A Shrine for Tibet: The Alice S. Kandell Collection of Tibetan Sacred Art

A SHRINE FOR TIBET THE ALICE

S.

KANDELL COLLECTION

Alice S. Kalle/ell ill (rollt o( a /JOrlrail o( Pae/INa Salllvhava

A SHRINE FOR TIBET THE ALICE

S.

KANOELL COLLECTION

Marylin M. Rhie Robert A.F. Thurman

Collection Curator, Philip Rudko Photography, John Bigelow Taylor Exec. Editor, Art Director, Thomas F. Yarnall

Tibet House US A Tibet HOllse US book, in association with OVEI
New York • London

First published in 2009 by Tibet House US 22 West ISth SI. New York, NY 100 11 www.tibcthouse.org In associa tion with and distributed by Overlook Duckworth, Peter M:lyer Publishers, [ne. New York a nd Lo ndon N~\X'

L ONDON:

YOI
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(For individ ual orders, bulk and special sales, cont:lCt our New York offil.:t') Copyrigh t €> 2009 Tibet House US Introductory essay copyrigh t © 2009 Marylin M. Rhie Introductory essay copy right © 2009 Robert A. F. Thurman Photography €) 2009 John Bigelow Taylor All rights reserved. No portion of this work may be reproduced in any fortn or by an)' means, electronic or mechanical. including photography, recording. o r by an)' information storage and retrieval system or technologies now known or later developed, without written perm ission from the publi sher. Book d('::,ign by Thomas F. Yarnall PhoTography by Jo hn Bigelow Taylor Printed and bo und in It'l ly by Arnoldo Mondadori Ed iwrc, Verona, o n acid-free pa per

1098765432 1 ISBN 978-0-9670 115-7-8 IUS) A CIP catalog record fo r this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging-in- Publication Data Rhie. Marylin M. A shr.me for Tibet): ~~t' Alice S. Kandell collection I ~'I.a ryli n M. Rhie, Robert A. F. Th urma n ; collectlon curawr, I hlltp Rudko; photography, Joh n Bigelow Taylor; exec. editor, a rt di recto r Thomas F. Yarnall. ' p.cm. Include.. bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-0-96701 1S-7-8 (us: alk. paper) I. Art. Tibetan. 2. I~uddhist art--China--Tibet. 3. Buddhist shrines. 4. Kandell AI- S .. A 5 A I' I' . , ICe • • rt co II eetlons.. rt-- nvatc co lCCllons--Unlted States. I. Thurman Robert A. E [I. T 1 N7346.TSR482009 , I t c. 704.9' 48943923--dc22 20090277 17

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FOREWORDS' vii I-U -J. The Daloi Lama Roben A.F. Thurman

CONTENTS

COLLECTOR'S PREFACE ' xi Alice S. Kandell

AUTHOR PREFACES ' xii Marylill lvt. Rh ie Roberr A. E Thurm an

Acknowledgments • xiv Note on Transcriptions and Terminology · xiv THE TIBETAN SHRINE ' I Roben A. E Thurman

FROM GANDEN TO DOLONNOR TO WUTAISHAN Regional Schools of Tibetan Buddhist Sculpture (Fifteenth to Eighteenth Centuries) • 15 Marylin M. Rhie

A SHRINE FOR TIBET' 49 Marylin M. Rhi e and Ro bert A. F. Thurman

I. Buddhas of the Three Times ' 50 II. Lamas and Spiritual Mentors ' 96 III. Female Deities ' 136 IV. Cosmic Buddhas, Bodhi. attvas, and Pure Lands ' 166 V. Adepts, Archetype Deities, and Protectors ' 196 VI. Ritual Implements • 228 VII. Cultu ral Objects' 252

BIBLIOGRAPHY' 287 INDEX' 291

THE DALAI LAMA

FOREWORD

The events of fl fty years ago caused much of the Tibetan cultural heritage to be destroyed in its own land. Therefore, 1 am very happy to know that some of our sacred images have survived and are being treated with appropriate respect elsewhere . I am gratefu l to Alice S. Kandell not only for co llecting and care full y preserv ing the objects depicted and de cribed here in a shrine that approximates the way they wou ld have been revered in Tibet, but also for sharing them with the general public through the page of this handsome book. Most of these artifact we Tibetans would regard as sacred. The talUes and paintings represent aspects of en lightenment. All of them are a source of in pi ration . We say that for a Buddhist practitioner their fun ction is to support faith, be
July 3, 2009

Tibetan art really comes inro its own distinctive glory, synthesizing elemenrs received from Ind ia, KashmJf, Khotan, Ne pal, and China within a vil>ionary matrix rhat is uniquely and brilliantly Tihetan. Up until now, in my opinion, most art hisrorians and connoisseurs, wirh a few notable exceptions, have been caught by tbe antiquarian bias that older is automatically better? and so have Dor really appreciated the remarkable flowering of Tibetan creativity ill the later periods. All rhese factors impelled us co accept Alice KandeU's invitarion and to decide to embark upon the project.

First, I contacted my att hisrorical colleague, Dr. Marylin Rhie, one of rhe world's foremost schol:us of Buddhis t an as transmined from India to China and developed in China, and 31so as developed In distinctive para llel in Tibet. She came down to view the collection, looked carefully with her expert eyes, and at once became enthusiastic about it. I then invired our brillianr designer and executive editor, Dr. Thomas Yarnall, a knowledgeable Tibetan scholar in his own right. He immediately came aboard, and we had the rC:1Ol assembled. Eventuall y, our cham pion photographer couple, Joh n B. Taylor and Diane Dubler, who had worked witll u S in our first boo k, traveling all over Europe and America to photograph, waS also able to participate, giving us tile highest possible quality photography, with their specia l creativity and precision in presenting objects in still life. Once we gOt to work, we had rhe tremendo us ad\anrage of working witb the origina l curator of the Collection, Mr. Philip Rudko, whose knowledge of rhe provenance of the obiects and also the proper arrange ment of Tibetan and Mongolian shrines was absol utely inva luable. And of course, throughout the long labor of completing the many tasks involved III producing such a wo rk. Alice Kandell was rirclessly and genecously available [Q help in numerous ways. nl:lking it all possible and enioyable.

May this book be offered as a trib urc co rhe precIous culture of Tiber and as an augury of hope that ir will not only be preserved. but wi ll continue co excel from fullness to fullness, and once agai n thr ive and shine OUl all over the wo rld [rol11 within its high free homelilnd!

Robert A. F. "Teozin Dhar makirri " Thurman President, Tiber HOllse US Jey Tso ng Khapa Professor oflndo~Tiberan Buddhist Studi es, Columbia Universiry

T ibet 1louse I~ plea~cd 10 prCSC'1H its rhird publicarion in the cl'lebration .:md study of the sacred :Ht of Tibet, following upon \~istlom alld Compassion ( 1991, 1996) :lnd Worlds o(TrtI11S(OYIJhltlOlI ( 1999).

us

WhC'n WI' first enll'red the shrine room of Aticr K.mdelL Wl' wcre rhundcrstruck by hl'[ ;Hr;l ngcllIrlll of thr braUllful and valuable sculptures and paintings into an authentic Tibl't:lll shrme, ready for wo rshiper Jnd practitioner to perform daily prayers and conremplatlons. In f.!Ct, my wife Nena, Tibet H OllS!:' l\Ianagmg Director, upon w.llkmg into rhr shrlllc room, cxperlcnced a I'isual n.l~h of encrg)' that was so powrrful, she nCJrly faimed. Alice kindly had her lie down and brought her cool w.lfer. while we called our eye doctor to make sure she was nOt having a retinJI problrrn. Oncr wr werc put at eaS(' on that score, we returned to ~llId)' the ~hTlne. \'('hlle thr IIldlvidual ob)rcts were oUTstanding. II was thr 'HrJ.ngrrnrllt that ('Specially ImpresS('d us. We werr pleaSc.' d that no tallgb ICon W;IS removed frOIll ItS brocJ.de franlmg-Itsdf a kHld of mll1i·shrine, with dlffrrent COIOh of brocade formmg a doorway to 1I1\'lte thr viewer into the world of the ICOII. and a silken cover that can be lowered to protcrtlts s,1cred spacr. Thl' sculptures mostly had their original bascs and \\'l're not pm'd 01X'11. and the fir rce deities had thclr hand Implemeflfs nlostly Intact. And there wen' all the Tilu,ll ob)crts and II1StfumelltS that are used in a TilX'lan shrlflc, p()1Srd and ready for usc. AlICe K:ltldell had spent re:l rs worklllg wllh her knowledgl'ablr curatOr, ,\ Ir. I)hlllp Rudko, to create Ih lS ~acred space. She fun her engaged our Il1Ierest by the fact that she e"pres,ed to IJ~ a detCrmlll,1I101l to create a fUllIre and long·term sltlla tion where her shrine could be preserved, ;Iud mad,· availahle to Ihe Tibetan people in sOllie forlll. Witham being a prJ.cticing Iluddhisl herself, shl' seemed deepl)' moved b)' the spiritual atlllospherc Ihc Tihet,lI\~ had cre:Hed, and was concerncd about thl'lr f
Ill1portam faclOr 1lI our deCISIOn is Ihat the Kandell Shrine Collection contalllS numerous cxquisitc pieces from the later CelllUTIeS of libctan artistic production, whICh I JX·rsonalir conSider liS highest ptnoo. I call thiS pertod the ~Ganden (or Celukpa ) Renalssance,- comprtSlllg the 15th through the 18th celllUfles, when

II. H. the

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Lall1(1 mil/ A/,ce S. Km/(/el/ wtlh blldlf/WS (roll1 the shrh/e 11/ (rollt o( Malmkala

Collector's Preface ALICE S. I
"\~hcn fa lltasy becomes reality, a member of the Harvard Psyc hology Department ShOllld be th ere ro witness it." This was tht' response I received frOIll my rrofc!lsor, Dr. Engel, when, as a young snlclcnr in {he Harvard doctoral dcparrmel1t of psychology. I sheepishly requested a three week leave of absence from my studies to :m cnd the co ronation of Ill)' frie nd who had married the prince of a tiny and ancienr kingdom OJ} the border of Tibet. On ly twO rears after their marriage, tbe prince's fat her. the king, had passed away, the you ng prince was to btcome king, and Ill)' friend Hope Cooke was to become his queen. We had been good friends in college, but I1mhlllg could have prepared me for the overw helming beaury of the Sikkirnese religion, culture, art! and people. Their way of life and their spirituality had an immediacy whic h drew me ro it. I had p reviou~ly studied Buddhism and other religions with Joseph ampbell at college and had realized bow drawn I \Va!; to the Buddhist way of life. But heing so rorally immersed in rbe life in ikkim and the Buddhist spirit was to change me for d1t! rest of my life. Although marriage, children and pmfessionallife interrupted rhe 5ikkim trips, my heart was drawn to the \\'onderful environment and art. That first experience III ikkim would lead [Q more trips there, and eventually to trips [Q Tibt:t and Ladakh. And so early on I began collecling Tibetan art. Ies beauty, its delicacy, it£ Spirit spoke ro me, but more than that, its spirituality and accessibility capti\·ated my heart. As a student there were few oppotruniries to collecl, bm as time Wtnt on, little could dis tract m!! from the power of the bea utifu l and antique images. ~lemories of being sur rounded in rhe shrines and temp le" kep t coming back to me. I was aI peace immer cd in tbe atmosphere of rhe paintings and bronzes of deities, the canopies above, (he flicke.ring burter lamps,
XI

Author Prefaces

Jl/IARYLIN M. RHIE F rom the first time I S3W [he Kandel! collection I was amalrd by the range of materials and objects of all kinds related TO Tibetan religious art and culture. It is rare ro set' such a collection in this country. It tCpTl'senrs tI virtual island of Tibet in our culture, especially when seen first·h:lnd amassed in the tWO adjacent rooms so\t'I)' devoted to a display of these works, as can be glimpsed from the photographs introducing cach sc("(ion of this book . From ;\11 art historicall'il'"Wpoint the varicr}' in itself is of interest, bur the strength of the sculptu re contributes substantially to a new chapter in the study of Tibetan sculpture frOIll the bter periods of Tibetan art. trom (a. 15[h-\ ~th centUries. Further, the sculpture includes examples from the related Mongolian and Chinese schools of Tibetan-style Buddhist art, a subject so far receiving only sporadic or limited attention. The sculptures in the Kandell collection show the importance of the :"'Iongolian, Dolonnor, and Qing Chinese schools in particular, and their introduction here will hopefull), stimulate more interest in these fascinating later periods of Tibetan and Tibet-related Buddhist art. Because much of the art prtst'med here is pubhshrd for tht first time, thr sprcific catalogue entries place strong emphasis on anal ysis, dating, and regional considerations, while at the same time conveying authentic religious views and intt'"rpretarion. Thus, in the manner of our other joint publications { Wisdom IIl1d Compassioll, and Worlds o(Tralls(orllllltioll) this book is also a fusion of religious meaning and art analysis, in this case, in relation to this compreht'"nsivt' collection, comprised of sculptures, paintings, ritual items, furniture, jewelry, tapestries, and the man)' other items which comprise this extraordinary ~shrine" of Tibrtan art. Special thanks are extendrd to Alice Kandel! for her ever-present enthusiasm, patience, and deep interest during the emire process of creating this book. Shr unstintingl), provided all the necessary materials, data, and photos (many of which she took hrrsclf when I asked for various views of the sculptures and details of thr paintings for m)' prt'paration). II was alwa)'s a pleasure to visit her shrine rooms, where one felt transponed to the world of Tibet right in the ht'art of New York. Many thanks and appreciation also go to Phil Rudko, the cu rator and adviser of !he K:lndell collection. It was good to have his input and idras, which wrre especially useful in formulating the descriptions of the magnificenr jewelry. and I particularly appreciated his expertise on the !echnical aspects of tllr sculplUres, which was helpful for my writing. We sincerely hope this book will be u~eful and illuminating 10 those intrrested in Tibetan Buddhism and its art from the times and areas represented by this remarkable collection.

ROBERT A. F THURMAN T he Kandell Collection with its shrine assemblage inspired me to stud), in further detail what I call "the Ganden Ren3iSS3nce" (see m)' essay in Wior/lis o(Tr
",

own monastic universities of the demand ing curricula of study, practi ce, and performance of the rh ousand4 ye~r4o l ~). world 4fa mOlh Buddhist uni versiries of India. Within the hugely expanding Tibera n monastic uni versities, rhe vas t ca non of Buddh ist scri prures and scientific treatises uanslarcd into Tibeta n from Sa ~ s~ rit and mbcr Indian languages over seven centuries were orga nized and published in xylograp hi c pnnnngs as the Kangyur and Tengyur collecti ons, their study being empowered and faci litated by master c0(11JTIenmr ies and independent treatises written by rhe numerous translators, scholars, and realized sages who flourished during the preceding ccnturies. I wa$ comemplating this approach CO my essay grounded in the Kandell material, bm \Va not co mpletel y convinced about it unrill read the essay of my e.sreemed arr historia n colleague, Dr. Marylin Rhi e. " From GaJ1dcn to Dolollllor." Without any prior co nsultation abo ur the topic, she independenrly tracked in art history the expansion of vision and crea tivity coming from the 15th century in Central and \'<'estern Tibet and movi ng to the Eastern part of Tibet and [hen onward beyond Tibet into the t-.1ongolia n natiuns and IV1anchu-domina ted China fro m the 17th century, I am im mensely grateful ro her for the insights elaborated in her essay; as also happened during our nvo previous collabora ti ons, she helped me learn to sec the gro unding of rhe intcUectuaJ and pirirual history of this period of Tiberan cultu re in the art [hat records th e corres ponding vis ions of the human and divine worlds of enlightened beings. I enj oy calling th is period a " Renaissance"-because it represents the ma jor renaissa nce of Buddhism in the world du ring rhese centuries. reviving its globa l movement of enligh tenment education, which had been deep ly damaged in preceding centuries in India by Turkic invasiol)s and in Ch.in a by Mongolian invasions; and also beca use it reso nates globally wi th the Euro pea n .I Renaissa nce" that sp rang up in Italy around the same time (and which Westerners are used to thinking of as the only "renaissance" on the planet). Like the European renaissance, the Ganden Renaissance of Tibet had ao overt impact far beyond the borders o f Tibet, spreading its transformation in Mongolia, Manchuria 1 and China. What Tibetan hisro ria ns call I'the taming" of the Mongol nations--()ver generations turning th em away from the endemic viole nce of constant conq uesr towa rd the nonviolent norm of Buddhist monastic centered society-may eventua ll y be recognized in global history as aile of dl C greateSTcross-cul tural achievements of rhe last few centuries, quite a remarkable in an opposite way as rhe European imperialist conquest of the globe through the industrializati on of warfare. This period in Tibet is ma rked by the advenr of rhe Dal3i Lama incarnation institurion, beginning with Gyalw. Gondun Drubp. (13 92-1474), who developed the teachings and gu ided rhe expansion of the movement of his teacher, Tsong Khapa Losang Drakpa (1357-141 9), and who fo unded rhe maior southern monastery Tashi Lhunpo io 1447. From the time of the Third Dalai Lama, Sonam Gyarso (1543-1588), [h t:: first [0 ha ve the title, [he Buddhist Illovcmenr began penetrating rhe ivlongoliall cui cure in earnest, and by the time of the Great Fifth, J...osang Gyarso \J6 J7- 1682L the Dalai Lamas were considered by educated In ner Asians to be th e central peacemaker in their un iverse. Ir is interesting thar we are now in the era of the Great Fourtee nth Dala i Lama, Tcnzin Gyatso (1935- ), and [hat he has emerged for the first time globall y as a Nobel Peace Prize Laureate and a universall y popular icon of world peace, his example and adv ice ignored only by those who co nsider [hat they stand to gain Illore trom wa r th an peace. . I offer my essay and our st ud ies of the objects in rhe Alice Kandetl Collection as parr of (lur cftorr to raise (he awareness of the great achievement of the Tibetan nation, by revealing rhe heauty and va lue of Tibet's cn lightenmenr 0riented culture as revealed in its sacred aer. 4

4

Xlll

THE TIBETAN SHRINE Robert A.F. Thurman

Acknowledgments W e are delighted to txpress our heartfelt thanks to Young Rhie for his unstmting help and encouragement; to Thomas Yarnall for his expert and cremive design, c:lreful cdulJIg, J.nd meticulous us henng of the countless dC t:llls of the work through the processes of publication; to Philip Rudko for his expertise in ,\sscmhling the collection and explaining its provenance .md subtleties; to John T;l}'lor and Diane Dubler for their supportive enthusiasm and fabulous photograph)': and to the inspired collector and generous patron, Alice Kandell. We are also deeply thankful to the many mcm!x'rs of the staff of Tibet I-louse US, who assisu:d in numerous W;l}'S; to Leslie Kriesel, William i\ leyt'rs, ,md Annie Bien for their invaluable editori:tl 3ssistJnci.'; 10 Do Mi St3uber for her expert production of the uld.:-x: 10 N3nc), Freern,m of ,\ Iondadon Press, ,Ind 10 her crew ltl Verona, Sergio Brunelli, Alberto HortoiuOI, 3nd Vinu:io Rosserti; 3nd of course 10 Ill)' dC"3r friend and colleague and nlC"ntor in publishmg, Mr. I)eter MJ.yer of OI'C"rlook Duckworth. FlIlally, our gratirude goes as ever 10 all our teachers, 1·lls 1-Iolllles5 thC" D:alal Lama, thC" !atC" RC"vcrcnd Geshe Wang)'al. thC" young Kyabje Lingtsang Rmpoche, and man)' others, and, especially in thiS case, 10 the TiiX"lan JXople, their teachers, and thcir artists ovcr man)- cemunes, who produced the wondC"rful oblects III thIS colleClion and have been suffermg for over half ,\ cemUT)' their worst period in their known hISIOT),.

NOTE ON TRANSCRIPTIONS, TERMINOLOGY, AND NUMBERING

Inorder

10 lll'lke this book ,IS accessible as possible to the general public, I\'e hal'e avoided diacritical marks, CVl'n where specialists expect them . Accordingl)" we havc not differenllated Sanskrit long and short vowels, Sibilant and retroflex slJ's, various I/'S, denrals and retrofll'x dentals, and so forth. \'(IC have made Tibetan word~ as phonet!c as possible in English, except whl're a personal or pbce name is already well known III a delightfully Illlspronounceable form (e.g .. "Lhasa," pronounced ,IS written, IS rather different from " Hlasa," wTltten as pronounced). Th IS not used for the aspIrated dental, since English t is already aspirated, and Ih(' English th sound does not occur 111 TilX"lan, ChmeS(' words are gil'en in Pin}'in tr.UlscnptlOn.

In daHng, we

tiS<"

COllllllon Era (eL ) and Before Common Era (1I.l. f. ) m place of A. D. and 1I.l.

Throughoulthls book. Catalogue Images arc often referred to by their "C.1IJlogue number~ (e.g., IV. I 2), Images wlthm the lIltroduClory ess:t)'s are referred to by th('lr MFigure numlX"r~ (e.g .. Fig. 7).

'"

FIg. I. Th" POIJIJ. 1 h.uJ l ~fIQlI,mou). gou.Khe 011 p.lper)_

I. INTRODUCTION

T lbelan Buddhists learned well the Buddha's te:lchmg that our binary I11111d5 do nOl see reality accurately. \,(Ihat we see IS nOl what we get. What we [hlilk IS really real Jctually has an illusorv n.llure. Tha[ [urns out [0 be forlUnate. because [he world' we h;l buually see as rl'Jlls ultimately unsatisfac· [ory. It IS ImperfeCt, Impermanent, IlIIcolllrolbblr, and full of d,mgers. The Buddha's b;ld new~ simply confirms \l'h;l[ we normally expenence. If we ,In' hOlll,~t with ourselves: that this habitually pl'rccil'cd world i~ deeply and in(,vitably frustrat· IIIg-a realm of ~ufferlng that will not C0111e to an end on Ib own. In the face of thi~, however. the good news that thc Buddh;l brings i~ a~lOundlllgl)' good. lie di"Covered that there IS another world be)ond suffeflllg that is more real! The other world turns 0111 to bc 1IIuch likt' this world. but trullsforllll!tl. once accurately und('rstood and more deepl)' experienced. ThiS lIIore real world is absolutely fulfilling. free of all pam, and nawrall) blissful. Each of u~ can dlscovcr thiS morl' re,11 world, lUSt ,IS the Buddha discovered il. We can graduall y see Ihrough the unrt-alll}, of our habitual sur· roundlllgs Jnd gam 1II ~lght 11110 the n'alworld of frc(,dom. ThiS IS an edu(allonal proce~s-)"('f It IS sunply learnmg 10 be more rea hSllc. We hecome efft'wI'ely cflllcal of our habilUal nm perceptlOn, Sfrlpplllg It away hll by hll. Once our c)'es arc frec of our habitual ,'clls. [hc unreal dissolves and [he real remains. This i ~ nonlocal or ommpn'sell[ I1Irl'ana, and it IS enlightened II\"trIg free from an y suffering. We .IfC so used to thmkmg of the habllllal1)' perccived but IInre,11 world .15 connete and ~uhs tantlal. we cannOt imagine it could be an )' olhcr wa )'. Thll~ II'r tend to thlllk of "nirvana" as ~olll c thl1lg or SOlllewhere eI~e-solile ~ort nf absolute. beyond. [r:ln ~(e ndell[, outside of the lO[lvellllonally re:ll hut Ultlmatcly unrcalworid. Such ,111 ununaglllable other world muq I o The Tlhc[,1n

s

~hrlUc

~lIlce nothlllg we arc used to perceil'ing could correspond to II. It seems ,II first the opposite of l'\'cry[hlllg we know-a purr neg;ltlon. eXlinCllon, space. infinity, uncon~clousness ... In a Sl' nse. Wt' C:lII only believc in such a IIIrl'anic re.llm hll1ldly. only hope for it against all reasonable hope. Thus ~uch dualiqic ulI.lrrsl.H1ding of unreal and real, samsa ra :lnd IIIrV.H1:I, is s:lid to be lIIystical, lion rational. and religiOUS, and II C;ln l'l'ell Ix'come f:tnatical. Buddha let m:lny of his studrnts :Ipproach the transcendent in such a dU;llistic way, and often ~puk(' of I[ to [hem ;lS "the end of birth," ··the cnd of suffcring." m terms of pure neg:llion. H(' thus hoped to encollr,lge them 10 mature. Ihrough slriving for that othl'r· worldly nirvana, [0 hecome less II1secure and self-centered and so more able to embrace Ihc more radical. more re3listic. nondual awa reness. Hc spoke differently to more mawre students, who werc less frightened of the JIlore real world and more subtle in their thmkmg. Ill' did nOl cont radict the Idea of the Olherness of mn'Jna, smCl' thiS world deeply known IS really quitc different from whJt we Ihmk It IS. 13m he expressed more dearly thl' IIIsighlOf nondualllY. The unreal world of suffenng is on I)' less real than the supremel)' real world of 1ILrvana; il is not abwlutely nonCXlstent. Thus, when the prince Siddhartha became !hc Sll.Ik)'amulII Uuddh:l, hc underSlood that th(' world had been nirvana all along, but he did not Ignore the fact that other bcmgs slIlI pcrceil'cd tlm lII rvana a~ samsara. His wisdom saw through the secJIll1lg realll}' of [heir perception, bm IllS compassIOn did nut allow hlln to dl~l1Iiss il. ~\'(Iisdoll1" and "compassion" seem 10 be contradictory word~. which allow~ them to he exprc%il'e of a binary roUlme realll}'. BUI ;lCtu all)'. "wl~d()m" I~ ~ill\plr the way of describing real selne ~snl's' and ()pl'nnc~s as a cognitive transcendence of

be 'lIIagmed anyway.

unreality,
n. SHRINES, IDOLS, AND ABSOLUTE REALITY An idol is simply a representation or symbol of someth ing that I[ is not. Thus, a statue of Shakyamuni Buddha repre· st'm~ the "Souprcme cmanation body" (paramanirmanakaya) of a pamcular senrien r being who transcended beginmngle~s habitual delusion and became a perfect buddha-. limi tbs awa rcnCS and an energetic presence beyond egocentric hu· man and divine embodiments, yet capable of manifestlllg rhem as nece sary for the benefi t of suffering beings. The sratue of Abraham Lincoln seated at the Lincoln Memorial in Washingto n represents th e American president who presid~d over rh e Nonhern Union during th e Civil War and defeated rhe ourhcrn seccssion i ts. A cru cifi x with a bronze Jesll na iled upon its cross represe ms Jes us of Nazareth crucified by the Roman governor of Jud ea yet hailed by his foU"wc<s and "II

hristian:; si nce then as rhe messiah savior of all bdievmg human beings. A piece of calligraph) inscrihing the ,y llable, "AI lab" or the unpronounceable phonemes "YII WH O. rcpre!.ems the supreme crearor deit)· believed by piolls Muslims and Jews to rule the universe. All these are idols, representations of i)omtthing else that we try to imagme when we see them. Mos~ bestowed rhe Ten Comma ndments on the Jewis h people 3S the}' wandered in (he desert ahcc c~caping from captivity in Egypt. One comma ndment was understOod as th e probibition of "idolatry." We should nOte this rramlation language ve ry ca refully: ) am th e LORD your God, who bro ught yo u out of the land of Egypt, out of the house of slave ry; yo u hall have no other gods before me. You ~hall nor make fo r your::,elf an idoJ, whether in the form of anything (hat is in heaven above, or that is on rhe ea rth beneath, o r that is in the warer under th e earth. You ~hall not bow down [Q th ttm or worship rhemj for I the LORD your God am a ,ealous God. The puncruarion here could make il seem that no one ~hould make any id ul, any image. of anything at all for any rt!3S0n, a the econd sentence ends with a period. However, ohviously It IS the followi ng clause thal is mosl important. prohibiting bowi ng dow n to or worshiping the idol, bt:cause the fool· is h person who does so IS bowing dow n to (w hich means tak ing refuge in) and worshiping another god than YHWH, whv proclaims himself " jealous." So "idolatry" here means worshiping a worldly deiry rather than the transcendent YHWH. It is clear that rhis co mmandment waS declared in a cOntext of there being a multiplicity of gods in the world. YH\XlH states his reason for demanding exclusive WO I' hip. He hroughr the Jews out of Egypt and hence is more powerful than the Pbaraoh of Egyp t, considered a god by hi, 01V11 people. T he Egyptians and all the other group' 111 the region at that time ha d many gods. and many iduls representing them In the.ir temples. Aaron, Moses's brorher. had just made an idol of a golden calf before Moum Sina i and wa!l bow ing ro it and wo rshiping it when Moses came down from the moun· tain. The simple, uneducated ttibal peo pleco uldn '[ be trusted not to wors hip all so rts of deit ies Other th an YI-I\VH,o they shouldn 't have any images [Q Icad rh em into temptation. The idolatry is not merely the making of images; it i5. the worship a~ ·'Cod" of any Other than YHWH, so an y object made (or ,/'m lmrpose is prohibited. The positive baSIC insighr-or re ligio us breakthroughof lhlS co mmandment is that it goes beyond the animbtit deification of the powers of natu re ro di scover an ultimate divine reality tb at tran cends the human habitual concept. It is like the Buddhist insight into \'oidnes~ or freedom ~eme rg­ ing in India at about rhe same blstorical time as the Babylo· nian ~olJection of rht Talmud)-no th ing has any intrinsic or nbsoilite reality in itsel f, and thus all things. in essence arc purevoidness or freedom. This absolute freedom allows all things ro exis t while negating each one thin g's intrinsic reality as a rhing in itself. Of course, this absolute reality is bt!yond being imagined as personal or impersonal, eve n though YH\VH . . ometimes presenrs himself ro people as
out of a name. The Arabic word AI fall (phonetically at least) resembles in sound "the nor, " perhaps at least subliminally indicating that Allah is not like anything else knowable by humans. The point here is that sculptural representations of sacred things are not a problem. They do nOt fit the definition of idolatry as long as the representations are not worshiped as things in themselves, as the sacred in itself. In that sense, a name. word. symbol, or concept can be made into an idol if a person comes to believe that it is the act ual entity, deity, or reality. There is such a thing as verb:ll or conceptual idol:ltr)·. In religious wars, when people kill each other because each thinks th:lt the -Transcendent God" can only be expressed in Hebrew, Greek , Arabic. Sanskrit, or whatever other l:lnguage or text, not in any other, they are committing idol:ltry juSt as surely as the y are committing murder. \,(Iriting a text in a language or pronouncing a word is creating a representation of somethi ng that the text or word is l1or. If worshiped ,1S if it were the entity represented, the representation is an "idol " in the biblically prohibited sense. Therefore, the idols and images held sacred by Tibetan Buddhists are not "idolatrous" (as defined in Abrahamic traditions) represemations as long as Buddhists remain aware that the images are not themselves the buddhas. bodhisarrvas, and buddh3 realms they depict. This is a very importam point to keep in mind, since the Abrahamic traditions are so sensitive about this issue. An anxiety about religious idols and images lies deeply active in the unconscious and can prevent those who grew up in a Western culture from appreciating such objects of sacred an as are presented in this book and its associated exhibitions.

III . TI BETAN SHRINES, VARIETIES In typical Tibetan fashion, things are often classified in tCTmS of body, speech, and mind, and sometimes outer, inner, and secret. We should kel'p in mind our definition of " shrine" as a doorway from the profane or ordinary into the sacred o r extraordinary and, perhaps more important. a doorwa y from the sacred and extraordinar y into the profane or ordinary. Why do we tend to imagine thaI there is no realit y other than our ordinary habitual world? And why do we rake for granted that there are no extraordinary beings who have realized such a reality and can choose to manifest from there to here? Clead)', since lime immemorial , people who make and use sh rines. temples, and sacred placcs have thought they were thereby reachmg beyond the ordinary. From the Tibetan Buddhist point of view thc world itself !s a kind of shrine. when considered from what Maha ya na Buddhists imagine to be Shakyamuni Buddha's perspective: his world has become a buddha field or buddhavcrse (blldd/lakshetra). a realm where the intersubjective mind field of human, d!vine. demonic, and animal beings has structured material elements in such a way as to create the ideal forum for positive evolut ion of beings away from egocentric struggle and su fferm g toward unexcelled perfect enhghtenmentwhich is experiencmg and embodymg sel/less wisdom and unIVersal compaSSion. Then, for the Tibetans. their" Bod," or "Land of Snows'--the!r own name for their country (~ Tibet" comes from Arab!c rravelers mak111g reports on ~ Tu bba l ," perhaps deflved from sTud Hod, "upper Tibet" m Tibctan)-is 4 • The Tibetan ShTlne

a special, sacred land , predicted first by Shakya muni Buddha and then chosen by the bodhisatTva Avaloki teshvara as a protective shrine for the Dharma and its practitioners during dark times in the wo rld outside. Israel functions this way for religious Jews, Arabia for Muslims, India for Hindus, and so on. Mountains are favorite shrines for people of various faith s-for exa mple, Mount Kailash for Hindus, Buddhists, and Jaim; the Black Hills for the Lakota; I~lack Mesa for the Hopi; Mount Fuji for the Japanese; and Mount Sinai for the three Abrahamic religions' follower s. There is also the sacred Nile River-called Hapl by the Egyptians-the Jordan River, and the Ri ver Ganga. Then we have the Buddhists' bodhi {fee in Bodh Gaya , the sacred oaks of the ancient druids and Vikings, and the world ash tree of the Teutons. There are innumerable caves in all world religions, where prophets or holy persons dwelled and experienced revelations. There are holy cities. such as Jerusalem, Varanasi, Rome, Lhasa , Beijing, Kyoto, and Washington perhaps for the American "civil religion. " [here are buildings such as the Jokhang and the Potala in Lhasa, the Kaaba in Mecca, St. Peter's in Rome, the Temple of the E.1rth in Beijing, and the Mahabodhi Temple in Bodh Gaya. Then there are monuments, such as the innumerable stupas (reliquary mounds) all over the landscape of once predominantly Buddhist Asia. Finally, there is the idea of making one's own body into a shrine for the divine form s of enlightenment, a sophisticated. elaborate, and highly multifarious yogic enterprise taught in the vast litcrature and numerous and diverse living traditions of the bldo·Tibetan Buddhist Tantras. These are the body mandalas (filS dkyi/), wherein the yogin or yogini in subtle contemplation merges specific pans o f his or her body with elementS of the universe and pans of the architecture of the envisioned divine palace, then populates it as the unive rse with various budd has and bodhisa ttvas. In the Tibetan context. the most obvious shrine is the Buddhist temple. The most famous one in Tibet is thr Jokhang in the center of Lhasa . built in the seventh cenwry C E. by the Emperor Songzen Gambo (ca. 569-649). Within the Jokhang are numerous sh rine rooms containlllg representa· tions of various buddhas, bodhis3Ttvas, lamas, Indian paniarchs, immortal saims, kings and queens (usually regarded as emanations), deities mild and fierce, transcendent and mundane, and even bllddhavcrscs (buddha realms, pure lands) both celestial and terrestrial. The cemral shrine houses an image of Shakyamuni Buddha, the Jowo Rinpoche, believed by Tibetans (not by scholars) to have been made while the B\I~dha ~v a s ali.ve and given to an emperor of China by an Indian klllg. Princess Wen-cheng, a Tang dynasty princess sent a~ainst her will for marriage to Songzen Gambo as part o f a tribute payment, brought the Jowo Rinpoche to Tibet. The image was destroyed in the rela ti vely recent Chinese com munist invasion of the 1950s and 1960s, but fra gments lVere eventually recov~red and embedded in a new sculpture modeled after the anCient one. The great lama Tsong Khapa (1357- [419). the "Renaissance man ~ of Tibet. initiated a Iraditi~n by donatin~ ~ golden crown and elabo rate jewelry to the lm~ge, sY r11b~l1Z!n g Sha kyamuni Buddha"s continuing p~esen~e 111. ~he beanfic body of the celestial plane and hence hiS aval labtlllY 10 ea rnest practitioners. . The second most imponam shrine in Tibet is the Potala 1Iself. the largest palace in the world; it spreads o ut over an

entire mountain and stands as dJe very icon of Tibet. It was bui lt by the Great Fifth Dalai Lama, Losang Gyatso 1161782), and his spiritual son and regent successor, Desi Sangyey Gyarso (1653-1705 ). It is a true example of a shrine as a meditation doorway, and the perfect emblem of the modern form of Tibetan civilization. It was built on the remains of a sLxth- to seventh-century fortress, a retreat of the unifying emperor, Songzen Gamba. It is a fort and palace of a king, the seat of a government called "the Ganden Palace Victory government, l' and has messianic overrones. Ganden is the name of the heaven of the Buddha Ivlaitreya, whose advent will be in a future time when world society once again is ready to place spiritualiry and ethics at the center of life and all is peace, harmony, and health. The Potala houses government ministries and a school for officials of finance, law, cultllIe, Dharma, and foreign affairs. Since its messianic ruler is a monk, it is a monastery) a residence of rhe highl y trained philosophical and contemplative monks of the Namgyal monastery. It is named after the Potalaka, the "safe haven " pure land on earth of the bodhisattva Avalokiteshvara, the Tibetan messiah figure (his core emanation believed to be located somewhere in the mountains of southwestern India). Finally, it is the earthly base of the manda la (magic environment) of the Kalachakra (Wheel of Time) buddha-form and other tanrric forms of Buddha, so its presence in the midst of the human land of Tibet radiates wellbeing and the positive energy that works for ultimate freedom and happ int:ss fur ail beings. We in America have our White House, surrounded by the mandala of American civil religion, the Washingron, Jefferson, and Lincoln memorials, and the Capitol building. Imag ine what our country would be like if it were considered that the only fit occupant of that \X7hite House was a reincarnation of Jesus bimself, and people believed that the "New Jerusalem" was already here, the spirituality of love and wisdom was central to all policies and practices, the military was abolished, and 80 percent of the national budget was devoted to enlightenment-oriented education. Tibet was like that in its ideal vision, although its realiry fell short in numerous respects. The presence of the vision, however, was enough to help citizens maintain a posirive atritude while bearing up under rhe difficulties of daily life. Thus the Porala as a shrine was central to their sense of Tibet as a shrine to the Buddha Dharma in the world, and it is no accident that every picture of Tiber, every postage stamp, has the Porala iconically and centra lly depicred. Then there are home shrines, often with pictures of the Potala in them, ranging from the most elaborate in the houses of the wealthy nobles to si mpler versions maintained by landed farmers, nomads, artisans, and doctors. The main icons (tal1gkas) were framed in flexible silk and the ends rolled onto two sticks, so they could be rolled up and carried by nomads moving from camp to camp. Small shrines were made to be worn around the neck while traveling. Srupas were built on every mountain pass and visible hilltop, at every ctossroads and town square, around monasteries ) along riverbanks, and at gates. Finally, the lama figure in Tibetan Buddhism, hims~lf or herself (th e substratum of the old male-centered warflor culture was sti ll underl ying there, in spite of the great power of women in Tibetan society), serves as a living shri.ne for devorees. A practitioner born in a country and era far away and

long after the time of the Buddha Shakyamuni in the world can enjoy the sense of the Buddha 's presence and receive his blessings by visualizing a " wisdom duplicate" of the Buddha's presence in a statue or painting, knowing full well that the statue or painting is nOt the actual Buddha. In the same way, a living lama giving teachings based on the Buddha's discourses as recorded in scriptures can be visualized as infused with a "wisdom duplicate," and therefore can serve as a channel or shrine for the presence of the Buddha to the practitioner. Prayers are thus sometimes addressed to lamas as "lama and Buddha indivisible. " The famous "Lama refuge tree" icon elaborated from Tsang Khapa's time is a perfect example of this concept, as we can see in this example from the Kandell collection (Fig. 2). In the center sits Lama Tsang Kbapa; in a shrine within his hea rt is an icon of Sbakyamuni Buddha; and within that icon's heart is a shrine in which sits the Vajradhara Euddha Father-Mother. The practitioner who is meditating on a personal lama as the embodiment of all buddhas visualizes the personal lama as indivisible from Lama Tsang Khapa, himself indi visible from Shakyarnulli and Vajradhara. All the ancestor lamas, pandits, angels, archerype deities, and protectors who are ranged around the tree and in the clouds above are to be visualized as emanating from the central lama figure. This idea of the lama or guru as axial shrine or doorway through which to contact th e Buddha presence and bring it to oneself, and recognize oneself as enfolded in that presence, is the prime hallmark of Tibetan Buddhism. There is a famous story of a mistake made by the great Lama Marpa, translator and teacher of Milarepa. He met

Fig. 2. Tsang Khapa on (he Jewel Tree of Refuge (Catalogue No. V· J). The Tibetan Shrine · 5

his guru Naropa one day standing next to a gigantic pulsing, living embodimenr of the male-female archet)'pe buddha, Hcvajra, the Laughing Diamond Thunderbolt, an exquisite. dynamic, dancing-Shivalike figure of buddhahood ramp,lIlt and ecstatic. Naropa asked Marpa, "To whom do you bow?" i\hrpa, overwhelmed by the vision of Hevajra, replied, "I see you every day, dear guru, bl11 this archetype buddha now for the first time!" And he proceeded to bow down to Hevajra, first. "Wrong," said Naropa, "the guru is the embodiment of all archetypes!" and hc pro<:eeded to absorb the powerful Buddha-archetype embodimenr into himself. This mistake was said to be an omen of some of Marpa's own karmic probh.-ms, enlightened as he was, that caused him some difficulties in his pcrsonallife. The Tibetan culture is built on the central idea of the lama as shrine, as a doorway from samsara to nirvana, from the ('go land to the buddha land. As I formulated it once before:

To look for thl' essencl' of thl' Tibetan world\'il'w, a popular saying is a good place 10 start. Tib('tans are fond of sayi ng, "Th('re were three who were the most kind to Tibet: the Precious GUrtl (padilla Sambha\'a): thl' Lord M:lster (Atisha): and the Precious ;"" Iaster (Tsang Khapa)." The Tibet:ln titles that cOllle before the names of these three, Guru Rinpoche,Jowo Je, andJe Rinpoche. respeniveiy, could apply to any of the tens of thousands of other great figures in Tibetan history. Blit any Tibet:lI1, of whatever persuasion or affiliation, knows immediatdy who is me:lnt by --Precious Guru." "Lord Ma~ter." and " Precious M:lSIer." The key to the whole matter is that all three of these names indicate that their bearers are considered acllIal buddh :ls in their own right. They arc not thought of olll}, as normal human beings, albeit extremel)' hoi)" wise, or capable, who propagated a learned teaching in Tibet, bur as real buddhas. presenting reality from their hearts. The), are dearly considered by the ma~s populace as examples of the real thing. Tibetan life is oriented to incorporating the experience of real budd has dwelling :llllong the people. Tibetan civilization thus feels itself touched by buddhas, marked br having experienced their living impaCt, and has even come 10 take for granted the <:onstam presence of Illany living budd has around the country. Tibetan I~uddhism is thus a reorientation of individual and social life 10 account for the real it}' of buddhas, the possibility of becoming one oneself, and the acnmlity of a methodical process of doing so. This is the characteristic that distinguishes Buddhisill in Tinct from the Buddhisms in other civilizations, though Ind ian civilization in its classical heydar of ca. 500 1I.e.1', to 1000 C E. enshrined in its <:ore the human possibility of buddha hood more and more openly, as did the Ch'an, Son, and Zen sulx:ultures of East Asia. (After R. Thurman, Essential Tibetall IJlfddlJlslII, PI', 1-2.)

6 ' rhe Tibe!Jn Shrine

The first I'anchen Lama's famous invocation of the lama as buddha shrine beautifull}' des<:ribes the vision portrayed in Fig. 2 (Ca talogue No. V- I): Amid the all-good offering clouds a rra yed in the vast heavens of bliss-void-indivisible, In the crowlI of a miraculous wish-granting gem tree, radianrly beautiful with leaves, flowers. and fruits, On a sparkling jewel lion throne, on cush ions of spreading lOTUS, SLlII, and moon, Sits my thrice-kind rOO t lama, the actuality of all budd has! I-lis form is of a fulfi lled mendicam, with one fa ce, two arms, smiling mdiantl y, Right hand in the Dharma-teaching gesture, left hand flat in meditation, holding a bowl filled with el ixir. He wears the three robes glowing with saffron color. his head beautiful with the yellow scholar's hat. At his heart sits the olllnipresent Lord Vajradhara, With one face, two arms. sapph ire bl ue in color, Holding vajra and bell, embracing Lady Vajradhatvishvan. Barh ecst:Jtic in the play of bliss and void, Resplendent with many-faceted jewel ornaments, Dra ped with di\'in ely wrought silken clothes. Adorned with the signs and marks, shining like the sun, Surrou nded by haloes of five-colored rainbows, My 1:11113 memor sits in the \'ajra posture. His fi\'e aggregates are really the five Bl iss Lords, His four eleml'ntS the four divinc ladies; his scnse media, Nerves, Illllscles, and joints really the live bodhisattvas: H is body h;lirs the twenty-one tho usand arh:u saints; H is limbs the Lords of Ferocit),. H is light ra~' s are the prOtectors 3nd secret demons, And the world gods lie beneath his feet. Around him sit in rows an ocean of live and ancestral mentors, Archetype deities and divine mandala hosts, Buddhas, bodhis:lttvas, angels, and defenders of the Dhanna. Each of Iheir three doors of body, speech, and mind Are marked by the three vajras, 0)0.1 All HUM, The iron hooks of light rays from their heart ~I U)o.t Draw spiritual duplicates from their n3tural abodes. Wisdom beings and icon beings Become indivisible and substan tiall y present. (After R. Thurman, Essclllial Tibetan Budd/mill, pp. 49-50), Thus the ultimate shrine is c:lrried in the imagina tion of the pr;lCtitioner, in the space of visllali7.ation, in the sky of the reality deeper than our 1I0rmal sense perception, a reality only perceived by the third eye in the middle of the forehead that sees with imagination. In S~1Il1, a shrine is a place in ordinary subject-object reality wherelll a person trapped in the samS<1Tic expericncc of self as ahsolutely and concretely separate from other-the world of other !x-ings and things OutSide her or his skin----encounters

a doorway intO the extraordinary reality of samsara~nirvana nonduality thro~gh which they can enter, either permanently through full enlightenment or temporarily through imaginative and meditative experience of some aspect of enlightenment. Since the extraordinary real ity is blessed and blissful and is the buddhas' promised realm of liberation and happ i ~ ness, whateve r serves as sllch a doorway is considered sacred, in the sense of more real, more beneficial, more sublime. Thus, a shr i_ne represents the bes t of one's own potential and the goal of evo lutiona ry effort. It is llsed to orient oneself to the highest potemial and actualiry. It can be artistic, sculptural, pictOrial, linguistic in many forms; mon umen.ral, as in stu pas; and env ironmental, as in landscapes, and in sacred sites. My personal all-time favorite shrine is rhe "seamless mOnument" the famous Zen master asked a Tang-dynasty emperor to build for hi m, which turned our to be the emperor's whole life, non d ual from the life of the nation. [t was described w the empero r by the maste r's disciple as follows: "South of Hs iang, north of Tan [i.e., everyv.,here throughout the CITI+ pil:e, si nce the master had been born ill Hsiang Tan], within there's gold sufficient to a nation. Beneath tbe shadowless lree, the commu nity ferryboat. Within rhe crystal palace, there's 110

one who knows" (T homas and J. C. Cleary, The Blue Cliff

Record [.Boston: Sha mbhala, 1977]). In orher words, "Don't pretend to make a monument ro the extraordin ary realm of enlightenmenr un less you make your who le life and the life of the nation the monument. Don't worry about the t:CUIlUIIlY-YUU bay!:: [he r t:::;uun':t:s to tlo that, creating and supportin g ins titutions that make accessible to all the peop le the tree of the nondual presence of infinite buddhas, whose clear light leaves nothing in shadow. Then the boat of wisdom education can take the whole community across the ocean of suffering. Enjoy your crystal palace guiding this movemenr, and don't delay and try ro grasp it all with mere concepts; tbe crystal palace of your soul is pure liberty, universally aware without dualistic knowing. I ' Th is wonderful insight points to the great achievement of T ibetan cu lture, which was gradual.ly, over forty generations, a transtormation of all Tibetans' dai ly lives CO enshrine the evolutionary values and lifestyle ideal of the Buddhist project. What we arc looking at in this book, what Marylin Rhie's essay rraces in artistic development, is narhing less than rhe movement of the Dharma from Tibet throughout central Asia and into C hina. This Dharma took the form of a religious, educational, and social movement that gave ever larger numbers o f people access to the higher reality in wllich they could evolve and make their human life spans more enjoyable and meaningful. Tbus, over generations this movement turned some of the most powerful and warlike people on earth into relatively peaceful and gentle sp ir itual practitioners. The Mongolian empire had been the most extens ive land empire in histo ry. T he Ottoman empire ruled five centuries over a huge expanse of territory. The Manchus controlled China and central Asia for several centuries. Had the central Asian Turkic, Mongo li an, Manchurian, and T ibetan peoples maintai ned rheir warl ike cultures imo the nineteenth and twentieth cennlries of industr ial imperialism and technological warfare-like rhe Japanese, who became ma jor players in the imperialist game in tess than a centllry~the world would l.ook very diffe renr raday, and dange r to me planet from technological militarism would be far greater (it may still be unable to survive the excess).

IV. T HE GANDEN RENAISSANCE

In parallel thematically with the art-historical essay by Pcofessor Rhie, "From Ganden to Dolounor," we gain insights by analyzing pieces in the Kandel! collection (hat illustrate the development of the 'tGanden, ») or Gel ukpa, "Renaissance" period in Tibet and inner As ia from the fifteenth to the seventeenth centuries. From 1398 to 1419, an amazing energy was released in central Tibet when Tsang Khapa and his followers broke through thei r cntrapmem in ordinary time- the predicted degenerative time of rhe Dharma when humans

wou ld fee l rhey had Insr rhe presence of Shakyamuni Buddha over the more thall two thousand years since his parillirvana. Erst in 1398, Tsong KJ1apa and his eight retreat partners achieved contemplative insightsi they felt they directly met Shakyamuni and the multiplicity of emanation-body buddhas that are always present to those whose vision is purified. They also spent tremendous effort io invoking rhe presellce of tbe furure Buddha Maitreya" begi.nning with their renovation of an anc ient shrine at Dzingji in rhe Olkha valley, where they had spent their six-year-long retreat. What they achieved, and shared with their nation over the next twenty-one years\ radiated around the world and created a transformative expe rience of the timelessness of the buddha presence. This made their OWl] unfolding of the buddha consciousness and even embodiment immediately possible, and they chose ro devote their lifetimes to jus t such a culminarion uf evulutionary pur.suit. If a cuncrdt, slauit.-:, durable, blissful, and supremely competent evolutiona ry condition seemed very close within reach from your free human condition, a nd your human body and mind, would it nor seem logical to make

rhe effort to realize ir your highesr priority' Wou ld you not choose as your life's purpose to work at evolv ing your mind toward complete knowledge of the universe and your heart toward perfect empathy with other beings and blissful enjoyment of a boundless, death-transcending life force? This is just what Tibetans were inspired to do during those seminal years at (he turn of the fiftee nth century. Tibetans in an increasing majority ach ieved a "millenn ial consciousness," which is a sense of the possibility of maximal evolutionary fulfillment being achieved within the human lifetime. No longer teeling "lost in history" centuries afte r rhe presence of the Buddha and the great sages of India, and thousands of years before the advent of the next buddha, Maitreya, rhey live in a social and hisrorical time when all buddhas are offering full empowerment to anyone who dlOoses to foclls on their evolurionary destiny. In contrast, for example, Christians have long been awaiting the second coming of Christ, believing rhat when it happens, God will

be all-in-all, and the elecr completely saved from all danger of suffering forever. That will be the time of millennium . and the notion of its being only in the future makes the present time st::em agonizing, a frust rating wait in sllspense. Tibetans also had such a frustrated feeling abollt the a bsence of the enlightenment opportunity from the time when Buddhism was introduced, in the seventh cenrury~a trad ition fleeing a declining situation in its holy land of I.ndia-until the turning point in the fifteenth century. Ind ividuals of great ability and achievement emerged and graduaUy inspired the larger popu lation. The mainstream preoccupa rion had been the pursuit of economic and military power, the loss of The Tibetan Shrint! • 7

empire. the region:'" power ~(ruAAles of .IfIS[QCTatic ieudal fJmil) dpl.l~Hes. and so on. BUI the nation went through a ch:l11ge Jround 1400. and natur J.llr mm'ed to create a society. ('conom}, .1Ild lifestyle III which as man)' people as possible could tah" ad,·.mtage of the precious opportunuy of a capable Jnd frtt human elllbodl1m·nt. Thai IIlspiratlon created a powerful dem.lI1d for an mfraslructure Ihat would support brgr numbe rs of mdi"jduals III .1 lifelong nlrriculum of study. critical rdlection and discussion. and contempbtlH' deept'n11lg. h om his enlightenment .l11cl <;ubsrqurnt 1Isionary encounter with ~ I aitreya, Tsong Khapa's artlSI1C \'ision :md cream'c p.uronage flowcd. This III (Urn ~tl1llulared further achiel'em<.-nts hy Ius many disciples and sponsors. ;111(\ el'en IllS rll'als. Afttr att
E£&

!'hnn ~

caplt;lllll ~ I anchuria, and rxpand his f:l\'orite monastery i.n \'(Iu Tal Shan. and numerous monasteries III Inne r l\ longolla and Amdo. All of thIS construction was pan of thr development of Tinct's umque- mass monastic society. and the m3n~' buildings. tcmplcs. and monaStiC halls provided the occ3sion for countless works of an. pallltlOgs on doth and walls, massive stallonary sculptures. portable metal sculptures of gre3t refinemrnt. and numerous associated artif3cts, such as sacred masks. costumes, ntual Obll'CtS. sand m:llldaI3s, and butter sculptures. The earher phase of this vast artistic productil'lIy COincided wlIh the domlllam stylistic school of the grc:1I l\lenla Dondruh (fiftctnth century') , who founded the :'I'lrnri school. and thc equally Weat Kh)'ent~e \Xlangchuk (fi f(ccnrh century), founder of the Khyrnri school. T he 13ler phase under the Gre;lI Fiflh D,li.Ji Lama and the Fourth Panchen Lama coIIlci(kd with the arllstic !\Iowmcnt know n as the New ~ I enri school, spcJrheaded by the gr<.-at Choying Gyatso (sel'entecnth crntury). It also eoincidl'd with the rxponential incre3se III produnion of the so·called "black tangkas, ~ thc giant applique tJngkas crc,lIed for outdoor fesm'al use as on the front of the POI.1I,I. on thr ~peCI,llly smoothed cliffside at Drepung monastery. and on the giam wall built lUSt for Ihat purpose .,lx)I·e Tashl lhunpo 1ll0n3Stery. Thr p;l1Il11ng traditions of :'I lenia Dondrub and Khrentse Wangchuk dOlllmated the era of the Gyantse Kumbum temples and the great l hasa foundal1ons. De\'eloped 111 the senunon1.ldK tent (gdr ) coun of thl' KarmapJ. lamas. the early KarmJ Gardri school dOl11l1lated the Sixteenth century. Thr New " I{'nn school dommated the sel'rnreemh century. \'(Iorks more directly IIIsplred hy' foreign IIlfluences or execUled by foreign artists cO!l(l11ued to Ix- produced dUring this period, such as thr m:tny Nepali-executed works commissioned by Ngorchen Kun~a Zangpo :tnd the subsequent abbots of Ngor monasttr}'. The Gyantse KumbulIl Stup:t temples are often pointed out as the gre.ncst repo~ilO r y of fresco p:tintings frol11 this er.1. Howel'er, the earliest p:tintings from the Serd rcgasl1l11 (i.e., Sera, Drcpung, .l11d Ganden) monasteries in Lhasa, as well as the pa!11tmgs don~ durmg the renova tion of thc ma n)' trmples of L ha~a. also datl' from thiS pt'riOO and undoubtedly employed Ihe same artists. T he actua l doc ument3tion of these works tOOa)" IS complicated by the Tilx:tan tendency to refurbIsh m:llor shrllles at least once each century, and by thc massive destruction of frescoes and portable works during the lasl fifty )'ears. T he economy ofTil><:t adapted to Support the hordes of scholars and }'ogms, :lIId mllltJry expc:nditurrs fell as educalIonal endowml' nts grew. Amtocr.uic families whose power rcstl'd on their frudal moblli:{ed armcd forces viewed this n:llionwidr charismalle mOH' mem from militarism to mo nasticism With alarm. They would have lIlterl'ened [Q prel'Cnt it, man)' of thtlr most capahle members were also swept up III the popular enthusiasm for Ihc study. practice, and realIzation of the Dharma. They did Ir)' whe n It was almost too laIC, 111 the late sixteenth and early sel'ell(eemh centuries, but the .1IIempt to Illlposr an amimonastic l'xpropriation fai led for complex rcason~. On the surfan" [herc was a succcssful military il~ltrvrnlion ag,IIIlSt the Tibet:1!l warlord coalition by a l\1ongoli.lIl warlord who supported Ihe monastic movement; Jud deeper dow n, till' popul:tct :It large preferred monasticism

?UI

ro militarism, as effecti ng a higher quality of life. The success of (he DaJai Lama-led Ganclen movcmcnr over rhe nex t three and a half CCLltunes derived ultimately from the faCt that tens of thousands of individuals felt their lives were immeasur.
It is no :tccidem that these SI1C tren do;; re . . ona[e perfectly with the dri ving forces of the European Renaissance: 1) the red isc very of Greek humanism and science, enabling the individual to realize his or her Own great!:r desuny; 2) the l.:halJcngc to the authnrity of the church ,lnd determination to think (or oneself; 3) disenchantment v.... ith nature and the unleas hing of creativiry ro eh,mge the world for human bettermem: 4) the development of scien~ific progress based on direct ubservation ol1ld experimental investiga tion of the prOl..:esses of naturethough rhe sciences here were more concerned with the outer rhan tbe inner worl d; 5) some redirecting of the power of pleasure, bur the church's autho rity and cOlldiriolllng stil l prcvai led, and women were stlppre""ed. "ometi m e..~ violenrlYi and 6) the developmenr of all SOrts of technologies. mainly ro intervene in the material prOL:esscs of nature, Illotivated by a continu ing preoccupation with militarism. Comparing the trends l we can quickly recognize that, in spire of the prt:sumptions of Euro-American cultural chauvinism, tbe European Rena issance was not at all the leader but mrher the poorer fo llower, held back by the power of church aurhority and cultural superstitions, the hIck of education. the relative sparsi ty of the etonolll}', and the continuing dominant power of militarism. The Greck humanism and narnralism that were redjscovered and inspired th e European movemenr were, after all, fil l' less adva nced than the Axial Age tmlightcnment moveme nt of India, much more concerned with material reality and itS manipulation, and therefore much less skillful in developing the inner qualiries of the person. Poor Socrates was asked to drink rhe hemlock for trying to get the young warriors to think abour true and false, right and wrong, while the great sages of the Buddh a's time and later in IJlclia were honored for similar efforts an" established powerful movemems with rhe patronage of the kings of the day. One has only ro look ar the second-cenUiry ll.c..P. dialogues berween th e Buddhist sage Nagasena and Menand l." r, one of the postAlexander Greek kings left behind in the Indus va lley. Tibet itself had been a culturall y backward, highly militaristic nation during the first millenn ium ~ .. E., hut sta rting from the seventh ce ntury C.E. it grad uall y became th e hidden vessel of rht" highest -achievements of the ad"anced culture of Buddhist India, and comi nu ed to refine and develop those ueasures afte r the indian culture had been crushed in its co umry of origin by anOt her wave of backward inva ders. The curriculum of the Indian Buddhist universities was not aimed at changing the material nature of rhe world but at changing the person in any society. So on the level of material cult ure, of arch,itecture and city planning, trade and conquest, Tibet did flor look like rhe leader of the global renaissance. When discovered by rhe British in the eighteenth century, it was judged primitive and backward, even " medieval, " due [Q lack of infrastru cture. Bur on the mjnd level, in the development of the inner world of sciemi6c WIsdo m and spiritual well-being, Tibet was far advanced. Tht:refore, in th e Ga nden Renaissance pe riod 1400- 1750, it was a major contribmor to [he morphogenetic resona nce of the enlightening rransformation of individual minds around dle globe, as it was a unique depot of many human minds eng::lged in :1 fundamenrally transformative development and liberation of co nsciollsness. Th~ grea t Tibetan monastic uni versi ries still flourish in exile, with smaller numbers, including als mall numbers of students from the ivlongolias, Tuva, Manchur ia, li nd Chin n. The Tihctan Shrine . 9

v. MEDITATING ON

SOME WORKS FROM

THE COLLECTION The gencr3bz:ltlon~ I have ,ldvanced !11 Ihis thesIs cannot be pron'n ~}'lIogislicall)'. It is of cou rse hard !O ~wallow for \'\'csterners and Americans, who have been brought up to Ihmk of themselves as superior people III the r.lIlkmgs of ~ci\'I­ lizations. ~ Not surprisingly, the Chinese, Japanese, Italian, Arabian, Nigerian, HOpi, and perhaps evcry other pcople o n eanh also think of themselves as superior. Even the determllledl), Buddhist Tibetans and ~ I ongolian~ do. Actually the G:l11den Renaissance achievcmcm of the- Tibetans is based on their h3\';ng somewhat given up such a hablwal feeling---(lr perhaps h:\\,1111; 1rarned to regard themselves as t'mbodylllg allmfrrioritics. They have developed the enlightenment of sel flessness and altruistic compassion, and so have indeed become superior by nOi egotistically thinklll!; themseh'es to be so, as a matter of national culture, Exceptionalllldividuais III all cultures reach this kind of insight all the Wile, O\'ercome unreasonable egotism and achu:'ve true superiority. \'{'orld cultural history is a planetary process of morphogenetic resonance throughout thl' mind field of human beings. The global renaissance has been understood In commonplace genrrallzatlon as European mmds breaking out from the dom· Inance of the church and its theocemric Ideology into a more humanistic and naturalistic, spiritual and scientific worldview. It was inlluenced by the rediscovery of thr Greek classics and Indlc sciences through the mediation of ArabiC culture and was received In the late Middle Ages in the um\'ersnies of pluralistic Moonsh·jewish-Chnstlall Spain, and energized b)' the reope'l1lng of the Eurasian ecumene by the :" Iongolian empire's reconnect ion of trade and cuhural exchange betwccn Europe and Chma. ThiS \'{'estern Renaissance began to reston." m,ln 10 the center of thmgs, spreadl11g from Italy the confidence 111 reason that was 10 bring fonh the Western Enlightenment. Its essence can be descnbed as a new perception of human genius in line with the nalUfe of the ullIvcrse. Thi S liberated ener).:}' for personal evolmion-mak ing possible the progressive de\'el0pl11ent of science, great achievements III the arts, and ,I higher lerel of energy for the mdwiduall11 dally life. The tragedy for the Europeans III their Renaissance and Enlightenment was that the success achie\·ed 111 the development of human consciousness was restricted to the exploration of material reaht}· and followed by a short-circuiting of thc monastIc IIlStllUIIOn, a shutdown of the school ~ that nurtured the illlernall)' revolutionary approach. Although IhlS was partly compensated for by the development of the St'Cular univerSIty model, It left the social space open for mili tnrism 10 domina te. Society channeled liS new self-confidence one-sidedl}' toward materialistic !lIastery of thl· phYSIcal world. When, COntrary 10 IhlS trend. people felt their energy flow 1I1tO channels seekmg Immediate Inner sallSfactlon, the)' became :tfrald. So they redl' rected the millcnnial power of eonfidenn' and actiVism outw
FIg. 3.l!h.mh,IIP Guru, lhe /l.1cdlClI\c Ruddha (C.IIJlogue No.lI - IJI,

The apocalypnc world picture allows for a \'e-ry high level of indi\'idual self-confidence ,lI1d energy fulfillment, In Tibet the lIlil1enlllal consciousness, the consciousness of living in a sacrcd realm, elllered the fruitional phase:1I thiS time, allowing a great m,llI)' to focus their full energy on the presem moment of lifc and pursue personal de\"l~lopment and fulfillment. The Ganden Renaissance encompasses the formation of inncr moderl1lt~·, the demilitarization and monastlcization of society. Its IIl\'estmcnt of resources III these directions prod uced innumerable works of art cOlllmissloned by hugc monastic universities. From 1400 to 1600 in celltral Tibet , the Second and Third Dalal l.al1la~ established se:IIS in Kham and Amdo; the First Panchen L1ma expanded Tashi Lhunpo; the Fifth Dalai Lama bUilt thc Potala; thcn jalll)'ang Sherpa bUIlt L.lbrang Tashlkyil, and Important works were comll1i~sioned throughout Mongolia :lnd Manchuria, lip to the exp:lllsion of Dol011l1or and \'(Iu Tal Shan by jangkY:l, and Qianlong. Marylin RIJI(~ chrolllcles thiS rCnalSs.1nce from rhe art-historical perspectl\'e. In paralld wuh the -Renaiss.1nce~ !fends I outlined al>o\'c, the qualitIes I wllIl'laOorate through an:lI)'~ls of the art below nrc: 1) lnsplr:JtlOn from the c b~sical; 2) Emergence of hum;Jlll~tic IIldividualism and the corresponding expansion of what human bclllgs I;'a n accomplish; J) Dl'sanctlfication of and disenchantment wilh thmgs as thc)' are, corresponding to fauh in perception and the reallstic e\'aluallon of nature; . 4) Dec011tamination of the quest for pleasure, :tlld the begmnmg of eleva tion of women (at the e~otenc le\'(1);

5) Pursui t of happiness and overnow of bliss from liberated minds ro rransform the wo rld . 1) Inspiration frol11 the classica l-rediscovery of wha r Buddha had achleved ill India, in parallel to [he rediscoveries oi the anC ient Greeks ill Europc and of Confucius Lao-rzu an d the Maha yana Buddha for post-Mongol EJl1~ire Ming' Chinese. Here (Fig. 3) we encounter Bhaishajya Guru Buddha, (he rvledicine Teacher Buddha, as indivis ible from ShakyaOl uni, whose image floars at the top of the paiming, wirh his sOc Medicine Buddha brothers ranged below. The M.edicinc Buddha has co rne to Ti ber, prese nt in rh e background landsca pe of a snowy mouma in On the left, wi th grassy plains and a lake. Tsong Khapa and his eight companions on rh ei r long retrea t experienced visions in whid, rh ey actuall y mer Shakya rnun i and the Medicine Buddha, along witb many other cmanarionbody buddha forms. They remembered the legend of how the seven Medicine Buddha brothers came from anorher universe or rhe anciem pas{. Looking around rhe infinite, they noriced that Shakyamun i Buddha had take n on a hard job of reathing th e people On this planet :lt this time, when life spans wou ld be shorr and sicknesses ram pant and rhe s[Udents would have difficulty learn ing and pract icing rh e teachi ngs. So the seven bror her buddhas made a vow to emanate to this planer during Shakyamuni's rime. \Vhcn rhey arrived: hakyalll uni himo;elf turned inm a Medicine Buddha, deep sap phire blue in hue, and they became tbe eight Medicine Buddhas and taught rhe medicine teachings for dl e benefit of humans. Receiving this tcaching in Tiber was an important parr of lea rning rhe depth, comprehensiveness, and powerful efficac)' of rhe Buddha know ledge. Since (he kn owledge of healing is tested in the bodies of sick people, the Tibetan, greatl), benefited from the medicine teac hings over the genermions. Tsang Kh 'lpa himself was edu cated as a doctor, and in his younger days bec3me renowned for his med ical trearmclH of patients. Holding the arum plant in his right hanel, this Buddha is showi ng the knowledge o f natu re rhat is the strength of BlId· dhism and was red iscovered by Tibetans in rhese cenruries. Buddhism was never merely a religion that forced people to believe blindly in some credo by promising salvation in return fo r their obedience. Buddha claimed comprehensive knowledge of inner and outer nature, like a slIperscienrist. and rold followers it was their potential and rheir task to gain such understanding themselves and rhereby free th emselves from suffering. Therefore, scielltific enlightenment was the mea ns of salvation or liberation. Buddha's proposition was, "You wi ll suffer if you don't unde rstand )Iou rself and your world. Thar suffering is ca used by your misknowledge and it resu lt, greed and harred, since th e self-separate you wiJ l wa nt to consume the world and to prevenr it from cons um ing YO ll. You don 't have to stay in such a sta re, but can find rrue happiness and freedom b)1 understa nding whar life really is and what YO LI [ Cally are. And your path to that is educa ti on LO et hics, expe rimental mind, and scientific wisdom." This is " ca ll to stud y, no t a demand for belief. This expresses a faith in science and education, nOt in dogma or the savi ng Lntercession of a divine crealOr. Tiberans had been one by one verifying the factualiry and efficacy of this enligh tened 3pproach and already for centuries choosing thar evolutionary purpose as t heir life's aim. The Ganden Rena issance marked a

rime when rhe number of individuaJs doing so vastly increased and transformed the entire society, rhose choices moving from rhe margi ns ro rhe m:unsrream. 2) Emergence of humanistic individua lism and the correspo nding ex pansion of the notion of whar huma n belllgs can accomp lish-through understand ing cvolutionary pOSSibility. Herc (Fig. 4 ) we see th e individual "Renaissance man, " in this naturalistic (Tib. nga 'dra lila) portrait starue of Tsang Khapa, a key catalyst of me Ganden Renaissance. He sirs bareheaded wirh his big face and long nose (a n irreverent name for him during his ea rly fame was "the Big- nosed Amdo " ), looking out in a friendly bur challenging way. He ho lds the stems of twO lotuses in his bands: the right o ne in the re~tc hing gesture of fine disce rn ment ~ig nificd by the thumb and forefinger [Quching ro form a circJe, with three finge rs raised, signifying the taking of refuge in the rruee jewels of Buddha, Dharma, and Sangha: and his left nand nat in the meditarive pose, wirh a mendicant's bowl resring on it, filled wirh rhe elixir of immortal wisdom. Upheld On lotuses ov~r his right shoulder is a flame-tipped swo rd, the sword of critical wisdom, and in his left hand is a copy of the Tra nscend enr Wisdom Scripture, rhe most liberat-

ing book in the Buddhist libraty. A tota ll y unique individual. he was a child prodigy, a monk. a doctor, a scholar. a yogin, a realized visionary, a teacher, an author, a social organizer, a founder of instirurion~, a dip lomar. a designer of extraordinary artworks, a philanthropist, and a mystic who was evolutionarily transfo rOled before witnesses into a full embodiment of himselr as an en lightened brillg during (he ho ur~ JUSt after his physical demJ" whe n be underwent a miraculous physica l rra nsfo rmation during which his body si mpl y disappeared in a sllstained

Fig. 4. Tsong Kh:lpa on LIOn Throne (Cara logue No. U-12).

r ile Tibetan Shrine · II

hg. 5. \Vhue Tara ICJtalo!lue No. 1ll·6).

flashing of light . Though he was considered a reincarnation of the bodhisattva of wisdom, ~Ianjushri, he declined to reappear as a formally recognizable reincarnation, to prevent his followers from becoming tOO dependent on him. Next (Fig. 5), this sweet image of the femJle buddha or bodhisattva, Tara, in her healing, pcaceful manifestation as White Tara, exemplifies perfectly the beautiful qualities of gentleness and kindness that the Tibetan Buddhist culturt.' prizes so highly. It is essential for a civilizt.'d culmrt.' to value above all gentleness, tht' opposite of JII;tftialviolence, and the omnipresrnce of images of Tara in her many manifestations conveys the Tibetan sense of such lovingness as the strong force sustaining life. She has sel'en eyes. three on her face with the third on her forehead . and ant.' in each palm and each sole. signifying hrr possesSion of the all-seeing wisdom of all buddhas. Her royal tiara is mJde of divine jewels, signifying her access to the heavt.'nly planes of deities and celestial buddha verses, though she docs not stay in them aloof but manifests to hclp beings whercvcr they arc, in whatever world or ci rcumstance. She sits in a pose of meditative calmness, her right hand open downward in the boon-granting gesture, her left upheld in the teaching and refuge gesture, holding up a perfect lOTUS stalk with three flowers on it, one a bud, one blossoming, and the other closed just past its blossom, signifying past. present, and future buddhas, and her own omnipresenct' throughout all time. Her mantra, 0.\1 TARF TUITARF. TURt. SVAHA, brings her instantly to the aid of anyone who suffers, as sht' is the incarnation of the miracleworking energ), of all buddhas. 3) Desanctification of and disenchantment with things as they are, corresponding to faith In perception and the realistic 12 • The Tibct an Sh rlnt'

evaluation of nalUre, combined with progressivism and the transformation of violence. Tibt'tans are not in denial about the presence of violence in life nor the nt'ed of force for lTansformation. In fact, the)" confr~nt the roughness and violence of evil in the outer world and in the inner psyche with a forthrightness that has proven effective for many seeking to transform their sociel)' and their indil'iduallires. This statue of Supersecret Ha yagriva Father~Iother (Fig. 6) shows the form of Ha yagril'a envisioned by the Grear Fifth Dalai 1.;1I11a ( 16 I 7-82) ,wd el'oked by him in the context of bringing peace to EurJsia and building the Tibetan nation as a nonmilitary presence in its heart. I-b ragriva is the supersecret, fiercely compassionate.' form of Avalokiteshl'ara. His mantra is HIUH VAJRAKROllHAHULU IiU!.U HU)".! PHAT. I-Ie has the three faces of wisdom. dctachment, and patience; Ihe six arllls of rhe six transct'ndent virtues, generosity, justice, parie.'nce, creativity, contemplation, and wisdom; the four Il:gs of tile four emptin{'sses, those of things, nothings, intrinsic reality, and emptiness Itself; and the wmgs of Wisdom and compassion indivisible. Above his three-bced heJd is a fourth face. that of a small horse. whose constant neighing signifies the triumphal sense of freedom that comes from the realization of l:mptiness. I-Ie embraces his ecstatic COllSon , who, though manifest as a separate being. is indivisible from him. Their union expresses the union of magic body and clear light. blis~ and emptiness, compassion and wisdom. 4) Decontamination of rhe quest for pleasure, and rhe beginning of the devation of women (at the esoteric level). I think of Vajrayogini, here (Fig. 7 ) in her Naro Dakini form, as she was beheld in revelation by the great Indian adept

rig. 6. Supt'rsecrct Ha)'''gnva Fa(hcr-l\lother (C3{,1Ioguc No. V_I 0).

Fig. 7. Naro Daki ni (Ca talogue No. 111 -7).

orgasmically blissful life of enlightenment. In Tibet, J\tlongoiia, and Manchuria. the widespread propitiation an d culti va tion of, and identification with, this female buddha for m by male as well as female yagin.s and yogin is discloses the growing awa reness of the importance and power of the feminine on the inner level. 5) Pursuit of happiness and overflow of bli~s from liberated minds to transform U1 C world-the program of buddha verse- building in Tiber, focusing on inner rarher than a liter tra nsfo rmation. Here (Fig. 8) is the Su perbliss-Machi ne (Chakrasamvara) Buddha couple, supreme archetype of rhe Morher Tantras and mOst power fu l of the manifes[ations of bliss-void-indivisible, especially emphasizing the infinite rransformative power of the dear-lighr bdllianr energy of the void char ca n onl y be harnessed by the bliss of selfless wisdom. And finally, ro demonsrrate [he rransformari ve buddha verse crea tion more co ncretely-we return here fO th e simple set of paintings with which we starred, co ntaining the icon of the Medicine Buddh a_ Here (Fig. 9) in the final painting from this set is Padma Sambha va, the humanoi d form of Hayagri va se nr by the Boundless Light Amitabha Budd ha to help Tibet become the "promised land " of the full y blossomed form oflndic Buddhism. The mantra of Padma Sambhava is a roOt mantra of Ha yagri va in the classic Esoteric Comm unity Talltra. The legend of his emanation is. associated with a crisis on eanh when Avalokiteshvara felt things werc going all roo badly for humans; his menror, Amirabha Buddha, was sending our infinite light beams from his buddhaverse, the Blisshll, but still therc was no sav ing the beings. So Avalokireshvara complained ro the Buddha tba[ he wa nted him to do morc.

Naropa (elevenrh century ) as "Ms. Buddha." Though but one of a number of fema le manifestations of victorious perfect enlightenment, she particularly expresses rhe power and beauty of a femininity that stands on its own, withom need of or dependence on any form of male. She is stark naked, :lignifying that her form oftranscendcnt wisdom has no boundary between it and the universe, as every atOm of her being is aware of her infinite presence as rhe ruby energy of rhe crea tive joy of manifestation and union. Ruby red in living color, her radiance he re shielded in gold, she sta nds in the disc of a star~bmsting supernova, with a corolla of flames, her feet ecstaticall y upheld by the divine couple Bhairava and Ka laratri, who represenr the world-destroying recklessness of passion held in check, resring on seething, explosive solar hear. The corolla of Aames radiates all around her and bla7.e5 forth from her th ree eyes as welJ as the down y hairs on her ruby skin. She stands in the dance pose of ecstatic justice, with her head flung back looking pardy at her beholders and partly up into the heavens, where her buddha· verse sky worl d beckons her away from human chaos. Her lowered right hand holds the adamantine cleaver of her dissecting critical wisdom that chops up all misperception-thar things stand absolu te in the it independenr selves, apart from the web of relativity-and ber upraised left hand holds a sku ll bowl from which she ecstatically drinks the elixir of the blood of the slain demon of ignorance and egotism. In the crook of her left elbow she pinions a long khatvanga adept's staff, which represents her consort in one sense, bur more deeply, her mastery of life, the subtle central channel of the yogic nervous ystem, the knowl edge and mastery of which enables a buddha to extend compassion infinitely througho ut (he inexhaustible continuum of th e

Fig. 8. Paramasukha Chakrasalllvara Fat h e r~ Mother (Catalogue No. V-6a).

The Tiberan Shrine . 13

VI. THE ALICE S. KANOEll SHRINE

III response. the Buddh.1 shOE a fin~·colorrd mrtror from his tongue th.1I ~pt'd acro~~ The gal.l'I(le~ :lIId down ro earth. land· 111); upon .111 .Hr.l), of five Imust's 11\ a crystal Like next to the palace of the K\IIg of Udyan:l. \II wh.1t i~ roday Afghanlst:l11. In the cel1!r.II I()III~. [I,ldn1.l ~al11bhava W:l~ born. alrl':ldy COli· scious ;llId Lllking ,IS:l fivc ·year-old boy. l'adm,1 Sambha\"a nee.IIIlt' a monk. bcc:lIl1e enlightened, and lived a~ a grrat ,Idept. manifest11lg variou~ enlightened embodi· ments III rrsponse to the eh,mgmg Il('eds of being:.. I-Ie fin:1l1y GillIe to Tinet 111 thl' l'lghth century to tame the warlike Tibet:1n dellles. l'mperors ..Ind nohlr w.Ur1ors. \Vorklllg togrther WiTh the greatest monk S.1gC fmlll India of thaI da)', Sha11larakshita, Jlong wllh the hodhls.lItva Kmg Tmong Detsen, Padma Samb· ha\a pl.lIIted the Dharma firmly III Tillet. He began the process of cOllverrmg the WJrrIor empire IntO.1 demilltarlzcd Dharma re.llm. In thiS pal1ltl1lg wc '>CC him as thr Tibetans pray 10 hUll, JS they percel\(' him stdl h\11lg Immonally on an island somewhere (,IT ,ICroSS the Ind1311 OCl'an. III an earthly buddhaverse called Coppc.·r-colorcd Glory ~ 10unt;1.111. From there he emanates to wherever III the world the Buddha Dharma and Its praclltloller~ need IllS powerful serviccs.

The Alice S. K:1l1dcll shrine IS a s.lCred chapel maintained III :l pnv;ue hOllle,:l sort of 1i\'lIlg room for the buddha presence III ItS myriad forms. mild and fiercc, fcmale and male, human, demoll1c. and dl\ 11Ie. It has sculplllres to represent the Buddha'.\. body. texts 10 r('presenr Iht' Buddha 's specch, and stu pas 10 rt'present tbe I~uddha's Illllld, It IS a mbute 10 t.he people. of Tibel-to thl'IT great sp1TIIlIai and cultural achlc\'ement 111 obTa1l1lng. chcmhmg. understandmg, dcploying. and further developmg the full ·scale unive rsal-vehicle Buddhism thaT C:lme 11110 bloom ne:lrly ,I Ihou~and ),e.Hs ago, after fifteen hundred vears 111 lmlla. K:lndell':. curalar. Philip Rudko, helped her ~hoosc p;lmtIllS~, sculptures, furniture, ritual implements. and ('ven mundane ornamCIll~. Her selections wert' always made according ro :lllthenllcit)' and completeness in terms of broc;lde fr.lI1ung. covers. recepclcles. ,lnd olher clements. Togeth er, hL'r shr1l1(' .Ind ItS ohJects form .HI ensembll' That could be used by J pr.\cTlcing Tihct.111 I~uddhlq for the various contempl:lIIOnS .l11d mual performances that br11lg the twO re;llities clOSl'r IOgether and ulwllatcly ccldnale their nonduality. Th.1I the wll('('lOr felt dr.lwn to ere.lle such a unique colleclion IS .111 the mort· remark.lhle IX'CauS{' she considers herself a thoroughly ration.ll. praCllcal person groundl'd in this world. a profe~slonal ps}chologlst. an astute phllanrhropist. and an experienced colieclOr. She was not pursUing some theory o r Ideology 11\ conwn illS and creatmg this shrme 10 Tibetan 0\ illl:llion. On her first encOUI1l('r, as a young woman viSiting their outpOSt III Slkklfll. she snnpl~ liked the Tibetan people and felt ]'XJ\\erfully dr,\wn to their life~trlc and arts. as she \\'Ilnessed their pl('Cl·meJ.1 emergrnce mlO India and the \,(/est due 10 the fifTY-Yl'Jr-long. COnt111U111g holocaust. She also wanted to hdp refugcl' famllie~ who had 10 p:lrt with these fine examples of their patrimony In order to develop:1 life III exile. ~hc ha\ conllnued her collecting over The last four decades. Such a su'taltled 111terest :lnd pcr~istent pr:lcticc cannOT be wnttell off ,IS lIIerely a sort of "Shangri-b" fascina tion. a r01l1anrlCI~11l forcst,llllllg fear of the doomsday dangerl> of modern IIldustrial ~:lvager)'. With the notion that There is a pristll1e n:lture out There to whICh one ca n esc:lpe. Her dedication comes r:nher from a recognition that all the elemerlls of what call be trul)" called -humane civdlza lion~-wi sdom, gelll'roslt)'. gentleness. Justice. creativlty-shme forth from Tibet's art and IIteralure and culture, and stili are present III ItS peoplc. The desIn: to live with such a sh rine expresses genuine ,ldnl1Tal1on of the CiVilized qualiut,s and the enchantment of a humanistiC renalSs,1nce sllll al1\'e In tillS postindustrial world thJt seems to s111k dally e\er deeper IntO chaos, Her devotion reflects her sen~ of the preCiousness of these things. The Kandell collection IS here prescntl'd as a sh rine, because that IS how she sees II. The curator. ,\ lr. Philip Rudko, with hiS experll~e In conservation and III ritual procedures and equipment, h('lped Dr. Kandell find objects that would be part of ,Ill aurh,'nIiC workm!; ShTllIl' of:l Tibetan or ~ I ollgolian high lama or weahh)' byperl>on. The colleCTIon is all the more a shrine fo r Tibet. bl'causc the col lector and cur:ltor cfl'ated it our of appreciaTion and enjoyment. yet would like to see iT III _ tirn:llc1y returllt'd to the -nbctan people, when it is once again s,lfe for The11l 10 preSCTve their own culture,

FROMGANDEN TO DOLONNOR TO WUTAISHAN Regional Schools of Tibetan Buddhist Sculpture (Fifteenth to Eighteenth Centuries) Marylin M. Rhie

Fig. 1. Ganden m{)nJSf~ry. thIrty mIlts eJst of Lhasa. founded by TS<)ng Khap;t III 1409. (]>h010 from l'ratek .\ Ian Tuladhar, Stddharth.1 ,\.1. Tuladhar famtl)' collectIOn )

T he art of Tibetan Buddh ism is rich and complex with many factors contributing to its meaning, originalit)" artistry. and production. Religious purpose. scctarian distinctions, rcgion of origin, diffcrcnces in artistiC training and technique, specific iconography, influences from other traditions, and thc el'crpresent impact of historical conditions all contri bure to create one of the world's most meaningful and superbly rt'alized artistic traditions. This art Ill'eds to be studied as comprehensively as possible, including the historical circumstances, the Buddhist underpinning, the artistic styles, and the relationships with the art of the neighboring areas with which Tibet interacted, to bc properly understood. Some of these issues are addressed through an af! historical approach with Tl'gard to Buddhi st sculptu re from Tibet and related regions. Primary focus lies in establishing a chronology and discussing distinctions and attributions o f regional schools of this sculpture from thc fifteenth to the eighteenth centu ries; considerations of the political-histor· ical setting. iconographic factors, technical issues, and the fundame ntal aesthetics underlying the art are sim ultaneously undertaken. This sculptu ral art is prolific and compltcatcd . and not yet st ud it'd in a thorough, comprehensive, systematic W3y. It is I'iewed here within its broad parameters in an effort to clarify a series of regions and periods, to study the art as a whole, and to bring together the disparate parts fo r an integrated approach hitherto unattempted for these late and little understood periods. This necessarily engages important complememary and innovative developments in the regions of I\ longolia and northern China, which were powerfully influenced by Tibetan Buddhism and its art 16 ' From Gandl'll!O I}olonnor to Wut,ltshall

from the late sixteenth cem ury onwards. This resulted in a virtual renaissance of Chinese I~uddhist art and the birth of Mongolian Buddhist art . the last great movement of Huddhist a rt in Asia befon.' modern times. Thus, the latter portion of this essay focuses in soml' de tail on these important, complex interactions and regional developments during the seventeenth and eighteenth cem uries. Since the y ha ve not been srud ied coniointly before. the Kandell collection o ffers significant contributions.

I. FIFTEENTH CENTURY The fifteenth centur)" in many ways becamc a watershed in Tibetan history, as well as Tibetan Buddhism and its art. Not onl)" did this period see a culmination of the preceding several centuries' work. it also witnessed a fresh IIlrning point tha t established the main foundations for thl' developments of subsequent centu ries.' Having reached a plateau from which much would evolve, it was unquestionablv one of the most active and productive periods of Tibetan ~rt.

