Adamson Nucleus Biology (NUCL)

NUCLEUS English for Science and Technology

Donald Adamson /Martin Bates

NUCLEUS ENGLISH FOR SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

BIOLOGY

Donald Adamson Martin Bates Series Editors Martin Bates and Tony Dudley- Evans Science Adviser to the Series Arthur Godman C. Chern. , MRIC

. ..

~ ~~~

...... Longman

Contents

page

U nit I Unit 2 Unit , 3 U nit A Unit 4 Unit , 5 Un it 6 Unit ' B U nit 7 Unit 8 Unit 9 Unit C Unit 10 Unit II Unit 12 G lossary

Properties and Shapes

Location Stru cture

Revision Measurement I Process 1 Function and Ability Process 2 Actions in Sequence Revision Measurement 2 Quantity Pr ocess 3 Ca use and Effect Measurement 3 Proportion Revision Me asurement 4 Frequency, Tendency, Probability Process 4 Method Consolidation

I 7 15 22

26 34

39

47 51

58

66 74 79 87 93 100

Unit 1 Properties and Shapes Section 1

Presentation

I. Look at this diagram : Living organisms

Anima ls

I

Plant s

I

I,

__1_ -

Vertebra te

Invertebrate

Non- flow ering

animals

an imal s

plants

Flowering plants ( these have

( these have vertebrae )

(these do not

(these do not

flowers )

have vertebrae)

have flowers)

e.q. a

sna il

e.g. a mu shroom

Now complete these sentences with words from the diagram:

a) Biologists st udy . . . . Zoo logists study . . . • whereas bota nists study . .. . b) Animals are divided into . . . and . c) There arc two main groups of plants : and . . . d) A lion is a It ha s ... . e) A snail is It . f ) A mu sh ro om It . g) A sunflower . .. . 1

·

.,"

- W>~

. . . . . . . . . . . &gaam: Verteb rates

,.----

---.JL

-.

I

Cold· blooded I

Warm -bl ood ed

I

I

I

M ammals

Birds

I

Reptiles

I

Fish

hair.and skin lung s on land

feathers and w ing s lungs

dry scales lung s

on land

on land

damp skin dam p sca les adults have lungs gills the young have g ills in wa ter on land and in water

e.g . a cow

e.g. a du ck

e.g. a liza rd

e.g . a ,frog

~~

I

e.g . a shark

............_- -

Read these exam ples : Mammals are war m-blooded vertebrates. Th ey have hair and skin. T hey have lungs. T hey live o n land , A cow is a mammal. It has hair and skin. It has lun gs. It lives on land. Now make similar statements about birds, reptile s, amphibian s, fish ; a duck. a lizard. a frog. a sha r k, 3. Look at Ihis example : Birds are warm-blooded vertebra tes with feathers. wings and lungs. living o n land. Now make similar statements about the fo llo wing :

Rept iles Mammals Fish . , , .

, .

4. Answer these questions with information from the diagrams above:

a) b) c) d) e)

Why ca n't fish breathe on land '? Why can birds fly" Why can small mammals live in cold climates? Why can yo ung amphibians Jive in water '? Why is the body of a cat warm ? f) Why is the body of a sna ke co ld"

2

Section 2

Development

5. Look and read:

0

(

a rod

~ a chain

a commaS )

square -ended

)

(

a spiral

rou nd -ended

flagella

The shapes of bacteria Bacteria (singular bacterium ) are very small o rganisms with single cells. They can be divided into three groups according to shape.

Cocci (singular coccus) : These are spherical in shape. Some species occ ur in groups ; some occur in chains (streptococci ); some have two cells joined together (diploco cci ). Bacilliform bacteria : Th ese are cylindrical or rod-shaped. Some are

round-ended rods ; others have square ends. Some bacilli have long flagella. Spirilla (singular sp irillum): These are spiral in shape. The bacterium which cau ses cholera (Vibrio choleroev is comma-shaped with a single

flagellum. Look at these bacteria :

Streptococc i

Vibrio cholerae

ototocoact

Spiroc haete

Bacillus tub erculosis

Salmonella typh i

Escherichia c oli

Clostridium tetent (wit h spore)

Staph ylococci

3

a) List each bacterium under these headings:

Bacilli

Cocci

Spirilla

b) Now describe the appearance of each of the bacteria in the above diagram s.

Section 3 . Reading 6. Look at these diagrams which illustrate "ords in the reading passage below:

~-:1 ribbon

curved

/' flat

a cylind rical shape

a rectangular shape

taperi ng

I IL..--...II-L...--I

segments

8

(

swelling

a groove

o:

a hook

a transverse

se~

the anterior end

4

a sphe rical sha pe

the posterior end

U V

a

~

a ring

a lo ng itudinal section ......~_,

These circles are 8venty spaced.

Now read these descriptions : Two simple invertebrates

The tapcwonn is a para site which lives in the intestines of vertebrate animals. Its body is flat and ribbon-like. The body is divided into flat rectangular segments. These are smaller at the anterior end. The head is small and spherical. It has four evenly-spaced suckers. which a re circular in shape. On top of the head there is a curved projection. Around this there is a ring of hoo ks. The car thwonn lives in the soil. Its body is roughly cylindrical in shape. The posterior end is tapering and slightly flatt ened. The anterior end is slightly tapering. The body is divided by tra nsverse grooves into about 150 rings or segments. Near the middle of the body there is a swelling. called the c1itellum. Look at these diagrams : a)

b)

c)

2

3

5

I)

jJrn~-g) 0)

"

\ h)

j) \

6

Now say what these diagrams show, choosing from the captions below. Give reasons for yo ur choice. -.

5

Ex am ple .'

Diagram (1) shows an earthworm . It is roughly cylindrical in sha pe a nd one part is swollen. 5

The head of a ta peworm The transverse section of an earthworm The longitud inal section of a tapeworm An earthworm

The longitudinal section of an earthworm A tapeworm The transverse section of a tapeworm

7. Match the following wilh the letters in diagrams (1), (5\ and (6) above. a circular part a swelling a spherical part ,a cylindrical segment a ring of hooks a flattened part evenly spaced parts a curved projecti on a rectangular segment a transverse groove

Section 4 Listening 8. Look at these diagrams. Then listen to the sentences. Write down whether each sentence is true or false.

Antelope

Snai l

...~l ·" ".. ' ...

..

•

•

,, ~ ~

o,f"

~

~' .. . . .

~.

.• , ... ...

~ ..:

. - ~. '- "

........'t ••-:-

Hawk

Earthworm

Tortoise

Now listen to each sentence again. Write them down, correcting the false

statements. 6

Unit 2

Location

Section 1 Presentation I. Look and read :

latera l \

th e tip

superio r or above A

,.,..,~~=;p==~ the end

B ) x between

c

2.1

inferior or below

the base

A is lateral to B. } { A proj ects laterallyfrom B. A

. { SUperior 1O } IS abo ve C.

C is { inf erior below

x is be /wee n A and C.

Yis {

to } A .

;:~~;~~1} at the base.

f ound

N ow loo k at thi s diagram ;

flo wer

bud --' .K-~

f ruit

shoot

lat eral shoot internode

leaf

- - ....;::;;;;,y stem -t-r-r 1.'-;'

gro und-Ievel ---_-hl-_~--

A flowering plant ( T'alinum triangulare s

root main or tap foot

7

Answer these questions : a ) Where is the shoot usually found - above or below gro und-level? b) Where is the roo t usually found ? c) Which parts arc lateral to the stem? d) Which parts are located at the tip of the flowering shoo t ? e) Which part of the plant is situated at the base? f ) What projects lat erally from the root ? g) Where is the intern ode in relation to the nodes? h) Are the bud s inferior to the stem? 2: Look and read:

the surface

, ~-:-_.- ~

:~

- - -+

-

.. _ , _

,:

J _ _ ".. . . . . . .

inner

J

--. . -- ---- -'

x

t

the centre

middle

layers

outer

x runs through the centre

Now look at these diagr ams : cambium

pith

vascular bundle cortex xylem 'tl-~ p h l oe m

epidermis

:i~~~r--:ortex ~::\--,&:

__cambium .. . xy lem

}'-"§

tIIIih'jf Phloem .c '-Ph :·;]} : 10 """ v-",:~" pericycle

::--Q';;;~ epidermis

Stereogram of a plant stem

a

pith

~

hollow

Transverse section o f a young sunflower stem

Complete these sentences : The . . . of a plant stem is a thin layer which is called the epidermis. Inside the epidermis there are three . .. The . . . layer is called the cor tex. There is pith in the . .. . ... the pith and the cortex there is a . .. , which is called the ca mbium. Some plants have a hollow in the ... of the stem. The vascular bundles are tubes which run . . . the stem. The xylem, the phloem and the pericycle a re situated . The . .. is on the outside of the vascular bundl e, the is on the inside and the .. . is between them .

a

3. Look at the diagram and read the text. Choose the correct words from the pairs.

rJ'- - - - - --stigma} ,

It--_~----- style

stamen- - - - - -f-""

'I ptsn

--\ -j~------ pe l a l

717'7"'-- - - - - - - - ovary sepa l

- - - - - - -- 'E::'"

-j-- - - -- - - - stem- - - - - - - - - - -tJ

recept acle

Parts of a flower in longitudinal section

The flower is found at the end /ba se of the stem. It consists of a special part of the stem/root which is ca lled the receptacle. and special leaves called floral leaves. These are arranged in rings or whorls, The sepals form the calyx. This is the lowest/highest and innermost/ outermost whorl. The peta ls ofthe flower form the corolla. They lie inside/ou tside the sepa ls and are attached slightly higherjlower on the receptacle. The stamens, or male reprod uctive orga ns lie outside/inside the petals. They arc outs ide/inside the pistil, or female organ. This rises from the base/centre of the receptacle. It has an oval)' at the tip/base. Below/a bove the oval)' is the style. At the tip/base of thc style are the stigmas. 4. Look at these diagrams:

Hypogynous flower

Epigynous flower Perigynous flower

Variation in the shape of the receptacle in different kinds of flower Now answer these questions :

Which part of the flower varies in shape? Which part varies in position ?

Which kind of flower has a conical oval)' ?

9

Section 2

Development

5. Look and read: upper part

.i.->: in front

behind

,

side lower part

In biology,special words are used for the position of parts of animals . The upper parts of the body are superior to the lower parts , which are inferior. Posterior means behind and anterior means in front. Parts which are at or ncar the back of the body are dorsal. Parts which are opposite the back are ventral (i.e. near the stomach). Thus in human beings, the ventral parts are anteri or and the dorsal .parts arc posterior. whereas in o ther animals the ventral parts are

inferior and the dorsal parts are superior. The central part of the body, running from head to tail, is called the median. Parts in this region are medial, whereas parts near the sides of the body are later- . Add labels and captions to these diagrams:

"

;J...

n

•

.,.

. OJ

10

• ·,1 , i

6. Look at this diagram:

right pulmonary artery

anterior vena cava_ _ aorta left pulmonary vein -

liver ________

posterior vena cava-e, hepatic portal vein-

1'--

-

"UI. --

-

- left kidney

renal vein

intestine

Th e hum an blood system

Now say wheth er these statements are true o r fal se. Correct the false sta teme nts. a) The auricles of the heart are superior to the ventricles.

b) Th e pulm onary vein enters th e heart by the left auricle, c) The pulm onary artery takes blood from the left ventricle to the liver. The ao rta is posterio r to the heart. Th e anterio r vena cava enters the heart by the right ventri cle The kidneys are medial to the aor ta and posterio r vena cava . In hum an beings, the anterior vena cava is inferior to the heart. The blood from the intestine passes through the coeliac a rtery to the liver. i) The ju gular vein is in th e region of the neck, j) The renal veins lie between the kidneys and the vena cava , k) In biological dia grams. organs o n the left side of the body are shown on the right.

d) e) f) g) h)

II

Section 3

Reading

7. Read this passage. The diagrams show the meaning of new words. This

around

contains

a strand

this.

not ex posed

Teeth The lo wer part of a to oth is inside the jaw -bone, while the upper part is expo sed. The exterior o f the ex posed part consists o f ename l. T his is a very hard. no n-living material which fo rms a good surface fo r

biting. U nder the enamel there is a part made o f a mat erial ca lled dent ine. This is also hard but it is less brittle than enamel. It is like bone in structure. It co ntain s living strands o f cyto plasm .

In the centre of the tooth there is a mat erial called pulp. T his consists o f so ft connective tissue. Inside the pulp there are se nso ry

nerve endings and blood capilla ries. The lo wer part of the tooth is called the roo t. It is held to the jawbone by tou gh fibres. Aro und the dentine at the root there is a thin layer of ce ment.

This is also a bone-like material. T he flesh aro und the base of the ena mel is called the gum.

Now add these labels to the diag ra m below : jaw-bone

pulp

cement

ename l

senso ry nerve ending

gum

dentine

blood ca pilla ries

roo t

a)

~~ b)

c)- -'ch :'<

~+-- h )

i)

Molar tooth (nerve shown on the right. blood capillaries on th e left) 12

8. Write short answers to these questions:

a) b) c) d)

Which part of the tooth is outside the jaw-bone ? What is there on the surface of this part? Which two materials arc like bone? What is on the surface of the lower part of the tooth ?

e) Where is the soft part of the tooth?

fj Which material is not living? 9. Look at these examples: Simila rities: The leaves of a plant arc found above the ground. The flowers of a plant are found abo ve the ground.

i.e. Both the leaves and the flowers of a plant are found above the ground. Differences:

The shoot is found above the ground .

