmann-Lévy. FIEVET G., De la stratégie militaire à la stratégie d’entreprise, InterEdition/ Hachette. LESAGET M., Le manager intuitif, une nouvelle force, Editions Dunod, Paris. MOULLET M., Le management clandestin, InterEditions, Paris. PARIKH J., La gestion de soi, InterEditions, Paris. THEVENET M., Les styles de direction, Encyclopédie du Management, Editions Vuibert.

1993 GEHIN S. and IVANAJ V., Les valeurs des dirigeants et les stratégies de croissance des PME, Institut d’Administration des Entreprises. GENELOT D., Manager dans la complexité. Réflexions à l’usage des dirigeants, Insep Editions. HENRIET B., Leadership et management, Editions Liaisons, Paris. MILLER D., Le paradoxe d’Icare, Editions Eska, Paris. de MARICOURT R., Les samouraïs du management, Editions Vuibert. MOUSSE J., Ethique et entreprise, Editions Vuibert. RIBEILL G., La révolution ferroviaire, Belin. PARIKH J., Le management entre passion et détachement, InterEditions, Paris. SAINT PAUL de J., Choisir sa vie, InterEditions, Paris. SALLENAVE J.-P., L’antimanagement, Editions d’Organisation, Paris. STURMAN G.M. and CARON G., Egobilan professionnel. Osez devenir ce que vous êtes, Editions d’Organisation, Paris. VINCENT C.-P., Du paradoxe à la contradiction. Pour une nouvelle approche du management, ESF Editions.

Chronological Bibliography ZALEZNICK A., Les ressorts de l’action, InterEditions, Paris.

1994 CARROL P., Big Blues at IBM, Addison-Wesley. FAUJAS A., Trigano, L’aventure du club Med, Editions Flammarion. PROBST G.J., Organiser par 1’auto-organisation, Editions d’Organisation, Paris. WATERMAN R.H., La stratégie des équipes ad hoc, Editions Maxima. RUSS J., La pensée éthique contemporaine, P.U.F., Paris.

1995 CHAMPY J., Reengineering du management, Editions Dunod, Paris. DESAUNEY G., Comment gérer efficacement son supérieur hierarchique? Editions Dunod, Paris. GREENBERG J. and BARON R., Behavior in Organizations, Prentice Hall. GOLEMAN D., L’intelligence émotionnelle, Editions Robert Laffont, Paris/Quebec. KETS de VRIES M., Leaders, fous et imposteurs, Editions Eska, Paris. MONDY R.W. and PREMEAUX S.R., Management, Allyn & Bacon. PAPIN R., L’art de diriger, Vol. 1, Editions Dunod, Paris. STONER J.A., FREEMAN R.E. and GILBERT D.R., Management, Prentice Hall.

1996 Le métier de dirigeant, Revue française de gestion, special issue 11 December. HERRMANN N., The whole brain business book, McGraw-Hill, New York. LAFFONT R., Léger étonnement avant le saut, FranceLoisirs. LACHMANN H., Les décisions ne se prennent pas, elles se cueillent, Revue française de gestion, special issue 11 December. PAQUEROT M., L’enracinement des dirigeants et ses effets, Revue Française de gestion, special issue 11 December. REICHHELD F., L’effet loyauté, Editions Dunod, Paris.

1997 BELLIER-MICHEL S., Modes et légendes au pays du management, Editions Vuibert.

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COHEN E. and BAUER M., Qui dirige les groupes industriels? Essai sur le pouvoir, Editions du Seuil, Paris. GROVE A., Seuls les paranoïaques survivent, Village mondial. de GEUS A., La pérennité des entreprises, Editions Maxima.

1998 BRABANDERE L. de, Le management des idées, Editions Dunod, Paris. BESSON P., Dedans, dehors: les nouvelles frontières de l’organisation, Editions Vuibert. HABERER J.Y., Cinq ans au Crédit Lyonnais, Ramsay. d’INTAGNANO M., L’usine à chômeurs, Editions Plon. d’IRIBARNE P., Culture et mondialisation: gérer par-delà les frontières, Editions du Seuil, Paris. TAPSCOTT D., Growing Up Digital, The Rise of the Net Generation, McGraw-Hill, New York.

1999 DRUCKER P., L’avenir du management, Village mondial. JARROSSON B., 100 ans de management, Editions Dunod, Paris. Le DUFF R., Encyclopédie de la gestion et du management, Dalloz. MONEME I. and VAN DEN BULKE P., Le management relationnel, Editions Dunod, Paris.

2000 AUBREY B., L’entreprise de soi, Editions Flammarion, Paris. BOURION C., La logique émotionnelle, Editions Eska, Paris. DULUC A., Leadership et conﬁance, Editions Dunod, Paris. KERDELLANT C., Le prix de l’incompétence, Editions Denoël. TURNER J. and HEVIN B., Construire sa vie adulte, InterEditions, Paris.