Central Tibet At this time when the countr)' was gt'nerally pt'aceful, the appearance and work of the great master Tsong Khapa from Amdo (1357- 14 19) deepl)' invigorated Buddhist thought and practice in Tiber. The profound and lasting teachings of Tsong Khapa, founder of the Geluk order. formed the crux of the monastic curriculum. His major prac tice deities are those that generall y beca me the most favored in Geluk practice. Tsong

RLL '551A

7 .. ,lt /.. Y>1",lftt..h,. De' ... ~t

o

I NDIA

Map: Tiber, Mongoha , :lnd China. (After P. Berger, Empire of E1nl)lilll!ss. with modifications)

Khapa and rhe Ge luk order are at the roar of much laeer developmenr in Buddhism and irs art in Tibet. Tibetan Buddhism spread primarily by rhe innuence of rhe Gelukpa to Mongolia and China, where rhe order became a dom inant cu ltural entity in later cemuries.1 In 1409, Ts Ilg Khapa founded Gandell mOllastery to the eaSt of Lhas. 011 Nomad Moumain (Dwgri ). The view of Ganden in Fig. 1 was taken before itS near total destruction in th e Cultural Revolution and the more recenr efforrs at

reconstruction. This great monastery became tbe sear of Tsong Khapa's reaching. 3 In a special na il for ranrric rima Is) he comm ission ed .1 Sta tll e of Shakyamuni slighrly larger than the

Jowo of the Jokhang in Lhasa, as well as gilr copper threedimenSIonal mandalas of the thirty-two-deity Guhyasamaia. rhe sixry-t\vo-dclty Heruka, and the thirteen-deity Yamamaka ..:I These no lo nger survive, bur we can i.magine their magnificence from the large Kalachakra mandala made later for the Fifth Dalai Lama and now in rhe Porala in Lhasa.' Shortl y thereafter, twO of Tsollg Khapa 's disciples founded th e large Gelukpa monasteries on rh e outskirts of Lhasa: Jam yang Choje Tashi Pelden founded Drep'IIlg in 1416 and Ja mc hen Choje Shakya Yes he (1352-1435) founded Sera in J41 9. Shak ya Yeshe wenr ro Beijing on twO occasions, the first 011 behal f of Tsong Kh apa, who had been invited in 1408, and the second when ill vired in 14 14 by the Yongle emperor of China (r. 1403-24).' He re[llrned to Lhasa with many gifts from the Yang le emperor, among them a set of sa ndalwood arhars, which werc copied in large sjze and

placed in Sera monastery,· The constructio n of these major Gelukpa monasteries in the early part of th e fifteemh century no doubt occasioned the creation of many works of painting and sculprure to adorn the halls, bur so far li trle srudy is yet available Oll the art. 8 There is a wide range of diversiry and originality in the sculprures of rhe fifreenth century:J tn gcnaa l., many sculprures produced in cen tral TibC[ (0 and Tsa ng) have styli stic elements that are essentiall y related to th e Indo-Nepalese artistic tradition or are modified with flew elem ents that can be linked ro Chinese sculptural sryles of the early Ming period (1368- 1644 ). SculprtJres that adorned the great stu pas of Densarii monastery arc a body of work that refl ects the Indo-Ne palese strand, as executed primarily by Newar (Nepalese) artisans in Tibet (Fig. 2 ).10 The guardian kings on these srupas are widely <1cknowledged ro follow Chinese prototy pes, probably ofrhe Yuan (1279- 1368) and early Ming peri ods. This indicate thar the ewar artisans readily ada pted foreign styles, if they desired.l l This "Densatil "-style scu lptmc (and the Ne palese tradirion in general in Tibet) is characrerized by gildi ng and th e use of jewel insets. The pedestals rend ro be srrucnJral in shape and decorated with reliefs and gems. The figures are pleasingl y natural wi th smooth , yo uthful fo rms. The drapery fits closely to the body and the adornments are relatively restra ined , but stand our in a s trongly linea r manner and are emphasized by inset gellls Y Thi s infiLlential sculptural style rcrained a continuity from the fourteenth century into Regiona l Schools of Tibet:lll BuddhiST Sculpture · 17

hI!. 1. DeraIl of S
~emr.11 TiI1<-I

(U), (,I .

~cwnd h.I1 f of Ih~ fourtc,'mh to ea rl )' fifle.:mh (emur).

I:llt !:Opper dUO}'. (After I'..'Ide,

the fifteenth celllur)' as one maior trend m Tibetan sculplUrC'. Se\'C'ral examplC's of the Ne palese st),tistic tradmon associated wlIh DC'ns('Ty that dIsplay an mherent sense of movcment and order with balanced patterntllg. The smuous ~haping and hcndmg of the form doubt les~ derives from the Pala-Ne palese tr,ldlllon ~, but thc flu id drapery IS defimtely related 10 Chmcse art. This latter feature 111 • I rom G.l11dtn to [)u lonnor to Wu tdt,hJIl

is different from the Indo-Nl'pall'sc Idioms. whICh stressed close-fitting garmentS and less fanciful curvilinear mOI'l'mcntS of the scarves. T he lyrical beauty of drape ry folds in both formal and casual p.Hlerntng reflects a C hl11e~e feature that beeaml' aSSllnila[ed into man)' Tibetan scul ptural styles from this time onwards. The lewelry IS fJshloncd in forms si milar to those known on Images of the Nep.l lese tradi tion. but the Yongle bronzes do not appear to usc lIlset gems. The pedestal IS d('pieted With double rows of laye red lotus petals rather [han by structural form. and the outer petals have decoratlvcly curled tips-il pervaSII'(' feature that cOl1linues for several centuries in both Tihet.1n and Chine~c sculpture. Abo\'c and below is a r;lI h(.' r pronounced rim of heading. :mo[her longlt ved mottf. These two mfiuennal iHtistic s[rilnds. frequentl y combmed III dIffering dl'grees .lccording to mdll'idu;lllmages, are lila lor components 111 the creation of a dlstIllCl!I'e Tibetan style that was suce('ssfully realized m the sculptures o f the Pelchor Chode and KumhUIIl at Gyamse (ca. 425-439 ) and in sc ulplUres primanly from the Tsang region of Centr"l Tibet during thc second qUilrter of the fifth ce mur~'.

Temple Hall and the Kumbum incorpora re some signifi cant Ch inese arri sti c elements. culpturcs of rhe Kumbum, nearl y all made of daYl include stun ning images of colossal sizeY~ These massive and majestic figures have rhe characteristics of a distinctive broad body, thick limbs, and large squared face wit h strongly ourlint!d fearurcs-a monumentalized version of the rype of face appearing in the Yangle bronzes. bur imbued WIth a strength and power nor seen in th e gentler Chinese bronzes. Co unterbalancing the huge forms are the delicate, &I ighrly raised orna ments and the quite fluid folds of [be drape ry. The former add a sense of lighrness and incredulity to the image while the larter impart a feeling of movement simi lar (Q the draperies of the Yongle bronzes that hUlna"ize the huge, impressive icons. Less grandiose sculptures from [he numerous individual shrine rooms within the five levels of the Kumbum express a freedom of fo rm and drapery that is astonishing. A sculpture of Green Tara, for instance, is engul fed in a flurry or folds tha r shows one of the more extreme cases of Chineseinspired drapery.2o Here, however, rhe sryle is heavy and the wavy hems give an overall evenness and strength that is more pronounced than the typical Chinese use. This splendid Green Tara emerges as a stately, gorgeou icon, unique ly different from later Tara images. The Great Temple of the Pelchor Ch6de contains a number of halls with sculptures and paintings, the Statues Illostly made wirh clay except for a few of the large icons and Some small metal images .2J Fig. 4 shows an example of one of

Fig. 3. Arap:1ch.ln:l Manjushn, Ming Chi na , Yongle /1403-24 ) ItIscrip· rion, gilt hronze, 1-1. 25 cm. (After Buddh,st Images /J/ Gilt Metal, T;upei, 1993, pI. 52 )

Gyantse Pelchor Chode and Related Sculptures

In the encla ve of the Pelchor Chode at Gyantse there remain two great edifices th at still comain some of the finest scu lptures rtnd paintings of rhe second quarter of the fifteenth century: the Great Tem ple Hall (beg un in 14 '18 and completed in 1425 )lj and the adjacent stupa known as the Kumbul11 (co nsecrated in 1427 and completed in 1439) ," Ra bten Kunzang (1389-1442 ), the local prince and a devout Buddhist, pmronized and in itiated both. His fam il y had co nt ro lled rh e area a round rhe Nyang river from Gyanrse to Shiga rse as a virtually independenr region from around the mid-t hirreenrh cenrury. Rahten Kunzang received official recognition from the ruler of mOst of 0 and Tsang (Dragpa Gyalt en) and also from the Ming dynasty Yongle emperor, His ties with the Ming court were apparen rl }1 also supported by the famous Sakya master Kunga Tas hi ( J349-14 25), a guest of tbe Ming cou rt given tb e ri rie of "Prince of the Mahayana Doctrine )' by the empe ror. 17 Th is lama "since 1368 had played a crucial role in es tab lis hi ng and mai ntaining contact berween rhe Chi nese court and the lords of Gyanrse."r 9 It may nor be surprising, given this history, that th e sc ulptll res (a nd also t he paintings ) of both [be Great

Fig. 4. Arhar, Arhat Hall , Pdchor Chbde, Gyantsc, cu. 1425, patined da y. (Afrer Liu l-se, ed., X/'zong fo!iaosJJII, I\cijing, r 957, Jig. 7 1) Regional

School~

of Tihcr;1!l Buddhist Sculpture . 19

Fig.

Saky" lama SoIlJn1 Grahsell, ca. M"Cond qUJr!~r of the fiftecmh an· bronze with copper mb)'. former Halpen collection. Whom M. Rhl~ )

j.

tur}.

the arhat statues from the Arhat Hall on the east side of the second store),. The inrcnsit)' of the facial expression. the strong bold modeling of the f('atures without all)' ha rsh linear patterns, and the Ia),ering of the robes in heavy pleats repre· sent traits that can uldm.:ue1y be associated with Song period (97Q..-1279) sculptures in China. Early l\ ling art consciously cultivated the Song idiom as a reaffirmation of the native Chinese form in opposition to the art of the l\ lollgol Yuan dy· nasty (1279-1368 ). It would appear that the Song/early Ming sculptural styles had some impact on the sculptural modes of the Pelchor Chode arhats. The set of arhat sculptures brought back from China to Sera monastery in Tibet by Shakya Yeshe could ha\'e been one accessible source of inspiration, but there well might have been others. Evidences of the Song/early Ming style also occur in the superb set of lamas of the Sakya .. Lamd re~ (Path and Fruit) lineage that occupy the western hall on the second storey of the Great Temple Hall. Each has a distinct persona with varied depictions in the fashioning of their monastic robes . They rank among the finest set of nearly life·size lama por· traits in Asian art. They include a figure of the lama Ku nga Tashi (1349-1425 ), who was so influential in the building of Ihis complex.~l Some of the artists of the statuar), Jt the Pelchor Chode are known. and mOSt come from the area of sOllthern Tibet (Tsang), specifically around the Lhatse region (Map ). Man), of the sculptors are likel), to be the NewJTs (Nepalese artisans) or the Khacharas H who lived on the southern border areas of Tiber with Nepal. In the case of these sculptures. 20 • From GalldCIl 10 Dolonnor

fO

Wm3"hall

they reveal themselves to be masters of the paint~d cia)' 111<;diulll, which allows for great freedom of expreSSion, even In large·scale icons. Among independent, smaller meta l sculp{lIres, the lama ill Fig. 5, identified by inscription as the Sakya ~allla Sonam Gyaltsen ( 13 12-7 5),!4 is so close in representation to the Sak)'3 lama sculptures in the Pelchor Chodc (ca. 1425), thaI it is likel}' to have been made around the same time. The bo~}' frame is rJther tall, narrow, and straight, and [he draper)' IS comprised of irregular and somewhat chop~y folding of,the seemingly [hick doth. The naTUral fealllres 111 the portrait of the face are projected by modeling without linear harshness, JUSt as observed in the G)'amse lama and arhat sta tues. This Image has the colorful effects of copper inlay-a technique [har appears in sculptures of celllral Tibet and also used in western Tibet, where it is a feature of the earliest sculptures from at least the late tenth century. This lama sculpture does not h:n-c the horder d{'sign~ th~t hrC:lme ~o prevalent from later in the fifteenth century onwards-J point also notable with regard to the Gyantse sculptures. Many other Sakya lama sculptures arc known from this period and locale. per· haps indicative of the activities and prosperity of the Sakya order in rhi~ an'a at the time. The\' rel'eal ,1 wide range in vari· ation of bcial type and robe depi~tion, bur rhe fundamental character of each figure emerges rhrough a solid, unmitiga ted and thoroughly honest, not overly detailed naturalism of the head and its featun:s. This is the unique contribution of [he lama portraits of this time. As with the Yongle bronzes. images from China of the Xu· Jnde period (1426-35) were similarly sent to Tibet from the Chinese court . Elements of these bronzes, including a heavie-T style and usage of decorative borders, seem to have had an effeCl on some Tibetan sculptures. though lhe images arc generally similar to the Yongle styles, 50 it is difficult 10 make Illuch distinction with the Yongle bronzes or even those from the Shengtong period (1436-49). The diminishing of gifts sent from China to Tibet probably reflects the lessening i11[erest of the Ming court in Buddhism, a factor which became even more pronounced in the first hal f of the sixteenth century. Possibly giwn less introduction of new examples from China, the Tibeun and Newar sculptors tended to continue the paths established in the first half of the fifteenth centur\', in some(ases moving towards greater simplicity of patte;ning and in other cases developing a more powerfully massive form and interest in the ela bora tion of de tails, such as nora I and geometric decoration of the robes.

Tashi Lhunpo Monas ter y T he fourth of the four great Gelukpa rnomste ries, Tashi Lhunpo (Fig. 6), was established neaf Shigatse in Tsang in 1447 by Gendun Drubpa, later kno wn as the Fi rst Dalai Lama (139 1- 1474). T he splendid colossal seated Maitre),a Bodhisattva statue in the huge t\l airreya Hall with golden roof is said in some- sources to have been made in 146 1 by the Newari artist BishwlI Karma. The image rises 22 meters (approximately 72 fr. ) and is the most impressive of all the monumental metal statues in Tibet. !1 11 became a custom of the Gelukpa lIlonaSterie-5 to have a la rge statue of Maitreya, who represents one o f the main li nes of transmission in the Gelukpa teaching. Also. Maitreya has always been a favorite

Fig. 6. Tashi Lhunpo m()n:ls[ery, Slugat)c. tentral Tibet (Tsang), foundc-d in 1447 by Cendun Drubpa. [he Firsl L>alal Lama. (After Buddhists HI New Cbj'lQ,

I>ekmg.. 1956: p. 107)

of monastic communities from th e ea rli est cla)'s of Mahayana Buddhism. A gilt copper statue of Tsong Khapa at Tashi Lhlll1PO in Fig. 7 appears to be an early srarue of that master. It is a ~llperb image with extraordinary beauty in the depiction of the robes with their nuid movements and complicateu overlapping. The
and massive body formation, more amplified than the Tsong Khapa image of Fig. 7. The drapery in the Mindroling statue. ga rbed in mOI'\astic robc ((,)thers are in yogi forms) exhibits eve n more vo luminolls layering rhJ.!1 seen in the Gyantse lama, th e arhat clay scuiprures, and rhe more elegant ~Hrat1ge­ ments of the Ta hi Lhunpo T,ong Khapa. Howel'er, the folds become to a degree more SIm plified, with stress 0 11 a few deep grooves that seem even heavier than rhose earlier examples. A pronounced element in rhe M.indroling scu lptures is the srrong and rich embossi ng of tbe borders and designs of rhe textiles. These conjure the marvelous designs appearing in the eleventh-century monumental cla y sculpturcs at Dranang, Iwang, and other monasteries of the area.!'! However, tbis feature is nor seen in [he Gyamsc images or in the Tashi Lhunpo Ts()ng Khapa in Fig. 7 . The border designs may also have been inspIred in parr by Chinese designs, as seen in rhe Buddhist ,"vall paintings of the Famingsi near .Beijing, dated 1439. Some of rhe style changes may also reflect Chinese sc ulpture as seen In the bron>,"> of the Chenghua period ( 1465-87). Though less influential than rhe Yongle bronzes, nevertheles!:. these images may have served as models for th e decorative patterns and for the beavier folds ~een in some late fifreenrh~ and early sixteenth-cenrury Tibetan sculpture. The statue oi the Second Dalai Lama in tbe Benhi Ashmann collection of the Rietberg Museum is 3 superb exa mple in the Mindroling sty le. JO The maiestic set of lamas in Mindroling comprises an imporranr dated group, not only for rr:lcing the developments in the repollssc images but also as stylistic markers of a major linc of developm ent in the sixteenth century, especially as seen

Sakya Lamdre Sculptu res at Mindroling A nOtable group of large sc ulptures dated to the late fifteenth century at' Mi_ndroling co nfirm one prevalent Jevelopmenr in sculpnlre around the turn of the century.l~ The images are rcpousse made with embossed sheers of gil t copper. a tec hniqu e perfected by the ewari sculpto rs (F ig. 8). There are different types wirhin this impressive group rhat indicate considerable variery within the sty le. Though the faces are still individualistic, rhey are more strongly linear [han tho e of the Gyanrse lama images from earlier in the century (Fig. 4). Further, the Mindroling images a rc considera bly strengrhen ed by a broad

Fi~ . 7. Tsang Khapa. ca. second half af the fifteenth cemurr, gilt copper allny, Tashi Lhunpo monastery. (Af[cr Lit! he, cd'l XizllItg (ol/lloslm, Udjing, J 957, fig, 76)

ReglolHll Schools uf Tibernn

BlIddhl~[

Sculpture · 21

FIg. 8. Sa!.;)"3. Lama ..1 lIl.l>In of the LJlIldrc hned!;c (p(w.,bl)· Dr(»tlllli. ~llIldrQllIlg mond~tery. cemra.llibct IU). IatC fift~nth c~ntur}' ( c~. 14951. !;lit coppc"r ~Ho). r~pou~!;C". H. 88 (m. (After I'reo(ms Deposlf$. IklJmg. 2000. \01.111. No. 100.1'. 170)

in bma portrait s<:ulpture. Another stylistlC trend uses flat patterns of drapery folds blJ[ adopts the panerncd decoratIOns. usually mthe form of chasing. Luna sets. such as those of the Ngor and Sakya lineagr,1I show this stylI', as does thc Iam3 s<:ulpUJre No. 11-4 in the Kandell collection 3nd the man'cIous portraIt s<:ulpture of Lowo Kenchen Sonam Lhundrup of ;\\ustang. now m the Phlladrlphia r-.·luseum of Art. The P;ldma Sambhava sculpture m Fig. 9 IS likely to date from around the late fifteenth or early sixteemh century of this stylistic tradition and is an example of the nongllt brass im.lges of the tll11e. There are many vaned combmations of styles m the sculptures of the fiftt'emh celllury, makmg a complex SituatIOn when one consldrr~ also the differences in thr lineages, artIsts. and Iconographic type (mild or fierce). The lama and arhat tmages arc the most revealing of the Chinese stylistic clements. but such clements are also mcorpor:ned to a degree m the other icons. A splendId Buddh.1 sculpture 111 the Kandrll collectIOn (No. IV-2) shows an imere~ ting mixture of the ~ty1cs of the ;\Imdroling embossed border decor. the IIght-fiumg robes as seen 111 the Fig. 9 Padma Sambhava, and {Ouches of the IYTlcal folds of drap<.·ry .1SSOCIJble wuh the Chmese-lIlsp'Ted clements of fifteemh-century sculpture. The TS:lrIg region III parm:ular witnessed the evolution from a fresh. forthnglll naturalism as embodied by the GyamS{' Images 10 an ellen 22 • !-rom (,and~n !<> [)o)onnor to Wutalsh3n

h):. 9. Pddm.l 5.1nlbha,·a. ca. 1500. ,emr a.1 Tibet (probabl y T.s.mg). copper allo) wllh s,I"~r and copper Inl.l.) and turquOl!;C" lIl~ls. I-I . J4.5 em. IAfter Kulla ASI.1I1,Il.l.IIJ.logue No. \J4fJ. Sept. 2005. no.l11)

richer elaborallon verging on Idealistic n;ltur;llism, as sCt""n in the Tsong Khapa statue and the arhat PJltltlllgs of the second half of the fiftt'Cnth century. Uy the end of the century, a more formalit.ed rendNlllg appeared. Though there was slll1 variety. the forms beg:1II 10 be standardized, not to mere formality, but wllh an increase III power 3nd the consequent loss of the mnocend)' dln.'"("t appeal of the G)amse images or the lyricism and beauty as represented by the Tsong Khapa sculpture in Fig. 7. The Guge Kingdom in \Vestern Tibet

The fifteenth ccmur)' was a time of momentous change in thr weStern Til)("t.m Mea. The :lIIciem Guge kingdom wa~ revived to It~ fo rmer glory following a period of relative weakness and change durlllg the thirteenth and fouTteenth centuries. The Dngung Kagyus were most prominent in the arca from around tht' second quarter of the thirteenth cCnlury until the first quarter of the fifteenth cenmrr The SakY:Js made se\'eral att('mpts to gam a foothold 11\ the rrgion, but were mamly unsuccessful. Not ul\lil the return 10 Guge (ca. 1424) of the monk Ngawang Drakpa. a dl~iple of Tsong Kh3pa, did the kings of Guge Support grcat projects that Ng:lwang Drak pa Itlltl:lted. then reViving the klllgdom to ItS earher heights. These projects Included reb\llldmg as well a~ new COtmruc-

non of major halls at Tholing, rh e main royal temple of Guge founded in tbe third quant::r of the temh centu ry. DlI~ing the lasr qua rrer of th e fiftecnrh cenrury, the. Red Temple at T'IJparang was buih by Nga wang Drakpa a nd patronized by Dongrubma , wife of th~ king Losa ng R-apten, U It is il l11aior ac hievement o f wha t can be ca lled a Geluk renaissance in Guge, The Red Temple co nealllS many splendid wall paintings and sc ulprurcs. ll Though so me large sculprures reveal a close simila rity wirh so me of the Gyanrse wo rks of the ~ccon d qua rter of .he fifteenth cent ury, the sculp""cs of the Red Temple have a quality of lightness th at is differenr a nd characteristic of th e western Tibetan idiom. An interesting grou p of independenr sculptures thai appear to date ea rliet in th e fiftcemh century include rb e Dtukp" Kagyu lama statue in the Newark Museum J ·' and rhe statue of Mi larepa fro m the Speelman collection in Fig. J O. These probably pre-dare rhe Red Tem ple and arc possihl)' rei. ted ro [he Drukpa K3gyU ord er in western Tibet or Ladakh. There is a qu ality of bold cha racteriza rion in the faces th,:H links them with rhe Gyanrse style of rh e second quarter of rh e fifteenth cenrury. There is naive aw kwardn ess in the proporti oning; their massivel y rounded limbs :md midsection, shorr rorso, an d narrow shoulders are an unusua l combination, It nevertheless tends to impa rt a strong human appeal that is also fos rcred by the expre siveocss of the large, oudined facial fea rures heightened by colorful copper and silver in la)'. Bold

hg, 10, MJlarcpa, first haJf of the nfteenrh cemury. copper :t1li)Y with siJver and copper inlay. western Tibet, J I. 27.9 em, A, and J. pcclm:lIl, Ltd.,

London. WhotO A. and.l. Speelman)

chaS ing designs of the tightly fitting robes add a decorarive beauty typical of [his group of sculpru res. The Padma Sambhava statue in the Z immerman collection is a masterwork of westf'rn Tibetan scu lptural styles of the bee fifteenth ccnrury. H These metal scu lptu res of western Tibet possess an appealing style relared ro bur disrinctly diFferenf from tha t of rhe Tsang region sc ul ptures. They appear ro lack perceptible rclation with Chinese arr forms ar this time. The Kand~1I Buddha in No. IV- I may be linked to the western Ti betan styles of the late fifreenth or early sixteenrh century. II. SIXTEENT H CENTURY

In rhe sixteenth century, rhe regional dis tinctions in style beca me more prominent and included some sculptures identifiable from eastern Tiber. Influences from China appear to be have been rda ri vely weak in the first half of the century, pa rricu lilrl}' in [he an of central Tiber. This may in part be due ro the lack of interest of (he Ming emperors in Buddhism and the appa renr decrease in monks traveling berween China and Tibet, as even noted in the Ming dynasty historjes. 36 However. this appears to have changed in rh e later sixreenrh century during the reign of rhe long-lived emperor of th e Wanli period (1.573-1 620) , when Buddhism expe ri enced a resurgence in China. In Tiber, lama portrait sculpture proliferated during rhe sixteemh century; they show a vitality of va rying sty l e..~ rh:It is remarkable. Some examples in the Ka ndeU collection include Nos. U-S, 11- 10, and Il- I'J . th er imagery mainly refiJ1CS sculp tural forms along the lines already established in the fifteenrh L'c ntury, producing, however, some ver)' beautiful imag~. For example, the Manjushri in Sera monastery in Pig. 1 1 epitOnlizcs rhe refined and elegant portraya l of tbe Nepa lese traditions and is perhaps a repr enrative of the Lhasa style of arollnd the rnid-sixtcemh centu ry. In wesre rn Tiber, images of rhe Whire Temple (Fig. 12) from aro und [he second quarter of the sixtecncil century display delightfu lly manneristic rouches, such as rhe extreme eXtension of the ro rso, and irregularly scartered and li vely effects of the drapery. The pancrns of the scarf hems appear to reflect rhose seen in some arhat paintings (ca, 1500) fro m central or ea tern l i bct, suggesting Chinese sourcesY' The resu lt in these White Temple sculptures is a high ly indi vidualistic style of great charm and otherworldliness. This inrerpret:Hion is ill Efe rellr from the mo re dassicHI, standard Nepalese style as seen in Fig. II from Sera, Therf' is more focus on the pure an d perfecr beaut)' of a fully revea led, slim fo rm decorated onl y by thin linear elements of iewels. rather than the more profuse and active movements encou ntered in the clay sculptures of the White Temple. The crown and f
hg. 11. ~lanl11shrl, Sc-rJ mona~rery, [h,lj.;I. ,enrral TIIlC"I j U ), loa. mid~I"t~enrh (enrllr). t\ll! cOI'pc-r .1110) \\ nh 111)<'1). !Mter I III 1·!Ie. ed., Xn'lIIg rOII~osj,".Ik'llng.

195-. fig. -S)

t\ grollp of Sllvt."r lama portrall ~culplurt."s a~sociatt."d with Ihe artISt Karma Rinchen o((e r ~ e:umples of a dlStl11ctlvt." style t h:H can be associated with Ihe Derge regIon of Kh:.Hll in ea,lern Tibel around Ihe !.ttt." Slxt('emh centu ry. The Slat ul' in Fig. IJ o( \'(/angchuk Doq e, Ihe Ninth Karma pa (1555- 1603), accordmg 10 Its mscriptlon. was madt." 1rI "'his fon~'-fourth ~'earM (ca. (598 ). II is one example from :J number of slIllllar style thai h:Jve been idemified. " This group of M-ulprures IS more radical m the treatment of drapery Ihan seen in the statue of Karm:l Dudsl, whICh prohably dat/.'s from around the mid-Slx t/.'emh cemury and IS probahl), also from the Kh:llll region. '" Though th/.' draper)" c:ln Ix- lIuerpreted as de\'elo pm): from nalllrallsllc elements eontamed mlhe e.!Tlter G),antse Sak)':l lamas (Fig. 4) and the 1\ \lIIdrollllg lamas (Fig. 8), Iht· ue:ument of Ihe drapery forms m IhlS Karmapa portrait is slllnnmgiy lmagmative and l11Vlgor.1I!ng. II has moved in the dlrl'\:tlon of mannered stylll.:llion hascd on a I'ughly mdlvlduahzed concepnon of Ihe treallllCnt of the dr.lper)' folds.'" Deep wnca\'e troughs with ~wepl-up edges form a seTles of slamed Imes and curved pl.lIles Ihat neate both sust:llned and radically agll:lted movements throughout Ihe figure. whICh seems hy' contrast to form <1n ahsohllely sl.lblc cort." among the SWlr1111g and seem111glr self-goliernlllg 1l1o\"(' 1l1e1llS of the robc:s. Powerfully p;mt."rned groups of dl:l).lon:ll, semiCIrcular. and .Ingular edges create an :lhstr~KI Itl1ear composition lopped h)' Ihe ~olld head with its lmense sen~e of lIlner conCeniratlun and re.lllSl1C featllres. II may be a slyle Ihal is created (rom a N • hom (,Jnaen 10 DQlonnor 10

\"(-ulJI~h.1I1

m.

I,)t. 12. \'JlrolhJl1J BuadhJ \\"hH~ lcmplc, T~'parJng. \\estern Tihcr. (J. St'Cond qllJntr of the 51~lee1llh cemur). p.ll11led cia). (After [I GOtlml (.0' mdJ. TilHl III PU'lrm' $. [mer}' Illc. CA. 19-9. II. frOl1l1spl«e) conlulKtlon ofTibctan stylcs of lama port ra it sculpture wilh Chlllese \'(Ianli period st}'h~lic ek'llIc11ls o f fo ld depiction th:1I surp;l s~es euher 111 a stunningl}' suc(essful W<1)'. It represems <1 ~\lpe r h Tibl,tan scu lptu ral interpn:t:llion a mo ng the man)' va riations ~cen III the bma porr r<1i ls of t he fifteenth and sixtee11lh (entuTlcs 111 Tibet. Th is one. like Ill(' Tsong Kh<1 pa St<1lUC of 1.'.1. S('cond half of tht." fiftee11lh CCntury in Fig. 7, does nor have Ihe decorat1\'e chasing designs. hut only relies on the power of form and Ime (Q produce one of Ihe 11IOS1 effecti\'Cly c reatlre sculptural styles in Tibetan :lrt.

Amdo and Inner Mongolia Thl' Ihird qua n er of !Ill' sixteem h cent ury wi tnessed a , ignificant .md influential rel:lIion Ix:t wel' n Tibet a nd the Mo ngoltan~. ma inly throug h t he ausplCl'S of Ihe Geluk pas.41 ThiS avenue was reopened ahl' r the thirteenth a nd fou rteent h t'l'nt\JTlC~ h)' Ihe Third Dalal Lama, Sonam Gyarso (1543-89). In 15-7-78 he mad(· an arduous and lengt hy lourney to Chahar.lnm·r ~ I ongol i:l (~ l ar):11 the 1I1\'l t:ll ion of Alta n Khan, Ihe leader of the Ti.Jm/.'t :-' Iongols. T he rcl.l tlonshlp betwee n IIII' 1\\'0 was fOTluitous and con~ldered ,illl1lar to the so-called pncst-patron rdation known (rom (ormer Wiles between t he '\\ ongol~ and the Sakya La ma~ . Sakya I'andita 3nd Pakpa, 111 the thlrtccnth cen turr. II W:l~ Allan Kh an who besto wcd Ihe wle of Dalal Lama (Great Ocea n) on Son.lm Gyacso-a m le which ha~ been kepI. Jnd W:lS also nude rct roactil'e to (Wo

for mer incarnarions. During onam Gyarso's journey back to Lhasa, while in Cham do in t'asrern Tibet, he hea rd of Alran Khan 's death and rerurned ro Cha har. On th e way, in 1582, he stopped ar rhe monastery of Kumbum located at the birrh sirt· of Tsong Khapa in Arndo (nca r Xining in prcsent Qinghai pro vince} .42 This beautiful, m::tjesri c monas tery, with its buildings incorporating both Tibetan aDd Chinese styles of archirectme (Fig. 14), became a vita l Gcluk pa estahlishment in the region and a stepping-stolle for funhcr Gelukpa movement into northwest China and Mongolia during the subsequent cenruries. The painted cla y image of a goddess, probably VaslIdh ara holding a lotus bnd (Fig. IS), fOllnd in the Hall of Ni ne Rooms bui lt in 1626, pro bably dates around ,he second quarter of the seventeentb ccnmry:P The body bas wiJe shoulders and a long, smoorh, hourglass-shaped torso With fluid transiri ons that create a sense of uniry. This style was current 111 the sixreenrh century, as seen in the set of L1mdre sculpwres in Ngor monastery (ca . late fifreenrh-early si.xteenth cen· tury),44 and a simil ar body ide;,ll a pl~ea rs in the Sera l" lanius hri (Fig. II ). l":lowever, rhe KUlllhum image is distin guished by the ova l-s haped face, and hy dle natural creases and folds with coherent gro uping of heavy drapery over th e shoulders and !egs. These folds also exhibit d sense of movc mcnr and CO lUHermovemenr that is rypica l of Chinese artistic (orm and different from the vortex of movemell[ in rhe Fig. 13 srarue. However, this goddess Image shows so me tyListic simi larities

in 'he drapery technique. The proportioning and shaping of the body and head 3re also si mila r to those in the hakyamuni im(lge painting inscribed in I"he Wnnli period ( IS7J- 1 620).4~ The jewelry is related to Tiberan modes as seen in th e Fig. I I Manjushri, bur chere is ma rc dahoqJti on of the crown jewel plaques and more heavily decorated earrings, all using jade and co ral-type insets, differe nt from rhe rurq uoisc u ua ll y used in cemfal Tibetan Images. These fe(l[Ures, along with tht Increased se nSe of movement in rhe crown ribbo ns and scarves, become sr,ll1dard and more embellished in sculptures from areas close 1'0 northern China later in th e "evenreenrh cenrury. In rhe plea61ng bala nce bc nveen ornament and form, this 1m· age appears to show an early ;:l nd mOre natura listic stage than the .surnewhat more deconHlve imager), of the late seventeenth ct:ntUf)' and eighteenth ccnrur}'. JI1 1588, the Thi.rd D ~dai Lama died and his reincarnation was recognized as the great-grand::.on..lf1 of Alta n Khan, a facto r thar strengthened the ties ()f rhe Gelukp
Central Tibet

Fig. 13, Wallgchuk Dorje, Nlll th KJrnmpd, by Karma Rinchcn. Khnm (l)erg.e). en, 1598! sIlver wuh gold :lnd black pigments, H. r9 em (7lh in.). private collecti on. (After P. Pal, flb et: Traditioll mId Change. Albuquerque, 1997. pI. 32)

[n crnrrallibcr th ere was a major turn ing poinr in rhe midseventeenth cemury. The country became relari vcl)' peaceful wi rh rbe resoluti on of ea rlier conflicts between the Kagyupa and the Gelukpfl. as a result of the inrcrj ection of the Khoshullt JVlongols und er Gushri Kh an, who suppo rted rhe Fifth DalAi

Regional Schuols of TibelaJl BuddJllSt ClIlplUre · 25

fig. 14. Kumbum mona"l~r)', ArndQ (QmghJ'). expanded 101 ... 3 malor nlOnJ,ler) rn 1582 b) :,onam ('),,11.0, the ThIrd 1)313, Lam3. (A fler Buddlll5/s III NitII' Chm.1, l\·krng. 1956, p. 110)

Lama and the Gelukp:l~. Thl' military viclOrie~ of Gushri Khan in Kh:l!ll and TS:lng (e:lstern and SOUlh('rn Tibet) consolidated thoSl' :lrC:l~. In 1642, Guslm Khan gave the Fifth Dalai Lama (b. 16 17) supreme power owr the state in addition to IllS role as the head of the Geluk order; from this time on, the Gduk bccallll' the most powerful order Ul Tibct. 48 In 1645, the ~Gre;lt Fifth" be~an the conStrucllon of the Potala Palace 1Il Lhas,l, which to thiS day renKWb the symbol of a unified, religiously onented Tibct. In the context of these events, the monastt'r)" of Tashl Lhunpo III Shlg:ltse (Fig. 6) also became a malor IIIfluence III natIOnal and IIltt'mallonal events from the se\'enteemh cemury onwards. The Fifth Dalal Lama bcslOwed Tashi Lhunpo monastery to Losang Chokyi Gyahsen (156716621. whom he re"ered a) a grear teacher. ,md gave him the IIlle of Panchen Lama (known as the First. or the Fourth. coummg previous mcarnatlOns)." During the period of this Panchen Lama, art ,It Tashl 1 hunpo flounshed. Wall pallllings are known 10 have been executed there b)' the grt'at -Nt'w M enn~ p:lIll1cr Choymg Gyatso. Judglllg from Iht' autObiography of the P,mchen I.ama. l! seems he took personal interest III the ( a5tlllg of !>Cul ptures as well. 1II The ponral! of the First (I'ourth( Panchen Lama In Fig. 16 (probably ca. second (IU:lrter of thc se\'enteemh century) IS a stunnmgl y rcall~lIc Image who~e engaglllg face with high checkhones. IJrge fe:lt\lre~, and mfcctious smile is compelling ,Ind Immediatc. We llI~t111ctlVely recognize the realit)" of the 26 • J rom (,JlU.ltn w l)o]omH)r

!O

IX"UiJI,h.1r1

face and the IIlHll:lnipul:lIed eHen s of the material weight and teXturl' of till' homogeneous. thick robes . He seems to live an(1 breathe with e:lse :H1d inner {'ne rgy right before ou r eyes. Comparing il with the lama sta tue in Fig. 5 from ca. the second quartc r of the fifteenth century. which prod uced the first major wav{' of naturalistic art in T ibet, one can see both the mdebtedness of this seventeenth-centur~' style to earlier modes and the development of a greater mastery of the forms mto a sop hl~lIcated. coherent emit},. This master}' operates al .1 deeper level of underSlanding the inherent inner wo rkings of line and form functioning ,11 the service o f a na tura listic ideal. The effect IS of gn.'ater maturity 111 style withou t artificial in . cursions of d('(or;\II\"{' pancrlllng or manm'red touches. It may be a sllllilar phenomenon as seen In the paintings of Choying Gyalso (aclI\'e 1620-65 ). known as the -New ~'I e nri" inheritor of tht' ~lcnn -st y le pauning of the fiftee nth cem ury, which shows a high degree of expressive naturalism and subtle technique. Compared with the Nimh Karmapa statue in Fig. 13. that of th(' Panche n Lama shows a settling of the more floridly energellc manner of dr:l per), depiction in the sculpture fro m Kham by Karma Rinchen. The mann('r of folding the cloth in the robe~ on the Panchen Lama sta tue IS imerestingly simi la r to that seen in the KUlllbum image in Fig. 15. The draper}' configuration :llso n·~embJc.. th;!t of the three Geluk la ma figures (Los;!ng Chokyi Grah~en-Iater the Panchen Lamawho appears 111 the center, the Fifth Dalai Lama, and Tu lku

one being the guardian of the north ) sitting on the lotus-petal base of rhe sq uare midsection of the srupa .s~ Th is Vaish ravana has a sinuously cu rved, sho rt-waisred torsO withour excessive mass o r elongation. The armor is form-fitti ng with the depiction of individual strips (representing leather or metal ) and is un like rhe tighr, compactl)' woven type seen in Chinese and Mongolian sculptu res of rhe eighteenth century (Fig. 28). The wa isr is cinched, and ornate bands and border decorate the midsection. This accords with rhe armo r worn by figures known fro m as early as rhe fifteenth ce ntury in th e wall paintings of Tholing monastery in western Tiber and e.lsew here. ss Th e ends of hi s sleeves fly upward near the sho ulders in sharp and po inred shapes, differe nt from th e more lightl y coi led curvil inear sca rves typica l o f [he eigh teemh ce ntury. The forear ms are boun d wirh rows emu lating learher st rip ping, and he wears an ornate crown of plaques and long earrings hanging from a circula r rLng. Tho ugh the crown plaques are no t as raU as usually seen in bodhisa ttva images of th e rime, the ea rrings are similar ro those depicted on scvcnreenrh- and ea rl y eighteenrh-cenrury sculptures. His face i~ broad with big Featu res, concentrated expressio n, and staring, wide-open eyes. He holds rhe victory banner and a mongoose, and si rs o n a lorus-petal base of large, rather plain petals along rhe base of rhe ce nrral porrion of tb e srupa . The flattened, somewhat stiff but rich ly surfaced quality frequenrl y se~n in the repousse im-

Fig. ] 5. Goddess Vasudh:lra, Nine- Room Hall, Kumbum monasrery, Amdo,

ca. steond qu:t rtcr or the ~cvcntecnlh century, gi lded clay with insets. (Afrer Li Zhiwl! and Lil! lizh ong, Taersi, Beiiing, 1982, fig. 130)

Drakpa Gyaltsen-ki lled shortl y before j 642) in the upper left co rner of rh e Peldcn Lhamo rangka (now in rhe Virginia Mu seum of Fine Arts), which, by vi rrue of the idenrity of these lamas, can be sec urel y dated as "ea d ier [han 1642. " ~ I

The sta tue of the Fifth Dala i Lama in Fig. 17, now part of [he Tibet House collection in New York,S2 is a masterpiece

of portraiture and a rristic power probably dating from the latter pa rr of the sevemeenrh cenrury. In rhis image, rh e robes are transfo rmed inro sharpl y cur overlays of angular folds and creases, and the bands and borders create a tense linea r framework that encloses the steady, ca lm figure of rhe I' Great Fifth ," who engages rh e viewer with a penetrating gla nce touched with rhe him of spa rkling humor. Th e dignity and presence of th.i s image emores far beyond its small size and

affords us a glimpse of the person of the Great Fifth that Can st ill inspire awe and huma n connection. The artistic style has become mo re ecce ntri c and manipu lated than the more naturally configured portrait of rhe Panchen Lama in Fig. 16, but the o rigina liry of the design and the complex mixture of elements creare a pOrt rait both natural and beyond the narural, but without the excesses see n in the ea rlier eaStern Tibetan statue in Fig. 13. Jvlany images at Tashi Lhunpo monastery a nd at rhe Potala in Lhasa are examples o f scu lptures from the sevenreenrh and eighteen th cenrur ies. s3 The Vaishravana repousse sta tue in

Fig. 18 at Tashi Lhunpo offers a handsome exa mple in the repouss'; tec hnique Ica. 1662 or slightly later). The image is on the base of the stupa of the First [Fourth] Panchen Lama, who di ed ill 1662. Ir is on e of th e four directional gua rdians (thi s

Fig. 16. First Panchen Lama, Losang Ch6kyi Gyal rsen (1567- 1662), cenrral Tibet (Tsang). ca. second quarter of the seventeenth cent ury, gi lt copper :llloy, H. 27.5 em, Oliver Hoarecollcction. (Arter E. Dinwiddie, cd., Purtraits of {be Masters, London, 2003, pI. 89) Regional Schools of Tibetan Buddhist Sculpture · 27

ages of the mid- ,1Ild late seventeemh and eighteemh cemury in central Tibet contrasts wi th the typic31 i\hnchu Q ing and l\Iongoli:1I1 armored Vaishrav3n
F,\:. 17. Flflh O.IIJI l.ama, ccnlrallioct, Ca. laiC 171h ccmuf)'. gil! topp.:r allo). II. 20 em, lihct I10u>I:, New York. (l'h
10

Dolonnof 10 Wut.mhan

hg. 18. ""ishra"JI1;', Guard,an of Ihe North, from Ihe base of Ihe Sillpa of Ihe 1',..1 I';UKh~n Lama, Ta~hl Lhunpo mon.lsler}. Shiga IS(', (a. 1662, rCp<.lll>sC gilt copp,:r 3110) Jl1d Il1sCI).l ,\fTrr Z,mgchmm (0/1,10 )'151m, Hong KOI1!!.1987.fij!.(75 )

of sculptures during the second half of the Sc\'cllfcenth centur y into the eighteenth century, such 3S III the T:ua images of the KJndell collrction, Nos. 111-3 (da ted here to ca . second half of the seventeenth c('ntury), 111 ·2 (d:ued here to ca . 1700), and 11 1· 5 (dated here to ca. first half of the eighteenth eemur y), as well 3S in various other scu lptures at Tlshi UlUnpo.56 T hc three particular Tara images 11 1-2 , 3, and 5 as well as No. 11[-6, arc an especially notable group that provides insight into the evolution of sculpture frOI11 the second half of the srveTlleeTllh l-enwry to the IJte eighteenth or earl y nineteenth centu ry 11\ central Tibet. The T.lTa 111 -3 holding the vase is ,Hl exceedingly beautiful and interesting cxamplc from the Twenty·one Taras speCifically linked to the Atisha lineage of this popubr practice. T hough this form can be found in somc tangkas of the eighteell{h and ninl'teell{h centuries (SCI' No . 111- 1 and elllry for 111 -3), this image fr om the Kandell collection is a choice and rare example in scu lpture. The Potala [>,llace, begun in 1645 and completed in 1695, has Illany rooms decorated wi th wall paintings, Stu pas, scu lptures, and tangkJs. All have hardly Ix'gun 10 be seriously studied. Many chambers contain large,sclle images, for exa mple, Ihe hall dedicJted to images of Padma Sambhlva on thr south side (fron.t) of thl' ,first 1I00r of the Red Pabce. ,7 Along thl' western Side of thb long shrine roorn (cast-west length 30,9 m by nortl~-SOllth width 7.7rn), an altar colltains la rge scu lptures of the e1ght 111anifest:Hions of Padma Sambh3va (Fig. 20). They make a gorgeous 3Tray and provide some impression of how an ensemble of large repousse sculptures a ppeared in the great temple~ of this time. l~ ~epous~ was the technique of choice for large gilt sculptures, TIllS Padma Sambh3 va ensemble would

appear to dare around th e late seventeenth century or first half of rhe 18th century. At [he center of this long sc ulprure row is rhe fi erce man ifesration of Padma Samhhava as Guru Drakpo holdi ng a vajra, but missing his trademark scor pion, no rmally held in his left hand. He displays chubby, muscular limbs and ::I. broad, swelling torso. Quite refined double pea rl cha ins adorn his tOrso, along with a tiger skin at his waist and a bear sk in behind his back, its claws clinging to his shoulders. His face appea rs so mewhar harshly modeled-mo re a bstract than rhe natur::disric bu lges in the face of tht'- Vaishravana in Fig. 18. His orallge ha ir fla res behind him like a huge feath er headdress or peacock tail and rhe beallty of rhe golden mass of his bod y contrasts with the refined linear deco rati 11, ove rall imparting a sense of borh action and inner co ntrol. Nex r ro him is rhe manifesration of Parlma ambhava as rhe monk Lndrasena (Fig. 20) . The broad bod y i. garbed in robes whose sim plicity of curves seems ra accord with rhe restrained and elega nt linear modes seen in the Kandell l :1 ra in No. 111 ·3 ((~1. second half of th e sevenrecnth century). The mandorlas in these Ponda images, differe nr fro111 ea rlier mandorlas, are fashioned with large rel ief jewel shapes and leafy form ~ that crea te a richly textured surfa ce of rOllnded relief motifs in conrrasr ro rh e images smoother pbnes. For example, as seen in No. 1-13 ,

similar mandorlas were made throughout the eighteenth century; rh ey appeared in profusion durUlg rhe second half Grthe dghteelllh ce ntury ar Chengde , Inner Mo ngolia. A seated Maitreya bodhisarrva {H. 354 em } in the Pornla collection-said to have been m3dt: in a so-calJed "rOo dPal" workshop in the Zhol village below the Potala-shows refin ed work manship and specific styles of individual elemen ts from around the mid-eighteenth cenrury.59 Also. . a number of Other sc ulpture~ in the Kandell collection form a gwup of images rhat help to amplify our understanding of [his period: the Machig from ca. first half of the eighteenth century (No. rll-9), the Dakin; of ca . l1lid-cightce nrh cemllrr (No. Ill·?). and the White Tara of ca. the second half. of rhe ci htcenth or early nineteenrh century (No. nI -6). The Tso ng Khapa sculpture No. II-J 2, the Padilla S3m bhava in No. 11-2. and th e Buddha images Nos. I- I) 1-4, 1-9, and IV-6 are all major images that exem plify the sry l~ frol11 Central Tibet around the mid-eighreenth ce ntury. during th e time of the Seventh Dalal Lal11:1 (1708-57). They reveal a sophisricated, eclectic sryle rhat com bines elements of hinese and traditional Tibcm n modes l particul arly using tb e repousse rechn ique. Though the form rends to he light and nor orga ni· ca lly massive. the li.nea r as pecu, are ae'ithericall}' pleasing and interesting. wit h lilrLng rhythms. and tastefull y chased designs. Line c<1 rrics crea ri viry and imagination, the inser turquoises offer a spark of brilliant color, and th e faces have a sharp clarity and se nse of pe rfection that lift tbe images inra a splrirual realm represented by an iconic aloofness. These scul prures offer a glimpse into the scu lpntral forms within Tibet around the mideighree nth cenrury that parallel paimed rangka images of rhe time, sLlch a ~ seen in No. 1-2 and many others. These reveal th e gra ndeur uf a co nception rooted in pasr modes, bur enli ve ned by a co ns is[emly icouic vision of perfectiun. Northwest China, Outer and Inner Mongolia, anti Northeast China

rIg, 19. ManJush ri Arapachana, Tashl Lhunpo monaslery. ~I\lg<\rsc, ca, sec-

ond half of the seventeenrh ..:encury, gi lt cupper all oy with {'url\umse insets. (Afrer Z,/IIgcJ)/ffln Pojiao )Iisl)ll, 1·long Kong, 1987, /i~. 168)

The convergence of polirics, re ligio11, and art became more pronollnced and internationally consequential in the second half of the seventeenth cent ury and [he eighteenth ce ntury as Tiber and Tibetan Buddhi:,m become enfolded into tbe imperial strategy of the ea rl y Qing cmpe.rors of Manchu China , especiall y the emperors Kangxi Ir. 1662-1722) and his grandson, Qian long (T. l735-95 ). The role of Tibetan Buddhism and its art, mainly a~ sprcad through the influence of the Gdukpa rowa rds d1 C northeast and Mongolia from the rime of the Thir.d Dalai Lama in the late sixteenth century, increased in the lare sevcnrc.e nrh and eighteenth centuries to become rhe major religiOUS movement in Gansu, Inner and Ourer Mongolia , and 110rt heasr China. The regio ns of this vast ter ritorial arc witnessed a quantum surge of Tibc"n Bud,U, ism and its art. The Qing emperors sought [0 exp loi t the power that Tibetan Buddhism COm manded among the mulri ~ethnic peoples of the border tegions of their huge empire. With slich imperial Qing imeresl, these regions expe rienced a sudden and rapid increase from (he late seventeenth cemury through rhe eighteemh century in the founding of temp les accompanied by all the temple decorations of scu lpt ures and paintings, ritu al adornments, and the like. The demand was such rhat tremendous quantities of art were prod uced withi n a relatively short pe.riod of time. mOS( of it Regional

Sc h o(JJ~

of Tibetan HuddhlSl Sculptuft! • 29

from a few malor "enters. paruwlarly Dolonnor in the Chahar n'gion of Inner ~I ongoha . :lIld Belling. the capital of the QlIlg empire. then dlssemIl1Jt{'d from those cente~ (see ~bp). With regard to the sculplur large altar linages now in Stockholm's Folkens ~ I useum Ernografisb afford ,I splendid example. bO However, among this large output. there arl' differem styles that seem to have be"on](' codified as types. Also, there appears fO have been a considerable rept'rtolrt· of mOllf~ in i/"we1ry forms. pedestal forms, SClrf depict ions, etc., that lend individuality to thl' Images. ~luch work remallls III ordl'r to underbtand the incremental changes wlthlll an enormous outpm [hat often was IIlsngatl'd by the Imperial hl'ad. The cro5s-mixlllg of styles bel\\·l'en Tibetan and Chmese forms IS \·ery complicated and we an' lUSt begmnlllg to understand them. It IS. however. mcreaslIlgly clear that the \·J.flOUS n>gional art schools across ~ l ongolia and north Chma offered new realms 10 rhe expan-

sion of Tibet3n Buddhi st art and are a crucially important area for SUld) on the lal(:r schools of this inrernational movement. Here we Will present an outline of the chronology and regional distll1Cfiolls rh:1I can help to point lhe way for furtht'r det;llied slUdy 111 thiS area.

Amdo and Gansu Gansu and Amdo (QlIIghJi ) III northwest China comprise a m.llor area dOIll1tlated by Tibetan Buddhism from the m:teenth Cl'ntury onw.lrds. It W:15 also dosel)' w;lTched by Ihe Qing emperors. T he ethnic groups of this area, especially the ~'I ang.uors 111 the region east of Kokonor, were a potent elelllelll III th~' geopoliticnl mix of the early Qing dynasty." Tsong. Kh,lpa ( [357-14 [ 9) had been born in the Tsongka Valley in Mnnguor tcmtory in t\mdo, and the great Kumbutn monaSl('ry was huilt at the site o f his birth and enla rged into a 1lI.lior complex accordlllg to the WIsh of rhe T hird Dalai Lama III rhe ble Sixteenth centur)' (see above). Those rei ncarnate lama~ (the Jan~k}'a HUlUktu ) who were close to both the emperors Kangxl and Qlanlong callie from the ,'-l anguor clan of Amdo. These lamas and other reincarnates were associated with Iht, Conlung monast~'r)'_ founded in 1604 b~' ,l Tibetan monk near Xmmg (in present Qinghai province of Chllla).

1"0,,

Fig. lO. C.lIru Drakpo (lcfl) 'lIld monk Ind'.Hell" (nght), twO uf the l'1,lu 1l1alll{"~1 . . v ) ,,1 I'.I{I111.1 ',anI)IIlava III Ihe M[ >h II Id· H II··' fl ISOUl h SI de I 'J 1Ih~ Rc d 1'.1 Ia'f, I'olal.l ['Jl.Jee, I h"sa. '3. bte se"em~enth 10 first h"l{ of 'he CI >llIl't'r h ' . .. . _I); I 0 I11g a. rSI nor X,UIIS Il"'
)0 · }-rom C.anden

to Dulonnor \() Wur,lI~han

labrang Monastery Labrang monastery, southwest of Lanzhou in Ga nsu province (northwest China ). also grew inro an important monastery of enormOlls size and pres tige in this region (Fi g,. 2] ). Th l! monastery seem s to ha ve virtualJ}1 Imported Tibet in to Gansu, just 35 Kumbum accomplished for Amdo. Labra ng was founded in 1709 und er Empero r Kangxi. Over the course of the eighreenth century and later, it grew to beco me the la rgest monastery jn the region with six coll eges housi ng 2,000 to 4,000 lamas and ha ving numerou temple hall with impressive libraries, many statues, and pai ntings. It beca me a great reposirory of Buddhist art, with approxi mately 10,000 sc ulprures, including quire a few la rge icons (16 of tbem over eight meters ta ll}, of which ar least (Wo 3re known to have been made by Nepa lese arrisans in th e repousse method. Mosr ratues, howeve r, slich as th ose in cla y, sa ndalwood, and bronze, were made by local artists. It would appear that so me were also made in the Dolonnor wo rkshops of lnner Mongo lia . Tbe oldesr building ar Lab rang is the Grea t Surra Hall (Dajingrang ), founded in 17 11 by rh e first J amyang Hurukru of Labrong ( 1648-1721). This lama had s",died in Lhasa and received his monk's vows from the Fifrh Dalai Lama.':'l Subseq uently, mher colleges (s ubtempl es) as well as va rio us temple haJls were built, among dlcm th e Lower Tamric College founded in 17 16, the Shil un College fou nd ed in 1763, and th e Medicine College establisbed in 1784. The six-storied

Maitreya Hall (Fig. 22) houses a largt! repousse Maitreya icon (t-! . 7.4m) made by epa lese artisans and was built in 1788-91 (its gilded roof added in '1822).63 The Maitreya Hall , like IUany olhers at Labra ng, is builr in the Tiberan architecrural styl e, as seen in the Potala Palace in Lhasa and at Tashi Lhunpo monastery (Fig. 6). This sequence of buildings at Labrang provides a century of dated structures, and because no temple hall is comp lete withour rh e mai n icons and va ri o u~ proper adornm ents and deco rations, the primary sculptures of each haU can usuall y be co nsidered to date to approximately the sa me tim e as the fo unding of the hall. The Ejgbr Great Bodhisa rrvas in th e Great Sutra Hall (Dajingtang, fou nded 17 I j ), an iconographic set kn own fro m some other nota ble exa mples,6<1 are of im pressive size and made of gilded clay. They are sigoificant images dated to the eady eighteenth centu ry (Fig. 23). The forms are all similarly fronral and quite hierarchi ca ll y fo rmal. They retain the emphas is on a strong pre entation of the body form and rhe use o f inset gems typical of Tibetan sculpture at that tim e. However, the drapery is formed in repetiti ve U·s haped, ribl ike parallel fold s down the legs. a patterning closely linked with modes of Chinese Buddhist sculprure from as ea rl y as the fifth century and extensi vely used from th e seventh ro th irteenth centuries. The figures ate covered with a loose ner of jewel chains and wear relat ively low crowns similar to other work!:. of the Kangx i peri od " The leafy lotus stalks holding the attributes arc known from M.ing sc ulpture and seen eadier in

I Lanang I mona stery" Gansu founded 170.9 b)' the Kangxl emperor (1662-1722). (After Bllddhim in New China I Peking, 1956. p. 11 2 ) F·Ig. 0_.

Rc.'g lonal Schools ofTLbecan Buddhisr Sculpture · 31

Tht.' seated V.tlrochana Image (Fig. 25) 111 the ,vledicl11C College. founded 111 1-84, IS a superb large StalUe that also lffords critical c\'idenn' for dating si nular images to the late elghtet'orh ccorury. It IS made by Ihe repousse techn.iquc and wears the large :lnd tall crown pllque~ that appear In many sculptUTcS from the lallef part of the eighteenth cenwry. The drapery folds appc,J( qultc flat and adhere 10 thc somewhat tlli. flj!.ld bod)', but some gentle rhy thms in the clustcred folds ~often Ihe sc\em)'. The Image has a large bereweled collar necklact often seen III the images of central Tibel, and the crown plaques h:lve well-fashioned scroll detailing along the t'dgt,~, Soft poillts on the broad lotus petals in the pedestal are Similar to tho~(' seen 111 Fig. 24, but the Ime of pearls along the top edgt· :HC larger and more separatel)' spaced. a fc:lture th,1I C,1Il bl' noted 111 other [ate eigh teenth· century icon~. Thesr an' but a few of the Ill:ln)' ImageS:H Labrang that help to ch:lrt ,he developlllellt~ of eiglltecnrh-century sculptun'. I hough these arc ('crt.lml)' related 10 Tibetan forlT1~ of sculpture ,lIId SOllle wcrl' :lclu:llly execlIIed by Newari cra ft smen, a regional :lrti~tic dlSlllIClion is dctectable in the sculpturc, pmnaTily created hy clear elellll'IHS of Chmese andl or possihl) ;\ longoklll artistic modes.

hg. 22.

M"lIfe~J

Il.ill, founded

In

1-88-91 (golden roof added

In

18221.

Llbranj: mOn.lSler). (.Jnsu. (Mler I)c:nj: YUXI.U1):. el .II" /..Jb,,/e"g5J.Ik'I,ng.

1989. Iig. 5JI

Figs. 7 and 15. Th..:y arc used her..: as;) r:llh('r full but repelltive arrJ)' of mdlvlduallca\'l'S l11ll'd up the stJlk, a form that underwcnt some ('volution 11\ tile eighteenth century in Images from dlr t\mdo, G:ln~u, and l\ longolian areas in p:lrticlilar (for e,(:lmple, ~ce cJtalogue. No. 1- 15 ). The fierce rcpolls~c Vajrapani (:I popular figure in the Gelukpa paruheon) at the Shllul1 College (Fig. 24 ) can probably be dated to whl'11 tillS h,11I was founded in 1763. It has a raw feroclI), produced hy the COl1flll('IlCC of ('xaggcratcd proportion~ and a sprlllghoard cnerg)' 111 thr body. The feallires of thc face, stretched to th(' Ilillits of cred ulity. arc increased III fflghtfulne~s by bright P,llnt, and mad.' more prommcnI by thr flafln~ CTOwn of larj!.c plaques. Ilo\\'e\'er, Ihe o\'eremphaSIS tend~ 10 propellhe ImJgt.' towards m:lsklike abstraction, which somewhat all.'\·1
hg. H. I'our of the r'l:ln (,rc.11 I\ndhls.li!vas. ])"11111;1.1111; (Gfea t SUlfa 11.111 /, ca. 17 11. gil! cI.l) "nh Ill""". {,\fICf n""j: Ymu.lIIg, CI al.. 1."/111/1'/18 51 Ikl)III);, 1<;189, iiI:. 1111 •

fig. 24. VaJrapani, Shilun College, founded 1763, La brang mon,l';-tery, Gansu, rcpoussc gilt copper allo)" with Inse[ and pIgments. (After Deng Yuxiang, el aI., Lablllellgsi l BClling, 1989, fig. 33 )

Outer Mongolia (Khalkha Mongolia)

In the second half of the seventeenth century, rhe lama kn owl1 as Zanabazar (1635- 17231 became the most powerful pol itica l and religious figure among rh e indepelldcnr Khalkha Mongols, who occupied rh e ~rea we know as Outer i\1ongolia with its capital at Ulan Baror (Map).66 Zanabazar was rhe First j etsiindamba Huruktu from the reincarnate lineage of Taranatha from the Jonang order in Tibet (Taranatha was the famous lama historian who died 011 a trip to Mongolia in 1635). Zanabazar was a great artist as well, especia ll y re,101Viled as an artist who created a singu lar style of Buddhist sculpture identified and celebrated nowada}'s as the "Zanabazar schooL" In 165 1, Za nabaza r traveled to Tibet and rook initiations from both the Fi ft h Dalai Lama at the Pmala and the Panchen Lama at Tashi Lhunpo. He visited monasteries in the Tsang region and brought Celuk monks who were skilled craftsmen from Yarlung with him on his rerum to Outer Mongolia in 1651.(,7 \'(Iirh the techniques thar he mastered, he produ ced one of the most sublime sculprmal styles of the time. His work beca me synon ymous with the independent

Fig. 25. VamKhana, malll image o( the l\ ledicinc CQllege, founded 1784, labrang mona!.tery, Gansu, repoussegill copper alloy, inset jades, and other 'itonc. IAfter Dcng Yuxiang. e l al., Lalnt/cllgsi, Beiiing, 1989. fig. 37 )

spirir and national pride of rhe Kh alkhas that still exists toda y ;n Mongolia. The firs t setrled Buddhlst monastery in Khalkha Mongolia was Erdeni-Zu near Kh arakhorulTI, the ancient capital of Chinggis Khan char was destroyed by rhe Chinese at the end of rhe Mongol Yuan dynasty ( 1279-l368) in China. It waS built by Abdai Kh an, the grandfather of Zanabazar. Zanabazar became associated wich the found ing of nUlllerous temples in Outer Mongolia, man y of which were mobile units thar could follO\v the nomadic movements of rhe people. He is also known to have designed the main temple of the Urga monastery, the Tsogchin in the capital of Ulan Baror. 6S Fig. 26 shows what i nowadays known as the "C reat Temple of Urga" (the Megj id .Iai ramscg Temple, built in 19 12- 131 as seen in 1922. It is an impressive and well-proporti oned structure of hybr id style with a sloplng twO-stol'e}'-high brick base in the Tibetan style; the twO sroreys above are constructed with Chinese-style wood and tile roofs.69 For the [Cmpics and teligious cOl11munities he fou nded, Za llabazar also provided the necessary sculptures and Other req uisites to equ ip them. His best documented scul ptures are the Vajradbara and a set of five transcendent budd has Region;tl Schools ofTibctiln Buddh ist SculpLU rc . 33

made, according to trmple records, for the main monastery of Erdeni-Zu in 1683 when Zanabazar was around fort)'-nve years 01d,70 The Vajrasattva in Fig. 27 is bdieved to have been made about the same time. In some ways, Zanabazar's sculptural style rdatrs to Nepalese ,lnd Pala Indian idioms, rspecially as seen in some beautiful Tibetan and Ncwari sculptures-such as those of the fourteenth Centufy at Shalu-that are skillfully assimilated in his sculptures together with some Chinese elements. Yrt the quality of Zanabazar's work is not snongly Newari, Tibetan, or Chinese, hut rises to the level of a singularly creative and sublime style. The sculptures are an ecleeric synthesis of elementS that combine subtlety, cohesion, and simplicity into the unique style of Zanabazar. The icons are cast as one piece and soldered to the pedestal, a technique generally different from central Tibet where connections in large images were madr by rivrts and smaller images were cast together with the pedestal. The brilliant mercury gilding for the jewelry and drapery that distinguishes Zanabazar's sculptures affords a stunning contrast with the mat lacqurr gold used for the skin areas, thus creating a clea r distinction benveen the fleshy parts and the adornments and robes (Fig. 271. This mod(' is used in many later sculplUres in Mongolia, bur it does not seem to have be('n a Style used in earlier sculptures or in sculptures from Tibet or China.

Fig. 27. Valra~att\':!, Za naba zar, b~t qUJrler of [he St'vemccmh cen!llry, gilt bronze and p'gmems, H. of St.ltU': 75 em, Choilln,lama Monastcry Museum, Ulan Bator. (After Trisors de Alongo/II!, I'aris, 1993, no. 4)

Fig. 16. The Grca[ Temple (Temple of Mcglld Jalrarnseg). Urga (Ulan Ibtor), Outer (Khalkha ) f-Iongolia, ca. 1911-lJ.IAftcr Roy Chapman /\nd rew<;. The New Conq"est o{eentT<,i As,,,. Nt'''' York, 1932, pI. XVB ) J4 • From Ganden 10 Dolonnor fO WutJl,hJn

The body forms of his sculptures are powerfully volumctric but so smoothly rounded that they appear highly perfected, much like (he classical mode of Gupta Indian sculpture, Ihough withom the subtle-tics of fleshy modeling. The linear aspects are excessively refined and take account of varied detail, texture, and design, such as cfeated by the chased designs, th(' glowing jewel surfaces, and the si lken shawl with its crushed creases emulating Chinese modes (Fig. 27).71 The grace of line and overall sturdy proportions of the body seem to parallel images in Tibet such as the great Padma Sambhava cycle in the Potala (Fig. 20). What the overall effect lacks in movement and weight is supplanted by thoroughly idealized perfection of clemell(S. Th(' faces all have a similar youthful, full appearance reminiscent of the Gupta and Pala forms with smoothed shapes, gently curved eyes, and a rather slllall mouth with a slightly pendulous lower lip. Less sweet than Nepalrse sculpture but more idealized than Tibetan sculpture, this Mongolian form has a quality of solidity and highly refined expression that is so mature and consolidated that it seems to transport the image and its viewers into another world. The. Begts: in Fig. 28 offers an example of a gua rdian ngurr Ul the Zanabazar idiom, probably made in the early eightl:l:nth cl:ntury. ~! Begtse was a popular fierce protector usually paired with Pc1den Lhamo in Geluk temples. This representation has a vigor of movement in the limbs and in the swishing hems of his skirt and sleeves which, combined

wi th the massive breadth and vo llime of rhe bod y~ speaks of the Mongolian genius (or creating a powerfully realistic prorecror image, The innate strength of the posture and rea lism of the faci.al ex pression, withour any masklik e exaggerarion, produces a believa ble presence that could end shi ve rs into any opponent. The woven texture of the body armor is rypical of th e kind depicted in Chinese guardian sculptures from as early as the Song period (970-1279) . The Ontrasr with the Vaishravana image of ca. 1662 ar Tashi Lhunpo in Fig. 18 revea ls the stro ng fa cror of weight and realism that the Mongolian artists comributed ro Buddhist art. A rare statue of a Mahasiddha in Fig. 29 in the muse um of the Chuijin-Iama monastery in Ulan Baror, though apparentl y nor directly of the Zanabazar lineage, is a superior example in the repousse styl e thar may have come from the Dolonnor workshops in Inner Mongol ia (sec below). The cush ions of th e pedesta l have similar fi lling patterns as SO me images dared to the Qianlong period (1735-95), for example in the Milarepa sculpture (Fig. 39). Ir also relares to the Vajrapa ni (ca. 1763) at th e Shiluu College ar Labtang monastery (J'ig. 24 ) in overall sleek abstract bod y and specifically si milar jewel adornments, such as th e compact circula r units of the jeweled necklaces on the chest, The drapery form s have interesting and unusual movements, as in the loose knot of the scarf below the right shoulder and th e tense curves of the various sashes. The face is large with pronounced features that uphold the inrensity of th e planar and linear elements, similar to the face of the Labrang

Fig. 28. Begrse, school ofZanabazar, ca. first half ?( the eighteenrh century, gilt copper alloy with pigmenrs, H. 44. 8 c,m, Rubin Muse~ m of Art. (After Rossi and Rossi, Treasures from Mongolw, London. 200), no. 24)

Vajrapan.i 1 and as also seen in the Vairocha na image (ca . 1784) in Fig. 25. Though rhe abstraction of the com ponents lessens the sense of human naturalisOl, it stil! projects the Mongolian adherence to a stIong sense of realism, but co uched in wrms of an elega m abstraction that creates a thoroughl y new and successful 3(tistic vision of th e M a h asidd ha~ type image. The seated Shakyamuni Buddha in earth witness (blJ/./misparsba) mudra tn Fig. 30, also in {he Choijin-lama Monastery Muse um, has a clear srylistic resemblance ro the large Vairochana statue of the Medi cine College at Labrang monastery (ca. 1784 ) in Fig. 25. The well-proportioned image has similar iconic qualities of hard su rfaces and stiff form, but these are given some lyrica l grace by the linea r co mponents of nat pleats and delicate lines clustered into mild curves. The face generates a se nse of presence with i[5 large, though mi ld feat ures, and the mandorla is a masterwork of rhe IndoNepalese form, similar in general form to thar seen in the Labrang Vairochana. Both me Mahasiddha in Fig. 29 and rhis Shakyamu ni seem to affi rm conrinued developments in sculpture during rhe second half of the eighteeoth century in Outer Mongolia. The style is probably marc rdated to dle Dolonnor variety than to the Zanabazar school that created the distinctive ea rlier school. A comparison with the Buddhas in Nos, 1- 1, 1-4, and 1-9 reveals;] relatively close co rrespondence, bur also notable differences in regional styles _A greater aura of heavy and relaxed mass in the body and face with a balanced and measured regul arity in (he linear configuration pervadt:s

Fig. 29. Maha siddha, ca. third quarter of [he eighteenth century, repousse gilt copper a11oy, pigments, and insets, ChoiilO-la ma Monastery Museum. Ulan Bamr. (Afrer Tresors de MOllgolie, I)aris, 1993 , no. 18)

Regional Schools of Ti betan Buddhist Sculpmre · 35

:Illy sponsored l~uddlliSI administf:lllve c('mer m lnner r.. longolia. It W:lS placed under Ihe dircCllon of the Fi rst Jangk)'il Huwkru, the r..l3nguor reltlCJrn,lte who ix'Came influential with Emperor KJngxl. ~ I onks from all the "banners" (Qing admlllistralive WillS) C:lme to study Ihere. From 1722 to 1735 :I second gre:lltemplc, Ihe ShanYHlsi, w:as established nearby as the rl'sidenct" of the Jangk}"1 I-I utuktu. These twO huge monaSter), complext"s were constructed l;lrgdy according to Chinese tradillonal monumental :architecture descended from Ihe ele\·t"mh- and twelfth-century architecture of Ma nchuTla. By Impcfl:ll POlICY, gold frolllthe v:arious "banners" W:lS e:lrlll;trked to financc and upkeep these huge projects :l nd to support the great number of monks who studied there. These monasteries also bec
hi:. 30. Shak}' ~munl Buddh.l. '>CCo nd h.llf of the l'lghte<'mh n·ntur)·. gilt ca,1 cop!"",r al1o). (hOIIIn-I,lIn.1 MonJ~tcr) ;\Iu~um. IA(ler N. Tsuhrm, ,\l olIgfJ/r
the f.. longoli;tn work. Thi~ i~ a contr;tst to Ihe lenser ;t nd more varied rhythms of Ime ,HI
By the t":ad)' el~hteenth century Elllprror K:angxi (r. 16621-22 ). second full'r of rhe f..l3nchu Qing dyn:asty (1644191 1). had founded :I number of m:alor Buddhist monaSleTles III Inner r..'\ongoll:a :as p:art of hiS sH:alegy to consolidate QlI1g power in rhe northern :and western border regions of Iht" empire. In Ihe second half of the elghlccnth century this effective strategy was e'l:tendt'd, 1IW1g.orated, modified, :and solidified by his gr:andson, the fourth ruler. Fmprror Qi;tnlong (r. 173595 ), Though Ihe~ tWO 10ng-III'ed emperors ,Ippr:af to h:a\'e personally embraced the Tibel,1II form of Buddhism, their actions :also were sirongl)' motl\'all'd by Ihe politics of empire budding and rht" desire to control the feared Mongol cbns, When the Kh;tlkha 1\ longols-under simult:lncous pressures from Ihe Zunghar '\\ongul~ 10 Ihe west ,HId the I"bnchu~ in the east---detefllllned 10 give :l1Il'gl,lIIce 10 the Manchu Qing in J 691 (Zanaba1:1f W:lS IIlSlrumelll,111!I Ihis decision), Kangxi ordered thl' budding of the f fmwngsl Il'mple ;tt Dolonnor for the ct"r('mony ( " l ap ).~1 DolOl\l1or then Ix'came Ihl' firsl imper,36. From (.dndt n IU l)oIUI111(lr IU

\'('ulal
hg. J 1. I·our·armed r.1.111111 ~ h". c,1. 1700, peTlod uf the Kangxl emperor gilt hr<)lI/.e .... lIh )Jd e ,md wr,lIIUW", I I. 36.9 CUi, 1!11)lcrial collecuon, Chl'l1~de, Inner M"ngoh.l . (Afler /lut/d/lISt ,\,/ from Rc/Jo /, 'bl(ll'I, 1999, no. 19)

berween Beijing and the Manchu hunring ranges or Mulan, farther ro the norrheast, As conceived by Kangxi, rhe sire was originntly mod eled on rhe classical "thirty-six views of China, I'''"6 The hilly landscape doned \Vith pine trees wn~ enclosed within a ren-kil ol11eter meandering wall th at defined the giganric park, The whole esta blishment contained allusions ro the Qing empire and the pacification of Mongol trihes-suggested nOt on ly by it:; loca tion, which was used to meet with Mongol princes, blll also b) the encom passing wa ll re mi niscent of China's Great Wall-a nd that symbolism would not be missed. For Kangxi, Chengde was a place ro meet the Mongol princes whose allegiance he com mand ed, but later this bca uriful sitt! was transformed by Emperor Qianlong into so mething far mort' than a residence through the incorporation of a prominent Buddhist aspect. The brillianrly gil t, cast bronze, fo ur-armed Manjushri ill Fig. 31 is from the imperial collecti on at Chengde and can be taken as an example of the Kangxi period (late sevenrecIHheart)' eighteenth century). In rhis M::lI1jushri image, the bod)' has a smoorh, sim ply curved, broad-chested, tlnd STUrdy shape, em phtltica ll y ba lanced by vigo rolls drapery, more so than witnessed in th e scu lpture of Zanabazar of comparab le rim e period (Fig. 27). The jewelry is restrained and nOt as delicate as that of Za nabazar, th ough the degree of chasing in the hems is quite si milar in each . It is close to somc images from Tasbi l.hunpo (Fig. 19) and has. close similariry with a starue of Shadaks hari Avalokiteshvara bearing an inscrip· tion reading "cast by th e orde r of rhe Kallgxi Empe ror fo r his grandmother, Queen Xiaozhuang." n Other scu lprures from the. Chengde collection ca n be att ributed to this pcriod,7H as well as os. 1· 14 (Sodhisa " va), 1- 19 (Arhat), and V- 12 (six· armed l\ll.hakal.) in the Kandell collection.

The Wudangsi monastery (Fig. l2), located in the Yinshan area (ncar BaotOu) of Inner Mo ngolia, is an example of a Ti· beran-s tyle Iluddhist monastery founded by Emperor Kangxl and I"ter clliarged by Qianlong in 1749, 1750, and 1757. The llloJ1:1stery halls with six major remples were builr
The Emperor Qianlong (r. 1735-95) was a grea t pan'oll and sponso r of Tibetan Buddhism and Buddhist art. His period is jusrifiably famous for the enormo us outpUt of an from the im pt'rial wo rkshops of Beijin and Dolonnor. He bui lL and enl arged numf'.rous temples 1 primarily. however.. in the region strerching from Gansu through Inner Ivtoogo lia to Beijing and \"X/u Tai 5h"111 , resulring in a vigo rous flowering of the an of Tibetan iluddhism in those areas. As with his grandfather, Emperor Kangxi, these impe rial temples were insrruments of state policy to maintain peace along the border regio ns, parricularly 1

. 32 ,wue w, Iang monasrcry. Y'11l ~, h·,n ar'" near B.r)tou , Inner Mongolia , founded hy the Killlgxi emperor. !Mter \Vlldmlg UlIl1nsery. BaolUu, Ino datrl· Fig. < .......

covcr image) Regiona l St:hools of Tiberan Budc.llm;t St.:ulptllfc · 37

those of ~'I ongolia and Gansu, are3S 3lways considered a threat by the early Manchu rulers. Because of tht' respec t for Tibetan Buddhism by tht' people of those areas, the early Qing emperors. frequentl y relying on the advice of the First and Second Jangkya HUlUktu. skillfully used and encouraged tillS knowledge in controlling the region. The most influt'ntia1 Buddhist monk of thl' period of the Qianlong emperor was his boyhood friend and later religious teacher. the Second Jangkya H utuklu, Rolway Dorje ( 17 17_86).10 He was from the "·Ianguor Qi clan, descended from Mongols who had mlgr3ted into the Amdo area (east of Kokonor ) in the thlrt('emh cemury. Qianlong trusted Rolwa y Doqe and g3ve hlln enormous powers over the Buddhist establishments in the emplre.~1 Rol war Doqe was also a proltflc writer and oversaw the publishing of the Tibt"tan Kangyur and Tengyur (th(' Buddhist canon and comml'ntaries) and translations into Mongolian and lvl3nchu. among many other publications. Qianlong further expJnded the site of Chengde Uehol) first established by his grandfather, Emperor Kangxi. He la\'ished hiS personal attention upon creating a malor Buddhist arC,j by transforming it from merely an imperial re~idential park into a different vision with largt' Buddhist t('mples built for special commemOr3tive or political reasons. There wert" the so-called "Eight Outt"r Temples~ (actually Twelve): the chronology of these enormous temple complexes affords an Important guide to the devdopments of the art of the Qlanlong period, primar-

h g. 33. Allyuallllll~o. Ghtngde, Illntr Mongolia. bUIll 38 • hom GaRlkn 10 I)olollllor 10 WU13,shall

III

il)' in the second half of the eighteenth ccntury.~1 Whi le an attempt to create the impression of Tibetall monumental architecturt" can be seen III some buildl11gs, such as the 1767-71 "Parala ,. and the 1780 Xurnifushan, Chengde has a dominant Chlllese architeclllral cast wilh a slight Integration of Tibetan or Mongolian taste. The Anyuamm.1O is a spectacularly grand budding of gre,\I height and dignity (Fig. 33); though the hip·and-gable tiled roofs with upturned eaves are Chinese, the lower Storeys with high walls suggest a blending with Tibetan or ~ I ongolian modes. The colorful si lver Amltayus sculpt\lfe with gold in lay and IIIset gems from the lIupertal collection at Chl'ngde in Fig. 34 d:lIes ca. 1760s, based on similanries wuh the Va jrapani of that time at Labr:lllg mOllaSteq' ;\s discussed previously (Fig. 24 ), parricularl), with re-spect to the specific forms of the jewelry ornamentation :md sharp. erratic cutS of the scarves. ThiS Amitayus ma), rdlect the somewhat more ornate and also more delicately fa shIOned imperial sculptures of the Qianlong period III ItS l:ltter days. dlfferelll from the more forthright and simpler styles of the K,lIlgxi period (Fig. J I ). The Amltayus IS also similar 11\ some respects 10 the Mahasiddha image III Ulan Bator 111 Fig. 29, including Ihe sh:lping of the long torso, the specific design of the necklaces, !md the stiff and rather fanCiful shaping of the thlll scarves with their flat turns and twists. The crown reflrct s the lacy scrollwork 011 the ,menualed plaques of the crowns witnessed on man)' btl' eighteenth centur y sculptures. such as the V,l1rochana III Fig. 25. The

1764 by Ih~ Q13nllmg emp!"ror. ~Afttr /ludd}'!!! Ar' (rom Rl'iml. Ta'~I. 1999, p. 28)

The silver Buddha in No. 1-11 has some reflection of the Zanabazat traditio n of Khalkha Mongol ia, and rhe six-armed fierce Mahaka la No. V-13 is a nne example of this popular protector image i.n J\!longolia. These are examples of the images on a smaller sca le than rhe grand temple sculptures, but wh ich also contain Mongo lian preference for forthright simplicity and smoothly tactile , modeled surfaces. Beijing and Wu Tai Shan

As capital of the Yuan (1279-1368), Ming (1368- 1644), and Qing (1644-191 1) dynas ties of China, Beijing was the center of imperial control over Tibetan Buddhism in the empire. Each dynasty established in Beijing some nOTable monasteries and monume ntal Tibetan-style Huddhist pagodas, the latter being substantia ll y different from the traditional Chinesestyle, multilevel Buddhist pagodas. During the early Yuan dynasty, Aniko, the famous Nepa lese sculptor and painter, de~ signed the huge White Pagoda, built in 1348 and still a land mark in Beijing. The carly Ming emperors establisbed numerous temples around Beijing that catered to the Tibetan form of Buddhism. For the visit of the Fifth Dalai Lama in 165 1, the" Qing Emperor Shunzhi (r. 1644-6 1) made the Whi te Pagoda at Beihai Lake in the imperial garden representing tbe center of a giganric mandala of Yamantaka. He also constructed rhe Huangsi (Yellow Temple) for the residence of the Dalai Lama in Beij ing.

Fig. 34. Amitayus, ca. third quarter of the J 8th century, silver with gilt and inset jade, coral, and other stones, H. 53.8 em, imperial collecrion, Chengde, Inner Mongolia. (After Buddhist Art (rom Rahal, Taipei, 1999, no. 9)

pedesta l, thoug h qui te delicately ornate, has simi lar discrerely separated pea rls in the uppe r rim as seen in the same Fig. 25 Labrang image datab le to ca . 1784. The door guard ian (dvaraIJaia) from the Shuxiangsi, a temp le bu ilt in 1774-76 at Chengde, is a superb example of the Mo ngolian-style fierce protectot (Fig. 35). The gargantu an proportions; enormous swelling muscles; intimidati ngly tough face; gorgeous but not fa nciful or overl y ornate details of crown, sword, and belt; an d heavy laye rs of the lower robe with their sweeping hems-all impa rt an a ura of strength that is grounded in a real ism that makes the image even more potentl y frig htening tha n the ferocity of exaggerated abstraction d.S re ndered in the l abrang Va irapani in Fig. 24. This image reveals th e genius of Mongolian art rooted in reality made palpable and forceful, and thereby suggestively powe rful beyond measure. The guatdia n figures of Mongolia are impressive and unsu tpassed fo r th e believability of their H ercul ean strength . Sculptures in the Kandell collection fro m rhe second half of the eighteent h century and probably from Dolonnor include the standi ng Mai treya No. ]-15 and the Budd has 1-10 and 1-12. A compa rison of the lattct with rhe Kanakamuoi Buddha of No. l-J. from central Tibet of a similar period reveals the differences between rh e art of these tWO regions. The Mongolian image emits a stol id, ge ntle yet firm impression while th e image from central Tibet dis plays cla rity and sharpness of form and line that lifts the image into a less earthbo und realm.

Fig. 35. Dvarapala, ill sitlf at the Shuxiangsi (built 1772-76), painted clay, Chengdc, Inner Mongolia. (After H. Nakano and H. Baiei, Mammo !f0 rammakyo bi;uts/I, Tokyo, 1943, pI. 1l-73[1 J) Regional Schools of Tibetan Buddhist Sculpture_· 39

Among Ihe SCUlpIUfl') prob:lbl)' produced during thl' K:lng>;1 period in ]kij111g, the superb fil'rce fem:lle image in Ihe K:llldcll colleclion (No. III·] Oa, b) is remarbble. Though on ly mneleen inchcs lall, II h:ls thc same monu1I1cntally powerful form Ihal is wITnessed III Ihe Padma $amhhava statues of the Red Palace at the Potala (Fig. 20). By Ihc mid-eigh· tcenth century under Emperor Qianlong, Bellll1g had fort),' 0111' Tibetan Buddhist monasteries, preeminellt of which was Ihe Yonghegong, converted 111 1743-44 hy Rolw;l}" Doril' (b)' Ihe order of thc empl'rorj from Ihe p:ll:u:e whl're Emperor Qlanlong had been born. It became an ac;ldl'llllc monasll.'-r), under the din'CllOn of Rol way Doril'. particularly cau?r· 111g to ~ I ongolians. I The huge hall conralllmg the colossal s;lIId,llwood sta tuI.' of GU:lnyin, bodhi~allva of compassion (a Chlllese fealllf(' different from Tibetan mon;[sto:ries and le1l1pks, which generall y havl' colossal r-. b ilfl'r:l st:ltu('s) 111 Fig. 36 is typical of the Iraditional sl)'le of IlIgh· ranking Chi'w~c .1 rchlH"Cfllrr 1I~t"(1 for the huildings of Ihe Yonghegong. TheS\.' buildings do nOI show allY Signs of Tibetan·style ar· chltecture despite the faci that Ihe JOtenor, arc for the 1I10~t pan decorated With Tibet;H\ icon forms 111 both pallning and s~·ulplllre.