The root is found below the ground. . ji,'hile "i.e. The shoot is found above the ground',\:rhereasfthe

root is found below the ground. Now join these pairs of sentences with both . . . and or while/whereas:

a) The The b) The The

buds arc found at the tip of the shoot. flowers are found at the tip of the shoot. outer layer is called the cortex. middle layer is called the cambium.

c) The The d) The The

calyx is outside the reproductive organs . corolla is outside the reproducti ve organ s. stamen is a reproductive organ . pistil is a reproductive organ.

e) A hypogynous flower has a conical ovary . A perigynous flower has a cup-shaped ovary. f) The arteries take blood from the heart. The veins take it back to the heart.

13

Section 4

Listening

10. Look at this diagram and then lislen to the passage. Number the words below in the order in which

antenna

~·ou

hear them.

thora~\:,..:::::::::::::::::======:::::::::::::::=- __

abdomen

- cercus style

Jaw.

" posmcn . . 0f

(mandible)

spiracles

othe r mouth parts

tarsus

The cockroach (P eriplaneta americana : male)

cockroach

thorax

femur compound eye

fore-wing

spiracles

abdomen

antennae

cercus style

tibia

claw

tarsus Jaw

Now listen to the sentences describing the parts of the cockroach. Say whether they are true o r false. Write them down. co rrecting the false statements.

14

Unit 3

Structure

Section 1

Presentation

I. Look and read :

16 caudal vertebrae

pelvic girdle

fibula

.---:-tibia hind limb ~i'l:ol""...t~."

\

foot pectoral girdle

Append icular Skelet on

Skeleton of a rabbit showing axial skeleton and left side of app endic ular skeleto n

The skeleton consists of two sections - the axial skeleton and the appendicular skeleto n. The vertebral co lumn is made up of bony seg ments called. vertebrae. The vertebral column is divided into five regions. These region s include the cervical vertebrae. the thoracic vertebrae

etc. The bone of the vertebrae surrounds the spinal cord (nervous tissue). which runs through the centre of the vertebral column.

~

~ ."'".

-'

_

anterior view of ve rtebrae

The skeleton is composed of a hard material called bone, The body is supported by the skeleton.

r;::;:q 1J\7ff support 15

The ribs are uuuched to the vertebral co lumn. att

A'

G:

detached

The limbs are connected to the axial skeleton hy the girdles,

GJ=rO connection

The bones in the limbs are joined together. The regio ns where they join arc called joilllS.

~ JOint

Now answer these questions : a) What docs the appendicular skeleto n co nsist o f'? h) 0 0 the regions of the vertebral co lumn include the ribs?

c) What is the hind limb made up of? d) Which pa rt of the hind limb is divided into several small bones? e)

\Vhich bones surro und the lungs '?

f) What is the spinal cord com posed of? What is suppor ted by the cervical vertebrae ?

g)

h) Which ribs arc atta ched at one end and detached at the other? i)

1I0 w is the fore limb co nnected to the axia l skeleto n?

j) Which bo ne is joined to the pelvic girdle? 2. Look at this diagram: skull

neck ve rte bra e - -- - - - - -sternum -

-. -

--

-

9 - ----- - _ _ _ _ _ _

ribs -=~ ' ---'----fj (elbow joint)

pelvi s r-'"'"

femur pat ella - - -

:2I -l\--

- -----

- - - - - -CW

-

spatula

- t h oracic verte brae -

-

- humerus

~ Iumbar verte brae

~ --_.-

'L

$,\.

"-

.-- -_. . _ .- . - -

- ---

--_.-----

tibia -- -- --- ---- - .-

- - - --

,/,1 I

I

----

-

- --

The human skeleto n 16

-

. --

-

fibu la -~-.• '.--

-

clavicle

- - - - - -radius ---------ulna

Now co mplete these sentences with wo rds from the list : arc attached to cons ists of are suppo rted by include joi nt

is connected to is co mposed of are joi ned to is divided into

a) b) c) d) e) f) g) h)

T he skeleton many bones joined together. T hese bones the skull, the vertebral column, the pelvis etc. The pelvis bone tissue. The sku ll and upper parts of the skeleton . . . the vertebral co lumn. The radius and the ulna . . . the humerus. T his . . . is called the elbow. Th e an ter ior ends of the ribs . . . the sternum. Th e humerus .. . the vert ebral co lumn by the spatula. i ) The vertebral column . . . neck vertebrae. thoracic vertebrae and lumbar vertebrae.

3. Complele these sentences by saying what the parts are called. Nole the new words iIIuslrated by the diagrams:

I'

across

II a bowl

1234 5

= a series '

~ -....

~ •

the hat

•

covers the head

Example :

"" 1/

-- --

/ I'"

.

disc

arranged symmetrically

---I.-

~

~'

\

not arranged symmetrically

The part of the skeleton which is located above the spine

. { kcalled nown as } the skuII.

IS

a) The large bowl-sha ped bone which surro unds the base of the spme . . . . b) T he two bon es in the lower part of the skeleton which are parallel an d detached but joined at eac h end .... c) The gro up of bone'S which a re arra nged symmetr ically on each side of the vertebral column . . . . d) The long flat bo ne located at the front of the upper part of the skeleton , to which the ribs are attached . . . e) The disc-sha ped bone which covers the fro nt of the kneejo int . . . . f) T he bones which are con nected by the knee joint . . . . 17

g) The bones which sup port the pelvis . .. . h) The two bones which run horizontally across the top of the ribs . ... i) Th e series of bones which ma ke up the spine . . .

Section 2

Development

4. Look at these examples :

The root of the tooth is emb edded in the gum.

contains } The sto mach { IS. fill ed wun . I food.

r::::::====:::o:-, __ cortex cambium

The cortex of a plant stem is lined with cambium .

Now read this : The structure of plant cells The outer layer of a plant cell is called the cell wall. Th is is composed of a non-living ma terial ca lled cellulose. The inner surface of the cell

wall is lined with a layer of pro top lasm. The nucleus is embedded in this layer. The pro to plasm which surrounds the nucleus is ca lled cy toplasm. The cy to plasm so metimes co ntains chloroplasts. These

are small bod ies composed of pro tein. The surface of the cyto plasm is co vered with a cell membrane. The centre o f a plant cell consists of a cavity called the vacuole. It is filled with fl uid.

The walls of a plant cell are often joined to other cells which surround it. Th e lining between the walls of two ce lls is ca lled the

middle lamella . Now label the parts and com po sition of a plant cell in this diagra m using the following words :

middle lamella cell wall

chloroplast

vacuole ce ll memb rane

cytop lasm

nucleus

(cellulose) (fluid) (protein)

a) b ) ~_ ,,,

c) - -

-+

!!U=- IIIH-- -

oj

f)

18 d) -

-

'1

vacuole (fluid)

5. Look at these diagrams : cyt op lasm

cyt oplasm

nucleus

epiderm is cells

,iW}'-':"n uclei

An imal cell

~> chloro plasts

cell walls

- - palisade cells

'. " Leaf cells of a plant

nucleus

,.

-"

l:J ~_'.,-

cyto pla sm

,

.,I

cell w all

-'.

!.

strands of cytopl asm

nucleus

vacuole

-~

';il-~;'~; .. . '

Phloem cells of a plant stem

Cells in spyrogyra

Now read these statements com paring the structure of the cell s :

Similarities :

Both plant cells and animal cells conta in nuclei. A plant cell contains a nucleus. An animal cell also cont ains a nucleus.

Durcrellccs :

Plant cells co ntain vacuoles. whereas animal cells often do not have vacuoles. Plant cells co ntain vacuoles. Animal cells. however, often do not have vacuoles.

Now comp lete these comparisons:

a) . .. plant cells . . . animal cells contain . . . and . . . b) Plant cells always co ntain

anim al ce lls o ften

.

c) Plant cells a rc surro unded by

Animal cells. . . . • are not

d) Th e palisade cells of a leaf contai n . . . . The epidermis cells. ho wever. . . . .

e) In plant cells ... anim al cells. the nucleus . . . by cytopla sm. f) In the nucleus is embedded in the cyto plasm lining the cell walls in . . . it is connected to the cell walls by . . . . g) Cells in spyrogyra are joined end to end . Those in the phloem of a plant stem . . .. Ho wever. the end walls of a . . . cell arc pe rfora ted (i.e, they cont ain holes). wherea s . in . . . they a re h ) In .. . the chloropl asts are spiral-sha ped round .

19

Section 3

Reading

6. Look and read:

palisade cell

cut icle

tPalisade laver } spongy layer

•

lower epidermis stomata

guard cells

air space

The cell structure of the leaf The surface of a leaf consists of a single layer of cells fitting closely together with no air spaces between them. This outer layer is ca lled

the epidermis. Sometimes the upperepidermis is covered with a waxy layer ca lled the cuticle, The stomata are located in the lower epider-

mis. The cells of the epidermis do not usually contain chloroplasts and they arc transparent. The guard cells, however. do contain chloropla sts. They are situated on either side of the stomata. The middle part of the leaf. between the upper epidermis and the lower epidermis, is made up of two layers ; the palisade laye r and the sp ongy lay er. These two layers ma ke up the mesophyll. Immediately below the upp er epidermis there is a row of tall cylindrical cells. These co mprise the palisade layer. There are many

chloro plasts in the cyto plasm lining the walls of the palisade cells. Chloroplasts are particles which are often disc-shaped . They are composed of protein and contain chlorophyll. In the spongy layer the cells do not all fit closely together and there arc large air spaces between them. They contain fewer chloro plasts than the cells in the palisade layer. Now write co mplete answers to these questio ns :

a ) What th ree parts does the cell structure of a leaf consist of? b) What is the mesophyll made up of'? c ) Where are the stomata situated?

d) What are the cells on either side of the stomata called ? e) Which cells contain no chloroplasts? f) What is the upper epidermis sometimes covered with ? 20

g) What sha pe a rc the cells of the pal isade layer ? h) Wh a t shape a re the chlo ro plasts? i) What are chloroplasts made of? j ) Where arc the large a ir spaces fo und ? k) Which ce lls are not all joined together ? 7. Ma ke correct sentences from this table b)' putting the middle parts in the right order :

a) The cytop lasm

lining the walls of the cell s

h) The cells

surrounding the nucleus

e) Th e wax y laye r co ntai ning large air spaces

contains chloro plasts. are called guard ce lls.

covers the surface of the epidermis.

d) The protoplasm containing chlorophy ll

is called cytoplasm.

e) The layer

is kno wn as the spongy laye r.

co mposed o f the spo ngy layer

and the palisade layer f) The cells

do not contain

ca lled the cuticle

g) The part of the situated in the epidermis leaf h) The walls on eac h side of the stoma ta i) The part of the

leaf j) The particles

chlo ro plasts. is known as the

the mesophyll. make up the middle

lamella. immediately below the epidermis is called the pali sade

layer. o f similar cells joi ned to gether

a re ca lled

chloropla sts.

Section 4

Listening

8. Listen to the text and number these words in the order in which you hear them: consists of the centre protein

surrounded co ntractile vacuoles chlo ro plast

filaments the pyren oid ce ll wall

fla gella attac he d eye-spot

Lahel th e dia gram with th ese words:

co ntractile vacuoles cell wa ll nucleus pyrenoid eye-spot chloroplas t flagella

a)

0)

b)

I)

ej

j

Chlamydomonas (chlo roplast and cell wa ll in sectio n) Listen to the senlences and say wheth er they a re true o r false. Wri te them do wn. correctin g the false statements.

21

Unit A

Revision

I . Look at this table : The differences between animals and plants A nimals N utrition is holozoic

Plants Nutrition is holophytic

(i.e. animals eat other

(i.e. food is produced from

organisms)

chemical substances)

No chlo rophyll Carbohyd ra tes sto red as glycoge n

Chlo ro phy ll present Carbohydrates stored as starch

Able to move Usc a lo t of energy

F ixed U se littl e ene rgy

Compact shape

Sp readi ng and bran ching sha pe

Fixed num ber of parts

Number o f pa rts not fixed

Growth takes place o nly during a limit ed pe riod of life

Growth continues th rou ghout life

(Note : There are some exceptions which a re not included here) Now make complete sentences giving the differences between plants an d an imals. Use the foll o wing expressio ns: . a Is. . . .. { whereas} . I In amm while In p ants... . In animals. . .. . In plan ts. {~~~~~e~~her hand}

..

ha ve

Anima ls are con tain etc.

. .. . Plants. . . .

2. Read this text: The structure of the eye in vertebrat es The shape of the eyeball is spherical. The skin of the animal is continued over the eyeball as to ugh. transparent conjunctiva. The eyeba ll is ho llow, and its wall is made up of three layers of cells. Th e outer layer is known as the sclerotic coal . T he anterior section of the sclero tic coat fonns a tra nsparent windo w known 3 £ the cornea. The midd le layer is called the choro id coal . In humans this forms a blue or brown-coloured curtain or iris posterior to the cornea. The

22

-r,

inner layer or retina contains light-sensitive cells. The optic Ilene passes through the retina in the lower posterior section of the eyeball. The hole in the centre or the iris is called the pupil. which is round in most animals. but in the cat is oval or slitshaped. In the an terior part of the eye. the place of the retina is ta ken by the crys talline lens.

Now add these labels to the diagram below : conjunctiva sclerotic coat

o ptic nerve crystalline lens

cho roid coat

pupil

IfI S

cornea

retina

i)

.)