T he colossal Tsollg Khap:1 repoussc icon 111 the Falundian (Dharma Hall ) of the Yonghegong is olle of the 1113111 IIl1ages of tillS Important temple (Fig. 37). II escaped the ral'ages of the Cultural Revolullon .\IId remams a promment lemple m Bellmg even today. \X/llh liS Ihml)' la~weJ Jr.lpery adhrring 10 Ihe tall. stiff form of Ihe body. the ahbr('\-iated p:merlllng

of the folds that exhibi t a formal simplicity, and the tYPICal pedestal wi th large lotus I>ctals and rim of discre tely sep:lfated I>cad ~. Ihe SI.Hue generally conforms 10 other large images of the second half of the ("ighleell1h cemUf},. such as the Vairo· chana of Labrallg of ca. 1784 in Fig. 25. The large mandorla IS finch- executed wl!h a beautifully dehc:ne nm of cu rlmg t endril~ and a filling of multiple images .[ nd designs. The gilt si lver pom,lit scu lpture of Rolw:l)' Dorje (d. 1786), the Second Jangk ya Il utuktu. prob.l bl), from the Qianlong penod in the colleclion of the Qing P.llace (imide Ihe For· hidden City in lkiJlIlgJ shows a sturd y figure with a large, sleekly smooth panJII's hat, massivt" reCl,lIIgular ht"ad, and big fe,lIures, alollg with the small lump he W;IS known to hal'e at hiS lower fight law. Tht" thick robe filS snugly to the chunky form. the chasing en livens the borders. and :1 few prominent groo\'es suggest til(" g;HIIICnt fold~. It is a Strong imagt" wilh IliSt a few mannered I1I1ear lOuches 10 provide some \·italil)'. Compared With the ponr,lits of the Panchen Lama and Dalal Lama in Fi g~. 16 :lnd 1-, there IS an overriding focus. not on the magnificence of Ihe fluid n;lIural form as wilh Ihe Panchen Lam;1 statu(" or on the crmkled sharpness of the D,ltai Lama Image, but on till" obdurale power of reali,m from a solid form tha t exude~ a sense of inner pres"ure from insistently Simple tine;lr deSigns. 1111' elegance of form .\IId line in til{' lllld·fiftecnrh ·ccmury Tsong Khapa St.Hue III Fig. 7 is not to be found in this ("Ightcenth·cenrury porlr.lIt where the reality of J tight, hea\) form \\'1thOIlI exagger;lIIon and wilh linear sUilplici ty domin,ltes.

hg. 16. \'('~nfuke Ii 1.111 for Ihe ~(lI(KS.11 sl~ndlr1); ('\Mn) In ~lal l.tC'l. Y(>nghe):ol1):. Bell lAg, QIJnlon): prnlld. (l'hOlo .\1. Rhlc) 40 • I rom GJn
10 WUl~I\hJn

The Milarepa sratue (now in the Yale UllIycrmy Library) is dated by inscription on the plaquc in the froll[ to the Qianlong pCrlod (Fig. 39). It similarly projectS a keen Imerest in realism in the sense of capturing the immediacy of the moment. This mterpretation, which shows Milarepa in an unabashed expression of laughter, is so real tbar ir literally ,hocks the viewer to respond; it makes use of finel}' executed details to bring lhe image to life before our c)'es. This piece inte restingly confirms that a fea ture of Qianlong-period sculpture is the finely tex tured waffle p::mern re ndered on the cush Ions of rhe pedestal; it is seen on many Q[her sculpnm:s of the rime as a decorative motif, as in Fig. 29. Other images of this rimc,

Fig. 37. T!oong Khapa. Folun Ilall, Yonghegong, Beijing, Ca. second hair or the eighteenth ccnll1q', repoll')sc gil t copper allor, co lossal stze. (A lter Bllddhists lIZ New ClIllItI. Pcklllg. 1956, p. 15)

hg. 39. Milarepa, IIlscribed Qian\ong perioJ ( 1735-951, bron/,c. H. rtbour 5 Ill., HClIlcckc Rare Book and l\ lanuseript [ ibrary. Ya!e Universlry. (Photo M. Rhie )

Fig. 18. Rolw:J)' DOTlc, Jangkya Huruktu, ca. j 780, gilt silver, H. 75 em, Qing P:llace colb:t ion, Forbidden Ciry, Heijing. (After Cul/IITIlI RelIcs ufT;bel('lII Huddlmm Col/fe/ed il/ !he Qmg IJalace, Hong. Kon~, J 992, no. ]4 )

probably from Beijing, are Ka ndc ll collection Nos. V-7, 9, 10, and V-J4. \'(Ill Ta i Shan, not far from Beijing in northern hans l (J\ lap) , an ancient Buddhist sanctuary in China and powerful enclaye during the Tang dynasty (618-906), was the center of Hua}'an and esoteric Buddhism. It gamed renewed prestige m [he Qianlong period under imperial :,upporr for the Tibemn form of Buddhism. Ahva}ts considered the !!acred sam:ruary of Bodhisa[tv3 Manjushri, \Xfu Tai han was frequenliy visited through the cenntries as a pi lgrimage site nOt only by the Chinese but also by Indi::lI1s, Tibetans, Ivtongolians, Korea ns, Japa nese, and others. T he Yuan Mo ngol emperors, who co nsidered rhemselves as incarnarions of Manjushri-a factor presen t in rega rd to rhe early Qing emperors 3S wellco nstructed some importanr monasre ri es there, but rhe site Reglona!

~cho()ls

of Tibct.l11 BlIddlw.r ~culprufe • 41

OCC;lme eSp£'cially popular with the Mongols during the Qi3nlong period. Rolway Dorie spent much time there 3nd established a temple on top of Pus3ding (Bodhis:utva Hill ), at the Cf"lUer of five surrounding mountains that give the sanctuary its name. The view in Fig. 40 shows the great white pagoda of the Tayuansi built in 1579 and , at cemer right in Fig. 40, the Pusading with 108 steps leading to Rolwa)' Dorie's temple with imperial yellow tile roof;\t the summit. Here at the sacred site of \'<'u Tai Shan the m)'srically beautiful landscape 3nd temples seem to combine into a pure land on earth.

The periods and regions discussed here are complex with mally images. The few representative examples in th is essay show an outline of the various movements and interrelationships among the active regions of Tibet and the vast lands around northern Chilla during the later periods. ]\iluch awaits further study, including the nilleteemh century, which offers a rich harvest of 3rt as )'el virtually untapped and which, though frequently conservative, still affirms the continued vitality of artistic production of the Tibetan form of Buddhist art in the expanded world of Tibet;3!1 Buddhism.

Fig. 40. View of Talhu31, 31th cemer of Wu Tal Shan, ShanXI provInCl·: ,hr while pagoda of Ihl' Ta)"uans (15 79) d l' d temple bUIlt OJ Rolway DOTJe during ,he Q>anlong pcr>od ( 17J5-95). (1'holo source unknown. ) ,> an US.1 lIlg (Bodh>S3I"·J Hill ) wilh

42 • From (,anden to ])Q]onnor

10

WutJlshan

NOTES

9

By the fourrcendt ~ennjry, Buddhist t~'XtS from India available to thc Tibetans llad been rranslau.:d ,1111,1 organ~.ed into Ihe K:lIlgyur and Tengr ur (scripture ;Jnd conuncnrary canOns! b~ the ~hotar monk Bumn. The \'a rlOl)S Buddhist Ilrders had long been establl .. hed and were Oourl.\.hmg, Ine primar)' onc;; helTlg lhe N),lI1grna. Sakya, Kn-

d:lm, :lnd vsnOIlS !>uborders of the Kagyu (Phag:modrupa, Dnguogpa , Karmapa, Drukpa, C:: tc.J. 1\11:1ny lllwHlstcries and rem pIe budding') were already COnstructed [hroughom the land, mosrly III tbe c("mra] n:glons ofTiht.'t (0 and Tsang), With Nepal n'mamc::d mfluelltJal, especially with rc~pect to Ihe artllmc

or

The ~r3nd Icons the Icmpk- halls of Tibet, mmhwest and China, and Outer and Inner Mongolia dUring thiS period were 11l0St ohen made 01 large :.h~ets of embo~sed :lnd gilded copper (the repous:.e tedll1lquc) ancllolllcd rogether l1) rJvt'IS or soldering, norrhea~1

(For more on Ihe repousse rcchmquf", see Loden hC.F:lP Dag)'ab, Tibetan Rc!t~C!tO IlS Art. Wlcshaden. 1977, pp. 47-49). In a number 01 slgniflCllnt ca<:e.~, day was al~o llo;cd 10 fashi~n IMgc Images, and III ChHlii woocJ was used, Mcdll.lm-si1,ed images were frequently made by rcpOllS~C, as ~cen In a numbt:r of example-s iii the Kandel! colleelion (No). I t. 1-4 ), bur I.!ould also he of day 0 1 wood. Most ~m!lller statues were caSt metal, hm stant' .md day were aho used. The mel.ll w3.~ u:.ually a Copper alloy, but 111 China mostly Cd\l hronze wa~ used. Most Stattl~ ot rhls penod were ~ilde.d with pa inted details mainly on the head, .lnd many used inset gems or IIllay meral. Sometimes cold gold W:IS added w the fuee , parllcularly when the Images Wcre refurhishcd dnd/or recon:,(·crarecl. Customarily. consecrated Icono;, partlcularl)' the I::trge ones used on the a ltars. Wl're adorned W1IM 01 ierings lewels., <;Carves, brocade. ...ovcnngs.. and the !th.

modes of paintUlg and sculp(ure. The Guge dynasry of weslern Tibet expenenced a lull dUring the fourteenth centllr)' (ollowl1lg its peak m Ihe late temh [0 carly thineenrh century and was puised ror a m::qor renaissance In rh(' fiftcenth ccncury. The. Monguls had conrrolled China and Ccrnr-al Asia (and exerCised Influence to liber) during the rhmecmh and fourteenth ccmunc!>, hUl their power.. hegan to wane by the early fourteenth century, In 1368, [he .!\tongols were defe.ued and the Inng~hv~J Ming dpmsl") (1368- 1644) W30; eslahltshed In hina, 10 be followed by the Nlanchll Qing dynasty trom 1644 to 191 I.

I

3

Tsong- Klup ofTihct Inro rhe region .. of nOrthwest China and Mongolin from the btl' sixteenth century. He first wenr ro the

~i T !"

with Gcndnn Drub. ont' nfh l'i diSCiples. who

was later recognized a~ [he Firs! Dalal Lama, R, "' hurman . rd ., Life (lJId TCdchings o(7'sollg KholiO. Dh;lTamsala. 1982. p, 27.

4

Ib;d., p. 29.

5

See Ulrich von !:lchroeder. B/lddlnsf SGIIlplUres

In

rtbl't. vol. II : Tibel

,md China. I-l ong Kong, 100 I. p. 999, Fig. XVI-l), 6

Tsepon W. D. Shak::abpa, Tibet:

° f)olitl ~all-list()ry. Ne\\

p. 84. Sh:"lkya Yeshe wem dlC second tune 7

III

York. 1984,

1434 .

See Zallgc/JIlIlII POiiao yishu, Hong Kong. 19R7. figs. 198-199

Becaul\e ollhe necessity for nlet:ll sources, foundnc!>. and metal wor~t'r!> III the c.reatlon of <:I.!UlpLUralleon\, certmn rlrcas bec:lI1w known as rhe major producers fI{ ..culpturcs, hom Tilt' tenthto thlrtcelllh cennmes the Newan lNepalc:scl .tnd KJshmm played:l crUCIal role 10 the dC!'.'etopment of Tibetan metal !>t:ulpturc. From 1111: fifteenth century on ..... ard~.lhc New:lrs and TibculIIs dominated the protiUl' lioll Wlthm Tibct, but tht! Chinese and finall)· the Mongolialls bec3me ever more actlve::ls stulptors within the c.xpalld~d rraditlon of Tihenm 8uddhlsm in rhose reglon~.

or

I U The Dens.atilillonastery i.. Sltuared near Tst!tans, JUSt north of Ihe Tsangpo nver ar the entrance to the Yarlung valier, It was founded lt1 11 5N by PI1:Igmodrupa ( 111 0-70), a disciple of Gampopa o( lhe maUl Kagyupa Jineage. Aher PIMgmodrupa died. a gre-at monastery was buill on Ihe silcof h,s mcdlmtion hUl nnd tho..cof his diSCIples.. It \Vas p.:moOlzcd by rhc I1lflucnclall..nng fllmil y :lnd by the midfourrct'mh ...emury had Jma~sed conslderahle control away from lhe Sak.}3pa In ccntral Tibet. The- monaSlery I)ecame renowned for Its wealth and for the CJghtt'('n large silver srupas contaimng the rf'm31l1l> 01 the religious and pohticalleadcrs o( Ihe r('gion dunng Ihe fo url ecJ1rh-firtct':n th cenru(ll.'$. These (ahulolls]) orna te 5nJP:l.S were . . nv('red WITh statues III relief and in the rqund, The. mon:tstcry regrelt:1bly fdllnto disu ..e and W3~ deserted hy 1820; rhen II was complerclr ravaged during the Culcural Revoilluon of 1966-69 (Von Schroeder [20011.11. pp, IOOS-I010). Fr;lgmcms from Ihe.-.e srupa~ have arpe:1 r(!d throllghnur the world In reCt'n l years, There. only rcmam 03 few rare phmo~raphs of the Brt 1/1 Situ taken by Tucci and Mde IVon Sch.rocdt'r 1200lj. lI. Figs. XVI-7-IO; Pierro Mel!!, fi· bet. New York, 1969, unpaginawd; G. TUCCI, Tn LIJascJ al1d Bt!)I(uIlJ. Rom!!, 1956. figs, facing pp. 142 and 146 ), II

Von Schrclcclt'r (lOO J), II , p. I () I O.

(p. 127).

~

The colossaJ fiftcen~meter crowned Maltrey:. (:"It the: :age of twelve) (If the Grear A~scmhly Hall of Drcpun" was probabl~' made after 1735, following rhe COllapse and ccconsrructron of the hnl! (Von Schroeder (200 t ), II, p. 1001. U'xt wi th Pig, XV I-J). The- approxlInardy sevenmeter crowned Mairri'ya ar DrcpulIg 15 traditIonally belJeved to have heen made In 1416, but may h:!\"c heen rcpalrcd over the ),C3fS. lk>th large sta rnes wcre m;lde of caSI and embossed sheet ... of gilt copper joined rogether. Ibid.,

n.

p. 10005. Fig, XVl-4.

12 Other examples 01 the.Ncwar ~tyle of ca. latter halt of the fOllnccnrh to first h:llf of [be fifteenth century can be seen In Von Schroeder [2001[, 11 , Nos. 260A-E. For more on (he New:1rs, see Ibid .. pro 91 1-912,914-9 18. 13 Th e..e "Yougle bronzes" still eXist In cOllsiderahle numbers in the mon:ute.ne!o of 0 nnd Tsang lfor examples. ~ec Von Schroeder (200 I). pp. 1247-129 1). Many are currently III priv(ue .lntl museum collec· tions thro ughol.ll the world (su-.:], as rhe Pala ce M US!!Unl Taipei, TJlc Regional Schoob of Tibetan Buddllls[ Sculpture · 43

Tibc:tan hlerarch< and I".,der, as a St"llcgr for keepIng the coumr)" we"k h)' !:ncouraglllg (aC(lOnS wnh", the rcltglolls (a nd poln,cal)

R,ctb.'Ig Mu~um \u ZUrich, and the Il cTll\\lage, St. I't'tcrsburg ). rhl' ,mp0rl.IIlI group o( matcnJls ha. been d,~usscd b)' llearlll"r Karma)', Early Smo·Tlbet,m Art, W;lrm!l1,!Cr, 1975; and U)"ch "On Sch/Oeder (100 II, II, PI'. 12l7-1l49. Amcil" on Yonglc bronzes mclude: S. 1\,11 •. "'Sino·Tibeull Sculpture: The Tibet,m Lega,)', ~ 'n 0" II", ('tllli

estJbh~hmems fro", II11UlIlll. The I\IUlg had nO nllcreSI III "",qucsI 01 Tibel but werc apprl'hell$lvc o( the pOSSIble threal from Tibet; Tihct had u\\"aded and capOlled Changan m the bte e'llhth cemury

dllrmg Ihe Tang dyna.t)". AI~, th,' :\-Img emperors kept a ,harp ell' on the ;\Iollgoi-. '(III conslder"d dallgerou •• and the "lllperOrS recogm7.cd the ]lOtenllalmf1uencc of rei'glon III controll,ng the are:l" of northwe<1 Chllla (AllIdo IQmgh,ll) and Gansu). These underlYIllj! pohtlC,,1 matH,,, fed mto Ihe ;\]llig POltCl{" and actlon~ wnh reg3rd to Tibet. ASIde from thM. th,- early /I-'Img emperors were thelllsch'cs

/0 VOid: Bruldlml Art of II",! T.!.'f/,w Redl"" cd. 1'. Pal. IIomha)', 1996. Pl'. 142-161; Dav,d \'\'eldon, "Th,' i'erf<"(:t Image: The Sped· man c.:oll(~!ton of Yongle and X"ande BuddhIst Icons:' Arts of 115111. "01. 16, No. 3 ( 1996 ), PI'. 64- 73. 14 The Yonglc hwn~es re"eal a wdl·dn eloped style. bm 'IS d,rect an · t<.""Cedl·nl' ;Ind Ime o( dN,\'auon H' Chma are nO! read,I)' d,,,ernabk. The SI)'1c Sttrns to ha,·" e,'o)\'(,.;l w,th respect W th~ draper)' from [he Yllan d)"nasl)' (orm •.•" "!en In the !radmon,,1 Ch",e.e Buddh,s[ sculplUre :l!1d paUlIIn);_ Th[s ('"nhJnced the Ind, an (palal bod)' form "'\lh liS "UUO", mo!!on, a speCIfic (c,lIure ",hlch th(· Chllle<e artls.lns proh"bl)' adopted frolll Nepalco;e and TibelJn Imag,'r)" p-"I"ularl)' a, mtlOOueed b) Aluko .Ind h,s dlttu ,\1\ ""p"31l0n from sour,e" ,uch as cJrhcr Ka shmm ,m. Th" dement of n1l\~ular denn",on IS nOt part of md,genou, Chme$('" Buddh", H'l,'gC deplctio,,<. thoulth ly as filtered through the :-.Jew.'11 ... It for lht< t<"'plc hall WCle madl' b)' the loeallord Rapten Kunz.ln!!", 1418. UI"ch ,on Schroeder (1001).11. p. 870. 16 ThIS "Ie has N:en qune ext,·thln·ly 'Illdled b)' G. TIlC!:I, and more re· cemlr E. 1.0 Bue and I'. RKca, TI}e Cre,1I of Gy,mtse, Londoll. ] 99,\. Also Stt UI"ch "on Schroeder (100 I), II. rp. 870-88 I.

Sill".,

17 E. 1.0 Bur. ~ The S"cred Enda,'c of G)",nt">(, ~ III 0" Illf 1'<1111 10 V')ld. (·d. h) 1'. I'al, Ikunha)', 1996, p. 116. ,\1'0 ""C FIg. ,J '" thIS arlld,' for the J'Onralt (Of Ih" S.1kp Lama III the Lamdre hall of the Grtat Temple. H.olh T. W)']'c and E. Sperl"'g see the pr.,eIiC': uf Ihe earl)' ,\-Img emperors of gIn,,/: /:Ift, ("la m:! tribute" IW)·ltc·s tCflnl) to the 44 • hum Ganden

to

Dolonnor to Wutalshan

,upporlcrs of BuddhIsm and recogmled the BuddhlslII of Tih.-t J'.' bO'ld fide Buddhtsm wnhml! the peIOrJtn'{' o,','rrolles thai ,)lI'SI'" later. T. \'(I)'he. "Lama T"but,> U\ Ihe /I-]"'g l)yllaSI)·.~ In Tlbewu Sl"'j,c~ III HOIIOtl. of I/llgh RIC!,<1rdso", ed. b)' /l-Ilchael 1\11' ,,"d Aun): Sau Suu Kyl, Warmt""tcr, 19l:10. PI'. 335-340; E. Sperl mg. "'Th 5th KarmapJ .md Some Ihpcct) of Ih,' ReI.mon.hlp Iklween Tlllet and the Earl)' ).]Iug," Illlbltl .. pp. 2SO--Zl:I7. IS 1.0 Bue (1996), p. lJl. 19 II Gotaml Govmda. Tdl/'l III 1'/Clllre~. lkrhlcr. 1979. twO ,'ols. Vol. 1. ngs. on pp. 78. 79, SO, 81. Jnd 83. 20 Ihitl .. n!:_ on p. 88. 11

I""de th,· Great Temple l1a1l (also c.llled the Am'mb), Hal l) on the ground floor there arc: I) Ih e Msellll>/), I}dll With ClfculllambulalOry corndor; 1) Ihl' m,I/" SO",,".II")· at the ba<'k of th .. asS(·mbl)' hall (Tmglagkh.ln{:. lIlt1<'1 sanctuary, Or Jobo Lh.,khJlIg ) th,u 1< dedi. cated to the B"ddh,l' of th e Th,,·c runes IVon Schrocdn 1200 I ), II, p. 870). Accordulg to Lo Bue. "'StatUI'S mc1uded att tmage of the Buddh.1 made from.l mould t.,kcn frOlll theJobo ShJk)'Jlll\l'" kept m the Jo·khang at tha >3 ... aS well a~ a cop)" of thc Imagc of Shak),alllulll housed m the temple of Ihe Gre;1! Ellhl'htcnmelll at B(}dhg3)'a," th .. latler glided m 1420-11 h) the sculplOr Kpbpa. ",ho followed the same proportions of the ,tJllle kept m thc Temple at Bodhga)'''' 10 line (1996), 1'.12.6- 117; J) the "'/'51"''''8 h"lIcOnlalTllng the Valradhatu cycle ",uh four-headcd Sarvavld V"!I<xhana b)' Ihe scull" lOr Krabp" (who follo"ed Ihe l'roportlons of Ihe stune tmage of Shak)'amuTll.1I IIotlhga)'a ) (von Schr",'der 12.0011. II, p. 870). 1.0 B"e states th,\I tile we"t h.ll1 has tI,,· Valradh.lIu ~rdc wtlh the fi,'e Cu,tlllC 1I",ldhas and Iheir ,mendams panlled On the ",.111 •• and day $talll,'s on tht' lwo m,lln registels below th .. "';til panllulgs along Ih .. , omh, west and eaSt wall, ILo Buc 119961, Pl'. 12.7-129). The hall W,IS decorated III 1422. ( 1.0 Ilu e 119961. p. 12.7); and 4) lhe r,/SIll'tng. b.'l:un b)' Rablan Kun'_1ng In 1413, dedicated 10 Ihe Km);. (If Ille 1)oemne (the Three KrhglO us Kmgs of the Yarlung d)'1I;l5t)')_:",d COlltJlllln!: cby enes of palllled nmndJj,I': 1 ) the /."",dre H,,1/ at the west of the eemral COUrtY:HJ ,olllam"'g.t large thrn··dnlle"",,,,a) n,and.ll.! of (hakrJsantv.Hn and d.I)· <;tatues o f Valradhara and Ihe great IndIan and TiI>{'tJn llla'ICf' of Ihe tradlllon of the Path and the hUll (the I.:lllldrc te."h"'g) (1.0 Bile (19961. p. 130); 1) the /\rlml 1/,,11 at the CaSt (a bo,e Ihe h.ll1

"o",ce,"

or the religiolls kmgs on the ground floor) with a set {)f rhe Sixteen Arhars .Iccompanicd by H ila Shan.,eo'and Ohannar'I " 1'1,"... " a y,

. linage in the cent!'r of the east wall is Sh"ky:ul1uni attended by I\llan lush ri and Green Tara (Lo l$uc [19961, pp. 130-132). 22

23

32

Robeno VItalI, The Killgdoms of GlI.ge PII./mmg. Dharamsala, 1996) pp. 4 1 I-SOO-.'I2.S.

33

Govinda (t979), vol. 1J991), pp. 57-58.

34

Rhle and Thurman (1991 I, no. 85. Valrae Reynolds, from the Sacred

111<1111

Lo Bue t 1996), Fig. 3. Also, for rhe compleTe 'Set, sec Von Schroeder (200 1), II, pp . 876-881.

n, pp.

153-163. Also see Rhieand Thunn::ll1

Realm, Munich, London, and New York, 1999, pp. 192193 and pI. 109, where she d.:neS" lhe image [Q the fifteenth to

"Desccndanrs of mixed marriages between Newar men and Tibetan

women ." Von Schroeder (200!), U, p. 9 J 8. note 895.

six lcenrh century.

24 The in,;cription rcads: "Homage to Sonam Gyaltsen ." He \Va~ rhe

35 Rhie and Thurman (1991), no. 47.

fifteenth abbOT of Sakya mOllasrery. D. Weldon and j. Ca,;ey. Faces of Tibe/~ New York, 2003, no. 34.

36 See below, nure 4 1.

25 See Roberto Virali, Early Temp les o(Cemra! Tibet, London, 1990, p. 133 and nore 66 on p. 136. Also. Von Schroeder (2001), 11, p. 1004.

3i See Rhie essay in Rhie 3nd ' rhurman (999), Fig. 20, p. 59 . 38

Amy I-Idler, "Works from rhe N}'ingjej Lam Collection illlhc Light of ReCent Sculptural Finds

26 The style of the lotus stalk motif and of the image in th is statue would nor appear to date beyond the mid·sixteenth century, as imlicatcd in the tangka of Tsong Khapa III the Ruhm Museum of that

III

Tiber," Oriental Art, new series-, XLVI,

no. 2, pp. 2 1-23. She also indudes several Olher sculprures possibly by the same ~culpto[ (figs . 20a, band 2J:t, b). The statue of the Eighth Karmapa

approximate date. See Rhic dnd Thurman, 1999, no. 115.

111

the Nyingjel Lam collection can also be seen in

David Weldon and Jane Casey Singer. Set/lpturall feritage

of Tilm,

1 Dlldon. 1999, pI. 48. For :lIlother in the Poraia, see Von Schroc:dc:r 17 This Tsong Khapa tangka is dared to the mid-fifteenth century in

Nt. Rhle "Tibemn Painting: Styles, Sourct:!S and Schools," in M. Rhie and R. T hurman, \Vorlds of Transformat ioll. New Yo rk, t999, p.60. It is dared to ca. fiftcf"nrh-S1Xreenrh century in J.C. Huntmgton and D. Bangdel, The CIrcle of Bliss, Chicago, 2003, No. 38 (p. 1(5), where the painnng is shown in full Ul color. The e".:tmordinary patterns of draper)' in the Tsong Khapa sr,nue are SImilar to rhe depicrion in the Cleveland Tsong Kh apa painting. Other SImilar examples appear in the robes of arhar paintIngs of the "econd haIr ot the fiJteenrh century, as seen in rhe Arhat Angaia in the Kumar collection (Rhie essay in Rbil' and Thurman [19991, Fig. 171, which nor only shows such drapery l"onfigurations but also has depictions of leaf (orms slmii:lr to those on [he lOtus sta lk of this Tsang Khapa

{200 1I, II, p. 12 1S (nos. 336A-C). 39

P. Pal, Art ofTibel, Berkeley, Los Angeles, and London, 1983 , No.

S32; Rhie and Thurman (199 1), nu. 89. 40 Sinlliar dr~pery modes with such specific mannerisms as the parallel dnuble fold:. with sOlllewh:1t angular, cufflike foldmg over the left !orearm also appC:Jr in some painrmgs of rhe rime that a re hIghly influenced by Chi nese styles. See, for example, Rhic and Thurman ( .1999). no. 33. 4!

Slnce around I ')71, the Mongols bad been 3r peace with China, bur the Ming COurl still considereJ them
statue.

stabi lity in the empire. The conrt was particularly nervous ~bol1l AlHln Khan's lllfiltration of the Kokonor region and harassments on rhe

28 For the Mindrolillg gilt copper repousse images of the Lamdre Sakya lamas, sec Von Schroeder (2001), 11 , Figs. 236A-24 I E Twenty starues

Chinese borders. During the rule of Ming emperor Shizong (1522-

66), Buddhi<;m was !.uppressed in favor of Taoism and the Chinese relarion with Tibcran lamas dropped preCIpitously ('
and one of si lver (Vajradha r;.t) were moved to Mindroling (founded m 1670) in 1990 from Drathang (Grwailmng) monastery

In

the lower

rarely Wellt to China" according to the MlIIg slJlh; W},lie 1.1980]. p.

Dranang valley, sourh of rhe Tsangpo river. MlIldJ"ohng, an Imponanr

338 ).

Nyingm3 monasrery, is localed south of rhe Tsangpo in the Upper Drachi (G rwaphyi) valley. Dratha ng was also a Nyingma monastery,

42. From earlier tImeS I there had been some buildings and stupas made

founded in 1081- 1093, bu r in 1495 Drathang 11I0113stery was given

::It

to a great Sakya master, Chok),ong Zangpo from Shalu, and he mugh t rhe Lamdrc there. The sta tues now at IVlmdroling a re believed to have been those origiml11y at Dralhang where they were seen in 19 19 by Ka thog Situ. According to Von Schroeder these statues were made by Newan artists beca use of the "undeciphered Nag;ui letters

established in 1560, but the Third Dalal Lama (Son
on the upper side of the pedesrall)f some images." Von Schroeder

reincarnate hUlHtS emerged durtng rhe early Qillg pe riod. Sh.3bbpa ( 1984 ), pp. 93-96; L. Sch ram, Tht! MOIIglfors ofrhe Ka Il S/I-TIVe.tllll

(200 I ),

the birth site of Tsang Khapa and a monastery was formally

tiated a major expans Ion that resulted in making Kumbu1l\ a great mona~[ery.

Parrons of the earlier structures a$ well

(IS

later work

a t the monasrery were rhe ManguOf clam living in the a rea, one prmmnelll clan being the

n, pp. 972 -974.

Qi clan irom which the Jangkya H uruklll

Border, PaT! II , Phila d elphia, 1957, pp. 2 I , 25-26; and nores from Prof. Gra y Tutt le, Columhia University.

29 See, for example, Li Gorami Govinda ( 1979), I, p p. 4·1-43, 45-46.

30 Helmut Uh lig, 011 the Pmh to Enlightenmellt, Zilrich, 1995, no. 14 1. 3 1 VOIl Schroeder (2001), 11. figs. 333A-335E (pp. 1214-1117).

43

Tael"si. Beijing, 1982, p. 10. P. Berger, Emfme of EmfJriJless, H onolulu, 2003, p. 30, Fig. 5, calls rhe image Vasudhara a nd dates ir to ca. 1595.

Regional Sr.;hool.s of Tibetan BuddhIst Scu!pmrc • 45

58

Von xhroeder (1001), II, nos. 33SI)· [ 11'.1117).

"'"'

"'5 nus p.'lIlung , ~d''><':lIs>I.'d

11\

JUne and Thllrm:m (1991). nO. -.

XWlIIg Hlllal"go"g. 2 '·ols.Bell'ng. 1996, 11, Fig. 175 (I'. 377).

59 XIlt")'U (J"gzbr" ( ["reasures from Snol' ,\1011lllJtnS). Shallgh;", 2001. no. 35.

",6 Th('re 's some dehale wh~lher Ihl' relllC;lrna(lOn >lHl

\\'.1>

Ihe greal.grand60 Rhle alld ThurlllJII (199 1). 110. I (VajrJpJm). nil. 35 (M.UlJushrt).

or tbe grc.II-gr,,,,dncphcw of Allan KhJn .

.l1Id no. 36 (Sh.,d.1kshafl A"alokuesh'Jra), .1Ild 111ciudmg an linage of T.Ol1g Kh.'pJ (no. 96).

"'7 Fur a ~tud)' of thc>c paulllng. and new of Ihe temple, <<< Isabdk' Charle u>!, "\.., pe""ure d~~ donate"" du Icmple de 1I-lJllrC)'J en ,vlungohr mend'onaic." Arl~ IIs,oJlulrres, '01. S"" 1999, Pl'. SS-W1;

61

I would hke to thank (,ra)' T"ult lor k",dl) scnd",g me sonn- of hE; work r<'sard"'g h" ~tud)' of Ihe su".",on of ,he "lauguors '" ,hIS

Fig. 1 for ,',ew 01 Ihe mam tcmple w"h Ihe wall r.lln""gs.

pniod.

",8 For delalk sec Shakabpa (19841. PI'. 106-112.

62 Hi s nJnu.· dem·e. from Ihe occaw", 111 Lhasa ",h~n he offered (whll" nffermg seMf)

",9 11-1. Rhle and R. Thllrrn;l1l. Wlisdom <)m/ CO"'p.I5510". Ihe SoJ("red Art

J

kbJtll

the Sla'llr of Manlu,hfl (jampllgl '" Ihe

J<>kh.lllg lemple. It IS i."d thaI '\·I.,nJushri\ fa", b.·C.1I"'· wrca,hed '" suules, so he rece,,'ed the nallle ~ J,,,npng h.,d" ~ ("lanll1shn .mlhng).

o(Tibet. New York. 1991. no. 99.

A, 111,' "WI(.IIlon uf the p"ncc of lhe "Smuh ,\ 10llgo1 llanna" (the Mea ,oulh of th(' Yel1o" R"'er lInder rhe Ql1l)( "bJnner ~ SplCIl\ ot

50 From TIJe A"'oblOgr"ph), o( 1/;( Fml I'",,(h,'" I..mlJ 8/0&.'lI/g·C/lOsKYQ·R,!.')·"I-fdUhJ", edued and reproouced b)' Ngawang G.:[(-~ Demo wllh .111 Enghsh llltroou,""on III F. Gcne Smllh,l)dlu. 1969. PI'. 'i-6.

.ldm"'ls,r.ltl\'(" linn, hu"d on lIulllary d"'Islons). Jarnyang returned h" Jncestr .•1 home 10 eSlJhl"h the t Jhr;lllg monastery ,,' Ihe Jge

we bun from t he mtrodllCllon by [. G,'ne Smith Ih"1 tile "bl~r3-

!II

ph)' 'Olll,'IIIS frequent rcferences 10 Ihe gre.I1 arllStS ",ho t·",o)·ed Ihe p.I1ronage of Ihe bnchen. "and himsdf demo,,,,r.ued a great lIueres! m the ,echniques of ,a and 'ne,.,nllrg),." A~ an e~arnplt.

of
., passage i, qlloted concernmg Ihe CJSllng of .11l-b,tr{')·., un.lge wh'ch

R'ghl Revoh-lIlg I-.lou:l$rer)-J long mle Iha, "'a~ soon g"'"'' up In fJ\"or of the short"r "blnang. ~ Deng, Yll.~lang. et "I.. I almlrngsl,

n.,,"e of Jam)"Jug'; rn,d('nce lull. th~ ~1.h:lkhJng," b,nh In 1714. Ollgll,al1)-, Ihe mO""
Ihe l'anchen Lama wnneS>ed. Whtle c~
10

~m".,culously~ Ca S'

linage.

Rh,e Jnd Thurman ( 1991). no. 115. PI'. 300-302.

Belpng. 1989, 1'1'.119-120 . 63 ,\ lorc conSlnKI,,)n of malor hall. OCCllrrcd at Labrang m 1879, 1907, :",d 1928. 64 There,s an earl} 'ie! of i.Jrgc

"nJge~ ((:I.

Ia,c ,wdflh (e111ur),),n the

"(;real AsS<'mhl} H.,U" of Sera monas,er}, m 1 hasJ (Von xhrocdcr 52 ThIS Image was formerl)' from the Roerick

<'011""1011,

b,er I'M' "f

j20011. II, pro 9",8-9571_ AnOlher se, IS

~t

,he Shan) "lSI al Dolon·

,he R"'eCSlde "·l useum colle,"on '11 New York. and then g"'~n to ,he Rose Art Museum al Rr;ll1dels Untwrs1l)- hdore ~om'ng 10 nbe,

"or founded

House. New York.

01 br""le ll!h')(CS from the Ch,-ngde "npt'"al collecllon IS pubhshed m 811ddlJl5111rl {rom Rehol, Ta'I><", 1999. nO. 15.

H'

Ihl' 1-22-35 pellod (N.,kano, Hanshrro. ""d I-Iennn

Bale, ....·'''''''''0 110 """I1,,,kyo blllll~lI. Tokyo. 19",3 .11-94 ). A group

53 Hundreds of sculplures m lhe shllnes of these monallellC<. al the J okhang, and at OIher Gcluk monasteries ,n Lha'" offer a ",h col· le'"0n from Ihls penod. However, ,hese ha"e yel to Ix- acceSSIble ,n pullhcallon.Ix-)·ond <, ft'W stieellons, <0 a malor slUd)' of th" flou r· Ishlllg pt'Il00 aWalt' fu,ure work. h om personal COI'l\'erS3t10ns wnh Khen RlIl poche, currelHl)" abb01 of Ta shl Lhunpo ntonaMcry III Indll. ,Ilerc Jre man)' Ind"·ldlial. connee'ed shrl1le rOOmS made pt'nods a, Tash, I.hunpo .

III

dIfferent

54 J.or full V'C" of rhe Slupa. see Z",rgd",,,,, (011"0 ),'5/"'. Hon g Kong, 1987. FIg. 4 77 on p. 245 where"" ,denllfied;1> ,he slUl'a of the Fourth (I.e .. ,he For
lln~ge

h"lI dedICated 10 I'Jdma S:,mhIlJ"a mal well refk"r

,he $pccial uncreslS of ,Ilc FIfth Dalal L.lIna '" Nylll~mJ pr"CtICCS.

46 • From Gandcn to Dolonnor 10 \'(Imalshan

65

I'or ex.lInp!e. tile loose nerwork of wwel cha'ns .:a" also be seen ,n the SCI of Fighl Grc.'1 fIodhlsat"." 'mages m the Shan)"Il1'l (foun ded m (a. 1715) neM Dolonnor /S<'e aIXl"C nOld.

66

I'or ,he bIography and work of Z,rnah.lI.ar .I:e: N. 'l-,ultem, The Ellllllell/

Mo"go},.", Swl/llor-G. Z,,,,,,b,,~"r. Ulan- Bator, 1982;

I'. Ikrge r .llld 1'. ila"holomc". MOllgoil.l: Il,e I eg •• c), of Ch"'ggl5 Kh'lII, London and San l-ranclSco. 1995, PI'. 26 1-302; G. Begum. "Le> sources de Z.,nabJur." m T,isors d A-Iollgo/'e. 1'.1f1>. 1993. " PI'· 64-81; D. DJ~hll.,ldan, "Zan"hazar. figurt d~ I'h,storie mOll 0k !:1 ," "' 'h,d .. pp. 56-63; (;,Ics (kgu",. '' In!rodUClllln.'' '" "'. ,\ 1. Ros,1 and ~. Russ,. Tre"$II'<'s (rOIll MOl/gol"" /Juddlllsl Seu/,,'lIr<, (rOIll Ihr SelIOO/ o( Z,lIIQb"wr, cxh,b,"on ca'alugue, l ond on and Ncw York.200'i.

6- B..'gUlll 120051. uuroducllon; IloIlOI"lu, 2ooJ. 1'.29.

I'a,,,,,,,

Berger. ClI'fllrl" o( EII'{"IIIrss,

68 Tsultem. (1982) ' p . 9 . s..~ F ,I',,, ,d ,,,,,_ MC h nCCHlre -. .. ~ .. I re. ell p"ys khalkha," ,n Tn'sors de ,1.10",0/,,·. 1'"" ~, dr:,wmg of !h,s temple dn'gned by Zan.lbazar.

re , 'gicl"'"

'9'3,Ig. f 5'or"

69 Ibid., pr. 91-92.

70 Set' Tsulre11l ( 1982 ). I~P. 7-8 ond fig:.. 11-33; also Berger 31ld BMtholomew /1995), 110S. 97-98 and Begum (1994). noo;. 2 :lnd J. 7 1 For example, Ilore Ihe chest shawl collection.

In

N(I. IV-4 01 lht: Kandell

77 Palact· .\1 useum (Kugong uowuYU;tI1). cd., ClIlll~r{/ 1 Relics of lihl'f{l11 Bllddhism Collt'Gu,d m tbe Qmg I>altlce, HOI I).; Kong, 1992, nn. 'i I and text p.l l S.

n

BllddlllSt Art (rani Rehul. nos. 12, 2 'i.

79 Ro)' Chapman Andrews, Thl! New COllqll l'Sl oren/lral ASIa, New York, 1932, pis. XX and LXXX.

72 Tlus IS one of many sculprures Jcplcllng fiercc:-, Yldam, and mher Icons artrlbutable to Zallab:l1.ar or Ills dJsciples Ihal appeared

rccl'Jltly /Rossi and RllSSI IIOOS!). These prtmde ,ome eVIdences (or uoJerstanJmg th" breadth of Zanabazar's oeuvrt' and mlluence. 73 Dolonnpr ("Seven Lnkes") is forty kilomerers ~oUlheast of Kola. rung (Shangdu l; the furmer lI11penal residence or Khubilal Khan wa!> eleven kilomccerl> t(J the north. 74

As late as the I 930!>, the

tOWIL

81

1'01

the ,ole of R"lwar DOlje;o Q;,nlong', Hre and ,ule"ee I'"nc,"

Bergl'r, I:.mplre of f:..mptlll(,ss, Honolulu. 2U0.3. 82 After Ch.'ycl [2(04), pp. 38-4 1 I",ec also pp. 31-51 lor df!rails and ,UlJiYSf)i):

of Dolollilor bad a population of

20-30,000, mostly com prised of monks, mercha11ts, workerl>, and officials. The foundries wer~ still active al the end of the nmeteenth Ct;:JI'

wrYI but the monasteries began 10 dedJl1(: a.nd were vlrrually destroyed hy Ihe JapaneS'c in 194.5. Phorog.raph:, In Nakano and B:J.lci (1941) !:Iha\\.' the comLuon of these tWO great mooaStenel> almal flnl(' (pis. 11·90-11- 10 1). Along with Ihe Imperially founded monastcru:s of Inner Mongolia. there wt!re many other smaller tt'lllple.c; of Cluncse Buddhist, Taoist. and also Muslim and Christian l:.IIUl by the nlnetee.nth century. Isahelle Ch:uleux, Hlstnire el Archileclllre ties Temllics ei MOI/Il5tc!rll!s Lamarqltes de Mongohe Mcrtdmllllfe, Doclor's TheSIS. Umverslry PansSorbonne, 1998, pp. 11.2- 128. ! would I1ke 10 eltpccia lly thank Is~bclle for allowing tnt! [0 read her rhesls prior to ttl> forthcoming puhlicatlon. Also see T. B.Jrtholomew... An Inrroducnon to Ihe Art of ~lollgolia. - UI I~e rge r

SO In Chlllt! hI! is kllown:l!) the Third Jangkya Hu tuktu, but ClutsLdc of Cbiml hI.' IS called [he Second.

nnd R:mholomew ( 1995), pp. 80-82.

75 The arca o i Chahar 111 the sixteenth cenrury wa!. oc,,:uplcd hy the

175S: PUllIn,R:c;I, which has a 2~.15- meter sandalwood Th(lusand-armed AV310klte.!ihvara

~t:ltue

of

1759: ruyalisl

1764: Anyunnnuao

1766-67: Pulesl, bUill for the Mongols who C;lnte Imngmg yearly tnbute. 1767-7 I: PUnlU7ongchengllliao (pot:lla ) buLlt for \'ISII of [he MOrlgol trihes for hiS !,Ixrleth birthday (mother'S eightieth). At thiS time Ihe QI:mlong emperor heard of return of the Torghul Mongols, .1 hoon for hi!> empire. 1772:

Guangan~1

TiJlllt![ Mongols. III .1638, it was con{luered by the M3nchu~. Under

tilt' Qing It hnd eight hanners (separate from the fort),-mnt' banller~ of Inner Mongolia). The first unpcrill l QLng COTlstructif)1l wa!> 111 16S 1 allJ Sl!rved JS the. residen..:e for the Fiflh Dalai UtIl1.1 on 1m tnp La Btl11l1g fO meet the first Qing emperor. The Third (:dSb called the SIxTh) P:lnchen t arn:) also srnYl'd there 011 hIs tflP to Chcngde (Jeholl 11]

1779 ro mt'cr rhe Emperor QJanJong.

76 Hlldd/;is( Art fro m Rehof (Qmgglmg llll lOIlg), Tan .... nn. 1999. p. 21 R. Also for Kangxi's VISion for Chcngdt.' , see Anne 'hayel. "Archnc..:tllr,U Wonderbnd: An Emplrt! of Ficti ons." in J. Millward . New Qmg imperial HIstory. London and New York, 2004, pp. 33-36; als,., Mark Elliot and ScOtt LO\"'I! (trans.), "Preface to the 'Tlurry-six Vi ews of Ill-shu Shanzhllang'; Record of the MOllnra1l1 Vtlla to £'~capc rhe

H eat , ~'

Ihld .. pp. 167- 170.

1774-76: ShU'iI:lngsl, dedicated tf) jvtau luslm (bU ilt foUowlJIg a VISit Willi hiS mOl her to WU"Ll~ha!1! 1774: I uohnlllang

1780:

Llmlfll~holn (one of thc las t rWD temples tu survive; It \Vas bUilt ft)r the memorable ViSIt of tbe Ihlrd Panchen L1m.J 111 1779 Qn the occasion of the QianlonF, emperor'..- s('vcnucth binhday land hiS mother's mneueth) ~lnd s.Jld to have bt.'tIl modeled after T.l!>h, LhllllpO monastery 10 Tibet.

83 Isabelle Charletlx, 1-f,stOlre et Ardnteciure des Tem/Jles 1:1 Monnsfl'rICS U llIIlllqlll!S dl' Mongu/le Meridionale, -rhCSIS, University of ParisSorbonne, pp. 119-121.

R~iollal

School$ oflibctan BuddhIst Sculpture . 47

A SHRINE FOR TIBET THE ALICE

S.

KANDELL COLLECTION

CATALOGUE Marylin M. Rhie and Robert A.F. Thurman

I-la, b

I(anakamuni Buddha Centra l Tibet ( J hll'ill or Shig:uSt'J

18dl cemury

and pardy rt'~ pousse; fJ"acc'i of pl~ment, Inset blue rurquoise urna; base ~ealcd with copper plate InCI~ed with a double \';,lIr •• , ullollCnt:cl With comems inside Gilr copper Jlloy, p,ml), caSt

23" X 14' (58.5 X 35.5 em)

The Kandell cQllection has a number of large repollsse srarues (made from assembled pans hammered frOI11 . . Iwets of copper or some~ times parrly cast separately) whith, because of their sii'e, nrc irnpressive altar images. Perhaps in somc ca~es, as probably with rhis image and some of the orhers in thi s secrion, the Marue IS part of a larger set of images. such as rhe "Buddha" of the Past, Present and Future:' the "Thousand Buddhas,'" the "Seven Buddhas of the Past, " or others. The last named i~ probahly the set to which this Kanakamuni Buddha sc ulpture belonged. This can be substantiated by [he inscribed Kanakamuni Buddha painting in the famous set of Sev~n Buddhas datahle to '1777 and given by the Panchen Lama [() the Qing Emperor Qlanfong (see 1-2, and Precious DepOSIts, IV. No. 47 ). Ka nakamuni I~ the fifth of the Seven Buddhas, or, IJUI another way, the second buddha of rhl! present Dod Aeon (Bhadrakalpa). Sets of the even Buddhas were populdr in rhe early Buddhist an of India and cenrral ASia, and also of Chma, bm seem ro ha\'e declined in the later evolution of the art in India and Chin
god~ and diVine bodhlsarrvas in TlI ... h1ta, they choose n farher, mother, clas<; (usuflll) priesr class bur sometimes, as in Shnkyamuni's case, warnor class), and n~mOn (a lwa ys on the Indian subcnnllnemj for their \upreme and "fina l" reincarnation and go down (0 be conceived III the morher's womb. Then they are born, become educated, marr)', and en lOY life-and Jt nlld-point, renounce the worldly life and leave their palace homes. They engage in a!!ccricisl11, rake their ~eats at the enlightenm ent Ire~, ddeat the dt"vil, a r~ tain unexcelled pcrfecren lightenmcnr, reach rhe Dharma for year!!, and finall)' pass away into ultimate nirvana. Specific variants for Kanakamllni ca ll be seen 111 Bllddhnvamsa (Chronicle of Buddhas, PI'. 86-89). The right hand of this Buddha i . . in the analyClc discernment gcsture (llifarka mlldra) and rhe left il t:lI In his lap. The figure is attached by rivers to rhc lorll~ pedesral. Originally, there may have been a hase co

hold lhe pedestal and ,1 lJrge encompassing halo (malldorJa), although some large images in photographs oj remple hall~ III ccmr,ll and eastern libet \how sculptures like this olle hned up on dll altar with nly rheir lotus pedesral. no .lccompanylllg base and mandorla. This IOTu .. pedt'<;:(al ha!! large pewls With slighrl y curled tips and a pearl rim Jmund the top of tht:: pod, which has a scalloped effect aro und us sides. Typical of many Statues of rhe larer pcnods of "Ilberan art, the back of the pedes[,d is plain and wirhc )uf perals. The whole sc ulpture is gilded and is hollow inside. The face of rhe Buddha 1\ in natural proporrion ro the body, which has proportions generally ba~ed on a perfect balance of (annll. The broad crown protrul;;ion dOllle (ltsh~ nisha-onc of the thirry·two major signs, or fWllItta, of a buddha) ha.!. a conical name ar the cop, and the refined hJir curls are painted blue 10 the fashion popular III central

I. Buddhas oj the 1 hrcc Times ·

53

libeL Hi~ midbrow hair wft (lIn1l1-anotha ~Ign) IS ma rked by a heaUfiful brge circubr turquoise, the only inset in the figure, willch provides the brightest color and draws the viewer's eye to the face. The features arc painted In the.- manntr typical of central libet,ln sculprurts, with blue eyehrows and e)'e.-5 and re.-d lips. The nost is rather sharp, rsptcially from the side view, in the.- age.--old P,lb Indian stylistic tradillon. HIS smiling visage.- accompanies a ratha introspccllve gau. The f,lCe is symme!flcally framed by the tars, which projtct rather unn:nurally 10 the Sides. The palms of his hands art marked with tht whccl (dlllkr,I ), another of a SUprCffi(' buddha emanation'~ auspicIous sign~. The body i, qlllTl' ~tandard with hroad ~houlders and md{'med waist with a slightly rounded abdomen. Legs and arms arl' fleshy hut regularly proportioned. A5 a whole the figure has an iconic pt'"rffftion of form. The drapt'"ry fits to the form and follow5 a fold scheme already known In I~uddhlst art for some ctnluries, though the exact configuration used here seems to have emerged as most popular in lioctan art around the 17th century, The rather loose flow of dnlpery folds and hems and the deep creasing seen in some folds appears to hal'e del'eloped from conTKts with Chinese Buddhist sculptural fnrms. Somenmes thl'Se folds a~sume an unnalllrally Willful shape or pallern, as ~n In the concave area under the raised right arm and in the folds on the back of the image (I-lh). These unnatural touches ~dd a certalll vigor and Interest 10 the im:lge, imparting:l liveliness th~t a merdy forlllal paTterning would not :lchieve. This freedom of line is an ~rtistic choice that suggests the spirit of the supernatural world. The heal'ily pleated ctlge of the sklrthke undcrrobe, bound bY:l narrow belt, adds a counterweight to the di:lgonal fol ds of the outer robe (SlI lIgh
54 •

CJtal~ue

thl' fOUf language inscriptions typical of impt'ri:ll works sponsored by this empt'rorUshnishi (gTs ug~ to r-c an) Tibetan, Mongolian, Manchurian, and Chinesl'. Though the surrounding brOC:lde Budd ha moun ting in the Kandell exa mple is different from :In)' used III these other examples, it is China; Tiocto-Chme\.<' clearly from one of thl' sets made from the ca. 1777 SlOlle l'flgT3ving copied from the Panche.-n T.mgb, golJ pigmentS on black b}"rreJ p.lper, Lar113's gift t:lngka~. brocade mount mg. \I"OQd~n dowd wllh Sllwr The inscriptions that accompany the cap' (nm shown I figures in the Kandcll painting are identified as; Ushnishi Huddha
1-2

1-3

Shakyamuni Buddha in Jowo Rinpoche Form Ccmral Tibet lal(' 16th 10 earl) 17th ccnlUr), Gilt copper repollSso'. crOWIl Jud c.lrrlng' SCpUJ!C and remo"ablc; blue pigment; base

sealed wuh COIHcms inSide

20' x I S" (50.75 x 38 em ) Shakyatnul11 l~uddha

is Ihe historical buddha

of our agl', his dates tradillonally £,11'en as 563-483 B. C- F.. Tibetan hisronnns date him in the 111nth century S.C.F., Jnd WeMcrn histOrbns l re moving him up i!lto the fourth century B. C.E. He WlS;1 princr of India who

decided after twenty-mne years of edue-anon, play, mamage, and new fatherhood, that before taking responsibility 10 rule the kingdom he was to have Inherited, h(" wanted 10 discoVl'f the meaning of life. So he renounced the layman"s lifl.' 3nd became a wandermg serker. After six rears of harsh asceticism, he renounn'd self-monilicallon as well, and focused his mind unwaveringly on the depths of reality until he Jtfained a complete re~l­ iZ~lIon of the trur nature of the world. He discovered th~t understanding reality was the only path to freemg ont'self frOIll suffering, and so he taught that path to others for the remainmg fonr-five rears of hIS life. Since undcrst;lnding or wisdom. not fauh, was his method of liber~\lon, he is considered first and foremost an edllc~tor, rather than ~ propht't or religious founder. Nevertheless, his inSight and IlllpaCt wen.' so monumental, a world religious movement sprang up among hIS followers, whIch IS numericallr onc of the four major world religions today, along with HindUIsm, Chnstlamt)', and Islam. This statue of the )'ourhful Buddha Sh;lkramuni appears as a crowned Buddha in thc

S6 • Calalogue

earth-witness gesture indicalil'e of his defeat of the devil, just prior to his enlightenment. It is similar to the famous image of " j oll'o" (" Lord") Shakramuni in the Jokhang temple in Lhasa. The jokhang Jowo image is the m05t renowned and S,lCred image in Tibet. It was brought by Princess Wen-cheng, thl' Chl11l'se wife of King Songzen Gamoo, 111 ca. 640 and el't'tltually became the pnmary image of the j okhang. The Tibetan~ believe that It was made in the Huddha's nrnl' and therefore is a live ponrait of thc actual Shakpllluni Buddha, though nlodern schol3rs doubt thIS. In any Clse,1I lll"('s as such m the Imaglrlatlons of all Tibetans, lnd a visit to Lhasa to meet the Jowo Rinpoche is the Tibet;ln equivalem of ,I !fip to l\oleeca for J ~l us1im. In 1409, at the foundmg of thl' Tibetan New Year Gre,\! Prayer Fesl!l'al (S1I10/l lam ,hell m() ~ \II Lhasa. the jokhang Jowo was ceremonially crowned and bejeweled by the lama Tsong Khapa, to ce1cbrMe thl' vision hl' expeflt'nced :lfter his enitghtenmem in 1398. He ~aw that Sh:lkyalllUlII Buddha had not abandoned humanity long :lgo in history. bill had merely w\lhdr,lwn hIS coarsc-Ic\'el "emanation body"' in order to teach impermanence.ln fact, hewas still active III hIstory and present to both adepts and faithful believers. in his ~be,lIific bod(' form. crowned with the celestial jewelry of dIvinity. The statue, presently lackmg a base and mandorla, i~ qUIte Luge and secur(·d to the IOllls pedestal b)' TlI·cts. The pedt'stal IS pla1l1 copper in b3Ck, but glided with two rows of finell' fashioned lotus petal 011 the front and sides. The Image is <;mooth and sleek with slender proportions, wide shoulders, hourgl3ss torso. and crossed legs m the I'illr
but SOllie folds curve gr:lCefully around th e form, and :1 few pleated folds appear on the left shoulder and spread out from un der the legs. T he underrobe pleats ba rely show as a flatly fol ded edge pecking out from the tigh t edge of thl' sanghati robe as it curves over the chest. The face is somewhat long, wit h lowered e),es and a prominem notch between the long nose and smiling lips_ Thrre arc curious sn1;l1l circular p,lds of 1I1etal around the lowe r crease of the neck. Tht' urna, rathe r than bl'lII),: ,In m~et jcwel as is sometimes the C,lse, is a realistic ponr:lyal of the curl of whlle hair, one of the thirty-two majo r signs of a buddha. BOlh crown .1I1d ear rings are renlol'able, a feature that may relate the image to practices uscd 111 sculptures of eastern Tibet and l\olongolta from around the 17th century onwards. The crown style is related to forms well known ill earlier sculptures from II'eStern and cennal TilX't lip through the )5th and 16th Ct'tlturie~, and the crown ribbons havl' the sh'lrply upward angle sccn on images from eastern Tibet of til(' 16th century (Wisdom alld CompasslolI, No_ (47). There isa ~trong quality of the r ala Indian tradition along with some assimibtion of the Chinese lyrical hne m the draper)·_ The fl ap of the sangha!! robe 111 tlie hack is a si m ple mangular shape, unlike the pleated shapes of the late r Images, such as 1- ) b. It ma), he an ca'itcrn Tibe tan image of ca . 16th-1 7th cemur)', and it i~ qui te possihle tha t it shows the ;lC\ual style o f the Jokhang Jowo, whIch III available photographs IS always covered and is likely no longer to be the original, since the Chinese JlInexat ion ofTihet and the destrunionoflihetan religion after 1959. In that case. this imagc in the Kandell collcction is perhaps a rarc example dlat shows us how the origmal JokbangJowo image m,l)" have appeared with regard to the bod)', which was by tradition said to havc been that of a youthful Shakyamuni in the Indian style.

1-4

Shakyamuni (or Krakucchanda) Buddha Central Tibet (Lhasa or Shigatsc)

Mid-18th ccnrury Gil r copper alloy, part (,1St and pan repousse; with pigments and insel turquoise urna;

base plate incised with double vaj ra; oflgin:11 contents sealed inside

2r X '15" (56 X 38 em)

Here Shakyamuni, or the fi rsr buddha of our aeon, Krakucchanda, is presenrcd ill his supreme emanation body fo rm, with om the celestial crowo or divinity as in me previous

image. Here his uslmisha (skull dome protrusion), housi ng what I jokingly refer ro as his "extra scoop" of brains, is emphasized.

Some scholars have thought of this as simply a piled hairdo, but the texts clearly specify that it is a skul l protru sion ) meant [0 cOllvey onc actuality of a su preme emanation-body buddha, which is that the top of hi s head is open to the high er reaches of the cosmos, and no human or gorl can ever finti :1 sp:1ce

higher than his. His urna (lighr-em itting hair [ufr berween his brows) is represemed by a turquoise, and his expression is friendly and alert, with a sense of being normally present, not remote and introspective. He holds a mendicanr's begging bowl in his left hand. opened in rhe gesture of mediratioll31 equanimity, and his right hand is reaching down in tbe earth-touching-ro-wirness gestLJte~ though here in a very relaxed, casual, .:lIlcl confident way. The cold gold treatment on his face and neck should extend to his chest, right arm, left band, and feet, as it no doubt originally did, to distingu ish his exposed skin from the gilded robes. This image definitely presenrs your friendly neighborhood Shakyam uni Buddha come for IUllch and conversation, with an extremely yourhfulmien. Si nce, when he makes these geSTures, he is cOllfronr in g Mara, the satanic evil tempter of rhe Buddhist imaginary, he is a Iso showing the evil one his fundamentally kind and friendly nature. This stacue is closely related stylistica ll y with I-I. They are both nearly the SCIlllC size and of similar make; they may have come fwm the same temple, and rhey may have been parr of rhe same set of Buddha statues. The image is gi ld ed co pper repousse, has cnld gold on the face and neck, and has

brightl y fresh pigments of the kind usually seen in the statues of central Tibet remaining on the face and hair. The slightly sq uarish face is brightened by an infectious smile. The inset turquoIse uma is prominent, similar to I- I. Th e robe is slighrly more linear in the groups of parallel pleat folds than 1-1, bur also has the antinatural (Ouches of willfutly curved hems, as is seen in the forms of the drapery over the left upper arm. The back is nearly plain excepr for a Aowingl>' pleated end of the robeslaming rowards tile cen ter of the back. The pedestal has more densely packed lotus petals than I-I , but has a simila r overall form with the circular plain band at rhe bottom an d beaded rim above. Th is type of lorus pedestal i:. COmmon to th e l7rh- and 18th-century sculptu res of both central and eastern Tibet. The degree or curved movement in rhe hems ove r rhe ankles is simi lar in this statue and 1-1; both are mo re pronounced than displayed in the Jowo image in 1-3, but less vigorous than images probably daring to the 18th cenrury, sllch as 1-9 and 1- 19. The two images 1- 1 and IA well represent the impression of moderate ly large sculptures seen on the a ltars of temples III rhe central Tibet regions, such as at Tashi Lhunpo.

I. Bud dhas of the "nlIce Times · 59

I-Sa, b

Shakya muni Descending from the Heaven of the 33 God Cenrral Tiber (probably Lhasa) Late 18th ro early 19th century

Tangka, mlllcral pigments and gold (oil on sizc:d conon; with older (Ming?) brocade for (he. frame; original silk c.llrtain and ribbons; wooden dowel With chased silver CdP~ Overall: 59" X 34~ (150 X 86.5 cml; paillting: 26 x 17W (66 X 44.5 eml ff

One of the major episodes in Shakyamuni Buddha's life was his visit to the heaven of the thirty-th ree gods (Trayastrimsa-rhe Indian Olympus), where for three months he mught rhe Dharma in irs Abhidharma form to his mother, Queen Maya, and Other de iries. For his descenr back to earth, Indra, king of rhose gods) ordered a triple staircase, gold in the cenrer for Buddha, with twO side staIrcases of silver and heryl for Indra and Brahma . The stairs touched earth at Samkasya in cencra l India, whe re a grea t gathering a.ssembled to greer him. There were many kings, and also the nun Utpalavarua, who rransformed herself

inra an emperor to make her W3Y to the front of the throng, to be fi rst to honor rhe. Buddha (turning back then iOlo her bhiksllllNl form). The scene po rtrayed in this tangka shows rhe triple stai rcase as a golden unit descending from the heaven in the upper right corner, above rhe levels of the axia.l mountain, SUll1cru, depicred a!t surrounded by the eigh t oceans alrcrnaring with seven encircling mountain ranges. The heaven in rhe upper right faces a deep blue sky fading ro white as it meets rhe outer rim of the world ocean. Beau tiful flowers fil l t he :tir ;tlnnc with bands of white clouds. Interrwined streams of rainbows swoop down to eanh on rhe lett side, floating past blossoming trees and fantastic, gemlike, blue-green rocks. ShakyamuJl!, exquisitely portrayed with rhe mm",;r delicacy, approaches earth making rhe gift-giving gesture with his right hand and the have-no-fear gesture wirh his left hand. Delicate shades of pink co lor his pa lms and the soles of his feet. His orangered robe is parrcrned with gold; the red head-halo has five clus ters of filigreed gold flowe rs tha t resemble snowflakes. Hrahma with four heads is at Huddha's right holding a yak-rail fan (as stared in some texts)) and rhe white Indra on Buddha's left holds

a light canopy over his head as irs silken nbbons blow like rentacles in the wind. Three monks and rwo ueilies, one holding a golden wheel, the other blowing a whitt' conch, accompany the Budd ha amid puffy pink and blue clouds edged in green sca llops. Arrayed to greer Shakyamuni as he alights ~r Samkasya are the world's kings dressed in rich silken anire, at the lower left, with tbe nun Utpalavarn
I. Buddhas of rhe Three Times · 61

do(,s not p.I ~~ :lway ltlto a rell101 (, parrnlr\'ana bUI r('maUlS present to all beings to teach them Itll·xhausttbl y. Thus hts name IS Aksho bh ya, "Unshakable," ~ I mmovable. n Th(' humanness of the Abhtrau world ser\'t's mlhe su tra to gl\'e hope to the human audIence In Shakyamuni's world, undc rlrnmg thr sutra 's m('ssage Ihat the human world IS th(' most cond UCi ve to raptd progress tow:ud enlightenment, since It S bala nce of opportuntty .Ind imperfections _st tmlll3tes the bodhtsa ll\ a's grea t co mpasSIOn as well a~ her o r hts \T,lnscendcnt wisdom and co n-

1-6

and an upn!;ht I'alra sce ptl'r 011 II, In the (asc

Shakya l11uni (or possibly Akshobhya) Buddha

of AkshobhY3. Smce lhl' Implement IS rims·

Western Tlnet, c..uge

Illak es Iht' rnrndl C;;llll 'S

11th-12th century

Akshobhya Buddha IS Ix'hcved to dwell In thl' eastl'rn buddh,l\'crsc. Ahhlratl. world

Copper .. 110)- {lIght ,,,SlIng l. ""h IrJce~ of poss.ble .nlays III t h ~ garmem; I>a ..... pla te shows (V.dence of numerous old repairs 8 ~·

x 5.,.· (22.1:5 x 13.3 em )

Shakyamum Buddh:t's 1ll0~t ch Jra ctcrtStic pose is the s:ame as that of the cosmiC buddha /\ kshobh)'a, thr TIght hand down lOuchmg the r arth In the callmg-the·c,tnh-to-wuncss gesturr. and Ihe left hand flat m contrmpl31I\'r gesture In the lap, with a me ndKant's howl rc~ttng on II, tn the cast of Shakyamum,

mg In thiS sculpture, IllS not poSSible to tell

for sure which buddha I~ rcprl'scmcd, though the downward sloping plant" of Ihe left hand

howl1css likely.

of M[mcns.e Dehght,M which I~ dIsplayed In the Vrllla/Il kirI1 511/ ra 111 a I1mJculous fc,1\ of Vimalaklrll, who IS honormg Shak)'ammu 's

show the ;ludlCllCC the world he comes frOIl1. II IS d(')Jlcted as he ms less ce-

rcqut'sl 10

lestial liun Amuabha's Sukhavali Land of nhss, and quite ilkI.' our hurn:m world. wnh mountams and foresls and other Jlllmals.

The

1113111

diffcrent'C IS that the ladders 1:H:-

Iween ht',\\,cn and (,:trth arc :tlw:tys down. the gods and humans ca n e:tstl) \,tS1\ each other's rr:tlm, and the Buddha /\k shnhh ya

tl'mpl:uive mastery. TIllS is one of th e o ldest Images rn the col1(,("llon Jnd has a number of unusual and inlt.'r('siing features. It IS not gilded and has a dark patma. Mos t likely It is from wrstern Tibet. The tOuches of playfllllm('s and da rmg leaps of line and odd proponions arc f)'plCal of some earl y western Tibel:lIl sc ulptures. II also has some clements thaI relate to scu lplltre~ known 10 be from Swat andl o r Kashnur. The body IS wiry and slender and seems 10 Sl! in an cI('valcd posture. The sh:tptng of th e upper torso is sunrlar ro I'abl Scna sculplllre of the 121h Ce n!llTY, but the SIr3nge mlX!lIfe of IlIlt'.,r clemem s IS rcialed to ~o me sc ulptures frolll the Ka shmir-Sw at r('gions. The looping o f the hems of the robe. espt,<:ially as It M"CtnS 10 fly off the left arm. tS known in other e3 r1 y Tibel3n sculptures, such as Ihe 12th-century seated Uuddha tn the Zimmerman collecllon ( Wr.sdo m illld Co m/HIss/O il , No.2), probabl y from wesl('Tn Tibet. The motif of inCIsed, !larrowly spaced parallel lin(,s o\'e r th e legs is see n III a few Swa t and Ka shmin bronzes of the It'mh century. Olher f('alllres, suc h as the nOlchrd Strip o\'e r the Idt sho ulde r, the clrcubr parallel ~t('p folds over Ihe left upper arm. the lu de IIJP of Ih t' garmen t OV('r the right shoulder, and the Imea r ha lchm g d rs lgn along Ihe n.trrow borders of the robe are all unu sual anomalies. The mI xture of di spa rate IIlOtlfs ne\'Cnh rles~ add s up 10 an Intrtgutng and perky repf(~nt ation. Even the face is of note for tIS unu~ ual1 y S(luarc shape, dee p indentalions allhe corners of the moulh, strangely mClsed hIgh cyebrows, and ral ~ed plam edge of th e hairline. The hack of the tmage IS IOlally plarn (exce pt for Ihe small curls o f the hatTl, tncludllll! th e pe destal, which on the front has well-executed. rather flat, long doubl(' -Iollts petals In two row ~. The so mew hat bIZarre st)'le se('lm 10 come om of th e early SH,lI:! of Ti betan 1Il(,lal tlll:tges. which are sollie· 1IInes very lmagmall\'e and fr('eI)' InventlH, pa rticularly 111 weslt.·m libet tn the 11th and 121hce11luf1es.

1-7a, b

Shakyallluni (or possibly Akshobhya) Buddha Western Tibel. Gugc 13th ccnrur)

Copper alloy with copper anu silver Inlay, rrlces of pIgments; copper base place JIlcised with double vajra; original conrCllI!. within ISlA" X

I O~

(39.25 X 25.4 em )

A modcrarc-si:tcd image made of the "five metal s" (Ii)
tury, With a rather powerful and alert body "lightly lea ning back, the image shows subti~ musc ular sha ping of tO rso and limbs. The large hands, rhe nails inlaid in coppe.r, arc in the ean h-witness gestu re and laid on the lap. Tbe form-firring robc is prcdominanrly plain in the Sarnarh-srylc tradition, bur is deconlted by co pper inlay in the hems and in the doth falling over rhe from of the pedestal. This throne cloth has seve ral bands of floral vine decor whose leaves are inlaid widl copper. The head has a hjgh lift, suggesting remoteness, as do the nearly closed eyes, bur rhe sweet smil e on the dignified face and th e ale rt expressio n impart a human co nnection wi th the vic-we r. The rop of rhe. ushnisha is flat and rhe cranium is low. Sk illful blending of color, with refined ornamental designs, stro ng linear move ments, sha rp ca rving, and a sense of inner energy all combine ro crea te a quire co mpl ex image. The lotus pedesral is fi nely fashioned and has an extraordinar}' sculpruresque quality an d sense of life in the curving pew Is. Two rows of tiny beads frame the inlaid copper band of the pcdesral, and large pearls edge the very botrom in front. The image is plain in back, excepr for rhe curls on rhe head, rhe si mpl e flap of rhe garment edge over the left ~ hould e r, and the sinuolls edge band of th e robe across the back. Rather th an the flowing, I}' ri ca l line of later images, thi s early scu lpture emanares energy through the edges of tension that bind the body-a fea ture from the Indian lineage bur mastered by Tibetan artists. This figure does not appea r to rclate to the Kashmir traditions, bur rather ro the Sa rnarhf Pala/Scna traditions that came from centraJ India and tended ro dominate rhe art of cemr<1! Tibet at chis rime. This image shows a reflec tion of central Tibetan Styles as rhey filte red int o western Tiber in the 13th centu ry. The bottom is sealed with a co pper plate engra ved with a rare ea rl y exa mpl e of the double va Jra , drawn in a loose, open, and free man ner (1-7b). I. Buddh as of the Three- Times · 63

\-8

Shakyall1uni (or Akshobhya) Buddha Weslcrn III central"' ,hel 14th crmur)

Currer .1110) (hglll ,a~lIng), copper ~nd Sll'~r \lib), wid gold .md plglncrH~. haM" plate wukOU t .In)' mCl'l-d m.uk; orlgmal conl('nl' wukln Q'XiO' ,"P ' X I f..~,m)

The earth,wul"hUlg Jo:cSlUrc ~h.lk)'a [llunl makes \\ Ith hIS right hand, {h(" fingertips

of nllddk and rmg finger SHrieked down. represents hiS mumph OI'Cr ~'arJ. Ihl.' denl. m the:- t'H'nmg ~f()rc hIS complete ('nligkl' cnmcnt. ~ I ara dId nOl 11';lll( ~u.ldharlh J 10

lx-comc a huddh:l. and so ht' (rIi,"d all '\Orb of frLch to ddlen him. II .. allackrd hml wuk thundcrou. armies of Ip:mls and demons. wielding all ~ort~ of po\\crful rxp losllCS and proll'Clllcs. lie Irlcd 10 Sl'Ju.:e hlln II uh alluflllg goddc~Sh. \\;Ihen these f:1l1ed he trlrd 10 tempt hll11 with ""0m of world]) power and donlllllon. When ~lIelse had failed. he challenged h1111 bl' aeeU)ln!: h1111 of pnde and l'a111gl ory. "Who lsked )'OU to be a buddhl? Bl' wllJ! nght do )'011 c1,111ll thl~ pO~~lbilj{l'?"

Siddhanha n:phed, "Dld l'OU, ,\ Iara, nOt become the long of the del' il~ b) havl11g a Single aitnmnc tbought to ~hare a drop of water wllh a fellow denwn \\hen rou were slaVing away 11\ one of the bot hells?" ~\'('hy yn! 1\II\,mllg that )'011 can sec th;1I far IIlto the past.~ "Well. then. you did one lin)' poSlille d.·ed and so reaped thc c\"olutlonar)' fruition of your present domlOion ol-er all delils. I, In

=

contrast. did n1l11l0ns and countlc~s billions of such altrUistIC ,md heroIC deeds. gil 1111' 1ll) \C ry hfe and body ,md hlood ;\Ild pos~s~,on) 10 other,. ove r and OHr ,11'.1111. H ence 1 now Cdn reJP the t'l'olulionaT\ fruit of ht-!.·omlng a p~:rfe-ct buddha.-But walt!- :-'lara said. - You ,m.· the 11'lt· nl'~S of my det'd. Bm who tS your 11'IUll')'?Siddhanha then replu."d. "Thc g()ddrss .\Iother Eanh IS my w1lne~s." Then he touched thr ranh with hiS hand. and thr e,mh goddess I)TI\hll'l cmerged ami 1)(:1',111 !() rr' count to.\ lara all the heroic dCt'ds Siddh,mha had accomplished dunng hiS countle~s liH'5 as a bodhlsattl'a. ,\ 1.lra was thu s fOTted It) withdraw III defeat, no longl'r ;lhlc W opp<.)~e Siddharth3 '5 fin,ll enllghtcnment. This ~tatnc 1~ simiL1r In 111;111)' wa),s (0 1·7, but It ~hows a slig htl y advanced ~t)' le. prob· ably of the 14th C('nfllr)·. The thrl'.' 1I11.1ge~ 1·6.1--, 3nd 1·8 niccl)' H'I'e,ll 3~JX:CtS of de"~ l'clop1llel11~ 111 sculpmfe from the 12th-14th ct.'murr in weSI('rn Ti~t. ThiS 14th·cenrur} Image kc('p5 Ihe tr3dUIon of western Tibcf.ln IIllar and the IIgorously .... Iry Iml'. nUl ~h()w~ further Jdhcr('ncc It> the IndlJ.n/ l),II., ~I\ 11'5 uSfii br c('ntr31 Tibetan ,lfll~h, thu s mdl~',II ' ing 5011Ie transformJtl\(, mlluencc) from thaI

ar(';l a~ tht.' cerur31 Tibetan Buddhisl orde rs hi.·come more and more engagcd 11\ weslern Tihct durmg the 13th and 14th c('muTit's. Th l' te-chmquc of ClSIIIlg is refined. 3nd th<.'lI11Jg<' ~hows the e3SC of 3. we ll·mastered St)lr. Touch~'s of P,113 -IIlSplred features . <,u\h as the cUTlcd uppe r lid of the errs. th (' Pala nos(' and sh:trp chill. and the natuul· 15111 of th(' n,I\('1 are,\ bespcak the subllr challg('5 from the l'arllc r wt.'stcrn Tibet3n forms. The lotus petJls of the pcd('stal have a mor(' strongly thr{'{'·dI1l1cnSloI131 qualrt). Sllndard for the cemra! Tioct3n styles. The hael., I~ rdalll'el) plain. but 3ffords more attention to Ihc layering of the ped('stal (without 100us petals). the hourgl3ss ~h3pc of the tor,,). and the beautifully inl3id and II\cl~(·d ;I;!gl,ag pa u crning of the hem of the ':III):hall moving across the bJck ,Ind unde r thl' Tight :nm. Naturalism and simpli city h,n'c repbceJ Ih.' (,Jrli('r pl<1yful qualims (I· 6 ) ,\Ild more ornamen tal Tlchness (1·7) of ~()me weSI(,TIl Tibct3n sculptures. Ther(' is no I',llr,l engr;lwd on the bottom. There also is no copper 11\ Ih.' lips Jnd no silver for Ih(' C)CS. Cold gold wlcrs th(' face and ne-ck, and some hlu(' plgm('ru~ rcm3111 on th(' hJlr. 3nd red 111 Ihe COTll('r) of Ih(' mOUlh.

1-9a, b

Shakyamuni Buddha Central Tibet style ~'l id-18th

century

Gilt copper rcpOlisse,

Wl!h

pigmemsj hase

sealed with wooden pLuc (probabl), larer) 16"

x 9"

(40.5

x 23 em )

Kn o wing the sto ry of this moment in the Buddha's progress roward enligh tenment as mid above help., one to meer rhis Statue and eval uare its ex press ion. Siddharrha here. almost manifesr as a buddha, looks straighr out ar Mara and cal ml y srares him in [he face, lirerally disarming him with hi s rranscendenr ability ro feel friendly even roward a devil. In rhe previous sratue he seems more rem are and rese rved. In this one, he looks almost amused at Mara's anril.:s 1 vainly trying ro srop the inev itab le evo lutionary culmination Siddhartha is experie ncing, after an inconce ivable evoluti onary progressio n.

Th is is a relatively large gilt rcpousse ShakyanllH1 i starue. The iconographic form is the same ns the previo ll s three sma ll er sculptures from wesrern Tibet, bu t it is Ln the style of the 18th cenrury and probably from th eccnrral regions of Tibet. The broadshouldered and triangular shape of the upper TOrso relare it TO standard Indo-Tibetan traditional forms, but the configurarion of the drapery shows stylistic elements inspired by Chinese loose drapery forms and nuid line. The ti ght p
some chasing at the edges and decorative turning of the [ips. Thest: petals are more decorative than those on the Tara of ca. 1700 (No. 111-2), but nor quire as rich as those in the Tara No. 11 1-5 of ca. first half of the 18th century. The bottom is closed by a wooden, undecorared plate. On th e back of th e image there are quite vigo rous and fluid folds of the end of the sanghati. which hangs low ro the waist, revealing the same rightly pleated undcrrobe bound with a narrow belt as seen expmeJ abu un the front. As 011 [he front, double incised lines are used in the edges of the sangha ri folds~ a technique that also appears in the sratue in 1-4. In back is a graceful sway ro the sanghati £lap from the shoul der to the center of rhe back. Th e hair curis are fi nished all around rhe head and ushnislla in neat, parallel, and semicircular rows. The lows ped esta l in back is nicely rounded bur completely plain. This image rakes irs place with other large scu lptures in the Kandell co ll ection, sllch as 1-1, 1-4, and IV-6, as ex trao rdinary Inrgc gilt repollssc images Ctl . mid·18th cent ury from central Tibet.

I. Bu ddhas of rhe Th ree TImes · 67

1- 10

Shakyamuni Buddha QUlg; probablr DolOOllor InS(nbed Qlalliong period (1-35-96) Gdt copper alloy; !lase seal~d wuh copper plate ,nc,sed with donbk \'a)r3; COIllCIll~ Illside Il Yi" x 8- (3 2 x 20.5 em)

This buddha statue differs from th e ones above In this se(ti on hy having lost the pigment that ~opened hiseres," as Buddhl~T MtI~ts say. Afrer an image is completed. during the process o f consc-nation the artist pai11!~ io th e eyes. while the rilllal ,pl'ci:lliM performs a ritc of In vi ting the real Shakyamulll o r SupraflSthlta Buddha to emanat(' a du plicate manifestal10n of hnnbclf, 111 a form rcsembling hi~ previous. present, or future histOrical embodiment. to tak e up residence io th e st:l tu e. This is done while phong prayers, teXTS. Jewels. holy reliCS, and the like inside the statue, and the whole consecration process mak es the ima ge riluallr potent, em powering it. as it were, to better serve a~ a portal for the devotee to feel the eternal and universal presence of thl~ buddha and all buddhas. Whate ver the actual efficacy of such rituals and beliefs. any observer can feel th e difference whcn the eyes have become blank, as in th e case of this stat ue. The Ima ge IS inscribed on the lowest TIm of the pedestal wnh J Chi nese inscriPlion reading "[)a Qlng Qianlong nian iingcao" IRespt'"ctfull)" madr in Great Q1I1g Qlanlong period). ThiS phrase is located in the exac t cente r of th e bOllom Tim of th e lotus pedes-

68 • Catalogue

tal. It is foll O\\,('d to thc ll'ft (bcing ) bl' the charKtcr "Shan elm fo" (l~hadrJshfl?) :llld on the rtghT by thl' Tibe tan des /ia. whICh me;lllS ~gcntlc '· (Sa nskm mrilu ). whlCh Illay nOt rebre TO hi~ nalll(". The fan that this is:1 buddh J whose nallle is nO! r('adily familtar Indicates that 11 may have cOllie from the SCt of the thirty-five budd has of confessio n. of which group Uuddh a Bhadrash rl is a member. The donor insniptlon date, TO lhe Qlanlong peTlod ( 1735-96) and di)eloscs [hal thl' unage II..", m,ldc m Qmg-dy nasTY Ch1ll3. probably III Belling or 111 Dolonnor, the two great workshops of Uuddhlst sculp· ture at this rune In Chllla (~ce Rhle essay). The scul pture has ~ome Similarit ies with Fig~. [· 1, [·4, and 1·9, bl!! there arc also diSTinn ddfl'renet'S. th e most notable bemg that II IS cast and not repou~sr and that It has a vc r)' tall torso :Ind a slcndt'r E,ISt Asian-ST)'le face. Itl) mOSt distmguished by the he;IVY folds o f drapery. The oute r robc hangs hcavlly over lhe fight ,houlder and dr"ws m thick fold~ across the abd ome n to th e ld!. whl'rl' it secm~ 10 slide off the k'fT shoulder, l11"kmg a scl f,sUM"'llll1g group of folds th at wmd a round th e upper :lfIn ,md spread in the famiku dIagonal eour~e down

the left ~Ide of the back. ,"13sses of short fold, cascade ol'c r the crossed legs. making a flurry o f movement III the lower parr that COl1lras[s With th e stiff ;Irmor-pbtinglike repre~entatiOn of the plea ted underrobc openly exposed by the low draping of the <;anglwtl. The robe IS pblll, without any border de(orations. Its beaUT)' comes from th e quallT)" o f he:ll'y cloth arranged in interesting and slightly unnatura l 1110\'emel1l$. The face prese nt. a calm visage wiTh highly archl'd brows and cU{\'ed ("yeltds. The small bowl In hiS left h.md appears to be original. The pedestal ha~ th e top beading and two row s of IOllls JX'1'll~. which are unu suJlly orna te wlth double lobe.'> That arc a type of fl eurde·li). These, howeve r, provide a fomraSt to the platner aspec t of the figure . The baek of thl' pedes!.ll IS llIccly rounded without :lIly IOllls pctab. This is an Important dated image That helps to define the sc ulpted image ry of the laner half of the 181h cemury, prohablr from the Qing workshop~ of Dolonnor in Inner ;\ l ongolia . The appearance of Inscriptions III the fo ur languages of C hllwsc, TibCT311, Manchu, and ;\.'l ongoliall suggests that the Illlage was made at an impcrialworkshop.

1- 11

Shakyal11uni Buddha in a Full Shrine Qing; prohabl), Dulonnor

Second half of rhe I~ lh to tarly 19th ccnru r) Silver repoLL~se image wilh turquoise lIrn2; (lo ral mandorla wi [h leaves of ~ il ( copper and flowers of si lvl'r wi rh coral anll mother-of-pearl : :l

solid

CI1~1

g:nuda Imd at the peak;

heavll~

w lded bron7t' 101m. ~car and hasc wit h imci

rurqUQISl', cural.llIld lapIS la /ull: ha~(! sealeJ with a copper phue incised with a double Vajfa; cOntcnt:- 11l.lllde.

23" x 12" 158.5 X 30.5 l'm]

The Mongo lia n people: ca me rebrively [ate [V Buddhism, throu gh cl,e skillful ffices of rhe lamas of Tiber, beginning in the [3th ccnruq', when [h(:' great Tihetan scholar, )age, and sai m SakYd Panuira Kunga Gyaltsen (1182125 1) became th~ tea cher of the Mongo l

king Godan, and rh e lama Pakpa ( 1235-80) became th e [cacher to the emperor Kuhlni. This firSt phase in nuen ccd mainly rhe ruling elite, whill! the mai n body of Mongolian warriors contin ued the very un -Uuddlllst pu rsu n of wealth Ilnd domini on through a combin
A second phase of transformarion occurred the 16th ccnt ur y, when thl: Thir d Dala i L<1ma, So n<1m GY3 tSo, visi ted King Alran of the Tumed nation and be~lme his spiritual guide. receiving rhe name " Dalai Lama" from rh e king and beginning
Shak)lam un i In th is inrerprerarion is prci l l> a yuurhful figure wirh broad shoulders, slen der waist, and hourglass ro r~(). very Similar to rhe form of tht: Jowo Shak yamuni 10 1- J. His face has quite fe-fined featllres and a !rImall head wnh high cra niwn and ushmsha. Pam:rns of draper) incl ude widely distributed rihlikc folds on rhe leg'), bunched rill)' pinch pleats Ovcr the left shoulder, a few Hat strips fa nning (Jur from under rhe crossed leg!rl, and a tigh t arc in the edge band of tht' sa nghari over the ches(. The triangular shape of the torso reflects sl)'le5 of Pala an-a styl e ro which Za na bazar seems lU have been dra wn in his work. A brillianr blue turquQise is inst't for rhe lIrna, and rhe eye.-.. are of a distincrively cllrved shape [hat curves and Widens a[ the oun.: r t'dges. The lotus sear I a little snff and ~ h arp in comra::. r to (he smoOth, sleek silver Buddha imap,e. The mandorla of flower, with actual srones ()f tLlrquoisc, lapis lazuli, and c()ral add color to rhe rhlck leaves. and rexrure that "lleviare5 th e ra rhcr severely abstract style of {he image, An image of a garuda fe. . roans th e pea k of rhe mandorl a. The base is hand:.omely done j,n stepped-back form uSIng coloriul stones, bon statues holding up the tOp plank. and l o n~ narrow lotus petals in a slyle diHen:nr fr()ln r hu~c o n tht: im age's lo ru;; sea t. Overall the ensell1hle wo rks well arrisricaJl y with the variety in each or ItS parrs. Like most of these 18dl -cenrury images, dlt! hack is qUIre plain (only a long rriallguh1redge of [he sanghari over dIe righl shoulder appears on th e Buddha) while th e IOnls sem IS ungllded and with om lotus petals in the back. ~L' lIl c d

I. Buddha o; of rhe Three Time!. • 71

1-12

Maitreya, the Future Buddha Qin!;; pr(llmbly Dololl1H~r

eCI)11J "nlf (IF the 18th centu ry

Gil t heJvy rcp0ll:<.<.;c topper, '>cpararc\}' caM hC:1d and -arm); trace.. uf fJrlginaJ pigments on rh" tace: turquoise urna; baM: cOlllainmg

orlKtnal contt!nt,> "t'nlcd wi th a wllodrn plaque Iprobably larer replacel11ent ). painu:d red with :t gold-palOieu double vajra 171f:J."

j(

16" (70 )( 40.) ern)

Mairtqa is U~1I31Jy depicred as si ning in a t:hair with hi.!. feet down, Ii.ke a proper Englishman. as Ti betan,\, like co joke. This IS sa id to be because hl' is readying himself on his rhrone in Tu~ h im heaven to descend to e:lrCh for his full bucldh"hood manifestation, 3!. the fifth "supreme ema nation bodf' buddha ro grace this pa rticular pl:1ncr. Here we CI.H.:Ollnlet Mairrc ya 3:. already a perfecr buddha, turning the wheel of Dharma, teaching the {rue nature of reality to beings. rvlaltreya is to be born in {he Hrahmin or pricstclass. in a rime in the fUTure when rhings art: more peaceful and rhe llucllecruals, nor [he warriors. are rhe dominant class. So he has a specIal youthfu lness, gen tl eness, and lovnbiliry in his manifestations. Shak)'amu m. befo re him. wa!. born in the warrior class, since human beings tn his (and ou r) era are known for their vio lence. an d the warrior class is m Sf respected. In th e hi smr y of Mahayana Buddh ist countri es, renaissanct movements were ~puked penodically by powerful individuals who attai ned profound insigh r into real Iry and aro~e frolll rhost: insighrs to perform

herO IC feats of sc holarshIp, reaching, ins titution al clevelopll1ern, and social refo rm. Th ey nlllll.l:-t invariably associated rhem se l ye~ wirh th e furure Buddha. Mairre ya. This was cemllnly the case wIth tbe movemcnt iniriarcJ ~r()uncl the turn uf the 15th century hy Jey Tsa ng Khapa (1.157-14 19 1. His malll fOtlnd:uioll was (ailed Gandcn, ::Ifter rhe h~nyenl y plane where rhe furure buddha hides his llruc before descending to eanh in full In:tjesry some millennia from now. H i" hrq maJor social deed was the refurol .. hrnt:lH of a famolls Maitre}'a temple and image at Dzing ji In the Olk ha valley. His diSCiples- and ~uccesso r .. huilr hu gc M:litrcv:1 ~talllr.::i III thl'! variollS monas teries rhey founded. The focus on M:1i rrey;:t arises when th e ignurant descent into suffe ring is allev i:1tl'd and reople see the future as better th;111 the past, :lnd become hopeful Jbour- rheir prospects for liheration and happincs~. Allthoritarian regimes in some erall in East Asia, rherefore, Tended ro fear "Malrre}'ist" Illovemenrs. rhl " handsome sculprure is anmher nne example of a large repollsse image. Mai trcya Buddha sit5. ero s-Iegged with his twO hands. forming rhe teaching (dha rmac/Jt1kra ) mudra. His r~J[her ma~s lvt' rectangular face has a Strong .lnd !l()lld appearance probably indicatiYe 01 Mon~l)li :1I1 origin .... The Sh"IH': of rhe eyes is a lso similar ro [hose of 1· 10 of rhe Qinl1long period (1735- 17951 ,ne! of I- II of ,he Khalkha Mongoli:m trnditioll ofZa nabazar (see Rhie LCssay, Fi g. 27). Tim lnrge Maltre),a image is, however, more robust than 1· 11 . It h"s a straight, sti ffly held body with a pronounced, exp:msivc uppe.r chest anu a sense of solid. finn, and "impl}' uel.:ora red fo rm. Much IS simil ar ro Qianlong-pcnod Imagery as see n

at Chcngd('. Al so, e1emenrll sllch as the lay of [he hem folds On rhe pedesral and their bands with delicate linea r challing are simIlar to rh o..e of rh e I
1. BuJdh:1S orrheThrct'Timcs · 73

1-13

Maitreya Bodhisa ttva CClltTJI T,t,.,t Statue: l.ut 161h to ~Jrl) I-th (CnmT) ,\lJndorla and

b;i<;t:

18th U'IlIUT}'

GIl! copper allo): thTonc ,lIld mJndoTIJ IJta Jdd"'on~. (a~1 ~paTalel): bollom of SlalUC '~

locus 'it~t tngra"cd ""h c'sh, 'peulloIU5 wuh ~lghl auspICIOU' cmblcIll5 ami double \JITJ In the CtnltT: (Ol1ltllC." IIhll1 IS" )( 16" (4i.5 )( 40. S elll l Th i~ fine image is a scaled :"Iaarf.'p Bodht 53111'a. The lma~e is identtfied by the water pilcher of ,unrta and the Dharma II'hf.'el appeMlIlg on th e lotus bl()~soms whosl' stalks arc held III thl' lefl and right h.l11ds as he makes Ihe tl',lchll1g gcs[Urc (db/I fil l/I chllkra mud.,I).

This SI. 1,11Irc),a, which became so Importanl ill Ihe Indo·Tibetan univerSIty curnculuill.

The whole enscmble is glided and prcsents a rMf.' and lovel)' aspect complete With ornate halo edged m leafy swirls and Icwels (less dramallC Ihan the m:lIldorla of 11-10 of the 18th .:elllur)"); a sedate, crisply carved lotus se31; and ,\ se\'t~n- llered Mount $umeru base. draped wllh a Simple but Ir ncally portrayed clolh :lnd adorned in Ihe mldSt:clion by two sc.JIed buddhas m Ihe earth-willll"Ss gesture_ 1Mf.' mandorla and base are later addllions (181h cemury) 10 the onginal statue 11'I(h lIS lotuS seal. The image is sophIsticated :1I1d elegant wllh fine proportiOns, relalively simple Jewels without msets. and smooth, formal drapery wllh onl)' a few folds. Engral'ed wheels appear 011 the~lcsofboth feet. In back.lhejewcl belt continues. Ihe scarf relains some naturalistic folds, and Ihe lotus seat is plain f.'"eept for a rim of beads al Ihe top and bonom. This ralher restra1l1ed sryle would appear to relalc to the artlSl1C modes of ccntral Tibet around Ihf.' late 16th or carl)' 17th century.

1- 14., b

Standing Maitreya ribcro·Chinese: Qing SClond half of the 17th ccnrury ill copper alloy, wi th detachable crown a nd

earrings; plgmems; fUr quolsc: in"cl:>; ba~e sea led .... ith copper plate Incised wuh double vajra ; cotHcnr:. inside 19J/? X 9\12" (49.5 X 24 em )

Thi s standing image is possibly Mairreya Bodhisattva, though the attribute that could help idcnriiy the image originall y on the lants held b}' rhe right hand (i n rh e vitarka tcaching mudra ) is now lost. The lotl1s in rh e left hand, whkh is lowered at rhe side, appears to hold;} flami ng jewel, nm usually an artribute of lVfairre ya, so iT may well b~ rhe image of another bodhisat tva. Howeve r, a sma ll Buddha image sea ted in th e eanh-wimess mucl ra and holding a bowl is hidden behind rhe five-leaved crown. This IS Shakyamuni, who is commonl y see n on Mai treya's crown. The image is an inrerestlllg mixture of !'ityles that seem ro combine elements of the Indo-Nepalese stylistic lineage in Ti betan sc ulptu re (notably, revea lin g the shape of [he figure and preferring turquoise insets in the jewelry) with elements associable with Chin ese scuiprurc, (hat is, the stress on symmetrica l and linea r arrallgcmenrs of folds. Ir It. likel y rhat th is figure is from China. probab ly from rhe workshops of Beiiing around [he late 17th or ea rl y 18th century. The lorus sta lks are nor as srylized, decorative, and emphatic wi th in rhe whole compositio n as those in the 18th cen tury, such as 0;. J11 -2, 111-3, an d 111 -5, burrhey combine some of these elements ,viLh the typica l earlier for m as seen in 11-4 and /1 -6 of the 16rh cent ury. The face has a mild exp ression and th e curved eye form pervasive among (he Ti bera-Chi nese and Tibero- Mongolian images of the 17th- 18th century. The bright, (resh color of the (Urquoi~e inse ts creates a particularl y lively cOunterpoint ro the gilded

su rfaces and rhe dcconl rive patterns IIlcised in the horders of rhe dhotl. The face has pajnt rraces and rhe hair is colored black. The U-sha ped folds on !he legs, which stand quire sri my, have an Inreresting variation of double lines alternaring with single li nes-a so mewhat fancy cmploYll1em of an age-old stylistic tec hnique used in the Buddhist an of Gandh:Ha, Cenr ral Asia, and Cbi1l3. The long sca rves. wlllch ha ve a se ries of narrowl y spaced. long and ve rn ca l, parallel pleat folds with a gra cefull y curved hemlin e, es tab lish a rath er wide J ge nd y cu rving frame for th e lower parr of th e im~ age. Detachable crown and ea rri ngs (as well as th e large collar nct:klace) are com mon in the larger images from both Tibet and l\llongolia in the l8th cenrur)', as seen in

111 -2, 111-3. 111-5, and 1- 15. Howeve r, rhough the crown is derachable in rhis image, the ea rrings arc not, Similar ro 111-3 from the seco nd half of the 17th cenru ry, and the collar neck laces are not detachable. The back of !he image (I- l4b) shows rhe long overhang of the dh ori, th e delicate chasing of rh e border pa rrcrns, and the rich derail of tbe jewels with long swags, pe ndanrs, and bright rurquoises. The back of rhe scarf has been painted red. The quite low and large cirClll ar lOtus pedestal has refined beadlllg and only clownturned petals, whICh are bcaurifull y and precisely carved. The cencer in th t: back has a scroll ca rroll che, rypical of products from the Beijing and Dolonnor workshops. Overall , mis mocierarcly large image is ctega nr and sophistica ted.

I. Buddhas of the Three T011CS

•

77

1 153, b 4

Maitrcya Bodhisattva Qms; probably Dolonnur Second

half of roe 18th century

Copper alloy, partly glided, pigments tefreshed; uld and new cold gold; turquotSt' lIl ~ers; base sealed with red-paimeu wood plate with goIdpauned double v3lra; contents wllhin 20~

X 9" (5 [ X 23 ern)

Although [his figure shows somc repairs
knees. The folds of rbe lower drapery over the legs in from creare an insis renrly rigid and unnarural wedge parrcrn rh3t contrasts with the curling strips of the ~carves. Such a rigid fold pattern probably evolves from clements known in 18th-centu ry sculptures of China and Mongolia, bur nm so insistent as in rhis image. The pedestal is rectangular rarher than rollnd as in 1-14. It ha~ nc row of downturned peta ls whose st}'le appears to be between the petal styles of 1414 nod 1- 11, [he latter being slightly later. The back of the pedestal is largely plain excepl for the row of sta mcn like beads arollnd rhe tOp edge (1- ISb). The simple design of a framed pl3in space on

rhe back of rhe pedestal is a femure found 011 other hiner;{' and Mongolian images of the 18th-19th century. The dosely spaced feet of rhe stiffly standing, frontal image are qui re chunky. The back of the image has a distinct appearance, possibly assoc iable with rhe local area of origin. with wide hips and an overall smrdy lower portion. The crown. lotllsstalks, and strips of scarves with floarin ends arc all painted red on [he reverse side. This image has a striking sense of vivid color created by the gilded ponions conrrasring with the lacquer of the exposed flesh) the turquoise insets. and strong pigments. The image provides a keen sense of the flavor of Mongolian-style sculprure from the Dolollnor region.

I. Buddhas uf rhe Three Tim~s ·

79

1- 16

Medicine Budd ha Central Tibet l6th century

Gilt copper allor, traces of pigmenlS, base pbte missing

5%" x

3Y4~

( 14 X 8.25 em)

The M.cdicine Buddha (Bhaisha jya Guru, sMan-bla) is une of seve n brothers who became buddha~ billions of aeons ago in another universe. Looking far inro the future from their rime, they saw the brave Buddha Shakyall1uni, who volumeered ro manifest the buddha deeds in an efa in rhe history of this aeo n when human beings would be particulady mean and lowly, short-lived, s!ow~ wined, and violenL They rhen vowed rhat they would manifest themselves in his era and universe, to help the beings of That time to he morc able ro tak e advantage of Shakyamuni Buddha's teachings. As buddJ,as, the ~evcn brothers had a special vision of env ironrnental planes, \-vhere the)' could see all things as

medicine; all rocks, earths, fluids, chemicals, gases, and energies could be medicine if their balance and proportions and combination were understood. They especially emanated healing manifcst,nions, and gave the medical teachings to everyone in their universe. They decided among themselves ro manifest in the Saha universe in Shakyam un i's time, in order to help the short-lived humans ro live longer and to be healthier and sharper-wirred, so rhey could put Shak}'anllll1i's Dh arma teaching inro practice and benefit from it. And so it was that once, when Shakyamuni was reaching his disc iples ill Shravasti, he suddenly turned sapphire blue himself, th e special color of the Medicine Buddha, and he began ro rurn rhe Dharma wheel of enlightened mcdicine. The assembly grnhered to hear this reaching was said to include the Vedic and Hindu gods, the Vcdist Ri~his , the celestial and human bodhisarrv;)s, and th e Buddhist monks and nuns and lay people. The Hindus heard the teaching as their renowned Ayurved
Buddhist monasticism had a lot to do with the spread of medicine in India throughout all the castes of the many countries of the subconnnenr. It is also well known thac the spread of Buddhism imo other countries of Central, bsr. and Southeast Asia was often advanced by the skill in medical knowledge and treatment possessed by the traveling monks. East Asian forms of the Medicine Bud dha ~ Yao Shi Fo in China, and Yakushl Bursu in Japan , fo r exarnplc-were quite important, and had many chapels and temples dedicated to them. The Medicine Buddha is idemified here by rhe small am (Terminalia chebufial plant he holds rn his right hand, outstretched in the boon-granting gesture. I-Ie is prcsented in rhis small statue as a slender, ~ub rl y modeled figure with the tighrl)' clinging robe typical of [he Indo-Nepalese-Tibetan srylistic tradition. There is. however, a lyrical grace to rhe fold lines and a brightness and delicacy to the double rOws of lotus petals. It is a lovely image, probably oi the second half of tbe 16th century. It anricipates the naturalism that emerged in some areas in the 17th century.

l. Buddhas of the Three Times · 81

1- 17

Buddha Shenrab Miwo Wesrern or soulhcrn Ilhel around (he

Nepalese hordcr L.1(t:

16th ct'nrury

Gilt coppe.r aJl(IY 24~

x 17" (6 1 x

·n em)

Tbe Bon tradition IS nmconsidcrcd Buddhist in Tihet, neith er by the Tibetan Buddhists nor by rh e Tibeta n Bo nisrs. The probl em wirh this is [h tH th e Honisrl> have a canon of sc ripwrcs exactl y paraHd ro rh e Buddhist

canon; rh ey have monks and nuns, laymen and laywomen, the parh of rhe monk and the hodhi sa trva, nnd buddha hood 1S rh e goa l of their practi ce. ~o rhey are definirely "Buddlllsr" in ilil practical seoses, at leasr In rhe mainstream form of Banism (there IS still an archaic form dun practices 3 11 10131 sacrifice, as do rhe cou ntry shamans. and these practices are no{ considered Buddhist byanyone). In the Tibct:ln-exile communi ty, under the leadership of H. H. the D;l llli Lama, the Bon-

istS .lre more or less accepted as the fift h main order of Tibetan Buddhi")m. A sligh t problem for some lies in the f"le( that the Bon Buddhists do nor eomldt:r Shakyamuni Buddha ro be rh e historical buddha of [hi .. era but refer Iheir teachings back to Huddha Shc.nrab M iwo, dcpicteu in thb srarue. Ther say he li ved in Iran, not III lndm, and he raught the Dha rma rhey inht:ntcd sOllle 40,000 yea rs ago. -nlis obViously ISan unverifiable ciai m, bur we also cannot say we: a re sure th ere was no buddha in Imn 40,000 yean ago. Nobody really know-:- when rh e three buddh clS previau!> to Shakyam uni Hvco Illsua ll ycalled Krakucchallcla. Kanakamuni, and K:tshyapa), and Iran and India may have been closely linked in a previous cycle of history, now unrecorded. Whatever the facruality of rhe claimed life and tt:clching of Shenrab Miwo, he function:.. ao;, ;1 buddha for rhe Bon pracrit io n e r~ ofTihet and their foreign disciples. And so he mIght as well be included among rhe buadhas of (he th ree times. The sratue i'i made of wd l-fashioned sheets of heav ily gi lded copper. The body is broad and somewhar .. hon, imparring a firm quality. Th e surfaces are quite plain and the linear aspects are r{'<;rrai n ~d. There i ~ Un le arten-

Don to folding aLld Howing hems. Il owever. rhere is an eXIrcroeiy deltcatc refi nement 111 the be;l(iing 0 rhe hem!>, wh ich rela tes to 17th-century wo rk s known for this from rhe central regioll5 of Tibet (at Sak)'3 and Tashl Lhunpo; set' Rhl e essay). Tbl!:> aspect derives from (he InJo-Nepa lese tradiu6n of sculprures, bur IS pOrlf3yecl here in a mixture of the earthy and the refined. Because-of the bold shapmg of the form) rhi!:> !Jculprure may dale to rhe late 16th or early 17th ce ntury. The face I" ~trongly characrcw:cd by up-cu rved eyebrows and ey(~ and a hroad momh. The ears also proiecr mark edl y from the head. and rhere is a pointed fl ame emanaring from the con ical ushnisha. SO!11t!whal like that seen on I- I. A huge :,wasrikt1, a signarure of Bon, lies on tht: pedestal in from of [he image. The lotus pedestal is nicely beaded on the uppt:r rim and has gt:n('rolls, large lorus petals as seen in late 16rh-cenrury rangka::. from ccorral Tibet. The back of [he pedestal is plain (n!. i<; the image, which only has a line demarcanon at dlC waist), Withou t lotus petals, similar ro rhe pcde~tals I)f 1-1, 1-4, and 1-9. However. the from of this image has a row of beaurifully rendered r elals. horh upward and downward t-aong.

l. BlIddhas of Ihc Three Time,, · 83

I- I S a~f

Six l 1mgka Set of Arhat Immortals and Attendants Cemrallibct (Tsang l 19th «'murf ~t ul 'IX tan!:kJs, miller ,11 plgnwnt, 011 sized "011011

'i-" X ]1" (144.7-'1 x -S. -5 cml; painting': 24" X 1J 1f.z" (61 X -'j cm)

O,-~rall:

The Arha( Immortals (S( havlra, gll"S brlell) arc bdicved to be hying ,ecretl} all ol';;r (h(' world from [he [ime of Shakramuni Buddha at least up until [he (illle of (he future Buddha Maltreya-m,\ny thousands of years, They are nUl known as a group in carly Indic Buddhism, though soml' arc known as indio viduals. I[ seems [hal their worshIp wok off only after Buddhism began to spread In China, where they may hal'e resonated wah lhe ··Immortal Sages·' who figure so promi· nently in Taoist lore. The sixtcen·arh;lt theme was introduced to Tibet formally by Amha (982- 1054 ), and II has remained popuLlr ever 'lnce. The seHnteenth and eighteenth figures, [)harma!ala, the tran slator, and J-l va Shang, the Jolly sam! who i. explicitly Chinese, were addl'd gradually !O dIe en· semblc, wilh Ihe Four Greal Kill); Dl'III<'~ el'er sl,lnding guard. There arc ruuals that el'oke and prayers thaI pctillon th(" Arhat Immortals, which laypcople and monastics alike cOII';lder V('fY efficaCIOUS and satisfying.

~4

•

• Calalogue

=

In a sense. 11 could I~ s:lId that these Arhat Immortals arc a group of mterC('ssors who come W the aid of the humblest of thr faith· ful. who perhaps do not presume that their needs will hc noticed b~' thr more l'xllted hodhisattl'as. In general, the figures III thiS group of SIX arhlt t:mgkas arc drawn with qUite a drlicille hand, All the detailsarecx,ICf, and the line 1~ fluid Jnd skill ful. The figure, do not ("manate power so much as a );cnteel spmt. Even the guard lam lack ma% and dimt"n'lon III (;tvor of refined patterns and fluttc ring nto\"clllent~ of Silken cloth. The proportion\ of th(" flgure~ to t he landscape fit natllrally without a hint of lllonumenta Jttr. The figure~ l11("rgr ~l!llply with the setting. lUSt as the trees and flowcr~ do. Thrre ~cms to be no unusunl . Flamr halo~ arc \n·lI cxecured but nOt slahng with energy. Cloud~ arc carefully outilllcd and shaded I1lto funguslike ~hapes. bll( thcy do not sholl' nn tlll'cntil'(.' vision. ,\!oun1.11115 ar<, 31 !!Ines clusters of eroded and spirallllg shapes, but. like cwry other element. they do not tend to dominnte the scene. The ol'crJII mildness of the p,llllterl), Style reveal~ a gentle, subdued world that uses ele· mcnts of Nl'w·;'..!enri·st),le I'igorous sha l~s

and Karnl:1-G:ldri·st),le ~pace, hut without gll'1I1g domin:lncc to either. Probably this refleer, C:lri), 19th ·century harmonizing tendencies, more than likely from a painter of the central 1I1><:tan region, but possibl)' from eastern libet. The brocade IS light rather than hcavy Qlng·dynasty Chmbe silk. All tangbs hal'e the wal'e·p;mern mOllming ol'erall, with an in~et ("Window" f of royal-blue brocade and ;1 four·clawed dr:lgon m the lower CCnter. All the dust cOI'er~ and ribbons a re intact, as ;He- the rods and silver caps, TIllS group is a fine example of a nrarl), complete set in exceptlOnall), well·preserl'ed condition-only Ihe ccntra l tangb of Shakyallluni Buddha IS 11l1S~lng.

1- 18a

Arhat s I
1- ISb

Arhats Panthaka, Nagasena, Oopaka, and Abhecia Arhat Panthaka at r.he LIpper left holds a book as he sits on a low d3is in a lush grove of peonie'!. A lay disciple offers a large jewel. To the upper rigbt is Arhat Nagasena hnlding a monk's staff and a vase emittUlg mystical vapor as a J1aga (or 110 llti) rises ouruf rhe waters be· low a.nd offers a large iewel. In the lower right corner the Arhat Abheda si ts in a chair under a beautiful nowering trre With white blossoms. In borh hands he holds a miniarure snlpa ~aid to have been given (0 hUll by Shakyamuni. A foreign figure (po:,.sibly a yaksha) offers;J. dish of jewels. In the lower left corner rhe aged Arhat Gopab sits 011 3 marof lea ves in from of a bille-green rocky cliff. He holds a large book as an itine.ranr Brahmin ca rrying a stick with a bUlldle catches his attention.

1-1 8c

Arhats Ajita, Kalika, anci Vanavasin At the tOP of lhls tangka rhe while-bearded Arh:lt Ajita sirs on a hil i in from of a cave as a disciple kneels before him. Below. at the right, the Arhat Vall;1vasin, on a sear of leaves and holding a long white fly whisk, raises his right hand in rh e tar;all; (\·,:arning) rntldra as an old man in white robes kneels below wirh a la rge plate of offerings. Arhat K;:tlika in lhe lowe:r left corner holds up twO

golden earrings <15. :.1 noblewoma n (or femaJe deity) makes an offering of a golden vase. A large plate of pCilchlikc fruir si r~ 011 <1 little grass hillock in fron l of rhe: arhrll, and a fantastic blue rock sen'Cb as his chair. 1- 18d

Arhats I~a hula , Cue!apanthaka, anci Pinciola The Arhar Rabliia appea rs at [he tOp, backed by a landbCapt> of warer, rocks, sUQw-capped mounmins, and blosboming nowcrs. He holds a crown in hoth hands as he iOt)ks down at a disciple who prepnres some fruiL His shoes sir in frum on a grassy rock, an d a pair of small wlmc tigers play around the rocks and clouds. The white-haired Arhat Pindola ill the lower right corner holds a bowl and a large su rra bonk. He smiles ar a disciple who brings a bowl of rhe peachlike fruit. in rhe lower lefr corneT the Arhat Cudapanrhaka in a mediration gesture quizzically gl:mces a[ a wealthy foreign figure who kneds at rhe side with hands daspeJ in adoration. A large bowl sirs in front of rhe arhat along With an incense burner.

1- 18e

Hva Shang, ane! Lokapalas Virucihaka and Dhrtara hta This rangka and 1- 18f port ray rhe two adjuncts to rhe arhars (often I.:alled the Sev-

emeenrh and Eighteenth Arhats) and the group of rour Heave nly Guardian Kings. In this rangka !-Iva Shang) rhe jovial figure beloved by children. appea r.:; at the top seated under a blooming bush ,mel holding n rosary as children play arou nd him. Below ar rhe righr IS the white Lokapala Dhrraraslua (Gua[di::m King of the East) playing a lure, mdicative of rhe pleasant lands of the East. On the lower left is rhe blue Lokapala Virudhaka (Guardinn King of the South) ho ld ing a curved sword. Dark cloudb hehllld suggesr [he demolllc yakshas rhal" mha"lf the lands of the South. Both wear c1abor~He miliTarv garb of rhe Chi nese-Mongolian ~tyle. .

1-18f

Dharmatala, and Lokapalas Virupaksha ane! Vaishravana In the final rangka of rhis se ries, Dharmarala sits ar rhe rap with rhe rack of hooks he ca rries in his rravels at his back. His tiger companion is at his side, and a figure of Amita),us Buddha floats at the end of a my!!rical cloud connected to Dharmarala. At rhe lower fight is Lokapala Vaishravan3 (Guardian King of the Norrh). In rhis rendering of Vaishravana he holds the victory banl1~r in his righr hand, and the mongoose in hio;; ldr hand spi r~ our jewels (a refe rence ro Vaishravana's wealtb aspecr). Anhe lower lefr is red Lokapala Virupaksha (Guardian Kin g of the Wesr) holding a srupa (i n carUer Buddhist arr usually rhe symbol held by Vaishr.vana),

I. Buddhas of rhe Three Times · 9 r

1- 19

Immortal Arhat Bakula CcmrJ\ T'OCI

hr" hJlf 01 ,he I 11th ~cmtln

G,lt (Opper JIIOj-; PJfI ~J" Jr1<.1 pM'

rcp(H1~"'.

l<Jets of p't:menl"; ml!.sUlt: ont:m,l\ hJ5e rlJte

and

eomcm~

An m.,cnrl10n on Ih~' fronl of the red~'s,al reads: -Thr Noble Bakula. II h,) al\\'.I~s cau<.l's ,Igreal r.llo of thl.' ,el'rn jrwels of the Noblt: OIWS to fall; first (iIllJge) on thr Irft~ (TiN-un. I'ph.lgs f,.I'1 I10r bd"" d.lg gl ch.lr chell IIIlrluN, /II 'b('/)s /IId:,u/ '(,hcJJ;s fhl bhd kif Idlg),oll d,llIg poll. Ihkul,l IS beli~'v('d to h.lvc bl'l'n born SCI'· ellt)' ye:HS heforc )\l:lk}'.11ll1l1l! I\uddba \ l)!fth as Pnncc Siddhartb.l. l ie hec.lI11e ;U1 aSCl'IIC seckmg cnll!dllcnmcnt Jnd [il'rd on the b;lrk of tht· ",Ib/I.• tTl'e. whence hiS n;ll11e. Afta Buddha Iud IlcCOllll' enhghtcncd, lu: took note through d.llrvoyancc of U.lkuLI and IllS ascrllc COllll"JIIlOnS and .Ippcarrd to Ihrm.

taught them. and eoablrd thcm to alf:lln ,aim hood (arhnlsh,p). rC(\[,7.IOI:\ 111(\';111;\. Ih,' hocrallon from suffering. whIle <,1111 III life. D ur 10 hIS I;lSl I."I'olullon.HY n1l'fI!. cspc' oall) from h,s acts OIW nun}" III'c) of gll11lg mediCines to suffering hclllgS, BJkula has an a~lOund11lg powl'r of longfl III .l1ld hence IS Ilrtll,llly mUllOn;\!. He IS rt'pUfed to h\{, 10 a pJradlSJI can: <;()Illewhcre III northern UtlJrakuru. Ihe comment on Ih,' olh("r 51d(." of the planr!;)r) .IXIS from IndIa. wlm;h rna, roughly correspond to the I\mellca<. III the :lIlcirm, now obsol~'lc grograph). In A~IJ. 1I"0mrn and children, :llld pt'ople sunk III poverly prar to Bakula. lnd If thelT i.\IIh IS Strollg enough, thl'lT WIshes tl'nd to be ful filled, Bakula's Irgend.lf}" gcnero~ul I) rcrr~'~rntrd hy the Jcwc!-dlsgorgll1g lI1on~oo)~' he holds in h,s hands. Fcw arhat staturs arc known from thl' 1,IIer ce m ums ofTibet:m ar!. This large ;lI1d h.lIld· ~omc example probably datl'~ from the fir~t half o f thr 18th century and '" fr(lm (emr.11 Tibet. It appears as ;\ heavy IIll;1gr-bro.ld and squared III ~hapc wllh a Lngc round head :l1ld pr01llll1enl car~. I llS Ih,.-k .I rm~ and legs emanale a sense oi ~ohd Illass. whllc the

hl'.W), dr,l per), mol'l'~ wi dl 3 steady currcm .!round Ihr form ~tl(1 ,prt':ld~ out in overla pplllg by... r) ,Ill Jround it. Exc("Il("tl{ chasing de~l)!ns embclltsh Ih(" WIde hands of Ihe robe Ol'l' r the ch(."st. and na rrower 011("5 appear lIcar the wrists, H IS hands makr .1 cal,c!,k(" shl·her for lh(" mongoo!>(", and his crossed f("('1 II IIh th("irchuhhy toes a'-I in Ihe composition .IS.I counter~hape 10 Ihe hands. The drapery creal("s \3noUS strong mm'emenfS Ol"rr the hody, Th~' agllJlIon of Ihe surfaer sets up a pleasllIg h\"("llIle~s III the Image. WhK h has an extr.lOrdlnanly bold presence. TIll" 111,:0rou,l), ruffled edgr of hiS und("rg.\TlI1("1lt han)!s 111 brge. suff loops aroun d hIS nt'Ck. Theoliler roll(' is held In place by l clasp WITh a l'a1r.l .•lIld the 11l1ddle robe is tl("d with .1 thICk beh who<;c knot and ends arc I'isible at mld· W.II'!. Even though th(." expressIon on 1m {.ICc IS gcmle, ill(' big features nuteh the heft} rhrilum of the whole. The pedestalma)' rcprc .... nr a rocky ledge o l'cr whICh ;1 plai n cloth I, thrown as a sra t for thr arh.lI. Th is eXlT.lOrdlll:lrY Illl:tge appea rs to be close to ~\1ch Image~ .IS the portr;\11 statue of the s...cond Panchrn L:ltna 11663- 1737) publoshed III I'ortr,lIt$ of the " lasters. No. 91.

a supreme king of Dharma or reality Itself, his stupa should be eve n more magnificent than that of an imperial monarc h. There arc many l),pt:S of stupas in many different Buddhist countries, but all of th em serve the S3 me end; manifesting the eternal presence of the benevolent, powerful, 3nd o rdered buddh3 mind. This relaTively I3rge, completely gilded stupa is impressive with its Mount $umeru sq uare base that lifTS a pyramid o f six decreasing sqU3re steps, from which the STupa proper ri sl's. In from of th e stupa dome is an open niche (now empty) encircled with a h310 design o f curling leafy forms similar to the halo in the Maitre}'3 Bodhisa ttva SculpTure in 1- 13. The Ihirteen umbrellas are considerably narrower than those of the Kadampa stupa in l·l l,and the topmOST area has a smaller, though heavier, banner decoration and a pl3incr crescent moon and sun. The decoration on the base with cavorting lions, Dharma wheel, and corner JCwels is of simil3r type as, hut nf simpler form than, the ortutely decorated great STU pas in the Potala from the latc [7th century onward.

1·2 1

Kadampa Slupa (ChOrlen) Ce lllf;tl Tibel L;tu." I3lh century

Solid C3Sf fi"e l1wtals COntents wultin

(~ It ~);

Original base plate;

I S' X 6\1" (45.75 X 16.5 ,ml 1 ~20

Slnpa (Tibelan, Chorlen) Cemra l or Eastern

Ti~t

Late 17t h or carl)' 181h C(mllry Gill copper alloy; copper base plate engraved wah 3 double \'.ll.a; ongi nal contents wuh,n 2)"x I I'll" (6J.5 X 29.25cmJ

The stupa (lib. mchod rten) is considered to be a representation of the Buddha's mmd, as hiS statue represents his bod)", and a sut ra text his spet"C h. The squa re pa rtS of the slUpa

94 ' la tJlogue

represent eanh, the round parts water, the triangular series of the tower represent fire, and the umbrella at the lOp, wind. Th(' crescent and drop al the lOp usually represent space and consciousness. Thus, the Buddha's mind is an ex pressio n of the ordering of malerial dements in the optimal way 10 su pport the quest of freedom from suffering and perfect enlighlemnent for all beings. The stupa developed from a funerar)" memorial mound; the firsT stupas we re co nST ru("(ed to h o u~ the reli cs of th e I~uddha's human bod)", wi th the Buddha stating in Ihe I'amllbballll Sillta that, si nce funera r)" srupas are ere("(l'd for grea t kings, and a buddha is

This Kadampa-st yle, ungilded slUpa is a fine example, complete with JIl its parts. The topmost area is particul3r1y lovely with twisting ribbons, large crescent moon, and sun sy mbols with linear marktngs, a curvtlinear endless knO! , and scroll· like lotus bud at the apex. Details of the lotus-petal base, the stell3te-shaped niche level (harllllka ) with its tm y three-jewel parJpCI (t nrawa ocrole'II1), and the hanging jcwels at the basc of the finial above the STack of thtrteen umbrellas (c"oltra ) arc JIl especially fine and well preserved in th is stupJ. Ii is very heavy in physical weight, and it has a ri ch surfa cc patl11a.

11-13-<1

FOllr T.1ngka Set of the Medicine Bliddha and Lotlls Family Deities Central Tibet (Lhasal

Late 19th c.'nlUry ~ our

tangbs; 1I11m:ral pIgments on ~lZfil COllon; Qm!: nrocade frame, silk dustco,cr Jnd ribbons; ch3sed slh'rr C3p5 Chlll~se

Q,rrall: SO' )( 26" (\27 )( 66 eml; pJmtmgs: 24" X IS" (6 1 )( 38 cml

This SC I of 13ngb icons prrsems the ILn('agr of the "lama," the unique T ibe13n form of splTllual mentor, drscendlllg from thl' buddh a ~ Bhalshairaguru (~MedlCine l"'lenlOr") and Amitabha. and the bodhisattva AvalokLtrshvara, down 10 the archetypal Jewd of "lemors (guri/ Tlllpoc11e), I'adma Sambhava. The composltlon of these mod· crate-sued paintings is reiath'cly Simple and limited to J few attending figures around the mam Image. The central figure m each IS the largest and mOSt detailed and has some spt'Cial feature; the beautiful turquoise blue of the robe lUling in Bhaishajya Guru (1 1-1,1) and in t\n11labha (II- [b); the pure white of Shadaksh,lfI's body as contrasted Wi th the rich cobalt blue of the waters around the Image (II- Ie); and the elegam design of th(' throne-back cushion wllh lapls-lazuh blue and gold clouds III Ihr Padma Sambhava pamtmg (II - Id). Landscape IS varied In allihe pamllngs. but the most halldsome IS the moumalll of em· erald green trees mlhe SukhJvau l'ure Land m II- lb. A parlicular feature of thIS pal1ltillg style, a late and conscrval1 V('" persistenu of the New Menn tradllion, is the nearly unrealLst ic shading of the nowers, which seem 10 melt Imo pure IOnal pastel gradation~ Without Jny rderenee to realllY. The plllk and gr('('n douds arc Similarly treated and an- a standard fea -

ture of the lale 19th- and carl)' 2Oth-century mode of the Nrw Mrnrl as propagJled III the Lhasa palllllng schools 10 the pomt of mere formality alleviated br scnSIII"e drawlIlg and perf~'Clion of tcchmqul'. The mountmgS:He of hlgh-qualLt)' Qingperiod Chinese brocades. Each tangka of [his sri (probably orlgmally a SCI of nine ) has the sa me brocade, which has an unusual abstract mandala deSign woven 111 gold foil and peacock threads on ~I blue background. Every fearure of these tangkas IS excellently preserved.

II-la

Bhaishajya Guru , the M.edicine Buddha Here we meet the M edleme Buddha In a golden emanallon. With Sh.lkyamuni Buddha above him and hiS SIX " Iedleme Buddha brothers ranged below him; including Shakyamum we ha\ e the group -eight MedICine Buddhas. - In the upJ,.:r left cornrr SitS Amlla)'us as a bodhisattva, red In color. holdmg his vase of the t'lixlr of IIlImorlalIt)'. In the uppe r fight Sll~ Ushmshavija)'a, a longevlt)' goddess with eight arms, holding a small Amilabhn Buddha lovingly m the palm of one of he r hands. Wale r nows down from a snowy mountain In the background. and a calm and nOUrishing natural landscape completes the langb's atmosphrre of balance. healmg, and exceptional well-being.

II- Ib

Amitabha ill Sukhava ti Pure Land The buddha of boundle~s light, Amltabha. whose allrr ego is Anllta)'us. thr buddha of infimte life, SitS he re 111 Ihe \'lIallty of hiS

red body. ho ldilig a bowl with thr eliXi r of Immorta lll)', In an architect ural scu mg which convc)'s a sense of his palace In his Western buddha"erse pa radise. the blissfu l world. Sukha,·a t l. In the upprr left sits a whi tr V:1Jfadhara . the buddh a ema na t io n who traches Tantra, and m th e upper rig ht SitS the four';lrmed wish-fu lfi ll ing geln fo rm of A\'alokLleshvara. l~clow him in the ga rden of the pabce ~II elghl bodhisattvas. a t case for the moment, but normall)' working ha rd 10 llber;lIt" bemgs from suffering and brmg Ihrlll mto the blissful Pure Land if the)' need relief from the lowe r realms. II is Importa nt to nOll' that reachmg the pure land IS not the same as a ll 311lmg rn rightenment or m r\'ana; It IS only a traming area very close 10 the blissful and energizing presence o f t he celrstla l Boundlrss Ligh t Bud dh a , wherein high levels of sa11ladhi a nd tr ansce nde nt realiz,1110n arc eJsy 10 alla in. Once they arc mastered. beings emanate back out into realms where others still suffrr, in order to culm' ate compa SS ion, the indispensable energy of perfeCt buddha hood.

II- I c

Shadakshari Avalokiteshvara The four-a rmed Avalokitestwara is the special patron of Tih..-t, associa ted wi th the mant ra, OM '\LANI I'AD.\L E II U.\ t. the six s)'lIables Ihat are carved on e\'e r y moun tainside. that grace Ihe surface of Ihe many pra)"er wheels e"erywhere throughout the land. and that resonate frOIll the lips of most Tibetans 3S they go on their da Lly rounds of wo rk and leisure. He holds the mani lewd o f UlliVl'rsa l c0111 pasSlOn in his two front ha nds, the white lotus of tran~cendent wisdo111 ill his upper left, and the er),stal rosa ry wi t h which he counts thr repetillons o f the mani ma nt ra. EJch one of the SIX syllables is believed to go 10 one of the SIX realms of suffering migrant

beings, to mani fes t therei n whatever is required to li be rate whomsoever. Above the mam figu re sk~ a lama, probably the Seventh Dalai Lama, himself both an incarnation of rhe bodhi att"a and a great writer of poems and teachings connected with his unjversal compassion. He i nan ked by (wo disciples, Below the main figure at the right knee sirs Manjushri, the bodhio;attva of wisdom, and at his left knee Vajrapani. the bodh lsarrva of li berating power. in the borrom corners are tWO forms of Hayagriva, rhe fie rce form of the bod hi satrva, one wi th a bl ue consort and one wi thout, each With the titde green horses' heads that represent his realization of voidness) cOllve)'ed in the victorious neighing sound that resoun ds throughout rhe sky.

D- Id

Padma Sambhava Padma Sambhava, Guru Rinpoche. the Grear Precio us Mentor, is con idered a special emanation of Amirabha. rather fierce, with <1 strong relationship to Hayagriva (whose roOt mantra in rh e: EsOteriC Community Tantra is OM PAOMA :,,,,i\IHIIAVA HUM), bur In hu-

man form. Mythically he has lived 1)1} earrh from around the same tune all Shakvamuni Buddha, from ca . Sixth cemurr ItC~E. , and he sr.illlives roday somewherc in the vicinity of Madagascar or Africa. He was a prince, a monastic, and an adepr yogin practitioner of the tamras, lilUS uniting in his person the Individual, Universal, and Apocalyptic Vehicles of Buddhl.!.l1l. Hisroncall\' he was lbe first rantric lama mentor of th~ TibNan warnor cmpl~rors of the anc ient kingdom, comi ng TO Tihet 111 the late eighth ceorm)'. At the rime, Tibet was ar the height of its imperi al power, dominating the Himalayas and parts of the Hindu Ku sh, nOw northern Paki ·tan and enste rn Afghanistan, Nepa l, and much of northern India, the Silk Road oasis ciry-states, nnd much of wesrern Tang ChlOa. He "tamed" {perhaps we would say "educated" } both local tribal deirie and the great emperor, Trisong Ocrscn (r. 755-804), and hi" aristocratic warnor nobles. When he left afrer hiS work Wal> done Jnd he had started Tibct off on the Dharm:t path [0ward rr:uc ci"ilizarion, meanmg gentleness, justice, inrelltgence III science, and creatiVity in the art of living peacefully, he went to an island in rhe "ourhwfM ocean, where he is still believed ro dwell tOday, in an earthly

paradise called" opper·colored Glory Mountain" (Zangdog Pelri) hidden deep

within the jungles. Above him 10 this paint· ing sirs a four-faced (thus associared With rhe Indian god Brahma), four-armed form of Avalokircsh vara, rhe wish-fulfilling jewel of the infillite compassion of all budd has incarnare a~ a bodhisarrva, nanked by J" lan· jushn, the wisdom of all budd has incarnare, on his right, and Vajrapam, rhe power of all budd has incarnate, on IllS lefr, as the trio always wmk together. Below him In the left corne r si rs his ind ian wife, Mandarava, :1 Bengali pri ncess who joincd him and beca me an enlightened yogi ni, and in the lower right, Yeshe Tsogyel, his Tiberan wife, an en li ghtened bC lIlg in he r own right, This enri re set of four ra ngkas connecrs the lineage of Dalai Lama re incarnations, who have always been nonsectarian practitioners of rhe [eachlllgs of all [he four orders of liberan Buddhism, emphasi7jng [he yingma· and Gelukpa-orde r teachi ngs somewhar, with what I!> called me "Lotus Clan," the group of deities relating (Q Amitabha, Avalokireshvara, Tara, Hayagri\'a, and Padma Sambhava, associated wirh universal compassion and, of the five Wisdoms, the ruby- red wisdom of indiV iduation.

11 . Lamn!) and Sptrlfll31 Mentors · 103

II -la. b

Padilla SambhavCl Ccmral Tibc-I hr~1

h.Ilf of Ih( 18th ~(mUf\

GIlt coppt'r rcpou ~104' ","h ( ;U I hcad Jnd hJnd~ J.Jld rcmol·ahl( CJHlng~; IlIrquOlw lJl!>e1S and f'<"arl utnJ; tw;( pbll' (comems 10sl) 2.J "X 14"( U.1.' x JS.'i,rn l

ThiS IS one of the mO~1 ~ucccssf\ll sculpIUre~ of I)a dma Sambha,,1 In the world of Tibetan art. It IS quac brl;te and portrays
,Hvar('ness will automatically dispose them lOw.Hd less('ntng of egotism and opemng Imo compassIon. H IS left hand lies Aat and relaxed III thc ease of contempla{t\"e equa· Illmll}. once suppo rting a \'ase of th e ehxir of immortality held III a skull bowl. Hc-re l)ad ma Sambha\·a 's robes-the Inner royal robes and o uter woolen cloak-h;1\'e no texnle paftern s Of textured quality. In ~ stead, th ey sw:nhe the sturdily propornoned figure 111 sl11oolhl ), gliding strips and ta)'ers of folds ,md plc-ats. Many of the folds hal'e a double-hne c-dge which is typical of some 17th- and I St h-century sculptur('s, parIIcularly of monks and arhats (Dinwiddie, /'OTtTmIS of till' Masters. 2003, Nos. 2, 4, 11 ; 1'. P~I, ATt of tIJe /-limala),.Js, No. 73). The effect of the drapt.'fY is 10 create a se nse ()f l1fe a nd tnl'rg), swirling around the stable. UHrOspecllve figur('. The o riginal, complete khat\ ,mga staff rem;uos, bu tlhe statue's va;ra .md ,kull bowl ar(' missi ng. Turquoise IIIS('tS 111 th(' long ('arrmgs I('nd a lOuch of color, and ongillJl plgmems r(,l11alll on the face, mcludIIIg a small Illuslat"h(' and goalN'. The bac k: of this natue gil'es a IOrally d ifferent ImpreSSion from the front. Wide, shallo" pleats gracefull y fan OUI in a regular forma l1on of cuned ,·enicallines that Slart from under th(' broad pearl-edged collar co,·, c-rlllg thc hack of hiS shoulders :llld spread all the Il a) 10 the seat . HIS modesily long. black: h ~lr falls 111 II1dlliduallocks that arc loosel)' (wlsted to c-rld 111 a poUlt on his upper back. As 5l'('n 111 man) other exa mples of pedestals of moderately large Images of the 17th and 1ST h Cl'ntU Tll'~ , the front is gilded with wellfa~hlon ed la ),eh of uptuTlwd 100us petals and ,I beadtd upp('r rilll. The back is totally plain ;11\{\ III thIS eaSl' IS ungikkd copper. Tht ene rgy of the garm em folds in tim Image IS related 10 the style see n in the Arhat B.lkula sc ulpture (1-19), but in Ihis Padma S;I!llbhava th('re is more attention to thl' formal1on of wide pleats in orde r to his pressed hur scrlously concenlraled lips; gill' at least a sense of more structure 10 the and the shghtl~ tucke d-III chili catch the apparently unrul y movements. The style is 'Iewer's al1en1l0n and dull' 11 Into the 111,I boldt.'r, slmpl('r. and 1('5S f('fined outcome ner splTllUal personality of the figure (Fig. of the mOTl' naturalisllcallr vigorous folds II -la ). The mlldl~ broodlllg bce IS offm S{'('n dcwlopmg especially on lama or arhat b~' an acme array of I;ta rment~ and a fi nely scul ptures from the 16th c('ntury and mto wrought hat from whose peak prOlectS an the 17th CentUry. Howe\·er, the styl(' 111 the eagle feather festooned wlIh symmelru.-all} Padilla Sambhal'J statue has d(,l"eloped furtwirlmg nbbons. The brlm has a be~ullfull) thl'r Irlto a n('\\' and more abstract but very worked, naturallsllC, fl ora l relief panern Imaglllallvc Interpretalion th;1\ skillfull y harsurroundmg the emblem of the Sun In the ne5!K'S eddi es o f curvilinear mO'·l'lllentSIn the crescent moon. drapery into new p:merns. The specific type I-lis fight hand makt.'s th e gt.'~t\lre of warn- of folds and pancrnmg appears si tllliar 10 mg that he will brook no oppoSltmn to Ihe Ihe ~ t y l(' of thl' st;1lUe of Tht.' Second Panchen clear liberallvt.' force of th t.' Dh,lTlll;l. and It Lama ( 1663- 1737j shown in Porlrails of orig1l1a ll y held th e va lra, the thunderholt tbe 1\llI5ler5, No. 9 1, which proba bl y dates of universa l t:olllpassiu n. All who confront around the fir~t half of the ISth centur), and him arc thus com pelled to I11tenslfy their wa~ probabl r madt.' in thl' Cl'llIral regions awareness of the trllth ,IS he rl·\t.',II~ It, whil"h o fTi hct .

11-3

Padma Sambhava Tibe!o-Chln~

or Tiooo-'\Iongolian; reputed to be from Amdo

:-'1,d-18th

!O

mid-19th centur)'

Wall paulung on canl'as; mmeral plgmrnrs and gold 76" X 6J"(l93 X J60cm )

This large Guru Rmpoche painting cames the atmosphere of the MnonsecfarianM {rls med) trad,uon of eastern Tibet of thr 18th and 19th centuries, The highest guru of thr Nylngma ordrr SitS under Shak)'amuni and twO Gelukpa-ordrr lamas. with twO saints drr ssed In Indian mrndicant-s t yle robes on his left and TIght, with ManJushrl and Avaloklteshvara bodhisattvas on left and Tight at his knee level, and his consortS, In celestial-bodhisatfva, Tar3-1ike forms, below, His gaze is straight ahead, wi th a calm yet powerful demeanor. His inner blue robe is that of a layman, but hisOUler orange and rl'
large figure of Padma Sambhava, wondrous )'ogi and Buddhist ma<;tCr, Surrounding him 3re del'en figures: Sh3kY3111UIII at the apt'~, twO yellow·hat lamas III the upper left and Tight corners, 3 bma on each Side m the middlr st'Cllon, below a golden and whire bodhls.mva, and at the bonom, M3nd3ral'a and Yeshe Tsog)'el. the Indl,Ul and Tibetan consortS, Two smaller goddNscs, kneeling beSide the bowl-shaped pool from which spnngs l)adma Samhhava's gre;\( full-moon-lOpped lotus seat, hold up offeTings 10 the master. The conical hills, bordered by pi3ms like g3ri3nds, arc dOlled 1I'Ith clusters of egg-shaped Jewels. The midnight sky IS adorned by b3nnerlike streams of rainbows and multilayered clouds wllh blue and green modelmg. Padma Sambh;I\'a SitS m ,111 open. relaxed pose, his robes loosely spread around him, Though I'll' is presented m the lime-honored fashion known In the Tibetan palming tradition, the painting nl'verlheless creatl'S a fresh imerpretation using;l subdued color palette typical of l'vlongolia and Amdo, With less emphasis on rich brocade patterns and more attention given 10 th e sWl rlmg and eddymg hnes th3! 3re bound together by the unifYlIlg movements o f the gold borders of hiS robes. Subdued IOnes of blue, dusty brown, and mild orange offer a humble but elegant vision of thr mystic yogi whose gentle gaze seems

to focus intently into space. Poin ted eye·

brows With Improbable lil t and fancy curled mu~tache add sharpness to the face. which is framed by the aetil'e details of dnfting ribbons, long earrings, strands of black half, and hiS cap wnh feathers, sun, and moon. He holds ;m ornate vaj ra in his right han d, the sk ull bowl (holdmg a vase of immortality with flowers perched on the waves of demon blood turned to nt'Ctar of immo rtality inside) in hiS left hand, and, in the crook of his left arm, the mystic khatvanga, sym bol izi ng his mastery of the central-nervous-system yoga that comrols hfe and death, with ItS three heads mlllg above a double vaJra and I'ase and topped by a tndent, Blue and wh ile rib· bons ornamentmg the khatl'anga ensemble flutter ol'er hiS left shoulder. complemenu ng the other acuI'e linear elements th3t surround hiS head. I·lis maJcstlc size, amplified b)' th e large scale of the painting, is funher en hanced by the prol1lmem dark blue and grren ci rcular units of the 111a ndo rl a an d the stunni ngly be3uliful broad gold rim with re fin ed designs drawn in red, Not only is thiS one of the finest paintmgs of 1'3dma Sambha\'a, but it is one Iha l t'xhiblt~ a rem3rkahle, fres h style from the later peTiOO of Tibe tan-style Buddhist arl, poSSibly from a temple in the Amdo region, as yet Il\Ile studied.

11-4a, b

Sakya Lama (probably Sonam Lhundrup of Mustang) Western or central1ibet

ca. 1500 Copper alloy, traces of plgmcnrs and black pItch (in eyes); base plate missing

12" X 9" (30.5 X 22.75 em)

A nearly robed lama sits cross-legged on top

or a relatively rail pedestal thar is enci rcled with a double layer of refined lorus petals. The robes appear flat and closc·firdng to the

generous dimen sions of the lama, who holds a flaming jewel in his left hand along with the stem of a lotus. His right hand, gesturing with a vi/arka (teaching) mudra, holds a simi lar lotus. Both lotuses once held arrribures (probably rhe sword
Though this exceptionall)' maJesric and finely wrought sta tue bears 00 in~cription~ it may be rhe grear Sakya scholar LowD Kenehen Sonam Lhundrup (1456-1.532), abbot of La Manrhang monastery of Mustang (in northern Nepal, close to the weStern Tibetan border). Inscribed statues of this master show him with the flaming jewel in his left hand and his right hand in either rh e vltarka or tiara mudra (Wisdom and Compassion, 0.9 1j Image now in the Philadelphia Mu"eum of Arr) published in Sotheby's Indiall and Southeast Asian Art cata logue, March 2003, No. 59; Essen and Thingo, 11 -227; Portraits of the Masters) Nos. 7S and 76). From these we learn be is a distinctive figure) clearly recognizable by his portrait features:

a broad face wieh square law, thin upper lip, and a wide. generous ph}'sique. Ocher) unins(,;ribed Statues tbought ro be the same lama can be seen in Portraits of the Masters, No. 77 and C. Rochel!, Road to EnlightclIment, No. 27. The back of rhe image shows broad, smooth shaping of the form with [he same finely chased patterned scrips of the "parched" robe as seen on [he from (1I-4b). On the hack these create a strong) simple, symmetrical, geometric grid pattern. typically seen in m:lny lama and Buddha sculprures of rhis time (see rv-2). The row of double1 densely spaced, long) mulr.ila yered lotlls petals in the pedestal~also a style often used in 15[h- and early 16th-cenrury sculprurecontinues aro und the back.

II. Lamas and Spintu:11 Mcntors. 109

11-5

Lama Central Ti\xt Stcond half of thr 16th Wliuryrarl) 17th ctntury Glh copprr allo)·: ptdtsullO'it; ba~ pialt on thr hollow cast Image mISSing; contents 10'i1

12" X 10l{z° (30.5 x 26.5 em )

This lanla pcrft"ctl) l11uSlrJtes Ihe hallmark of Tibetan Buddhism. the mergmg of the enhghtened lama figure wllh the perfectly enlightened buddha icon. ThIS sense that Tibet Buddhists hal'e. that "there be buddhas 1II'mg among us, ~ IS reflected m their instiWlionalnatlon of buddha -lil'e emanation body~ (1'IIII11I1I11r11l1Jllllkuyu or III/kll) manifestations we know as "reincarnate lam:as." ThiS lama si ts III the full lotus poseure, dressed in the Tibetan I'crsion of Ihe formal Buddhist teaching robe. His left h:and rests palm up m medll:allon gesture, demonstratmg hiS nondcviaiion from enlightened samadhi concentrallon. hIS mdi-

) JO . C.atalogue

visible immt"rsion in the uhim:ate reality of unCft"ated. unconditional freedom. At the same time, his right h:and IS held up, palm forward, reassuring scnSIlII·e hemgs that everythmg is all nght. there IS nothmg to fear, his and all buddh:as' compassion IS WIth us constantly 10 prot~1 us from Ihe dangers and sufferings of the unenlightened life C)'de. He has the urna tuft of hair between his eyebrows. one of the thirty-two malor Signs of a buddha, and the elongated earlobes associated With Shakyamum Buddha, the historical buddha himself. Yet the tOP of his head is not raIsed in an ushlllSha dome. so ht" retams Ihe human. Tlbet;tn characteristics of a living teacher. The figure was cast separatt"ly from the pedestal (now 10SI), whIch IS unusu:al for:a sm:all im:age but common fo r large stalllcs, such as seen in 1-1, 1-4,1 ·9 and others. ThiS lam:a, possibly a Sakyapa. has a tall torso and strong limbs that IInpan an :aura of inner power. The right hanJ in IIbbllya mudra is large, with stiffly straIght fingers that seem to pronounce hiS (ompassioll:atc de termination to prott"ct belllgs with hIS have-no-fear gesture. The head IS propor-

{Ionatel y small. and the countenance is smlltng but introspcctive. Dr:aper)' adheres closely to the body with generally flat folds that. however, ha\'e a graceful curvature anJ Interesnng double layering of the hems, Delicate, almost Imperc{'p[ible chasing on [he edgc bands of thl.' \'est crossing the chest show half flor:al forms and a fine bordl.'r of Clrclellt"s. ThIS IS perhaps a reSIdue of the more luxunous chasing patterns used in the 15th - :and early 16th-centufY lama SI:at ues {JI-4J. Styles around thl.' lall.' 16th to 17th centu ry tenJ to ha\'e more emphasis on the folds of the drapery than on the detail of the chased patterns. The light dotting along the edges of the patched outer robe on both front and back, the clean sweep of the robe under t he r:aised TIgh t arm, the cluster of narrow, natural folds of the w:alstb:and , :and the angular flip of the hems at the shoulder level are all touches that enliven the otherwise tensely held figure. This kind of linear treatment suggests some relation to Chinese slyles and could indicate an eastern o r cemf:al Tibetan provenance around the second half of the 16th or early 17th century.

U-6a.b

Shalu Lama Rinchen Khyenrab Chokdrub Palzangpo Central Tiber GO,

1600

Gilt copper all oy, with lr31.:CS of pigmenrs; l);l.~C

plate missing; content s lost

l OW X 8W (26 .75 x 22.2) em)

This lama sculpture is of the great Shal l! monastery scholar a nd teacher, Rin chen Khyenrab Chokdrub Palzangpo (r;n chell mkhyell rab mchog grub dpal bzallg po) ('1436-97). according to the inscription that

pays him bomage. He ma y hnvc been the 18rh Abbot of that disrin guished monastic school, fam ed as the sca t of the greal Buron Rinchen Drub (1290-- 1364), an important reacher, author, and predecessor of Tsong Khapa (1357- L419). The sculp[Ure dares late r than 11-4 and probably a little later than 11-5, the latter also belonging to the changes occur ring around the lare " 6th to ea rl y 17th ce ntury. He makes the teaching gesture (dharmac hakra mudra ) as he holds two lolUs stalks, which 3re similarly portrayed as those in J[ ~4 , th ough here rhe attribures of vajra and bell still remain. His thick shoulders and upper arms, the short Ileck and tight, rotund head with ourward projecting ca rs lend panicular emphasis to the upper body, co ntrasting with th e mo re lyrical thru st of the drapery in the lower half. The bold impression of the head, wim irs small eyes and cheerfuH y smiling, dee p-cornered mouth, helps to crea te rhe lama's health y, strong appearance. His drapery bas some notable featu res. His outer robe has a nl()re natura l se nse of hea viness and fl ow of movement in the overlapping fold s across rhe to rso than is seen in 11-5. Rather fancy cu rved hems lie on th e smooth, slightl y convex surface of [he pedestal; rheir semici rcular edges with small, turning loops make an unusual accent thar shows an artistic flair. This manner of

trea tment of the robe and especially of the hems mterestingly occurs in figures of the rare, early 17th~century wall paintings in rhe Maitrcya Temple at Baming (Hohhor; ncar the bend of the Yell ow River). This was the cap ital of t he Mongo lian clan und er Altan Khan , who was converted to Buddhism by the Third Dalai Lama during the latter's visit to the Mongolian region in 1578. These wa ll paintings wete made in rhe nationa l temple by the IInpcnal famiJy nOt long after th at visit, and tbey contain GcJ ukpa imagery. such as the figure of Tsong Kh apa. Si milar elemems of Ihese wall paintings and of rhis lama sculpture also occur in la te 16th-century Ming 3rr of Chin a, possibly an indication of pervasive crossregional arrisric movemenrs among Ti bet, Mongolia, and Chi na around this rime (see M. Rhie's essay).

The side view of rhe lama IS very thick. The back I well fas hi oned, conti nu ing th e sense of solid form, massive head, floral chasing patterns in the borders of rhe robe, fine stitching dots in the patches, and the same semicircul ar looped hem folds thar appear in rhe from (1J ·6b). There is co nsidera bly more asymmerrica lity and natural ease to tbe representation of the drapery compared with rhe formaliry noted in 11-4. The relatively low pedestal has merely a plain rim ar the top, but a row of tiny beads at the bottom. Th is allows full attention to focus on th e broad, richl y modeled lotus petals rhat nearly fill the pedestal. These bei1uri~ fully fa shioned petals do not extend around the back, which has only th e row of beads ar bonom. The rest is len plai n except for an inscription identifying the lama, engraved across the upper tier.

me

H. L;1tuas and SplntLLnl Mentors . 113

11 -8

Marpa i:astcrn Tibcl or China 5&.:ond half of the 18th CenHJr}GIlt coppcr

3110Y;

baSt mlssmg

3" x 2"1" (7_5 x 6.25 cm !

11 ·7

Lama Ctntral Tibct [-th century Gil t copper allo) 4 ' , )( 3''1. (1 1 )( 8.89 em) This small lama has a charmmg presence. The lama sus 10 perfect balance, holdmg th e ~ mfinlte lafe~ elunr vase (tsebum ) 10 hIS left hand, which IS held flat and reiax('d m the medltallve pose, indicating that th(' natUre of r('allt y Itself IS filled with an Inexhausllhle life energ y. I lis fight hand is also relaxed, and the energ y of generosity seems to flow from It, as If he were lCllmg the ellxlr of natural realit y flow forth . I-liS beanng lS effortl ess, as If when balanced In nledliailon he becomes a transparent ves~cl of 11IrVaniC realllY, free from lime and agmg, sustamed by the bll~s VOid nature of uillmau' reality. 114 . C.ataloguc

Yet he is not aloof from beings who stili struggle With lime and ahenallon, and he shares with them the ehxlr of ImnlOrtahty. We cannol identify the lama, but we knoll' he is ponrayed hvmg. Sit ling on cushions, not on a lotus. The portrait character of thiS elegant statue is resonant With the Saky.1 Imeage portraits m the Pelchor ( hode at Gpntsc of the second quarter of the 15th Century. Though thiS Image IS later m date. It seems to carry some of the tradlllon of the earlIer Gyantse lamas (Von Schroeder [200 1[, [I, figs.103A, B, 104E). I-hs fight hand IS III the boon-grantmg (~'.Jrada ) mudra, unusual for a lama portrait. In hiS left hand he holds the long-life vase. The narrow. sloplllg shoul ders of the lama Impart a gentle appearance that hiS boYish face reinforces. Nevertheless, the pyramid shape of the whole scul pture, with the broad base formed by a pair of reerangul:1T cushions, as well JS the ,1mI'll' breadth of his l.IP Jnd hiS brge hands adds a senSe of sturdllless ;lnd weight.

~larpa ( 1012-99) here looks quite calm and peaceful, a hlt unusual conSidering 1115 strenuous biography. He was a great scholar, translator, and praetitiontr of the highest Intellectual and yogic teachtngs of 1'Y lahayana and Mantrayana, at the begmning of the '"second spread~ of Buddhism in libet. He made the difficult journey to India several times, spending years with the greale~1 ,Idepts and reachers of exoteric and esoteflC Buddhism. He brought back important teachings and praCl!Ce rraditions to libet. He was a larman, buildmg his own house and runnlllg hIS own farm. with the help of his Wife and tantTIc conson, Dagmema_ I-Ie had a number of great disciples, bUI by far the mostllnporrant was the incomparable ~illarepa ( 1040-1123 1, often said to be the first ordinary libetan to become a complete buddhl III a stngle lifetime. i\ lilarepa came to II. larpa;ls a reptnralll sorCerer and murderer, and Marpa Ireated hUll roughl)' for years, to burn awa)' the negative consequences of hts eVIl dt'eds. Finally teaching him, i\larpa made hlnl go InfO retreat for more years, in order {O achieve the most progress possible for a human bcmg. Through the fame and charisma of Milarepa, the Kagyu (M Personal Preccpt tradition'" l order was founded, becomllll:; one of the major orders of Tibetan Buddhism, /\.'iarpa's writings were influential In the studies ,Ind practices of many later masters of other orders. ThiS sculpture has been cast separately from Its base (now missing), as in 11 -5. e\'en though illS a very small image. It dates later than 11 -5 .11 -6, and 11-7, probably to the second half of the 18th celllury. Though small, II IS a fine example done with simplicn)' and some dartng accents of gouged, creasellke folds and thick, energetically curved hems. /\. larpa appears dignified and ageless, wllh an introspecTIve anenu\"cness to match hts Illl'dltJtlle geSlllre. His layperson's robe is lied wllh a sturdy cord tn a big bow; the chasmg of the borders of this robe and hiS Olllcr wmter slltmg cloak 1~ bold and he3\')' rJther than refined. Evcr)"thmg IS in JUSt proporUOtl wllh balanced and vaned details, It appe.HS slllliiar to some statues that are said to have come from Chengdu. Szechwan ( \'ll Is(/o/ll (lIId Compass/oil. Taiwan, 1998, No. 124 ). It may bc pOSSibly from eastern TIl>!'!.

U-9

Ninth Karmapa Lama Eastern Tibet, possibly

FIrst half of [he 17th ce.ntu ry Gilt copper alloy; pigments; cora l and turquoise inlay; sealed with copper base plare engraved with double vajra; contents within 7W X 5/1 (18.5 X 12.75 em )

The Karma Kagyu order is an important branch of the Kagyu order, which traces its traditions back to Shakyamuni Buddha, as do aU Tibetan Buddhist monastic orde rs. Its history as a disri nctive order begins with

the Indian great adept (mahasiddha) Tilopa (ca. 988-1069L who was a master of Unexcelled Yoga Tamra, especially the He vajra and Chakrasamvara mandalas. H is disciple Naropa (ca. 1016-' '00 ) had been a famous uni versity scholar at the great Buddh ist university of Nalanda, until he was prodded by a female dakini angel to move on from scholarship ro esoteric practice. Taking up the lifestyle of a taotrie adept, he became Til opa's most important disciple. He in turn taught many disciples, among them the Tibetan translator and yogin Marpa (1012-97), who established the special combination of exo~ teric and esoteric teachings that marked the Kagyu lineage. Marpa's most famo us disciple was the great yogin Milarepa {l052-1135}, whose teaching songs and miraculous exploits tllrned him into a major teacher and folk hew in Tibet, from then on until today. He is regarded as the first ordinary Tibetan (no t a special in carnation) to become a perfect buddha in his single lifetime, thus

proving the efficacy of the tantric methods of accelerati ng bodhisattvic CvohHion. Mila_repa 's most important disciple was Campapa (1079- 1153), who was a monk as well as a yogi n, and put the Kagyu order on a solidly monastic, educational foundation witham compromising the esote ri c yogic traditions that his four predecessors had refined so highly. One of Gampopa's ma jor disciples was Ousum Khyenpa 0 110-91 ). who became known as the first Karmapa. [n fact, when Ousurn Khyenpa was reborn, ten years after his death, as Karma Pakshi (J203-83), he became the first institutionally recognized reincarnate lama, or tulku (bu ddh a ema nation body). A letter had been left in his previous life describing in detail the circumstances of his rebirth, his parents' names, r.egion, and so on. Upon being taken ro hi s former disciples, he recognized them all and was soon able ro co ntinu e tcaching them from an early age. Like the Dalai Lamas later, the Karmapa Lamas 3re cons id ered to be emanations of the bodhisattva of universal cOlllpassion, AvaJokiteshvara, the special angel of Tibet. Certainl), all the Karmapas left important writings, great works of an, and healthy educational instirutions1 and they also mediated confl icts an d generally benefited the Tibetan people in Illany regions of the land. This image is likely to be of the nintb Karm apa, Wangchllk Dorje (1555-l6 03 ). He was born in Treshod, in the Kham area of eas tern Tibet, in a place exactly described by his prev ious incarnation) Mikyo Dorje ( 1507-54), in his prediction letter. His biography States that he could speak at birth, his first words being" I am the Karmapa!" Th en he sat up in meditation posture, which he

maintained for three days. He was able to walk around from hIS eighteenth day, and naturally this extraordinary behavior made him insrantly famous. He was enthro ned at Tsurphu monastery at the age of six, though he lived IllOSt of b-is life in an itineram camp monastery> the "Grear Camp of rhe Karmapa" (Karmay Garchell), which he moved aroun d Tiber in order to help people in irs man y differem regions. In th is sculpture portrait, he holds a £laming jewel in his left hand, amp a small vase of elix ir of immortality. It has an inset turquoise, as does his black hat, which has in addition a toral in the center of its doub1evaira ornament. His face. covered with cold gold, is mild and softly modeled, imparting a human naturalism and perhaps indicative of his young age. Hi s robes arc elegantly decorated on the borders with chased patterns of a running-vine motif, rosettes, and geometric designs. They are inrc restingly crcased with l11ulriple, quire abstract parallel folds that move in diagonal wavy dusters over both the torso and the legs. The hems with chased borders cascade diagonally over his left leg and draw the eye to the unusually lIvely series of wavy hems tbar run with a jaunry rhythm asymmetrically over the edge of the pedestal. This lyrical variation adds another area of interest to th c sculpture, as does the row of sculpturesque, large lotus petals in the circular pedestal. Tbe overall form of the pedestal is similar to those seen in large sculptures of the 17th and 18th cen turi es, but with morc naruralisri c modeling and careful detailing, suggesting an earlier dating, perhaps around the first half of the [7th century, before a more formalized process began to stiffen the renderings.

I!. Lamas and Spiritual Memors· 117

11- 10

Taglungpa Lama Jigten \Vangchuk Central Tibet 16th ctmur)' Gilt COppeT Jllo)" mlaid S,h"tT, tracrs of p'grn~11!S; haS<' open "'lIh a frw IIrms still lammed 11110 the hCJd 9" X 6'h" (13 X 16.5 em )

An inscription runs along the (Op and on the from of the lotus pedest,11 in a man, ner similar to inscriptions on rhe so·called Yongle bronzes of the 1403-14 ~riod. The inscriprion identifies this Taglung Kag)'u lama (recognizable by Ihe distinC!ive hat, which in this case is completely plam) as Jigten W:a ngchuk ("jIg rlel1 db//1/g p/iyugs, 1454-1531). T ht, Kagyu tradition, from the tlinc of Dagpo Lhajc), Campopa (1079-1153 ), had very dose tics With the K:adam tradition. since Campopa was educatcd in a Kadamp:a school before hl' became the yogic diSCiple of the incomparable Milarepa ( I 051-1135). The Taglung K:ag)'u was a suborder of the Kagyu tradition that was panicubrly close ro the Ka dam, ~rhaps becausc their hcad monaStcry in Taglung was quite close to the main Kadam seat, Rateng monaster)" or because of the particular hlstor)' of the Taglung order founder, Taglung Thangpa Chen po (s/lIg /ul1g Ilulllg (Ji/ c/}el1 po, 1142- 1210). In what remains of the Tag· lung monaster), roday, the IConic presence of AllSha (982-1054) is surprisingly great, almost that of the Kagyu founders, Naropa. l\!3rpa. Milarepa, and Campopa. The figure in this statue manifests arc, markable sense of clarity and balance. The lama holds his hands In the teaching gesture, and his slightly downw~rd·glanclllg expres· sion indicates a focused concentration on what he iscommunicaring. Al the same time. hiS legs crossed yogically in a ~rfect 100us pose and the uprightness of his torso IIldicate

11 8 • (alalog ue

a yogic, colltempl3tive equilibrium. He thus strikingly represents a perfect combination of intellectual precision and contempl3til'e stability, The sculpture has an inspiring aura that summons one to the path, JUSt as thc lama himself must have done. The biography (KhetSun Zangpo, IX, pp. 414 H. ) offers a vivid pICture of this accom· plished lama, who, it hints, w:as the reincarna' tion of the great Indian siddha Shavaripa. Hc gOi his name, which trJnslates Lokeshl'ara, the name of the bodhisaul'a of compassion, from a deity who ap~ared to his mother in a dream. He was a precocious slUdem, con· sidered a reincarnation, and enthroned at a young agc at the Taglung monastery, where he soon was considered to be a formidable vesst·1 of all the profound teachings of his order and honored ,IS a second buddha, :1 hhikshu l'iI/rad"",". During his long career, he did exten$I\'e Dharma work, renovating drreriorated temples and monasteries, teachmg man)' distinguished disciples, having rhe Kangyur and Tengyur written III gold letters, collecting works of Kagyu masters. commis' sioning man)' icons (most nOiably a life·size gih·silvt'f statut' of Hel'ajra). and preserl'lIlg rare monastic charters and biographies of masters. He also saved many animals from slaughter, protocting wild animals and fish from hullte rs and fishermen and preserving the wildernesses. He had many wooden and iron bridges conStructed for pilgrims and travelers. He sen'ed on his throne from the age of nine 10 sixty·two. His Holiness the Eighth Karmapa Mikyo Doric was born when this lama was fifty· four years of age. In that lama's biography is a most extraordinary story, here translated from Khetsun Zangpo's account: "I had Olller, innt'r, and secret parents. In the realm of the beatific body, as a fiRtH letlCr essence of all buddhas' Wisdom, r emered the mouth of my socret father, the Dh~rma Master Jigten Wangchuk, arisen on the form of Chakra· sanwara Buddha, and then emert'd the womb of my secret mother, Vajra),ogini Adron; these tWO being tenth·stage bodhisauvas. As if neating an illusion, 1 adopted the form of a

fierce ch,lracter, to be born as a Magic Heruka. Next, I entered the mOlllh of Illy inner father, Zija Drdpa Jampa Shenyen (gZi bra bralpa br,lI/ls pa bshes gll)'el/), and fell into the womb of m)' inner mother, LUl110 Ngar Sddron (kLIIIIIO IIgar gsal sgroll). By that rclativity, my speech was slightly uncomfortable and my brothers and sisters, slightly uncle3f in intelligence, Those parents were Tan rric ap· plication path (rogins). Thus, in the womb of these secret and inner (parents), I receil'ed all inner Vairayana initiarions, and with m)' emanation body I was born from the womb of my inner mother and through (the mouth of) my oUlrr father, Ajam, entered the womb of my outer mother, Domza Lama Drom; these tWO !x'ing Tamric prepa ration path rogins . ~ Afler hc was born of those outer parents, Jigten Wangchuk was consulted to make the anal)'sis and verification of lhe Karmapa incarnation, which was accepted without question, Later, when this lama visited the Karmapa al Riboche, he was greatly honored, and the Karmapa received teachings from him like a flowing river. He passed on at sl'venty·eight, in 1532. TIl<' lama is hcre quite YOllthful in appear· ancc and closely resembles another inscribed 16th·century portrait starue (Portraits of ,he Aiaslers, No. 45 ). Both are also shown in the teaching (dllllrmilcilllkra) gesture, and both have similar pedestals with rwo rows o f very refined beading. The chased designs on the hems of both are extremely light, loose, and delicate. Howel'cr, the fold patterns of the robe, minimal and qui te widel)' spaced in ooth, in the Kandell image hal'e a hint of naruralistic sofmess. Some incised dors indicate tht' out· lines of the patches of the main robe in both cases, The edges o f the outer robe of the Kan· dell example bck thc curves seen in latcr or earlier figures, but there is somc sill'er inlay on the pearl-edged bands around the edge of lht' outer robe, There is some damage to the top of the hat, exposing old repair and the contems that still fill the head cal'it)'. A double row of lotus petals surrounds the whole ~destal, and the delicate floral chasing that appears on the lama's robe is also presem on the back.

1I-11• • b

which he rhen 11:1l11cd Dolm31a r'T.1ra pass" ).

Lama Gyalwa Gotsangpa

Th~ power of the 1ll0untall1 Jnd Irs mandala IS so mrCll'ie and (:Ilcrglling to contemplarwe

Cement Tibet Second hAlf flf the Iblh

II)

early I~[h

cUHur}'

Gilt copper allo)', repoussc. made of separate sheets nvctt'd \()~cther .36~

X 26" (9 1.5 X 66 em)

The lama is possibly the Dnlkp:1 Kagyu-order lama Gy,lw, C"tsangp' (1 189- 1258), based on hi s phy~ica! resemblance. n imporrant lama ot that orck:r, he is es pecially famolls

for having "upened up" rhe Mount Kailash pilgrima ge ci reu Ill::! 111 bu la rion pa rh. Tbe Kagyu-order adept!» such as Marpa dnd Mila rrpa, were c!>pcciall)' fond of the Mmher Tantra pracrices of the Unexcelled Yoga Tantras, such

3S

Chakr:tsamvara and Heva)ra.

Mount Kaila"ih IS considered an c!ipedally powerful .;.ue of the Chakrasamvaraarchetype buddha, his mandala universe comldercd to be always present there. For the H indu~, uf cour.;f'. rhe mountain is sacred to Sbiv3 and Uma. and the Chakrasamvara mal e-female archi:rypc deiry is a kind of Buddhist form of Shivn ;:lnd Ullla. Milarepa, who founded 111C order several generations before Gotsangpn, spen t a grcat deal of rime meditari ng ~t the mounta in, and the circu marnbui:t rMY parh has a number of sites sacred to him. He is believed ro have beaten a Bon sh:unan in a contest of magic and so claimed the mountain as a special site for Buddhist pilgrimagc, rhe scar down rhe southern face of the mountain ca used b)' the sham::m 's drum bouncing down when the shaman lost rhe race to the peak. There is another cave where Milarepa raised the ceiling b)' pushlllg up the rock With his head, leaving an Imprinr of IllS skull dome. When a pil grim fits her head imo it with faith. she need never agai n to fear being reborn in the lower rea lms. BUI the e ll virOllme m of rhe mountain is very harsh and forb idd ing, so it wasn't until Go;sang pn's rime rhat It became access ible to ordinary pilgrims. It issaid thar Gorsangpa arrived at the foor of MOlint Kailash for the first rime in the evening, and saw in the dusk some pebbles marked wirh manrric liy ll ab les, which he eagerly cQllectl!d. At dawn he well[ our of hiS little tcnt to collect more pebbles and saw many more, sO he picked them up too. Finally, he !)otood up, laughing, and threw them all back, as he realizcd tharevery single pebble was marked wilh mantric syllables! Lacer, the noble Tara appeared [Q him in rhe form of a pack of while wolves and led him around the clrcumal11bularory palh. At the top of the high paim on [h~ norrh sid e of the mountain, the wolves disappeared by dissolving into a giant bo uld er at the top of the pass,

pranicc. G{)[!>angpa spent a long time there and Jchlcved man)' msighb. Ht: IS here repre:.emed as an impressively large figure, Jnd sir, on a double-cu'ihiooed sear covered hy a rug. Wilh IllS right hand he makes Ih(' Icachmg gesture (v irarka mudra ). lie wears tl large flaring har, (otally gilded and beaurifully chJi>ed on all Sid es with an overall nora ! parrcrn of tht' kind often seell III carly ISth-ce ntury i>culptu res ( Wisdolllll/'ld CUlllpassifJ/l, 199 1, No. 85, and Tniwan, 191)8. No. 101 ). Tht: cenrral panel i3 edged widl ~mall tllrllllO lse in~e[s. and in jt~ ceme r i~ a large circular emblem studded with brilliant turquoISes. Hi.; body is tall and large with a promlllCl1t, ponty midsecruJll. TillS pr portioning partICularly resembleli that of some scu lptures such as the Rinchtn L.:lI1gpo of the White Temple ar Tsaparang. ot ca . .;econd quaner of the

16th centur) (Govlnd, \ 19791. II . p. 18 11. His long fJcr dominates '''Ith It~ generollsly ample femures and plea!lJnt expression. The robes seem vcr)' thlll; the)· fit tightly ro the form and have only a few widc pleats. The bardtr cros~mg 1115 lorso h3~ it lYrically S~ shaped fold. Here anu there . .ome delicate ch:t~ing appear .. on the bord('r~ and bands. A moderately Wide btlr holds th e pleated 1Il1derrobe at 1111, high wa to;dinc. Though there is -.ome c rlllcc(ion [0 15th-century sryles, thl~ impressive image ii> probably later in tbe 16th or 17th century. Its large size puts it IntO rhe category of the large rem pIe image ... so it i.. !.omewh:.u differem from rhe small ca~t Images. The pcdc!'lal, composed of tWO slightly saggrng cushions, ie; a linle .!oharp and rigid m it~ contours, but on rhe sides of the covering rug thert· IS a tine geomerric panern of !)omall squarc~, C'~H:h COI1rainmg a Single rosctte. It l~ an nnprcssively dlgmfied and srunnmg sculprure, probabl} from the ccnrral regions. of Tibet.

II. Lam:'!:) and t;piritllal l\ \cntor, . 121

11-12

Tsong Khapa on Lion Throne

First half of the 18th cemury Gil! copper allo)' 10· X S- (25.5 X 12.75 em )

Lama Tsong Khapa (1357-1419). his real name being Lobsang Drakpa. was 3 child prodigy born in northe3stlibet. at the site where the Kumbum monastic university now stands. This university was bUilt around the m3gical tree th3t reportedly grew from the afterbirth buried outside his parents' house, with the Manjushri mantra 0.\1 A RA I'A TSA NA [)H1H incised. syllable by syllable, in its bark and leaves. He learned to re3d wi thout instruction at less than three years of agt·, was ordained a novice monk at six, traveled to centrallibet for advanced studies in his teens. and by his mid-twenties was recognized as a major teacher of all branches of Indo·Ti betan scholarship, having studied wuh more than 55 of the most eminent teachers of the da),. In his mid·thirties, he was reportedly directed by \ Ianjush ri himself, whom he had learned ro sec and hear dircrtly in comemp1:ltive ses· Slons. 10 wi thdraw from academic life and del'ote himself to solit3ry contemplation on the deeper issues he had studied. After a live·year retreat at a hermi t3ge in the Olkha valley wllh eight close companIons. he IS s:lId to have 3chleved perfect en· lightenment at the age of forty-one. in [398. He subsequently taught large assemblies of disciples from all orders of Tibetan Bud· dhism for twemy-one rears. accomplishing what arc called his four main deeds: renova ting the ancient ,\ hitreya temple at Dzingji. during 3 season in which celestial visions

122 . Cal3logue

of buddhas and bodhisattvas were seen by masses of people all Over Tibet; holding a conference of all major te3chers of the day to rel'iew and renew the monastic discipline of the Vinaya to intensify the ethical discipline of monks and nuns; renovating the temples of the Lhasa area and inaugurating the n3' tiona I "Creat I)raver New Year Festival~ at the Jokhang cath~dral, resuiting el'entually in the founding of the three great monastic universitit's nearh)" Canden, Drepung, and Sera; and commissioning elaborated architecwral mandalas of t hr major tantric archetype buddhas, Thirty·two·deity Mys· t ic Community Buddha, Tlllfteen·dcit)' Manjushri Death-Exterminator Buddha, and Sixty·two·deity Superhliss·Machine Buddha. Tsang Khapa's seventeen volumes of collCl:ted works arc not counted as main deeds but the)' prol'idrd the intellectual and contemplatil'e b3Sis of a full-scale spiritU:11, scientific. and social renaissance that swept Tibet, led by the reincarnation line of the Dala i Lamas, the first of whom was his personal disciple, Cyalwa Gendun Drubpa

( 1392-1474). Tsong Khapa is sometimes compared to M artin Luther. due to his ethical emphasis on monastic strictness. setting 3 Strong prece· dent for monks and nuns to maimain and intensify their temperance, celibacy, povt'ny, humility, and compassion. But he could more appro priately be compa red to a Leonardo da Vinci, in his intellCl:tual achievement of a synthesis of all the major strands of Bud· dhist teaching and pr3ctice. completing the extraordina r)' work of his Tibetan prede. cessors of the previous several centuries in the transla tion, personal assimila tion, and organization and refined implementation of the vast treasury of knowledge and wisdom received from the great millennial universi· ties of Buddhist India .

Despite its small size. this sculpture o f Tsong Khapa is a complete ensemble with base, mandorl a, and image on a lotus pedestaL Like 11·13, it portra),s Tsong Khapa wi thout a pandi t's ha t and may relate to a particular form of the master (Lipton and Ragnubs. Treasures of Tibetall Art, No. 24). Interestingl)" he holds a monk's bowl in his left hand, qui{(' unusual for Tsong Khapa, suggesti ng he might possibly be a later Gclukpa lanta associated with Manjush ri, though the portrait like (Tib. IIg
lI-l3

1I- 14

Tsong I
Tsong I
Central Tibet

China: Tibcto·Chlncse

)c.."'Cond half of the 17th century to firM half

Second half of the 1Nrh 10 fim half 01 the 19th ccmuf}

or the 18th cenrur)' Gill copper repousse :ln d some cast parts: retains platt· engraved with double vajril; conrcnrs inside

Gi lt hromc; uri~IIl:l 1 polych rome hase with double vaira; b:1~c previollsly opened ,1Ild rescaled: con rent-. I1llller

21' X IS'(S3.2SX3Scm)

4 1,4 X 3" (10.75 X 8.25 em )

In this work, the master is shown withom a pandit's hat, a bit more iolly·looking, wah a slight smile. This is "iaid (0 be a special type of image of Tsong Khapa and a kmd known in some day Images (bac ma y have come from 3 mold made during Tsang Khapa's lifeti me (Lipton and Rngnuh.!l, Treasures of Tibelml Art. No. 24), known as "Just like me" im!1ges (llga 'dm mal. HIS long fingers make a reaching gesrure, and he smiles easily as he looks rowards his viewers with his yell ow eyes, still bc:tring fresh pigment. In thi s and th e previous image, we see TsongKhapa in all hi ~ individuality, still rhe "Big-nosed Amelo," as he (being a No rth eaS terner from rh e Amdo area of Ti bet, where Tibetan, Mongol, and Turkic peoples had long intermmgled ) was somewhardisrespecrfully known by some who carne to see him, to debate and ro discredit, who then stayed ro become his fervent disciples. The very elaborate low!> stems, richly detailed wi[h leaves and £lov"'ers, hold his attrihmes of rhe f1amlllg swo rd and wisdom teXl" . His robes are formed with fluid , rounded folds of rhc Ch mese sryle and are without chased designs. The fo lds clusrer closely rogether in parallel (ormalion Over th e torso and all the crossed legs. The lotus pedestal has long, elegant, complex, upturned peta ls, and <1 fine tine of beading near the tOp rim of rh e pod on which Tsong Khapa sits. The enti re Statue is brilliantly gilded, and th ere is cold gold on the face and neck. The pigmcnrc; on rhe hair and features of the face are strong. possibly refreshed. In back the image has so me simplified folds, but the pedesra l is completely plain. Red painr appears on rhe backs of rhe [WO lotus support'). The complexit}' of rhe fold arrangemenrs and (he ornate) wide. dense, lacy patterns of the lotuses supporting the artribures wou ld indicate probably a Ceorral TIbet make\ possibl>' around the late 17th or early 18th ccmury.

This image is si mil ar to one known to have come from Chengdll 10 Sich uan province of western Chinn (Wisdom and CompassIOn, Taiwan , 1998, No. 124 ). It is probably Chinese, posiiibly from Beijing or northwest Chma. of the 18th or 19[h century. -nle figure

all onginal

plgmelltSj

billll'Se:1lcd with copper

ff

is qUi le massn'c. {hough small 111 ')l7C, With a long face. He weare; J rail panda's hat, and he is shown 111 rhe rCdchll1g (dharmachakra) mudra. The twO lotus siems wi th flowers holding rhe sword and book :ue a prominem parr of [hjs sta rue and crea re a lU XU ri OUS and decorari vc, almosr wlI1glikc dimcnc;ion. The pedeslal has a tight arrangcmen( of twO rows of rel atively na t but la ye red toru s perals\ a row of beading at the rop, .1Ile! a roun ded botlOm edge. The drapery ha ~ t.'hasing and the folds are S0ll1CWh3t CO:1rsc, bur they have a lot of overlappins :lI1d a .,olidlry that lends power and m3 <;S to thc small figure. The back of rhe Image is quire plainj rhe pedesral in back has simple beading all around lhe tOP and a plain. scroll ,arrouche design in the center, a feature frequenrly secn in Chi nese images of thiS time.