I.--_--

h

)

---/I

b)

1 --

-

- g)

c)

;::2'~--I) d)

Section th rou gh human eye 3. No w complete the following sentences to match the idea in brackets :

a) b) c) d) c) f)

g) h) i) j)

The eyeball (shape) The eyeball (structure) Th e conj unctiva (prope rty ) The cornea (prapel'ty ) The iris (location) The retina . " . (structure) The point at which the o ptic nerve passes through the retina , .. (locations ", The pupil . .. . Uocatiom Th e pup il , , . . (shape) The crysta lline lens , " . (locutions 23

4. Look at these diagram s :

1J~~~~~!!IIIIIIIIII~~i!

ep;derm;::;s~ collenchyma cuticle

(

parenChymaendode rmis

~:J-~{"~.~. iI''

lignin - - - - - - - - -

:""'i",',-;.'r..;y";-j.

par"e,~n~Ch~Y~m~a~: ;!;111.!ljl;~ij~!~~~j~~~~~

sieve tube phloem

co mpanion cell

xylem parenchyma

pith pare nch yma

- - -'I-

v-..." /

Transverse section of a sunflower stem cutic le

lignin

cortex

lig nin

s;eve \"Tomb,um

I

tube

companion cell

phloem paren chym a

pith paren chyma

Longitudinal section of a sunflower stem Now match these descriptions with pa ris of the stem in the diag rams : a) A gro up of tough fibres. long and narrow in shape. Their walls are th ickened with lignin and they help to suppo rt the stem .

24

b) Large thin-walled cells found a mong the sieve tubes of the phloem. c) These are relatively large in cro ss-section. Their walls arc hard because they contain lignin. which is sometimes arranged in spiral shapes.

d ) A single layer of cells which are rou ghly rectan gular in shape and do not con tain chloroplasts. e) A very thin layer of waxy material covering the surface of the f)

stalk. This occupies the centre of the stem. It includes the largest cells seen in cross-section.

g) A layer of small cells surro unding the parenchyma of the cortex. h) A region just inside the epidermis which is made up of three layers of tissue .

i) Large cells with thin walls and often with air spaces between them. found in the pith. part of the cortex etc. j) This consists of thin-walled cells lying inside the phloem. between it and the xylem. k) Cylindr ical cells arranged end-t o-end in long rows. Strands of cytoplasm run through very small holes in their end walls. I) Narrow cells fi lled with den se cyto plasm. They arc attached to the sieve tubes of the phloem.

25

Unit 4

Measurement 1

Section I

Presentation

1. Look and read :

,

,r. •

'" : height I

I I

I I

00'

~ O~~~ ~:J~ ~~ C>~

o~ l~ , -v O~

,04",

0QoO "'~ D~o

~

~l:)

I ~Ol:J ;/,,-- - - - - -

:

\0,

05'.:.

_ ~~~'!.

_

thic kn ess leng t h

~~:ete"

length

height [ - --- -- -- - "[he ight

width ~">,J---_...t

volume = length

area = heig ht

K

lengt h

height .. w id th (volu me equa ls leng th rimes K

height times width)

-'"

c ross-sectio nal area wingspan

surf ace area (t he area of all the surfaces)

. .

'

" . ,,)

body temperature

weight

Co mmo n measuremen ts in biology Units of meas urement m met res em centi metres

mm millirnetres Jl m

26

microru ct res

m 2 sq uare met res

m' c uh ic metres kg kilograms g grams "C degr ees Ce ntigrade

Now ma ke sta tements like the exa mple. with the help of the diagra ms below : Example :

aj

The height of a tree is measured ill metres.

gj

(

b)

l

, j

J

E" '"

• cj

dl

,,'

j)

Amoeba ej

f)

k)

2. Ask and ans wer quest ions like the exa mple. with the help of the following diagram:

Example :

Wha t is the approximate len gth o f yo ur thumb'! The len gth o f my thumb is upproximutelv five cen timetres.

,-

- I

head -

eve 1-.::7-- mouth

wa ist

- H t---:'-1

for earm

hand thumb middle fi nge r

le9 -

-

+

'.

t hig h

'J

calf

foot

3. Now write five sentences like the foiloy/'jog:

Example :

My thumb hus a length ul approximately 5 em .

4. Look al these diagrams:

111

Lizard " 0 ·33

Jellyf ish " 0 -2

, Grasshopper )( 0 ·5

Shark" 0 ·0 1

,==.-. Whale " 0 ·005

Octopu s " 0 ·1

~/

eRat )( 0 -2

Butterfl y " O' 5

Frog x 0 ·5

Liver f luke )( 1 Bat )( 0 -25

Cyc lops x 15 Hydr a " 4

28

Threadworm x 10

Wat er snail x 1

Look at these exam ples : . The diagram o f a bat .IS drawn . es} 1'/. . tun ~

e st:e ,

10

a scale of{ nought point ti.ro five one quarter 0/.

The diagram of a liver fluke is drawn 10 life size , The diagram of a threadworm is drawn to a scale of ten l imes life si:e, In the diagram. the butterfly has a wingspan of app roximately 3 em . It is drawn to a scale of olle half of life size. T herefo re the butte rfly has a win gspan of approximately 3 em x 2

=

6 em.

Now make similar statements about the following : the length of a lizard's tail the length of a grasshopper's antennae

the diameter of a jellyfish the height of a je llyfish, includ ing the tentacles the width of a liver fluke the wingspan of a ba t the widt h of a shark's tailfin the length of a threadworm the length of a rat , excluding the tail the height of a hydra

Section 2

Development

5, Look and read : tail

body

7cm

7 cm

J

~

10 cm

whis kers

"--- ~7mm . ---,---~

10 cm

I~

S cm

.- - - -. 12 cm

~\ 15 mm

A

I

10 mm

B

c

25 g

30 g

overall length 14 em (7 + 7) we ight 20 9

Varyin g sizes of hou se mice The size of different organisms of the same species varies co nsider ably. For example. the diagrams show three adu lt ho use mice. Their ages are the same and their habit ats arc similar. However. their measu rement s are no t identical. for example. the bo dy length of mouse: A is 7 em. whereas mouse

B has a bod y length of 10 em and the body of mo use C measures 12 em in length .

29

. . { l'OrieS bet u'ee'lL In thi s gro up of mice, th e len gth of the body ranges fro m f 7 em { ~~u/} 12 em . T he

maximum body len gth is 12 em a nd the

minimum is 7 em. The average body len gth in thi s gro up is therefore 7

+ I ~~ =

9.66 em.

Now write simila r paragr aph s a bo ut th e follo wing va rying mea surements:

the the th e the

length of th e tail len gth of th e whiske rs overa ll length body weight

6. Find out the following measurements for each of your group of students. Write sentences giving the range, the maximwn and minimum, and the al'crage measurement for the group. heigh t a rm len gth girth of th e wa ist body weight 7. Look at this diagram: height (m ) u pper level

40

30

middl e level 20

10 lower level {

:

6

10

w idt h / distan ce (m)

T ro p ical rain forest 30

.

20

, 30

40

Now say whether these sentences are true or false. Correct the false sentences. a) Th e height of the trees ran ges fro m 0 to approx imately 45 m. b) T he widths of the crowns vary most at the upper level. c) The widt hs of the crowns at the upper level vary between exactly 20 m and exac tly 4 m, d ) T rees at the upper level receive the minimum amo unt of light. e) Th ere is maximum var iation in the heights of trees at the middle level. f ) T he average height of t rees at the midd le level is approxima tely S m.

Section 3

Reading

8. Read this passage:

The length of the human small intestine. or ileum, varies grea tly. When it is fully extended its length ra nges from 4 to 8 me tres. In life. however. the maximum length is approximately

mouth- ----\o=.

4 .5 metres. T his is beca use the muscles

in the wall of the intestine are pa rtly con tracted. When digestion is not tak ing place. the int estine may beco me shor ter still. Th e lotal length from mouth to anusmay then measure

U:::::\~ intestine

as little as 2.5 metres. This is litt le

more than the height of a man.

V

- j' - anus

The hu man alime ntary canal N o w answer these question s :

a) What is the maximum possible length of the human small intestine ?

b) Why d oes it not reach this length '! c) Is the intestine lo nger before or after eating ?

d) Why is this '! e) How much do es the size of t he intestine vary in life?

31

9. Now read this : circular

muscle

fold ed

absorbing layer of villi

The inner surface of the intestine is folded. The surface of the folds is covered with small, fi nger-like projections. Th ese arc called villi. There are between 20 and 40 villi per square millimetre. The size of the villi can also cha nge. Moreover. the villi them sel ves are co ve red with minute. hair-like projections.

The effect of all these folds and projections is to increase the surface area of the g ut eno rmo usly. The total surface area is approximately 3(x) squa re metres. This very large surface area ena bles the

inte stine to ab sorb food quickly. Complete these sentences :

a) Foo d passes quick ly th rou gh the gut wall becau se . . . b) Other name s for the gut are the ... and . . . ca nal. c) The gut has a very large surface area becau se ( i)

.

(ii) . (iii) . d ) Villi arc locat ed ... e) Villi a rc sha ped like . f) Vill i arc covered with . g) Th ere arc between and . . . villi per squa re centime tre o f gut wall. ( Carefut '} h) In life. the intestine varies greatly in . . . and . . .

i) The size of the ... also varies. 32

Section 4

Listening

10. Listen tn the passage and enmplete this table: Range of size and weight in living organisms

Maximum

sIZe

Maximum weight

Minimum size

Plants

(heigh') 83 m

(

)

Animals

(

(

)

)

Minimum weight

Now answer these questions :

a) What is the passage abo ut ? b) What have the blue whale and the Ca lifornian Redwood in common? c) What have an amoeba and bacteria in co mmon? d) What is the maximum lifespan ofa Californian Redwood ?

33

Unit 5

Process 1 Function and Ability

Section 1 Presentation I. Look at this diagram :

mouth

salivary

g'and-----~~~~7~I_-f~-----

secretion of saliva

production of bile storage of bile '. ' "

churning of food

liver

~

};~::::'__ secretion of

bile duct - - - - - -t. gall bladder - -

-

gastric juices

-f

0 ""----;'1'+- -

production of

sto mach

';lK~:;:::-J<

pylor ic sp hincte r

abSorPtion of ;~";::6~;;:1---;r-l;;_- food into th e

pancreatic juices

bl ood st ream

du od enum -'\ ----t~

pancreas

/--~~~S;Y(--l~---.J\- absorpti on

of t he liqu id content of undigested food

small intestine (ileum) larg e intesti ne

\

(COIO n)~_-1,-

anus _

peristalsis

-~;--_ _ - _ - - rejection

of faeces

T he human digestive system and d igestive processes Now as k and answer questions like the following :

Example: 34

Where do cs secretion of saliva take place? Secretion of saliva takes place in the mout h.

'.

2. Look at these exa mples:

The JimClion a/ the salivary glands is 10 secrete saliva. The salivary glands serve to secrete saliva.

The anus {

" CIS

}

serves

. as a valve to control the cxcrcuo n of faeces.

T he digestive system enables the body

10

d igest and abso rb food .

N ow say which parts o f the digestive syste m arc described by these sentences :

a) T his organ produces bile. b) The walls ena ble digested food to be abso rbed into the blood-

stream. c) d) c) f)

Th is serves to con d uct bile to the d uoden um. Food is chewed and mixed with saliva in this part. This serves to store the bile. T he function of this gland is 10 secrete an alka line fl uid which passes into the duodenum. g) The undigested waste (faeces) is rejected th rough th is sphincter. h) This cannot abso rb much digested food but its walls serve to absorb the liquid content of undi gested food . i ) The walls are lined with muscles whose action serves to ch um the

food and mix it with gastric juices. j) T his acts as a valve 10 control the passage of food from the sto mach.

Section 2

Development

3. Look at this table : D igestive Act ion Digestive gland

Digesti ve J UiCC

Digestive Action Enzymes in Class of food Substance s the juice ac ted upo n produced

produced

Salivary

Saliva

Salivary

glands

Gastric

glands (in stomach lining) Pancreas

Starch

Maltose

am ylase

Gastric JUIce

Pepsin

Proteins

Pep tides

Pancreatic JUice

Trypsin

Proteins and pcptides

Amino acids

,

---- - - - -

------ -

----- - - -

-------

------- -

Amylase

Starch

Lipase

Fats

-- ----- -

Maltose

Fatty acids -'

and

glycerol 35

Glands in the ileum lining

Succus entericus

Peptidase

Pcptides

Am ino acids

Lipase

Fats

Fatty acids and glycerol

Maltase

Maltose

G luco se

Sucrase

Sucrose

Glucose and fructose

Lactase

Lacto se

Gl uco se and galactose

Make sentences about the function of different digestive JUIces. like the following example : The salivary glands serve } . . { The function of the salivary glands is to secrete saliva. This con tains the enzyme amylase . It acts upon starch in the food to produce maltose.

Section 3

Reading

4. Look at this diagram and read the passage:

lateral line

scales

dorsal fin

eye pupil

... caudal fin ventral fin

<,

/

operculum

anus

pectoral fin

pelvic fin

The external features of a fish and their function s

36

-

The nostr ils of a fish do not open into the back of the mouth. so they arc not used for brea thing. They Icad into organs of smell which arc very sensitive, A fi sh can th us detect food at con siderable distan ces, The eyes of a fish have large round pupils which do not vary in size. Hearing : fish have no external ca rs but they ca n hear by the tra nsmission of vibrations through their bodies to the inner ear. T he mo uth serves to ta ke in food a nd water fo r brea thing .