11.

L:lllla~

and SplrlIu a[ Men tors · 125

11- 15

Tsang Khapa Cemrallibet. Lhasl, inscribed as a gift from Ganden College for 3. new room m the Norblll!llgka. summer p.lbee of the ThlTleelllh Dalal Lama Daled 1834 Applique IIMng Ch!llese (Qlng) and RII~sian brocades, leather. p<'aris, lnd couching Ihread~ (horsehair wrapred!ll silk 3ud gold foil ); wHh ongmal sdk dllslco\'crs. ribbons. ~nd slh'er'gllt caps on dowel a"erall, 61 " X 42" (155 X 106.5 em]; pamllng 32" x 2.3 !1l." (81.25 x 59.75 em ) This is a verr fine, quite perfect applique langka of Tsong Khapa. He sits crosslegged in contempla!ive pose, his hands held together at his heart in the teaching gesturc. holding the stems of thl'" usual two lotuses tha t suppOrt till'" sword of wisdom

116 ' Catalogue

over his right shoulder and a volume of the Trullscelldell( W//S(/olI! SlIlru over his left shoulder-these symbols idl'"ntii}'ing him as an emanation of thc bodhisattva r\'lanlushri. His yellow pandit's hal identifies him as a fully aUlhoritative sage, as it derives from the abbot's hat of thc Nalanda monastic univcrsity in anciem India. T he Image is unusually rich in floral patterns, knding it a festive. celebrator)' air. It has an inscriprion in red leiters on a yellow silk cartollche juSt below the innl'"r bordl'"TS on the front, which dates the appliquc to 1834 and states that it was made by Gandt'n Collt'gt' and offered for a new room in the Norbulingka summer palace. The brocades used in the applique are of high quality, and the execution of tht' applique is skillful. Tht' combination of colors is subtle and varied without being too bold. Pale blue and many shades of yellow, grt't'n, pink, peach, lavender, and others reveal a keen sensitivity 10 color nuance. The Imagt' is well formed, the drapery vigorous, tht' floral

forms delica rcly fashioned, rhe landscape prcS('ntt'd as a contrast between left and righ t sides. with a few dark lOuches hel ping to create a s),m01errical grid that stabilizes th e whole composit ion . A golden ri tual table in front of the lama is filled wi th nead)' p laced ritual implements and symbolic obiecrs. Unusually, at tht' very lOp of the applique in rht' tWO corners are a dark-green Allloghasiddhi (upper left corner) and an Aks hob hya Buddha (uppe r right corner)_ Tsang Khapa's tantric name was Karmavajra, identifying hllll with Allloghasiddhi's all-accomplis hing wisdom clan, and all grt'ar adepts of the Unexcelled Yoga T antras arc identified with Akshobhya Buddh3 and his ultima rt' -real iry perfection clan. Some golden-thread tcxrilt's lend a sparkle here and there. The whole appliquc is framed in fine brocades whost' red and gold are still bright. The outer mount contains strikingly bold patterns, including twO 13rge and magnificent phornix birds. Orhers from thl'" same set mar be in the Zimmerman collection.

II. Lama) .md Splfl[u:11 1\ \entor!. · 127

11-16

Twelfth Dalai Lama,

li·inlay Gyatso Chlnfl or ;vhmgoJia

Mid- 19th cent ury Cdr copper alloy; onginal plglll~J1tS:
... ~ x

5~

within

(17.75 ;11; 12. -" em )

This image IS on(:' of ;1 st:: t of sImues of th e Gelukpa hierarchs, this ont probably repcf::"enring rhe Twdfrb Dalai Lama, Trin hl}' Gyarso 11857-751. Others of the set are in the phow accompan yi ng the mtroduction to Shrine 11, above. The Twelfth Dalal Lal11:1 li ved only a .. hort rim!:', as was in va riabl y th e ca'le dUring rhe 19th century with th t' Ninth through Twelfth

Dalai Lamas. The Manchu Amb,lnsl ambassado rs from rhe Manchu co urt srationed III Lhasa, often conspired wi th the ;IlI-roocorruptible lama regems ro prevcnr a.ny par-

ticular Dalai Lama fr m growing (0 mnruriry :lI1d assuming the fully enJjghtcned majesry. insight, ski ll, and authoriry of which the lineage bad proven capable. Tile l'vlanchu court,

by rhen growing mort> an d more \\'e~k and cor rupt, feared a hili-grown Dalal Lama, who might unj£y the Tiberans and ~ l ongoli3 ns t Q berter defend their culture nnd cconom}' againsr the predarions of the imperial 3genrs in lnm.'!' Asia. This suppression of th e Dala i Lama governing in!:tdtution was broken lw the Great Th in ;cnth Dalai Lama ( 1876- 1933), whose regent.. rema ined free from rhe in fluence of rh e Ambans and enabl ed hln) to assume power WI th out the consultati on of the Manchu cQun. He foi led an assassi nati on plar early I11li(e. jusr before he reac hed maturity; he complet ed his studIes in phill~sop h y and contemplarive comrol; and he began ro rake up his responsibility a~ a Dab l Lama to protect Tihet and its Buddlwn culture. Ht' also made an cfforr to understanJ Ih~ cha nging world during the last full flowering of Europe3n, M~n c hurjan, Russian, Japa nese, and Ottoman imrerial ism. Through hi s tutor and friend, the Buryar Mongo l Lama Agvan Doriieff I IS56- 19381, he engaged in a susramed dipiomanc di~­ iogtle and concluded J rreaty of protection in 1 OJ with Tsar Nicholas of Russia. adly for Tibel. this [reary wa~ n OI implemen ted due to the British invasion of 1904. Fleeing rh e British, he visi red IVlongolia and

China, where he mer rh e IvlongoiJall lama ru ler, KhalkhaJetsun Dampa; Ihe la3t too·lnnchurinn emp ress and emperors; Rus'iiall , J3pane:;e. :1I1d Eu ropea n offlcials: and even so me Americans. He evemua lly rerurncd ro Tiber bur ar once had to flee (rom Man chu and Chinese aggression imo the anm of rhe British in Ind ia. He spent ;] few )'i.'ars rhere under Brtlish prorectiol1, returning to Tiber to prochllm hili independence on the fall of the Manchu dyna sty 111 19 11 - 12. and rhls was remporarily recoglllzed h), the British and M on~oliao govern ments. He li ved on in I hrl sa prt!sidiug over the fuJ I freedom of hi s peuple until 1~3 3 . The sta tue of rh£' Twelfth is gilded with the bnllianr gokl typical of Qing hine..,e production. The pigmems on the fa{'c are trel)h and Imparr a sra rkl y strong lmpr sion ro rhe. hean -shaped face wirn irs largt' open c)·es. Stl ong black eyebrows, and plea:,anr exprc!!sion. He ho lds rhe vajra :lnd hell, hOth cast separately. His thick robe~ ha ve airy brocade partern s, lighrl ychased on rht· borJerson both front and back. The twO cushions 3re chased with pancrns of gems, and rhe covering rug has get.ln1emc designs-a ll cover the from and b3Ck c)f rhb small but finel y wrought image of the young Twelfth, of whom tim small depicTion is quite a rare exa mple.

H. Lamas and Spmtual MentOrs · l29

U- 17

Third or Sixth Panchen Lama, Lobsang Pel den Yeshe clltrallibel (Shigat5C)

Late IS[h to early I ~hh century Tangka, minera l pIgments and gold on sized colton; Chinese (Qing) brocade mounrs, silk dustcover, gilt-iron rod C.lpS Overall: 48" X 34* ( 122 X ~6.5 r;:m ); painflng: 24" X I (i)1 x 4 .25 em)

r

Lo bsang Pelden Yeshe ( 1738-80) is coumed the Third Panchrll Lama when Lobsa ng Cha kyi Gya lrsen is counted the First, or the Six th when the latte r is cO ll nted the Fourth. The Great Fifth Dalai Lama (J 6J 7-82) gave tbe title "Panchen Rinpoche" ro his reache r a nd the prorecror of his yomh. Lobsang Chokyi Gyalrsen (1570-16621, and endowed his incarnation lineage with the Tashi Lhunpo monastery in Shigarse buill b)' the First Dalai Lama (139 1- 1484) in 1447. At rhe same time, the Great Fifth also recognized three distinguished lamas a~ the Panchen Rinpochc's immediate predccesso rs, retroactively nami ng them (he First, Second, and Third Panchen Rinpoches, and the incarnation line was also traced all [he way back and up to the Buddh a Anmabha ohhe Western bud dhCl paradise. Sukhava ti. T he mythic j

norion set forth at rhis ti me was tha r, since rhe Da lai Lama was an incarnnrion of the divme bodhisartv3 Avalokire')hvara, whose celestial reacher was rhe Buddha Amirabha~ rhe Fifth's primary rcacher, Lobsang Chokyi Gyalrsen, mllst be an incarnare manifestation of that hl1ddha. In rhis [a ngka tbe Panchen La ma is presented in rhe idealized image of a wise teacher, the intellectual gellllls thar he was proven to be by [be vol uminous nnd incisive written corpus he left behind, by his holding a lorus over his rigbr shoulder, which supports [he book and sword that idenrifies him with Manjushri, the bodhisattva of rranscendent wisdom. He holds 11 mendicanr's bowl in his medi tative left han d, wilhin whicb srands a 3111<111 stupa, possibly identifyi ng him with the buddha-in·waiting Mameya. whose gigantic statue ar Tashi Lhunpo was famous throughour Tibet and whose aura of standing for a positive future connOied the progressive artitude of the Gclukpa-order leadership th.roughour the 18th ceotllry. His whire body and lightly voluminous gol den, orange, and red rohes separa te bim from the moreearrhy colors of the surroundIng landscape, while rhe throne creates an inre rmedia ry space and color transition. The landscape and even the free of flowers behind the lama offe r somerhing of an un· usual rendering, unlike [he traditional New Menri or Karma Gadri sryle!!:. The dark tOnes of g.reen and blue throughom rhe painring in

themselves create a somewhar :,ubdued and gloomy mood. But this is brightened by the snowy peaks and enlivened by rhe spiraling dark cloud;c;. The corners are occupied by other figures: 3 four-armed, red Manillshri in rhe upper left. and a Chaknlsamvara fathe r-l11mhcr above right. Below in the left corner appea rs a rare srand ing form of rhe nerct! hri Devi, hold ing a mi rror rhar stands for her omcuiar fUl1ction at Tashi Lhunpo) standing on a supine figure of a demon; and in the righr corner the fierce Begtse, a red, horse-mounted guardian deny. Flecks of orange and white give some lipl.1rkle TO the gray, smok)· au ras of rhe latler rwo. In rhe lowe r cenrer is a charmmg sce ne thar links rhe style of this mngka ro the 19th century. Three lamas and twO artendants kneel facing the Panchen Lama. They are backed up against a dark green pyramid mounrain with a lake and rwo fanca3ric dark-blue rocks with dark-blue veins. ThiS lirrle Scene I~ totaJ ly OU f of scale. and realistic perspective with rhe larger scene, bur it exist3 rhe re as though wi thout any probkms. This easy juxrapositioning of the real with t-he iurreal ls rhe delight of 19th-cenrury Ji beran palming) and this tangka shows qui re a refined and probably- early exampl" of this (cndency. It presents a beau ti ful and unusua l rendering diHe rcm from rhe srandard sryle. lti') in pristine condition wlrh very fine Qing brocade mounting.

!1. L:lmas and Splritua! MCl1lors · IJ 1

1\- 18

Lama (possibly Jangkya Roi",ay Dorje) ~longol •.1

IpTobahh Dolonnorl

'l«ond h.llf of 18th or carl} 19th (tnlllf'. (op~r rcpolls>e.' Jo.ned hl Ulcrl..pp.ng hc.ld .md arms, separa[d)-ca.t; milch (lflgm.,1 p.llnt rem.lln,; dcuch,lhlc kh3f\'.lI1gJ ~[.I ff .ll1d UowI:rllll,: rlJII! wllh 11.11[. "II'cr, ,lI1d p'glllent'; h~-.e SCJll-d wnh wurnkn pl.ique [' ..,med wah.1 duuble 1,IITJ; urll,:mal content,

(,lIt

10· x 12

"

UO.-' x JI.-Scm)

ThIS charmmg lama is prcSt'mcd m hl~ l'O};I': aSJX"ct as an Jdep[ of Ihc Ch.lkra',IIll\,ua (S uperhhs) ~\achine ) ~Iothcr Tantra, as slgll1ned b) thl' s\.Inding khall,lng,l suff Jt · !Jched 10 his Icft ~houlder. and po:rhap, Ihe fC11l1ll1llc (onnOlJlion of Ihc cI,lboralc flor,ll .lTr,l11gl'ml'nt held III hl~ righl hand. If II IS Rolw,l), Dorll' (1717-86), Itl5 an Idl'all/,~'d forlll. 1101 dcpicnng til<" pronunent facIJI lump Ih.lI usually IdcllIlfies hiS s.ulp!Ure~. (O[hcrWl!o{'. II mighl be onc of Ihe 1'.ll1chcn Lamas.) The lar!,lc khall-anga sl.Indltlj.: next 10 Ius Icft .Hm sigmfies that he lery wdl could be Rolwa} DOTje. SIIKe II me.ln, Ihal

the lama is an adl'pt of du' Un<:;\:wl!t·d Yoga of [he Ch:lkr.l ~anl\ar,1 Tantra. The Jangk),;\ HUlUklll. Rolwa}' DOT]e, lI'a~ ilroughl 10 lkllltlj.: hI the Yongsheng ;\iJnchu emperor ( 16""'S-I-35 ) 111 the earl)' 18th century. SIllC(' he had bo:en the billa guru of Ihe prellOU) "Jng>:1 empl'ror ( 1654-1721) and hiS 11Icarn.1II0n 111lc.lge was hlghl) respe'Cled h)' th(' people of Ihal art'a of ~ \on goha now Illeorpor ,lied 11110 China as "llIner~ ;\\ongolia. I Ie lI'a, broughl lip b)' billa IlIIors. but al~(l.lIIt·nd{'(llhe palace school for Imperial pflnee). be(om11lg a schoolmate .11Id fmnd of Prillce Hong.hl, who laler becJme Ihl' Qlanlong t.'mperor. ThiS enablt'd hlllllO accomplish a greal deal for Tiberan Buddhl~1 lnSIIIUllons III China, Mongolia. and Til~t. lie lias a smdent of the $el'cmh Dabl Lama and a leaeht'r of Ihe Fighlh. He lias an unponant lme;tge holder 111 st'l"Cral.ldepl rradluons of horh Father and MOIher Tamras. The face of Ih,s 11I1:1j.:C I~ d'srlllcllle for liS dralV11 hrow~ 1I11IMr\lng ,111 11I1ense COil' centr:lIiOIl. I l,s eye, .He Wide opt'n and the mouth seems 10 smilt'. Th t' unagt I~ gilded, and Ihere IS cold ~old 011 tht' fact and neck. Old paim remalllson Ihe bcc and h31T. Parts of Ihe body 3Te casl ~epar.llc1l (the hands and arms ). The draper) COICf) the form wilh

unUMI,llly ,h,lfp folds. '111t wide, slC{'k bor!ler hand~ of Ihe oilier rube contrast lI'ilh the n,urow .:rC;hC) clmlered over the IOr50 and the arms. and ,Iround Ihe legs. Some lmcaf elements, )lIch as Iht· folds on the mner 1'1'51 and the )I rallj.:e )cnllclTclIbr loops ncar Ihe knee-s, ,H~' Wilham reiarlOn to other lilieS. Thl) resulr, 111 a choppy' IlIIe;H effecl thai IS dlfferent from the mort' usual Hylcs. IntereSlinj.:l), thiS klild of IlIle.lr treatment can be :.('I'n III a ,I.1IUC of ]{olwa}' DO'le from the 111Ipcn;11 Qut!; collecllon dallllg C:l. nlld- 10 b le 1Sth century (set' Khie e)~ay, Fig. 38). The back ha'> three (uTI'cd, horizonlally grool'ed crea)es. and Ihe ol"erlap IS relatll'cly l"eTlIl'al wllh J few cUTI'es III the hems, qUill' sl1mbr 10 [he back trealllleill seel1 III I- I and 1-4, bUlIllOH' 51111plifil'd. The kh.I\IJng.1 of siller and gilt copper and the flor,11 br.lII(h With curllllg leall's ;lIld pll\k -('olorcd blossoms are posslbl)' 1.1II:r .lddI1IQns. (The b.lCk of the- ilranrh I' palllled n::d .wd Ihe sIems are green. :I ~ commonl)· ~('en III ~ l ongoh;1J1 sculpt ures.) The pedeM;I) lI'\lh ,I double row of lolU~ p~'lals IS se.lled wnh a wooden hase plale (a l~o t)plral of the ~ 10ngolial1 schools), and Ihe back I~ pl.lIl1. ThIS sculpture 11l:l)' have come from Ih(' workshops of Dolonnor. Inner ;\\ollj.:o!ta.

112 • CUJlugue

.

11-19

Lama (possibly the Second Khalkha Jelsun Dampa) Mongolia (Dalonn or)

Second ha lf of the 18th to ea rly [9th centu ry Gilt copper repousse; wooden basI: with modern repair, painted red on (he bottom with gold double vajra 2 1 ~~

X 18"(54.5 X 45.75 em)

This large portrait scu lpture presents an impressive presence despire its strongly abstract

style. It bas been reported ro be a represenraticn of the second Jcrsun Oampa Hurukru, of the Khalkha Mongo lian reincarnation line that sremmed from the Tibetan Jonang order of the Lama Tamnarha 11575-16341. The famous and infJuentiallama-anisr Zanabaz.1r (1635- 1723), said ro be the reincarnation of Taranarha, was rhe first of rhe Khalkha Jetsun Dampas, who were prominent artistic and spiritual as we ll as secular leaders in the region of Durer Mongolia (nortbern J\1.ongo· lia of the Khalkha tribes) from rhe 17th cenmryon. The second Kh al khaJ etsun Dampa, Lobsang Tenpa y Dronmcy (1724-57), was rhe son of rhe head of one of rhe tribes. He diedar age thirry·threc 1 but was able to study

with borh Rolway Dorie (thesecond Jangkya Huwkru J in Beijing and the evenrh Dalai Lama, Kel"ng Gyarso (1707-57), in Lhasa at rhl' Drepung Gomang College. All subse· quem Khalkha Jetsun Dampa relllcarnations we re born in Tibet. They were known for the llumerOliS monasteries rhey builr in Durer and tnner Mongolia, Buryaria, and the Kal· Illyk regions of Russia (Lipton and Ragnubs, Treasures of Tibetal1 Art, p. 87). The figure presenrs a bUlh grand and charismatic presence. His face is distinctive, with large blue eyes that gaze down at rhe behold er with a cheerful expression ampli· fied by his smile. The black eyebrows set so closely CO the eyes add to his intensity. He holds a begging bowl and the stem of a lotus (parrly repaired) in his left hnnd as he makes the teaching gesture wirh his nght hand. His torso is lifted unusually high and his arms an:' long, but his crossed legs are quite narrow, which meeci}' increases his sense of height. Hjs robes cling ro the rather stiffly held body, and the f Ids fo rm stri kingl y unnatural par· terns of different kinds: a simple apronlike flap of three U·s haped folds oyer his crossed legs; bind ing narrow parallel pleats over his abdo men and lower left arm; and stiff, geometrically shaped diagonal plears (some with strange hook shapes) over rhe upper part of his-chest. Rather geoue) regular pleats spread over the pedestal in front of him. From the

side th e image appears to have considerable mass, with sqme pleasing curve:, to the fo lds around the left arm. The back IS quite plain except for the nap of the s:mghati, which preads in a triangular shape, diagonall}' toward the cenre r back with a few folds. This image probably dates LO arou nd rhe second half of the 18th ceoru ry or pas· sibly inro the early 19th century. Interestingly, the rather seve re abstract qualities (hat distinguish it appear in a number of other sculptures, including some of ea rlier date (von Schroeder, Buddhist Sculpture in Tibet, 2001, vol. 2, pI. 2 OA, dated rhere to the 16th-1 7th ceoruries) and also in a large image of Tsong Khapa in the temple at Wudang1 Inner Mongolia (see Rhie essay). Possibly (his sta rue was made in Dolonnor ("Seven lakes'l }) in Chahar, Inner Mongolia. though little is yet known about [he works produced at the workshops rhere. Dolonnor was near the huge Buddhist temples built by rhe Kangxi (1662- 1722) and Qianlong 11735-95) emperors of rhe Qing dynasry to honor rheJangk ya incarnations, whom they saw as their allies in their efforts to keep th e peace in rhe Mongolian borderlands of their Manchu empi re. Dolonnor thrived with many workshops supplying the needs of these large Buddhist cstablishmeors, and ir exponed the 3rt to regions from Amdo to Durer Mongolia well into the 20th ce mury.

11. Lamas and Spirirual Mentors · 135

mol

Mahashri Tara and the Twenty-one Taras Ccmral Tibet

19th cenrury Tangka; mmernl pigmerm. on sized conotl; Chinese brocade

moun~

X 39~ /124.5 X 99 em); painting: 28~ X 19 ~ (7 1 X 45.75 em) Overall:

49~

This is a rare and lovely painting of Mahashri C h in~amani Tara and rhe twenty-one Tara~.

The multiple forms of Tara are arranged within the boughs of n large tlowerlng tree. The twenty-ooe Taras surround the larger cemfal form of Green Tara, probabl y Mahashri Chintamani Tara. like a great aureole. Th is is a refuge tree [hat suppmts the auspi-

cious array of Taras, and grows from a lake that seems ro be at the edge of the world. The grassy bank artbe left has some wildlHe, and at the lower right corner is.l cave wherein a

monk is making offerings. no doubt to rhe Taras, as twO smaller monks in arrendance appear to be almost swallowed lip by the great waves of {he lake. Clusters of coral and jewels float like buoys in tbe lake, .\S

docs a stele and a flowering busb, which is J miniature of the huge whire-and-pink blossoms of the large deity tree. At th e rap SItS a Dalai Lama (probably the Seventh. Kclsang G},arso), holding a rexr and making the teaching gesture, and two wisp}' clouds supporring a group of celestlals wid, banners drift at left and right in rhe palebluesky. Each of the Taras is identifiable by color and according [0 rhe text on the twenr}'one Tams (see The F,rst Oahu Lama 's Six TaxIS Related to the Tara Tmltra, trans. Glenn H. Mullin, Tibet House, New Delhi, 1980, pp. 7-28). The firsr <;ix verses are III praise of her pacific forms-probably the six peaceful golden and white Taras at the left (faci ng page ). The next Seve n verses arc in praise of her fierce forms (probably (he red, dark·bluc. and brown Taras on the central axis, the three at the left of cemer, and one right of center). The remaining seven (verses 14-21 ) praise various aspects of Tara: the hum syllable} her Dharmakaya aspect, the peaceful ~lI1d fierce mantraSj how Tara shakes the three worlds, how she eliminate:) the clieets of poison, e1iminateli disputes and nightmares. curtS disease 1 and overcomes ghosts and zombies. Th.e Mahashri Tara IS pe rfectly lovel y in face nnd form, with patterned red, orange,

and blue silken robes, gold jewel-studded adornmenrs. and floral crown. She sits on a stllnning and delicatei), modeled whirl.' lorus with pink shading-a !>rylc linked to eastern libetan sryles as seen in 19th-cenru ry Dergc paintings, but hert' slightly differently porrra}'ed an d patterned-probably a cen{fal Tibetan interp rerathm. The rwo utpala blue lotuses she holds are nearly lost in rhe display of large blooms in her t'ircubr body halo, which is an unusual halo trle. The head halo IS like a nne brocade parrern of circular floral forms against the blue ground. At each ~idc is a standing attendant: golden Ashokakanra (two-armed peaceful form of M.atichi ) holding a blue ashoka flower and a v,tira, and the dark-blue fierce Eka13t3 weanng a tiger skin and ho lding a curved knife and skull bowl. The painring is dominated by a pervasive noral quality conveying an tIlcredibly ideal world, quite different from [be famolls early Green Tara mngkas of the 12th and 13th ceo+ wries (in rhe Ford collection and the Cleve.la nd Museum of An, respectively ). But this delightful rangka is a creative representative ofTlbt:.ran paintings from the larer yca rs of the tradition, where the sense of auspicious blossoming of perfected beings is captured and broughr to our world.

111.

Fenla!~

De.Hics • 139

1II ~2a,

b

Khadi ravani (G ree n or Yellow)

T
c •.

I~OO

G,It copper ailor, caSt

In

partS; ,1ttr,bUles

III

repoussc gilt copper; coral and turquOI>e lIlSl:t,; oTlglllal P'Iln1CIllS removed; baSt' sealed with copper pbte cngral'cd wnh double v3Ir,,: con· tent s w'th,n

19" X Il '/:" (-18,25 X 31. -5 em )

Here we have the m:un Tara of the set of twenn·-one. the Green (or Yellow ) Tara, showi~g her readiness to enter the world to save suffering beings by extending her right

140 • Catalogue

foot down from her seat. as if she is about to arise and descl'nd to help. This is the form of Tara that is invokrd m the man)' sculptures and paintings on the theme. " T:"Ir~ saves frolll the eight dangers.- Shr is deplell'd in her mansion. rrady to rise and comr to the aid of endangered beings, while surrounding her arc scenes of peoplr 1x'l1lg attacked br lion~, tigers. elephants. snakes. fire, nood, thievrs. and oppressive kings. Thesr right outrr dan· gers correspond to thr inner dangers of pride. env)'. delUSion, haired, lust, and the likr. Thl' image is gilt copper :ll1oy C,lst in fiv{' separate parts (head. tWO arlllS, upper torso, and lower torso tOgrlher with the lotus <;eat). The 10intS arc visible, but quite skillfully made to b{' leaSI obtrusive. This technique I, di fferent from the repoussc seen in Nos. I-I, 1- 4, and 111-3. where the image IS rh'eled to the 10lUs base.

Tara SitS here in a graciously bending seated pose. Her !cft leg IS bent and raisrd to dll,' tOP of the lotus. A sep:u3\e lotus sup· ports hrr right foot, and the J.ifte~ right knee supports hn right ;Hill, which IS extended IOw:uds the viewe r with the I'ara (giving) Illudra. Her body bends at the waist and her head tilts in Kcompanimem. This position slip;htly lifts her left shouldrr and arm, which has more tension than the right. Her left elbow jutS outward as her hand makes a teaching ges ture while holding thr stem of a /lowering lOtus branch. The twO lotus br~nches, one on rach side, create bra.utiful golden openwork sprays that fra.me her upper body. The naturalism of the crossing stems and curving leaves. the large lotus flower at the lOp, and the proportions of the branch are features suggesting a dating for rhls im~ge ~roul1d the end of the 17th cemurr. These elements arc nearly identical to those of the lotus branches held b)' the 11l:lIn image of the HUlOn Rinchen Drub tangka pal11ted b)' Khrenrab Jam)'ang that I~ in thl' Asian Art Museum of San Francisco and well documented b)' T. Ibrtholomew as dating to the late 17th cemury (Rhie and Thurman [ 199 11, No. 67). This Tara. has a rather round, full facr with fairl), delicate th ough sharpl)' chiseled fealures (111-20). Her expression is mildl)' smilinl! and she appears youthful. A row of tin)' curls adorns her forthead beneath a crown of five large plaques. The promine11l crown, sumptuous wide necklace, and looped ea rrings with lonp; openwork appendages are all made separate and att:lched. The Il'II'eled adornmems arc brightened with turquoise ,md a few coral insets, all tastdully proportioned. not to overwhelm the powe r o f the im:lge. Her bare upper bod)' also has a long double ch:lin of beads :1nd :1 graceful scarf that is interestingly looped :1cross the back in a complex manner. The wide borders of thiS scarf and of Ihe dhoti-like lower garment arc chascd with rdatil'd\" subdued floral patterns. There IS also som~ delicate ch:1sing of the lotus petals in the seat and a refined rim of beading around the lOp, as well as refined vertically incised lines indicating the side of the pod. The back of the pedestal, which is a rounded tnangle shape, is completei), plain without anr of thr markings that appear on the front. ThiS ima!!e is I'ery ~llI1ila r 10 images of T:1r;! and others seen at Tashi Lhunpo monastery (Cllllg qllllll (oJiao ),IS/I/I, 1987, figs. 167-172 :lt1d fig. 237 for lotus branches) from arollnd the late 17th to e:1rly 18th century. It IS a splendid example of:1 Tara that ma)' h~lI'e bren originall y pan of a set of the twemy-olle Tnras.

1Il-3

Tara (One of the Famed Twenty-one Tc1ra Emanations) Cenrral TIbet

Second half of 17th century Gilt copper alloYJ cast parts and repousse; high-

quality rurquoise insets

( pos~ib l y

all original

except for tWO replacements); two ename! blue lotuses with a large coral secured to the ,enter

with a gold pin; pigmenrs (original) cleaned, and srabilized), red on back of crown and lotuses; earrings and crown separate and pegged ro image; copper base plate with double vajra;

sealed and unopened: consecrated contents

within [9" x 12W (48.25 X 31.75 ern )

Tara is the female buddha who emanates herself infinitely as bod hisatrvas that execute the miraculous acrivi ties of all buddhas, She always -assists Avalokiteshvara, rhe archetypal bodhisattva of universal compassio n. This beautiful image is of one of the set of emanations described in the famoll s TwentyOne Praises to Tara, made popular in Tibet by the Indi an master Arisha in rhe mid- 11th century. The painting in No. IrI-1 shows rhe whole array of rhe twen ty-o ne Taras. Some paintings, especiall y so me from the late 17th to the first half of the 18th century, show each of the Taras (except the main image) holding a vase in her extended righr hand, as seen in this sculpture (see Worlds ofTransfonnaliolt, Nos. 36, 34, and 35). Such images are said to be in the form of the twenry-one Taras from the Arisha lineage (G. Mullin, Female Buddhas, pp. 62-64, 68-78). Sitting in the relaxed falitasallo posture on a large circular lorus pedestal, this image

presents a strikingly beauriful figure of gi lded surfaces and briU iant blue turquoi ses. The image is a superbly crafted combination of calm balance and lively asymmetric rhythms. Fra med in the upper half by two blue lotuses with natu ralistically portra}'ed leafy stalks an d large coral centers, the upper body and head with irs quite la rge crown emerge as the focal point of the pyramid composition. The lower portion, more asymmetrica lly composed, presents a CO ntra st with its breadth, its co unrercll rvilinear drapery fo lds, the flying ends of her sca rf, and most emphatically by the kalasha vase of long life (tsebum) held loosely in her right hand , as though being proffered wirh her va ra mudra. In this golden vase a noral branch with irs array of turquoises creates the piece de resistance among the mher splendid turquoise-studded objecrs. The colorful insets are located on the periphery of the ima gej rhe bracelets, armbands, anklets, long-chain necklace, and gird le are all by contras t simply golden and without insets. This creares another balance-one that draws [he eye outward to the color surrounding her. Contrasting with th e smooth golden surfaces of the body and garments are the textured leaves and flowers of the two blue lotuses and the knobby relief patterning of the crown plaques. The degree of elegant sophistication in this sculpture suggests a dating in the second halI of the 17th century. Several factors tend to add substantiation fo r this date, though there afe always exce ptions: 1) the design of the lorus stalks matches closely with that seen in th e Kunga Tash i tangka in the Los Angeles County Museum, reliably attributed to the ~econd half of the 17th century (Rh ie and Thurman [J 99 1\, No. 65); 2) the ends ofthe scarf are a form seen on mher images of the late 17th or early 18th century (The Potala

Palace of Lhasa [1995\, fig. 75), thar is. rhe hem cu rves are nor as fanciful!y swiding as usually seen in 18th-ce ntury sculptures; 3) rhe si ngle-strand long necklace without insets tends in thi s general period ro be earlier than the doub le-Strand, or chains with [he usage of insets: 4) the earrings and crown are cast separately and attached ro tbe im age. This scu lpture is ski llfull y made of assembled parts with jointsatthe neck, arms (near elbow), foot, and one prominent juncture at the hip, which is different from the juncture at the waisr in theslighdy later Tara in 1lI -2. The figure is riveted to the lotus pedestal, which ha s well-formed large lotus petals turned upward [rom a constricted band. The pedestal, plain in back) has a finely beaded upper rim (possibly representing stamen s) and closely spaced and paral!el, verrically incised lin es ar the side of the pod, creating a linea r background for rhe lotus petals-a patterning prevalent in the second half of rhe 17th and into the mid- 18th cent ury. This image is a rarc sculptural example, botb iconographically and for its dating during a time of grear artisric activity in Tibet, when the Potala Palace was being constructed in Lhasa and Tashi Lhunpo monastery was flourishing in Shigatse. Few sc ul ptures from rhe period of the Fifth Dalai Lama have yet been identified, but it appears that this image belongs to that Lmportanr period. It likely comes from central Tibet, probably either Lhasa or, most likely, the region of Tashi Lhunpo monastery in Shigatse. This image and those in llf-2, Ill -5, and 1Il-6 arc exa mples rhar help to cha rt the developments in sculpture of the Tara image in central Tibet [rom ca. second half of the 17th century to th e early 19th century.

Il L Female Deities · 143

111-4

Myriad Green Tara Emanations Easrern Tiber IAmdo) or

;"Iongoh~

191h cem'lr)'

Tangb. mml"ral p,gmcm~ on Sized co!\on: C.hlne~ silk moums OlNall: 61" x 4J" (155 x 104 cm);

palnung: 31" x 25" (-8.-5 X 63.S ,ml

Thr mynad-emanallon style of painting. wherein a Cl.'nlral dWlnl" Dodh,sal1l'a or buddha figure .5 shown against a background of numerous (standmg for mfimle) Identical elnana!lons. conlers the mt'ssage that the cnhghlened being IS el·cr}wht're. capable of infinite sclf-rcphc3110n In ordcr to hrlp and bcnrfit the mfill1tc numhers of suffering brlllgs. ThIs mIght seem strange to us. smn' we assullIr an indlvidu.11 deity or human or OIher a nimal mu~t live III a single hodr. tr.lpped mSldr J ~mgk' skill, so 10 speak. 110II'el'er, the wa)' rhr Buddhists drscnoc Ihe rl.'altlallon of cnhghtenmem. an mdll'iduated person is arhllrarlly separated from tht' oceanic energ) of thr \lIlIIerse b~ words and ml.'mal conSlrUCIS, whill.' actually thnr is no restnClIon on rht, flow of energies wuhm. without. dnd bctwrrn beings. Enllghtenmem is a process of smpplng away layer~ of hnllllllg self'ldenllficallon b~ real· llmg thmg~' lack of fixl.'d essennal rralt ty, and expandmg on{"s ability 10 Identify wuh OIhers and I.'vrn th{' whole mfimte UI1lI'erse.

144 · C3talogue

T his can be misunderstood as a kmd of selfanmhi!:Hil·r process, wlwrl' onl.' melt) 11110 the infinite quantum energy of rhe l'aCllOll) mfimle, lo~ing all ,elf-awarenrss of onc's d'StmCIlI'l' prrscncc-:md mdced there s{'('m 10 be rxpericnces llh IhlS along thl.' wa>. !lUI thesc experirnces can he kepI In halance and integralcd With a responsibll' contmuum of personal awareness, which Cdn hegm 10 take rrsponslb,llly for Ilhl.'re onl.' foculoes onr's awart'ncss, and on how mu,h or how htde of the uniwrsc one focuses. It 15 lIke learning 10 Juggle; al tirSI one focuses onl> on thl.' flghl hand and rhl'n alternates to Ihe Irft, and so cannot keep up Illth the TlSlng and fallmg balls thai onr !TIl'S 10 krrp m rhe air. Ev('mual1y one gets to sltl1ult.lIleOllSI! coordinatr thr mOlemems of hmh hands and eyrs and arms, and rhus controls the movement of tht, halls from a hroadl'r, more fleXible. more d'l'l.'rse ~el of pOl1lt~ of awarrness. Even so, a full) cnhglm'ned bemp.-;1 buddha, whICh Tara IS, as rhe n1lr;lculous activities of all huddhas mcarn.lI r as mall)' bodhisattl"as-can s!tllultancously IX' presrm to man)' bemgs III many bodlCs, manifesting 10 rach hemg what'GeI'er is b('sl .Hiapt('d !O educate and lead him or her loward el'olutlonary progrrss and en>ntual rnhp.hlcnmem. freedom, happiness, and Illsdom. l ler l'aSI mmd can lugglr Ihe dll'c rse actll'11ICS of man)' rmbodlffienrs SImultaneously, empowermg them all with compassion to hencfit all hemgs. This IS the messagr cOIll'eH'd hI' the myriad-Image t)prs of p.lInll~gs. Other bodh.sall,·as and dellles also are deplClrd m this way.

ThiS kind of imagi ning of Ihe multi· pllclt)' of buddha li ke, bodh isamic, and d'I'lI1e beings is a gcne ral Ind ian qualil), and accounts for t he diff icult)' H in d us and Buddh'SIS have in understa nding the Abrahamlc religions with t heir Insistence on the umquetll.'SS o f Jesus as t he sole son of god, I\ luhammad as the final a nd sole prophel of God, and God H imself as the sole mamfeslJ.tion of infinlle, omnipotenl, and IIlconcei,·able d,I'in;I)', In th.s large paulIIng, a pallern of 540 small emanallons of Tara appear likl.' a gnd Ol'er a SImple landscape of whI te d ouds, deep-blue sk~·, and green hdls. In the cemer Ilo an open space for the large ~ i'l io ther Green T.lf .1. ~ source of the emanations. Shl' IS modestly gdrhed and has a SC ri OUS but 101'cly face. the fluid line d ra w mg and gent'ral slmpllClIY ;15 well as Ihe colo r of the pIgments suggesling that It IS a work from ea~tcrn TilX'I (Amdo) o r Mo ngolia of the 19th Cl'ntury. It is fra med in dark-bluc Chlllcst, brocade o f high q ualit y a nd still r(,l
[JI-5

White Tara Cenrral Tibet First half of rhe 18th century Gilt copper alloy, rcpousse with separatel y cast pans and attriblltes; turquoise insets; pigments; base sealed with copper plate engraved with double vajra; contents within

23" X II " (58 .5 X 28 em)

White Tara is rhe form of Tara associa ted with peaceful and hea ling energies, white being the ritual color of peaceful activities, yellow of pmspering, red of dominating) and dark-green, blue, or black of fierce act ivities. She bas seven eyes, a third eye in her forehead, and four morc in rhe palms of her

hands and the soles of her fect, symbolizing ber ability to see whatever is ailing wholllsoever, wheresoever. Her left hand holds the

stalk of a blossomed lotus with a blazing wish-fu lfilling jewel on rap, while making the gesture of fine discernment ro stimulmc the precise insight and wisdom of her proteges, holding up the three back fingers to represent the three jewels of refuge: Buddha the Teacher, Dharma the rea li ty (as we ll as the teaching of how to understand it), and Sangha, the community of those who do understand it or are trying to as best they can. Her left hand exte nds downward wjth the

open palm forwa rd in the boon-gra nting or, more literally, "giving of her best" (varada) gestu re. When any Tibetan or Mongolian or Manchurian Buddhist is sick, they onl y have ro recite her mantra, am rare l-uttare lUre suaha, and if their faith is strong enough they will instantly feel bettcr and begin to regain good health. This rather large Tara statue ha s stately proportions with call torso and relatively sma ll head. She si ts with barh legs on the curved triangu1ar-shaped pedestal in the vajrasana typical of White Tara. Her right hand in the vara (giving) mudra is gracefully turned inward, and rhe left hand delicately holds the stem of her lotus attribute. The greater abstraction and complexity of scrolling openwork tendrils on this lotus branch contrasts with th e mOre naturally patterned leaves of
nose, mourh, and chm. She does not wea r a chest sca rf like nI-2 and 111-3, but the soft, naturalistic modeling of the torso and the combined rurquoise and coral insets in her long double-beaded neck lace with irs central cross loop provide a heightened variety of color decoration to the torso compared with rJlOSC images. Her shoulder sca rf stretches quite simply around her arm s and falls stiffly straight ro the sides to end in a discreet twist. The folds of her dhoti are nicely clus tered in closely spaced paraUc! folds that spread our from her crossed legs and form quite na tural hem folds on rop of the pedestal, in much the same manner as seen on the Manjushri statue at Tashi Lhunpo of ca . second half of the J 7th century (rtbie essay, Fig. 19), Delicate chasing patterns decorate the borders of both sca rf and dhoti , as in 111-2. The lotus pedestal is somew hat heavy, wi th two rows of both upwa[d~ and dowilwardfacing lotus petals, whose tips have a cluster of small decorat ive cuds. As wi th 111 2, there is so me delica te chasing on the edges of the lotus petals. The backs of both image. and pedesral are very plain, except for the waist belt and the. drape of the scarf over her shoulders. The remains of blue pigment ca n be seen on the hair, partly combed into a high chignon ropped by a jewel and partly spreading in long locks over the shoulders. The backs of the scarf streamers, the crown and its ribbo ns, and the lotus branch
ITI. Female Deities . 147

Ul-6

White Tara Cen,tral Tibet Mid-18th century to carly 19th cenrury Gilt copper alloy, repousse wlrh separately cast parts and arrributesj Turquoise insets; pigmems; base sealed with copper plare engraved with double vajra: contents within

19/1 X 10" (48.25 X 25.5 em)

This image, like 111-5, is White Tara. Both have seven eyes (in addjtion to the two main eyes, there are eyes in each palm and soleI and one in the forehead ), bur those in this image are prominentl y painted) as all Tibetan starues were originally, t hus given greater

life. Those presenrly unpaimed in museums

and priva te collections ha ve simpl y lost their painted fearures. The art ist's acr of painring eyes and other fearures, co ld-gi ldin g faces and torsos in so me cases, is seen as co rrespon ding wirh the ritual and contemplati ve invitarion of a " wisdom being" (ye shes pa)

dupli cate ro be manifested by the actual Tara personage from her home paradisal abode. This is nor thought to be demanding on th e part of rh e worshiper, since enlightened beings are believed to have the ability ro manifest rhem selves infinitely in response to rhe needs of all beings fo r protection, heal~ ing) an d instructi on. The raU proporrions of this Taro. image Stress he r slim, sinuous torso and long lImbs. This striki ng figu ral ideal also appears in some painrings of Tara fro III cemra l Tibet from around the mid-18rh centu ry (Worlds of TransformatIon, Nos. 34, 35). The head is quire small in proportion, bur is emphasized by the large eyes and very tall chignon hairdo. The crown and long ea rrings, borh srudd ed with rurquoise insets, add color aro und her head, and [he crow n ribbons nutter WiTh mannered twists thar suggesr unusual energies at play. Th e long neck lace chain stu dd ed with turqu oises and looped acrOss rh ecemer, much like rhe chain in 111-5, is beautifully set off by the sieck, smooth form. The lotus branch in her left hand is co lorful, bu t it lacks the lacelike qualities

of rhe open wor k designs as seen ;n the lotus branches of ea rlier images such as I1I -2, 111-3, an d 1n-5. Th e realism of the painted flowers suggests trends appearing in the second half of the 18th cemu ry and continuing into the 19th century. The sa me is true ofrhe folds of her dhoti over her legs. They rake un some power by having a srronger patterning than seen in rh e earlier three Tara sculptures. Th e cha sing of the hems is bold and si mple, and rhe folds crea te heavy loops similar [Q those seen in 1-9 and_lI -12 as well as in the scu lp ~ rure of Rolway -Doric from ca. second half of the 18rh century (Rh ie essay, Fig. 38). The back of rhe image is quite plain except for her waistband and rhe shawl across her shou lders. The lotlls pedestal in the ba ck ha s no pearl rim or lorus petals Or even a lower ba~e rim as seen on rhe front , which is well ca rved with dense, refined petals and a bea ded upper rim. This graceful image seems to partake of elemems of the 18th Or early J 9th ce ntury as they were evolving in th e areas of Shigatsc and Lhasa, as a renec~ tion of the momenrum of the Gelukpa rise to dom inan ce at the rime.

Ul. Female Deities ' 149

111-7

Naro Dakini Central Tibet ,\-lid-ISd\ centllr)' Gilt copper al1o)', solid cast; amibutcs, crown and mandorla of g,lt copper re(lQusse~ coral and IUrquOlse In>.ets; scpara!el)' worked s,ker skulls; pigments removed; small sealed openlllg In Ihe back of figurc~ base sealed wllh wooden plaque with yellow doth; contents w'lhlll 20' x 11 "(51 X1 8cm j

This is the vision of the " Buddha Woman," the slightly fierce pure female form of the Superbliss Wheel (Mahasllkha-Chakrasamvara) Buddha vouchsafed to the great Indian scholar and adept Naropa in an initiatory vision. She is a buddha form meditated upon by adept yogin/yoginis who serk 10 dissolve their coarse body identities by mel ting all their energies down i1ll0 thrir own central channrls and immersing themselves in the clear-light brilliance of the ultimate reality of voidness. Then out of compassion, ther

150 . Catalogue

arise from it again and again in subtle magic bodies (mayadeha ) made of universal bliss, manifrsting the immine1ll possibility of freedom from suffering for unenlightened beings. She is thr wisdom mother of buddhas, Prajnaparamita, in her esOteric, sixteen-yearold, erotically aroused form, wielder of the bliss that can fulfill the aim of compassion, the beloved queen of millennia of male and frmale adepts who seek the highest fulfillment in this ,Ill-too-short human lifespan. This slightly fierce dakil1l' statue is almost complete with all its partS. missing only the usual prOStraH.' divine figures under her feet, whose domination represents a buddha adept's avoidance of the temptation 10 adopt the idemity of a still egocentric deity. She presents an energetic presence with her active posture and wrathful f3Ce. Her body is youthful and sinuous, the text porrra)'ing her as a you ng woman, akin to the shaping of 111-5 and 111 -6. It is, however, la rgely co\'" ered in front by a strikingly long, stiff skirt of loosely linked double-carved bone-bead chains that make a crisscross net across the whole figure from hips to ankles. On her upper body she is adorned by a five-plaque

crown with dancing rib bons (less fa nciful than those of 111-6), long pendulous earrings, a swinging chest necklace with long pendants over her stomach, and a long ga rl and of small skulls. He r attributes arc a ta ll, th in khatvanga staff, crooked in her left el bow against her shoulder, and, in he r ha nds, a vajra chopper in the right, and in th e upraised left a skull bowl full o f t he life-blood of the demons of igno rancc. A few large turquoise insets provide color and her hair, long 111 back, is painted bright orange, ty pical of some fiercc dei ties. Shc probably da tes earl ier than [11-6, ca . mid-18th century, pro babJ)' from the crlllral regio ns of Tibet. The mal/doria, opcn in the center, allowing t he image to be silhouetted agains t space, is made o f strcams of swirling masses, indicating th e supernova names she dances in, draw ing her indomitable power from her ba lanci ng at the rnd of the world. It is ungilded in back. The rectangular lotus pedesta l is fine ly fi nished wilh one row of downturnI'd and rathr r nat, but subtly formed petals with raised edges and an indented center line, and a row of beads near the top. The pedesta l in back is [Ot;1l1), plain and ungilded cop per.

111-8a, b

Vajravarahi Tibeto-Mongolmn 19th ctntu r} Apphqu~; sIlk broc3dts; Chlntst hrllo;,ade moum,; IVllrr dowel ca ps 0
152 ' Cal.llogue

Here the Buddha Woman appears as Valra\·arahl. the ~DlamonJ Sow, ~ as IdCntlfieJ hy the pig's head emerglrlg from the top of hers. Before we lump to thc COncluSion tha t the female is somehow bemg denigraTed by bemg assoCIated with tlus atllmal form, we

need to remember thaT Vishnu Incarna ted once as a boar. and thc wild Pill is one o f the fiercest, earthies t, and mos t passlOna tc of anl111als to ado pT as a tOtemiC s)'mbol of The enlightened bemgs' dc termi nallon TO m3mfrst m whatevc r form IS cducal1\('

to whichever heing. Here VaJravarahi is in

her - ky-dancmg" pose, her right leg in the yogin/yogini'~ pose of meditation, her

left slighrly bent, pressing down an adoring ma le deity, who looks up at her smiling in admirarion. These pose of trampling on other divine beings are often misunderstood a~ simple domination ~igl1als, hut what should be understood is that the yogin or yogini who identifies with Vajravarahi is manifesting the domination of his or her own negative mental attitudes and habits. nor the domination of an outward physica l bcing. In tbis well-preserved appl iqu e, the Vairavarahi Female Buddha is fiery orange in (olor and wears cuntrasting ornaments of \\Ihite (made of hone). The ornamenrs have a heavy quality a rhc}' swing from the danclIlg figure. The forms of all the Jewels are different fr0111 those of many other Tibetan and hin ese examp les. The garland of large seve red heads is particularly expressive with varied individualistic represen tations, each head with its distincrive expression standing for a particu lar negative mental addiction or instinctual habit the deity has conquered. She is idenrifiablc by her posture and implements-a chopper, symbolizing the analytic wisdom that dissecDi rh e supposed self to reach her selflessness; a skull bowl rhat sym bolizes her transcendent Wisdom; and a stunning khatvanga. represe nting her mastery of th e yogic ccntral-nervous-sysrem chan nel-and also by the presence of a dark-blue sow's head at the cop of her head. Iler blue eyes gaze frankly rownrds the viewer, and her slighrly wrathful expression seems to have a hmt of sorroW. Her figure is thin, even bony. The long locks of he r orange hair swing our from behind her wai~t as she dances. She is hacked by an unu su al series of circular ha los: all inner one of blue cloud lines over a light-brown ground; a middle one of stunlling, narrow Mrips of rainbow hues, which create a dizzying sense of motion behind herj and tbe wide ourer rim of large abstract jewel designs in dark-red lines on a red and pale-bl ue patterned ground . Below, interlocking triangles in white and peach-pink form her base, though this twodimensional yin-}'ang type of symbol here indicates the force field wllhm which she manifests, coosistmg of twO interlocked

inverted pyramids of rub y energy. She sreps on a contorted pro~trate fIgure caught wnhlll the severe slanllOg lines of rhe triangles, which reST on a leafy green and patchwork-patterned lotus ba~e, The outlines of :1. SImple landscape appear bricny at the sides in light green wirh two dark -blue p(lIlds, each ho lding a huge jewel ball. A few simple curled douds fill the upper corners together with the :.lln (right) and the moon. The technique u~c~ rhe secret c;tirch 1 and rhe applique i completely made of

clod) WllhOUl any paint added. The ourcr mountlng IS a beautiful purple brocade with noral medallions and a paltern consistmg of douhlmg the hlllese ,haracrcr for "happiness." This i a rare example of a Mongolian applique in J Western collection. It shows a differenr artistic ra ste than appliques from central Tibet with irs surprisi ng shifrs and changes in color and texture combin:Hinll';;:. [r j" I('~" go rgeo u<; ly ornamenral or barmonious III favor of achieving a kmd of dr)', acerbiC, and shocking essence.

[[I.

Female Deilles · 153

111-9a, b

Machig Labdron as Vajradakini Centrnl or eastern Tibel

First half of the 18th cc:nrury GIlt copper alloy, panly caSI, part repoussc!; removable crown, earrings, (:01l3r, apron, and stuff; turquoise insets: PJgm~nts lost: base sealed wHh copper plate engraved with double vaira; contelHS lost

15" X II" (63.5 X 28 em)

Machig Labdron ( 1031-1129) was One of the greatest Ti betan yoginis, contemporary With the great Milarepa. She specialized in rhe yoga known as ChOd ("'Severance"), which eoacrs in a shamanistic ritualized contemplation

the dissection of the body-mind complex by critical wisdom to discover one's voidness, as well as freedom frolll rhe egocemric life

cycle of samsara , and compassionate engagement with the universe on rhe basis of blisswisdom-indivisible. Severance practitioners are first well-grounded in (he basics of the path-transcendent renunciation, the messianic spiri t of enligluenmcnt, and selfless wisdom-aware of the conditionaliry of rhe self. Then they are initiated into the mandala cfone of the Unexcelled Yoga Tantra buddhaarcherype forms-in Machig Labdron's casc, the Chakrasamvara Superbliss buddhaarcherype male and female forms . Then they rerreat from mundane preoccupations and dwell in remote places, going our into charnel grounds or other eerie narural settings and, mcdira rionally di smembering themselves, offer their body-flesh and blood, speech, and mind to nourish all beings, including the varieties of rhe demonic. [vlachig oftcn sajd things like, "You may think rhar gods are the ones who give you benefits, and demons cause damage; bur it's the other W3Y around. Those who cause pain teach you ro be patient, and those who give YOll presents may keep YOLI from practicing the Dharma. So it depends all their effecr on yo u if they arc gods or demons." She also said, "As long a there is an ego, there are demons. When there is no more ego, there are no more demons either!" Here she is deified in rhe sense of being depicted as the Indrabhmi Dakini herself, another of the fema le forms of the Superhliss (Samva ra) Buddha. She is diStinguished as Machig by her holding a drum in her right hand instead of a vaj ra chopper knife. Her left hand should be holding a bell, which would further seal her identity witb Machig. The kharvanga staff is attached behind her back hete, bur should be held in tbe crook of her left arm. She has the skull necklace of th e Vajradakini, instead of the jewel garland usuall y wo rn by Machig.

Sculptures of Machig arc quite rare. This aile is impressive in size, nearly complete, and vcr)' finely executed. It has the quality of a portrait with a p3rticularited face, sta rkl y sharp fearures, and an exp ressive ope n mouth. Her body is small and slim . The style of her ornaments suggests a date cartier than 111-7 and close [0 that of 111-2 and 111-5, ca. 1700 Ot first half of the 18th cCIHury. The ornamental jewel-collar necklace is large and lacy, as are the earrings. She wears a heavy garland of skulls and a bone-jewel skirt of less dramaric sweep than 111·7. Various strings of jewel chn.ins he re and there seem to echo her dance, imparting

a lighrncss and lively charm (0 the figure. The leaf·shaped mandorla with open cemer has well-deS igned name patterns In large loose swirts, less formal than the p::mcrns of the mandorla of 111-7 and very close to the designs on rhe mandorla of rh e Chakrasamvara painting No. V-6 datin g ca. mid-18th century. Her tresses are blue; rhe back of her crow n, hone apron, and mandorla are nor painted. The pedestal is entirely gilded, bur has no lotus petals in hack. In front, the dowmurned loms petals are full and smooth. Overall it is an exceptional sculpture of Machig, probably fmm Ihe central regio ns or eastern Tibet (Khnm) . 111. Pemale

O l.'ltlf'S •

155

[0- 10., b

Pelden Lhamo (i mperial Qing) China; Tjbero~Chlnese (probabl y imperial Qing workshop)

Second half of rhe 17th century Gill copper alloy, !oolid Cllst; pigmentS lost; sealed with copper base plate engr:lvcd with double vajm; original Contt.'nts losl

19" X 1;"(48.26 X 43. 18 em)

Pcldcn Lhamo (phonetically, Pcndcn Hlama) is a ferocious form of Tara, the female bodhisattva who is a tually a buddha, tht' incarnation of the miraculous acrivities of all buddhas. She is like rhe Hindu Ka li {pe/dell Lhalll o rr<wslates in the Sanskrit as SIn;

Devi), and in fact she is sometimes called thar by the Tibetans. In her myth ) she decided ro mani fes t an initially human incarnation in orde r to terminate the practice of human sacrifice by an ancienr South Indian king. So she incarnated herself ~s the most beautiful woman in his realm and became his favorire queen, bearing him (\.\'0 children. Then, on one fateful day, he honored her to lead out rhesacrificial caprives to be rhe victims in the ritual. Astonishingly, she came before him leadlllg our his own tWO children , and offered them to the priests to sacrifice. When her enraged husband challenged her, she replied that aU the victims were like his Own children, if he on ly knew hi s evolutionary hi story. He decided she had gone mad and ordered his guards ro get her out of rhe way. But before they cou ld touch her, she transformed herself into the frightening specter of Shri Devi portrayed in rhis statue, with nerce fangs and flaming hair, brandishing her stunning club, and seated on her magical mule. She tOok his son (of course her magical manifestation ) and flayed him right before the king's eyes, placing his sk in beneath her as a saddle. The orher child she rook up in her mouth, as if to devour her. The king groaned with agony, still ab le to identify at least with his own children) and fell on his knees repenting. lie begged her [Q restore everything just as it had been, earnestly promising to abandon his sacrificial rituals and violent frame of mind. But it was roo late. She saw deeper into hi s psyche and realized that it would be lifetimes before he would really change. So she rode off into the sky, cackling bo rribly as she disappeared into the mythic distance,leaving him in shock, [0 spend some years reflecting on his behavior and perhaps finally seeking some instruction in the true nature of life and rhe evo lutionary imperati ve to cultivate genclentSs. She thus represents rhe fiercest of fierce female compassion, accomplishing the

extremely difficult task of transforming even the worst evil into goodness by means of even rhe truly horrific manifestation. She se rves as a symbol of a woman's power to turn the rabies on rhe male dominatOr, who tends to lISC the children as hostages to dominate his frighreneJ spouse, by showing her ahsolute transcendence of any sort of fear. This superb sculpture of Pelden Lhamo glows with brillianr gold. Her flaming locks of red hair, festooned wi th three spears of peacock feathers, fan out above her. Her wild visage glowers menacingl y with huge eyes and gaping mourh, revealing a small corpse cradled on her tongue and between he r sha rp white teeth and bngs. She is totally majestic in her wildness and fury. Her massive form sits with heavy confidence across rhe long back of the wi ld mule. The details of this ensemble are perfect, yet not overpowering the grander mass and volumes of the main players. nle heavy limbs

and curving COntours of Lhamo's figure suggest a power to Overcome any enemy. Yet she is also gorgeous in her accoutrements: tastefully wrought jeweled necklace, delicate jewel chain falling to her swelling ahdomen, refined armbands and bracelets without any inset jewels, and a tiger skin, tied below her belly with its own paws, smoothly stretching over her lower section. Long curved toenail:.and fingernails fil her furio us demeanor. She lacks the club she brandishes in her right hand, with which she crushes the egotism of negative beings, and the skull bowl she balances in her left, in which she turns the blood of demons into elixi r of immortaliry. Over her shoulders is slung a flayed corpse, OJle of twO in this ensemble-one wi th the face in the back, and one {har is her saddJe cloth, with rhe face h
the crescent moon festoons her locks. Other fe:ltmes show on the mule: on his rump :In eye, and a ball of magic thre"d hanging from the gear; a pair of dice :lnd bag of diseases tied around the loop on his neck. The animal turns his head slightly towards the side, his big eyes wide open and ears perked straight up. He dashes through a sea of blood nicely formed with waves and frothy fO:lm. Surrounding the sea is a splendid range of mountains making a slightly semicircular base for animal and rider. These mountains are particularl), well done, with COntours of sharply concave waves outlining the layers of shallow relief planes of the peaks. whose rounded lOpS create a ruffled, fencelike edge. This sculpture is solid cast, typical of Chinese workmanship. The Illlage probably comes from a Chinese imperial workshop of the Qing (Manchu ) dynasty. Irs high quality, lack of formalization, and sense of solid volumes indicnes a datI.' around th l.' secon d half of thr 17th crnrur)" during the Kangxi prriod (1662-1721). It is also Tl.'lated to Ihr styI<.' of thr Padma Sambhava st"tues in the Rl.'d Palace of the Po tah of ca. late 17th or e:lTl y 181h century (Rhie essay, Fig. 20).

158 . Catalogue

111- \\

Pelden Lhamo with Simhavaklra and Makaravaktra Chin.!: Tibeto-Chillese La[e 18[h [0 earlr 19th ,emurr Gilt copp<-r allo}": wllh plgrnerns; coral and glass? IIlsets; base scaled With copp<-r plate engr,wed wnh double valra; contems wllhm 9'1l" x9"(14X13clIl)

Here Pelden Lhamo sits:lt e:lse sidesaddird on her nring mule, who gallops Ihrough Ihe sea of blood Ih:lt is her homr ground, symbolizing thl.' femalr's triumph ovrr death and deca)' in that she can :llwarS mani fest nl.'w life OUI of thr ocean of life blood. Shr is accompanied by her two companions, Ihr crocodile-headrd i\-!akar:l\'aktra. who le:lds the group, 3nd (he lion-he:ldrd Simhavaktra, who brings up the frar. They intentionally make 3 macabre procession throllgh the sea of blood, which IS heightened by the body parts drifting in its W3ves.

Pelden Lhamo has Ihe same accoutrements ,IS the figurr in IU- I 0, bUI here her skull bow! filled with demon blood remains in her left hand and her crown of five skulls stays firmly on her head. because it has been cast with the sculpture. This work probably comes from:l Beijingor DolOllnor workshop from the laIC 181h or rariy 19th centufY. The scu lpture presents smooth, sleek surfaces and some simplification in the detail compa red with 111 -10. H l.'re, howel"l.'r, are some insets, mostly cor31, which complement her fierce status, and other touches of rrd throughout. There IS less sense of Ihe full volumes of form than in 111 -10, but the composition of the various limbs of all the figurrs creates a somewhat dizz)'ing srnse of chaos in the work, which is effective in conju ring up this wi ld scene. The base. composed of stylized mount:lins, is less decor<Jtive than that of 111 - 10, but nevertheless h:ls a thin sh:lrpness thai contmsts well with the smoother contou rs of the figures. Both attendants arc particularly vivacious and project a likability a kin to that of toddlers with masks. Overall, the ensemble is spirited and engaging and a fine examp)r of a full set of figures.

OJ-12

Marichi Cemral Tibc.:r Mid~ 18th

profusely uCI.:oraled With multlplc lavers of p.lump, plalll I()tll~ peral . . and a nlOld;nglikc rim at the lOp, which nlso rum .lIong rhe tOp of the nrhen·vlsc plain back.

cc:nwq'

Gill copper alloy; ptgmcm.s IO~I; !ic\lled wuh copper base plate; contents lost

lr X 8W (30.5 :< 21.S em)

Mll richi is a powerful female prorc(.[ ive JellY,

her name meaning " Lad y of Brilliant Light Ra~'s." She is assocjHed with lhe dawn, seemingl)' a Buddhist incarnation of th e

Vedic goddess Ushas. who also represenrs rhe dawn ;)s a powerful warrior queen who drives awa)' the dClllo l\~ of darkness. Miranda Shaw (Buddhist Goddesses of India, pp. 203-22.3) has a lovely essay on

her evolution in Indian Buddhist hi stOry from fecund tree goddess ro warrior quce~ of light, mirroring or rivaling the Hindu goddess Dli rga. Dr. Shaw qUOf{'S a [ext dedica[(~d

ro ber: "There is a goddess who

travels before the sun and moon. She is invisible, indestructible, unbindable, unstoppa ble, inescapable, unerring. LUlplll1ishable, unburna ble, and unassailable by wea pons. Her name is Marichi. >I One does nOt often see Images of Marichi. She ri des a boar. ho ldLllg a bcll and rope, wruch is quite unusua l for her, as she us-nallr balds her right h;:lI1d up and open in the fearlessness gesture, and in her left hand holds a short branch of an Ashoka tree. with which she IS rnvariabl), a:,soclated. The im3ge is gracefu l and lirhe with a yourh ful face. A few turquoise insets dot the sClIlpllIre. The circular arc of her narrow scarf encircles her. servi ng as a halo. As the scarf winds over her elbows it produces a hcavy aspect to the ma ss of rumed, Ourrcring folds. Th en ir rwi sts over ro fill ou t the space ro left and right 111 swi rl s that are similar to (bur more vigorous than) those seen in rhe large .starue 111-5, wluch may dare a little earlier. Her sk irr is ,hased throlighClut and Hips over her legs to form bold curvil inear hem folds. Her boar is delighrful. He gingerly 'iteps around a prostra te human figure whose rigbt leg is bem in a rorally improbable manner. The chubby swine wirh big head and fleshy crease~ ha delicate little hooves, rin y perk y ears! a clirled tail, and blunt haby tu sks. The front and Sides are rarber

111-13, 111- 14

Fierce Protectors of the Medicine Tradition of Yutog Yonten Gonpo-Two -Iilllgka of a Set of at Leas! Nine Central Tlhcl Mid- 19th cc:ntu r>

Tangb; rmncr;ll cotTOn: Chmcst'

plgl1lCO[lI and guld on sized brocade [ranll:, ~dk dust(Over,

rods .mtl caps :Ire 100SSI lig Overall: 70 iJ( J6~! 178 X 91.5 ernl: pmming: ~4" X 23""~ !86.25 x '9 . .5 H

till)

These two wngkar,; are from a larger s(:t of tangkas. (If nme prott:cwrs, eight fierce male and fem,lle gll;;\rdians in a mandaln of a form of Mahakala, t:alll!d Zhanglon Gonpo, possibly relared al~o to the prOtecror deity ]lehar, a srecial protector of Yurog Yonrnn Gonpo (ca. 790-9 15 c.r.). Two other members of rhe set arc in the collccri n of [he Ruhin .\IIu ')cum of An (see \l1orlds fl(Tralls.{ormatioJ/, No. 150; G. Mullin, Female BuddllCls,pp. 194-197; R. Linrothc and J. WalT, Demon;c O/l'me, l':os, 7. S, pp. 11 7-2 1& nore, pp. 259-601, where rhere -also I!) another possible third member of n reluted set (I-li1l1alayannrr.org. No. 377). The twO tangka~ 111 the Kandell collection depict dlt Lord of I~eings' Lives, Dark Blue

I bbse (sk)'es dgll'j srng bcJag bab se IIIthlllg, also known as LdS Illkhall dgra bo'; gshod) ( 10 . 1I1- ! 3). who dwells in rhe norrhwest of the mandala, and Chief Oer1)ol1c~s CorpscEa rcr, or Vu lrure-headed Oel11oncss Shami Rozan Olll11mO Tso (shami ro 'U1I1 gtIll11 /110 gI50), or DUIll1l10 .Iagodjcn (g11l111 1110 bya rgod ccm) (No. 11 1- 14 ), These protectors an d their ~e"('n ~olleaglll'~ descend with the m. . dicine teachings of Buddhist India from the late eighrh cemury, and arc rransmlfred through generations of Tibcran ph)'sicians From the rime of the Emperor Tri~ong Oersen, who assembled rhe grl':lt medical conferl'llce and textual collecrion in [he early ninth cemury, to the rime oi rl)(" greal Fiftb Dalai Lama,

who revl\'L'cI, and n::ncwed. Jild lipread rh..: lhe 17th cenrury. a.. slo:;ted h)' hIS able scholarl), regem, DC~I <)nngYJY Gyatso reachlllg~ In

( 1653-17051. Turning fO the tangkas one b) one, Dark Blue l-bbsc sIr:. Linder an Image of .1 dan,crng Kurukulla, tht:' powerful emanacion f rhe Noble:: TIna. He ha~ om: f', who lumber over rhe landscape on giant, multihl!aded beasts. The stacks of nlllC heads- of the.!'!!::' uoreasonable beasts are a mal0r explorarion for the viewer in and 0 1 themo;clves, worrhy of rhe srrange prorector aC:llures on their backs. Bmh figures arc stu rd y with (lying dreadlocks and well ·drawn graphIC symbols in each huge hand. The orange-haired onc in 111 · 14 spo rrs a hefry flayed skin with huge hend and h;lI1d bOlluring over ht'r right shoulder. The landscape beneath her fcanlres a dragon emerging fr(11l1 rhe SI:;:l IH.llding a sku ll bowl of guro:; . as tiny deer browse on the rv.ro hills in from. In 111- 13 rbe 1.l1ldsc:lpe below :,hows beautifu ll y det:1i1cd prickly rret's and sof[ (]~)w('rs, ~ cOile mOllntain with spiky s rr~lIlge rrees, and twO white-topped moumaim, each gushing" \va[erfallllllo the sea below as tiny snow lions cavan In the snowy c.rC\' iCCCi nhovc. The derail III charming and refined, ju:.t :lS rhe mam figure!) are shocking and bold. Thl' mounring IS nnequaliry Chillese brocade.

Ill. Ftmnle Dl·rue... • 161

111- 15a, b

Shrine with Milarepa an d the Five Tsering'm
12',1" x 9'>"1")( 4" (l I.-S )( 24.1'i )( 10cm)

Tscnngma ,Iml her four sis ters ,lfe the f,lmOlh fi\!' SISler goddes~("~ of the J IlInala)'3~. Thl')' fir~tll1el ;'I. ldarepa {1040- 1123) whdt' he was medu,lIl11g III til(' hIgh ca\'e~, ~tlrk n;lked but fo r Il!~ cotto n cloak , kept warm In- the fire ,lTld furor of IllS IIII1('r heat (dllmm~). Thou~h the)' had long ago been

"tamed" by Guru RUlpocht' f{) prott'ct !-IOcere practitioners of the Dharma, 111 ord,'r 10 tt'St ;'I.'hbrt'pa'r, splnlual IIlIegrll )', the y manifested them~el\'t's lS fit'rCf, ne~h ·t'atUlg dt'monesses. ,\ftfr a fuoll' aHem pt 10 scare Iht'm off by manlfestmg hllmelf ,IS l fierce deity. he performed the )'oglll's Se\er,l nce (gcod) meditation. He \'Isualll.ed himself as shclIlg off the bowl part of his skull. UlHfllI1): It o\er a tripod, letting hiS own Inner goddess of Wisdom chop tip hiS nesh and bonc~ to I'll! Iht'm III the skull cluldron, cook In): It wllh the fire of compassion, and offl'rlllg hl~ entlf(,' body to them JS a dellclou~ ~ t rw. I\t thiS ac t of su preme generosity, they became convlllced of the ;lUlh"11IICII), of hl~ allall\melliS, transformed them~e l ves IIlto their bCautiful form •• and .1(111:111), fe ll III lo ve wit h hml and became hiS disclJllcs and protectOrs. The)' 3re named T~eflngll1a ( i\\I~Pt -

(IOUS Lid)' of Long Life), Drogmanzulema of Las hi Snow ~ 10ul1lall1, Mannmo of Lmpa Draug. Tsotlla nma of Nepal, a nd Yidagomo of Yolmo Snow ~...Iou ntam_ The slOr)' IS written III detad III chapters 28-31 of The HllIu/rt'd Thollsand Songs of 1I1i1arepa (Chang, 1977), as follows: -~ltlarepa was at Drln ... a qUICt place in the snow country on the border between Tibet and Nepal, ... t'llcl rclcd b\ the
IV- Ia. b

Amitabha Central or western Tibet

Sc,ond h.df of rhe 15th century Gilt copper fepoll~"c; ((:aces l)f pigments on hair and face: seillcd wLlb hll ~C plufr; coments ins,lde 18" x 14" (45.75 x 31.5 eml

less curve th~n seen U1 Images generally of the 1flth cCllwry. 2) The ranning of the hem onto rhe pedestal ill the (enrer under the crosiled feet is nor an l"xlIggcmrcd pattern, bur is right, unobtrus1ve, and has 0;;111<1 11, delica te pleats. This feature is prob:lbly earlier than simila( mo tifs seen ill images of the Ian: 15th- 16th centuries onwards, which rend to stress a more pronounced curved arrangement. as

111

IV-2, or else to produce a larger fnnned-

3rea of tight pleins, as 111 man)' images of tht: 17th century (allowing the cpa lese traditions. The modeslY or rhe arrangement in this Kandell Amirabha linage suggests an earlier rather than a lale r darc. 3) Selective linear or grooved pleat folds over the It'fl arm, torso, and legs are used more than in the Zimillerman Mi larepa . Orhe r large Buddha image of sll11ilar robe Out

The Buddha Amitabha. Infinite Light! is the buddh.l manifestation of the Western Pure Land, Sukhavati, rhe Blissful. Around hi~ figure, as revealed In the SlIkhavatl and olher Un(ver~al Vehicle Discourses, enomlOUS devononal movements sprang up among rhe

unedu ,ned populations of India, Central Asia, and Easl A$ia, based on the belief that a virtuous life filled wi rh ethical observance and religious dcvorion would cause rhe believer afte r dea rh fa he reborn in rhe western heave n, visual ized 31, red and beautiful, like a glorious su nser, wherein the reborn devotee co ul d actually learn the' Buddha tcaching and atrain the h igh~r stage of evolution of bodh isarrvahood, never having co rerum ro _lilY embodiment il11pri~oned in a condition of extreme suffering. The Pure L1nd chool Uodo SImlshu) of Jap,wese Buddhism is the largest BlIddhi~[ 5chooll11 Japan tOday. This moderately large Image of Amirabba seared In rnednation is a rare and very Imere!lling work from a !tr)'li~[Jc. regional, and chronological point view. Ir has earmarks of daring around [he middle of the LSth cenrury. or slighdy later, and has some stylistic links with images from borh western and central Tiber. The figure is rather broad and well-rou nded and of norahle vo lume, which relates it to slich images from around the fi rst half of the 15th century as the Zi mme rman Milare pa and the Speelman Milarepa (\'(1;sdom ami COlllpassion, 199 1, No. 100; and Rhie essay Fig. 101. The drapcry. rhe patched robe, and the plt::ared rep of the undergarment bou nd by a nat waistband havese\'e raJ nomble characteristics, a!t follows: I) The draper)' fits dose [0 the form and bas on ly a moderately curved conmur as it spreads over the left arm. In this regard it has more curv"lIlcar movrment {han (he cwo Milarepa Statues noted above, bur has

or

IV.

CO/;tllIC

Buddhas ' 169

type, such as those at Grantse Kumbum can b(' Sl'en in the hem of thr sa nghati flap of ca. second quarter of the 15th century as it falls in back over thr left shoulder (IVI b). The triangular sh3pr on the lower hem (Govinda, 11, 154, 159) show few or no internal folds. Some images anributed 10 the ;lppears in tht: Red Temple image (Govinda, II , 159 ) and in t hr Yamantlka Temple 16th century tend 10 hal'e about the same Maitrera (both at Tsaparang), and in the quam it)' of intrrnal folds as tht'" Kandell imNyingiri Lam Tsong Khapa-but nOt on age (for examplt'", Weldon and Singrr, Tbe Sculplural Herilage of Tiber, Nyi ngiei Lam the Zimmerman Milarepa, and iust barel}" mdicated on the Speelman Milarepa. The Tsong Khapa statue fig. 62 on p, 144). triangle overlap shape is used in the Kan4) The borders of the sanghati and undergarmrm :m' handsomely decorated with a dell image 111 a f;lther tentative and 1110dest fashion 3nd not with the e3se of a wellfloral pattern In low relief and incised lines (IV-I b). This patterning is quite natur31istic developed motif. Further, the face lacks the and nongeometrlc. It is lrss oprn and loose severity and outlining of shape of the two than thc pallerns on the Zimmerm;ln Mi- Mil:trrpa statues. It does relate in thr eyes larrpa, but it is not far removed. It has more and wide mouth to the Buddha hrad of the Red Temple in Govinda (II, 160) and is quitr sculpturesque quality than thc Nyingjei Lam Tsong Khapa noted above, whose incised elose to the N)'ingjri l3m Tsong Khapa. patterns arc a little free r. The fold pallerns The head has a close resemblance to some Buddhas of thr Xuande reriod (1426-35 ), on the large images of the Red Temple and the Gyantse Kumbum arc tigh ter and more such as No.2 in Budd/Jlsi Images /II G,II Aletal, Taiwan ( 1993 ), sculpturesque than the Kandell image, but The pedestal hls rather compact lotus the consistency of the patterning relief is petals all 3round it. There ar(' two TOll'S of similar to the work on the ,"laitreya of the Yamantaka Temple at Tsaparang (Govinda, refined beading (lower rim and upper rim ). Each lotus pr131 h3S three layers with curlrd II, 16 1) and to the borders in the magnificent set of Lam 'bras images now in ,'vlindroling tips that make a somewhat ela\rorate form monastery (Illoved there from crum-thall known in other examples,sllch as the Yonglt' monastery ;Iud dat:lble 10 C:l. 495 (von (1403- 24) bron7.es. Ther arc not as ebborate Schroeder, Buddhist Sculptures ill Tibet, 11, as the lotus petals of the crantse Kumbum images. but arc rcb tively close to the pedes972-74, especially fig. 241 F). 5) On the hems thcre aTe 3 few overlap- tals of the Red Temple images at Tsaparang. ping ,Heas whose plain inner surhce conFrom these comparisons, the Kalldell image trasts with the floral relid on the outer sidr rrlltes most consistently to those of western of the bands. These make a curvrd shape Tibet of the second half of the 15th ttl carll' over the abdomen and a triangular shapr 16th cemUTY, but also shows some rebtio;l on the spreading hrms around the legs. A to sculptute of the ccmral regions, which is similar but less prominent curved pattern characteristic of large western Tibetan sculpappears on the Zimmerman Milarep3 and tures of this time.

170 • Cal'llogue

IV- la , b, c

Arn itabha Buddha CentTal Tibet Second half of the 15th cemUT)' Gil! copper rcpousse; traces of pigments on hair and fa~e, sealed """,h b~se pb,/.', contentS In<>d~ .W X 21" (73.5 X

53,25 em)

This superb large statue of Amitabha has an inscription arollnd the from and side of t he lowest rim of the pedesta l. It reads: "OM ! ~'lay well-being be established ! This likeness of the Lea der, Amitabha, his victorious buddha body made of the finest gi lded copprr, was commissioned by M inisters Nyenay, et al. with their retinues, following chiefly the comllland of the Emanation King, the i\hstcr, Lord of Men, bearing in mind the Intention and tutelary image of Rigdlin Lotro Thaya)'; br virtlle of this (deed), may rhe glory of fortune blaze and spread, may the malestic hrad of thr cung!hang King be exalted, frontier wars be averted, a ll beings be h3ppy 3nd ioyful, and ultima!el), may all swiftly ana in perfect buddhahood! (The Sl:Ilue was) created by seven jewel-holding Ncwar (artists). Mangalalll (good luckW (Tibetan: om slJasli silldhamllrg),11 mchog gUIIIgs gser las gmb rg)'a/ ba 'j skul Imam 'dre/I od dpag med pa'i 'dra 'bag 'dil/rigs 'dzill blo gros mlha )'as dgollgs pa dallg! ide yl lIallg rlell la dllligs mi dbal/g rid Imam 'phrul rglll po', bkll IUllg gtsor bz/mgs 1/(/51 Idbol/ po lI)'e gl/aS la sags 'khor bcas k)'isl Isgrubs pa'i mkra shis dpal 'bar dar rg)'(/S shillg/Igung IIIIII/g rg)'alllO'i dbu 'phangs

mtho ba 'drat /mtIJar dmag phy;r b::.log ;gro kll11 bde slung sk)';d/ /mthar thug rdzogs pD't sangs rgyos my"r lhob shog/lnto 11; 'itt bo lie btll belrm bZllbs/ mango/amI) Srylisflca.ll y rhl~ linage is mosr do!.ely related rp the; \cldprureo;; (,)f rhe Gyanrse KU111buIIl of the ~econ d quarte r of tbe 15th ccntury.lr is) howt'vcr. more refined in man)' uf its aspec:r-. and h:ls ~Olll e si milarities with images of the Reel Temple a\ Tsa parang of ca. third quart er of th e 15th century. Ir is majestic rind full or cnergy at the same time as it IS sharp and solid, simplified and yet be:lurifully rdined. It IS a very r3re Image f its SIze and qu aliry w be found outside of TibcL Th e very hroad . . houlder~ with arms t:xtended far ro th e sid es I, a trai t seen in Tsaparang sculrturcs pf the Guge Rena issance period (15th-16th centuries), but rhe hourgla ss ~ hare oj the rorso may be more akin ro the Gyanrse Buddha style as seen In the large Shakr~lInunJ ima ge (Govi nda, I. 82). The linear demarca ti on of the chest mu scle is ullll sual. Th e drapery is tightl y fitting with some patches. espccinlly ~v idcnt on rhe back and arms {lV-2n, c). The border anu patch design s are exquisitel)' rendered and are more delicate an d lyric
and the cJge oi Ihe ears. 1,lOe, plane, and deSign all bal.1l1ce one ;lnothcr with choreographed rhythll1~ rha r crt!arc rim image of ourer halance emanating an inner energy. Both harmol1lze to bnng the sculpture ,.jbrandy alive. Th e pedestal received equal arrention frol11 th e artl!. !. It was fas hi oned into a classical norm, with a finc row of beading on rll{' lowl!s l hand, a band of d()wnrurn ed pe tals of IWO bye rs (Ill{' inner peta l slightly cu rled at the ti p); rh e top ha!o " row of ca refully cra rted larger bead". At the very rap

is a fine, feather), fllW of veruc,,1 hnes at the sides of {he lotus pod. ~lmJ1ar deslglls appear III rhe pedestals of rhe stupas of Densatil (Mele, 'li hct, .. Ancient Reliquaries of So hd Silver, " n.p.) and rhe Red Temple IGov inda, 11 , 154), The red la cquer on the back of (he pedes!,,1 appears to be old, The ba(:k of th e: ped(;!sraJ is virrualJy pl ai n (IV-2e). ThiS handsome s tatue, rdh!ctltlg the I~rgc rcmpl c images of the rime, IS a ran: Inrgc i1ll~ g,c of rhis qualifY from lhl S viml period of Tibe tan Buddhist an,

IV.

COS1ll lC

Huddhas ·

17J

[V-3a, b

Amitayus China; Tibclo-Chincse. Mid-15rh century Gilt bronze; \ealed wIth bast: phue (:n~raved with 51mple dOrJe: rec;calcd (coments inside) 7WX4~·(I9x

12cml

Amitayus (literally " Infinite Life") is ei ther as an alrernate form of A11lirabha (" Infinite Light"), rhe buddha of rhe \'(IeStern Paradise, the blissful Sukhavati, or a bodhisattva, olle of th ose who are actually buddhas bur manifest 3S bodhisauvas in order to draw closer ro suffermg beings to help thcm out of their miser),. Here Amitayus IS presented as a bodhisatrva. Identified by hiS celcSClal crown and his rich jewelry and si lken royal garmenrs. whereas when he i~ preseored as a buddha, his head is bare like that of a proper monastic. He holds in hIS meditative]) level hands the long-life vessel filled with the elixir of immorraliry. When Shakyamuni arramed unexcelled perfect enligh tenment , he is thought to have exclaimed rhar he had discovered a reality "like an elixir of 11ll11lCmali ry!" This underlines the Buddhisr ins ight that reality itself sustains an unending co nrinuum of life, so there need be no fe!lr of, nor realistically should there be any escapist cravin g for, any kind of lIrter extinction, an)' corry into oblivion. Death is bur a quanrum leap within a coormuous proce% of change, which means that the purpose of life is ro make sure that one''i infinite lives :lrc in good environments. and arc blissful and not stressful. Samsara is a me:tningless cycle of endles!> lives and deaths and rebirths, going round and round, up and down, with a relcmless series of suffe rings of different types. Buddh.hood I equally infinire, bur it is blissful and purposeful, since a buddha-being manifests only our of com passion in order ro help others find the freedom from suffer:ing that such a buddha has come ro know as rea lity at the deepest level. The Mahayana vision of Amitayus Buddha or Bodhisattva is ve ry important to recognize, for ir conclusively refures the stereorype of Buddhism inherited from 19mcentur)' misunderstandings, that Buddhism is "life-negating," promoting inevirable suffering, seeking esca pe from life intO exti nction, nnd so on. Thl~ is a sma ll bur sllmp[Uous image of Amltayus. This 'iculpture would appear to follow 111 the footstep~ of the Yongle bronzes (Ming dynasty, 1403-24), perhaps around the middle of the 15th cenrur)'. The form is smoothly fashiont:d and the head is proportionate ly large. Ir is the rich orname ntation ) a buddha,

however, thar prOVIdes lhe lustrous effects of the image. There are no colorful msets. Instead, the brilliant gdding covering the whole, including alt the jewel chams winding around rhe leg!], rhe heavily fa'Oh,oncd armbands, [he imricarel}' detailed ayur-kafasha (vase of immortality), and the crown wirh irs knohby ornaments and tiny pearl festoons, is enough to create a sump r uou~ resuh. The broad face has fearures similar ro IV-I. The earrings afe close to rhe type appearing on the Yongle bronzes. The shawl worn by rhe image has an urlusunl cascade of nearly triangular hems thar rlln down both upper arms and add considt:rably to the busy overetll effccts of the adornments. As rhe ends of rhe shawl pass O\'cr the forearms [0 the pedestal rhe}' become straight strips edged in tiny pearls.

Tbe pedestal, which has a shghrly convex surface, IS bordered ar the rop and on (he bo[(ol11 level b)' refined pearl'i. The rows of upturned and down turned lotus petals, finet) sculpted and !>Imilar 111 design to those in IV- I. extend around the back as well (IV-3b). The figure IS interestingly configured in the back \'iew, which => how~ Ihe shawl covenng the shoulders with loose, synunetncal and vertical pleats. The long hair (retaining some brighr blue pigment), is combed into an attenuated rriangle down the ha ck. The paired pearl jewel chains loop gracefully over rhe waist, hips. and legs. This is a rare figure of Amitayus in the early MlIlg style, and one that has a highly plcasmg. harmoJ1lolls. luxurious aura.