Say whether these statements arc true o r false. Co rrect the false statements.

a) b) c) d) e) f)

A fish breathes with its nostr ils. The nostrils arc co nnected to thc back of the mouth. A fish is ca pa ble o f smelling food at a co nsiderable distance. The pupi l of a fi sh 's eye has not thc ca pacity to change size. One function o f the mouth is to ta ke in air for brea thing. T he mou th is also used for taking in fo od .

5. Look aga in at the diagram of a fish and read this passage :

T he sea les ove rlap eac h other and serve as a protective cove ring, Th e operculum is a bon y structure which covers and protects the gills. The gills arc used for breathing. The walls of their filaments arc very thin. T his enab les the o xygen in the water to be abso rbed ra pidly into thc blood . Thc lat eral line is a fluid-fill ed tube j ust below thc skin. Its funct ion is to detect mo vem ents in the water. With the aid o f the lateral line a fish can detect the d irection and intensity of wa ter mo vem ent s. T he fins give sta bility and co ntrol direct ion of mo vement dur ing swimming. By means o f its fins a fish can co ntro l the mo vem ents o f

its bod y. T he Iins also ena ble a fish to control its speed. Now com plete these sentences : a) The fins serve to contro l . . .

b) Th e fi ns arc also used for . . , . c ) Th e sensi tive organs of smell enable . . .

d) c) f) g) h) i) j)

The function o f thc operculum , , . T he scales act as ... . By means o f the inner ea r .. . .

The thin walls of the gill filaments , , . The lateral line serves . . .. With the aid of its mout h .. , The mou th also enables . . . .

.17

Section 4. Listening 6. Look at this diagram :

0 -

epithelium-

-

-

-

-

-

-

- - vill i

-{t

Stereog ram showing structure of ileum

Now listen to the passage and number the foll owing in the o rder in which you hear them:

a ) the size of the ileum b) the shape of the villi c) the function of enzymes

d ) inside the villi e) the function o f the a limentary canal f) properties of the epithelium

g) the funct ion of the ileum 7. Now listen to the passa ge aga in and complete these sentences :

a) D igestio n occurs with the aid of . . . _ h) Most of the . . . of d igested food take s place in the ileum . c) The walls of the ileum have special . . . by means of which it can a bsorb __. food rapid ly. d) T he ileum has a la rge absor bing . . . _ c) The villi on the . . . surface of the ileum an: small projections, f ) The thin epithelium enables . . . food to pass rapid ly the walls. g) Each villus con tains a dense netwo rk of blood . h) T he small mo lecules of digested food con sist mainly of amino acids and . . . .

Unit 6

Process 2 Actions in Sequence

Section 1 Presentation I. Look aod read:

time

A

---~~

B

---~~

o

-----~

c

Bef ore } the occurrence of B. A occ urs. Bef ore B occurs. A occurs. Prior to

Aft er A has occurred. B occurs.

Ajier . rence or A. z- II . } the occur r O o Wing

B occurs.

As A occurs. } During the occurrence of A. C occurs. While A is occurri ng.

First' }A Then. } B Initially. occurs. Sub sequently, occurs.

Later, } S ubsequently. D occu rs. Eventua lly,

}c occurs.

Meanwhile, A occurs. At the same lime.

39

Now look at this diagram : thunderstorms

~ Jf,r.r;f'~, '

nitrogen

I f.

dioxide

/.,~

p,oduced

" ~ ~ ~1.~f;;0'"

dissolved in rain

nitrogen in air

I~--,

, 0If action nitrogen. fixing bacteria in soil and

roots of legumes ~_-l _ _,

I nit ric acid ente rs soil I dead plants and animals decay tissues decompose

ammon ia ( NH:J) enters the

soil

nitrites

I • converted ~---'

are formed ..., to nitrates '---~

-

v-

'

action of nitrifying bacteria an imals excrete herbivorou s

animals die

. 2Hh

Kant:

j

animals

plant s take up nitrates

plants

die

The nit rogen cycle Answer these question s :

a) b) c) d) e)

What is produced du rin g th understo rms ? What happens to nitrogen d ioxide as rain falls'! What occ urs prior to the decay of organisms ? What follows the decay of organisms' Wh at occurs after ammonia has entered the soil and befo re the formation of nitrates? f) What happens while dead organisms are decaying? g) What happens to nitrites following the action of bacteria ? h ) What do an ima ls do after ea ting '

40

2. Now describe tbe following processes, using the connecting words given : a) Processes which occur duri ng and after thu nderstorm s : First. . . . . Th en. . . .. Subsequentl y... . b) The o ther way in whic h atmos pheric nitrogen enters the so il, and the release of nitroge n gas into the air :

Fo llowing the action of nitrogen-fixing bacteria . .. . Meanw hile. following . . .. c) The cycle in which nitrogen leaves the soil in the form of nitrates and eventually returns to it, following the deat h of herbivore s :

Initially, . . . . Subseq uently, . Even tua lly, . Fo llowing this, . . . . At the same time,

.

Subseq uently,

Section 2

.

Development

3. Look at these diagrams :

a)

O~cJ)

b)

GB- @J

c)

.

-

..

ferti lised egg

d)

(

. .

)~

~xternal gil ls ~

At time of hatching

g)

~

t~~ . ~mouth T w o days after hatching

h~...- "'!lIii.ll

......- coiled intestine

external gills

Four days after hatching

i)

~opercul u m

Eight days afte r hatchin g

Early stages in the grow th of a tad pole 41

Match these fi gures with the lett ers (a), (b), (c), (d), (e) and (I) in the text and com plete their labels.

Example : a) After the egg has been fertilised, the cell divides. By this time the externa l gills are fully developed. As the egg elongates (grows longer), a head and tail become visible. About four days after hatching, a long coiled intestine has develo ped . After the egg has been fertilised, the cell divides. When the tadpole hatches. its mouth has not yet o pened. Two to fo ur days late r, the operculum com pletely covers the gills.

Within two days of hatching. however, the mou th has o pened and is used for feeding. Cell-divi sio n co ntinues until the egg co nsists of many tiny cells. Meanwhil e, as the interna l gills develop , the exte rnal gills begin to shrivel and the operculum grows ov er them .

The external gills appea r shortly before the tadpole hatches.

Section 3

Reading

4. Read this passage :

Further growth and metamorphosis of a tadpole

Within one week of hatching. the external gills have disappeared and the tadpole breathes by means of its internal gills. Water is taken in th rou gh the mouth and expelled thro ugh the spiracle on the left side (figure a). Du ring the next six o r seve n wee ks the tad pole grows co nsiderably.

The eyes and nostrils can clearly be seen at th is stage (fig. h). At eight weeks from hatching the lungs have begun to form. At abo ut the same time the hind legs appear . These grow rapidly and

are fully formed within a few days. Mea nwhile, the forelegs begin to grow beneath the operculum (fig. c). Appro ximately nine weeks after hatching. the front legs break

th rou gh the ope rculum. the left leg emerging fi rst th rou gh the spiracle (fig. d). The right leg breaks the o perculum sho rtly afte rwa rds . At this point the tail is still used for swimming (fig. e) .

Within a few days of th is. however, the tail has been re-absor bed into the bo dy (fig. f) . Just before leaving the water the toad sheds its ski n and its mouth and eyes become bigger.

Finally, the metam or phosed toad climbs out on to the land. 42

Match these figures with the letters (a), (b), (c), (d), (e) and (I) in the text and complete their labels.

the _

breaks th e _ _

- -._ ~ _.~ 7 . 1. ~< ,-««~~ the _ _

'-

the _ _

growing beneath _ _ have developed

- _.

__.:~

..-

,~

the tail has been _ _ the _

emerging throug h th8 _

5. Say whether these statements are tr ue or false. Correct the false sta tements. (Note : A precedes B = A occurs before B. AlaI/oil's B = A occurs after B. A coincides with B = A occurs at the same time as B.) a) Cell-division co incides with fertilisation. b) When the egg begins to elonga te, it already consists of many cells. c) The appearance of the external gills precedes the opening of the mouth . d) The o perculum begins to grow after the external gills have shrivelled. e) Full development of the internal gills occurs within four days of hatching. f) The growth of the lungs occurs at approximately the samc time as the appearance of the legs. g) Thc forelegs appear first, followed shortly afterwa rds by the hind legs. h) The toad keeps its tail unt il it climbs onto the land. i) The toad sheds its skin du ring metam orphosis.

43

Section 4

Listening

6. Read this passage. It contains new words, which

)'00

will subsequently hea r

in the listening text : Seed structure in a dicotyledon The inner part of the seed is divided into several parts which eventu-

ally grow into the root. the stem and the leaves, i.e. the embryonic root, stem and leaves . The largest part consists of one or two cotyledons. These are leaves which contain food reserves used du ring the early stages of ger mina tion. They arc the first parts to emerge from the so il and

will eventually fall off. In a dicotelydon the other parts of the embryonic plant arc attached to the cotyledons by two short stalks called the cotyledo n stalks. The embryonic stem of the plant is situa ted between the co tyledon stalks. The upper part, above the attac hment, is called the epicoty!. At the tip of the epicotyl are the embryon ic foliage leaves, or plumul e. The lower part of the stem, inferior to the cotyledon stalks, is called the hypocotyl. This is continuous with the embryo nic roo t. or radicle. whic h is situated below it.

The outside of the seed is covered by a hard layer called the testa. T his pro tects the seed from fungi . bac teria and insects . There is a

small hole in the testa opposite the tip of the radicle. which allows water to enter the seed. This is called the micropyle.

Now label the diagra ms below with these words : a) b)

d)

plumule epicotyl microp yle cotyledon radicle hypocot yl

oj

cotyledon stalk

e)

testa

Longitudinal section

f) g) h) i)

Dicotyledon seed with testa removed 44

7. Look at the diagrams as you listen to the passage :

hypocotyl straigh te ning cotyledo ns

foliage leaves

becoming

developing

hypocotylgreen\ cotyledon shrivell ing

elongating

m " " " " " ',' 'orr ~ •

.>.. "

-

root hairs

,I

lateral

" roo t

radicle emerging through the testa

Ge rmination of a dicot yledon ( Vigil" unginculata)

Now listen to the passage aga in and show the order of the processes below with these signs: A precedes B :

)

A follows B:

(

A coi ncides with B: (

)

A

swelling of the seed breaking of the testa a bsorptio n o f wa ter thro ogh root hairs

B

abso rption of wat er by the seed gro wth of roo t hairs

ab sorpt ion of salts t hrou gh

root hairs

growth of root system

gro wth of stem

emergence o f hypocotyl ' growth of plumule digestion of food reserves development of pho tosyn thesis

stra ightening of hypocotyl shrivelling o f co tyledon s enzymatic action

d igestion of food reserves 45

8. Now mak e true sta tements from this tabl e : root. lower stem.

plumul e. cotyledons.

upper stem,

epicotyl

The embryo nic

or

first leaves.

radicle

foliage leaves.

hypoco tyl

shrivel and fall o lT. develop into the full lea f system. becomes the supe rior part of the growing eventua lly subseque ntly shoot. grows down into the soil. pulls the co tyledon out of the soil.

Unit B

Revision

I. Read this passage:

The common pond snail lives among vegetat ion in pond s and streams. It has one shell. approximately 3 em long. arranged in a spiral of approximately 6 turns. The body is protected by the shell. There are two flexible tentacles projecting from the anterior pa rt of

the head . Each of these has a simple eye at the base. The mouth is situated below them . The snail moves by means of its foot which is at the base of the body. It is able to move upside down on a surface film of water. The snail feeds on water plants. lt remo ves pieces of wat er plant with a horny tongue. or rad ula. situated in the lower part of the

mouth. The radu la has 500 rows of small teeth. Add labels to this diagram :

aj

b)

d)

The co mmon pond snail (Limnea stagnalis ) 2. Now complete these sentences to match the Mea in brackets :

a) b) c) d) e)

The shell of the snail . . The shell of the snail The function of the shell . The tentacles . The snail . f) The foot . g) The radu la .

(measurement) (s/rape) (funct ions (property) (ability) (fun ct ion) (location)

47

3. Write full sentences giving the following measurements. with the aid of these diagrams and the one on the previous page:

f-----<

6 mm

Eggs in egg-case

50p

on wa ter plant stem

Part of radula

Example:

2mm Embryonic snail inside egg -she ll

'1{ has a length of approxima tely The shell o f the snau v . . I h . IS approximate y t ree cennthree ce ntimetres.

long. metres { In . Iength . a) the width of the tooth b) the length of the tooth c) the width of the egg-case

d) the diameter of the egg e) the length of the foo t f) the height of the egg-case

4. Look and read: antenna compound eye

base of antenna

proboscis in coiled position

The cabbage white butterfly tP ieris brassicae) Th ere are three distinct stages in the life of this butterfly. The larva. or ca terpillar. lives on cabbage leaves. The pupa. or Hahttut :

ch rysalis. lives in a dry, sheltered place. The adult (imago) is able to

fly. 48

Structure of adult : It has a thin cylindrical body. which is clearly divided into head, thorax and abd omen . There are two pairs of wings. covered with very small scales. The fore wings of the female have two dark spots which are a bsent in the male. The head carries a pair of long anlennae. Each one has a swelling at the tip. There is also a pair of promin ent compound eyes.