IV. Cosmic Buddhas · 175

rV-43, b

Amitayus Bodhisattva China

or

Second hnlr the 16rhfirst half or rhe 17th century Yellow bronze (nongilt); Inset coral :ll1d

turquoise; b!:lsC scaled with copper plare

lotus perals, all of which arc in two levels, with rhe poi 111 of the upper petal curled IntO a fleur-dc-lis shape. A fine pearl beading rims the top, bur the base level is plain. The loms petals do nor extend [0 the very back, bur give way to a c
rhe imperial workshops in Beijing during the Qing dynasty ( 1644- 191 1). This hne .mage

probably dace~ from the lllld- or Iarc Ming, ca. lare 16th to first half of the 17rh century. There are some intere:.ring similarities with rhe sculptural work of the famous northern 1'vlollgoli3.n lama artisr Zanaba7.ar of the lare "17th century, who, howcvl;:r, creates his own quite distinct variation (see Rhie essay).

engraved with doubl e yair:!j content.; inside 9~ X 6~

(13 X \5.2.5 em)

or

In the COI/temp/ulioll AmitaYlIs SlIlra, rhe revelation of the pure land of Amitayus is granted to King Bimbisara and Queen Vaidehi in their old age, when they are suffering the agony of death from starvation by order of their demcmed son, Ajarashauu~

who has been persuaded by Buddha's evil half-brorher, Devadarrn, they are his enemies. ir is a scene of supreme royal sllffering, and the Buddha appears to them in the sky and besrows rhe vision of the realm of Infinite Life Buddha. His celestial buddha verse is de~ scribed in such viv id visionary detail, it helps r.o explai n why the tradition of devorion to thilt pure lanJ was the most popular of all Buddhist schoo ls througho ut Asia. Like IV-3, this is another splendid image of AmiraYLls (missi ng the kalasha vase). Unlike the mher, rh is Amirayus is nor gilded (though it has remains of cold go ld all rhe face, cars, and neck) and has colorful insets of turquoise, coral , and crystal. The head is smaller and rhe features closer to a PalaNepalese idiom with sha rp nose and pointed chin. The body is also more disclosed in irs muscu lar form. Though [he adornments are more constrained, they prov ide a sta rl ike, sparkl ing effect. The lin ear elements appear ill rhe narrow folds of the scarf, which is worn only diagonall y across the chest, an d th e fanning zigzag hems of rhe dhoti on the pedestal. Long tresses of hair, still retaining rhe blue pigmenwrioll, fall hea vily down rbe upper arms to the elbow. The earrings a[e reminiscent of the Yongle style, and as in IV-3, the crown is low with pearl festoons. The back is also we tl fashioned, and insets used for the jewel chai ns arch gracefully over the image in back, jusr as they do in from (IV·4b). The pedestal has a double row of

[v. Cosmic Buddhas '

J 77

IV-5

Am ita)'us Buddha Qmg; probabl) Dolonnor Second half of Ihe 181h cCllIury Gilt copper caSI; k,llasha, separald)' (3SI, IS probabl} a latef .Iddillon; plgml'nls; l.uef copper base plOlIl' " 'IIh Ill(:lsed double IOllra 12" X 9" (30.5 X lJ em)

Amitayus Buddha represents the aSfOllIshmg fact that when a living being occomes enlightened and escapes samsara Into IlIrvana, she or he does not merdy disaplX'3r Into sweet ohlll'ion hut rather expands to embrace as her- or himself the enme UOII' erst' of IIv1l1g beings and in3nimate th1l1gs. R3Iher than gl1'1I1g up hfe, 3S is often mentioned 111 the dualistic Indll'idual-I'ehicle Buddhism of Theravada and Mah3samghika orders, a buddha becomes one with all life el'crywhere, and so can mamfest emhodlmelHs wherel'e r she or he feels Ihe need of bemgs In space and 11111(,. The Infimte LIfe Buddha

178 • CaIJ[Ot:ue

thus expresses In hiS on(' ('mbooullent the fact of all huddhas ('mbracing all life of 311 beings everywher(', thus natur311~' exerting their 1I1filllle energies to help hemgs who experience thelT lives as suffering learn how 10 ('xperience them as bliss in~tead_ This 111l3gC of Amil3yus is heal)" but shows some II1"el1l1ess In the mOI'emcnts of the drapery. The crown and earrlllgs ar(, 105t. Signs of the m,lnnered elements that appear in some l3Ier 18th- and 19th-celllurr sculptures are hmted at here 111 the str,mge 11101'('mentS of Ihe scarf around the elhows. It loops outward symmetrically on bOlh sides wllh a lurned-over Outer edge that has a balloolllng protrtlSlon In the centcr of th(' outer h('m. The resulting smooth, thICk, and curved shapes offl'r a contrast to the OIher lmear el('ments: the close parallel lines of the scarf-which ar(, Il('re morc formailzed than the folds of the scarf over the Ch('M of IVA-and Ihe languorous folds of the drap' ery over the top of the pedestal. ThIS kmd of design occurs In OIher sculpcur('s of the 181h century. paT1lcularly those proouc('d under the Qmg (st'C On the Patl) to !:.lIllghtellmel!(.

No. 3-1 ). The heal'l' folds O\'er the legs wnh a chasl'd border design are SImIlar to the treatment s('en 111 Ihe portrait of Rolway Dorie of Col, second half of the 18th century (Rhie ('ssay. Fig, 38). The face is g('ntle and a bit hland (having lost all pigments). The jl'wl'iry IS nussing its insets, so the im3ge does nOt h31'e the heightened color Ihese would prol'ld(', The central pendant of the short neckl.ice IS a Simple l'erSlon of a style frequently seen III the mid- and lam'r half of Ihe 181h century-probahly the date of IhlS sculpture, wlllch IS likely to h31'e been made in In!ll'r Mongolia (probably Dolonnor). Thl' back IS relaliv('lr pl3in, though Ihe back of the nt'Ckbce has twO rows of beads and the SCJrf has a s~'mmelTical gath('rmg of folds. The pecll'sralls typical. With a row of beadmg 311he top that goes all around, bUI the nicely bshioncd, upIIITlled lotl15 petals do nOI eXltnd around the back. The backs of the scarves 3fe painted wnh red lacquer. Overall the Ullage IS mild re t dlgmfied with a sense of realistic weight and softness. a charaerenstlc quality of \<\ongolian sculpture of this time,

JV-6a, h

Am itabha Ct'llIral Tibcl C:l. nlld-ISrh ccmury Gill COppC:f rcpou~,c and casl parrs; separately C:lst kalash:l: flIrqul)l~t' II1Sct urna; original pIg1l1ents on bee :lnd hair; 'c~llcd with origllul coppcr base plate illCI~cd with double vaJra; content!> wlthll1

10" x \4" (.10.7.1 x JS.s em)

This Amirabha Image 10 irs a[{cnrive, forward-tending poslUre, rhe meditatively folded hands raic;cd above his heelsl gives an indicatioD of the afti~t's sense that the Infil1lte Light Buddha i!> nor restmg c31m and aloof from the human world of tribulations but is alert and concerned for the fate of suffe ring beings. There jc; an Incident In the legends of Padilla Sambhava in whi ch Avalokireshva ra, the Loving E)'cs Bodhisattva, becomes impatient wit'h Amitabha, sin ce the Buddha seems roo ul1 con~ crned for suffering beings. Chall enged by his bodh isa ttva disciple, Ami(abha sticks our hi s tongue and a meteor shoots down into th e world, giving birth t () the grea t adept Padilla Sarnbhava in a lotus growing in a lake. The idea is [hat, while Amitabha's world seems to us to be ever so far awa), Amit3bha feels closely and completely connected [ us, ready [0 draw LIS into the blis\fulland of true awareness. This. third of the three large Amitabha Images In the co ll ection (with IV-I and IV·2) comes from a later rime and shows the considerable changc~ that had occurred by around the mid- 18th centu ry in a similar type of image, probab ly from cen rral Tiber, though it is sa id to have come from Labrang monastery in Amd o. Images made in central Tibet and also in the Qing work shops of Dolonrlor 111 Inner Mongolia were ex ported rhroughout the region from Lhasa to Amdo and northwest Chin
clnd chat1tlt' folJ patterns over the left lIide of the tlgurc. bur, by comraSt, quite l)"rlcal and fluid curved mo\'cmenb a~ I( falilii over the legs and OIllO the tOp of the pedestal. The draper) on the hack (lV-6b) is. morc defined than seen III I I rind 1-4, btll Ie~'i preCise than rhe pattNm of the 15th-ccnrury image in IV·2c. The greater sense of movement in the drapery a~ well as the mO fe prominenr upper chest, compared with the !.culpru res of 1- 1 and 1-4, co uld be an Indi cation of sf),[jstic cle ments ~ect1 in the latter half of the j 8th ct:ntur y. Tht: fate, lightened with its bright turquoise urn:"! (rhe white hair tuft that marks a supreme emanation-body buddha ), ha s a !.harp nosc and unur.,ua\ly small mOllth that contribure'i to the tense-

ness of rhe figure. The plgmt!m~ and cold gold appear bright and fre~h. The -ample peciesmlill well-fashioned, with rwo rows of refined and dcmc low.., peral"i from traditions well esrahhllhed a .. ea rly.u the 15th-16th century and srandardll.ed hy the 17th-18th cemury. ln fJ.ct, rhe pedestJI~ on il1lage~ from central Tibet can ha rdly be dilltlnguished from those pwciuced III Qing Ch in a-there is thar much ince rn auol1(1l '\t:Jnd ardlzarioll apparent, especially by rhe 1Hlh century. Like other large Image') of rhls lime, Ihe back of rhe pedestal is complerely plain, though the overbp and deSIgns of the Buddha's robes are quite well delineated with curvilinear folds, chased borders and rhe parches of the sanghati (IV-6 b).

IV. Cosmic Buddhas · 181

IV-7

Al11itayus Bodhisattva Father-Mother Ce.mral or eastern Tibet 18th-19th centuries

Applique of Qiog brocades. sIlk couchmg, learher derails, and gold couchi ng rhread; ungi nal mounts and dU$I"COVt'f Over;J1I24" X 191,4" (6 1 X 49 em); painting 12" X l OW' (30.S X 26.75 em)

Here we sec an esoteric fo rm of Amjrayus as bod hisattva again, but in this case split into two beings, male and female, borh of

them Amitayus Bodhisarrva, he the compassion aspect and she the wisdom aspect. They sit in sexual union, which serves as a

metaphor for an en li ghtened being's blissful experience of the whole universe. In what i!l caJJed the "Great Seal" (mahn mlldra ), or perhaps "Great Em bra ~),. an enlighrened being is revea led in the esoreric literature a~ III such ha rmony with the entire universe, every aspect of it is expe rienced as if it were orgasmic contact-tha t is to say, visual experience,
comple[ely with aU others, is only concerned for their welfare, feels their life felr to be so Illll c.h more imporranr than rh~r of th e en~ lighrened being. This exoteric si mile emphasizes the nature of compassi n, th e inabiliry to tolera[e rh e suffering f anmher, hence the dcte.rminarion ro free the other from it. In rhe esoteric conre.xt~ the bliss e1clllcm is inrroduc:ed. since what can .1Ctually make compassion effective is love, the wish for the happiness oj the beloved-and how can rhis be achi eved if the lover is herself or himself beset with suffering? The wish fo r rhe othe r's bappiness is empty si nce the lovi1lg person is so distressed by suffering th.lt he or sbe cannot conceive of what happiness might be. Only lhrough feeling the inexhaustible bliss thal comes from rhe freedom realized br the wisdom of selflessness, voidlle.'iS, and the true nature of realiry can an enlighrened loving being sustain the energy to relieve other being:. of sufferll1g and endow rhem with th e happines~ of enlightened freedom. Th is i rhe real meanirlg of the male-female imnges in esoteric Buddhism . Ir has nothing to do with glorifying ordinary egocentrically dominated sexua liry, which is considered to be an acrual form of suffering, since the sexu~ a ll y aroused egocenrric or uneJllightened beillg cannnr rea ll y ler go of self-limitation, and cannor really surrender to th e trans,endence of self-grasping required ro reach the deepest blJss of reality-and so ends in dissatisfacrion, frustration, disillusionment. However, this esoreric vision of Tanrric Buddhism does acknowledge that even egocentric beings sense that th ere is some supreme pleasure tying somewhere in tbe arens skirred by orgasmic experiences, however el usive and necting: and so the sexual unI on of enlightened beings does ha.ve a -side eHea of redeeming some of the most essenrial funcrions of sentient life. which normally are considered most profane by exoteric religions, including

monastic Buddhism. Only in the later, mosr deep nnd mature cen turi es of Indian Buddhism ane:! rhose Indic cultures permeaTed with it, and then in Ti bet and Mongolia (and '3 little bit in the Shingon sc hools of Japan), does the esOteric become morc or less wi dely known and almost exoteric; and in th ose societies emerged a relative lack of militarism. a gemleness and respecr for the feminlllc, and a tolerance of the heigbrenedawa reness psychologies thaI can face [he eros and th:H1
IV. Cosmic Huddhas • 183

IV-8

Akshobhya Buddha Central TIber IDt:nsacil?) Late 14th-c.uly 15th centur;cs Gilt hronzc; rurquoise and ruh) base open, comcnrs IpSl lr X

S~

IIlSCI~;

(30.) X 10.2) em)

This image is of rhe cosmic Huddha Akshohhya (-Unshakable"}) o;;hown III bod illsan\'a form with his right hand in rhec
hand. Akshobhya Buddha is rhe celesrial hudd ha of the eastern paraJi~e, Abhiratl,

where the lay sage Vima laktrli is said to have taken rebirth as Shakyamuni Buddha'~ layma n counterpan in the grear city of V
and mll!) t be r(,'l.~~ lI red bv Abhobhva th,1[ It is jusr Vimalakini doing a dcmons;rarion , and everything will be aU right. There is an AkshobhYfl SI/Ira abo, wherem rhe Abillran buddhaver"e I~ hl·autifull) described. Tht' Interesting thing about thar I1IlIVerc,c i ... rh:lt it is morc carthlike than most' of rhe more ethe real buddha bnds or buddhavcrse:s. There 3rc animals. lorests\ mountains, and so on. T he big difference J~ that rhe 1.Idders trom earth TO heaven!:. are alway:. up, and the humans and god~ can Intermingle; and the gods especudly hkl' ro descend to earlh to attend the {eachm!;!:. of the Buddha Ak-;hobhya. who never withdraw" his mnnifestarioJl, as does hnkyamuni on this earth-which BuddhJ£[s call "Sa ha," or "Tolerable," mCrlning of course, ,. ~an.d}' Tolcrable." T he great Tibetan yogin Milarcpa is also thought to be residing in Abhlr<1tJ. and his biographer Rechungpa Vl'ItS h1l11 there ill ::t dream vision and recei,'es the charge to write rhe great sage's biograph)'. It I!:. a beautiful image, gilded and with turquoise and ruby inset:; in the jewels. The face is long wi th refined fcaHlres rhal rerain somt: pigmenrs. The torso, decorrm:d with rather -; Icnclcr and wiry je-wei chains, is lifted high, and rhe legs of rhe sratuC"qllc figure fill the long oval of rhe finely wrought douhle-lorus <;:eal. The earrings with long sp rays of Jewels I )'in~ on rhe shoulders, the lorus

stal k with Its "llloothly curving Icavt:S, and rhe halolikc appearance of the sCirf circling behind the head Ilre lovely artistic touches. which. ~Iong with the derail of the pt:destal, lend special inrl·resr to the iJ1l:lge. The base of the pedesral has a slighrlr stepped :,hape in front and curves around ro Ihes ides and a curved rrianglJlar shape in back. On the from of rhe mid dl e pane l, framed by small pillars. is III relief .1 \'ase of plenry wirh sc rolling vegeta tion spreading to bmh sides. Flanking the cemnll pand On each ide IS n striding elephant. The hack of the Image 15 relatJvel ~' plain, wilh:, me fine beading of the neckJace and belr, bur the "carves art' also plain. The lotus petal .. of the base continue all around. Th ere -an: some signs ot fire dnmage. TIllS sculpture. Al- well as IV-9, is a fine work 111 rhe stylistic idiom of rhe DCllsatil sculprurc, of ca_ larc 14(h-<.rl y 15(h cemufY following Nt:palese artistic rradi6ons. Densatil lllonaSter), III the 0 province. onginall), rbe main ll1ona-;tery of the Ph3grnodrupa SUbSt'Cl of the Kagynpa order, was destroyed in 1966 during the Culrural Revolution. The D cnsari l - ~ l yh: inmge with irs strongly Nepa lese hcmagc had :1 lung life in Tibet, lasting wel1ulto the 17th century with only mi nor varmtions (1-13). The Densatil <;culptures are prtme representations of one of the major sculpture lineagc." of (he middle period of Tiberan arl.

IV. Cosmic Buddh:ls · HH

Buddha, issaid to bean emanatIOn of Vajra· dhara and a buddha himSI.'If. So the variety Vajradhara of forms of [he esoteric buddhas are only meant for [he encourageml'nt and l'ducanon CentTJllibC"t ( Den~3111? 1 of different types of disciples. Interesnngly, mthis image. as in IV-S. thl' :-Ohd-15th c('neur)' bell and valrJ attributes of Va)radhara an: Gill copper dUO}'; msels of turqUOIse; traces of not in the hands of rhe figure, which aTe in pi);mcm~; base opened [hl' tMlrallllmk
186 • Cat.llogul'

earl)' China, Korea, and Japan. More likely, however, in this case they refer to the tiger's· teeth necklaces worn by ascetics in India and which appear on ascrt!c rende rings of certain bodhisattvas. Their appearance on VaJradhara may Imk this Image to a yogic or ascetIC reprt.'senta tion. At any rate, they are an interesting and unusual feature of this image. The ear rings are jewel-shaped pendants, but they are restrained in size compared to the generally larger ones Sefn on 17th·century images. The back of the Image is qUite phlin With only the beaded waistband and twO loops of pearl strands hanging from II. While mOSt "cosmic" or mystical Images have shoulder or chest scarves (set' IV-8), this image has no scarf and the back has only thr necklace on the upJ>l'r bod)'. The crown is not ornamented 011 the back, but [he hair is parted in the mIddle and hangs as a tr1angular shape In [he center, fallmg only to the necklace (nOl as long as seen III IV-3c). Some blue pigmentation remalllS on the hair. The figure sits directly on the top of the basr, which is slight I)' ste pped fo rward 11\ the center and curved on the sides and back. The front has a wonderful array in Individual niches tha t contain snow hons III the outer panels and elephants with rugs on their backs in the inner twO panels. They face towards the central niche. which has a mmiature four-armed Mahakala holding a skull cup and chopper. Each niche IS framed by a rounded, tooled column. The sides and back have four large and rectangular cutout segments with otherwisr plain surfaces. The lorus pedestal Tim extends only around the frOIl[ and part-way into the SIdes. The lowest le\'l'l of the base in front has an openwork scrolling VIIII' design . This IS quite an unusual pedestal to SCI' in a small image. The ensemble is genrrally fashioned III the Nepalrse·mfluenced Densa[il style. but wlIh some modifications that suggest 3 dating into the mid- or second half of the 15th century.

IV- IO•. b

Vajra attva Cenrf.!l Tibet (Tsa ng) Fir~f

h.lJf of the 15th .. cntur)'

Gdt l'opJX'r rcpo u s~e (jOIned

III

three pam on

tht' ,Irnh and :11 luncture o( torso with legs), wllh turQU01S(' and coral inscls[probabl} 19[h century: LIma IUrquoi!>c a modern rcplacemenl l, fucc and nt.."k lacquered; bonom dosed wnh II lacquered board. no Tll:1rb; 1!)~lde empty

24\\"X 17" 162.25 X 43.25 em)

This powerful repollssc St,1fUCof VajraS3r[Va b

rarc among ~Uf\ iving ~cu lp[lIres of this

In Tibcran Buddhi~m. Nor large ancl q Uite remarkably well preserved with 1[5 onglll:1J htrge val ta and bell, It is one of th e earlicsr examples Df V:ljras;urva in all Btlclcl hi~[ an The figure si ts with legs loo'lcly folded. the soft sole)' of the feer turned upward with deep markings. The rhythmiC p:mcrn of SOl oth c;urfacc!l, embroidered hems, pearl ank lets, and the pleated end!:. of rh e belr sash-all gracefull y nnd geml y folding over rhe legs and ankl es-is but one example of the O\'erall balance achieved amo ng fleshy

Importam Image

only

IS It

J I ng pearl beaded Slr
sharp bndge. J.nd thl' Corner., (It the mouth [l1rn lip 111 a rather \tcrn !lmtle. TI)(," whole appearance of the tace, rhough relatable lQ Ncpak'ic fOfms, conrams:t freshne~s of sp lri[ and ext'curion thar MlggeSt the early stages of a !>tylc. The crown, dt:nsc ly orn.lmcnred with clollely arrayed Icaflike pld qUCS" Ith rendrils and lIl~el gCnl!lo, fits rightly to the hc:td and is bound b} the ends of the ha<;;e wire that IS threaded (h rough a hole III :t rah ri\'cted on each Side of rhe head. Th t: crown ribb()ns arc of one pi ece wilh the shee t of long, cu rl edged hair (n~ also seen in the Tara of rhe Red Templt; m Tsaparang), and e;1ch piece is arrachcd to lhe side of the head br onc fiver. These arl' all qUIre unusual tedllliquc!t, not seen III the larer repollsse ima!!es. On top of the b lll ~·pam (ed hair, whu.:h l!l ned 111(0 a ropknor with a thin ribbon, is a h:tlf·vajralike orn31llCIlI suggestive of Ihl' e&ore:ric scarus and name of the im:tgl'. The hroad oval lo(Us pedestal is covered with b yers of r:tlb er plain petals only 011 the front and sldec;,leaving rhe back uncovered and plain. As a whole, this splend lJ scu lptllre appears human, n~hy, and heavy With a touch of conccnrr:tted Intensity and a mixture of nawrali!>tic. sop lll~ticatcd beaut)' and forrhnght si mph cllY.

hody, varied drapery components, and rich

ornamcmario n in th is superb example of rcpoussc c;culpture. The hod y form is distinctive for irs muscular [Qrso (IV· IDb), which o;;hows IrS affimty with the hea\'y fonn~ of the sculpture of the G}'anrse Kumbum daring ca. 1425-50. Though the triangular !>haping of th e mrso wilh Irs c;llIali waist can relate 10 depi ctions of Buddha Images in the wall paintings daring ca . first balf of rhe 14th century 3l Shalu mon astery in Tsang (Xizang [I 94[, fig>. 153.255-2;9), other elements. such as rh e dis rinctive muscular shaping o f rhe abdomen around the Il:l vel, are in a man ner norable in th e Gyanrse Kumbulll sc ulptures l lill [1957[, fig . 731. Si milarl y, the handsl poised with Oexible, naruralisri c fingers, relate to the forms seen in Ihe portrait sClllpcures of the Pelc hor Chodc :H G},anrsl! [Lill [1 9,\7 [, fig. 67). Th o drapery, though fitring closel y [0 the body, has hems flowing onto the pedestal, which bC
of the 15th century. The angular folds on the shoulders, rhe mrher stiff pleato;; of the ends of the sca rf, and especia ll y rhe co mbin ation of a large pearl choker with orna re band and IV.

C()'iIliIC Btl ddha~

• 189

IY- Il

Arapacllana Manjushri I
IV_ II

Sukhavali Avalokileshvara ChHla~ TIbeto-ChHl~

laIC 17lh-early 18th ccnturles Gilt copper alloy~ open bottom 9!n" X 6W 124.25 X 17.25 cm) ThIS is a heavy cast and glIded Image without any IIlscts. It is likel)· of Chinese make follOWing the NepaleS{'"-Tibetan style WIth some adaptaflons of Chmese taste, such as seen In the Yongle bronzes, hut of a kller date, probably late 17th-earl)' 18th century in Ihe KangxI peflod (1662- 1722). The form IS firm and solid and Ihe lewelry somewhat CO:lrse, but the line has the Iyricalmterest that is usually a hallmark of a 190 • Calalol;ue

Chmese artist. The dlvidmg of the drapery hems In the front over the pedestal is a mannenslll S{'"en in the sculplUres made by Zanahalar in Mongolta around this !line :IS well, but in those It IS more slyl izcd and refined. The pedestal has long, narrow lotus petals WIth pearl beadlllg :It the top and along the lower TIIn, bOlh of whu:h conunuc around the back. It IS completely open on the botto111.

x 9' (3 1.75 x 22.75 em)

This stUlplUre shows a form of Ihe bodhis:lItva that is often seen in Tibetan an-hIS el'er-youthful Arapachan:l form, where he IS depicted as a 16-year-old youth, holding aloft a flaming sword in his right hand whde a volume of the Trallscendent Wisdom 015· cOllrse Ites In his left hand. Manlushn is the buddha who vowed thai he would al wa)'s appear as a bodhisattva III all universes where fully perfected budd has would arise, to ask them the profound ques tions about the nature of the world, life, dearh, and liberaTion from suffering. He is Therefore the deity of students throughout Ihe l~lIddhi s t world, who all pray 10 him to sharpen their intelligence and help them pass their exams. The figure has a SIIlUOUS, swlle, you thful hody with somewhat large, squared hel d and qUIte delicate features. Possibly there was an Iflset ongtnally in the ccntral leaf of the five-lcal'cd crown, out in general hIS adornments are simple. He does have heauliful eamngs and some chasing on the hems of his
on) with a copper base plate rbar has been engraved wirh a double vajra. The image has a strong Nepalese flavor and probably dares ro around rhe firsr half of the t 6th cemury, eithe r from Nepa l or dle central

regions of Tiber. It is rare for its iconographic type, which itself is nor often seen. and is very nicely portrayed in rhis sculpture. The iconography may particularly resonate with the legends of Manjushri in the formation of

Nepal. III which he cleaved the mountains to drain the great lake that is now. epaJ. It is also a form seen in rhe large temple images of Gelukpa affilin rion) especially rhose in Amclo, northwest China, and Mongolia. IV. Cosmic Buddh:ls ' !9!

IV·l]a, h

Eleve n-f'lced Avalokileshvara QIIl~

.\ lld·Il:!lh (C!llUrr GIl! coplX'r: pIgment': b.lSl' pbll'" 1oo
cllgr.l\'l'"d wltb douhll'" ,'alra: ,'OIlI('rHS IIlS1de 1(Y' )(

s· aU )( 12.-' un1

Though small, thIS I~ a filwl) UJft('d sculplUre of the dl'~en - fa(ed, thOUS.1nd-arm('d (her(' clght ~rms repre<,cntrng 1.000) A\'.1loklteSh'.1rl.!1 pow('rful forlll of the bodhlsall\a of unll'ersal compasston. Th(' legend IS that thIS hodhlSltllJ \'owed In the pre<>en.'e of his (O"tlll( leacher, Buddhl AmltJbha. th;lIlfh(' el('r Ixx.lmt' dlscourJged III hl~ multi-lifetime queq 10 hbcr.i!e bcmgs from suffering, hIs head should he !oplu 1!1 ten ple(e~ .Hld his hod) torn to shrl'"d\. After m.l ny hIes. he did he(ome dl~cour.lged. lnd he was so shattered. Cfylllg OUt 111 a)!ony and desperatIOn, that i\nlltahh;l .H1swerrd 1m (lll. ;lnd ~fter makl!lg:1comment ahout Iltll1)! c.1reflll wh.lI rou wish for, blc~sed hIm su thl! the ten plea's bt'can1l' the ten he~J~ th ~ 1 r('pr('S('nt ma~lery of Ihe tl'n hodhl~;lItl'a ~tJges.

and the thousand PIC(C~ of hl\ hod)' hce.l ml' th(' thousand arnh of the t!rOlI,and global cmpcror, who would Mise he re durlllg the era of this uniHfse. e:leh wuh an ey(' 111 the palm that r('prc"Cnt' thc thousand huddh:I' who will also appear. On th.· tOp of Ill(' tenth he.ld, Am1\abh.1 mantfestt'd hllmelf as thc small rrd h.·ad that make, elenll. So this form of the hodhlsam'a a~ a resurrt'('Ied messiah figur.. IS comenuoll,llly rlllsnamed ~t'"leven-headed, ~ SIlKe the del'emh ht'ad IS not his but IS that of his cele\lIal tl·Kh~' r. there to mdKate their ultimate nondu,Ihtr, The suek of heads ming like a tower IS nearl} as tall :IS th~· hod~ of the Image, thus :llmost doublmg liS height. ThIS W,I) of portra)'mg the elncn he;ld~ 1\ t)plc.11 of the Indo-Nepalesc··lihctan m:lllner (~el.n. for example. m splendid r;lllIlmgs from the Sumtsek at Alehl m Ladakh from the Lite Ilth--carly I Jth Cl·ntttryJ. Tltl' I~.I dl{(('rent wa)' from some of the t'arller Ea~t ASian rendcrmgs. which SOl11t'lIme~ pl.lCe:lll the he.ld~ around the rnn of the lrown. NC\"{'nhde~s, th!~ IIllage IS wl,lI pro portl(llled. and th .. movement of the arms, co()rdm.lIcd III th(· centr.11 lOne o f the hod)" and the halanemg role pia red by the lower porlion with liS

SlIffl), flar .. d, pleal ..d dhOIl, IOgt'ther wllh th.' symmetrical. cork~crew movcments of the IOllg shawl on both sides. eSlahhsh a ryr.lrllldal compo~ition thai readily supportS thl' top-hcavy array of bodhisattl'a he3d~ , with the head of Huddha Amit:lbha al the apex. Th.. patterning of the long shawl ends rd.ltes well with th:lt o f the crown rihbon~ on Ih.. Tara of ca. nlld - 18lh centur), III 111 ·5. though It IS slightly mor.. formalized m tht'" elelen-headcd Im:lge. Tht" circul!!r ped.'5tJI has ~l1nple bUI plump pet:lls and nicely rt"fined hcadm!1; all around. The hack of the unagl"contlnucs Ihe loop· m)! of a few lewel chams from the waist. as .llso SCen on the from, and presents the ~pn'.ldtng shawl over the shoulders with ,Ollie loose drapes (lV- l lh). The pleab of the douhle~1a\"cred. sk lrtlike dhoti become WIder as th.:)' descend, wilh the whole dhot! becommg a solid COIlI't'"X shape. Chasrd decoratll'e borders apJX'ar in both layt'"rs. The backs of the shawl ends arc bcquered red, .Ind hlue pIgme nts remai n on all the heads. The St.lI Ut' ref1CCI ~ a dcheacy and refinement togethe r wllh some stylization typka l o f ca. rllld- 18th-eenturr sculpture from Chmcsc workshop~ of the tmll'.

IV- 14

Tonpa Shenrab Miwoche as Cosmic Buddha Ea'itern Tibe,? 171h century Gilt cuppt:r rcpUUl>l>C; InseT' corallllld

turquoise; origlnlll pigments los[j base plate and cotUellr~ IUM

rhe left leg resembles [he fOfm seen III tbe goddes,", sculptures ar KUlllbum U1 Amdo of ca. second quaner of the 171h century (Rhie essay, Fig. 15 ). The pedestal is qUite heavy III appearance and dnrnagcd on one side. The back is without lot'lls pern l'!' blH retains rhe shape of th e la yers nnd rim .;;, unlike la rc r, large 18th· century scu lprurc'i such ~I" 1- 1 and 1-4. The back of rhe fig ure follows through with the clements of the front, though In much simpler

form. The hair, ~till rer3l1ltng some of irs original blue plgmeIHnti n, IS paned In the cemer nnd buih up inro :1 modesl chignon. Only a shan lock falls to c~Kh shoulder. The backs of rhe scarves, crown, and rihbons are plain :md 1I11painrcd. Th is image may derive from eastern Tibet. I( has sam I! Chi nese as well a.. Nepa lese elements. It probably d:w.:s to the 17(h century. As a ~l1lallllnagl' it has a stunning presence amid irs flurry of fancy drapery.

9W X 6~ (24 X 15.25 em )

The Bon religIon of Tibet, in the main. has become lu~t like Buddhism in all bur trivial respcds. It believe . . in karmic evolu~ non of sentient beings. II considers normal ignorance-dn"en life as a round of suffering.

If has monastics who seek lihcralion and enlightenmenr. It ha!l a literature consisring of Discipline, Discourse, and Pure Science, corresponding ro practices of morality, meditatioo, and WilOdolll, jUSt:lS in Buddhism--even rhe rirles of th e texts arc almost the same. It v latter manncri~1l1 developed in later sculpture, becommg very pronounced, as we can see III IV-S. The drapery flap over

IV. CttSllll": Hudclhas · 193

IV· IS

Stupa

(Tib. mchod rtell)

hina (Beijing); Tibeto-Chinese

18th century Gilt copper; (Oral and turquOIse IliselS; polychrome image in window; base sealed and engraved wIth double "alra: coment:. Inside S~

X

4l/.t~

(20.32 X 11.43 em )

A Srupll represents the Buddha's mind, as a statue or image represents his hod y and rhe canonical texts represent his speech. Every

Buddhist shrine in principle should have an image, a text, aod a stupa. An early source for rhe stupa is rhe Parillibballt1 SUlla, wherein the Buddha tells his djscipies that a fully enlightened buddha should be commemorated

in rhe front which contains a painting of Shakyamuni Buddha, This IlIche is framed b)' a jewel form mondor/a. The square har· mika supporrs the thirteen-tiered ciJattrallali (section of umbrellas) which is quire narrow and decreases in size as it moves upward. As always in:1 stupa, [he ,hallrauali is supported by a ceorer pole which <;ymbolic.1Ily penetrates the entire stupa as rhe axis mundi. A bejewelled canopy decorates the rop, and the highest level supports (he crescent moon, sun, and a jewel drop. From rhe canopy hang rwo long banners which unfurl into multiple banners. the lowest one ending in n Aowcr. rv·16

Stupa (Tib. mchod rtell )

by a monumenr of earth and stone more

QlIlg

respJcoden! than one for a king. In Mahayana Buddhist theory tile buddha mind is ai iglled with tbe truth body (Dharmakaya), the ultimately real body-mind that is sha red by all buddhas without distinction. When a bodhisattva becomes a buddha, she Or be identifies with the entire universe as herself or himself. and enters oneness with aU buddhas. rhe material bodies of buddhas are individual (or each, their beatific body and the emanarion body being aligned with speech and physical body. Tbus a stupa is a monument to a specific buddha and stands as well for the omnipresence of the one buddha mind. T he st ructure of a stupa is co nnected with th e five main elements. The square base srands for earrh. solidiry, and mass; the (ollnd compOnents for warer, nuidiry, and cohesionj the triangular components for fire and hear; and the oval cornponents for air and rnovemem. Ofren at the tOp of a stupa there are moon, sun, and drop. for space and consciousness. Stu pas are popular in Buddhist societies because building them is an act of gra ritude for the etcrnal presence of the buddha mind of wisdom and compassion, assuring rhe hope to achieve someday real relief from suffering. Seeing them reminds Buddhists that rhe Buddha has never left, is present at all times, and that they will e\lcntually realize (he bliss of nirvana, The landscapes of Buddhist coumrieli tend to be packed with smpas, The square base of thi!! gilded stupa is the Mr, Sumeru form with seven layers. Three of r.he four lowest levels are plain, with the third one being of ornate lorus petals, The recessed fifr.h panel is th e largesr and has twO snow lions in relief flanking a central cluster of three jewels (tWO turquoise and one co ral ), The sixth and sevenrh la yers are plain. This base in turn supports the five-level base for the srupa proper. The dome portion (auda ) is decorared in re lief and has a niche

181h cenrury

Gilt copper alloy 8lh X 4" (2 1.5 X 10.25 H

em )

The SniP" can also be seen as represenring rhe seated Buddha; his crown is Ihe spire, his head dlC ;;quare part ar the base of the spire. his body rhe he ll-shaped parr, and rhe

square base hi s lion throne. This <;mall but refined anti lovely stupa is :1Iso all cnlighrenment srupa. amoug rhe eight main types, commemorating the Buddha's birch. renunciation, vlCra ry over evi l, enljghtenmenr, teacbing, miracles, desl'l'tlt from heaven, and fillal nirvana. The base is rhe Sumeru type with seven levels. It is wonderfully detailed with rich ornament: rwo vairas on rhe lowest level, two cavorting snow lions in rhe center, and jewels on the upper tier. The dome (allda) IS angled rarher than hemispherical. On rhe from face is a poi.nted trefoil niche with a small ~hakya· mun; Buddha in the eartb-witness gesture. Springing trom [he canopy below the creSCent moon and gtln sym bol are[wo noral fcsroom., draped 111 an S-curve down onto fht: rop of rh e anda. These provide a charming addition ro rhe solid shu pe of rhe gi lded swpa.

rv: Cosmic Buddhas ·

195

V-I

Tsong Khapa on the Jewel Tree of Refuge China; Tibcro-Chinese or Tibeto-Mongolian Lare 18rh to first half of 19th century Tangka; mineral pigments on sized cotton ; Qing brocade, panel of Russian ecclesiastical fabric, silk dusrcovers. and or.iginal silver caps

Overall: 56~ X 35~ (142.25 X 89 em); paiming: 29W' X 20~ (75 x 51.75 em)

In the bottom right-hand corner of the painting, a Gelukpa lama contemplatively offers a mandala represen tati on of the world to rhe lamas and deities assembl ed on th e wishgran ti ng jewel uee that offe rs refuge to the

host of enlightened beings. Th.is form of tree icon developed frorn the ancienr tradition

of the Buddha being born under an ashoka tree, attaining enlightenment under a pipal or bad hi trcc, and passing away from hi s coarse material body Lmder twO sal trees. It seems to date from Tibet du ring the Tibetan "Ganden" renaissance, from rhe beginning of th e 15th century. I call that renaissance "Ganden~' because its motivating spirit was kindled by Tsong Kh apa's visions of Maitre ya Bodhisa ttva, soon to emanate into our world as Buddha in the next few thousand years, and who now dwells in the desi re-realm Tushita Heaven of Satisfaction

(Tib. Gallden). Tsong Khapa and his close disciples experienced these visions during their five-year-Iong retreat, 1392-97, and

during their first an of gratirudc afterwards, when they spent the year of 1398 refurb ishing a famous Maitreya shrine at Dzingji in the Olkha valley, not fa r from their hermitage. The cO llnection to Maitreya indicates a highly positive, progressive view of history an d life, looki ng forward to the co ming buddha of the fmure, ins tead of lamenting the seeming absence of the longlost histo rical Buddha Shakyamu ni. Tsang Khapa's mo vement kept this orientation throughout the subsequent twenry-olle years of his life, as his home monasterv was also called Ganden, and even h..is ren;wal of the Kadampa order, descended from Atisha, was ca!Jed the Gandenpa orde r for some time and sti ll up to roday, though it evemually came ro be known more widely as the Gelukpa order. The tree in this icon is rooted on a magic isle in the middle of the ocean of life, arrended by mythical creatures, prOtecTOr deities, and others. Tsong Khapa sits in the crowo of the Tree, with Shakyamuni Buddha in his heart center, and Vajradhara in rhe hearr of Shakyamuni, representi ng the fusion in one bei ng of Buddhist mendicant, bodhisattva lamaJ and cosmic tantric buddha. Ln the upper left corner is rh e Tushita pa radise of Mairre},a, and in rh e upper ri ght the Sukh ava ti of Amitabha. On rhe clo uds directly behind Tsong Kh apa si t Man jush ri, right behind his head, and the great adepts of the blessi ngs-of-practice lineage; on the clouds at the up per middle left sit another Mairreya and the pa ndits and lamas of the magnificeot-deeds lineage, and on the douds

in the upper middle right sit Maojushri and Nagarju na and the pandits and lamas of rhe profound-insight lineage; and in two small o rbs JUSt behind the main figure sit two groups of lama teachers who arc central to Tsong Khapa's fifty-five main teachers. On the rree itself, below the main figure in the upper center~ IS an orb thar shows Tsong Khapa again with his twO ma in disciples. Tn rhe upper rows to the right and left are the main archetype deities of th e Unexcelled Yoga Tanrras. and below them all across are ranged numerous bodhisartvas. Below rhe bodh isanvas arc several rows of rhe thirtyfive budd has of repentance and pu ri fication; below them the main arhat immortals; and in rhe borrcmll1os[ rOw rhe main protector deities of Tibetan Buddhism. Th e flower border around rhe volume of the tree rep resents the fact th at each deity or human figure si ts in a jewel-like lotus, none of which is readil y visi ble due to tbe profusion of figures. This painting is finely detai led with multiple figures. The elements of landscape and the multiple array of figures are consonant with the tradttion of New -'1enri paintiog as developed in the central regions of Tibet. However, this painting probably dates frolll arOlmd the late 18th to first hal f of the t 9th cenrury and is likely to have been made in China by Mon golian artists. Th e overall gentle appearance of the elements as well as the speci fic design of th e halos of the fierce deities, which match those of 19rh-cenrury scu lptures probably made in Mongolia, would seem to indicate such an attribution. The Qing brocade mountings are of a very high qualiry.

v. Adepts. Archetype Deities, and ProteCtors

· t99

V-l

Mahasiddha J{rishnClca rya (Tib. Kanhapa) blS!crn Tioci

FIr,I half of The 19i1l ceillurr Tangka; mlfl<:ral p'gmel'\l~ on ~'zcd cOllon;

orll.\IIMI brocade JllOUnTlng On'rall: r' X 16" 168 X 66 cm): p3lflung: II " x IS" (18 x 38 eml

The great adept Kanh:lpa was onr of dtc threc grrMl'st !Ila<;ttr~ of the Uncxccllrd Yog;1 Tarura, Superh!tss "behlne (Chakr
200 . Catalogl,e

:lnd drums, Ix·lls, and ulIlbrell.ts Iloated o\'cr hi~ head :lnd pia red spomanellllsl), wherevcr he went. On the oth er hand, hl' was aho said to hal'<' h:ld :I problem wllh his pride, and with h,s :lttitude IOward the fClllalr guardians of the tradition, and he mtssed threc times the culm ina tttlg embrace of thc bucldh:l woman, the Vajra),ogllli, when he cOllldn 't recognize her ttl an old hag, a 10w-caSle washerwoman, and a yaksln trl'e goddess. H i<; problem arose apparently because he left the tutelage of fus guru, Jalandharipa , tooearlr. and eruered the ~crazy" !tfe<;t},le of the adept before having full)' deepened his awarcne~s of ~!fkssness and altrui<;tic compa<;sion_ He was enjoying hts prOWl'SS il1 meditation hy knocking fnut down from trl~ branches with hts g:lzc alone. :lnd wou!dn't li.,ten to his guru , who said he sho uld not go OuI into the utll'laborated. conduct lifestyle unt,l he (ould g.ne the fru it back up and Tl'IOtn 11 to the Irl"C. i-le dtd, how. C\'rr, go on to 311a1l1 the highest communion ()'lIglllllldd/iJ) In the universal cmbrace of

maglc·hod)' :lnd cll'ar-light brilliance short I)' a fle r h,s dcath tr:trIsinon. His teachings 011 the pr:lClice of the Ch:lkr:lS:lmv:lr:l arc still treasured to Ihis da y, Kanhap:l sits in froll! of a ca\'e 011 a cush· ion With ,I tiger skin draped over Ihe back of hiS sea t. ,\ conical green hill rises behind him. I-l is slim bod)' Wilh large head and rrd h~!o tS cleanly drawn with very clear dct~iL He looks tOward his left as he blows on an anrrlopc·bone trumpet. Near thl' white SlUpa in tht lower right corner, :I n ;ISSOTlment of btrds, antmals, and sna kes pick away at ~ome carrion. Though sllla ll. it's;) delightful, clead)' expressed. and ~h3Tpl )' delineated paiming, The va ri et), of landscape elements shows a comb, nation of New Menri landscape :lnd Karnla G;ldri figure strles, The painting was probabl)' done around the fi rst half of the 19th century in eastern Tibet-It ,s framed b)' fine Qing brocades, probablr rontemporarr with lhe paint ing.

V-3

Mahasiddha Luyipa Eastern Tiber First half of the 19rh century Tangka; mineral pigments on sized corron; onginal brocade mOLlll[j n g Overall: 27" X 26" (68 X 66 em); painting: II" X 15~ (2 8 X 38 em)

The great adept Luyipa was a yogin seek ing

highest enlightenment. He was an excellent scholar of exoteric Mahayana thought and

practice, and thcn received initiations from many great adep ts and entered the adept

lifestyle. Qoe day while visiting the banks of the Ganga river, he met a fisherwoman who radiated the unusuallighr that showed her ro be a wisdom dakini . He prostrated

himself before her and requested her to accept him as her discip le. She offered him a

bowl of fish gms, which gave him quite a shock, as rhey repulsed him utter ly, making him fee! nauseous and dizzy. She said, " I see from your brahmin background you still have a tiny \'csrige of egocentric pride along with the delusion of purity and impuri ty in your mind, which obsTructs your attainment of the highest. You must from now make fish guts your exclusive diet and you will evenrually reach yo ur goal of the supreme success." Poor l. uyipa! He set himself the task of earing fish gutS day in and da y our, and after twelve long years he did attain the highest communion of magic-body and clear-light brilliance. Along with Kanhapa and Gandhapa, he is the thi rd great adept [0 transmit a highly effective performance lineage within rhe Supcrbliss Machine Tantra. His COIlIIl1CIlcaries and practice manuals are considered unrivaled for the fortu nate practitioner. A second example from the same set as V-2, this tangka shows the Mahasidd ha

Luyipa, identified by the fish he holds and the emrails he eats. The serting of the painting is simi lar to the previous one, but with variations. A cascading waterfall flows from rhe green hill and emp ties into a littl e pond in the lower left corner. In the right corner is a similar scene of birds and animals (leopards in this case) devouring a co rpse, so mewhat hidden by a trim looking tree. The grcat adept is engaged in pulling Out and eating the cntrails of a large golden carp. Two othe r fish lie on a small rocky table in frOnt of him. His hair is done up in the adept's dread lock hairdo, and he wears ornamenrs of bone. His yogin's sitting strap hangs diagona ll y from his lefr shoulder across his chest. Like V-9, the drawing is skillful and powerful, though rhe painting is small and inti mate. The brocades are the same color in each tangka, hut those of the outermost frame have slightly diffe rent patterns.

v. Adepts, Archetype Deities) and Protectors · 201

V-4

V-s

Between-State Heruka Father-Mother

Ma hasiddha Oreat Adept Ce ntral or castern Tibet

Second haH of th e 16rl1 century

Central Tibet

Mid-19th cenmry

Gilt coppe r; turquoi se insets; Irace~ of pigments

Tangka: mineral pigments on sized Cot ton; original hrocade mounts and dUSlcover

on face, eyes. and hair; base sealed With copper platt incised wltb double vaJra; COntents inSIde

Overall: 7 1" x 36' ( 180.25 X 9 1. 5 em);

191' X 13" (48.25 X 33 em)

pain ling: 3r x 23" (8 1.25 X 58.5

COl )

This is onc of the Her.uka fierce archetype deities of the between sta te, taught in the

Guhyagarb ha Tamra, a Mahayoga Tan[fa taught by Pad rna Sambhava and later foundational for the Nyingma order-nor to memion eenefal to lhe practices of the Book of Liberation Through Leaming ill the Betweell, known in the West as the Tibetan Book of the Dead. Th is erotic and ferociolls Heruka couple is stunning in dark blue for the male and cobalt for the female consort, with sha rp,

Tbis grea r adept is difficulr to identify with out his arrriburc!'i . He might be Kris hnapa , or Virupa, chief adept for rhe Sakyapas. This superb Mahasiddha St3 w e si rs on an animal ski n delineated with sweeping curves and big, na[Uralisric paws. This rather large statut; with arms cast sepa rately and joined by iron stays, is simply dressed in a short dhori and a few ornaments that have a turquoise inset here and there, including one in rhe cenrer of the four-sided v31ra clasp holding the X-crossed je..vcl chaine; on his

chesr. The ea rrings are a lan!r addition. HIS chubby round faC(' bas large feature!:>! ~ nd he smiles serenely with wide open, slightl y upturned eyes. His hands are in unusual positions, rhe upper Icftarched backward in a fine distcrn mcnt gesture and the lower one open as if ir had originally gripped a vase of elixir (fro m which the right hand might have been poised to flick drops [Q share with the devOtee). The sculpture is related to [he epalese sryliHic traditions and is a rare large figure of a Mahasiddha, probably part or a larger set. The pedestal, nearl y round, has a deeply slanted double row of broad, double layered lotus petals with slightly cu rl ed rips and rwo rows of refined beading, all of which continue around th e back. In a nice tollch, on the sides a crou ching snow lion in low relief appears among the lower level of lotus petals. it lS a bandsome and elegant gilr stallle with full volumes and tasteful selection of linear elements and parrcrning, prohably dating ca. second half of rhe 16rh ctntllry from either central or eastern Ti ber.

individual feat hers arching upwards on his oursrrerched wings. They stand on a lotus poised on an island thar is surrounded by fan tastic creatures and a surreal landscape. There is so mucb activity that ir is at first hard to make out what is there, hut upon close r observation the pieces rake shape. T he rop has Samantabhadra FatherMother in a laserlike rai nbow with twO lamas at rhe sides on red clouds. The four corners, top and bottom. arc protected by male· female Heruka figures, the orher four of rhe set of five to which the central figure belongs. Below this, on ind ividual blue-gray do uds, are an assorrmcnt of eight fanrastic ani mal-headed dakini members or the fierce He ruka rerinue, one per cloud. Two hoary dragons separate the group from the lamas above. Below the midsection, which is depicted with glacial mountain pcaks~ dusky clouds, and deep blue rivers in a nearly modern cubist style, is a semicircular ring of six more fa ntastic animal-headed female dak ini figures, who help the between-state beings cope with their negative instincts. On the bottom, between rhecorner Hcrukas, arc th ree nerce protectors, right to lefr: Pehar on a lion, a red Vajrapani-type figure, and Rahu, always imponam fo r tbe Nyingmapas. Dorting tbe ground along with dumps of nowers are deer, bawks, and tige rs, some of the latter sharing the ca rrion of a fresh kill. The energy of the rangka is magnetic and dizzying ae the sa me ti me) conjuring up rbe frenetic forces associated with rhe between (bar do) experiences. This rangka likely comes from centra l Tibet, probably painted around the mid- 19th ccnmry. It retains original Qing brocade mouming and du stcove rs.

v. Adepts. Archetype Deities, and

Protectors · 203

V-6a, b

Paramasukha Chakrasamvara Father-Mother Eastern Tibet Mid- 18th century Tangka, mineral pigments on sized cotton;

original brocade mounts, dustcovers, rods, :lnd end caps; saffron-colored ink handprints on th(' reverse of the canvas Overall: 57" X 37" / 144.75 x 94 em); painting: 29" X IT (73.75 X 43.25 ern)

Paramasukha Chakrasamvara is U1C Superbliss Machine archetype deity, supreme alllong [he Mother Talltra category of Unexcelled Yoga Tamras. He-she is the buddha archetype that engages most directly with rhe ~erce

sIde of rhe cosmic divinity Shiv3, considered by one of several types of Indic monotheist to be the Supreme Being of the universe. The )nale-female union form emp hasizes [he union of compassion and wisdom, superbliss and transcendent freedom, that is the deepesr nature of reality and th e ground of being for liberared individuals. In our world, he-s he is considered ro have a home base at Moum Kailas h, axis mundi for Vedists, especially Shaiviees, Hindus, Bonists, Buddhists, and Jains. As a MOther Tam ra, Chakrasamvara yogically aims to harness the deepest life energies, sex ual and surviva l energies, roward immersion in the dear light briJiiance ~lt th e subrlest depth of reality, in order to enable

the adept to masrer the quantum soup of energy ro manifest whatever is needed to liberate beings, rro111 the gods TO the denizens of the hells. This painting dep icts the adept Vajraghanrapa's form of the archerype deity, one of the three main rraditions, along with those of Luyipa and K::lnhapa. Standing on male a.nd female demons, symbolizing ord inary sexuality, the Father has four faces, blue, green, red . and golden; twelve arms, symbolizing the cessation of the twelve links of involuntary relational evolurionj and holds his wisdom coo SOrt, Vairayogini, eve ry bir his equal and indivisiblE' partner, in sexual embrace. Above their aura of supernova flames that destroy the world of ignorance sits a Gclukpa lama, either Tsang Khapa or one of the later lamas ro maintain rhe Superbliss lineage of practice, his bands c(Qssed in the bliss-freedam-indivisible gesru re. In the upper right corner, sirs Avalokireshvara holding a lotus in a palace setting symbolizing his presence in his Own paradise, Potalab 1 and in the upper left, Vajrasatrva Buddha in his own pure land. FOllr two-armed goddesses range arollnd the-central figures, counterclockwise from the dark one below his righr foot, black Daki.ni. Green Lama, Red Khandarohi, an d Golden Rupini. On th e side by his right foot, jusr 3bove Dakini, sits a go lden form of Manjuvajra Guhyasamaja Fadler-Mother, and on the other side by th e left foor stands a two-a rmed Yamantaka father-1Vlo(her. At the bottom in rhe cente r sirs a golden Amitayus bodhisattva, with the First or Fourth

Panchen Rinpoche. Losang Chogyen, in the lower left corner, and the Grear Fifth Dalai Lama, his foremost disciple, in the right corner, identified by rhe small pllrba ritual dagger in his sash. Th e landscape in [his paiming is suffused in a misty green. Darker green hills eme rge from pale green lakes and dQuds . The lise of fine gradation.'! of color to produce an atmospheric quality in bndscape developed primarily in rhe paiming schools of eastern Tiber, especially in the first half of the 18th century under Situ Panchen ar Dcrgc. Tllis [angb is not Sf) radical as the Situ Panchen style, but does incorporate some of that trend and is different from the New Menri paiming tra ditions (for more on these paiming Sd1bob see Worlds of Trallsformation). Here rhe orange and golden co lors rather symmetrically employed in rhe composi tion add a vivid contrast to the cool sha des of the landscape. The co lor rones are skillfully handled ro produce an especially pleasing mood of subdued and quite peaceful brilIiallce in an ideal earrh!y environment. This tangka may have bee n paimed in eastern Tibet or by a painter trained in thar regional sty le. Clearly it wa s for a Gelukpa parron or monastery, probably in rhe mid18th century. The tangb is co mplete amI in pristine co ndition. It is very similar to a wall painting seen in Labrang monastery in norrhwesr China, a faCtOr [hat suggests the close connections berween Lahrang and central Tibet in rhe l 8th centllry (see La-blfleng si, Beijing, 1989, Fig. 28).

V. Adepts. Archerype Deities. and Profecrors • 105

V-7

Four-armed Chakrasamvara Father-Mother Qing Lare 17th to first half of the 18th century

arms, each holding some of the Chakrasarnvara implements, each standing with both legs on the ground as the Kalachakra FarherMother couple does. Th ere is an infinite variety of these archetypes. This one actually

more resembles one of the [wenty-four Hccoyogini couples in the body, speech, and mind mandalas of tbe Superbliss community than

Gile copper; base open and coments lost

it does the central Supcrbliss Buddha figure,

7" X 4" (17.75 X 10 .25 em)

suc h as the mind mandala eastern deity Khandakapali na and his consort Prachandi. This small sratue has a sense of massive

This is an unusual form of the Superbliss deity, wi th each partner having onc face and four

weight. The figures seem entangled with

arms and scarves thar fill all rhe spa ces around them. They are quire simply adorned, bur the gilt ornaments and crowns are effective and not overbearing for this small sculpture. Some red pigment appears in the hair of each, but there are no insets. The circular pedestal is sha rply fashioned with beautiful lotus petals and realisric stamens that circle the smooch pod on which the pair stands. T he statue is solid casr and the figures are cast as one with the pedestal. It appears to date to around the late 17th cemury, possi bly from a Chinese workshop.

V. Adepts, Archerype Deities, and Protectors ' 207

v-s Yamantaka Cenlr3i Tiber 16th century Gilt bronze: eleph:1nt~skin replacement; rr:KCS 01 pIgments; originnl base piate wIth ~ontcnts il1<;ldc 7WX5N l19X 12.75cll1)

Yamantaka is the

mOSt

terrific form of Man~

Jushri, :] buddha who manifests as infinite nllmbers of bodhisarrvas who go to huddhas in infinite worlds to inrerrogatl> them about the pr(lfOlind nature of rea lity, which is the deepest teaching of selflessness and void neSS.

To inspire heings to achiew;' rhese deep realizations, Manjushri must confronr the spiritually let hal ideology of nihilism, which is the ground on which Yarna, Lord of Death, enrraps Ii,,· lIlg beings. In fact, Manjushn must ~onfronr death itself, a fie rce deiry with 3n indian mahey buffalo head. How can yuu conquer death and terri fy the great [errifier of living beings? IVlanjush ri does rillS by presenting himself as an infinite mirror in rhe face of dearh, a mirror in which dei.uh sees his O\vn temfy· ing visage magnified and mulriplied a uillion rimes. Death sees himself as dying and so loses

track of flnr seeming dearh and is forced ro confrorn his inrerconnc('1edness with all life, which he finds at first terrif)'lIlg hut then a cause for rejoicing. For rhe first time. he sec.'> in M:millshri'S slmltyata mirror hiS t)wn beaur\" the dark and magnificent beauty of powerfu!iy sranding on rhe cvem hori1.tHl of the abyss of nothingness :l1ldlening its infinite energy pulse rhrough him, [he infil1lre energy that nothing ch.lnnds br not being [here to oppose rhe Infinire energy of aU someching.s. This magnification and bt'3l1rificllion of death. conquering hlnl by rerrifYlng and delighting him at tbe same tIme! iii expressed in the Yamanraka form by his nine facc!:., the main one 1:1 fac(' of a mahey buffalo, mirroring Yama's own face, and lhcn tdghl1l1ore facc..;" rh ar stand for [he infinJ[(~·dca[h faces Maniu~hn is capable of mallifcstltlg out of hi~ ;nexhllusrible compa"sion. The nine faccs thel1lselves are said to e.xpres~ the nine branches of rhe Buddhist' scriprures-Surra discourse. Ga rll
voidnCl:.~. identity voidnc-ss. soolcrhlllgness voidness, sign \'oldn ess, anJ so un. His thiny-four arms represent all but three of rhe rhirry-seven JCCc!.Sones of enlighrenmenr, adding hIS body, speech. and mind to make them compleTe. Thus Maniushri fashions al l the aspee rs of th e Buddha's Dharma into hjs dcath·exrerminating fo rm. l-Ie has a consort known as Valr:lv('taii. the Diamond Zombie. showing how rhe dearh f death can bnng even a c1ead heing back to life. This sculpture is an unusually Itnder Yamamaka anJ V(I)ravetali. His .1SS0 rrmenr of arms and legs are quite cohesive, and rhe stack of nine heads wirh rail b orn~ (lfching upwards gives funher lifr to the bCld prure. He has a lonSl naturalistically JepicTed face rha[ seems to be gazing down at beL She is slim ,wei acnve with long rorsO marchmg well with rhe tal ler Yamanraka. All the details arc there, including the implcl11t'llfS held in each of Yamanraka's rhirry-four hands (the elepham skin Oil his back is a later replacemenr), the bllne ornaments adorning each figure. and the various stacb of bodil!S under his sixtct!n legs (and her une). tach Qf IllS smaller head., manages TO have a delicare and exacrly fashioned borrific exp[(·ssion. lr IS a chOice L'xamplc itl mintature size of thl'5 complex ICOIl, prohablr dating from the 16th century. from cemral Tiber.

V. ..\dept', Archetype

DClIlt:.<;,

and

Protcctor~

• 209

V-9a, b

Three-faced , Six-armed, Four-legged Hayagriva Qing Second half of tht 18rh ccnulr) Gilt bronze; remains of pigmcms; base sealed with plate engr:1Vcd with Jouble vaira; camenrs inside

614" X 5" (16.5 x 12.75 em)

This is a three-faced, six-armed form of I-Ia yagriva. Hayagriva is the fierce form of Avaiokireshvara, thus representing the fierce side of universal compassion, as hinted at in rhe ten- or eleven-headed form of the deity bv the faCt that rhe tenth head is a fierce one r~Jl1iniscenr of that of Yama, rhe Lord of

paradise 111 rhi' jungles of an island off the southwest coast of India (Madagascar?), where he still live!. today and still intervenes in rhe history of Tibet when he is needed. The Great Fifth Dalai L.1ma, Ngawang Losang Gyarso ( 16 17-82) was especially fond of the visionary performances of Hayagriva, and taught a special archetype vision of him thar is much cherished by Tibetans roday. The Ha)'agriva archetype deity form, perhaps because of the horse symbolis m, was extremely po pular with Mongolian practitioners as well. The figure lunges dramatically and his alert arms seem to bristle with his hands and their implements, A flayed riger's skin with its head discreerly indicated in back is tied around his loin (V-9b). Hayagriva's big face ba res rerrific fangs, and his black eyes glower

from under busby t'yebrow~,l-lis bead shimme rs with the Aameilke nlOvements of the layers of hiS orange hair, from which poke our three borse heads, and the skulls on each crown of his three heads. The hands from rbe nayed hUlllan skin on his back gLide over his shoulders and compete with the swaying jewel chains, garland of severed heads, wind· ing rhythms of the long scarves, and the tail of the tiger's skin. He srands dominantly on a row of serpents representing the dragon-like lIagas-underW
Death. Hayagriva means "'Horse-necked," and his various forms call always be recognized by the small ho rse's heads emerging

from rhe tOpS of his fierce ogre heads. The horse's whinny symbolizes the ecstatic cry of triumph he emi ts to celehrate his realizar.ion of the ultimate nature of realiry-rhe voidness of absolute freedom that nurtures his fierce commitmenr to the bappiness of all , which is the drive of universal compassion. Ha yagriva's root mantra is OM PAm.. IA SAMBI·IAVA HUM, and he is associated with the immortal legendary adept of that name. In the latter's legend, Avalokiteshvara in his heaven ly peaceful form was upset at the catastrophes afflicting humans on the ea rth, and he appealed ro his guru, the Buddha Amitabha, to intervene more fo rcefully in the affairs of the world to help the living beings avoid dlC worst outcomes. In response, Amirabha sruck (.lUt his rongue. and. with the mantra 0;-'1 PAD ....·IA )AMBHAVA HUM resounding in space, a rainbow-colored meteor shot out from his tongue and down to ea rth, and landed in a lake in front of the palace of rhe king of Af[!hanisran/Swat (then Gandhara), creating a multicolored lotus on which a five-year-o ld radiant boy was sitting. That was Pauma Sambhava, who was adopted hy the king, This happened sim uJraneously with the birth of Sh;lk yamuni Buddha as prince Siddhartha. Padma Sambhava also left his palace and became a buddha. though be lived on as an adept after [he passing of Shakyamuni, engaged with people throughou t the history of India. He visited Tibet in th e eighth century and "tamed" tbe fierce indigenous tribal deities. and subsequently emigrated to his carthly Copper Mountain

V. Adepts, Archetype Deities. and Protectors · 21 I

~pol1sibilllY of nlllndane rule of

V· IO

Supersecret Hayagriva Father-Mother Qm): h .....1 h.llf ollhe lSlh

(enlUT)

(,111 ~orpo:r; haS<' sealed Wllh ongl11JI C')r~r rl~le "'~,st'd

wnh douhll' '.IIT,I; W11It'ru,

1II~,dc

Tim I, a splendId gilded SCulpl ure of II.I Y.I~rt\'a ra l hl'r·h lother, 111 Ihe specIal Super. ~I.'{"fI·1 (yul1g gsal1g) form re,elled 111 a \1~I()n \() Ihe Greal Fifth Dabl 1.ama, Idcnufied bv Ihl.' fa.':1 Ihal the b[hl.'r has onl) om' g;el.'n horse he.ld Instead of Ihl.' mon.' usual Ih ree, Th l' Great fifth wrO ll' ex[cn)I\'cl)" on the contempb[ion of thiS ficrn' form of rh,llokll('sh"ara, .Hld accord1l1g to hl~ /·. xtrcmdy Secret Pllr(.' ViSl()JIs, 11I.' ,It'ployed the H;t}'3gTll'a m'tndala frcqllcnti}·. In par· tlCI1I.lr. 11 .lyagTlva (as dOi'~ IllS human form Padma Samhhava) h3~ a close connecti on with the oradI.' deny. I'<'har. J Central /\ slan (perhap~ Turktc ) den~' cartur('d b) I'ldrna Sambha\a, bound by oath 10 prOtl'':1 the Dh.HnlJ and liS Sl1lcere pr.lu mom·rs. and Il1sl.1 1led as the prOh.'ctor of T lbet's first mOI1,I~IIC um\'erSll~', Sam},,,, The Great hfth. whl'n he was burdellI'd wllh th l' rI."

111 • LllaloglK"

tlll' Tibetan nation. Ir.l1lsponed the dl'il)" from Sam)"c 10 a small, spl'cialh conSfructed mona)lery nl',lr Drepung out)ldl' of I ha)a, the bmous Nechung monaSII'T). There Ihe deit~ was agam bound b} o:lIh 10 protect thl' Ganden I'alace GtHernrm'nt, whose central pre· occupation was the DhJrmiC CdU(;1.I1011 of the maXIIllUIll posslhll' number of cltllem m Ihe art~ ,Ind ~Clencc' of enligh tenment. Pchar eventu,lll y c;lme 10 glVI' .1(1\ icc to the l):tl:li La ma and hI' mlnl$tt'rs hy ~en d ing 1m celesllal 111I!l1)ler, DOf]1' Drakden. 10 possess a medium and d,'II\cr OTacu1.1T pronounce· ments. whe n 111\II<'d. III )pcclfic 11l\'OCaIlOI1 muals 011 stale OCl".ISIOrK In a sense I'ehar hccame the (.rl'al I lflh') ~ngl'h.: mllllSleT, hiS cult bemg an t·xuaord111.IT)' syntheSIS of a literate orgarm:.lllon, a CI\llIlallOl1 al lnstl~ tutlon, :Ind an :I ~e·ol d sh;l m;ll1lc tradition of commulllCallllg wllh the SplTl I world. It was Olll of Ihl' m'lnd.ll.i of Su persecret Jla yagriv,l til;!! th e Great Fifth could \'l'11lUre into thl' ps)"rhK dom.11Il ,lnd control the secthlllg powl'rful energy of ['chM and hIS retmue, Therefore, the monks of Nechung hal'e had a SpeCI,11 expert ise In the cult of I'ehar ne r SInce. T he monk~ of Sera ley cot· lege of Sera monastlc u1l1\'erSII)" .Ilso hale a strong affi1l11Y for thl~ form of I-layagm'a, This particular statue of 1-I.1)"lgn\'a has an espc~-iallr pOIsed and powerful aura, Indl'

catl11g that li S arti$tic cre:lIor had hlll1 self a de.1T \ 1~lon of thl' delt)' form. 1-11' has thrl'e bces, six a flm, four legs, and a pair of Wl11g5, wllh mOSI of 1m Imple· men!) now lost. She has tWO arms. holdmg a sk ull bowl ;1I1d a \'alra chopper. I-lis large arms spread OUI to the sid rs like Ihe p:ur of 11I11g5 Ih,11 IS Ihe s[unnmg clement of Ihis work. The~e arl' a llached b)' lu~~ and m'els on hl~ b,lck. Thc wmgs ha\'e such mtric:!le de{'l1ll11g of thl' fea lh cr~ that in themselves thc\' form .In ornamental CO ntr.151 to the sr1l(:'olh ,urb cl') of the figures. Thclr Itfu'd and p01l11ed ('nds make the ph ySICall y hea l'), pair SI.~em to bl' ,Kllmllr IlYlll~. Ills Ihree head~ are brge and finel~' de[a iled. I llS sku ll cro\\ns .lre l'specially beautiful; e,Kh skull h.ls prOII'CIII1~ fbmes. The npplmg masses of halT, from whICh a large. long·necked horse's hl'.ld prOlects toward the frOll(, mark the nowl1l1lg r11t)\'ernellt in Ihl ~ very ar ll\e group, where till' momentum of Ihl' composi· tion ml'S Step by slep to the top. The pedcst.l! IS finely f.IShlOlwd w1!h plump lotus petals all .lTound the ol'al base. its slyle, with the dl'ltc,lIe flor.11 chasm£, below the top mil of be
V-Ii

1'-12

Supersecret Hayagriva Father-Mother

Six-armed Mahakala Qing; probably Dolonnor

Ch ina; TibclD-Chlllcse or Tibcto-Mongolian

First half or the 18th century

IRrh to early 19th century

Gilt-copper rcpousse. and pardy tasr; rurqlloist' lII~t!rs; ~ealed wilh original (·opper base plate engraved with double o,laira: coments insIde

Tangka; mineral pjgl1l~'ms on st7.ed cOttOIl; original Qing vcocaut: mounts Overall: 46" X 28" (116.75 X 71

painting: 32"

X 22'h~

COl );

(81.25 X 57.25 em l

This rangka depicts [he same Supersecret Ha yagriva Father-Mother presented in sculptural form in V-IO. Here, however, the attributes and colors of the 6gures arc vividly rendered in mineral pigments. This Hayagriva image emphasizes his herculean strength much more than rhe more ethereal, almost fl ying sculpture. His archetypal role of controlling the protecrive archangels on behalf of the peaceful human lamas is well illustrated here. The painting presents the drama where the lamas in adept con templation enter the mand ala of Hayagriva, leave their normal human embodiments in trance, and arise in the form of the archetype deity, whose live horse head neigh!. ~hriUy with rhe ecstatic realization of th e freedom of the vo id, and as the adamant tlrcht:rype of greal compassion rampant commands {he allegiance and activities of me angelic pwtec:. tOrs and their various minions. At rhe top center sits Amicabha Buddha, the overall buddha lord of rhe lotus deity dan, symbolically emphasi7.i ng thl' energy of universal compassion and the rub)' in te n ~ity of individuaring wisdom. Ha yngn va is the main fierce archetype deity of these energies, and Tara and Ava lokiteshvara rnl' main genrlt· archetypes. In the right and left corners are two G('lu kpa lamas, rhe Great Fifth on rheJerr and perhaps the Sixth or another lama on the right. Below and close to Aruitabha are twO Nyingma lamas, as the Great Fiftb was deeply devoted to Nyingma order practices as wel1. To the left and right of the main figures' feet are the protectors Pelden Lhamo on her mule and Brahma on a whjte horse. At the borr III are four fierce protector deities under rhe control of Hayagdva: !eft CO right~ the oracle deity Pehar on a lion: twO wa r deities mounted on dark horses; and rhe planetary deity Rahu in a triangular fierce rite box: in the fight COrner. Th ough tb ere is some landscape, most of tbe tangka is devoted ro the figures, and the lower portion is especiall y densel)' packed. The st),le suggest a probable date in the L8rh or early 19th ce nturies, pICJbably from a Ch inese workshop where [h e painters were mosrly lvtongolian lamas. The mounts are

fine Qing brocade.

J7'" X U W (45 X 34.25 em )

The legend of Mahakala, whose Sanskrit name can be read as either ··Great Black" or "Grear TimC'. " descrihc~ him as a powerful demon who had been granted a boon by Brahma rhe crcaror tbar no outside. enemy could evcr hurr him Or defeat him. Therefore, he was well on his way ro consuming the emire universe, deSTroying anyone who s[Qod in h iS waYI when Manjushn and Avalo.kites hvara were called in to help. They teamed up in rheir fierce forms, respectively Yamantaka and Hayagnva. and miniaturized themselvesj and then one entered Ma~ hakala's mourh and the othe r his anus. Once in his belly rhey began m Increase tbeif size, and seem Malwkala began to feel highly uncomforrable and even panicked, as he felt as if he were gOl11g to explode. He surrendered to rhe tWO buddha-bodhisarrvas, and rhey, mstead of destroying him , sat him down for ,111 acon or two of serious instruction in selfless wisdom and un ive rsal co mpassion. They bound him by oath and by his new undersranding to be ,1 proteccor of rhe Dharma and its practitioners. Thus, way back in the peak of Indian Buddhisln 1 :1.t such grear universitic .. as NaJanda, Ma~ ha_kala was lliready a strong prOteCtor of [he Dharma, and alilhe grea r masters and adepts who came co Tiber brought him with them to COlltlllue his work. Despite a slightly scruffy appea rance l the 4uite joyfu l demeanor of this Mahnkala with gracefully poised body balanced on the left heel :1tld side of his right fOOl creates an intriguing Image rhat is eas)' to relate to. The solid volumes of his legs, aIIllS, and torso havc a sense of true mass. From the side, rhe figure show!! enormo us breadth . His head, furrowed rhls way and th at. is topped by an unrul y fl are of layered red locks through which a ~nake makes ItS way. mack in the center of hiS round belly is a wheel orname m clasping his refined jewel chains, and his neck is decorated wirb a beauriful necklace with a laege pClldanr of tight spirals. Both the wheel ornament and th e spiraling pendanr necklace are forms seen frequently on Mongolian and Chinese images of the late 17rh- 18rh ccnruIy. In back there is a nowcrlike clasp for his

jewels. Pins on rhe back!! of the feet and the clasp are for secunng his flaming mandorla (now lost). The body of the elephant deiq! under hLs fecr IS sleek and subsrannal, and the oblong pedestal beautifully fashioned with long lorus petals, delicate rllTIs, and a refined vine design under (he row of pearls, This IS a relatively rare sculpture of rhe six~armed Mahakala, a favo rite form of all the- Tiberan orders and especially of rhe Gelukpa-orienrcd l'vlongolian lamas and la· ity, probably daring from rhe first half of the I 8rh ccmury and possibl)' from Do10nnor, It hns the typic-ally Mongolinll heavy, soUd mass complemented by an earrhy vigor with overemphasized facial ieatllre(; thar evoke a viscera l reaction in the viewer.

V-IJ

Six-armed Mahakala Qing; probabl y Dolonno[

Second halj of the I th cenrury opper with gilt accessones; cleaned and p!gments refurhished; recently replaced ru rquOLSl" InselS; base sealed with giltcopper pl:Hc cllg.r.\\lcd wnh douhle \'a jra; cnnrcllts inside 19 ~

X

11 J,-1~

(48.25 X 29.25 eml

This six-armed !\ Iahabla is fresher in appearance-eyes, paint, and mandorla inract, Cleaned <1nd refurbished! this image presenrs a spectacu lar vision of how an image of this kind would have appeared when it was new. Despitl' whar may appear as jarring freshness co an historians' l'yes. rhis is a fine figure from the Mongolian workshops Linder Qing sponsorshIp, possiblr from Dolonnor ([nner .Mongolia). Typical of the Dolonnor wo rkshops, rhe gilding occurs only on tht accessories and dOfhing, pedestal, and manclorla. The body is cleaned "amher lacquer" (which turns dark with age) of the kind commonly used in the productions from Dol nnor. O[ht:r~ wise there are refreshed pigments and some in~ers.

n the back ca n he seen realistic derails of rhe hair, elephant hIde, and rhe marvelous, scowling face of the. tiger (011 the tiger-skin loincloth). The rim·form mandarla, with its

sharply pointed flames and yin-yang shaped s\virl patterns. is attached by metal clips. The hai r, eyebrows, and beard are paimed red, like sOlllesculprures of rbe 18th century

(111- 111. The lotus pedestal" finely fashioned in front, but is virtually plain in back except for the upper row of beading, This work is likely from the DoloMar workshops of rhe second half of the 18th cemury. V. Adepts, Archeryp<, Deities, and Protectors . 215

V-14a, b

Dharmapala Yamaraja and Chamunda Qing :vlid- 18th century

Gilt copper; turquoise insets (most origi nal); remains of pigments; base and contents lOST 13" X 8" (33 X 20.25 em)

Yarna, Lord of Dea th as protector of Buddhism, appears poised on [he back of a you ng bull while the female Chamunda balances on the bull's rump. Chamunda, naked exceprfor an antelope skin thrown ove r her back and shoulders (its head dangles over her hips),

offers Varna a [cd blood-filled skull bowl as Varna thru sts a vajra and skull -headed scepter inro rhe air with his right hand and holds a noose wi th hooks in his le ft (perh aps a later replacement). In Indian lore, Yuma is not only the Lord of Death and judge of the dead, he is also associated with the mOSt profound wisdom . In rh e Upanishads, rh e key esoteric documents of rhe Vedist form of rh e knowledge revolution th at occurred in the firs t millennium B.C.E., th ere is the famous story of Naciketas, the son of a brahmin , wbo di es in odd circum sta nces during a ritual being performed by his father. He arrives in the land of the dead at the mansion of Yama, who is away at the time, and wil! not recurn for three days. Wh en he returns, he offers Naciketas three boons, sin ce he kept a brahmin waiting for three days. Nacikeras demands th e highest wisdom of th e supreme self, the ultimate real ity of life-whi ch the Buddhists ca lled "the su preme se lf of selflessness," in that the real self is not any of the petty identities r.hat tbe ignorant person thinks is real, bur is the vaSt blissful void of infinite union. In Buddhism, Yamaraja becomes a Dharma protector after being confronted and educated by the fierce form of Manjushri, who manifes ts as Yamantaka (Death Exterminator) or Vajrabhairava (Diamond Terrifier) . Ordinary death is a major form of su ffering in [he Buddhist vision of the involuntary life cycle, or samsara, so the god of death, Yama, is t.herefore an unwelcome visitor, perhaps thought of as a devil or demon on the popular level. Manjushri, th e deification of transcendent wisdom , the ultimate cure for all forms of suffering, thus conquers death as well. Conqueri ng death is expressed as the "killing of death. " Bur killing death means that no one dies, not even dea th, and so death becomes a protector of life, the life of Dhar:ma, freedom from suffering, liberation, and ultima tely nirvana. So Yama becomes a profound symbol

of happiness and immorrality, the Ending of Death (Yamamaka ). Thus the god of death becomes the friendly protector of life, the good, the tru e, and the beautiful. This sculpture is a superb work of rhe early Qing dy nasty, probably from the Beijing imperia l workshops from around the secon d half of the 18th century. Its shining sleek surfaces create a dazzlingly complex array with scarves, jewels, and streams of red hair playing in, around, and over the figures . T he tu rquo ise insets offer points of color, but it is th e shimmering quality of rhe high-carat gold that makes the su rfaces so eeri ly unearthly. With a keen se nse of the coherence of linear rhythms, this Chinese version of a Tibetan icon becomes a masterwork of intricate movemenrs raking place around the void between Yama 's outs tretched legs. A ki nd of yin-yang voi d versus so lid plays out between [his space and Yam a's powerfully rendered head with its shea f of sizzling

hair and sharp, upturned horns. Meanwhile, other areas such as Yama's arms and wild scarf, his prominent be lly, the diagonal thrust created by Chamunda1s presence, and the drama occurring under their feet between the bull and human, engender the emotio nal and linear comp lexity of thi s fabulous image. The back echoes the from, hut in plai ner su rfaces (V-14b), though a wheel ornament similar ro that at Ya ma's navel is also seen in rhe ceme r of hi s back, along with the refined loops of double pearl chains and turquoise insets. The sp ir ited locus petals taper off in the back, which has the plain canouche with a few incised scrolling lines. With graphically raw and uncouth actions presented with visual splendor, this work challenges the extremes of beaury and horror in evoking one of the most powerful symbolic icons in Ti betan Buddhist art in sculptural form.

V. Adepts. Archetype Deities, and Protectors · 2 19

220 · Cmloguc

V- lS a, b

Vaisbrava na on a Snow Lion Qing Second half o f the 18rh century GIlt copper repousse plaquej original pigmenls

111" X 7" (40.5 X 17.75 eml

Vaishravana is the guard ia n-kin g deity (Maharajikadev a) of the nonh, the Santa Cbus of Indian and Tiberan Buddhist lore. He and rh e orher three guardian·king dei ties preside over the first level of rh e six dcslre+ realm heavens, a level that is located on the higher slopes of the axial mOllmain, Sumeru_ It surrounds the second level, the heaven of the thirty-three deities, wherein lies the divine ciry of lndra, Sudarshana 1 the Olympus of the Indi an cosmology or the Vedist era . The four kings are guardians, because they and their vast arm ies have tbe job o( defending Suda rshana from the assaults of the Asuras (a ntigods, or titans), who live lower down the slopes of the moun tain and are constiturionally iea lous of rhe gods and th eir pleasures. They periodically assault the city, always to be driven back by the four grear klllg deities and the armies of Indra. Amo ng rhe fou r kings, Vaishravana in parricular is regarded as rhe god of wealrh, and his cul t is enthusiastically adopred by businessmen, monks. and nobles through· QUr rhe Buddhist world. HIS palace in rhe northern region is described as ha vi ng a thousand jewel p i l l ar~, and irs IIlterio r's vast ~to rcroom s as piled high with treasu res . When a piQUS Buddhist la yperson propitiates Vaishrava na, wealth is expected to rain clown upon him. And a monk propitiates rhe god to gather wealth [0 build monasteries. rerurbish remples, sponso r printiL1gs of rhe ca nons, and administer srudent sponsorships and the erection of srll pas and starues. For exa mple, in the biograpby of Lama Tsang Khapa (1357-1419), when he lnd his eight closest diSCiples emerged from rheir five-yea r retreat in the Olkha va lley, they first went ro rhe Dzingji Maitreya temple ro the north of the vallev, and. distressed ar the dilapidated state of ~he image and tem ple, decided they wo uld make 30 efforr ro restore it. They were given some buner and barley flour by an elderl y lady, and so made a si ngle offe ring cake to Vaishravana, and recited his liturgy. Withi n days, nomad chieftains were arriving in rhe area bringing weal th and offerings of food, and capable arriscs and builders also cha nced

ro arrive, ready [Q go (Q work. Within a few monrhs the entire complex was beautifully resto red, and a mass: charismatIC event [hat was to last for many months began in celebra tiol1 ~,f the future buJdha Maitreya. A single offering to Vaishravann, coupled with hiS liturgy. and rhe sinc('my of the devotees produced a cornucopia of abundance frum rh e wealrh god's northern treaSuries. ThiS image uf Vaishravana IS a fine example from rhe imperial Qing workshops, similar [0 V-7, V-9, V- IU, and V-17. It is rypic.1 of the libcro-Chinese depictions of this popular guardian and wealth deity. Here rhe snow lion has a large squared head, huge, tOmb)', gaping jaw~, and a bushy ra il. He crouches low with roes curled under his paws. The beast supports, with effort, ir seems. the heavy weight of his maSter, who sits on his back sidesaddle. Vaishravana's rigln hand origmally held a dhuaja victory banner (now missing); his left lightly clasps a mongoose. He wears

right-fitting Mongolian-sryle bouts, and his armOr ha s beaurifully refined chaIn mail that looks like gold braiding In this brightly gilded statue. Vaishravana's face, simi lar ro V17. is long with strongly molded forehead musctes. His crown, once decorated by insets (now lost), is unusual with feathery edged triangular plaques, also similar to V-17. The hack view is interestingly presenred with the derails of his costume, his belt WIth a few insers, rh e saddle blanker, and rhe ends of his scarf that flow from under each ann onro rhe back of the snow lion like the rails of snakes. The pedestal, refined and bea utiful, has rhe carrouche form in back, bUI radler rhan being plato, it is marked b}' free-style plain low .. petals. Blue pigmentS are "cell on his hair, the back of the CroWIl, and dIe tai l and mane of the lion. This excellent example of [h e Tibc[o-Chinese style of Va i!'hra vana proba bly dares ro thesewnd half of rhe 18th century.

V. Adepts. Archetype Deities, and PrOl{'c tors · 221

V- 16

Vaishravana on a Snow Lion F..astern Tibet IAmdol or :\Iongolia 19th ccmuT} Gdt copp.:-r; m>(1 Jewels and plgmems 311105t: sealed wnh copper base pbte engral'cd wlIh double I'alra; (oments I11slde 7 l,2"X "7" (19

x 17.75cmJ

This is a Tibetan version of Vaishrav::ana. guardi::an king of the north and wealth dell),. He isdrplcted as usual: corpulent, decoratll'cly ::armored, and nding a snow lion. In thisc;!.r, however, the snow lion is not so usual. He has an rxtr:lOrdinanl), long bod)' and small head. and all of his four paws are arran~ed on the from side of the prd{'5tal. Hr glowrrs up at this master frownmgl)" with jaws wide open. as though protesung the heal"}" hurdc-n on hiS

121 • Catalogue

back. Vaishrav:lna's tightly fitting armor with tortoiseshell patterning (a motif particularly appreciated in East Asia) is somewhat boldly and freelr executed. He may hal'e held a mongoose m hiS left hand, bm II IS now missing, JS is his nght arm, onginally held aloft, probably ongmally holdmga I'ictory banner. The rim-form mandorla is quite splendid with Ihick, curiy flame deSigns; Ihe lotus pt'destalls low with small and abbreviatrd lotus petals. Some color (blue, grttn, black, and red) rl.'"mains on both hon and master; Valshral'ana S mustache has ddl,ate mcised ImC5 under the black plgmem. This IS a plaque form, Ihal is, It IS hammered from the back, which is hollow and withoUt carved form. lima)· wrll hal'e been attached 10 some larger Oblect, such as thl.'" base of a SlUpa, as part of an ensembll.'" of Imag('"5 :md decorations. It probabl)' dates 10 the 19th cemur)', and II is likrl)' to IlJlr comr from Amdo or ~Iongoha.

V- 17

Jambhala Qmg Second half of the 18th centur) GIlt copp.:-r. solid CJst, pigments on half and bee; hase se.lled wuh copp.:-r plate cngfal'ed with double l"alr.J; coutents mSlde 7 11.!" x 5" (19 x 12.75 em)

Jambhala IS 3n IInporrani god of we3lth, closel) rel31ed with Vaishral'ana. Some el'en conSider him 10 br Valshral'31l3, going under 3notlll'r naml.'". Howrl'er, 111 TibeT3n traditions, the initiations for Jambhala and those for Valshr31'ana arc differrnl, and iconographi(311)' he is depicted diffrrently. Vaishr:lI'ana alwa)'s rides a snow lion, and JambhaLI dOl'S not. Both hold Jewel·voml\lng mongooses 111 their left hands, and while Vaishral"ana lIsualir holds up a viclOry bannrr in his right. Jambhala holds his right hand downwards in the boon .granting gc-sturc-. A third wealth dc-it)', Kuvera, is, like Jambhala. thought sometimes to be the same as Valshral"ana, and somet imes to be a mrmber of hiS rrrinue. Vasudhara IS a female wl'alth deity. sometImes thought 10 be rhe consort of Jambhala. but more often propitiated 10 bring wealth on her own. \'(Iealth deltll'S 3rc- propitiated in prosperit)' rituals, one of thl' four kinds of prmcipal ritl'S usc-d by Buddhist tanmc adepts: pacifying, prospering, dominating, and destro),mg. It is often surpnsl11g to thosr unbmiliar with Buddhist cuiturts that Buddhists should pal' so much attrntion to wealth deines. Uut II is quitr 113tural. The evolutionar), sourer of luck with wealth IS thought to be generoslt)' 111 Buddhist thought, and Buddhists Itkr 10 amass wraith m order to gll'e It awa)·. Here, though Jambhala is usually prrsented as 3 corpulent figure. he is nevertheless rather slim and has a long face, whICh retams quite fn'sh pigments and cold gold. His left leg is raisl'd OntO the pedestal, and the left hand hold~ a nabla (mongoost'). In hiS right hand is a lambhala frulI, II1dlCalll"e of his status as a wl'ahh dl.'"ilY. Though the icon was standa rdrl.Cd b)' the time thiS Imagr was produced, the Image IS slrrk and prlSlme and has some enilvenlllg and interesl1l1g
V. AdepTs. Archetype Deities, ,me! ProteCtors ' 123

V-I S

Damjen Oarwa Nagpo ('hina f l~e l iin~): TLbC'I()·Chinc~c or liheto-Mollgolian

Mid-19th CCIlIU,",' Tangka; minerai plgrncm<; on <;ized COtton. ongin,ll QlOg brocade mounts. onglnal dustcover, Mongolian 13S:>cI!I and rod With cap~ O\'crall: 41 ~ X 20~ \ 104.25 X ,0.75 ":01 ); piJlllting: 23JA~ X 16" (60.12 X 40.64 em)

hill s where Ihen" .ue numCf()IIS lIny animals and set" of nHenng~. The sfyle of landscape I'> mcnculou\ and vcrv delicate wllh artention paId [Q odd ly shaped rocks. but nut in the usual Kann:'! Gadd or lew :... tCllrL style. The brocadl's aH' probably 19th·ccn tury Qing. The figures are III rhe ew Menri style, but the bnJ"cape b quite lIlUlvllitl,lllstIC. ThiS tangb Ilkcl) dares around rhe mid- 19th cemur), and prohably comes frolll a Beijing workshop, where mOSI of th~ tangbs were painted b)' Mongolian lamas. W I9

The Oa rh -bo und BI.1Ck Blacksmith Prorec[Or IS associ,n ed with th e PrOtector Damjen Doric Lekpa and with Agm the Vedic god of fire. He rides a goat :md m.es fire to

Dal11jen Oarwa Nagpo QlIIg: rrohahl)' D Ion nor L.ltl' 18th cClHury 10 earl) 19th CCIIIUr)

make steel weapons and the Iron chains-and manacle::. with wluch he has bound seve[al

Gih copper; cJ.:anc:d nnd pigments refurhl\hed

characte rs in this p.uming.

7~

x

S~

(17.75 x 12.75

I.nt )

DaOllen G:trw3 Nagpo leam ellcrgenca ll y forward, lifun g hIS blacksmlth\ hammer high In his right hand and holding a tigersk in bellow!> in hI::' left hand. He !lportS a large Circular, brimmed hdmet like an official\ hat: with ribbons flowing off the pOll1tcd nnlal. J-lis face IS large and express ive wi th big eyes and gna~llIng teeth amplified by his red (refreshed color) eyebrow::. and heard. The movcmclHs of the long sleeves of his coa t '1wi ng III op· posite (rill-yang) rhythms. "I he goal ru rns hi s ht:ad aroun d slwwin?, ro full cffec t his long, twisred hor ns. The tigl1re~ move forward across the plain top or an oval pcdt:stal decorated on Ih{' sidc!t by la yered mountalll ranges thar seem to show rhe upheaval!> of earthquakes. These Jre Ii\'eiy and spimcd Images , prohably from a 00lonn or wo rk shop of the late 18rh or ca rl y 19th cen tury.

The t3 ngkn combines lyingma and Gcluk· pa rhemcs and personages. At rhe rop cemer 5ilS Sbakyamuni Buddha and, below him in linc, .1:,mall image of Padilla Sambhava With con-,orr, just bebind the main figure. On the right are t WO Gclukpa lamas, Tsong Khapa the founder and th e Great FIfth Dala l Lama. ranged downward in an arc leading to an im age of Supersecret I-b yagnva. To th e left of Shakyal11uni nrc twO other lamas, Atisha above an d anorher Gelukpa lama, probably the Panchen Lama Losa ng Ch6gyen, set in a marching arc leading to an image of Yamanraka Father-Morh er. Below rhe main imagt: 1<; an extraordinary arra y of fierce offerings, inciudlllg va rious racks of weapons with the son of Iron blades rhilt blacksmirhs arcexpcrt at maklllg. Around him in the landscape and cavorri ng among the offer ing~ are various animals of all colors, 30long them his main messengers, a black hear, reddish-colored fox, wild blue mule. and dark·gray wolf. Garwa Nagpo, rhe s.:'tme figure as in V-19 and V-20. is dearly the most bcaurihlJl)' portrayed object in this rangka. He holds an adamantine hammer .mel a riger-skin bellows, and he wears a black robe covered with a gorgeously embroide red lacy gold filigree pattern (typica l of Chinese art). A pale malachite-green waist cinch ,1Ild silken scarf add beauty to the costume, as do rhe borders of orange-red parterned with gold. He is blue with golden hair that mixes with the red flames ~wirling behind him. He rides sidesaddle on his twisted· horned goal, whose hair seems much more under control than portrayed in rhe twO fo llowing sculprures. The goa t makes his way through ew Menri-5tyle fiery roo and orange flamcs , wi thin the dark confines of a gray and black wall lOpped by 3 white edge and located witiun a SCi! of blood. Outs ide the wa ll ed area is a del icately love ly landscape of blue and green pointed V. Adept:.. Arl"llcrypc Deitlcs, ,Ind Protcctors · 225

V-20

Damjen Oarwa Nagpo Qing; Inner

IS.h-19th

~'!ol\goh,\

or Ikillng

CCnlnrl~s

YenO\\ hrollU; remalJl~ of p'gmelllS on fact llld haLf; small opt"lIlJ1g IJI Ihe hod)- of Ihe goa. \\ IIh (OI11eOl. s~,lled I1Isld~

upper chesl, and long paralld creases o\'er his thighs cre,lIe an 11\I(·re511111;. r;lIher .lIff zigzag compositional pal1ern that adds some mildly lerky 11l0\'emelllS cOl11plemCIlI.1fr to the ;mgubr posture of 111. limbs. The pedestal is pbm C"Cl'pt for Ihe solilarr beaded fllll. There IS a CII'lt)' und~r the goat's belly, .1111 .ealed_ This work is probably from thl' Qmg workshops of IklJlIlg o r Dolonnor of rhe 18th- 19th ccnturles.

rx5"(l7.75 X 12.7$cl1\)

Though the S:lIne icon :IS V-19, this .Illall ungllded bronzl' is sryhstlcllI~' SOllll'wh:It differently and morl' simply portrayed (and he has lo~[ his Implements), lie has a smart bee, but appears more nonchabm llid less energetic th311 V- 19, and the goat Sl'erns 10 plod along Wllh less vigor. The surfaces 3re qUltl' phl1n--c\'en Ihe goal 0111)' ~ho",s his ~hJggy locks along the edges of hI. body. A much gender rendering le:lI"es room for a less harried ('ngagcment wuh till' sculptu re, who~e forms arc smooth and well composed. Esen the back has a sense of gellllc ralher than forceful movements. Nr\'rrthcll'~s, the strlpellkl' eHeCiS of the high-waIsted bdt, the borders of the coat crossing the

226 • (..11;tlogu{"

scepter 111 hiS flglu h:l1Id and a fresh dcmon heart III hiS left. A round oracular mmor. which also sen'es to secure hiS Criss-crossed chest strapS, has the Illanmc s)'llable HRJH, which represel1ls the fierce energy of the lotus-family deltlcs, such as I-/a)'agri\'a. He is s:Hd to ha\{" the special duty of guardlllg tht' greaf-perk'Ction [reaSure teachmgs. Damlen Garwa Nagpo is hiS chief agelll (las mkholl), Keith Dowrnan translates a famou s n'rse of homage to h"l1:

V-2 1

Damjen Dorje Lekpa ,\Iungolm: TlIleIO·I" ollgol,an

19th (,nIllT)' Gih (Oppt"T

r~pou$'il'

plaque

In the bla7_mg Iron fort of Shang m U~'uk. You were the offsprmg of Mu and Dud (demons), Greal magician with transformatlve powers. )'OU scn'e Vajrapani: Homage to DOTJc Lekpa, l-Iarb1l1ger of L,ber.\flOn_

l6" X IS" (66 X 45.75 cm)

Damjell Doric Lckpa. 03th-bound V31ra Excellence. was a kin~ of ghostly demons who was lamed b)' Padilla Sarnbh3v3. He had been a nuddhist monk 111 India, hut had abused hl~ powers and wa~ reborn a ghost III Celllral Asia. He br.Hldl~hes a \'a)r3

And Nebesky WOlkowitt (Oroldes and Demolls, p, 157 ) translales a descripllon of the DalJllel1'S abode: ~ Amidst a wild sea of blood encircled b~' ITon 1ll0untJIIlS stands a castle built of bJf-bone. el1lanatlllg a ra1l1bow. In the sk)" poison clouds ~ather and a terrific storm rages, with fiercely rolling thunder and hghtning flashes and meteors_ In the center on a solar lotus is the IIImbll' Dorie Lekpa on a bflllmnt white lion (or a light-brown billy goat), maroon in color. wllh one facc, three eyes. a IPping 1Il01nh, and bared fangs, cxhaling pt)l~on vapors. His hair, eyebrows, and beard blal.e like fire, brandlsh 1l1g a nme·polllled metroflc Iron \':llra 111 his fight hand. and a warm bloody heart 11\ his left, which he holds up to hiS mOuth. His robe IS n·d si lk. and his hat is purple brown, WIth a tig('r-sbn quiver and a leopard-skin bowcasc, He IS full of splendor and of an O\'crpoweflngl)' homble appcarance_~ This statue I~ a repousse III high relief, probably lIJ.ld(' to be attac hed to some olher ob]Cct (.im il3r 10 V- 16). Dorje Lek pa IS nestled on Ihe bJck of a snow lion who seems about to spring, though DOr)e LekpJ's liturgy sa)'~ that the lIOn IS expresslIIg reverenc(' to thc dell)' on hiS back. Tht' hon's head is large wllh highl)' patterned bulging eyes and laws that really seem 10 be roar· mg. A black pigment colors rhe hon's ma ne, tail. and the long hair edgmg hIS legs, The pair seems well coordinated, and thc tWO fit lO~elher. The 101ll~ pedestal has a different sr)'le of edging for the petals. Such knobb)' d('signs on the lotus petals ca n be seen 111 some ~lon~ol13n oblects_ The lllandorla has C!llOut comma -shaped patTerns thar add h\'ellllt's~ fO the Ila{ patterns of the outer Tlm_ T hi S r.Jth('r slmpl)' patt erned work probabl), cOllies from the ~ longollan region III the 19th (emur)'.

VI - I

Three Fierce Oracle Deily Ritual Crowns Tlilel I'.hh centuq Slh,tr and gilt copper: cordI ,IOJ turqUU1!>e

H. 7"

X

III ~I'»

Dil. 8- (1 7.7S X 20.25 em ) c:l.I,:h

These three superb fierce-dl!lty crowns are sliver ,Ind gllr wuh somecorai and rurquoise insl.!ts. They .lre crowns ror an oracle medium, such as rhe famolll) Nec:hung fade, most importam medium of the G,llldcn Palace governmem of the Dalai Lamas. The Tibetan oracle medium I~ a unique in<.,rmlllon, bridgi ng 11l :1 powe rful way rhl' world of Ihe sha marmnc or animistic tribe and thar of the cIv Ilized, lm.:r rcprcscma nvc!o never adoptt,d the lIsu:l 1missionary practice of condemning the local, mbal, or nanonal deities and their cult!>. Instead . thc\c dcm~ would be "[ame
VI-2a--e

Items Used in Severance (Cbod) Practice Severance )oga I'" an eXlraordlllary pr:lUlce [hal seems ro ha\'c been brought to Tibet III the II rh century by tbe great Indian yoglll. Pad .lmpa )angycy. though there IS no doubl riut Pauma Samhhr\\J was adepr 111 its practice much earlier. It Ie; oflen "aid by Wesrern scholars to result from !,\'IlCrctllom bcn\een Buddhism and shama ni sm, and to hilvt.> onglnated in Tibet. While rhe great femille ~('''erancc }'og.ini, Machig Labdron, chief diSCIple of Padampa, Cl'rt,llnl y refined and expan ded the pr:tctlce, ilnd her writing" arc among rhe first rexts re lmported from I'd)ct b;l(:k I11W BuddlllSl India, these noriono; of se"erance :lnd .. h,Hll:llmnC Tibetan Buddhism ignore the achle\'cmen t'! of the IndIan grear adept", the maha!>lddha~. Sc"erance refers 10 rhe wielding of super-inteillgem:e or wiliclom .... ymbollzed b) a ~harp sword, to ,lIlalY7e all thing" mental Jnd physl~ cal. animate and tnJIllIll.1te, to dlscm er their c:ssennal reality. Through thus cutttng hod~, mind, and even envlronmenr Inro cW.:r ,moiler piece~ and component:., one e\'eotuall" dlsco\w\ th .tI no thlllg, ('\en an atom. even a subatomic partlcle, e\en a mOlllent or 3 sp ilt second of thought, c...:isrs ,I :t thin~ 111 lt~elf. \'(lisdom rhus sevcrs the ego's scn . . c of pm~e~SIOI\ of body or mind, replacing the cgoistlc preoccupation With selfish Interests and perceprions with alrrubm and bli~~. This <;everance of ego istlc IgnnrJllce and It~ replacemenr hy wisdom and compassIon an: cOflc;iciercu frOln IhL" beginning of Buddha'5 Illo,,(·tncnr ro ha ve bccn the es . . ence of rhe enligh renmt'llt process. Tht' f,lCtlhat shaman~ In cultures all over the world get their healing powers and propberic insighr.. though vision qUl'W. and initiatory processes [hat Involve dream!> of dl!>l1l('mhermenr and cxpeflences of pSYl"nologic.ll death and rebirth attests to the unlver~alll)' of the human p()(cnrial for enli~ht­ enment.ln faer. nen the word "shaman" may well he derived from the an'lkrir SlmUndltd , ,I u:rm u~ed for [he Buddhist and .1:1 In wandering Yo!:!.ln\.

tin;.,

:1-b) Vajra (do,je ) :md bell E.1Stl.'rn Tibel (l)erge,

(~"an la)

KhJm~ l

Brass and "fin'll1cral~" (II)

I9th ccntmy Dorie 6W' (16.5 em); Hell

9~

(22.7S eml

This vaj ra and bel l arc m:lde of brass .Ind th e five l11eral~ (Ii ). They arc of hIgh quali l)'. prohably prodllL'ed in the Kham area of ea~tern Tihet in the 19th centu ry. The vajra has five prong,> Jt ca h end of nn cight-pctallotus base. each prong cmergl11g from the mouth of a makara sea monster. '111e hell"o; hody has a hJnd (If uny vernc:ll vajras at rhe hortom. In Ihe central ~CCUOI1. slxreen plaques hang from.t tl1m challl, each wnh an eight-petal IOnls in {he cenrer. wnh a ro\\ of rmy hOrlLOnt:11 vairas above. The ~houldcr l.!t decorated With eigln lotus pel,lls. each with a Lant!',l )an'ikril letter. Thl' \rllra-wpped handle is decora red wnh a tschulll VJSt· dC\lgn with four wrquoise inst.'ts. Above is a wle;cio11l f!.oddcss facc. The half vajra at rhe lOp sit .. em :.J totus hne;e.

VI.

RH\L.l1Irnpll'lllcnt~

- l33

c) M:al:a (ros:a ry )

VI-Ja--e

C~n!rJl

Ritual Implements

or Easlern Tibet

191h Cfn!ur)s..-eds of th~ Mbodhl tree nall\'e 10 caSI{"rn Chma; COHon cord, conch shdl. coral. turquoise, and sllIw beads M

1.. 20" (50.-5 em) ThIS rosary of the requi sru.' lOS beads is made from the spoued tan -brown seed of rhe -bodh. tree.- These are strung on 3 handmade cotton cord wIth three StopS of conch-shell dISCS :and large corals. Two large counters arc suspended from the mala: e,teh has ten silver beads ending with ,I silver qU3trefoi! orn3ment, both Insel with a 13rge coral on one side 3nd 3 large IUrquOISI' on rhl' "Ihl'f. d ) t 3rge painted h3nd drum Central or eJ.5lern Tibel 19,h (enturr Wood ,lnd l{"alher skin; pigments, met.!.1 rlJqlles ,Iud bells, cowr) shells, brocade Slreamers 013.9'[22.75 em)

The woodl'n drum frame IS COI'l'rl'd at both ends by Il'ather 3nd cinched .Hound the middle With a COtlon h3nd strap from whIch hang clrcul3r metal plaques and COlI'r)' shells, A long brocade streamer sewn wuh cowry shells and small metallic bells hang) from the strap and produces deliC:l1e trnkling sounds, The body of the drum IS pamted orange-red 3nd has gold foli31e patterns and eight cartOuches parnted 111 light pastel colors, WIth ~CI'Ilt$ of the eight cemeteries wuh frightenillS environments. Also extant arc a wOI'en woolen carrymg strap and carr}'mg C:lSI' of ),('lIow 3nd srel'n brocade. e) Thighbone trumpet CelllfJ.l or eJsrern Tibel 191h (cnlUTl Hum,1n Ihl);hbone.INrh('r, J'''gments; Siller; corJlalld turquoise IIlsets; silk >C,lr\'rs

U' (3J ern) The thighbone trumpet is used 10 summon Shosts and demons m order to s)'mboltcally fl-ed them one's body and ego. Th(' bone is the human femur, pref('rably t.lken from Ih(' corpse of a criminal found III Ihe charnel grounds, \'(/hen hollowed and fJshloned It produces a plercmgly shnll sound. Hne I( IS covered at the ball end by green Icather decorated with 3n ol'erall gil! hexagon3 ] pallcrn. Sill'er bands adorn the trumpet at vnfious Junctures, and there nrr some corn l and turquOise msrts. Two old ~d k SC,lfl'es (kh
234 • Calalogue

3) Pu rba Ritua l Sla ke Tibel (l. has3? ) 191h eemuty Wood II'lfh gilt and plgmems \I " X

2"{18

X

Semi

Thl' purb3 is 3 peg or sukr used In 13mric ritu3l practice. It IS conSidered 10 bt' an em3n31ion of the fier,'e deifY. Vajr3kila, important archetn"'.' (klty of Ihe Nyingma order. But all orders use tillS power ful s)' mbolic implement. It is m Ihe shape of a three·sided dngg.'r or peg, emergms from the mouth of 3 sea monster and entwined with snake t:111s, The hand It' part h3s bee·to-facr stylized lotus pctals m thl' centl' r between IWO twisted knot cus hIOns. On lOp is the four-faced fierce head of the purba deu)" e3ch he3d crowned by fil'l' skulls (showmg defeat of the fil'e poisons of 3nger, lust, pnde, greed, and Ignorance). b ) Small h 'ory Hand Drum

Chllla (QlIlg) 19rh eelllur) h·oT}, dred le;lrher. brOCJde Silk hanner O,a. 4" {10.15 eml

This fine hand drum IS made of two malchmg bowls of I1'0r)' held rogelhl'f wlIh a band of gilded sill'er, The leather I~ d)'ed turquoise· green. The handle is a shOT! f;Ibric str J P conIwetrd 10 a large lapIS stone ,Ind tWO cor31 be3ds, from which hangs a lle3l11lful yellow silk banner t'mbrolde red with th.' "seerl't slllch - of the Q11lg IInpenal workshop, Patterns III pastel and dark blue on the b3nner mclude auspICious symbols, msects, flowers, ,md leal'es. II has long golden silk t3ssels hangmg from the top ,md the bo1l01l1. The twO ci3ppers are IWO long, wOl'en straps with felt pellet ends. This IS prob;l bl)' QinS Chint'S{' of Ihe 19th ce m ury. e) Inner Offering Cup Lhasa 191h ccmllT}' Gllr slh-{"r and hr,155 II. 7" ( 17.78 C11l)

The Inner offcrlllg cup IS a s)'mboltc I"essellhat rl'presenrs Ih.' )'ognl's or )'0);1111'5 tr3nsformatlOIl of thl' ordlllaf), body and IIIl11d into (he body and I1Il1ld of a buddh,L The Irlpod base is made of three human heads, representing (he co nquest of Ignorallce, grl'l'd, and hMe. The skull bowl represel1 t ~ one's ow n skull,

tht' lOp slicl'd off by rhe dakim angel of transccndent wisdom. All thl' other components of onc's bod)' arechopprd up by til3t same angel and thrown into thl' bowl, along with the fl('Sh of onl"S past inca rn3tions as elepha m , dog, horse, and cow, with the bodil), fluids, urine, l'xcremem, blood, m:trrow, and Sl'lllt'n. All IS boiled b)' wisdom fire into an eliXir, a fter bemg mlllglcd alchemically witb the mantnc qUIllU.'Sst'nces of the bod),. speech, and mmd of all buddhas. This elixir is usually reprCSl'ntl'd b)' slron~ lea. d ) Firree Ol'it), C hangtl'u Ritu a l Drum

Chlll:l 181h- 19rl1 (('mllry SandJlwood Jlld dyed leather; 5,]I'('r, coral. and ,,,rq,,,"',,e nmalllem~; hmc~de ~,Ik bann{"r D13. JI)," (9

~m)

ThiS elongaled hand d rum (ch.lIIgtell) has bowls of d:trk·rt'd·colort'd S;lndalwood and d)'ed lurquOlse-gree n leather heads. Around the walSllS a colorful red fabriC band set Wl\h Sliver studs of ,\
F..aSlern Tibet (poss.hly Oer):c) l..ale 19th l'enwry Bron1_e aud th{" fj'e mcrJ.ls 1M, bell clapper of Iron "alra 1 . 4" ( 10.15 cm): Bell H. 9" (22.75 cm) The fil'l'- prongcd I'alra h3s refined makara heads JI the rool of each of lIS four dIrec tion al prongs, its central prons emerging from It S m:lin shaft, All five, reprcsclIling the fivt' w i ~d()llIs, are su pportcd on a 100us·petal base. T he centcr IS plain, a ball of cosmic ent'rgr· The bl'll has a row of closely hned I'efllcal l'alUS 011 liS lowest band, a del"3te )ewel-cham banner hanging from Ihe mouth of glory·god faces (kirllllwkha) from the shouldl' r of Ihl' bell. and lotus petals with Lims,} ]emrs on the shouldrr, The handle IS be3ullfully fashioned with a small vase of long-hfe elixi r, ;lbove which IS the "Wisdom Goddess, whosl' head supports the fil'epronged half l':lJT
VI-4a-e

Malas. with Leather Case [ has" 20th ,emury Yellow Jade. Coral. Gra)' Jade, Purple Agat~. and TurquOIse Matas, wuh Lc.uher Ca'e

A,·S. L. 22" [55.9 elll1

The mala rosary (Tib. trellgU'a) is an unportant implemcm for a lama or even any layman or laywoman. There arc 108 beads m 'Iibclan rosaries, an auspicious number, perhaps correspondmg to the number of ke)' petals in the lotus chakr:l wheels in the yogic subtle el'ntral nervous system. \'(/hen reCIters of 0:-"1 .\ 1.\NI PAD:-..If lIV,\ I, for example, murmur the mantra, they click off a bead. When the}" gel all the way around the mala, they click off a counter on one of the tWO counter slrings topped with I'ajra and I'a[ra bell, and when Ihey go around ten \IIl1es, they click off a counter on the other slrmg. Wooden or crystal beads arc best for p:lcifymg mantras, lewel heads for prospering mantr:lS, red coral beads for dOlllmatlng ntamr:tS, and bone be:lds for destroymg mantras. People set th('mseke~ 236 • Catalogue

goal~,

such as reciting 100,000 of a certam mantra. The vetll'rable Tam Tulku once $,lid that the real reason for counting mantras was !O build self-confidence, rejoicing in one's pcrsistence and concentration m hemg able 10 recite so many. Here are ,I SCI of five malas: I} yellow lade with three coral divlda beads evt'ry 27 beads, coral crown bead, and 100ied retamer bead; 2) solid coral beads witholll counters, and twO vajra :lnd bell-c:lpped counter strings: 3) gray jade heads and crown and retainer be'lds, with dividt'TS of two coral ~lIld one white iade bead and twO counter strings; 4) purpil- agate with turquoise crown, retainer. and divider Ix':lds, the latter franll'd by small cor:ll beads, with no collnter strings: and 5) pale green iade wi th purple :lgate crown. retainer, and divider be,ld~, with tWO counter strings. The leather C:lSt· is ro keep a mab safe when nOt in use.

VI-S

Mala, and Necklace with Ga u Lh:lsa 19-20lhce11lury 1\1.11a: mamly )"ello\\" pd~. Ncrklacc: cor,11: gall: gold.

111.11111)'

This set con~ists of a bufterfat-),ellow jade rosary, entwined with a small gau Strung 011 a predominantl)' cor31 n(·ckLtce. These tWO pil'ces show the cross-blrndillg of Tibetan and Chinese cultural fo rm s prominently found in Derge, Kham. The counter string tips have:l flor31 vajra cross shape (i n place of vajr:l and bell) that was popuLtr ;n the 19th and 20th centuries in this region. As a personal tOllch, additional ornamentation has been added to the rosa ry. There arc divider beads of green ,:lde, offset with small gold Dharm:l wheel discs, and added to the crown be;ld and stupa-capping "vase rct,lIIler" bead are two corals, :l turquoise and :1 pearl, indICating thar the rosary is serving as much ~I S an ornament as an instrumC1lI of mantra recitation. There arc two tiny golden medallions inserted between the ),ellow rosar), bea
138 •

CalJlogu~

VI-6a-c

Three Sets of Ritual Offerings Cemr.lllihcl (lhaS3 ) l3tf;' 19th-e3r1y 20th ce:ntur) a} Six offering bowls for wa ler Hammered and chased stiver; p.lrti,,1 gilding H. 3~~ X Dia.

21!~~

(9.51 X 7 em)

T hese be:1v y bowls of hammered silver (origin
a u s pi cio u ~

emblems

Heavily gilded copper repou~se

8"

X

3" (20.25 X 7.5 e", )

The eight auspicious emblems or sy mbols are used frequently in rh e des igns of meral ware in Tibet. Here they fUllctioll as offerings fo r a Ti betan allar. They are made of heavil y glided copper. A lotus-petJl base supports rhe srem of elabor:aely curling leafy rendrils tbat in rurn suppOrtS a lorus pedestal. The large circubr lotus pod supports the emblem, one on cach of the eight III thi s complete set. From lefr [Q ri ght. they are: the lotus, the conch, rhe pair of fis h, rhe Dharma wheel, rhe endless knot, rhe victory sta ndard, rhe parasol, and the vase. The fine workmanship and style suggests a cenrral Tibetan make, probably of rhe 19th century. c) Buddhist Cos mos Mandala Offering Silver rcpoussf; coral, turquoise, lapis lazuli, and silver bead~

H. 8" X D... 6" (10.25 X 15.25

em )

The Sanskrit wo rd mandala derives from manda, which means "essence," and la, which means "circle." It is a circle or sphere that contains an essence. It ca n refer to an elemental sphere, as in rhe usage tejoma"dala, "sphere of fi re" ; to the sphere of the cosmos, the world picture within which a hwnall being supposes he or she lives; and ro an ela borate palace an d cnvirolll11clll m:ldc of perfected substances, as in rhe manda las of rhe rantric VI. Ritual lmplcmenrs • 239

deiti es. T he offering mandala is a symbol ic represenrarioll of the world picture current in the Buddha's t ime. There is a cenrral, axial mountain , Sumeru; oceans around >four continents where humans and other animal s live; a summit where some of rhe gods live, withpreta realms and bells below and [went}' layers of heavens above. In meditations and riruals, one pictures this cosmos (roday one might think of planet earth or the solar system), and offers it up to all enlightened beings in a practice of derachmenr and gc nerosit},. Thi s offering manda la sits on a chased circul ar silver base. It is composed of three circular discs in diminishing size and supports a Dharma wheel at the top. Tb e silver base has a chased vine rinceau with eight gilded -auspicious symbols in carto uches created by the running lotus vine. Tht' sides of rh e mandala, constructed of rcd felt, are covered with tight rows of beads, mainly coral and a few turquoise, lapis. and silver. The nal surfaces of the mandala are for holding the offe rings, usually of rice or barley grains conceived as offerings of the whole universe, symbolized by the Mount Su meru type of mandala, to enlightened beings. The silver dhamtachakra at the apex, fa shioned in (he sha pe of a lotus bud with nattened sides, is chased and pierced; in the center of the wheel is a sma!l rurquoise.

Vl -7

Tsebum (I
The rse bum (aYlfr-kalasha) is the vessel held by the Infin ite Life Buddha Amitayus, which holds the elixir of immortaliry (al1lrta ) which he gives to all beings. Imm ortality in Buddhism is the rcalitr of th e endless conrinuum of life of all individual beings, inevitably full of suffe ring when the being is ignoram and so lives ill cannier wirh the unive rse. When one becomes flllly enlightened, ()ne idemifies with all beings, all rhe universe, as oneseJf, and merges indivisibly with the rrmh body of all buddhasj enjoying the bli ss of Amitayus, Bud dha Infinite Life. Then, as do all buddhas, onr manifests as many emanations as needed by all connected suffering be ings, offering them the elixi r of hlissful Lmmorrality, really the Dharma, the teaching that enables them ro ullderstand rhe reality of rheir own freedom from suffering.

This beautiful an d unusual [scbum exhibits the style of Newari (Nepalese) artisans working in Lhasa. The stem base, deco rated with long lotus petals, holds up the bowl-shaped center [ha r is decorated with delicate beaded swags with inset wrquoise and coral stones. The (OP of [he bowl has a convex lid with lows-petal designs. From irs cemer projects a tube that lifts up the circular rhombus-shaped cap that is covered with a dense and refined, scrolling leafy pattern and insers. Three IOllg, tlat, sr.raplike floral garlands fall over the sides from the cap at equal ilHer vals, and (wo festoon branches arch upward and th en cascade with graceful $-c urves at each side. These elements of rhe t'encral ponion of lhe vase impart a special charm. All are edged with sma ll curling filigrees that lend a rich effect to the texture. Th e spectacu lar crown in g member of the vessel is a rare stopper plaque [hat is acrually a gau (hat opens in the back for [he insertioll of religious items. On the front face appears an Amitayus image within a relief niche placed on a lotus pedestal. The niche is framed with turquoises a nd a single coral bead at the apex. The surround ing is a field of knobby, rais!?rI, Ot'llse I1mal scrolls dotted with turquoise and coral. The ~nial - lik e top comains three coral srones.

VI. Ritual Implements · 241

VI-8

Ritual Pitcher Oiluk) and Ewer Spittoon (ShelsiI) Lhas.1.

19th and 20rh centU ries

Chased silver and on [he pircher

~olu.

wlIh turquoise insers

6.r

(28.6 X ! 6.5 em) Pin-hcr: 11.25" )( Spittoon: 3 .5" X 5.S M (8.9 X 13.7 em)

These very finely worked silver and gold vessels are rhe ritual cleansing pitcher !jiluk. Tib. spy; blugs) and ornate ':ipirroon (shelsil, Tib. zhal bsil) that belonged ro Rering Rinpoche himself, presented here in keeping with [he

Kandel! Collcclion's special hono ring of him. The pitcher i:t lIsed to contain saffron-

The human skull bowl is cons Ide red an auspl I OU~ obleCt. Thi!llarge one i!t [he same III symbolic lIltenr JS the ~l1lal1 one wilh the metal skull aboVl' ( VI ~3c). though the large bowl woulJ have been used to present of~ fenog.;;. III mual~ focused on fiercl' deIties, either transcendent arche type buddhas or mundan e protectors. This cultu ral use of a human ~kllll a~ a bowl was c..xploited by rh e Chinese and \XI{'srern co mmun ists as a propagan da rool, und er [he prete nse rhat th e nasty " rcucbl " 1 ~lllla s wem Ollt and had people and thei r children killed to use their sku lls, skins, an d bo ncs for horrible. sadisti c rituals. This is ridicu lous. Tiberans had main ~ tained the CU'irom of "sky bu rial," where the dying person expresses the wish to give his or her fle.;;.h and bones to wild vultures, as a practice of derachment and generosi ty. So It would thw. he a ~pec ial honor to a famil), if a cramum or bone of a deceased member

we re pre.;;.crved and u cd hy ;10 adept for contemp latIve riruals-in the sa me way rh:u a modt;rn person makes a WII! [() leave organ~ to medical or scientific usc. Here me skull rests all qUire an elabora te O'lpod pedestal of gtlr copper. The base has a hand of snoillng VIl1C and f WO rows of lows petals. up and down. Three sea m nster heads in relief appear at the base and three human head, ,It the TOp betwee n rhe three slanrcd panels WIth :.rylilcd name!>, the hll~ man heads signifyin g the i,:onqu es t of lust, hate, and delusion. The howl rests on the blazing wisdom flames ,lllel is banded nr the wp by a rim 1llterspersed with turquoise and coral ~toncs. The lid i~ cha!>ed with designs of the eight auspicious em bl ems ('Ice VI ~6 b l and a leafy filling dc~ign. A dlfcc-sided gilt finial wirh insets crownlo th e cn~elllb l e. This skull bowl may be (rom the Amoo or Mongolian area, pos'sihly of the 19th cemury.

ringed w:ucr first consec rated in the ritual

vases (tmmpa ) Infused with divine energy in imtiarory and Othe r rites and then diluted

and poured inca this vessel,

to

be offered

at rhe chapel door 10 participants in order (0 rinse their mourhs before the initiations begin. The rin sed water is then spit into the spi ttoon. The cap on rhe pitcher's spour is there to prcst'rve rhe purity of the holy water, barring entry of any 111i t r o~demons into the mandalas and deirie::. present there through rhe earlier rirual infusions. The full caralogue of such specialized ritual implements rind vessels has yet to be developed , as the high lamas who use them ha ve not presenred them in any s)'stcmatic text, theit creation and usc being morc a matter of oral tradition. Examplc:s of these rwo ritual vessels arc rarely found in \'(7est~ ern colleen on.;;.) :lS this elabo rately ornate type were used on ly by the highest~ranking Rinpoches in the Tibetan world. They arc of Lha sa cra ftsma nship of th e 19th century, chased silver, very heavil y incised with thc eight auspicious emblems and the five se nse offerings, inlaid wi th pure gold, with traccs of lh e red mejit~bloom dye. The side lid and rhe top lid are set with high~quality turquoise. TIle spittoon is a later 20th-ctntury addItion, probably a copy of the original matc of the pitcher.

VJ-9

Kapala (Skull Bowl) Eastern libet or Mongolia

19d1 cellrury

Human skull bone; gilt copper; turquoise and coral insel 9"

X

6' (22.75 )( 15.25 eml

VI. Ritual llllplcmcms • 243

VI-10

Silver and Gilt-Copper \Vclter Bowls E.JSlcrn libel (O<.'rge, 1..1IC 19Ih-t"~rl y

Kh~Jll )

20[h century

Sih·cr and g[lt COp!X'T

work of foliate and leaf)' forms covers the entire foot. The contraSt between the dense, gilt relid and tht' sillooth, shining silvn is the epitome of tastdul ornamen tation. These are frOI11 the Derge (Kham) school of east('rn Tibet, renowned for Ihe beauty and richness of the decor of its metalwork.

3'h" x 5" [9 x 11.75 crn)

These gorgeous wat('r bowls, for offerings of w~ter on Tibetan altars, arc m:lde of heavy h~mmered siln'r and rich I)' gilded copper ornamrntation. BordrTed b)' two nms of tiny wire beading, rhe gilt Telief band at the rim has Ihe eight auspicious symbols amidst embossed and chased foliale forms of grral precision. An equall)' magnIficent solid texture of gilded relief

144 . Catalog ue

VI- II

Offering Lamps Lha!>., and Shlga[5e l..uc 191h....·arl) 20[h century Sih·cr and gilt cupper l..lrg~Sl:

I-I. 21 " X Circ. 10" (53.34 X 15.4 cm )

The "hunn lamp" (Tib. mar me ) is an essenti:d fixture on an :lhar, standing for the offering of light 10 enlighrenrd beings. Here arl' four fine lamps of various sizes, the three smaller ones made of silver in Lhasa style, and the large one of silver and gilded COpper in Tasht Lhunpo style. B[lner lamps can incorporate themes such as the vase of immortality, which sefl'es as the centml shaft of rhe I"\VO larger ones. They are heal' i!}, worked and incist.'d. The large lamp is unusu~l, retaining its original cover, which allows the flame to be seen through perforated holes while preventing dust from polluting the butter. At the edge of the hole in the lid is a tin}' gilt sill'er emblem incised with the Kalachakra len-s),lIable mantra monogram. This shields the light burning in the lamp and also adds a petition for the good fortune associated with Shambhala and the Kalachakra Uuddha.

VI- 12a, b

b) Conch horn

VI- 13

Ritual Conch-shell Horns

Sikklln

Pair of Conch-shell Horns

a) Lefl -turn ing conch horn Tibet

Conch, 5Ih'f( and gill sll.cr. coral Insct>

19[h CfnlUr}

14" )( 8' (35.S )( 20.25 em)

COJlch, gIlt

The coneh horn ISIn unponall1 symbol of the BuddhIst teachmg. It is S;Jld that Tson~ Khapa fou nd ed Ganden monaste r y on Nomad ~ I ountain be<-auSt' he found a conch horn buried Ihere 2000 yca rsca rher by a dIsciple of Ihe Buddha, and look It as an auspleious ~Ign. T his conch horn is fr,lmed by a stiver and gilt flange that IS superbly crafted wllh relief dt'5igns of a dragon III SWlrllIlg clouds III the central gdt strip. BIrds. flowers. and sprays of fruit fill the outl.""r bands of slh-er. whIch also include msets of large coral and turquolSt' stones. The Inoulhplece on the crown of the horn is a lso gi lt and slll'er. and a multIcolored braided silk ribbon strap is att3ched :11 the bonom of th e tube that wr:!ps ,lround the spiral end of th e cOl1ch. The dcs i~t1 s of thiS conch from Sikkim probably reneCl those of the Kham region o f eastern Ti bet.

19[h-20[h century

SEher

14" )( 8"135.5 )( 20.2 ~ cm)

The conch-shell horn IS an anciem mstrumem m India, also adopted hy [he Tibetans. ThIs rare, ausplciou~, conch horn turns to Ihe left-the OPPOSIfC of Ihe natural rlghtturnmg dlf(~cnon for a conch. FOf holdmg, thl."" horn IS mounted wllhm a gllt-slh'er flange. decorated wuh thl."" relief of a twiSImg dragon alllldst light. 100sI.""Iy ponrayed, curhng floral and lea fy tendri ls. A relatll'ely small nloUlhplece IS placed at dIe lOp of the horn to facilitate blowmg. The sounds fange from a soft drone to a piercingly loud bias!. T hese horns afe u)e(1 in temple o rchestras, and also arc blown from tem ple roofs to su mmon monks to assembltes. 246 • C3taloguf

IUTtjUOISC

and

I'aslcrn li bel (Kham ) 181h ccnlurr Conch shell. sll'·n. glldlllg: InSC1S of cor.11 and lurquol~; SIlk scarves

10.75" X 8.5' (27.4 x 11.6 em) (.1(h Thi S IS a pair of natural. right-turntng conch shells. They have been polished and mounted wuh flanges of hea"lly chased, worked, and nchly gilded silver. A phoeIllX bird chases Ihc I:ul of a dra gon, who C3\'OflS
VI- I-I

VI- ISa, b

Pair of Reeds (Gya-ling)

Rilual Trlllllpeis and Horns a ) Pair of sho rt tr umpels (Kattg-littg)

I brd"ood. gilt

~11\'rr,

Tib•.'!

Slkcr, ,HId IUrquolse

J 91h·20th Centuf)

18th century

~"'er

24" x 6"'61 X 15.25 em)

and gIll "lIh WfqUOl5e ,"SCI

1-' 1" X 21ft (49.5 x 6.25 cm) This in<,trumcnt pro\' idr~ Ihe lIlain melodic role of templl' musical rituals as it can play more than one nme. The IIlstruml"nt IS madl" of tapered h:lfdwood (pos5lbly rosewood ) and is pierced with clght finger holes on the lOp and one hole for the thumb on the back at tIll' 1l3rrow end. Thl' sounds range from shrill to loud or soft. E.1ch hole is burderl"d b}' a rlllg of Silver, lIl'""t WIth ;altern:uIIlK ~!ones of coral and f\1rqUOISC. The mouthpl{'t·(, IS fittl.'d \\'lIh

a gilded-silver Illiniature va~e of life (tsebum), which is al~o l11sel with turquoise. A doublc rC'Cd in thl" mouth produc("S Ihe wund. A long sl \\-l"rchalll hangmg from thcl"nd holds a small silvercup-sllJpcd l11outhpiecl" th:!! l~ pbced on the l·nd of the rel"d before plaYlIlg. T he fla ri ng sl\l
This type of trumpet deril'es fronllhe thighbone t}'pe Irumpet (VI-le), but thes(' mad(' of sill'er h31e a usage in Ihe templ(' scumg, unlike Ihe thIghbone trumpel which IS for tannic usage. These tapered sill'cr trumpets h,\\'(' a b3nd of gilt copper in the center. At the open end are plac('d decorative pl3ques in the double-I'3I ra style. ('aeh mset Wllh a t3rge turquoise stone. Th(' flaring mouth s('('ms 10 hJ\'c a si1l1ptltied ~dragon mout h " design. These trumpets produce a long, pICfcing so und, oflCn uSl·d to announce movement in m0113StiC rituals and (he eommg and gomg of Import3nt lamas (Rmpoches ). They arc also used 11\ outdoor relIgIOus cerC1l10ni('S and dances. A pair of red ;1n(\ gr('('n silk "napkins," used to wipe the mouth of the pta)'('r dunng Illig rituals. are allaeh('d. \'(Ihen 11O( bemg used, thIS kmd of costly pair of trumpets would be pl3ccd on a table or altar as an "offermg of so und." b) !'air of lo ng (telescopic) horns (D lllfg-dll!ll )

libel 18th c~murr? COPlX'r. Wllh siher dl'Cor L fold~,(\: 29" (73 ..Scm); extended -9" (201l) cm); m.lx. \'(I. 1( 1-.7 Slrn) Thi S kind of hurn IS an eXlendlng ho r n constructed in hammered copper m three sections, which can be collapsed Into th(' lower bell secllon like a (('I('scope. Each s('cllon is sltghtly tapcr('d and IS strapped wllh bands of sill'er with lotus and runnlllgdragoll pallerns at e~ch collap~lIlg Juncture. Surrounding each of the thrl'e sectIOns is a COUon rilll( rhatlS used 10 secure the scction when It is eXlended and does not allow fh(' Jlr 10 escape. A large ornamental band of sill'er with a runlll11g Greek-fret pattern edges the flaring 1II0uth of the horn. Sound IS alte red by lip movcments of the pla),('r. Ther(' arc Ihr('e nngs for carrymg straps on the large nlam sectIon. These horns arc 3lways blown 11\ paIrs, whether used InSide or out-of-door' for ritual dann's. The sound can be \-.lTIed and altered or work as a low dron('. brgl"-si1.cd exampl('S C3n run up 10 16 fccl. Usu311\, thl"sc horns r('Sf on carved and P3lntl-d st:lnds 111 thl" temple. 248 . Cualogue

VI- 16

Two Pairs of Cymbals with

Carrying Cases Ct'nlfal Tibet

(Lhas~)

17th-18th eentur)' C)'mbals of "fi\"~ metals" (Ii); earr)'lng cases of rt'd leather o,-er wood wllh metal fit1ll1g. SnlJll cymbals: Dla. 9" X H. 5" 122.75 X 12.75 em): case Dla. II " x H. 7" (18 x 17.75 em)

their usage in tantric ritu3ls. Both pairs of cymbals a rc quite lightweight, a feature (hat indic:ltcs Iheir age. The original traveling caS<:" for each pair of cymbals is made of wood covered with leather lacquered a brilliant red and decorated with metal binding Straps. ThoS<:" on the smaller caSC, which form ornamental designs on (he four quadrants, arc of finely chased brass. A locking mechanism is 3tr3ched to the side of each Case, and there 3fe lugs for inserting carrying StrlpS.

Large cymbals: Ola. 15 Y.!" x H. 6' (40 x 15.25 em); ea>e Dla. 17W x I-I. 8" (44.5 x 20.25 em)

The small cymbals with the large central boss emit a loud metallic sound and arc used in cen'monies related tn fhl' fil'rC"1' I)h~rm~p~ b protectors and for exorcising demons. The sound is diffcrem from that of the larger cymbals with a smal1t'r boss, which makt' a softer sound and are used for rituals rdated to buddhas and the hight'r deities. Both arc frequeml), used in the monaStiC "orchestras" for outdoor ceremonies and dances, along with other instruments. The smallt'r cymbals, shown here, art' held horizontally, whereas the larger cymbals (i nside the case) art' held verticaH),. A hand Strap is inserred Ihrough a hole in the boss for each cymbal; thoS<:" on the small cymbals depicted hert' art' brocade with a piece of ti gt'r skin allhe root, indicative of

250 · Calalo!'ut"

VI~ 1 7

Large Temple Drum with Original Frame Eastern Tibet (poSSIbl y Iht" Amdo Kumbum monaStCr)') Lalt" 19th ct"ntur),

wit wood; Iron rmgs; plgmellIs 21"x 7" (53.25 x 17.75cml dfllll1;

7 1" x 42"( 180.25 x 106.75 cm) stand

Thi S kllld of large drum is found only in monastic or private shrine rooms and would nOt be used for outdoor rituals or dances. The drum is made of so ftwood

thl! is brightly painted on the sides with red, green, and gold. The designs show twO golden dragons chasing a large jewel at the top. Tht' dragons are r3ised in relief by a gesso paste. The skin of the drum is dyed bright green and decorated III the center with 3 three-color (blue, red, and green) "bli ss swirl"' emblem. Three iron rings suspend the drum from its fr3me, which is carved and paimed wi l h red, green, and decp yellow. The drum is played by srriking with l p3ir of short-handled, felt -tipped strikers, which produce a deep, long, reverberating sound. Thc frame stand for the drum h3S 3 trellis design wi th Chi nese-sty le fretwork lIthe corners and 311 arch with scrolling vines, also in the Chinese style, with a pink flower at the center. Smaller flowers appear in each of the square corners. On tOp of the trefoil arch is 3 carved flaming-jewel finial design with gildL'd flames. The frame for suspending the drum rests on a rectangular cabinet, which h:ls hidden storage space within. The upper panel in front h3s l glory-god face (kirtilllllkha ) 111 the Chinese style. The lower panel has a decor3tive leafy border design of the kind seen in the Amdo/lvl ongolian 3rea . [t is rare to sec a complete ensemble such as rhis in a \'('estern collection. [t is possibly originall y from the Amdo region of ca. late 19th century.

vn-I Gold and Silver Man's Gau Box

Ga ll

Cen traIT! bet

Central Tibel

VU-2

Late 19th or early 20th CC.'OIunc.s

20th cenl1JfY, probably 1930s

Silver, copper, brass, gi lt copper, and turquoise Insets

C()td

7" X 5~ (17.75 X 12.75 em )

To have a shrine near them at all times, Tibetans invented the gnu porrable shrine

box, which rh ey wore on th ei r bodi es while traveling or even figluing in barrie. When rhey were in thelf rems if nomad s, in monastery chambers if monks, or in houses if farmers or nobles, they would place rhe gau in an altar sening, and it would be their doorway to rh e reality wherE' their mentorS1 benefactors, o r protectors resided. The least educated among them wa s still perfectl y aV·lare that the image or objeer in the gau was nor rbe deity (lr historical figure they were remembering. But it served as a site where rhe wisdom emanation of th at enlightened being co uld be invoked and co mmunicated with. This silver and go ld gall is clearly that of a ..vealthy farmer or nomad, or cou ld even be that of a nohl e. This type of man 's gau wa s frequently worn or taken by the owner on his travels. Otherwise, it wa s usuall y placed on an altar in the home. The front panel of thi s man's silver an d gold gau (cem cr) ha s dense ly worked silver scrolling with the eighr :111spicious emblems embedded, four on eac h side, each gild ed. A fl aming cluster of jewels is added at the cop, and a glory-god face (kirtimukhn ) at th e bottOm. The pair of fish arc depicted in rh e central Tibetan style, with heads facing upwards, different from [he eas tern Tibetan sryle with heads facing downwards (as described by John Clarke in his 1997 stu dy of the regio nal style of these motifs). Sllrroundlng thecentml recess, which now holds a statue of Tsong Kh apa, is beautifully worked openwork gi lt copper with five small turquoises. Ar [he bOttom are tW O deer and rhe Buddhist Dharma wheel signifying rhe firsr reaching of Shakyamu ni. Wire beading surrounds rhe borders of rhe inner shrine and [he ou rer rim of rh e ga u face. The si des are brass, the lu gs are si lver, and the back plate is co pper. Probabl y this finely worked ga u is from Lhasa, of rhe la re t 9rh or ea rl y 20th centuries.

Buddha statue wirhin, felt protective casi ng 6~

X 4 .75~ ( lS.3 X l2.! em )

This is n pure gold gall rh at once bel onged ro Reting Rin poche. lr is a long-life peeitio n for him , mad e by one o f his ministers in th e pre- 1947 government, with the image insi de being Aruirabha Buddha. There are eight offering godd esses creare d by repousse work, ranged around rhe central

window, cac h holding in rh e upper right band one of the eig ht glorious emblems. The surrounding field shows folinre patterns of lOtuses and tendrils in the Lhasa sty le currenr in th e early 20 rh cenrury. The pure gol d has been embellished by being hear-dyed with the famou s red-bloomed mejit fl owe r dye . The surrounding si des of rh e ga u are of heautifull y cha<;;cd silver. The flower ed grill in rhe wind ow represenrs rhe grill trad itional!y present before rh e Jowo Rinpoche image in Lh asa. The entire gall srili rerains its red felt carrying Case, Thts ohject IS extremely specia l, as it was given U'i a per it ion gift to Rering Rinpoche in 1936, ro senle a land dispure bern'cen two very high-ranki ng Lhasa fanll lics.

Vil. Cuhllral Objects ' 255

VII -3

Man's Large Sil ve r Gau with Tsa-tsa of Amitayus SlkkllTl Earl y 10lh century;

[Sa -IS;}

posslhl)'

SIlver, gill co pper. !UrqllOI ~ backlllg pla1C; cia)' fS
256 . Cal.llogue

lIT5.el S;

161h

cemury

coppt'r

Th is is an elegam ex,lmple of the most common form of gau. made of silver wifh JS much ~ih copper ornamentati on as lhe commissioner can afford, o f a size that is easily if burdensomcl)' carried aro und the neck, folded into lhe vas t front pocket fhat is formed "bol'e th e kl'rtI (beh sash ) faslening the standard Tibetan robe, the chuba. T his one cnshrll1es Amitay u ~, thc deity of longcvl[)' for th(' ordInary ta )'pason, ~nd the reminder ro thc adept of thc infinitc and

etcrn:ll presence of the ('n lrghlened life energy of wisdom, compassion, and love. T he image of thc deilY is to rcmi nd th e dcvolee of the elaborate ritual and contemplativc performalICes Ihar fire rhe im3gination 10 maintain a positive outlook abow healrh and longev· iry. Such a g311 would make an excellent gift to an eminent person, ex pressing th e wish for thtir long life and happiness. T his large srlver gau came from Sikklm, probably made b)' a Sikkimese artisan work-

mg in rhe Derge (Kham) 1ll1eage. Dense It:a .' ft'ndrils fill the front surface, on which are positioned eight gi lt dancing offering goddesses, each holdi ng onc of rhe eight auspicious sy mbo ls. At top t.:ente r is Amit:J.y u5, I~uddha of Infinite Life. and at cente r bottom IS a plate ofof£cri ngs fo r Ihe five se nses. The niche is harned by a temple ~hapc with elaborate and derailed roofs and roof ornamenrs. Dragons twine around rile cohllllns [Q each side of the shri ne opening. The base shows MO snow lions and in rhe cenrer panel is "Jhar appears ro be a gtlrtlda bird. The trefoi l arch of the niche reveals tl clay rsa -tS::l of a seated Amitayus within. Around the borders of the front face of the gauls ,10 inner band of openwork gi lt-copper leaf-and-lams dt'sign studded wim t:ight deep-blue turquoise .. tones. Two rows of ~iI\'er-wi re beading and an outer row of larger beading tompletes the borders of this exqU isi te work. The sides are engraved with a pair of animated dragons. There are rwo pairs of ~ il ver strap 11Igs, and the back is co pper.

b) V:ti r:lpani ~tolUe

Central Tihet 1 ~th

('CI IIUf),

Jci[vcr H. 4" ( 10.25 tm)

In!iide is ;1 silver stat ue ot M,lhacbakra Vajrarani with three faces and four arms, togerher wirh hi s conson 111 the FatherNt the r form. This powerful :lnd ecstatic fo rm uf Vajrapani was very popular in Tib er from rhe bcgi nning of Buddh ism the rc, bm irs prop itiation intem ified from

[he rimt! of Tsvng Khapa ( 13 57- 1-11 'JI, whose dl~ciples deployed It extensl\'t'ly 111 rhe CQlHeXt of see king to dven obstacles to rheir re.aclH::r's lifespan . Vajrapani adopts [h is fOrtl1 specifi cally to rame
VII-4a. b

Man 's Large Silver Oau and Silver Vajrapani Father-Mother 3) Gau box

Eastern Tibet or China

Lae 19rh or early 20111 centuries olJd Silver, back plate. of br~ss GIJ" X 5" ( 16.5 X 12.75 em)

Thi s beau tiful ga ll (portab le shrin e) is mostl y made of so lid sil ve r, possib ly in a ChLn ese or lvlongolian workshop, with silve r front, sides, and pairs of strap lugs. The back pla te is brass and slides on lugs for closure, typical of Chinese workmanship. The from plate has the eight auspicious symbol s (fhe fish is in the Si n o~MDngolian s~y l e according to John Cla rke 's ca tegories; that is, with rh e fis h bcing upward s with (l staff b(![Ween them ). At the top is the head of a fierce garuda with Wings, his arms gripping a snake in his mouth, to signif)' his co ntrol of the naga (se rpent-dragon) underground warer spirits. At rhe bonoO) IS the glory-god face (k",il1l llkhn), an unusua I combination to appea r with rhe ga rud a. It ha s C hin ese~sryle open an d loose scrol lwo rk and has light wirt.~ beading an d fan cy lorus-petal des igm around all rhe edges of the panel and the niche. The n.iche is quite Inrgc and h:1s a railiJlg in front.

VlJ . (I\lrur:tl Oh!ccts • 257

VIl-5a-e

Two Ga us and Three Small Shrines a) Gau with painting of a religious king Bury~I'~

181h century Frame of

RU ~~,.l" poreela'n~

/Sakal, pa'nu"g

G.lu6" xS"( IS..H x 12.75crnl; palllllng 3\1," x 2',1:" (8.25 x 6.25 cOli (n an unusual combination of Western and Tihetan traditions, a Russian porcelain frame w1th delicatc pmk flowers and blul' bows on a pure wh,tc ground has heen used 10 make

2SS · Catalogue

a gau holding the painted portrait of a king. The king. whose facr seems Western, S1tS on a throne in a while oUler robe of delicate blue mrdallion flowrrs. Orangr-rrd, moss grren. and dark blue-
b ) Woode n shrine plaque with Isa-tsa o f Zanabazar OUler Mongolia 191h cemllr) CI~}

t !i:H SiI wllh gouache p'gments; " 'oodcn frame

9W x 8Y!" x 2'·;," (24.25 x 21.5 x S.75 em) This ratht.'r brge relief plaque shows Z.1naba7.ar (1635- 1723 ). the famous Khalkha Hll1uktll and lelder of ,hr Khllkha Mongols of OUler Mongolia in the second half oflhe 17th cemu rr· Hl' is 31so known as l superb sculptor who originated a special stylr identifiable with his name. This plaque is nearly identical to another published in Tsultem (Ulan-Bator.

lorus flowers. Sbe sits on a lotus pedestal wirh strikmgly beautiful whIte lotus petals !Ihaded in a dazzlingly bright rose red. Her mandorla is peach, dark blue, and lavender. nlcse culors relare to easrern Tibetan pamr. ings of ca. mid-18th century.

eI) Sh rine of Panchen la ma Losang Pelden Yeshe Mongolia

Early 20th century

Wood and pigments 9 '1:i~

X 6 14~ X 3W (24.25 X 17.25 X 9 em)

ThIS wooden shrine conta in s a carved wooden image of Panchen Lama Losang Pelden Yeshe (1738-80 ), who was very innuenrial in Mon golia during his lifetime and especially through his dose relation with the Qianlong emperor of Qingdynasty Chi na. He is show n here in his monastic robes with the yellow pandit's hat of the Gelukpa order. He holds a book and a Dharma wheelan a lows. Beside him is ;1 rahle with a sma ll offering vase and tWO ritual vessels. Above, supporred by a scrolling green vine, IS a figure of Amirabha Buddha wirh a dharmachakra on a white lorus pedestal to his left and right. The box: is painred red with a lighrer-colored floral vine motif on the front and an cn dless~knor morif on the si des.

c) Enameled gau wilh tsa·tsa of the

Eighth Bogdon Gege n Mongolia

19th century

Silver and colored enamels 5JA~

1982), No.3. Bo
c) Small Green Tara shri lle Mongolia Late 18th-earl)' 19th century Wood, gold, and pigments I)" X

7·W X

J !h.~

(33 X 19. 75 X 9 em);

opening 5 th" X 4~ ( 14 X 10.25 em)

This shrine to Green Tara is made in rh e form of a smal l temple or temple nicht:. It echoes a large arc hitectural form with red pillars, carved capitals and lintels, two rows of eaves and a curved tile roof with acro~ reria l floral scrolli ng, and a flaming Jewel ar rhe top. A low balcony railing demarcares a frontal space, and rhe whole shrine is placed on a lorus pedestal with large petals edged in gold and alternating in green, blue, and red colors. The whole setting is quite gorgeous and festive and gives us a fecI for rile decorative aesthetic of Mongolian temples, which is in large pan derived from a combination of Tibetan and Chin ese idi· oms. The painting within rhe shri ne shows Green Tara holding twO large blossoming

X 4W' X

r

( 13.5 X t 1.5 X 5 em )

The shape of this gau is simila r to a typical Tibetan man's gau, but the front face is in~ rricarely ename led with colorful blue~green, ambe r, white, and pink enamels, which creace a torally different surface cffect com· pared with Tibetan gallS (sec V1J~ l , 2) 3). The rypica l designs of the eight auspicious symbo ls, the tsipa mOnster at rhe bottom, and rhe flaming jewel at the rap are, for examp le, simi lar to those seen in VII +1, bur the color makes a world of lijffetence and separates rhe Mongolian varhmt of the gau from that of Tiber. Inside the small opening is seen the [sa~tsa of the Eighth Bogdon Gegen 11869- 1924), a tirle of the Khalkh. Htltuklll (Zanabazar rsee VII -5bJ was rhe First Bogdon Gegell), wbo is "hown in his monastic robes and yellow hat. VII.

Cultural Objects ' 259

VII -6

A Set of Eight Galls \Ioogoll:l hr., half of ,ht 19,h {~Ulun

,,"h ,mgll1al ,"f,11 .md IIITlIIIOI ... I[h(,h, 111(",,11 b,llk panel p,Hlued Ted; "ood

GIl! Wppt"T

petle'>ul. aTt' T{\;(,111 r('p1.h;('mcn'~

It, 8 J . ' X W.26' x n. 1'." (22.21 x 66 x 9.1,1111

hght

):Ii,

Ct)Ppt"T .... ulplllres I rt'pl~(cll1clml

,\ longoll,l, D"itmnoT .... h"ol

-I" X 2W (IO.2i )( 6.2'i el1l)

It IS unusll,llw )1'1' rillS kmd of matched Sl't of pu~, each set \\IIh fouf g,llIS all,Khl'd .h one UIlI!. Though thi." ",ulpwre\ now m the galls are rep1.u:eml'llIs, 11 I) ilhly they \\ef(' oTlg,"all~ 1I1\('11(\('J ,I~ th" \..md of ~htemafll SCI of Images. Thc front'> of thc gau) all h,l\t ,I IYPlc:l1 SI)'ir:tt'd rnountalll de~lgll on the bottom edgl' Jnd.1 f.lIK) dragon lOlI'Og :lrnon)< douds on i."Jch ~Idl'. Th(" ~,Ime dr,lgon motif "ppe.HS on 11ll" lOp t'dgt's of ,he twO OUl('r gau). but the (,Ighl luck) \lgll\ .Irc spread ,Ium~ th(" lOP' of thl' (entr,11 rwo gau\, ("a(h of whleh JI~o h,15 twO till) tur(luol~i." msrts. Lng(" p:lll' cOf:lI'-.1 kllld I.llofed 111 Kh,llkh,1 ,\ Iongol!.l-dccOf,!t(, the IUllt .\<; ,I wholr. Those ~tUI ,I lotus run ,lfl' pbccd ,It th(' four Ollter corner~; the three m du.' eentt:r .lTl' eKh set III a CIrcular TIm, ,\ hlle of fiue bi."Jdmg framrs Iht' Illuer .llld OUler hordt:rs (If ('aeh mdll'lduJI gall. Olwall. the workm,lI1sh,p IS dt'IKalt' and refined, ,IIlJ Ihe gold hJS ,I hTlght lu"cr, t\[1I(,ll of the gddmg of the ,\ 10ngoha. Chm
260 • C.Juloj:llc

VB. Cultural Objects ' 261

VIl-7

Mantra "Prayer" Wheels Tibet (Lhasa ) 19th e~ntur)' Slh~r,

with

SQm~

g.ldmg on the brger one,

dnd wood

Large: L IS" X 013. 5.5" (45.7 X 14 em) Small;L 16.25" X 013.4"(41.3 x 10.2 em) Centuries ago, some early Western visitors to Tibet got the astonishing Idea that the "primitive ~ Tibetans had not re t discovered the wh('el, perhaps b('cause they did not maintain much of a road system th roughout the countr)' and did not use carriages of any killd. Such mls1udgment, perhaps IIlnueneed by altitude'lIlduced dementia

2.62 • Cafalogue

as much as by cultural chauvlll1Sm, ol'erlooked the ubiqUitous prayer whcel (nOi to mention Dharma whcels Ol·t'r el'er)' 1Il0n· astt'ry gate, mill wheels, large water·dm't'n prayer wheels. small hand-pulled cartS used in Lhasa. and many other cxamples). In fact, the difficult terrain of Tibet. and thl' bu rden of corvee labor (in lieu of taxes) on the peasamr)' that would hal'e bl'l'n Ill' voh'ed III building :lIld maimammg a road 5)'Stem for transport vt'hlcles, conl"lI1(('d the highly pragm:lIIc TibelJns to Slick to yak. horse, and mule HanSpOrt and avoid wagon technology. The prayer wheel would b(' more aptly called a "m3ntr3 wheel," SInCC the del'otec who turns such a wheel is not "pra)'lug" for something in our sensc of askmg God for forgivt'ness, blessings. or fonune. nuddhlsts do pray In specific circumstances to 1'3riOU5

buddhas, bodhisartvas. or mundane dellles, for specific wishes to be fulfilled. But when turnmg the wheel, they are repeatmg the "\IA'I- nlJntra as many times as possible, thereb), celebrating and contributing to the omnipresent, compassionate, sal l'atLOnal actll"lly of AI'alokiteshva ra, the "Loving Eres" buddha-bodhis.mva who, accordlllg to hIS legend and cult, is powerfully and I1llclltgt'ntlr conccrned about the welfare and awakening of all beings, especiall y TlbeI311s. ThiS purpose IS clearly shown by the fact Ihal I1lside the wheel arc light I)' wound stri ps of paper on which rhc lIlanlra IS inscrtbed in tin)' len ers thousands or, if posslbll', millions of times, so that one turn of the wheel causes mill ions of manl ras to diffuse themseh'es throughout ,hl' universe. on all the macro- and micro-planes of exIstence. Thus the mantra wheel is a kind

of religious machine (rhe Sanskrn word chakra and the Tibe ran 'khorlo can mean "machine," Just as a Westerner mighr refer to her car or bike as "my wheels" ), This machine, given rhe world picture underlying Tibetan cu lture, is a rational devi~e intended to maximize rhe positivity of life, in hopes of remain ing in COIHact with its ultimately secure, benevolent, and abundandy sustaining and blessing reality. These silver and gold layman's mantra wheels, which rurn on a shaft mounted in a roo led wooden handle, arc of Lhasa workmanship. They arc decorated wirh lWO rows of Lanrsa Sanskrit mantra lellt:r~ spelling our the universal compassion deity mantra O/l.! MANI PADME HUM (pronounced by Tibetans am mani peymey hUr/g ), alternating wirh rhe auspicious symbols of wheel (again! ), vase, vicrory standard, lotuS, fish, jewel, knot, and parasol. The tOP has a lorus bud, another of which adorns the cord of rhe silver chain arrached ro rhe cemral band of the wheel in order to facilitate turning it by a swinging motion of the hand . The covcr is fashioned from patterned si lk brocade in yellow, green, red, creamy white, and dark blue.

VIl-8

Mantra "Prayer" Wheel Bhutan 18th century

Ivory, silver, Chinese Jade ornament and handle

teakwood

L. I J.5~ X Dia. 3.75 (29.2 x 9.6 em ) N

This beautiful prayer wheel combines elegance of design with richness of color. The cylinde r container for the prayer texts is comprised of twO layers of ivory carved wirh ingeniously alrernating images of the Five Transcendenr Buddhas, their seed syllables (in Lantsa Sansk rit script), and paired letters of the mantra OM MAN! PADfo,'IE HUM.The carving bas soft edges, and the ivory is thick with a mellow tonality and a beautiful patina. The frame is silver with a sixteen-peta/lotus holding the bud-shaped finial at {he top. An iron roggle that aids in the spinning of the wheel hangs from a chain a[(ached to the runner between the two levels of ivory. A bright-green jade ball on a chain looped through the teakwood handle provides a colorful accent. The tapered handle, fi nely grooved in a twist pattern, is capped at the bottom with a carved-ivory lotlls swirl. lnside rhe cylinder is a roll of text in Tibetan with some Chi nese characre rs. VII. Cultural ObieCtS • 263

VII-9

Rilual Barley Conlainer C(ntrJI Tibrl (I.ha!>:l) 10th (tntuq I-I.lmmered SI!'eT

~nd

-·X " ~'·(17.7SX

glh copper

12cm)

ThiS h3ndsoml.' vessel IS for ho lding an)' special substances for rituals. such as musI3rd seed~ for burnmg on ch:1rcoal hr37.lers. barley grains for sC:llfering fo r good for· tunc, rice for offering uni"rrsal m,Huhla.

264 • C:lla!ogut

or evoking pro~pemy, or any other offl'Tlng or blessmg suhstances. Each section of tilt' \'essel is clearly dem;lrcated accordmg 10 what is mside: tht' top lid co\'ers a Imll.' shallow dish; below is a bigger cenrer dlsh; and m the base is:1 larger bowl. The \'esscl presents an artis t iC contra~t between alu:rnaung zones of densely packed. finely textured, gill- raised Icafy tendril. ,lnd the more geometric, vertically aligned lotuspetal p:merns of the silwr segmenh. The lid is topped by a bud-shaped h3ndle cow red III diagonal ~wirls of tht' leafy scro1l11lg deSign. Fine sill'er bcadmg separ:1tes some of the upper byers :l1ld tht' bottom of thl' slopmg foof.

Each ZOIlt' ha~ a slIgh d)' different style 10 the motif whlle mautraining coherence wi t h the others of like color and texture. The gold vertical b:1nd abm'e the shoulder has:1 S('rte~ of ohjttts bound III sWlrlmg ribbons: :1 \:1se with a high spout, a feather, a flower, a b:1lllboo stalk, a !elwi. a sword , a pair of pen cases, and a lock, suggestmg the vessel rould hl' put 10 still other u~es outside the rnual set t mg. Scrolling leafy folmge COI'rrs fhe surfaces of the shoulder and fool. O"eral! the vessel offers a richly IOWC31t' surfan' II1dlC3li\'e of the work of the LhaS:1 workshops of the laiC 19th to rarly 20lh ctntury.

VTJ- JOa, b

Teapot and Brazier a) Silver and gi lt [capol Slkhm (castern Tibe[ workmanship)

1960, 33" x 10" (84 x 25.5 ernl

It is said that "rea" was discQ\'er:ed

In

south·

west China by Buddhis( monks, who found thar by infusing boiling water with the IC;l yeS of ce rtain bushes, they could stay awake longer with les~ effon during their sessi ns of medication. There is a Chintsc legend that rhe Emperor Shell Nung discovered the heal~ lI1g effects of certain leaves when rhey blew

mro his cup of boiled warer by
with himself for falling asleep while mediraring, and so CUt off his eyelid" ro stay awake; from tbe cast-off eye lids grew the bushes whose leaves became the reJ that kept monks awake. Whatever the origin, rhere is no doubt that rca bccame rhe rage wherever it was imbihcd. For example, when the British discovered rca in rhe 19th cenrury and imporred it to Europe) people became so addicted 10 It char rhey drained the silver resources of the comincnt. as the Manchu imperium would only accept payment in coin. 0 the British wok revenge by growing opium in Bengal, importing it co bina, and addic ting the Chinese so tbey would trade tca for it, rllLlS saving the Europea n currency 'upply! \X' hen the Manchus tried ro ban opiulll, the British engaged [hem in the Opium War and forced them to accept the import from Bengal. In Tiberan monasteries rhe offering of [ca to rhousands of monks was an important rima I, and there were gianl clluld rons in monastery kitchens and large teapors which serving monks wouJd bring Ollt and carry down rhe long rows of monks, e
in a lorus-hud finial. A necklace of relief foliated-rretwork parrerns of gilded and chased copper ;'\clorll!;' rhe shou lder, neck) and tOp of the relanvely small cap. :\ silver chain hangs (rom rhe cap to [he fu Jl y gilded dragon-body handle. A large tornl bead appears at the cen ter of the chail1. a device that helps prevent rhe cap from being lost. The slender and somewhar angular spou t arches high in rhe form of a fully gilded 1l13kara sea monsrer. This rca pot was given as
b) Co pper and brass brazier Central or soudH:rn Tiber

The copper and brass bnlzicr is used fO hold

coals for warming) as in th e example here holJing rhe rea pot. The brazier is lifted on a pedestal foot that has a band of repetitive floral design at the bottom and an openw rk lorus-petal design at the juncture with rhe broad, somewhat squa re body. Two ring handles at the sides facilitate moving. The rather flat shoulder is decorated by rhe eight auspicious emblems "in discrete plaquelike reliefs. The)' are each of differenr shape and partly lap ove r rhe side of the shoulder onro the body. The neck is relatively Wide and is decorated with all openwo rk design o( dragons holding a pearl and cavorring 111 [he clouds. This brazier probably comes fr III the Lhasa workshops of the lare 19th20th cc nrury.

I..ut' 19th cenrury

Copper and brass with !ton rods 13 ~

X

ID~

(33 X 25.5

em )

VI\. Cultu ral ObJects ' 265

VII- II

Ornate Teapot Central Tibel J9lh-early 20th century Copper and silver 12'h" x 13" (31.75 x 33 em)

This handsome, large, hammered-copper teapot is richly dKorated. The SpOut is in the form of a mabra (a ncielll Indian mrthic;ll compOSHe creature-par! crocodile, par! fish, and part elephant) wilh inset turquoise eyes, long silver snout, and silver-decorated body. Th e handle is another dragonlike makara whose body forms its large reverse S-curveof the handle. He, too, has turquoise inset eyes and silver decorations. The body of the l'esscI, which has a tall neck and broad shoulder, bulges below the shoulder and then tapers with a concave comour to the round, footless bollom. It IS capped by a domed lid with a lotus-bud finial. The chased SIlver adornments on the body are rich and varied. On the lid arc four small carrouches, each wnh an arumal: makara, snow Iron, dr3gon, and bipa monSter. On the neck 3 snow Iron, flower, composite man bird, jewel, and 3nOlher snow lion appear among (he floral and leaf designs Ihat fill the band, which is bordered at the bottom by a running wavclike leaf pattern. On (he shoulder the eight auspicious emblems (sec 266 • Calalogue

VI-6bJ altern:m with clusters of leafy floral sprays. The bottom has on each side a large cartouehe plaque with Ihc glory·god face {kirlillllrkhal-the ubiquitolls, lolly, lionlikc, good luck face of ancient India-surrounded by foliate designs. These arc each framed by 3 long panel of scrolling-leaf design. Thesc all connect at the rop With the shoulder band and descend clost." ro Ihe bottolll with interesting, long, irregular shapes. The color comrast between thr copper and chased silver creates an earthy yel sumptuous I'essel. different from the refined and rtht."real effects of Ihe silver and gold vessels (VI·8) . The drsigns of the pair of fish and the tsipa arc those seen in the central regions oflibcl (John Clarke, 1997), so (his vessel is likely to h,lI"e come from a workshop in Lhasa, possibly of the 19th or rarly 20th cemurics. VII- 12

Ornate Teapot EaSlern libel (Dcrgt\ Khal1\ ) EMly 20lh eemur),

51!.-cr rcpoussC with gilding; turquoise

IIl$CI

12" x 12" (30 ..5 x 30..5 cm)

The bulbous belly of this beautiful teapot IS lifted up on a grlceful concave foot of slender, narrow, elongated lOtus peTals. A rlllg of gil! wire beading appelfS along the top of the base rim. On the belly IS a large c3 rtouche, on the

twO sides other than those with the handle and spout. T hey are placed wi thin a background of 3 continuous, loose p:mern of delicltely engrll'ed leafy spra)'s-a partern that I'irtu,llly covers all the undecorlted portions of this vessel. Each canouche has a scene: one of an old man and the other (pictured here) of Ihe four friends (elephant, monkey, rabbit, and bird--ch3racters from a popular talc much like the European children's tale of the four musicians of Bremen ). The figures appea r in a landse;'tpe setting that includes a cluster of jagged rocks, a grove of flowers, a stately (ree growing from sl3blike earth), forms, and a roll of distant hills with a Ouffy cloud. The canouche borders have refined wire beading. On the shoulder is a continuous row of raised, stylized, and chascd lows petals with a nubby, le;'t fy filling. The short, lightly rngral'ed, circular neck supportS the l:lrge domelike lid, which is decorated with eighr golden plaques of the eighl auspicious symbols (set." VI-6b). The top finial is decorated with 5ilvrr and gilt lotus petals and a lotusbud-shaped finial. A ch3in connects the top with the handle to al'oid possible loss of the lid. The hlndk is a scaly dragon wilh golden head an(l rwisted horns. The spout is a large makara head whose snout IS the curve topped b)' 3 large turquoisr in a gilded setting. The rrfi ned workmanship and Ilsteful, rlegam deSign are characteristic of Ihe work of ca. early 20th Centuf), frOIll the Derge region of Kham in eastern l ibel, noted for liS making of exquislfe sih'er and gold obleCts.

Vll-13a, b

nu ts, during important occasions like weddings or New Year's celebrations. Al ternatively, this kind of cu p and raised sallce r can

embossed with One of the eight auspicious sym bols. A doughnut-shaped silver ring or cllshion fits into (I hole in the center of the pbre and makes a raised platform to hold the silve r Ctlp above. The ring is encircled with chased designs of flowers and cartouches, which ha ve a peonylike floral design within. The cup with flared mouth is fashioned in imitation ofa porcelain cup, simi lar to a Chinese teacup. It is chased with overall floral patterns surrou nding four lotus flower car· rouches, each with an auspicious symbo l in the cente r. Tnis graceful assemblage with its clean, pristine appearance and subtle va ri a-

Two Cups with Stemmed Saucer Stand (Youring) Cenrral Tibet (Lhasa)

19th century

These elegantly crafted assemblages are meant to hold offeri ngs, suc h as sweers or

be used in Go lden Libation offerings, where

tions of decor is n fine work probably from

after the cup fills when the rea or beer is poured, it overnows into the saucer, giving the impression of abundant and overflowing offering to the deity.

the Lhasa workshops of the 19th cenrury.

a) Silver cup, saucer, and stand

This is ,} similar ensemble as seen in VlI - 13a, except this example uses elements of gi lr along with the chased silver. T he rarher boldly flared stem of the base is heavier and has two bands at the bottom, one a gilt wave design and rhe other a chased silver floral and leaf rinceau. The ste m is also divided

81;1" X 6Jh" (21.S X -16.5 em)

Narro\\\ elongated lotus petals vertically line me stem base of thi s ensem ble. The two-part stem holds up a curved sa ucerlike pla[[~ in the sh ape of ao open lutus with eight petals, all

b) Sil ver and gilt cup, saucer, and stand 81fl~x6lh"(2 1.5 x

16.Scm )

into silver and gold (u pper ) sections, both with long, slen der, stylized lows petals. The saucerlike plate has an everted rim and deepe r bowl than VIJ- -13a, bur it is similarly divided imo eighr sections, each with an auspicious emblem. The rims of the lotus petals and the symbols are all gilded. The entire background is filled with ch ased leaf and flower patterns. In the center a gilded lOlLIs-petal base lifts a larger ring segment than seen in Vll-13a. This ring is embla7.0ned by four gilded relief quatrefoil carrouches containing a pai r of peaches on a leafy stem . On the exterior of the cup are chased floral and leaf patterns, some with cartouches. To separate them from the silver background filling parrern, rhe prima ry designs have been gilded, imparring a kind of golden haze effecr co the pattern. In borh examples, a cylindrical cxte n sion at th e bonom of the cup firs into the hole of the doughnut-shaped ring making a secure fit for the cup. The assemblage in VII -13b has a heavier effect than rhe delicate example LIl VU-13a, bur butb represent tbe fine craftsmanship of rhe Lhasa area in the 19th century.

VB. Cultural Objects · 267

VIl - 14

Carved Lama or Altar TIlble Tihet,

po~slbl)'

"mdo re~lon

l.m 19lh-i:arly 20lh eemur) Wood

II

IIh ~lldmg and plgmems

33'l" )( 15" x 19" 185 x 89 x 48.H em)

ThiS mlorfully decorated, ornate lama or altar table IS u5uallr Set in from of an abbot or high I.ulla, In order 10 hold nlUallillpiemem5 and the texts he or she might be teach lllg from. Altern,lmcl)" it could be used 111 from of 3n altar wi th sacred 5t3ll1eS, books, or SIUP:lS, for holding rows of offermg cups, \'0111'(' bUllrr candles, and perh;1ps an offermg of the universe mandala assemblagl' 111 the

crntrr. The 111'0 usages are reail)' the same, since for ritual and te3chlllg purposes, a lama is him- or herself an Icon of the Buddha for thl" disciples, studenr~, or am'nda11!S. Th;1t i~, due to (he 1:1ntric visualizaTions involved in Tibetan religious practices, the attendees of teachings and eSJX'Cially m1llJI10nS arc taught to Imagine-to ~ystematic:ll1)' visualizethe presiding lama as mdl\'iSlble from the Buddha, m whatl'I'er parTicular deity form IS approprtate to the context. This "isualIZalion IS accompanied b) a simultaneous clear awareness thai the partlCubr lama IS not at all such a perfected bemg, but if. for the purposes of transmllll1lg the teaching or l1liti:ltion, he or ~he I~ f,luhfully regarded as such, then the anual blt'<,smg of the nuddh:l himself will come through the Imperfect lama I'essel to the diSCiple. So (he sacred offering

table contributes 10 the alta rhke seumg for the [eachmg lam3. I( h:!.s a windowlike panel in front, c3Tl'ed with openwork of foliage 111 which appea r [\\,0 deer f.ICll1g a Dharma wheel .lbove and IWO peacocks flanking a glo r),-god face (klrlllllllkhd) below. The red frame is dl'corated with fhe eight 3USPICiou s em· blrms 111 gold, :III (ied with flultenng nbbons (.1 Chllll'se st~' Ie). The top has red and green lotus petals, a C hinese fret drsign, a broader lund of glided :lIld painted floral spra )s, and :I lotus-petal nm for [he red top shih, T he ends of fhe four legs, which curl up 11\ (he form of 3 [Cwci Wllhll1 a floral border. rest on IOlUs-pedesfal feet. Thl' back IS open, This nnel)' c:l rved table probabl) comes from the Amdo region of the 19th--carly 20th Centuf)',

VWI 5

Offering Chest (Torgillll) With Painted Panels of Tantric Symbols Tibet. Lhasa

19th century Wood with lacquer, gilding, nnd plgmcnls BVz"

x 28·W

X \5W' (H5 X 73 X 40cm)

This chest was used in ;.1 fierce·delty chapel to srore ornate offering cakes made of u.ampa

(roasted barley flour) worked with dri buner and adorned with orn3menrs made of more burter. In special rituals at a certain time of yea r all nimh, nineteemh, or twenty-ninrh days of rhe monrh, these

[Qrllla.<;

would be

prepared br skilled monk arnsts. rile offering ro the fierce deity would be dedicated, and rhey \\'ould be enclosed in the chest for the yea r. In addition, dosed skull·bowl vessels with srrong tCil or liquor mjghr be offered as "inner offerings," and on rhe lower shelf would be perhaps some blessed suhstance Or incense, and ritual implements and vessels, The ourer decof!uions carryon these themes by picturing offering vessels and obiects. The fierce deit}, in focus for rhis chest is mO'it likely Mahakala, since the sword and tridenr are favorite symbolic weapons of his, and he, being originally a widely popular Indian fierce deity. is common ro all orders of Ti betan Buddhism. The offering chest was an essenrial piece of furnirure for the protector chapel (gonkollg), si nce rhe rOrma offerings needed a place to be kept for a whole year without becomi ng dusty and disturbed. The idea was that the deity could partake of the offering cakes' essential substance, as well as feel the intenrion of [he donor monks or lay parrons, as the barrier of wood would not matter to it. Though a plain chesrwould have served the pragmatic purpose JUSt as well, the Tibetans did nOt miss the opportunity to make the storage object itself inro an offering by painring its outer surfaces, bo th as invitatiun to rhe deities and as reminder to the donors. The sys tematic study of sllch ches ts is just beginning in th e West, and rhe most useful source is the catalogue Woodell Wonders (edited by DaVid Kamansky, Pacific Asia Museum and Serindia Publications, Chicago, 2004), parricula rl y the essays by Hayward and Tseran and KerneU. Apparently the production of both sec ular and religious furniture in ceurral Tiber was dominated sin ce the 17th cenrury by guilds of artisans: carpenters and wood-carve rs, pajlHers, and meralworkers. The guilds

were employed by governmcn tal, monas ric, and private sponsors, and they had strict canons of design, apprenrice systems, and standards of qua Ii!)'. The situation in castern Tiber is less well known, and probably tbe workshops operated unde r rhe direction of local princes and high lamas. without such formal organiLarions. The rectangular chest is palmed a bright orange-reel and has black borders decorated with riny gold designs. The from has a row of large rectangular panels above and smaller. ~qtlare panels below. On each are painted various symbols in white, gold, and black with a light and fluiu touch. At the upper left is a large skull bowl resting in a tripod base wi th three skulls, echOing rhe inner-offering skull vessel within. To left and right above are a tridem and sword. In the lower left and right arc a vase and twO small skull rosaries.

In me upper right panel is n large, upsidedown, gaping human-skull vessel. To left and right is a sharp sword. and in rhe center is .. rndenc. The panel at rhe lower left depicts a crouching jackal glowering ar the riger in the opposite panel. Above is :l banner and rib· bans. The panel at the lower right has whal appears to be a crouching riger III a mOuntam bndscape of sh
VII. Cultural ObJecTs . 269

VII- 16

Chest with Landscape Medallions and Floral Designs Tibel; (Lhasa Qr DcrS"? )

MId- 19th Cl'nlUry \X'ood wllh bcquer. gilding and pigments

B Y.I" X 41 W X 17Y.t (85 X 105.5

x

113 em )

This chest is what might be called a "secubr" piece, since it is created for an elegant home of a pe rson of means. t\nd even on this piece, th(' eIl'gant person's idea of a bucolic leisurely setting is a garden with a lama sining peacefully surround('d by gentle wildlife. T he craftsmanship and a('slh('tic care lavished on the Sideboard chest demonstrates a sophisticated and refined civilization among the ci tizens of Lhasa, allhe same time as it shOll'S them as not too highly removed from the tastes of the country p('ople, farmers, and herde rs. T he surreal and the imaginative also emerge in thl'se rl'solutely mundane decorativl' SCl'nes with the blue horses milling about in a bounteous herd that connotes wealth and abundant life, and the tame deer listemng to the forest sage_ It is a lovely chest wilh intricately painted panels, In the lower half Jre three horizontal rectangular panels wi th flor:11 motifs, and in thl' upper half arc tWO large square panels that have medallionshaped centers, each containing a lands(;lpe scene. Surrounding the center is a densely painted flower arrangement. Two vertical panels of flowe rs close the top tier. A fre t design in gold and :1 running carved triangular motif decora te the top edge of the chest. The painting is delica tei)' executed and is pleasingly colored with scenes of animals and figures 111 a d('liglllfullandscape setting. At th" left (facing) is a lama with an altar and a deer in a landscape: al the right is an idyllic, pIcnic-like scene under the trees wi th a group of varicolored horses cavorting nearby. Maka ra heads decorate the fret pattern of the Olller rim of the medallion, and realistically rendered flowers and fruits of I'arious types, mostly r('d in coloring, are offset against the pale background. The side pands of the chest arc similar 10 the front. The bonom skirt panel is red with a nora l spray in the cemer and a frer design at the corners. All of the borders between panels arc dl'Corated wilh these colorful blooming nowers, some of which have striking modeling thai relates to the Styles prevalem in the mid· 19th century in eastern Tibet.