It cannot fly very fast because the wings are not stro ng. When at rest they are folded in a vertical position. Movement :

Nutrition : It feeds on nectar. which is taken from flowers through the prominent pro boscis situated under the head. Respiration :

The butterfly breathes by means of tracheae. or

breath ing tubes. These have openings, which are called spiracles, on the sides of the abdo men and thorax. Now answer these question s :

a) b) c) d) e) f)

g) h) i)

j)

k)

Which stage precedes the pupa stage in the life of the butterfly? What is the larva of a butt erfly called? What do the wings of the adult ena ble it to do ? How many parts does the ad ult body consist of? Wbat difference is there between the appearance of the male and female adu lts? (Use whereasi Which parts of the butterfly are anterior to the head ? Deseribe the position of the coiled proboscis in relation to (i) the compound eyes, (ii) the head . (iii) the antennae. Describe the shape of the antennae. What is the function of the proboscis? What are the spiracles used for ? What is the wingspan of the adult butterfly?

5. Look and read : head

11'1'i: . ~~~~l·

10 days

antenn spin neret mandib le

l1lb EGG

thoracic

\

1 1 month claspers

legs prolegs spiracle LA RVA (caterpillar) size 3 ·5 em

eye of adult ....,~\{ dorsal spine

, mm

~----'\ 7, ' 1 wee k

wing

":

spiracle _

"...

PUPA (chrysalis) length 2 em

3 w eeks

IM A GO body leng th ' ,5 em

Reproduction and life-cycle of a butterfly

49

After mat ing. the female lays the eggs under cabbage leaves. d uring the summer. They hatch out into caterpillars. These a re cylind rical animals with a thorax and abdomen which are similarin appea rance. The head is distinct and carries a pair of small a ntennae. eye-spots and a pair of strong mandibles. used fo r biting and chewing the cabbage leaves. The labium is situated between these and act s as a

spinneret, for producing silk. The whole of the body is hairy. After continuous feeding and after moulting (cha nging its skin) several times. the caterpillar reaches full size. Then it moves to a sheltered place and attaches itself to the surroundings by mean s of silk. This is the beginning of the pupa stage, du ring which it develops into an adu lt. The imago fi nally emerges from the dorsal surface of the pupa case. Answer these question s :

a) In what way is the body of the caterpillar similar to the body of the imago ? (Use boIIJ . .. and .. . j b) Describe one property of the surface of the caterpillar. c) What occurs prior to egg-laying? d) What are the maximum and minimum sizes of the insect during

the cycle from egg to adult? c) What are the functions of the mandible and 'the spinneret" (Use while} . f) What does the caterpillar do while it is growing?

g) When does the caterpillar produce silk and what is its function" 6. Match the sentences on the right with the words on the left : Initially, ... Within one week, . Ten days lat er, . Subsequently . Meanwhile . At the same time. . . .

Later, . . . Following this,

it feeds continuously on cabbage leaves.

Du ring this stage

Eventually, .. .

50

the ca terpillar develops to full size.

the female lays eggs. the adult butterlly emerges. the adults mate. it moults abou t 6 times. the pupa stage begins. the eggs hatch ou t into caterpillars.

. .

the caterpillar changes into a pupa.

the caterpillar attac hes itself to its surroundings by means of silk.

Unit 7

Measurement 2 Quantity

Section 1

Presentation

I. Look and rcad : Kev to shading

6%

~

carbo hydrates

~S>

lipids

~ protein

f==t.. . .

water

Groundnut

Tomato

T he com posi tion of two kinds o f food (traces of minerals a nd vita mins are too sma ll to be shown)

. f amOUnl } G ro und nut con ta ms a lar ge1.Quilm it)' of wa ter .

I t con tains . a re IatH't!)' · I Iarge { amo quanunl} tity 0 rni p i·dS.

I t a Iso co n tums . a conSI·derable { aq mOUnl uant ity }

.

0

r pro Iem ·

a nd a re I£1-

{amount}

nvetvsmatl qu antity of ca rbohyd ra tes. .

Toma to co ntains a

'·er\, " small} amount nunute { . l { negI19 · l-bl e quant ity]

. or prot em.

It contains no lipids. G ro und nu t is rela tively rich in lipids but relat ively poor in carbohydrates, There is a high concentration o/ Iipids in groundnut. There is a IoU' concentration a/ protein in tomato.

Lip ids a re present ill groundnut, in rela tively lar ge f1..aq mounts} uantitics . but they a rc abseil! in tomat o . 51

Now pra ctise each of the abo ve expressions in describing the composition of the food s sho wn in these diagrams :

3%

Eggs

Cow's milk

Fresh fish

18% --l l i

Lean beef

Rice

Palm oil

2. Look again at all the diagrams (including tomato and groundnut) and sa)' which food is described b)' each of these sentences: a) This food is composed of a very large quantity of water. a relatively small amount of carbo hydra tes and a minute quantity of pro tein . It contains no lipids. b) Ca rbohydra tes. lipids and pro teins arc all present in this food but in relatively small quanti ties. It is largely composed of water . c) Thi s food contains the same substances as lean beef. bUI the latter

is richer in lipids than the former. d) Th is food has a similar composition to beef and fish. but it also includes a very small quantity of ca rbohydrates. which are a bsent in the former. c) This food consists almost entirely of one substance. namely lipids. .. f) This food possesses the highest concentration of carbohydrates of al1 those which are sho wn.

g) This food is the richest in protein.

52

Section 2 Development 3. Look at this tahl e: Vitamin

Effects of Considerable quan tities fou nd in deficiency

further notes

A

milk . butter, fresh vegetables

reduced resistance to disease. poor night-vision, bad teeth

Vita min A is sto red in the liver

B,

yeast ; the ' germ' (embryo ) of rice and wheat

lack of a ppetite. fatigue. nervous and di gestive trouble

Extreme deficien cy causes the disea se

yeast. milk, meat.

skin d isea se, nervo us tro uble

B,

green vegeta bles C

D

E

fresh fruit and green vegeta bles

' beri-beri' ,

anaemia. poo r

Lack o f vita min C heal ing of wo unds. causes 'scurvy' . reduced res ista nce Vitamin C is destroyed by cooking to disease ID arr .

liver, milk,

poor growth of

egg yolk

bones

wheat germ.

reduced fertility

butter

Vitamin D is made by sunlight from body fats . Effects o f deficien cy have been shown o nly

in rats. K

some green vegeta bles

failure of the blood to clot

Vitami n K is normally prod uced in the int estine by bacte ria .

T he sou rces of vita mins and the effects o f vita min deficiency Loo k at these examples : An adequate amo unt} . . . . A sufficient q ua ntity of vitarnm A in food IS necessary for hea lthy teeth . unt } 0 f A n utsujjtctent . . ff. ' {amo quantity vita min A ca uses bad teeth. A luck of A deficiency in Make other sentences from the table like the examples. 53

4. Now say whether these sentences are true or false. Use the table to explain your answers. a) Milk is poor in vitamins A and B 2' b) An adequate supply or vitamin C can be o btained from milk . c) Fresh fruit contains a con side rable amount o f vitamin C.

d) An inadeq uate supply or vitamin D can lead to bone malform ation.

e) Green vegetabl es prov ide more vitamin Caner they have been coo ked. f) If food contains insufficient vitamin A. vision may be affected. g) It has been shown that lack or vitamin E reduces human fertility. h) Eggs. milk and liver provide negligible quantities or vitamin D. 5. Answer these questions with information from the table : a) What arc two po ssible reasons for reduced resistance to infec tion? b) What sho uld we eat to ob tain sufficient amounts or vitamin C?

c) Why is wheat germ a very useful rood ? d) Why do peop le who eat rioe without the husks sometimes get 'beri-beri" !

e) Why is vitamin D deficiency mo re likely to occurin cold co untries? f') Why is vitamin K deficiency unlikely to occur?

Section 3

Reading

6. Read lhis passage: Conditions necessary for plant growth For the growt h or plants a con siderable num ber or factors must be present. First or all. the plant requires sufficient light. water and car bon dioxide for the process or photosynt hesis to take place. By means or this process the plant must produoe eno ugh carbohydrate to provide energy for chemical reactions within the cell and to build new cell ular material.

In addition to these factors, a plant must obtain an adequate amount o f so luble salts containing the clemen ts so dium. sulphur. magnesium. iron. calcium. potassium and nitrogen. A lack of nitro-

gen in the soil slows down growth and causes chlorosis or yellowing in the older leaves. Th is is becau se the chlorophyll-cont aining cells arc destroyed as the prote in is bro ken down. to supply nitrogen to the growing tissue. Chlorosis is also caused by a shortage or magnesium and by iron deficiency. Plant gro wth is reduced if not enough potassium. sulphur or sodium is present. When phosphorus is lacking there is an even greater reduction. and if there is too little ca lcium. growth SlOpS almost completely. A plant also requires minute quantit ies of certain elements known as trace clements. These elements include manganese. zinc. copper

and boron. Th ey are extremely important for plant growth. a nd any shortage will be harmful; for examp le. boron deficiency causes the decomposition of internal tissues.

54

No w co mplete these sentences : a) The first paragraph is about . . . which are necessary for the process o f . . . . b) The substa nce pro duced by this process is . . . . c) This substance is importa nt becau se it pro vides . . . d) T he seco nd pa rag raph is abo ut necessary elements co ntai ned In .. . .

e) A shortage of . .. •. .. or ... causes chlo rosis. f) If there is a lack o f .. . almost no growth can occur. g) If the soil lacks nitrogen. the plan t has to prod uce it from its o wn .. . . h) T he third paragraph is abo ut the impor ta nce of .. .. i) These elements occur o nly in . . . quant ities. but pla nts are ha rmed

if the .. . in them. 7. Look at this diagram and read the second paragraph of the passage agai n:

chlorosis

y

Olde, leaves

l --- . w

solution

no N e

no...

no...

na.:

no Fe

no...

no K

containing

all necessary eleme nts

Bean plants growi ng in different so lutions

Com plete the labels below the diagram with the symbo ls for the clements : S. Ca. Mg. N. P Co mplete this sentence : The above diagram sho ws the importance of certain elemen ts fo r the . .. of plants. and what happens when o ne of these elements is . ...

55

8. Now read this passage : The effects of excess on the health of orga nisms Plants a nd a nimals may be ha rmed not only by insuffi ciency but also by excess. Th us. if the supply of wat er is deficient. a pla nt will wilt a nd eventually die . On the ot her ha nd. if too much wa ter is p resent in the so il. the roots will suffer from lack of air. Again. plan ts requ ire an adeq uate amount of ca lcium for gro wth. but if the q uant ity is excessive. chlorosis may occ ur. A wa rm clima te favours the gro wth of plants. bu t there is a ma ximum tem pe rat u re beyond which growth sto ps. Similarly. if the tem perature becomes too low. cells may be damaged by the form at ion of ice crystals in them. In hum an nutri tio n. it has been sho wn that bone malformation can be ca used not only by insufficient vitamin D. but also by too much of it. Certa in other vitamins may be harmful if ta ken in excessive qu antities. and too much iron may da mage the liver. The clea rest exa mple of excess in nutri tion is over-eating. which leads to overweight a nd obesity. a nd may result in hea rt di sease. Write twelve sentences from this tabl e using the infor mation fro m the two readi ng passages (use each ph rase in the first column ollee o nly) : Excess of An excessive amount of Lack of A deficiency in Too little Too much A shortage of An excessively high An excessively low I Insufficient An insufficient qu anti ty of An inadequa te a mount of Too great a quan tity of

Section 4

obesity

vitamin C food magnesium iron phosph orus tempera tu re water boron calcium vitamin D

causes

bone malfo rmation liver damage chlorosis red uced growth anaemia cell-damage wilting decomposition of interna l tissue

in plants.

in ani mals.

Listening

9. Listen to the passage and number these foods in the order in which you hear them : green vegeta bles tomat oes ban an a red palm o il

to.

cas sava fi sh-liver oil millet

Number the ingred ients of food in order : vita min B z car otene (vit a min A)

56

n ee ya m bea ns ma ize

ca lories vita min B

protein

II. Complete these sentences : a) b)

c) d) e)

is deficient in protein . does not provide an adequate amount of vita min 8 2 ,

contain considerable qu an tities or pro tein. is rich in vitamin A . diets usuall y lack vitamin B. f') In man y people have insufficient calo ries.

g) In

many peo ple eat food deficient in proteins and vitami ns.

57

Unit 8 Process 3 Cause and Effect Section 1 Presentation I. Look at the examples and complete the sentences. Most of the information is from the previous unit.

Example :

cuuses } Lack of water results ill wilting in plants. { leads to

a) Lack of nitrogen in the so il causes . . . . b) Lack of phosph orus lead s to .. . . c) An excessively low tem perature may result in . . .

Example :

Wilting in

PlantS{~:'~;/~;~;:~

} laCk of water. occurs as a result of

d) Chlorosis in plants may be caused by . . .. e) Decom position of internal tissue results from . f) Cell dam age may occur in plants as a result of .

Ex amp le :

Healthy plan t growth depends ,Oil the presence of light and water.

g) Healthy plant growth also depends on . . . .

Example:

. { UI/OlD"!.. The presence of sunlight permitsJa plant to produce food by photosynthesis. The absence of sunlight prevents a pla nt from pr oducing food by photosynt hesis.

h) T he testa on a plant seed prevents . .. . i) The micro pyle allows .. . . testa- - -I (insects cannot eat the seed)

58

micrc pvte (w ater can

enter the seed)

2. Study this diagram : Sunlight is absorbed by chlo rophyll in ch loroplasts.

W ith the aid of sunlig ht. phot osynthesis takes place and ca rbohydrates are prod uced .

Starch is converted into sugar

'"a: IIa: ..

":::>

'"

by enzymes.

w

.... ~

"a: w

i

Oxygen diffu ses

1<'->'11

through cell walls aft er photosynth esis and is released into

the atmosphere . Water is absorbed by roots and

diffused throug h ce ll walls dur ing

osmosis.

Carbon dioxide is absorbed from the atmosphere and diffuses through the cell wa lls.

Thc process of photosynthesis in thc Icaf Now complete these sentences : a ) Thc chlorophyll which is stored in the .. . enables the leaf .. . b) The action of . _. permits water to enter the cells. c) CO, enters thc cells as a result of absorption from the .. . and diffusio n through the .. . . d) The act ion of photosynth esis leads to thc production of . . . . e) Enzymes act on . . . to produce . . . . f) The chemical action of photosynthesis also results in the release

of . . .. g) For phot osynth esis to occur• . .. must be present in the leaf. and . .. and . . . must be present in the air.

59

3. Look at this diagram : semi-permeable membran e wa ter molecules

can pass through pores this size

sugar molecu les cannot pass through por es

mor e wa ter

molecules go this way

fewer wa ter molecules

go this way Low co ncen tration we ter mo lecules

High concentration of water molecules

of

Possible explana tio n of os mosis

Now complete these sentences : a) The pores allow . . . to pass, but . , . from passing. b) T be . . . are too big to pass, wbereas . . . . c) If the co ncentration of water mol ecules is high on o ne side of a

semi-permeable memb rane and low on tbe otber side, tben . . .

will occur, the molecules passing from the area of . . . to the area of . . . . 4. Look at these examples: A - - --)0 8

A{~::::r~ ;,J B. (A is the cause and B is the effect.)

A -- ~ B - -~ c - - ~ D A leads to D. (D is tbe final result ofa series of actio ns.) B<- - -

A Bf~~~:~:j~:~

lA.

t ccurs as a result off

Now co mplete these sentences. using an appropriate verb : a) A difference in wa ter co ncen tration on either side of the cell wall . . . osmosis.

b) Tbe diffusion of CO , . . . tbe entry of CO , into the cell.

60

c) Th e absorption of sunlight , , , the action of photosynthesis. d ) The forma tion of carbohydrates, , , the ac tion of photosynt hesis, e) T he action of enzymes . . . the conve rsion of starch to sugar. f) The prod uction of suga rs , ' , photosynthesis, g) Osm osis through the cell membrane . . . a low concentration o f wate r mo lecules in the cell.

h) Photosynthesis , , , the release of oxygen to the air.

Section 2

Development

5. Read this passage :

Turgor A plant cell must have sufficient turgor (rigidity due to hydrostatic pressure) to func tion adequately . Turgor is produced as foll ows :

The o uter layer of a cell (the cell wall) is perm eable. allowing water and dissolved substa nces to pass freely, The inner layer of cyto plasm. however. is sem i-permeable. allowing molecules of wat er

to enter the cell. but prevent ing larger mo lecules from leaving, The process of ph ot o synthesis leads to an increased concen tration

of sugar within the cell sap (the liq uid substa nce inside the vac uo le), Consequently, osmosis occurs and water enters the cell. The increased vo lume of water within the ce ll cau ses an increase of pressu re on the cell wall. thus producing tu rgor in t he cell, Now answe r these questions using because o r because of:

a) b) c) d) c)

Why can suga r and water pass th rough the cell wall ? Why ca n' t sugar molecules pass o ut th rou gh the cytoplasm '! Why do es th e sugar concentration in the cell sap increase? Why docs osmo sis occur ? Why doe s pressure on the cell wall increase')

6. Now read the passage again and look at this diagram: d)

c)

___ II

d)

Plant cell surro unded by wat er 61

Mat ch these labels with the letters in the diagram:

There is an increased concentration of sugar here. Th is layer is semi-permea ble. The vacuo le expands and exe rts pressure on the cell wall. T his layer is permea ble. Water molecules en ter by osmosis. No w put one of the above sentences in front of each of the following results. and then put the resulti ng descript ion in the right order : · · · · o

so that water and dissolved substances can pass. with the result that the cell becomes turgid. As a result . os mosis takes place. so that only water molec ules can pass. •

•

•

Consequently. the volume of water is increased.

7. Look at these examples: A leaf takes in CO 2

eaSjly{~:,~:euse} it has a large surface area . as

A leaf has a lar ge surface area.

Theref ore, Consequently, it absorbs CO 2 Thus. Hence. For this reason,

easily. Cha nge the following sentences to the alterna tive form. using the wo rds in brackets : . a) Leaves have a large surface area because they are broad and flat. (Th erefo re) b) Photosynthesis does not take place in the epide rmis cells because they do not contain ch loropl asts. (Hence) c) Sunlight ca n pass through the epider mis cells as they are transparent.

d) e)

f)

g)

(For th is reaso n) T here are a large number of stomata on the surface of leaves. Co nsequently. excha nge of oxygen and CO , lakes place easily. (beca use). Palisade ce lls receive a large amo unt of sunlight because they arc near the surface of the leaf. . (Th us) Chloro plasts are especially numero us in the palisade cells. Thus. they absorb a large amount of light. (since) W ater reaches photosynthcsising cells easily becau se leaves contain a large net work of water-su pplying veins. (Co nsequently)

Section 3

Reading

8. Read this : The human skin and temperature control

The lemperature of the body is affected by va rious facto rs. (A) If the temperature of the blood reaching the brain is excess ive, nerve impulses are sent to the skin. p roducing two effects . One effect is that the arterioles which supply blood to the ca pillaries beneath the skin dilate. or widen. (See dia gram in exercise 9.) This causes more blood to flow near the surface. (B) The o ther effect is that-sweating increases in respo nse to nerve impulses. (C) As the sweat evapo rates it absorbs heat from the bod y. (D) Any mo vement of air over the body helps to speed up the eva po ratio n of the sweat. (E) On the other hand. if the surro und ing air is very humid. eva poration may not occur qu ickly eno ugh to coo l the body adequa tely. In this case the body temperatu re may rise to a dangerous level. (F ) Eac h of the following sentences will fit into one of the spaces in the a bove passage which are marked by the lett ers A. B. C. D. E, F. Mat ch the sentences with these lette rs. a) For this reason. fans ha ve a coo ling effect on the bod y. though they may not reduce the temperature of the room. b) A layer of moisture is thus produced on the skin's surface . c) A similar dangerous co ndition may occur after prol on ged sweating du e to physical ac tivity at high temperatu res. T his may cause sweating to sto p. d) Co nsequently. more heat escapes from the blood into the air. e) Hence. the temp erature o f the body is reduced. f) For exa mple. physical ac tivity or disease may bring abo ut ov erheating.

9. Now look at these diagrams and answer the questions below them: very little heat radiated

much heat radiated

+

-mwr 'flIt! I

arterioles

Sec tion through human s kin

a ) In which diag ram arc the arterioles d ilated ? b) Which diagram represe nts the skin of a healthy man

In

co ld

wea the r'?

c) Which diagram represents the skin of a man with fever " d) What ca uses the co nditio n sho wn in the seco nd diagram '? e) What is the o the r effec t o f over-heating in the brain '?

63

10. T his is a summary of the reading passage. including the sentences in exe rcise S, but the points are listed in the wrong order. Put them into the right order.

T he effect of lack of evaporation o f sweat. The cau se of sweat prod uctio n. T he effec t of blood fl owing near the sur face o f the skin. T wo fac tors affecting the tem perature of the bod y. The effect of swea t evaporation. The effect of lack of sweat production . The effect of air movement. 1\. Look at this example: Physical activity causes bod y temperature to increase. i.e. Increase of bod y temperature is caused by physical activity. Now cha nge these sentences in the same way : a) Nerve impulses ca use the ar terioles to dilat e. Dilat ion of th e arterioles . .. . b) Over-heating causes the body to produce sweat. Product ion o f sweat by the body .. . . c) Movement of air over the bod y cau ses sweat to evapo rate . Evapor ation . . . . d) A difference in water concentrat ion ca uses osmos is to occ ur. The occurrence. . . . e) Photosynthesis ca uses compo und s to be decomposed. T he decomposition . . . . f) Pho tosyn thesis also causes oxygen to be released. T he release . . . . g) Photosynthesis also ca uses sugar mo lecules to be concent ra ted in the cell sap. T he co ncent ration . . . .

Section 4

Listening

12. After listening to the passage. look at this diagram and match the following labels with the letters :

aj

aj

aj

c)

c)

aj

Plant cell surro und ed by a salt solutio n

The vacuole shrinks .

Higher concentration of water molecules here. Water is dra wn o ut by os motic pressure. Lo wer concen tration of water mo lecules here .

The cyto plasm is pull ed away fro m the cell wall. 13. Sa)' whether these statements are true or false. Correct the false sta tements.

a) For a plant to have turgor . there must be an adeq uate supply of water.

b) Water maintains a pressure on the cell walls. thereby making the plant will. c) Wilting is due to loss o f turgo r. d ) Plasmolysis is d ue to an inadequat e su pply of wat er. e) Osmosis occurs d urin g both turgo r and plasmolysis. f ) If the concentrat ion of water molecules is lower in the liqu id surrounding a cell than in the cell sap. water will pass out of the cell. g) The shrinki ng of the vacuole is ca used by loss of water. h) T he only result of loss of water in the cell is that the vacuo le sh rinks.

65

;

Unit 9

Measurement 3 Proportion

Section I

Presentation

I. Look a nd read: ,,

,

,,

"" 5 cm

21 em -,

---3 -em- ....

A

,

B

'~ ) "====,.,j 7 em

The ratio between the length ami wid th of box A is 5 : 3. (th e to three) The ra tio bet ween the length a nd widt h of box B is 3 : 1. Box B is wide r than bo x A but its width is less ill projJofl ion to its length .

Th

e b B · { f e/ali re/\' narrow. ere ore ox IS prapart ianatelv narrower.

Now loo k at these diagra ms :

Rhinoceros

Oak tree ~

.

Palm tree

Gazelle

T he relation between size a nd suppo rting strength

Now as k and answer these question s :

a) Which animal has a relatively heavy body '? b) Which tree has relati vely light branches '? c) What part of a rhinoceros suppo rts its weight ? d ) Ask and answer the sa me question about an oak tree .

e) What is the approximate ratio between the length ofa rhinoceros's legs and the th ickness of its body? f) Ask and an swer the same question abo ut a gazelle. g) Which ani mal has lo nger legs in proportion to the size of its body'? h) \Vhat is the app roximate ratio between the thic kness and the

length of a rhin oceros's legs '? i) Ask and answer the same questio n abo ut a gaze lle. j ) Which ani mal has proportio nately thicker legs'! 2. :\la ke sentences from this table :

In comparison with Compared with

, , , , heavy , ,, light

a an

gazelle. rhinoceros, palm tree, oak tree,

body

head branches

and

a -

a an

gazelle rhinoceros palm tree oak tree

proportionately

has

a -

,, ,,

relatively ,

, , ,

thicker thinner longer shorter

neck. legs. trunk .

3. Now read these two paragraphs and add the missing words :

a ) We compare the bodies and legs of a rhin oceros and a gazelle a nd observe that the legs of a rhinoceros arc relat ively short and thic k in propor tion to its size. while those of a gazelle . . . . We conclude that the heavier anim al needs proportionately shorter and thicker legs. whereas . . . . .

b) 71Je ex plana tion f or this is that short. thick legs arc stronger than long. thin ones. since the strength of an animal's legs depends on their width and their length . Supporting strength is directly proportio nal to .. . and in versely prop ortional to Consequently, file heavier the body of an ani mal. the . . . and its legs. and. con versely; the lighter the body of an animal.

4. Now write two similar paragraphs co mparing a palm tree and an oak tree,

using the words in ita lics (abo. e). Substitute 'trunk' for 'legs' and ' branches' for ' body', and make an}' ot her necessar y changes.

67

5. Say whether these statements are true nr false. Correct the false statements. a) The rat io between the height and width of a palm trun k is higher than that between the height and width of an oak trun k. ( 1:3 is a higher rat io than I :2.) b) The trunk of an oa k has to support less weight than that of a palm. c) The legs of an elephant have greater suppo rting strength than those of a gazelle.

d) The strength of a tree trunk is directly proportio nal to its height and inversely proporti onal to its width. e) Compared with a palm tree. an oak has a relatively tall trun k. f) The lighter the branches of a tree, the thicker its tru nk. g) Simi larly, the heavier an anima l, the thinner its legs.

Section 2

Development

6. Read this, follow the instructions and complete the statements :

Surface area in relati on to size and shape The ratio between the surface area and vo lume of an animal or a plant is an impo rtant fac tor in its life. This surface area /vo lume ratio

depend s on the size and shape of the organism. To show how surface area varies with size :

Ca lculate the volumes of the boxes illustrated below. Calculate their surface areas (by add ing togeth er the areas o f their six faces). Find the ratio between surface area and volume fo r each box.

volume = surface area = surface area/volume ratio =

vol ume = surface area = surface area/volume ratio =

Now co mplete these sentences : a) By co mpa ring the ratio of surface area to vo lume for the two boxes we o bserve that the . . . box has a higher surface area/volume ratio .