270 · Catal ogue

VII -17

Painted Box with Rosary and Jewelry Lh3S3

L9rh-2.0th

'Clllur)"

P.llnled wooden bo" wnh dt'corall,'e jade rosa ry and ~old and turquoise saddle." flngs. Box: 9W X 6~H X 211}"124.8 X 16.5 X 6.4 em)

Rosar)': 39~ (99 .. m)

Thlli elegant jewelry box lili del icately painred wit h 3 hint!Cl c·"tylc cou nrr y sce ne, with figures walk ing :1cruSS 3 vcrdanr grassland In spnngrime with rolling hills in the distance. a landsc3pc common in the Amdo area. It ha~ rhe usu
queen, rh e wish-granting gem, rhe

whed of sovc relgnry, the flying hor e, rh e powerful elephant. rh e honesTmmister. and the skillful genera l. ThIS might well have been a box made <'pe(ially for the Regent, Rermg Rmpoc hc, whom we have already meL, to WIsh hlln well in his a suming rhe hea vy responsibiliry of ruling Tibet dUring the Int enm berwee n th e ThirrcelHh and Fourreenrh Da hli Lam
divider beads and l'rown bead wah the ministupn shape of tbe tooled brad that rises at 90 degrees rrolll rhe crown bead, ropped by a tassel held in pI-lee With a vnjra-crass-shaped four-petallotli~. The gilt-metal COllnter beads arc al~o threaded on muJticolored .. ilk threads woven into string'> with red and green t:iS· sels Jnd valrn and v:llra-hcl l endings. Such a rosary is main ly ornamental, .1 form of extravaganl Icwelry, thai yet has {he virtue (or covcr!) of 'tcrving a religiOUS purpose. ff slich a roSilf\' wer\! u~ed for spinrual practice. It would be for Dh:unllc fund -raising. as it i~ SJld that mamra!:l recited In celebration and propmanon nf wealth deincs arc best cou nted 1,1 11 p rCCI(llI~ rosaries. Next to rhl' rosary arc three turquoise men's ring~ ~e t ill rh.:hly worked gold -tinged wi th the r('dch.. h hue dlstionive ro Lhasa goldslllllil'i, rwo o f them with rhe saddJ e motif and one more !.imple in it'i setting. Lhal,:an jewelry of the 1a~r century was inpiecd ongmally by respect for the Dharma, in meaning, 'lIhape, and 4.:olor. nll~ malor Jewelry fo r ladies \Va'i dlC jcweled g:lU, servmg both as a lavi!:oh displa} of wea lth and as a conramer of sacred ob)L'cTh 'lIm:h as prmcctlve diagrams. manrra K-rolll,. pICTures of high lamas, blessed subStanC6 reeen,ed trom 1.1Ina:t, and the like. The ~hape reflccled III the Lhasa women's gaus IS the form of the va)ra cro~s. a symbol that is u!llver.).]1 both in ItS prorectlve qualit), and in Irs s)'l1lbolk ground mg of the Buddhist cosmOb. as the univer'>e i~ believed to rest on a base of crnssed V:.Jjl'.lS. and even rhe union of wisduTll and compas<:ion is believed to be rhe strong, force of t.he universe thar holds irs atoms togerher. The colors nre princip~llly turquoise, which has J prolectJvc virtue, representing respect for rhe 'iky ascoo:;mic spacc dclry, and is set in very high-cara r gold. rhe gold represents

wealth and was further enh:l.I1ced III the 19th and 20rh centu ries by a reddish blue produced by boiling the gold in a gelarinous IllIX of rhe seLrt: Li{)lI ~ uf ,I plam called II1l'lit. This was unique to jewelry manu(:\cIUfCd m Lhasa and (he cemr:!1provinces. The tlmd chief color is very high-quality blood-red cora l, representing passion; rhe lotus dan of l iher's patron deity, Avalokncshvara, the eJrth gudd~s; and rhe femmine \VI'.dom power III genera l. Another important gem IS rhe pearl, wh ich was highly pnzed 111 Tibet and ongillally came trom the Russian trade through ~ longolia, and later from the somh China 'iea, represenung waH:r and the muon quahty. In rh e early 20 th century, the Tibetans broke away from nominal lUntwl of the Qing cmrirc with the fall of r.he tvlanchu dynasty in 19 11, and dccl.ucd independence with the return of the Tlmteenrh Dalai Lama fro m exile in 1912. The) formu lated a more n!wol1<1i1!.rtC sry le III jewelry, no longer consu icred by adherence to MJnchu fashions. Lhasa nobles were also expolled ro Westerner'>. mall1ly the English, .1Ild hcgall to emulate their fashion .. and incorporate Western-style facetcd c;;tones, usuall} cur III Calcurra. As the centu ry rrogresc;;ed. LhaCi3 wumen tended to wall{ larger and more expressive Je .....e1 ry. They begdll to change traditional Jewelry .:.ryles, causing CTI CS of nutrage from lht: n:lIglous a Ulh nritic:.-.:.o much so that around the I 920,!" thc T hi rteen rh Dalai Lama prom ul gated all ed lcr that the Lhasa nobles were expen ding [heir emi re fortunes not on rhe: work of the Dh,Hllla but 0 11 the self- Jove and ~e lr-;ndLllgcllc(, of ornamentations. Iv tn ny fam ilies began ro donate their jewels to charity, while otht'rs hid their mOSt precious pieces. In the 1940,>, afte r HIS Holi· ne~s's den1lSe. many Lhalla fa nllhec; began to

VII. CullUra l Obl(:ct~ • 273

invest fortunes in precious jewelry. It became larger and more expensive, and incorporated many more foreign elements. There were basicall)' three style changes: I) in the earlier period, the gaus and the along earrings (see VII-IS) tend to besmallcr, with slightly rounded cabuchon stones on the surface; 2) in the '20s and '30s, the gaus kept the same shape, square on square, and the along earrings tended to be larger, the surface Stones flatter; 3) from the '40s to the 'SOs, the Lhasa gau changed shape slightly, with the inner square more concave and its surface set with many more stones, imported rli~monrl~, T\lhif'~, ~nrl f'merald~. The ~Iong earrings became heaVier, and thus had to be fastened securely on the headdresses, the surface stones cut with !Otally flat surfaces. One of the passions of Tibetan noblewomen was to redo their jewelry as often as possible, popping out old stones, pUlting in better ones, often seeking for years to find highquality turquoise and cor:ll to match older pieces of jewelry. This jewelry in the K:lndell colleCtion displays an aspect of Tibetan culture that is toO little represented in Western exhibitions, and is useful to free tbe mind from the stereotype of Buddhist Tibetans as ascetic and unrefined, lacking a high aesthetic civilization and unappreciative of pleasure and the finer things of life. Although Tibet was technologically sophisticated and scientifically and philosophically highly developed, its people chose to remain at an mtermediatc technological level and not to industrialize, not because they were tOO '"backward" to have done so, but because their leaders wen' intelligently aware of the destruction to the ennronmem and the polarization of societ)· that the insati:lble pursuit of wealth would cause. They had a millennium ago given up the lust for war and conquest, and they focused the-ir science on the inner science of how !O develop the emOtions and the intellect to achieve superior states of awa reness and well-being. And within that orientation, rheir whole society had a penchant for enjoying life. [remember vividly the statement of a high lama, the previous Nechung Rinpoche, who

174 . Calalogue

had been reborn in :l peasant famil)'. He h:J.d spent a year in China with the ])alai Lama's delegation in 1954, traveling all over the land of "bo. He was asked by an American friend at the conclusion of a six months' journey in America in 1976, '"Well, Rinpoche, how did )"Oll like America?" He replied, ~ [r 's very nice. with friendl)' people and beautiful houses and rO:lds~ but it's :l bit too much like communist China !" People were shocked, so he had ro e-xplain . "Even though ),Oll have much more wealth, you are all totally bus)" all the time, just as they arc in China. JUSt work work work, with· our ~fOpping. Here. I have visited wealthy families. and the head of the f3mily is on the ph011l' all the time and has no time to just sit and chat. In Tibet, in my village and in the monaStery, we wOlild work hard sometimes, haTl'esting, planting, doing this and that, studying, chanting. But lOIS of times we just relaxed, with nothing to do for weeks and weeks. That was really wonderful. \'Cle h:J.d a little- peace of mind there."'

VII-IS

Two Jeweled Rosaries and a Man 's Along Ea rring with Wooden Ea rring Box Lhasa 20th (rnlu ry

Kosancs of cor~[ ~nd laPIS, earrmg of lurquolse and gold Coral rO>'1r)" 46" ~ 116.8 em ); Along earrlns: QI'crali L. 5.75' 114.6 em); E~rrlng box 7.5" x 1.8" (10.1 x 4.9 ern)

The-se- are beautiful, precious, high-quality Russian lapis and Tibetan coral malas that belonged to Reting Rinpoche, given to him as private- gift~ hy nobles currying his fal'or as Regell1. To petition a high official, an important gift had to be provided to show

your seriousne-ss. These tWO malas are made of ver)' expensive materials. The coral Tosar)' is made of perfect cora l beads, with jade divider beads (bead count is always 108, an auspicious number corresponding to the petals in rhe nerve complexes in the yogic subtle bod)', and dividers are placed at 27-bead intervals) and fade crown beads. The si lken threads arc gr('en and orange, the- colors of Ha)'agriva, of wisdom and wonder-working; there is a precious lit; glass bead in the tassel above tht' crown bead, bracketed between rwo more coral beads; and the counters are gold as in the prel·ious rOS:lry. The lapis rosarr has dividers of yellow butter iade, and tassels of blue and red silk, with an unusual :lmulet sewn in leather hanging next to the crown tassel. Both rosaries arc sumptuous and expensive, and counting 0)1.1 VAISHRAVANI)"l SVAHA a million times on them would no doubt cre:lte tbe atmosphere conducive to r:lising enough funds 10 build another whole mor\:J.stic collegr complex ! The along dignitary earring is normally worn alone on the right ear by a government official from th(' first to the fifth rank (out of five) during form:J.1 occasions; this one was worn b)' one of Reting's estate finance managers. Here it rests on its walnut carrying C:lse. But even in this symbol of male vanity and adornment, one can discern the underl)'ing spiritual patterns. AI the top of the eamng arc six inverted lotus-petal turquoise shapes, below which a vajra shape is created with fWO m:ltching si x-faceted TOundrls of turquoise panels with tapered golden cones meeting in a round ball of energy, iust as in the center of :l vaira scepter. Continuing down, the drop shape with another set of f:lceted turquoise rOllndcls has the underlying shape of a purba stake, or dagger. So even Ihis official's or noble's earring has embedded subliminally within it the vajra of compassion and the purba stake of the overcoming of e\·i1. T he wooden box that keeps the earring when not worn is of an utter ~implicity of utilitarian design, with on I)' the subtlest Ornament:ll flourishes in the notches setting off the round end part, and its shape nead)' carved to conform exaCtly to the shape of the earring.

VII - ] ~ n -d

Lhasa Jewelry All of rhe examples ()(jewelry ')hown here are prob:'Lhl )' from the Lhasa arCa from around the 1940 ... In the 20th cen fury, jewclry wa s frcquemly subJcct to slTicture by decree, and the faceted gems of europcan jewelry w~r(' imported and began to be used in Tibetan jewelry. Old turquOise Stone . . were valued and ofren reused for new sctt ings, so IllS like!} rh:1! mnny of the tu rquoises seen in this jewelry arc o! much greater anriquity.

a) I ccklacc with . . quarc ga u 15 1,"" x l ilt (39. -;5

;<

3.7) em)

The g;w 011 tlus necklrtce IS the typical shape of a sqUJre supenmposed on a r01.a led square base, thus making an eight-pointed ourUllc. Th e sryle is from the 1920s (Q the '305, the period of the Thmccmh Dalai Lama. II shows rhe e:HI)1fu rm of the vajra cross rcpresenred a!. twO imerlocked squa re,> (nore the inlle r square is not concave-s ided as in Lhose of rhe larer period l. The rurquoise is rhe more prominent stone used. The surro lln dmg field i" the beaded filigree pattcrn typical of Newari-Lhasa craftsmanship. The gilll is rcd-gold gilt inset with six-petal half-nowers in each corner. TIle neck lace porrion hali large cora ls, narural dzi bead~, and SOUlh Indian pearl clu"fers. The ~horter strings for sec ur~ ing tht' gau arc pearl, green jade, and (:oral. There are already a few stones of imported Moghullndian origin. crudely facered emeralds and rubies. The original hanging straps prominently fearure lht:" national Jzi bead. The rop cJnsp ha:, a British Indian coin, half rupee, 192 1. A Lhasa woman cou ld wear up to three of th ese gau necklaces during religiolls holiday~. They are considered morc lhan mere ornalllcnr, and ha\'c a function: to ward off harm and protect the wearer who has faith III the efficacy of th e gall as a kind of rdigiou~ sbr ine.

b ) Pa ir of earrings

Lenglh

5~

(12.75 em)

This pair of carrings, post- l 930s in style, made (If large cut tu rquoi ses and fille ~ quality red go ld. presents a seque nce of vaned shapes of near!) equa l size: al the rop a teardrop arra)1 of rurqlloises wirh a ccnrr:ll srone surrounded by smallc r ones; in rhe cente r ~ smooth circu lar Turquoise SC t III a crescenr-s hnped rim of large gold beads; and the lowest element composed of three lc~f-s hapcd wrqlloises, the cenrer leaf

l'ndmg m a small gold bead rip. Thl' design of thIS p:m o f eJrrings gives amp!t· oppor· rtll1lty to display the beauty of the matched turquol~es. and the)' arc In especially SUltahle compJcmt'nt to a nt'ckl;lc(' wIth a g.lU usmg many turquoIses. This kmd of earrmg dl.'sign was popular among thl' aTlsuxraw: Lhasa \\'oml.'n.

upper plaque in green iade holds four short pearl strings and th(' cemral smng, which in turn holds the red-gold plaqw.' from which arc susJX'nded Iht.' hl'l.' longer smngs. This ornamt.'nt could be hung from the shoulder ol'er the breast as part of a fancy woman's dress. and was worn onl}' 1Il Ihe cemral provinces of U and Tsang.

c) Cross-shaped gau S"x S" n2. 7_; x 11.-Scm);dcpdl JI."{J.2S,,·m)

TIllS g.lU, described and depicted m detall m

VU-20

VII-20, IS qUlIt' clabor:He with many dIfferent kmds of InSCtS_ including sol11e rl.'l.uII·I.'I), sm,lll turquolscs. pearls. rUbH!~. dIamonds, CUf glass. and other prl.'cious SlOnl.'S. TheSt' unporled Western-type lcwtls w('r(' used III the 19405 when the supply of turquolsc was hmm'd. ahhough th(' shape of fhls gau mdicafes a date of the 19505. ThIS was the last stylistIC change in the c('ntral-st)'1c gold gau. Thl' result IS more colorful th,m Ihe mon.' tradmonal Lhasa woman\ gau wuh a rich arra), of turquoises. Th(' scum!; IS the fine rt'd ' gold scen in the hIgh-class l('welr), from Lhas.1 of the mid-20th century.

Golden Gall Jewelled Pendanl

d) Hanging Pendant Ornament 14 1 1" (36.-<;

~m )

This Orllamem IS mainly compo~ed of clustered pearl strmgs. Coral and ladl.' arc thl.' primar)' SlOnes u~l.'d to clasp the pearl clusten, and dark- and light-green jade are u~ed for [h(' pt'ndams a[ Iht.' end of each smng. The

Lhasa 20th ('emur} TurquOl~. gold, dlJRlonds. rublcs, emeralds. cut glass. pearls

S"xS· ( ll.7.i x 12.7icRl): d('p[h 11. " /J.2Scm )

This golden gau presents a further InnovaIlon, whereIn the I'alra CfO~S has bec01l1t.' a By7.antine cross, perhaps b,'cause the two art.' very SImilar. perhaps under Ihe m/lut.'nce of Srmsh lewelr)' styll.'s. Up until the Chmcse consolidation of theIr occupatIon of Tibel III 1959, many Tilx-tan wl.'lI-lO-do fanuhes would send their chddren for an English educanon 111 Daflet'Img or Kallmpong, whcrc they would go to [nlssionar), schools and become fluent in English, and s0111('wh:1I 111 I-lindl, as well as learn about Chrislianll)' and Westcrn science and philosophIes,

Verv few cOlll'e rr ed to Christiani t ),. In spite ~f having to attend chapel in t he hne Chfls(lan schools, but some few did. One lady actuall), convert('d because she so much :lppreciated the kindness of the mISsionaries and their schools. In conversatIon WIth the Dalal Lama some time afterward, she confessed 10 hun that she had adopted Chrisllafllty. hut hastened 10 assure him she would relUrll 10 Buddhism in her Ilt.'xt hf('! Needless to say. ht.' caut ioned her to take her new faIth more scriously and stick wlIh 1\ once she chose II. Therc was an important ChriSllan newspaper published in Tibetan hy the f.UllOUS Th.lrchm Babu. and [he I~ible had been translated mtn libetan long befort.'. Dill.' 10 [he bllSl1lCSS concerns of the Hong Kong Talpans. mdependentTibel was not mtroduced 10 the Ll.'ague of Nations and so not dlplom311callr recognized as the mdepcnJ('nt coumq' Ihal It 1I'3S, .·xcept by the then snl1 free :-' Iongolla. Howe\·er. Ol1e of the blcsslll~s 111 dlsglll~e of th.· Bmish presencl.' in Tibet in the 20th century was that the Tibetan noble an d merchant families began I() learn Engh~h and ]X'came farlll!iar with Indb, Ihl.' blrthpl.lCe of Buddhism. This was to stand all Tibetans 111 good stead when the~' had to go mlO cxlle around the world after the Chmese t:lkeO\'er of [heIr homeland. In thIS gau. thl.' shrme box part has become much smaller, makmg the piece much lighter and so casler to Il'l'ar more frequemly. II is mlssmg Its nc..::klace strands, but It would hal'.' been strung with the typica l str,lnds of pl.'ul~. corals, and dl.i beads. The genUIne dIamonds at [he tips of the cross arc probabl)' re[Tlel'ed from IImish diamond earrmgs,

VII-2 1

Gold I~i ngs I h~5.1

lad,

(ClllUry

Gold, (oral" turquOIse, dZI l.ar~('st :

I" (l.5 mi l

Tht~l'

arc highly valued nngs. five m the Iradmol1al saddle pattern and four WI\h smaller roundt'd ).'tllIlg5. il. lost of the saddle rmg) ha\'e dtlt)" LlCes on the sides, as rerlllnde rs of the prt'stnce of divint beings. Although the Kandell collecllon docs not cOllla1l1l'xam ples of traditional country itwclry from the various regions of Tibet, ,hl're we re many wealthy famili.') among the huge m:lloruy of Tihetan COmm(Jneh (Tib. sa skY,I. 1111 st'r-wrongly C:llltd "serfs" by the communists): I:lnd-ownmg. freehold farmt'rs \\ ho also ownt'd largt' herds of ,lI1l1llaI5; most of the nomads, who :llso t'ngag... d 111 lunamt long-distance trade with India ,lIld Chlll,l; and skilled artISans who sl'rved chell{) from all It'vels of society. \'\'omen 111 those maiomy commoner families had t'xtf:lOrdlllary wealth of tu rquOIse, coral, amber, dzi, jad.... pearl" and the ilke, which Ihey wore for speci:,1 OCCISlOl1S on hugt' h:mdo frames. When a Tibetan woman married. h... r mhl'ntt'd per-

280 . (JI J lo):uc

SOllal wealth was not a do\\ rr, hm all her own, with no obhg,lI ion to share wit h her hu,band. It was her st:lke for dlvoTCIng hun If hc didn't work out. A~ rcm:Hk:lble:ls arc these delicate. )op h l~tica,ed Lhasa jewels, .1 usuall)' negleclNI part of the piclUTe is the splendor of ornJmtnt.l IlOIl throughout Tibetan socicr)'.

VII-22

Turq uoise and Jewcl"Covered Lady's Golden Gau

EJrlr lOth ,emur)

TurquolSt\ ~old. pe~rls.

dl~lI1\lnd~, rub,es, emnalds. coral, dZI he"d;, e"hudHln sapphires

Gau: 6" x 6" x I ~l" (11.1 x I ;.1 x 4 em ) I. "lIh beads: 15 ''1" (39.4 em) Th,s bejeweled golden g.1ll (shrine box ) WJS owned by a \l'r)' ImpOrtant Lhasa noblewom:l n. It show~ the fashion of [he period 1 9 ~ Os :111<1 '50s, when Tlbl'l was In its last decades of full IIIdependencl' . The Thirteenth 1):l b i l3m:l, recognizing what communl'lll d,d to Mongolia Jnd anllelpa[in)": what would me\'IIJhl)' happen 10 Tibel, pass<'d on dccJdl's before t'xpccled.

in 19B. 111 order for hiS reincarnauon (O hal"e grown up and be read)' 10 help Tibet In ITS Ilmc of Irlbulallon. He wa~ rcborn 111 1915, recognized in 1938, and Installed as the FOlirtel'lH h Dalai LJma in Lh:l$a III 1940. The new Dala i LJma wa~ cloistered away with h i ~ st udies and (a111l 1)". unaware of the gOlllg~ -on among the Lhasa nobility. Tibet was serurely isolJted from ,he Greal Depression :lnd GreJt \X/ar, enloying peace and prmpenly. The Greal ThlTTeenth's laSt \('s',um~nt to IllS people, predictlllg ImpendIIlg disas ter from the Intrusion of lllduSlTial modern II)' 111 til(" form of Chine'l· COIllJllUIlIsm, W:I ~ Jll but fo rgoTtcn. T hiS gau's mnc r sqUJrl' shape is conc:H'C, rcllcct mg l\ ~ underlYlllg "ajra cross shape. The fine ~lIrfJCe turquoIses arl' well matched 111 color•.Ill el1mely Il:lt, with some lightl), CJT\'l'd III ronch-shell patterns. It IS set With \\;'esll'rn It'welry elemellts, CUI dIamonds from earr1l1gs, faceted rubies, and emeralds, lIl,xt'd With CUI gbss. The strJnds of [he neckbce art' se[ wi th pearls, coral, and .Illcient dll beJds. T he dzi beads are not natural but were fabncated in ancient wiles hy mea ns of a lost process t ha.[ cannot be imil:II('d. [hollgh nume ro us fJkeS abou nd. Tht' connoisseur CIIl easily leiI [he difference, and the'ie genullle Olll'S are much more valuJble [han [he diamonds.

VII·23a-<

Official Ganden Palace Government Decree Cemul Tilxt; Lhas.l: l'OIala l'al,Ke? 181h ,entUf\'? lIand",rnl~n

and r~lnl('d wllh mk on yellow silk; wllh red seals and handprulls; framtd In silk brocadt' Q'erall: II cr x 34" (179.4 x 86.36 ("ml Yellow ~Ilk: 92" x ,!4" I.!ll.- x 61 ("ml ESJX'cially UllporUnt edicts, proclamaTions, documents, and letters issucd hy the Dalal Lama were handwritten on yellow silk m highly ornate prest'ntJllons such as this. Thl~ tradition appa rently was mitiated during Iht' JX'riod of the Fifth Dalai Lama (16 17-82). (For another example, sre M, IIraucn, The Dal(// /.(IIII
(;af~ll>):ue

Swa!>tika Bon th eists and so forrh, and also the forry great tribes of Mongolians, the four tribes of Orods, rhe kll1gs and royal clans who live on the shore of Lak e Khri shor Gyalmo, th e Dzun ang, rh e Taidzi, rhe greater and lesser officials, rhe Thabunaug, rhe Dzairang, good men along wldl rhe common pt."'Ople, rhe three COunties [of Ngari], rhe four districts lof ccnrral Tibet], rh e six ranges [of Kham[ , rhat is the great monastic and 13)' leaders of the kingdom of Great Rod, the gm'crnors, rhe court officials, rhe administrato rs [TadrungJ. and rhose ho lding custOdial responsib ilities and so fo rth-in shorr, to all those people of higher, lower, or middle (ranks), this is my proclamation. By the power of the loyal heroism and uni versal resolve: of Tenzin Chbgya l (Gush ri Khan ), who by rhe grace of high hea\~en controls all the wide land, in the wa ter horse yea r ( 1642), on rh e occasion of raising up from highest to highest the reaching of rhe great I.o rd of VictO rs, Tsang Khapa, at the great palace of Samdruptse [in Gyanrse[, he led . 11 the ITibcranllords and subjectS and rhe whole clan and lineage of the king himself (O perform the grear offc ring donation lof the Tibc tan kingdom] without

reserve. evcrrheles .. , I myself was unable to uphold hmh Dharma and smre. And so the respom!llhllity for go\"crning sooet)' and the S[ ,l[C wa~ taken lip by rhe regen I Sonam Rabren; and .tfrtr him, as all members of hi~ own family hat! passed away, l ap pointcd to the respon~ihdlr)' rhe regent Trinla)' Gyatso and a succe'iSlon of regents of his Imcage. Now, rhis sGrong-smad-fJa Sa ngyay Gyatso is nor only of the family of the regent Trin lay Gya tso, but in some propheCies ~ uch as tbe Tersa r Gyajcn [Sea led New Treasu rel and so forth, he walt predicted ro be worrh y ro be master of Hod. So in the Wood Hare year [1675 ), though (I) IOsisred wnh many reJsons as ru why be should rake rhe responsibility, it happened (har he insistently begged to be excU'ied. But the divination .. for rhe worrhinc:;s of others did nor prove ar all auspIcious. So, since, after Sa ngya mpa [ angyay Gya tso J, rhe divination for rhe [DrepungJ college custodian , Lasang Jinpa~ seemed most poSItive, and since I did nor want to hear am' of Ius reason~ agains t it, he \Va" un able to·disobey my tOlll mand. However, since again the divination seemed on ly medium lin auspiciousness], ir seemed good ro appoint him fo r lonlyJ three years,

as there would be no trouble Iduring thar timel. and ro rCJppomt hIm further only II ob~rructJons wcre pacified. But then, when rbe calculated period of year!! was fulfilled, he had linle desire to remain on the rhrone. [rhough] he gave careful rhoug.ht ro his duty to develop horh reaching and 'iocicry. Most importantly, hc did not deVIate III the slightest from whateve r commands I set forrh, jU'it as the omn isclcnr Gcndun Cyatso [Second Da lai Lamal menrioned in his ve rse praising his disciple Sungrabpa,!!o it 'il'e mcd alright to have him co ntinue in office for some time more. Howeve r, th e regem himself requested 10 be excused, as rhe counr of years extended. and he began to feel pressure due ro the danger of troubles arising lin (he landl. Then, after t wO or rhree divmations and consulting rhe loracle oil Conch·shell Headdrbs Brahma, rhe same result iClllcrgcd as beforeJ. So, mstead of establishing anyone else, as other Icandidates[ of worthineslt were rare, wha tever repeated divinations and consu ltarion propheCIes there were, rhey em phaucally mentioned sGrollg sMad Sl1llgyolllpa. And though he was not inclined ro risc 10 acceptance, [avoiding irl by various ractics such as diverring himself 111 cntcrrainmenrs, VII. Cultural ObJect's · 2SJ

stili hr C011linued to ha\'e thoughts unable to release lhis concern for the dUlYI; 35 in the l'xample of the crocodile who sW3110wed :\ white conch [and could neither expel it nor digest ltl, For :\ while he becomr more intensely interested in Dharma pr3crice, which uansforms the mental attitude, and he could nor ignore the fact that the serving regrm [i.osang Jinpa[ might be permitted to continue in office. So, if he agreed to assume the office before someone else h3d completed his term on the throne, he would be concerned about the many suspicions that might arisr among tilt" people [that he was pOWcf hungry[. So he [SangY3mpa[ said he would r('maln on the religious path, staying obediently for two ),ears after graduating to full monkhood, after which he was read)' to bear thl' responsibility. [So now I ha\'e appointed him.[ AcIU" 3!ir, it might seem 3 good thing to bl' a renunciate lin such a position I, t:lkl11g as incom parable example the single-minded intense dedication shown in the blogr3phies o f the Kad3mp3 lamas up 10 thl' omniscient Gendun G),atso. Neverthrlrss, from the time of the [service of thel twO treasu rers, rGya :lnd Seng, Slllee the ruling power on the two levels lof Dharm,j ,md society) increased for the Ganden Palace [administrations), up to now, exc ... pt for only the [monk[ regent Losang Jinpa, none [m office) has adh ered to monastic ethic;jl purity. Especially now that we have su rpassed the power and wealth of the glorious Ph3gmodrupa and the Tsang pa Ruler. and we have to rul e all the wa)' from e3Stern Dartsedo, it IS necessar), (so metimes) 10 command a \'3 nCt)' of fierce deeds with armies and justice 3nd so forth. Thus, ethical purity :llom~, {'ven if one IS a renlinnatC, is difficult (to mallltalll ). And so

184 ' Ca!alogue

it C:ln happen that ,hc speciallreligious) turn of mind may not cndure in ,lnyone, strong or weak; and there is no certainty tl13! the [spiritual I attitude will remain. Especially, since geese and sangha members live in flocks, not onll' is it difficuh to maintain a consort to nt:rmre one's health, but also al110ng the class of grelt leaders, the higher officials such as those of ministcnallineage, it is not a good Ollll'n to h:lve the (eliring 3ttitude nrglectful [of mund3ne affairs] of one who sees the 53msar)c life as like being trapped in a ditch. So how C3n onl.' 3Ct in a way that docs not appeal to others, who sce one as relying on 3 wife while Ilivlllg in a[ 131113's manSion, seeminj; to mix private and government affairs? Therefore, cven If one does not give up one's concern for managing one's own pril' ate estaU's, when Ont' serves the country's governtlll'nt in the long tcrm, one should aspire to kecp in mllld rhe example of Craie Kundun Rinpoche, lAnd especially in] this high position lof regent), unlike any otlt... r leadership position 111 BOd, where one IS in the Intense practice of contlllUOUS focus on le3ding rhe whole of China, Tibet, and ~'I ongolia , one might sometlme~ W3\"er and indulge m laxity 111 governl11ent by playful manemion and people might gossip in various ways. Noll' [as for[ the esscnceof the pr,lctice lof the regency), while lIndert3king the orders I have given, one's mmd should be hannO!l1ous, uninterruptedly alert for hypocrisy lin oneself and others). \,(Ihatever one docs, such as uking time off to focus on spIritual activit), by following the eightfold precepts on the eighth da y, full moon, and empty moon, except for those three days 3 month, there is no relTeal for limes of rc1axallon, and one should act in a way called "neglect-

ing to coum the )'l':lTS." As there is no need to make more expenses for everyone, one should :lSSUllle rl.'sponsibility to the limit of one's ability when appointed in charge o f the nation31 treasury. \'(fh3tever this one docs, there should be no complaint and str3in in doing JUSt as I would do, and no deviation from :Ill th3t I have commanded. For when there is rejrcting and choosing and so forth between me and the regl' nt, it causes a 101 of trouble 3nd confusion 3bout the government's aim~: hence it is nOl allowed for there to be 3n)' deceplil'('ness of tnllhless lies. Not being 3ble to set aside the responsibility [C3su3!1y) due to 3ging and so on, whrn it fin311y docs happen, it is only proper to apply your mind to how 10 retire in a generall)' [beneficial) wa)'. [n regard to the mealling of the dear words above, for an y la)'man or monk, high or low in position, rheir proper practice will be supported and thei r wrong behavior wil! be punished by the ones who hold the pa!!ern of good 3nd bad that has been mentioned; [namely! th ... goddess of the threl.' realms, the ,\Olagzor Queen, the teaching guardians such as thr Dharm3 protector Bcgtse Jamdrcl and so forth-m:l), they unwaveringl)' 3Ccomplish the aims of beings b)' performing the four divine activities! 1,',1)' proc13m3tlon is here ended,] known III the Noble Land (India) as siddha, in Bod as ":llln accomplished," and in the capital of the Man jughosh3 Emperor,gyi yi, h3rmoni(Jus With the sovereign sway. [n the Earth Frmale Sheep Year [[ 6791, in the fifth month of the second waxing moon day of Ja)'a, these words were published from the great Potata Palace, distinguished 3S the exalted summit of the fourfold communiry. JAYA!\'TU! [May these (words ) be victorious!["

Tibetan t(').r rran:;cribed: gong 1110 IJOl1g de'; lung gis

zhes l1ub

kyi Iba gildS , hes dge h(/ bde bar g llas /)a '; sallg s rgyas bka' "lIIg gnaw 'og gi skye 'gm Ihallls cad bSlcUl po gl,;-ig It( gyur pa 'gyur me.d rdo rlf "haug rgya IIItsbQ'1 bIn I/Ilir dbang hskllr ba 'j g/.tl/ll d':.alllbu brikshas t1ll'IgOll p~'lllOr 'rizi/l gyi gzhir 'khod pa'i I1Y, 'og gi skye rgu spy; dtll1~ uye brelg gd(1I1 sa chen po ser 'bras dge g511111 gam dll 'khod pa l; mam par 19),al ha'; plwlI "de legs bshad gllll&, 1M sogs ns med kYI khrims !dOli 'dus po'; sde gsang sl1gags 'c/}(lIlg btl g.ylfnj{ dr/mg bOll 5(1gS Ibn sder gJogs so cog c1mlg sog po islw chell bz"i bot 0 rod tsho (W bzlJ/ IIItslm khri shor rgyal md i gram dlf gllas pa'; rgyal po rgYfl1 rigs ;llnallg rha 't JI dpo /l cbe cbwtg Ihn bll mmg la', .sang 1111 b~ang .sdc dmangs dang beos fh1 skor g5 11111 Tl/ bzhi sgallg drug ces bod cbell po'; rg)'al khams 511 'khod po'; dpoll chell d,)OI1 SkYd rdz,ollg sdnd ,mng mam rIa dnmg gnyer kha las 'dzill sogs mdor 110 I1Icbug dillon bar ilia II1t"o ' dllg la sprmgs p C1 tshe ring mam gYI' she 111 0 11[; gi5 yangs PO 'I sa k/lll la dlJang l)sR)I/./r ba bsrall 'dziJl Ghos kyJ rg)'al /lo'i /lJag "salll dang Sll ylllg stobs bstan pu'; IIIr/ms rgyal dbaJlg tShOllg kha po chen po '; /;St(l ll pa bin /las bfar 'degs por md~ad skabs elm rfa phD brallg chen po bsam 'grub rises glsos po'; IIlllga ' 'bangs demg rgya/ /)0 lIyh/ kyi ngs hrg}'l/d d(/ ng beas po mth.l' dtlg gtmt po med ptl 'i mchod sbyin till slJ)'or 'lags Imiz"d pa'i tshe c;'os srid l1yis 'dzm IIged rang lI/1as lila Icogs pas ';igs rtell sriel skyollg gt 'klmr leu sde pa bsod /tams rail hrtcllt gyis md~ad pa'; ries. Sit dg (gd)tmg gdg {la 'j 1111 ngo rdzogs flar brtell sde 1)0 'phrht las rgya mlsiJo sugs 'khllr lell rim pa bkod ciug gr(mg smad pa sangs rgyas rgya I1I1s170 'di I'D sa sk)'O/lg 'phrill las rgya Hl lsho'i rus tsba yin pa/, lIIa z"d gter gsar rgytl ca ll sogs Itmg bstall 'ga ' 'zhig tu bod kyi TIe bol' 'os pa hlllg gis : ill pallas shillg yos III 'khar len byed dgos t.s17llf rgy/l mtshan ,III,ha' gsed 1/(/11 chags byas k),ollg zlm 11011 chcs ()as 'klJroi , ha byed dgos shar gzholl fila 'j 'U~ tho mang ba ha cang gi hrtag par ma babs slmlg gra !shong gnyer po blo Inung sbYl1l lJQ san~s rg)'am pa tog gl brIng po "gQ dk"r ba )'od gsius rgyll mtshou S1ll0S po shes 'dod IIi lIIed bka~ gyen Idog fit; /lU.s '0 11 k)'ong brlag pll 17skyar 110S bding cba dgos Islml b)"fIlg 1m 10 gSlflll gy' bar J

;

'lsJ:lIbs (ha med emg U:t1I1,f.! /Jur S/dr bgegs zhl Ita 1111/ IIlthlld Ilyed long yong r[sls kYllo graltgs kYl brdo' 'Well1li dang bCds khrj bkod pa raug 'dod clnm~ zhmg (J51ml S/'ld lar rgya'i sar 'kh llr l150111 ehe ha dO llg kl}yad pm' 'dl go 'Ing!/S bkod las CIIllg zad kyang Illj g,yo btl sogs Ilwllts cad mk IJ)'I!IIIW dg£! 'dUll rl£Y.~l IIlI.shos 1I)'£, gildS J:SUl/~ ral) par g llal/g btl I ISlgs bead kYI &,.,od n Ull dO/1M I1Itslnll1gs pa nt/./ lilt/JIlt! t/mb la re ())'IIIIg ha sde pa /'allg ya ng II) 81'((ltgs liJclIgs lI£1S 'Islmhs 'dm 'bYlfltg l1Y('1/ g)'is 110011.JJ/lS che zhing hrlag {](I lall g/l yis gS 1II1J l,skYcll' Va dang Ishangs pa dlllig lhnd calf 1(1 dn htl 'thus ptl sogs kyang mIs/mugs pa 11£15 gsar bk(Jd kYI sgo dud pal' gzJulII {Jd 'os dkt)11 ~/)/1/g sllgnr ,fn'l brtag pa IUllg /;stan sogs gang sa ItaS grong sl/lad pa sangs rgYlltll pd T£lt/g /n ltall Inn du lab par Ydl ),01 sogs I/)(I/)s Sft(l ts/;ogslas dang len ,-bjng 1/11 'dug rll11K dlfng dkal' dCIIIg elm STIli gyi dpe b:,1J//1 dgollgs I'a gUlII IltiS lila 'kfJrol pbYIII phYIs skor hh/ .511(/ 'g)'/l r ba'; elms /el dung sems chI! 1M,hlg yod kycwg sde srid 'd; gas mtJ "'Ilmd gll{lIIg 1/(/ Sf/ lOS nta dgas de lIIill kIm 'don dug 'Tllb 1)0'; sgn 11"1 dod gOllg la 't hus 1m mi dlllQllgS kytlllg nUim rlog gl 'c!Jar 580 SIlO Ishogs byllllg dvogs kYls de 1(1111 dll IllS 1)(1 ym da l.hll bSllye/1 rdzogs zing bYlis /la'i 10 gllylS kYI bar bka' IIW Ilcag Imr -elms ell' 11(/5 'klmr ya llg uyas l.hug pa dg{Js IsIml zer ua dllKOS gzh i rob lit hyuliS lid legs 1'(1 '1 dUlr 'dllX rung thal/s cad mkbyen 1h1 t/gl! 'dlln rgytl mlsJJO )'flll hka' gdtllllS kYI mJm Ibar kho na Ihllr b:hes la dp,'" lila 1IItS/)01l dga ' Idlm 1}lm orang lugs g ll)'IS kYI mnga' tbal1g /0 'p bd gy l 'og vtg pel " ph)!ag mdzod rgya S(llIg gny/s lias bvmg dll Itll phal1 sde pa 010 hztwg SIJYIII pa tsa m ilia gLOgs tsl)('lIIgs s/lyod 10 gllll.S p(/ ma byullg 'Zh/llg Ihag par dPlll "bag /110 gml7 1M dang sde sfld gtStlllg PO'I stabs 'byu l' las brgyalllll shell' dm rlsl! lIIdo yall gyl bdllg Imr ,ll)'lIr pn '; dmag dfllig khrims sogs drtlg po 'j rlsub s{1)'od kY,1l1g Sila lshogs dgvs pal' IslulIIgs s/Iyod gog pos rab bylllig du 'gro btl'em;.: rlko' t hing bsnlll IW'; 'g)'lf/' klJynd drag 'lho /l kun In gtall l1fi cbags po t lug yang gShlS rid Ita biD 'di ga r sdod pa 'i Ilges prl k)'lll1g ml'd lhag Iu dgl! 'dUll dallg nga llg pil khYlIs 'Is/){J dgos pa r gllas grogs sogs gang sa nas IIms thmg dka' bar ma zad sde dpoll chell lJo 'I ngs /a bion brgyud sags dnmg 'k IwI' drag P(I moms 'klmr btl dOllg sp mgs Ita 1111'; bit;) SUll bstlfllg I'd rtell 'brella yang Ill; legs hill 1;r.1JlJ!, dll belag mo bstcll

I,

/}as IIIlshun sger gozlJlmg 1f/1I)'tlfll bsre.s ,gzhan blor 1111 cllIId 1m m ga lu lJyed de ph)'i" 5ger gzlns kyl 't/z;n skyong k)!.lIIg bios ilia bor ba hyas Ita plmgs }!ul gZIf/ I~ ge zlJtluS lag tu 'gyll r I,,,

r}..")ltl

Ie sku Illdml rtll (10 cl1e'j d()e

dal1g beas mol ba Itar )'Id ',I)g "yed rg)'ll )pm cing go sa 'dis hod kyl sdc "pon gehml dang nil elm ba 'l rgya hod hnr gS1I111 tsht11lg mn 'l me 1('11 stabs brei ba /'g)'1I1I 1111 chad Ita lm'; khag shyo llg cbe bar /a lar lIyn ll1s 'char rued Im/I &11 sallgs kYI gzlnmg las la 'thlls sho /' dang INI Tlllll/l$ k),ls kytl ng '()I;)'" gle l1g 51111 tsiJugs yO ll8 'dug fJd dd cha lIynms lell g)!i 5/1yW g 1)0 'dl ga'; llgag bk!Jd la dallg 1e.1I l1g0S tsimi 'c/ms bdd8 Idan gY'I)(lr I}kab met! po' , klJO rtlllg gl biD Ilttlmu UlIII;: 11)'0 stollg brg),(ld gS llm 10 ytW lag brgyad 110 '1 klmms len pll'om dge sbyoJ "tol sdod gil songs Ita 1m ga n g byed kytllig do rer II)!II/ gS1l111 res las kar Ie bhor 11/1 )'Ollg bllS 'khml eha b)'as slJlng In grnllgs 1110 dgos z.er bo de bthw hym tshe IsJUlI1g IIUI klla!: bSllll dang g~ /J/mg rtlllg 'gros sgo che btllrJs 111; 'dllg gslns nam leogs hal' 'k lmr len byed r8')'1111 bm phytlg /lIdzod bsko bz/Jag bgyls I)n 'di ga lias 1111 chos kyj 'kim/' lellllltl lcQgs fJo'i b,~() ts/;al,s Y; II gs/ns 'dl pns ga ng uy",s 1I.f.!,C'd rtlllg IIllS h)las Ilo dall~ khYlld med pa'l 'then 'kbyer g)'1 glellg In';od mcd 11111' klll1 g)'is bk{Jd {]a g.)'o med dung IIged dallg sde /In'l sel';lIg sags b)'tls Isll£' gz/uwg dOli Ielr rg)'al' 'chugs tstU/bs ell e bas IJdell l/1£'d ordvlII usgngs /.;y ; g.yo 'phrul b)'a.s elmg rgyll 111;11 no tshod sugs I/c1S l1/1kogs pa'l 'khllr lell ',og pa shar tshe /lam )'m laln;/Ulg /Ja 'i Zllrl1a spyl 'gre tnhill llyed IlIgs 1110 dallg sb)'ar cl1tIg rgyll yill pa sogs Ising don nWlIls fa skya ser drag zha /J SIIS kyallg Islmlln-l1m bsgrttbs fJar 'Ies 'chifl dtmg log par 'kim bar tshar gcod pas 11115110 1/ pa 'j legs l1y£,;> kyi twangs 'd~ill 'dod kballls kyi dl,all pIJYllg rill/ag ~or rgyal 1110 dtlll,~ chos sk)'(lllg beg tse /cam dral sogs ustan smllg mal'lls kyls 'IJlmll las mellli V'll" bsgmb pa'i grogs dallg g,yell7t1 wed 1)(1l11uuul cllI gsol 'fJhllJ:s pa'i ylt ! dll Slddh(luha 'p/;)'ogs 'dir dun 8mb III grags shlflg ';(1/11 d/)y(/ll~S gOll8 lIIa 'l r1tyol khab (H g'y j )pi t hes {la dbL lIIg thaHg dtlllg bslllII pa sa IIlO IlIg gl 10 hnr -z la luga 1m 'j dkar c.lJa'i I'g)'e" g ll)';£ pa ' l tshes hi sde b,:ln.'1 sgo 'phor m tHll par ph )'e btl pho "raug chell po po ttl la /lllS bTls /)(1 la YO II tit

u"

VII , Cullllral

Ohll!C I ~ •

285

Alexa ndrt:, E. 1993 " L'archirecrure rehgieusc en pa)'s khalkha." in Beguin and Dashhaldan, 199 .

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2~9

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Am ltayus srarue ( 15th century) (lY·3J. 17~ , 175, 175 Chcngdc statue, 38-39, 39 Abd31 Khan, 33 Man's La rge Silver Gall wilh Tsa-tsa ,I bhi"n, 62, 185 of Jlm irayus IV II -3), 256-2.17, Abrahamic religions, 3-4, 144 256 adepr(O , 196, 197, 197. See also t3ntra; Aniko, 9, 44InI4 ) 5peCt~C images Anyuanmiao (Chengde). 3 , J Agm, 225 apocalyptic consciousness, 10 Agvan Doriicff, 129 applique, 126, 127, 152- 153, );2, IS J, Akanishta,53 183 Akshohhya Buddha, 62, 63, 64, 184,185 Arapachana Man lush ri Kumarabhura Akshobhya BlIddha statue IIV-8), 184, ""lie IIV- 12), 190-19 1, 191 185 ArapachanJ Maniushri statue (Mlng), 18, AksliobliY'a Father-Mother 103 st3me IIV-7I. 182, 183 Sukhavan statue IIV- II ), 190, 190 Amltayus Bodhisatrva !ltarue (hue and Tara, 143 16th-ea rl y 17th century) IIV-4), and Tibet as shrine, 4 47In71 ), 176, 177, 177 ec also Hayagriva AmiraYlls BlIddhn statue (1. til cent ury) Axi:ll Agt', 9 IIV-5), 178, 179

A

Index Page nllmbers se t in roman [) pc refer ro textua l entries. Page numbers set In

flaite rype refer to images. Roman

numera ls followed by Arabic numerals in parentheses (e.g., IV·S) refer ro Catalogue numbers.

Index · 291

B Uakub. 92, 93

B:lOting. 25. 1 \3 Ikgrsc statue (school of Zan3ha1.ar). 34-35, ]5, 47(n72 ) 1k'llOg. 8, 30, 39-4 1, 41 btlls. 131-133, 133, 234, 135

Berween-St:ne Heruka Father-Motht'r 13ngka (VA), 202, 102 Bhairava, ]J Bhaishajr3 Guru. See fvjedlclne Buddhas

36

Sibil" 3, 4

bliss. 3, 13- 14 Banism,83.111, 193 /look of tlber/ltlOIl Through l.carl/lIIg /II fiJI! Betil/et'll (Tibetan Book of the Dead),203 Brahma.61

brnirrs, 265, 266 buddhukslletrll, 4 Buddha Shrllr:Jb Miwo statut' (1-17), 82,

83 buddhas, multipliciry of, 50, 5 1, 144 Buddhist cosmos, 167 bUildings as shrinl's, 4 Buton Rmchen Drub 13ngb (Asian Art Museum of San Francisco), \40

c Carvrd Lama or Alta r Table (VIJ · 14), 268, 268 C:lV('S

scvenreemh/elghteenrh cemur)', 30. 39-41 See also Dolonnor; speCific /IIwges Chinese-Tibetan political relations and Al tan Khan, 45(n41 ) Manchu dynast)', 129 Ming lama mhUfe. 4 4(n 17) Qing dynasty, 29-30. 36. 54 See also Kangxl emperor; Qianlong emperor ChOd (scverance ) )'oga, 155.232-233, 233,234 Choijin-lama r-,'lonaslcTY Museum, 35, 35,

as shrines, 4

Chokorgyel monastery, 8 Choying Gyatso, 8. 26 Christianit)" 7, 278, See also Western poims of \'iew cities as shrmes. 4 classical inspiration, 10, II clay sculpture. 43(n9) Cleveland Creen Tara lallgb, 139 Cleveland Tsong Khapa painting, 21. 45(n27) compassion, 2-3,10.98 consecralion process, 68 Colltemplulloll of AlllltOYUS SUlra, 177 Cross-shaped Gau (VII- 19c). 276, 278 cultural objects, 252. 253. 253. See also specific objects Cultural Revolullon, 4. 8. 17, 43(nlO), 56,

"5

cymbals. 250, 250

D

Chahar, 47(n75)

Chakrasamvara (Supcrhl,ss Machme) Tantra, 13, 132,200,201. 205. 207 Chamunda, 219 Chengd<,·. 36-37, 36. 38-39, 38, 39. 47(n82 ) chests. 269, 269. 270, 270-271 Chest with Landscape Medallions a nd Floral DeSigns (VII- 16 ). 270, 270-271 Chmese destruction of TilJoC(ali cultural! religiOUS artifacts. See Cuhural Revolution Chmesc-Tibetan artlsric mteractlons fifteenth·century Chmese m/luence. 18, 19, 19. 20. 43-44(nn13. 14 ) and Ganden Renaissance. 9 and Pelchor ChodefKumbulll monumelll style, 19,20

292 ' Index

Dagpo Lharey Campopa, 11 7. 118 dakinis. 12-13. 13.29,137, 150.15/ Dalal Lama msmuflon and documents. 282 and Candell Ren:l1Ssance. xiii, 122 and Celukpa order, 24-25, 43(n2 ) ,'vlanchu suppressIOn of, 129 and l'\'lollgols, 24-26, 71 and radma Sambha\'a, 103 See a/so Dalal Lamas; Dalai Lama. Fifth Dalai Lamas First (Gendun Drubpa ), XIII, 8. 20, 43(n3 ), 122 Second (Gendun Cyatso), 8, 21 Third (Sonam Cyatso), 8, 24, 25, 30, 45(n42 ), 7 1, IIJ Sixth,282 Sevenrh, 8, 29

Twelfth (Trlolay Gyatso), 128, 129 Th1fleenfh, 129,273,280 Fourteenth (c urrent) (Tenzin Gyatso), xiii, 83, 280 See II/SO Dalai Lama, Fifth (Losang GpISO) Dalai Lama, Fifth (Losang Gya(so) and documenfs, 282 and Ganden Renaissance, X11I, 8 and Ha yagnva, 12,211,212 alld medICine, 161 and Mongols, 25-26, 71 and N}'ingma school, 215 and Panchen Lamas, IJ I and Po(ala Palace. 5, 8, 26, 46{n57) Tibet I'{ouse collection sutue, 27, 28 Damjen Do,!c Lekpa slalue (V·2 1), 226,

117 Damren Garwa Nagpo 5taWe (b ronze) (V-20), 226, 226 D:lIll jen Garwa Nagpo Slalue (copper) (V- 19), 225. 225 Damjen Garwa Nagpo ta11gb (V- 18).124,

". --,

death, 209, 219 Densa til monaster)', 17-18, 18, 43(11 I 0), 173, 185 Derge (Khalil ). 24, 139,205,236,244, 266 desanClification of Ihmgs as Ihe)' are, 10,

12 DeSl Sang),e), Gyatso, 5,16 1,282 Dharma focus ofTibela11 culture. XIII, 5, 7, 8-9, 12, 14,274 Dhilrll1ilk(/)'a ((ruth body), 195 Dharmapala Yama raja and Charnunda statue (V- 14), 41, 218, 2 19. 219 Dharma Wheel, 51. 51,74 Oolonnor. 30, 36, 47(nn73.74 ), 68, 79, 135.2 15 Dongrubma,23 Dorjc Drak Dwng monaster)', 8 Dorre Lekpa. 225, 226, 217 Dragyab Illonastery (Kha m), 8 Drathang monastery. 45(n28) Drcpung mOll,lslery (Lhasa), 8. 17. 43(n8) Drukpa Kagyu lal11a Sl3tue (Newark Museum), 23 drums. 132-133. 234, 235, 250, 251 duaht),/nonduahr,·, 2, 3. 7, 186,253 Durga. 161 Dusum Khyen pa. 117 D\"arapala sta tue (Shuxiangsi ). 39, 39 DZ111gp MJllre)'a temple, 7, 8, 73, 122. 199.221

E eight auspicious emblems, 238-239, 239 Eight Great Bodhisarrvas ( haoyi nsi), 46(nn64,65)

Eight Great Bodhisattva srat'Ucs (Labrang monastery ), Tl-32, 32 Eight Grear Bodhisattva Statues (Sera mo nastery), 46( n64 ) Eleven-faced Avaloki reshva ra statue (fV- I) ), 192, 192 enlightenment, 144

Erdeni-Zu monastery, 33-34, 34 European Renaissance, 9, to Extremely Secret Pure Visions (Losa ng Gya rso),2 12

Yongle bronze!>, 18, J 9, 20,4344 (l1nI 3, 14),175, 1 8~

See also Gan dcn Renaissance Fifth Dalal Lama statuI;" (Tibet House collection ), 27, 18 Fi rst Panchen Lama Starue (Hoare co llectinn ), 26-27, 27 Five Books of Maitreya, 74 Folkrns M useum Ernografi~ka (Stockholm ), 30, 32, 79 Ford Green Tara langka , 139 Four·Armcd Chak rasamvara Fath erMothcr stattle (V·7), 4 1, 207, 207 Four Tangka Set of the Medicinc Buddha and Lotus Family Deirles (11-11. 10, 11,1 3-- 14 ,14,98,99, 100,10 1. 102 , 10

F Famingsi (China) , 21 Father-Mother (yab -YlIm ) ima ges Amjra yus, 182, 1 3

Between-Stare Heruka Father-Mother tangka (V-4 ), 202, 203

Four-Armed Chakrasamvara FatherMo ther srarue (V-7), 41 , 207, 207 Man '~

Large Silver Gau and Silver Va jrapani Father-Morher (VIl-4 ), 257,257

Paramasu kha Chakrasamva ra tangka, 13,1 3, 204,205,206 Supersecret Hayagri va Fath er-Mother starue( V- IOJ, 12, 12, 41 ,2 12, 2 13

Supersecret Hayagriv
G Gandcn munasrery. 8, 16. 17 Ganden Renaissallce, xii-xiii, 7-9. 10- 14 , 122 background of, 43 (nl ) and Gelu kpa order, 16- 17 and tVlai rrcya , 7, 8, 73, 199 and tree icon s, 199 Gansu, 25, 29, 30, 31-32. 37, See also Labra ng monastery (Gan su) Garwa Nagpo , 224, 225, 225, 226, 226 Ga u (VII -2 ), 255, 255

g:ws, 255 Cross-sbpcd Gall (VlI - 19c), 276, 278 Gall (VII -2 ), 255, 255 Gold and Si lver ManIs Gau Box (VII- I ), 214,255 Gold en Gall Jeweled Pendanr (VlI -20). 278,2 79 Mala, and e<.·klacc With Gau (VI-5 ), 236, 23 7 Man's Large ilve r Gau and Silver Va;rapani Father-Mm her (Vil A ), 257, 257 Man's Large Silver Gau with Tsa-tsa of AmiraYlis (VII -3 ), 256-257, 256 ncckl ace with square ga ll (Vtl -19a ), 276-277, 277 Set of Eight Galls (VIl-6 ), 260, 260-261 Turquoist" and Jewel·eon'red Lady's Golden G.u (VIl-22 ), 280, 28 1 Two Gaus (lnd Three Small Shrines (V II -5), 258-259, 258-259

Gel ukpa oruer

and Dalal Lama lIl~mllnon, 14-25, 431n2) and Guge killguom, 23 and Maltreya. 20, 44 (n2 1) .1nd tVlaniushri, 18 and Mongols, 24 1 25 . 3 ,~ sevl.:.nteenrh/eighrecnrh cenrury, 25-26. 29,30 and Tsong Khapa. 16- 17, 43(n2 ) Gendun Drubpa (FirSt Dalai Lama ), Xlii , 8, 20, 43 (n3), 122 Gcndun Gyarso (Second Dalal Lama ), 8, 21 gcmlcness, L2 Godan (Mongol kong ), 7 1 Gold and Silver Man's Gall Box (VlI - I), 2.14,255 Golden Gau Jeweled Pen dant' (V Il·20), 278,279 Gold Rings (VlI-2 1), 2 0,280 Gonlung monastery, 30 GOts3l1gpa, 12Q, 12 1, 121 Grear Miracle Praye r Festival, 8, 56, 122 Grea l Seal (mabamlldrl.l) , 183 Creal Surra Hall (Labra llg monastery ), 31-32,32 Great Temple Hali lAssomb l) Hall ) (Pelchor Ch6de ), 19-20,4445(l1n 15,2 1) Great Temple of Urga (Megjid Ja iramscg Temple), 33, 34 Green Tara statue (Kumbum monument), 19 Green Tara rangka (Cle veland), 139 Green Tara r31lgka (Ford coiJection J, 139 Guanyin statue (Yonghcgong), 40 GlIge kingdom, 22- .2.3, 43(11 I) Cusilri Khan, 25-26 GyantsC' Kumbum monUIllt: llt, 8, 18, 19, 170, 189 Gyanrse. See PelchoT Chode

H Hayagnva and Padma Sambhava , 13, 103 , 2 11. 2 12

Supersecret Hayagriva Farhcr-M(\rh rr sta rue (V- IO), 12. 12,4 1. 212, 21l Supersecret H~)'agriva Father·Mother tangka (V- I I), 2H, 2 15 Three-faced, Six-armed. Four.legged Statue. 41 , 210, 2 1J , 21/ and violence, 12

Indtx • 293

Heruka deities, 118,203 Hoare First Panchen Lama statue, 26-27,

K

27 horne shrines,S horns, 246, 246, 247, 248, 249 Huangsi (Yellow Temple) (Beijing), 39 Huizongsi temple (Dolonnor), 36 humanistic individualism, 10, 11 - 12 Hymn of tbe Names of j\ilmi/llshri, 186

icons, 3-4, 5 1. See a/so tangkas; specific images MidolatfY," 3-4, 5 1 Immortal Arhat Bakula statue (1-19), 37, 92,93 immortality, 141 India, 7, 43(n 1),278 Indra,6 1 Items Used in Sel'erance (Chod) Practice (VI-2), 232-233, 233, 234

J Jambhab statue (V- 17), 222, 223 Jamyang Hutuklu, First, 31, 46(n62) Jangkya HutuklU, 30, 45 (n41} First, 36, 38 See also Jangkya HUlUktu, Second (Rolway Doric) Jangkya Hutuktu, Second (Rolway Dorjr), 47(n80) ,135 ForbLdden City statue, 40, 41,149,

178 Lama stalLlr (possibly Jangkya Rolway Doric) (11 -18),132, JJ3 and Qing dynasty, 8, 38, 54 and Wu Tai Shan, 10, 42 Jangkya Rolw3Y Dorje. See Jangkya Hutuktu, Second (Rolway Doric) ,,,nlllalllrllutllaka},altulku (live emanation bodies), I 10, 11 7 jeho!. See Chengde jewelry, 273- 274, 276-277, 277-278,

279,280,280 Jigtcn Wangchuk. 118 jokhang (Lhasa), 4, 8, 56, 122 jowo Rinpoche statue Uokhang), 4, 8, 56

Kadam order, 43(n2), 11 8, 199,284 Kadampa Stupa (Chorten ) (1-21), 94. 95 Kagyuordt'r.114, 11 7, 118, 121 Kalachakra (Wheel of Time), 5, 17, 207, 244 Kalaratri, 13 Kanakamuni Buddha stalUr (I- I), 29, 35, 39, 52,53-54, 53 Kandcll, Alicr S., 14 Kangxi emperor (China ), 28, 29, 31, 36-37,40.282 Kanhapa, 200, 200 Kapala (Sk ull Bowl ), 143, 243 Karma Dudsi, 24 Karma Gardri school, 8 Karma Kag)'u order, 11 7 Karma l'akshi, 11 7 Karmapas Eighth (Mikyo Dorje), 11 8 Ninth (\,\/angchuk Dorje), 24, 25, 26, 11 6, 11 7 Kashmir, 43(n9) Kh acha ras, 10, 45 (n23) Khadiravani (Green o r Yellow ) Tara statue (111 -2),28, 140,140,141 Khalkha Jetsun Dampas, 33, 71, 129 Second (Lobsang Tenpay Dronmey ), /34, 135 See also Zanabazar Kham, 8, 26 Khedrub Rinpoche, 8 Kh yentsc Wangchuk, 8 Ku blai Khan, 7 1 Kumar Arha t Angaja, 45 (n27) Ku mbum monastery (Amdol, 8, 25, 26, 30, 45(nn42,43), 193 Kumbum monument (Gyamse), 8, 18, 19, 170, 189 Kunga Gyaltscn, 7 1 Kunga Tashi, 19,20, 143 Kun ga Tashi tangka (Los Angeles COUnty Museum), 143 Ku vrra,222 Kyabpa, 44 (n2 1)

L Labrang monastery (Gansu), 3 /, 46(nn62,63 ),205 Eight Great Bodhisattva statues, 3 1-32,32

Vairochana Buddha StalUe, 32, 33, 35, 38-39, 40 Vajrapani statue, 32, JJ, 35, 38, 39 Lama Gyalwa Gotsangpa statue (II- I [ ), 120, 121 , 121 lama portraits fifteenth-century, 20, 20, 2 1-22, 2 / srventeent h/eigh teenth -cen t ury, 26-27,

27 sixtl~e nth -cent\lry,

23, 24 See a/so specific images lamas, 5-6, 96, 97, 97. See a/so lama portraits; specific imagel Lama statue (17th century) (11-7), I 14, /14 Lama statue (late 16th-early 17th centur y) (11 ·5),23, li D, /11 Lama statue (possibly Jangkya Rolway Do rje) (11- 18), 132, JJ3 Lama stat ue (possibly Second Khalkha Jttsun Da mpa ) (11·1 9), 134 , 135 Lamdre statues (Ngor monastery), 25 Large Temple Drum with Original Framr (VI·17), 250, 25 J Lhasa, 8, See a/so specific locations Lhasa Jewelry (Vll ·19), 276-277, 277-278 live emanaTion bodies (ialllllamrma llakayal III/kll) , 110, 11 7 Lobsang Pelden Yeshe (Third/Sixth Panchen Lama), 54, /30, 13 1,259 Lobsang Tcnpa y Dro nmey (Second Khalkha jetsun Dampa), 134, 135 Lobsang Yrshe (Second/Fifth Panchen Lama ), 92, 104 Losang Chokyi Gyaltsel1 (FirsrlFollrth Panchen Lama), 6, 8, 26, 27, 27, 46(n50) Los Angeles County Museum Kun ga Tashi tangka, 143 Losang GY3tSO. See Dalai Lama, Fifth IllS dk}'i/ (body mandalas), 4 Luyipa, 20 1,201

M Machig LabTOn, 29,154,155,155,233 ~-!a chig Labron as Vajradakini statue (1Il-9), 29, 154, 155, 155 Mahakala, 39, 2 15, 2 16, 2 J 7 maham/llira (Grea t Seal), 183 ,\-!ahashri Tara and the Twenty-one Taras tangka (111 · 1), 138, 139 Mahasidclha Great Adept statue (V-5),

203,203 Mahasiddha Krishnacarya tangka (V-2),

200,200

294 · Index

Mahasiddha Luyipa rangka IV-3). 201, 20 1

Mabaslddha staruc IChoijin-lama monastery ). 35, 35. 38 Maifreya Baormg temp le, 25, t 13 Drepung monastery statues, 43 (n8)

Mara, 64, 67 Marichi sttllue (l 1I- 12l, 160, 161 Marpa, 5-6, 114, 115.11Marpa "'tue ( 18th cemuryl (11-8), 114.

IIi mcdlcine

La brang monastery srame, 31 Mairreya Bodhisauvn startle (late 16thearly 17rh CC ntury) 11-13). 74.

7S.94 Mairrcya Budbi~anv;:t ::.tatue (Qing, I Sth century) (I- IS). 32, 39, 78, 79, 79

Maitreya, the Future Buddhas[arue (Q ing) (1-12),39, 72. 73

and Pmala Palace, 5 seated statue (POta la Palace). 29 . tanding 1\laHfeya statue (f-1 4 ), 37. 76.77,77 T~blll

Lhullpo statue, 20-2 1 Yamanraka Temple starue, 170, 189 M:mreya Temple (Baoring), 25, I 13 Mala, and Neck lace wi th Gall (V I-5), 236, 237

ma Ins (rosaries), 232-233, 234, 236, 236, 237.272,273,274,275 Malas, with Leather Case IV I-4). 236, 236 male-female Images. ee Father-Mother (YlIb-)'lfm J im!lges Manchu dynaMY. 54. 129.273. See also

Qianlong emperor mandalas. 2JS-23Y, 239-240 Manguors. 30, 36. 38. 45(n42). 46(n6J)

Manjushri Arapachana Kumarabhura statue (IV- 12). 19(H9 1, 19 1 Chengdc four-a rmed statue, 36, 37 Mmg Arapacha na sratue. 18, 19 Sera monastery s[atuc, 23, 201 Tashi Lhunpo Arapachana statue, 28, 19,147 aDd Wu Tai Shan, 4)-42 and Yamanraka , 209 and YamJrala, 2 19 Man'~ Large Silver Gau and Silver Vajrapam Father-Momer (VU-4 ). 25 7,257 Man's Large Silver Gau with Tsa-rsa of AmitJyus (VII -3), 256- 257, 256 Man tra "Prayer" WheelIBhur.n) (VII-8), 263,263 Mamra " Prayer' Wheels (Lhasa ) IVlI -71, 262-263. 262 map of Tibc.: [, Mungolia, and China. J 7

N

l"ledicme Uucldhas, 10, II, 80, 8 t. 98,

Dzmgji temple, 7,8,73, 122, 199,221

and Ge lu kpa order. 20. 44 (n2 1)

myriad -emanarJon "I)'le. 144 _\tyn,1d Green Tara Emanauom. t:mgka (111-4), 144,14\

99

ZhanglonGonptl.161, 162, 163 Medicme BlIlldha ( 16rh CentLlr}) (J-16L 80.8 1 Medicine !luddhas. 10 I I 80 ~ I 98 99 Menla Dondrub, 8, 21' , , . ,

Mend school. 8 Mikyo Dorjr (Eighth Karmapa ), 11 8 ~vl ilarepa

and Ahlman, 185 ,mJ K.uma Kagyu order, 11 7 and .\ l Jrpa. 114 and hloul1l Kadash, 121 Shnne with ~li1arepa and [he Fi\'e Tsenngma is[cr<; In TheIr Firrce rorm; (111- 15 ). 164 . 164. 1(15 pedman coll ec[i oll statue. 23,23, 169, 170 and Taglung K:lgyu order. II ~ Yal~ Univer<;iry sraflle, 35, 41. 41 Zll11111crm:1n srarue, 169, 170 milirarism, 7, 8-9, 10. See dlso Dharma foclls of Tihetan cutHire millennmi consclOu ness. 7-8, 10. See also Dharmd focus of Tibetan culrure Mindroling monaMery, 8,21-22.22,24. 45 InlH ), 170 J\ting lama rnbute. 44(nI7) Mongols Chahar, 47(n75 ) t:onvcr"ioll ovcrVltW, 71 and Dalal Lama In ~ti rut ion, 24-26, 71 and Dharma foclis of Tibetan cu lrure,

7 and Ganden RenaIssance, xiii, 9. 43(11 1) and Gelllkpa order, 24, 25, .13 and Ming I.ma tribute, 44(n 17)

and sevenrecnrh/cighteenrh-cenrury Tiberan sculprure. 33- 39. 4 7(nn 7 1-7 5) ,lIld SIHz-ong emperor, 45(n41) and sixteenrh-century libetan sculptu re. 24 and Wli Tai Shan. 41--12 Set! also Dolonnor: specific Images 1110Ilumenr". 4

mountains:l'l

!>hrine~, 4

MOllnt Kadash,

Naclkc[as, 2 19 Nagaquna,74 Namgyal monastery (Lhasa), .~ Naro Dakini stat ue (111·7), 12-13,13,29, 150, 15 1 N.ropa. 5-6,12-13, 11 7. ISO naruralism, 22, 26, 64. 8 1, 140

Nechung monaster), 212 Nechung Rmpo he, 274 Necklace With Square Gau (VII-19a), 276-277,277 J\epali ",fluence, 8, 17. 20, 43(nn l ,9) Newuk Drukpa Kagyu lama !)[arue

(Newark ,\\uscum l, 23 ew Menn school, 8,26,98, 199.225 Ngawang Drakpa, 22, 23 Ngo rchen KlInga Zangpo, 8 Ngor monnsrery. 8, 25 Ninth K:mTlapa Lama s tatuto (11-9), 11 6, \1 7 Nimh Karmapn <;tatllf' (Ka rma Rinchenl,

i

24,25,26 mrvann. 2-3. 6-7, 253

vs. purf' land, 98, 167 NYlflgjei Lam Tsong Khapa statue, 170 NrUlgma order, 46(n57), 203.215

o Oarh-bound Black Blacksmith Protector,

214,225 Offering Che!:.[ (Tor~anl) with Paimed Pane ls ofTanrric Symbol'\ (VrI - 15j, 269,269 offering Clips/bowls. 23 4, 235, 238-239. 239,244.2 44,267.267 Offering Lamps (V I- II ), 244, 245

Official Ganden Palace Government Decree (VlI -23), 282-285. 282. 283.284 oracle di\tinatlon, 231 Ornate Teapot (centr.1 Tibet) (VII -Il ), 266,266 Ornate Teapot (ea
Ottoman empire. 7

121.205

index . 295

p

prayer wheels, 262-263. 161, 163 protectors, 196, 197, 197, See als() speCific

Rudk o, Philip, 14 Russia, 54 , 129

Images Padma Samhhav;), 181 and Ha)'agTlva, 2 11 , 112, t 3, Firs!

(Gendun Drubpa )

purba ritua l stakes, 234 , 135 pure lands, 42, 98,167, \ 77 Pure Land School, 169

!'adma Sambhava painting (mid-18th to mid- 19th century) {1I -3},

106, 107 Padma Samhhav3 statue (18th (emUT}') (11 ·2),29, 104, UN, 105 I'adma Sambhava statue (ca. 1500),

22,22 POIa!a Palace statues, 28-29, 30, 34, 40, 4 6( n57), 158 and severance yoga, 233 ta njtka (II -ld), 13-14. 14, 102, 103 Zimmerman collecti on st;Jtu(', 23 See a/so HayagmJ;l Paimed Box with Rosary and Jewelry (VII- 17). 272, 273-274 Pair of Conch-shrll Horns (VI-13 ), 246,

Q Qlanlong emperor (China), 37-39 and J angkya H utuktu, 30 impe rial POliClCS, 29, 36 and Rolwa), DOTle, 8, 132 and Third Panchen Lama_ 5 4 and \'(Iudangsi monaster)', 37 and \'(Iu Tal Shan, 41-42

R

247 Pair of Reeds (Gya-llllg) (VI-141. 248, 248 Pakpa, 7 1

I'anchen Lamas FirstfFourth (Losang Chok)·j G}'altscnl,

6,8,26-27,27,46(n50) Second/Fifth (Lohsang Yeshel, 92,104

Third/Sixth (Lobsang Pclclrll Yeshe), 54,130, 1J1, 259 paramamrmtJllaka),3 (supreme emanation bodies), 3, 53-54. 59, 73 Paramasukha Chakrasamvara Father· Mother tangka (V-6), 13, 13,2.04 . 205,106 PaTllllbballa Surra, 94. 195 Pehar, 161.212 Pelchor ChOde (Gyamsc). 18, 19-20. 19. 10, 24. 44-45(nnI 5,2 1), 11 4. 189 Pelden Lhamo st:ltue (Qing) (1ll -10), 40, 156, 157- 158,1 57 Pelden Lhamo tallgb (Virgi ma Museum of Fme Artsl, 27 Pelden Lhamo with Simha\'aktra and Makara\'aktra statue (Chma ) 011- 11 1. 158, /59 Phagmoorupa, 43(n 10) [Ihilade!phia Museum of An Lowo Kenchen Sonam Lhundrup statile, 22,109 pleasure, 9, 10, 12 POIaia Palace (Lhasa), 1 construction of,S, 8, 16 Padma Sambhava statues, 28-29, W, 34, 40, 46(n57), [58 as sh rine, 4-5 stupas,94

296 · Index

Rabten Kunzang, 19. 44(nnI5,21) realism, 26,35, 40,41, 73 Red Temple Tara statue. 189 Red Temple (Tsaparang), 23, 170, 189 reeds, 248, 2-18 relics, 94 repoussC technique, 1 1, 28, 43(n9 ). See

a/so speCIfic Images Rellng Rillpoch e. Fifth (Thupten Jampel Yeshe Gyahsen), 229, 243, 255 Rlt'tberg Museulll St'Cond Dalal Lama statue, 2 1 Rinchen Kh),enr;lb Chokdrub Palzangpo,

113,11 3 Rillchen Zangpo statur (White Temple), 121 "s med tradition, 106 Rltu;ll Bark)' Contailler (VII -9), 264, 264 Ritu al Conch-shl'lI Horns (VI- [2), 246,

2-16 Ritual Implements (VI-3), 234, 235 ntua l implrmems, 228, 229, 119, See also

speCIfic ob,ects Ritual Pm:her Uiluk ) and E..... er Spmoon (Shelsil), 142, 243 ritual pitchers (jil uk ), 142, 243 Ritual Trumpets and Horns (VI- IS), 248,

2-19 rwe rs as shnnes, 4 Rolwar Doqe. See Ja llgkya HUluktu, Second Rolway DOfle statue (Forb,dden City, Beijing), 40, 41.149 rosaries, See mal ... s

s Saky... lama Sonam Gyaltsen st ... tu e (fo rm er Halpert collection ), 20, 20, 45(n24 ) Sakya Lama statue (Mindroling monasTery),12 Sak)'a l ama statue (p robably Sonam Lhundrup of Mustang) (11-4 ), 22,

/08, [09, 109 Samkas)'3, 6 J samsara, 2, 3. 6-7, 175, 178,253 Sangyar G}'afSO (Desi),5, 161,282 San'avid Vairochan .... 44(n21 ) scIence. II , See also medicine sculptur... 1 STyles. See fiftttnth-cemur}' Tibetan sculptu re; seven tee nth! eig hteenth·century Tibetan sculplUrt'; sixteelllh-century Tibt'tan sculptu re Sera monastery (lhasa) Eight Great I~hisa ll\'a statues, 46{n64 ) and Ganden Ren ... issance, 8 and H,l yagr i\'a, 212 ManJushri statur,13. 2-1 and Pelchor Chode style, 20 and Tsang Khapa, 17 Serdregasum monasteries. See Drepung monaster),; Ganden monastrry; Sua monastery Sel of Eight Gaus (VII-6 ), 260. 260-161 $evrn Buddhas. 53, 54 sel·emf'('nt hleightttmh·century Tibetan sc ulpture, 25-42. 46(nn50.53) Beijing, 39-41, 41 central Tibet, 25-29 Gansu/Amdo,30 inn er Mongolia. 36-39, 4 7( nn 73-75) Labrang monaster)'. 3 1-32. 32, 13 oUler Mongolia. 33-36, 4 7(nn7 1,72) and Qmg dynas ty, 29- 30, 36, 37-39 Wu Tal Shan, 4 1-42 severancr (C hod ) yoga, 155,232-233. 233,234 sexuality, 183. See also Father-Mother (yub,)'ulII ) Images Shadakshan AI'aloklteshvara tangka, 98, 101, 103 Shakyamul1l Buddha Choilln-I:una monastrry statu e, 35-36,

J6 Jo\\'o Rmpoche Images, 4. 8, 56. 57, 7 1

and lamas as shrines, 5

Tangkn Set of Arhar Immortals and Attcndanrs (1- 18), 84, 85-90. 91 sixreenrh.cenrur)' Tlberan sculprure,

SIX

life of, 56,73 and Ma ra, 64, 67 and Medicine Buddhas, 10, II , 8 1 on nirvana, 2

23-25,45InI140-43 ) skull bowls, 234, 23 5,243. 243. See al,o

Shakyamulll Buddha starue in a Full Sh rine (Qing) (I-I I), 39, 70, 71 Shakyamuni Buddha starue in Jowo

offering cups/bowls Sonam G)laltsen. 20, 20, 45(n24 ) Sonam Gyarso (Third Dalai Lama ), S, 14,

Ri npoehe Form (1-3),56,57,7 1 hakyamuni Buddha stamc (mid- 18th ccnrury) (I-9), 29, 35, G6, 67, 67 Shakyamun i Buddha starue (Qi ng) (1- 10),39,68,69 Shakyamun i Descendin g frOIll [he Heaven of the 33 Gods ta ngka (1-5),60,61,61 Shakyamllni (or Krakuccha nda ) Budd ha starue 11-4), 29, 35,

25,30, 45 (n42), 7 1, 113 Sonam Lhundrup, 109 Songzen Gambo (Emperor of Tibet), 4, 5, 56 Speel man Mi!ttrepa statue, 23, 23, 169, 170 spmoons,142,243 Standing Maitre}'3 Statue (1-14 ), 37, 76, 77,77 Srock holm V:wapani. 32 Stup.lS Dens3tJI monaster)'. 17, 43 (0 la). 173 Kad.mpa Srupa (Chorren ) (late I'th century) 11-21 ),94,95 Porala Palace, 94 a~ shrine..c;, 4. 5 Srupa (Beijing; 18th century) (IV-IS ), 195, 196 Stupa (Chorten ) (1-20 ),94,94 Srupa (ChortCllj lare 17th or early 18th century ) 11-20), 94, 9-1 Srupa IQing) ( 18th cenrury). 195, ]95

5 ,59 Shakyamuni lor posSIbly Akshobhya ) Buddha statue ( I I th-l2th celltury l (1-6 ), 62, 62 Shaky.muni (or possibly Akshobhya l Budd ha starue 113th century) (1-7),63,63 ShakY' lll uni (or possibly Akshobhya ) Buddha statue ( 14th century ) (1-8), 64, 65

and Tiber as shrine, 4 Tcayas trimsa visit, 61 and Vaj rad hara, 186 Shaky. Yeshe, 17,20 Sha lu Lama Rinchell Khyenrab Chokdrub Pa lzangpo statue (11-6), 25, 112. 113, 1 J3 Sha lu mOIl.srery (Tsang), 25, 34, 45In28 ), 11 3, 189

Shanrarakshira, 14 Shanyi nsi, 36, 46Inn64,65) Shellrab Miwo Buddha, 82, 83,193, 193 Shenw ng empe ror (Ch ina), 25 Shiva, 205 Shi zo ng empe ror (Chi ll '), 45(11411

shrines, 4-7, 164, 1. 64, f 65. See also gaus Shrine wi th Mi larepa and the Five Tseringma isters in Their Fierce Forms ([(1 - 15), 164, 164,165 Shunzhi emperor (China ), 39 Shuxiangsi (Chengde), 39,39 Slkkim,256-257 Si lver and Gilt- opper Water Bowls (VI-I 0), 244,244

Situ Panchen sryle, 205 Six-armed Mahaka la sratue (I st half of 18th century) (V- 12), 37, 215, 216 Six-a rmed Mahaka la sra tue (2nd half of 18rh centuryl (V-IJ), 39, lI S, 217

S"khavatl, 169 Sukhavari Ava lokireshvara Statue (IV-1 1), IYO, 190 Sumrsek. 192

uperbhss Machine (Chakrasamvara ) Tan"a, 13, 132,200,201,205, 207 Superbliss Wheel, 150 Supersecn:[ Hayagnva Father-Morher "arue IV- IO), 12, 12,41,212.113

Supersecret Hayagriva Farher-Morher tangb (V-I I), 214, 215 supreme emanation bodies (paramanirllla naka),oj, J, 53- 54, 59, 73 Swat, 62

T Taglung Kagyu order, 11 Taglungpa Lama Jigren Wangchuk statue (1I-tO),2 , 118, 119

rangkas black, 8

in home shrines, 5

Tasbi Lhunpo monastery, 8, 11 , 451n27) See also specific Images ranrra,97, 11 7, 197 and body as shrine, 4 and Kanhapa, 200 and sexuality, 183 and Vajradhara , 186 Tara Green Tara c:h rine /VIl -5rl,1S8-259, 259 Green Tara statue (Kumbum monument), 19

Green Tara rangka (Cleveland). 139 Green Tara rangka (Ford collection). 139 Khadiravan i (Green or Yellow ) Tara statue (111-21. 28, 140, 140, 141 Mahashn Tara and the Twenty-one Tam rangka IIU- I), 138, 139 f!.4 yria_d Green Tara Em:l11atlons rangka (JII-4), 144, 1-15 Felden Lhamo, 156, 157-158, 157, 158,159 Red Temple statue, -189 Tara lOne of the Pamed Twenty-One Tara Emananons) Sta[Ue (I f1 -3 J, 28,29, 142, 143 White Tara statue (early 18th century) IJII -5), 28, 146, 147,192 White Tara srarue (mid - 18th to early J 9th century) (111-6), 12, 12, 2~, 29, 148, 149 Taranatha. 33, 7 1,135 Tara Tulku, IJ6 Tashi Lhunpo monastery (Shigatsej, 21 Arapachana Maniushri statue, 28, 29. 147 founding of. 8, 20 importance of. 26 Maitreya starue, 20-21 Tsong Khapa statue, 2 1, 21,24 Tsong Khapa tangka, 21, 45(1127) Vaishravana srame, 27-28, 28, 35 Tashi Pe lden, 17 tea, 265. See also teapots Teapot and Brazier (Vl I- 10),265,165 reapots, 265, 265, 266, 266 rechnology, 9 Tenzin Gyarso (Fourteenth Dalai Lama ). xiii, 83, 280 Third or Sixth Panchen Lama, Lobsang Pelden Yeshe tangka (11-17). 130, 131 Three-faced, Six·a rmed, Four- legged Hayagriv. srarue (V-9). 41. 210, 2 11 ,111

Index · 297

Three Flcr({' Oracle Deity RlIual Crowns (VI-I),130-131,231 Threc SetS of RlIual Offerings (V I-6), 138-139,239. 241 Thupten Ja mpe! Yeshe Gyaltscn (Fifth Reting Rinpoche). 229. 255

Tlbe/an Rook of Ihe Dead (Book of Libera/lOll Throllgh Learlllng 11/ the Be/lII('e'I), 203

and Tushua heal'cn, 74 and Vaishravana, 221 Yonghegong statue, 40, 4/ See also Ganden Renaissance Turquoise and Jewcl-Col·ered Lad y's Golden Gall (VII-22), 280, 281 Tllshita heaven, 53, 73, 74, 199 Twelfth Dalal Lama, Trmla)' G),atso statue (11-16), 128, 129

Tibet I-louse Fifth Dalal Lama St:llut." 27,

TU'('flly-Olle I'rulses to Tara. 143

28

Tilopa, 117 Tonpa Shenra b Miwoche as Cosmic Buddha statue (IV- 14), 193, 193 T rayastrimsa (Heavcn of the 33 GOGs), 6 1 trcc icons, 5, 5, 199 trees as shrines, 4 Trmlay G)'atso (Twelfth Dalal Lama), 118, 129 Tnsong Detscn (Empl'ror of Tibet), 14. 103 trumpe ts, 232-233, 234, 248. 249 truth bodr (Dharmakaya). 195 Tsang, 26, 189 Tsebum (Kalas ha, Vase of Immortality), 240,241 Tsenngma sisters, 164, 164, 165 Tsong Khapa Cleveland pamtmg, 11, 45 (n27) and conch-shell horns, 246 and Dalal Lama institutlon, Xlll and Ganden monastery. 17, 43(n3 ) and GansulAmdo, 30, 43(n2 ) and Gclukpa o rder, 16-17, 43(n2) Imp0rT;lIlce of. 11 - 12, 43(n2), 122 and JokhangJowo Rinpoche statue, 4,56 and lamas as shrines,S, 5 and I'.lallre),a, 7, 8, 73 and I'.kdlCine Buddhas. I I and l'.hng dynasty, 9 N),inglel Lam statue, 170 Tashl Lhunpo smue, 21,21.24 Tashl Lhunpo tangb, 21, 45(n27\ Tsong Khapa appliqut ( 1834) (11 - 15), 126.127 Tsong Khapa on Lion Throne statue (11 -12), 11,29,122,123 Tsong Khapa on the Jewel Tree of Refuge tangka (V- I ), 5, 5, 199, I •• Tsong Khapa statue (cemral Tibet: late 17th to earl)' 18th cenlUr),) (11-13 ), 124,125 Tsong Khapa statue (Chl11a; latc 18th to early 19thcemury) (IJ- 14), 125,125

298 . Index

Two Cups wi th Stemmed Saucer Stand (Youring) (VII-13), 267, 267 Two Galls and T hree Small Shrmes (VII-5), 258-259,158-259 Two Jeweled Rosaril's and a Man's Along Ea rr ing With \X1oodcn Earring Box (VII -18), 274. 275 Two Pairs of Cymbals With Carrymg Cases (VI-16), 250, 250

Labrang monastery statue, 32, 33, 35, 38,39 valras, 232-233, 233, 234, 235 Vajrasatt\'a, 34, 34, 186, 188, 189, /89 Vaj rasattVa Sta tue (lV-ID), 188, 189, 189 Vajrasattva statue (Erdeni-Zu monastery) (Zanabaza r), 34, 3 4 Vajravarahl applique (111-8),152-153, 152, 153 Va)r3),ogml, 11-13, 13 Vasudha ra st3tue (Kumbum monastery), 25,26,45(n43 ), 193 VlIIlIliaklr/1 Slllra, 62, 137, 167, 185 violence, 12 Vi rginia Museum of Finl' Arts Peldl'1l Lhamo tangka . 27 visualization. 268

w

u Ulllllersa/ Vehicle Discourse I)teralure [Maitreyanatha),5 1

Upalllshads, 219 Urga mOllaStery (Ulan Bator), 33,34 Ushas, 161 Ushnishi (gTs ug-tor-can ) Buddha tangb (1-2),54,55 Urpalavarna.6 1

v V.moc hana Buddha statue (Labrang monam'ry), 32, H, 35, 38-39, 40 VamX'hana Buddha statue (While Tl"mple), 23,24 Vaishravana.221 Tashi Lhunpo statue, 27-28, 28. 35 Vaishrava na on a Snow Lion statue (Amdo or 1\
W:lrIgchuk Doric (Ninth Karmapa), 24, 15,26,116, 11 7 WIQlIKcJmk Dorf(', Ninth Karmapa (Karma Rinchen). 24, 25, 26 wealth dellle~, 222 Wen-cheng. Prmcess, 4, 56 Western Enlightenment, 10 Western pollltS of view. 3-4,144 Wheel of Time. See Kalachak ra (Wheel of Time) While House, 5 White Pagoda (Beijing). 39 Wilite Tara statue (early 18th century) (11l-5), 28,146, 147, 192 While Tar3 Statul' (mid- 18th to early 19th century) (111-6), 12,11,28,29, 148,149 While Temple (Tsaparang), 23, 24, 121 wisdom, 2-3 women female deities. 12-13, 136, 137, 1J7 a nd Ganden Re naissa nce, 9, 12-13 a nd lam3S as shrines,S See (/150 stJeclfic images wood sculpture, 43(n9) Wudangsi monaStl' ry, 37, 37 Wu T31 Shan. 8. 41-41, 42

x Xuande ['('riod, 170

y vab-yum images. See Farher-Mmher (yah)!wn ) images Yale University Milarepa statue, 35, 41, 41

.

Ya m.,2 19 Yamanr3 ka starue (V,S), 208, 209 Yamantaka Temple (Tsapa rang), 170, 189

Yam araja, 2 19 Yonghegong (Bei jing), H, 40, 40 Yongle bronzes, 18, 19,20, 43-4 4(nn13, 14), 118, 170, 175, 177, 186, 189, 190

Yongle emperor (Chm3 ), 9, 17, 19 Yuan dynasty. See Mongols

Zimmerman Mdarepa sratue, 169. 170 Zimmerman Padma Sambhav:l "I:lrue, 23 Zimmerman scaled Buddha sta rue, 62

z Zan. bazar, 33-34, 73 image of, 258-259, 258-259 and Khalkha Jet~un Dampas, 71, 135 and Mongols, 36 school of, 34-35, 35, 39, 47(n72 ), 71

Zhanglon Gonpo, 161 , 162, 163

Indtx • 299