68

b) We can conel ude that sma ller objects ha ve a .. . (grea ter ar sma ller't) surface area in propor tion to volume than lar ger objects . c ) Applying thi s generalisation to biology. we can pred ict that a large anima l will have a relatively sma ll surface area and a sm all

animal . . . . d) For exa mple. . . . 7. Now complete these: To sho w how surface area also varies with shape : a ) These solids have the sa me volume but they di ffer in sha pe. Do they have the same surface area'! Calculate the surface areas of the cube a nd the rec tangular solid .

vol ume

5

surface area

mrre em

b) Th e sphe re. which has the mo st compact shape. has the sma llest surface area in proporti on to vo lume. whereas the . . .. wh ich has the least . . . has the . . . surface area in proporti on to vo lume . c ) If we .. . the surface areas o f objects with the same vo lume but difTerent sha pes. we will ... th at the more compact the sha pe. d ) We ca n ... that . . . ra tio depends on ... as well as . . . . e) Appl ying th is to biology. we ca n ... th at pa rt of an orga nis m with a relative ly . . . sha pe will ha ve a proportio na tely .. . su rface area than part wit h a relative ly flat shape. f> For exa mple• . . .

Section 3

Reading

8. Read this pas.'iage and look at the illustrations : The effects of the surface area /volume ratio in biology T he rela tion be tween surface area and vo lume has many effects o n

the lives of plants and animals. For exa mple. the rate at which an

69

animal gains or loses heat throu gh its skin depends on its su rface area/volume ratio. Heat transfer is directly proportional to su rface area and inversely proportional to volume. Thus an animal with a proportionately large surface area, such as a mouse. will lose or gain heat relatively rapid ly. Co nversely, an animal with a lar ge volume in relation to its surface area. such as an elephant. will retain mor e heal. Animals are protected from the cold by insulation. which may be in the form of hair. fur or fat. Insulation is in inverse propo rtion to heat t ran sfer.

in sulat ion

heat toss

heat gain

heat retent ion

~----v-~---_/ '-heat' tra nsfer

Make tru e statements from th ese tab les : Heat transfer loss Hea t gain Heat retention H ~.i t

IS

di rectl y inve rsely

proportio na l to

air tempera ture . insulation of the s kin. surface a rea . volume.

The higher the ratio between surface area and volume. The lo wer the ratio between surface area and volume. The smaller the size of an animal. The largcr the size of an animal. The thicker the insulation of an animal's skin. The more compact the shape o f part o f an animal. The Jess compact the shape o f part o f an animal.

9.

1\'0 \\

the mo re quickly it gains or loses heat. the more it retains heat. the faster the rate of heat transfer. the less it retains heat. the more slowly it gains or loses heat. the slower the rate o f heat transfer.

read this passage : The factors affecting the rate of heat transfer throu gh the skin also determine the rate of diffusion of gases th rough the walls of the cells. tissues an d organs o f plants a nd a ni ma ls. For exa m ple. o xygen a nd

ca rbon dioxide arc abso rbed th rough the walls of va rious organs. T he g reater the surface a rea o f these o rga ns in relation to th eir vo lume. the more of the surface will be exposed to the ga s. and hence

the faster the rate of diffusio n. The following exam ples illustrate the effects of the surface area /volume ratio on heal transfer and diffusion. Explain them by answering the q uestions : a) Cold- blooded animals depend on the warmth of the sun to make their muscles wor k. The wings of butterfl ies and the tails of re ptiles se rve to abso rb wa rmt h. W hy is thi s '?

,

b ) Th e smallest humming-bird weigh s les s than 2 gram s. Wh y a re humm in g-birds o nly found in hot co untries'?

71

c) In hot weather. hippopotamu ses and water buffaloes spend a lot of time in the water. Why do they have to do this?

d) Why do anima ls sleep curled up in cold weat her hut stretched ou t

in warm weather'?

c) Why arc aqua tic wa rm-blooded ani mals in no rthern and so uthern

seas very large ? (whales. seals. dolphins)

f) Wby do bab ies suffer more from the cold than adults " Why are leaves broad -a nd flat ?

g)

h) Wby arc human lungs shaped like this?

i) Why do n 't micro-organi sms need special orga ns for the absorptio n o f ox yge n ?

to. Complete the following sentences with these depends on determines enable o bserve

compared wit h co nverse ly relatively in proportion to

words or expressions :

rate ratio fac tor

concl ude

a) .. . an oa k. a palm tree has a . .. thin trunk . b) The smaller an animal. the higher is the . . . of its surface a rea to its vo lume the larger an ani ma l. the smaller its surface area .. . its vo lume.

c) The ... of heat tra nsfer th rough the skin . . . the surface area l vol ume ratio . d ) If we compare the bones of land an d water a nima ls. we that those of water animals are thinner . . . their size. and we that water animals need less support. c) Insulatio n of the skin is a . . . affecting the ab ility of an anima l to retain heat. f ) An elepha nt's ca rs . . . it to lose heat. g) T he need to a bso rb oxygen easily . .. the sha pe of lun gs a nd gills.

Section 4

Listening

11. Listen to the description of the experiment and com plete this table: Surface area

Average weight

Average daity

Approximate ratio of weight to food

food consumption

consum ption

Mouse Rabbit

12. Co mplete these notes, which give an outline of the description of the expertment and the co ncl usions drawn from it.

a ) The purpose of t he experiment : to co mpare the .. . and . . . o f

different animals. b) Stages in th e expe rime nt : · . . , the . . . a nd . . . of the animals we re measured . · the animals were fed and their was . . . . · their food co nsumptio n was with the . . . betw een their and their . . . . c ) It was that the mo use with its larger surface are-do consumes more its weig ht. d ) The fro m th is expe rime nt: a n a nimal's food co nsu mption ... its surface a rea. e) The . . . : the . . . of small animals is greater . . . their . . . is more ra pid .

73

Unit C

Revision

I. Look and read : inner ear containing fluid middle ear cavity

semi-circular canals .

containing air

...

ossicles of middle ear

eardrum bone of skull

eustachian tube to throat

oute r ear

pinna

Diagrammatic section of human ear The ear in mammals The ear is divided into three main regions (A). The outerear consists of a tube which passes from the side of the head to the eardrum (B). U sually there is also an external ea r, or pinna. surrounding the outer end of the tu be. The pinna is made of cartilage and skin (C).

The middle ear is an air-filled cavity in the skin. which lies inside the eardrum. It is connected to the back of the th roat by the eustuchiun lube (D ). Three small bones called ossicles form a chain acros s the midd le ear. The o uter ossicle is attached to the eardrum a nd .the inner one fits into the oval window (E). The inner ear is filled with fluid and contains two main organ s. One of these is the coiled cochlea. which contains cells sensitive to vibration. The other part of the inner car consists of semi-circular

74

cana ls (F ). Each ca nal lies in a d ifferent plane. O ne is ho rizontal and two a re vertical. but at right a ngles to eac h o ther. T hey are all a ttached to a sma ll sac (G). Ma tch the following phrases wit h the lett ers A. B. C. D. E. F. G in th e text : a small o pening wh ich leads to the inner ear. Th is is a mem brane stretched tightl y acros s the o pening. T he sa c and the canals a rc full of fluid. the outer, middle and inne r ear. It serves to direct vibratio ns to the ear. and also helps the animal to know the direction from which the vibra tio ns are coming. which contain cell s sensitive to position . g) This allows air to enter the middleear. thus equalising the pressure insid e and o utside the eardru m.

a) b) c) d) e)

o

2. Describe the Iolle wing, using the text and the phrases in exercise 1:

a) b) c) d) c) f)

g) h) i)

The shape of the cochlea. The con tents o f the inner ear. T he function of th e pi nn a . The position of th e pinna . T he funct io n of t he eus tachian tube. The sha pe o f the eusta chia n tube. The structure and positio n of the ossiclcs . T he position of th e middle ear. The conte nts o f the semi-circular cana ls.

3. Now read this : Sound vibrations travel down the o uter ear, thereby causing the cardrum to vibrate. This in turn vibrates the ossiclcs and results in slight movement of the oss icle fitted to the ov al wind o w. As a result of this. fluid in the inner ea r vibra tes, so that the sensory cells in the cochlea receive the stimulus. Impulses travel to the hrain from the senso ry ce lls in the eighth cranial nerve. The semi-circular canals enab le the ani mal to maint ain its balance . As the animal mov es. the fluid in its semi -circular cana ls also moves. so that the senso ry ce lls a re sti mu la ted . Impulses are then carried to the hrain. thus ena bling the ani ma l to know wh ich way up it is. Hence. it is able to remain balanced on fo ur or two legs.

75

Now ma ke true sentences from this table and put them in the order of occur-

rence: Vibration of the fluid in the mner ear Stimulati on of the senso ry cells in the cochlea External sound 'vibra tions Vibratio n of the eardrum Movement of the ossicle fitted to the oval wind ow

im pulses withi n the bra in.

stimulation of the senso ry cells in th e cochlea . ca users) prod ucers) leads to

movement o f the ossicle fitted to the oval window. vibration of the fl uid in the mner ea r.

vibration of the ea rdrum .

4. :\Ia ke true sentences from this table: Th e semi-circula r ca nal The coc hlea The pinna The eustachia n tu be The ova l windo w

ena bles allows

the anima l to locate the source of sounds. sound vibratio ns to enter the inner ea r.

the animal to maintain its balance. the-animal to hear sounds. air to enter the middl e ear.

5. Look and rea d:

pi t u ita ry--------+-~

thyro id

f\ 76

The endocrine glands T he endocrine glands produce chemical substances called ho rmo nes. Th ese substa nces regulate many chemical processes within the bo dy. The pituitary gland controls the other endoc rine gla nds. If the pitu ita ry glan d is removed fro m a yo ung an ima l, growth ceases and the animal does not develop sexually. In humans the pituitary is on ly abo ut 2 em in diameter. T he thyroid gland pr oduces th yroxine, a co mplex chemical containing iodin e. If an animal's diet is deficient in iodin e. the thyroid gland may not he a ble to produce sufficient th yroxine. On the ot her hand, if th yroxine production is excessive, the animal burns food as a result of a n increased rate of metabol ism , a nd loses weight. The adrenal glands, situated near the kidneys. produce several hormones. including adrenalin. This hormone enables the muscles to o btain extra energy in time of dan ger,

The pancreas lies close to the duodenum. It produces insulin. which assists in the process by which sugar is stored in the bod y. If there is an excess or deficiency of insulin. the amount of sugar in the blood increases, an d the disease ca lled dia betes results.

Put th e follow ing in th e or de r in which th ey occur in th e passage : the fun ction of insulin the result of iod ine deficiency th e effects of remova l of th e pituitary glan d th e process leading to loss of body weight the functio n of ho rmones the functio n of the endocri ne glands the cause o f dia betes th e fun ctio n o f th e pi tuitary gland the loc ation of the pancreas the function of ad renalin th e size of th e pituita ry glan d

6. Say whether these statements are true or false. Correct the false statements.

a) b) c) d) e) f) g) h) i)

T he sha pe of th e pit uitary gland is roughly spherical. Removal of th e pituita ry gla nd results in excessive growt h. The thyroid gland serves to produce insulin. Most diets co nta in a sma ll a mo un t of iodine; co nsequently, pr od uct ion o f th yroxine can tak e place. If insufficien t thyroxine is produced, an ani ma l loses weight. When an animal is in danger. its production of adrenalin increases. The gland which produces insulin is situated ncar the duodenum . Lack of insulin results in increased levels of sugar in the blood. leading to diabetes. The faster the production of thyroxine. the slo wer the rate of meta bol ism.

77

7. Look at these diagrams: boys

175 150

/-- girls ./

125

1,..-;' ,

100 E u

e

75

E SO

j

/

-~ 25 c

o

5

10

15 20

age in years Graph showing the increase in height of boys and girls

Changes in the proportions of the human body during growth

,.....---

at birth

at 2 ye ars

at 6 yea rs

at 14 yea rs

-

at 20 years

No w answe r these questions : a } At what age a pproximately docs a human being reach maxim um

height ? b) Is the rate o f grow th co nsta nt du ring childho od '? c) When is gro wth faster - im med iately after birth o r 10 years later?

d ) When is the rate of grow th slo west du ring child hood ? e) When does the rate of grow th increase agai n ? f) When docs the head reach maximum size ?

g) When is it biggest in propo rtio n

10

the rest of the bod y?

h) At what age approxi mately is the nec k thinnest in relati on to the

rest of the bod y? i) Is t he girth of the waist propo rtio nately bigger or smaller at birth tha n at 20 years? j) Wha t can you observe a bo ut the length a nd thic kness o f the legs in ea rly childh ood and at 20 yea rs'! k) Wha t con clu sio n can you d raw from this ? (The expla natio n is that the bon es are rela tivel y son at birth and beco me hard o nly slo wly.)

Unit 10 Measurement 4 Frequency, Tendency, Probability Section 1 Presentation t. Look and read : AI/ living orga nisms need food. L·Wing . o rga nisms . invariablv necd f 0 od .

{ohm)"s} .

Nearly all mammals are vivipa rous (i.e. the y do not lay eggs). Mammals arc nearly always viviparous.

M ost mammals live on land. [usually l . Mammalslgenerallyfh ve on la nd . Mammals lend 10 live on land .

M any bacteria cause disease. ien } ca use dirsease. . . Bac tcna requently

{jif

S ome birds feed on fish . Bird s sometimes feed on fish.

A f ell' mammals live in wat er.

Mammals occasionally live in water.

Feu' mammals live in very co ld climates.

~ammals{:=;;~,J-live in very cold clima tes.

79

Very few mam mals are oviparo us (egg-

laying).

. rarelYl Mammals are very { seldon{ oviparous. No mammals are co ld-b looded.

Mammals are n" 'er cold-b looded .

Now co mplete the se statements with one of the following: all

nearl y all

most

man y some

a few few no

a) Birds arc oviparous.

b) c) d) e) f)

g) h) i) j) k)

I)

Sna kes are warm-blooded. Mammals ha ve tails. Plants possess chlorophyll. Birds have wings. Birds can fly. Bacteria are harmless. Fish can survive out of water. Humming-birds are found in cold climates. Spiders (Arachnida) have eight legs. Insects possess wings. Plan ts need light.

m ) Carnivo res (meat-eaters) feed on grass .

n) T rees have aerial roots (i.e. above the gro und). 0) Microbes repro d uce sexually. p) Living organisms need oxygen. 2. Now complete the above statements with adverbs of frequency (always etc. in place of all ele.): Examples :

(note the position of the adverb):

Insects usually possess wings. A lgae are of tell found in fresh wate r.

Plants can seldom live und er water. 3. Look at these examples : [tend 10 live in warm climates. Very small mammalsl1end not 10 live in co ld climates.

i.e. This is usually true. but there are some ex ceptions. Now say whether these statementsare true or false. Correctthe false sta teme nts.

.

a ) Insects tend to have wings. b) Humans tend not to have wings. c) Carnivores tend to eat meat. 80

d) Living o rganisms tend to need oxygen. e) Birds tend to possess wings. f) Amph ibians tend to repro duce in water. g) Bacteria tend to be harmless. h) Mammals tend to live in very cold climates. i) Birds tend to be ab le to fly. 4. Look at this table : Differences between plants and a nimals An imals

Plants

Nutrition is holozoic

Nutrition is hol ophytic Sapro phytic (feed ing o n (i.e. simple mat erials decaying matter) and are changed into parasitic plants e re not substances which holophyt ic. Tapeworms can be used as food ). and insect ecto pa rasites (i.e. para sites living on the outside of their hosts) take in their food o nly in liqu id form.

(i.e. animals eat o ther organisms).

Exceptions

No chlorop hyll .

Chlorophyll present.

Fungi, bacteria and some o ther plan t pa rasites have no chlorophyll.

Ca rbo hyd rates stored as glycogen .

Carbo hydrates stored as starch

Glycogen is found in yeasts and ot her fungi.

Lipid s sto red as fat .

Lipids stored as oil.

T he cocoa 'bean ' stores food as fat.

Us ually no cell wall. If present , it is never mad e of cellulose.

Cell walls of cellulose present .

Fu ngal cell walls are not made of cellulose

If cell vacu oles arc present. they are numerous and small.

Cell vacuoles in mature cells are few and large.

Abl e to move. Use a lot of energy.

Fixed . Use little energy.

Matu re barnacles a nd spo nges a re fixed.

Stop growing when adult.

Unlimited growth .

Some fish and lizard s continue to grow thr ou ghout life.

Co mpact shape.

Spreading and branching shape.

Polyps (animal) are branched.

Fixed numbe r of parts.

Number of parts not fixed. 8\

Now make statements from the ta ble like the following example : In animals, nutrition tends to be holozoic . However. { Animals tend to eat other organisms. with the exception of

tapeworms and insect ecto parasites l kc i . . tapew orms and insect ectoparasites, whichJ ta C In their food In

liquid form. (Note: If there are no exceptio ns. use invariably or nn er instead of tend to.)

Section 2

Development

5. Loo k and read :

o man hippopotamus t--~ horse t--_ lion

•

r:::::::--

cow tdog

cat mouse

r--_

f=::;:::-

60 20

A life clock

82

Maximum possible ages :

man hippopotamus horse lion cow dog (black lab rador ) cat house mouse

120 years 54 years 52 years 29 years 40 years

27 years 33 years 3.5 years

Now read these examples : II is impossible that a man \l'il/live for 200 years. It is highly{::;;;;:i~ble} tha t he will live for 100 years. It is possible that he will live for 70 years. It

is-0'7~;b1e}that he will live for 20 years.

A man might live for 100 years . but it is unlikely. He may live for 70 years. He will probably live for 20 years. There is a very slight possibility that he will live for 100 years. T hJlikelillOod} . IOIl'. "U )ussibilily f Ila t he WI'11 rrve "or 100 years IS

The chances thai he will live for 20 years arc high. Now choose the cor rect words in these sentences:

a) It is likely/unlikely/impossible that a hippopotamus will live for 50 years. b) There is no/a slight/a stro ng possiblity that a house mouse will live fo r 5 years. c) A dog may/might/will probably live for 13 years. d) A cow might /may/will not live for 30 years. e) The possibility that a lion will live for 15 years is high/lowjnonexistent. f) A cat has a good /a slight/no chance oflivi ng to an age of 10years . g) It is possible/improbable/probable that a horse will live for 10 years. h) The likelihood of your learning English is low/non-existent/h igh.

83

6. Look at this diagram : hawks

1

/ snak\~ lizards

field mice

toads

birds

snai ls

""'// herb ivorous insects

1

green plants

A food-web Look at these examples: Possibility:

G reen plants may be eaten by herbivorous insects or

they may be eaten by field mice. Th ey may also be eaten by snails.

Probability : Field mice are likely

10

feed on green plan ts.

Now make ot her statements about possible and probable feeding ha bits of the following : snake s/haw ks field mice/sna kes/hawks snails/green plants herbiv0 rous insects/toads/sna kes/bird slliza rds lizards/herbivorous insects

snails/snakes

Section 3

Reading

7, Read this passage: Blood groups In the human body there are a num ber of com plex chemical substances attached to red blood ce lls. The se substances are known as

blood gro up antigens. A person 's blood group depends on the type of antigen which his blood contains. T he simplest classification of

these antigens gives four blood gro ups : A, AB, B, O. The followi ng table shows that the percentage of people in each blood group

varies in different parts of the world . 84

Area

Blood Group 0 A B lAB

Africa America Asia Euro pe Oceania Wo rld

43 52 36 40 47 39

28 34 28 43 39 31

25 6 II 3 28 8 12 5 10 4 23 7

T he blood group percentages for the total hu man populati on

Now complete these statements:

a) b) c) d) e)

The rarest blood group is . . . a nd the commonest is .. . . Blood gro up 0 is found most frequently in Gro ups A an d B have the sa me freq uency in . Gro up 0 tends to be most frequ en t. except in . An indi vidu al is most likely to belon g to gro up AB in ... f) In . . . . there is a one in four chance that an individual wilt belo ng 10 blood group B. g) In Ocea nia. the possibilit y that A will occur is nearl y . . . times higher than the possibility that B will occur.

H. Read rhls passage:

Every ind ividual inherits two blood group genes. one from eac h parent This inherit ed co mbi natio n is know n as the individua l's genotype . It is possible for indi vidu als belonging 10 the sa me blood gro up to have d ifferenl genot ypes. Thus. blood group A may be ca used by the co mbina tion AA. but can also result fro m AO. Similarly. B results from BB o r BO. On the other hand. blood gro up AB ca n result o nly from the genoty pe AB . Blood gro up 0 can on ly be p roduced when two 0 genes are inherited. i.e. fro m the co mbination 00 . Th is mean s tha t the 0 gene is recessive 10 A and B.

Answer these questions :

.

a ) If one pa rent has the genes AB and the other has the genes 00. their child may have the genotype AO or BO. Which blood gro ups ca n result from these combinations? b ) Why can't the child inherit the genot ype OO'!

85

Now comp lete this ta ble : Genotypes

Possible geno types

Resulting blood

in parents

in children

gro ups

Parent I AB Parenl200 Parent I AO Parent 2 BO Parent I AB Parent 2 BO Parent I AA Parent 2 BB Look at this diagram :

Most probable genoty pes in children whose parents have the genes AOand BO N ow answer these question s :

What are the chances of an A gene occurring in a child ?

Example.'

The chances of an A gene occurring arc I in 2.

c) d) e) f) g) h)

What What What What What What

is the probability of a B gene occurr ing? is the likelihood of an 0 gene occurri ng? are the chances of a child belonging to blood group A? is the probab ility of a child belonging to blood group B? is the likelihood of a child belonging to blood gro up AB? are the chances of a child belonging to blood group O ?

9. Read this : Natural selection

The theory of natural selection can be summarised by the following o bservatio ns and inductions :

Observations : The offspr ing of animals tend to outnumber their parents . One pair of rabbits may produce a large number of offspring. The numbers of a species tend to remain the same. Inductions :

86

Animals often die before they reach matu rity. There is usually a struggle for survival and many offs pring do not survive long eno ugh to breed.

Now read the passage agai n. introducing each sentence with an a ppro priate co nnecting word o r phrase. choosing from these: Nevertheless.

For exa mple.

It is o ften o bserved that. ..

Beca use of this, it is assumed that . .. In o ther words.

Read th is :

Observations : There are differences between individual members of a species.

Inductions .'

So me individua ls arc better adapted to their enviro nment than others. The bet ter adapted individuals will lend to live longer. T hey will ten d to produce mo re offspring. The o ffspring will lend to inherit some of the benefieial characteristics of their pa ren ts. These offspri ng will tend to live longer. The population will tend to change grad ually as more beneficial characteristics en ter it. The change in the population will tend 10 produce a new species.

Now introduce the sentences abo ve with phrases chos en from the following :

Consequently. This suggests that . .. Mo reover. As a result. It is also observed that . .. Eventually. Thus. T herefore.

N ow say whether these statements arc true. pro bably true or possibly true: a) The num ber o f offspr ing is usually greater than the number o f parents.

b) If we count the number of animals in a species. we sha ll observe that the number decreases. c) If membe rs of a species live in the sa me place. some membe rs will o btai n sufficient food and shelter while the others will not. d) As a result o f differences between individuals, so me individuals are better adapted to their environment than oth ers. e ) An animal which is well adapted to its environment will live for a rela tively long time . f ) A well-ada pted a nima l will produce the sa me number of o ffsp ring as a less weil -adap ted o ne. g) Animals which inherit good characteristics are likely to live lo nger than ot her anima ls. h) A new species )-ViII ap pear as a result o f the increase in beneficial characteristics . 87

Section 4

Listening

10. List en to the te xt and then a nswer t hese questlona: a) Wha t is a mutati on '? b) What mutat ions are most lik ely to be pa ssed o n to offsp rin g?

c) When are recessive characteristics likely to be fully expressed '? d) Wha t is the freq uency of mutation mention ed in the (ext '? e) What effect docs rad ioact ivity ha ve on the cha nces of mu tation occurring? J I. Lis ten to the text again a nd replace the phrases in ita lics with wo rds used in the tex t:

a) Harmful mutations will probably not be handed on. b) c) d) c) f)

88

Beneficial mutatio ns are sometimes passed on. Ge ne mutation s are usually recessive. Recessive cha racteristics II'HI possibl y 1101 be expressed . There is a possibility of two recessive genes co ming toget her. IVe may dete rmine the freq uency of gene muta t ion.

Process 4 Method

Unit 11

Section 1 Presentation I. Look and read :

Procedure for testing leaves for sta rch To obtain samples

To kill t he leaf

aft he leaf.

sections.

cut ou t small circular sections.

d ip them in boiling w at er,

1

To avoid t he use o f a d irect flame.

To remove t he gr een colour,

•

w ate r

et hano l

2..

-

--lt~~;''f=d

soak the sectio ns in boilin g ethanol

To remo ve the

et ha no l,

3.

s.

To test for the

presence Of~

1----=-) 6

:

e'

blu e- black

1I'--"'.'-::::-:'-~ co lo ur \l • • ~ starch present

5.

wa sh in cold wa ter.

4.

use a wat er bath.

ad d iodine solut io n and observe the cha nge in colo ur.

~.

Now ask and answer qu estion s like this:

-

What is the purp ose of dipping the leaf sections in boiling water? T he purpose of dipping the leaf sections in boiling water is to kill them.

89

2. Ask and answer questions like this: How should samples of the leaf be obtained'l Samples of the leaf shou ld be obtained by cutting sections o f the leaf.

0 111

small circular

Development

Section 2

3. Look and read : to obtain a coarse foc us. t urn th e coa rse adjustment wheel

to examine t he object. look through th e eyep iece

1

~

to c hange th e po we r of magni f icat ion, rotate th e objective lenses to examine objects at low power, use t he lo w power lens

to obtain a fine focus. tu rn th e tine adju st ment wheel

to examine objects at hig h po w er. use th e high po w er lens

t o f i x the slide in pos ition place it under

to co ntrol

~~~;~~~;r;\---

;,:

the slide holde r

t he quantit y of light. adj ust t he apert ure control

coverslip

object

'-'<::<7-

to illuminate t he object. switc h o n

slide

t he light to support t he object to be exam ined , place it in a drop of water on a slide and cover it wit h a c oversli p

T he student microscope

Ask and answer qu estions like th is :

H OW{~I~;'} the o bject be examined'! The obiect JLmay can }be examined bv J - look ing throu gh the eyepiece. J 90

4. Complete these sentences, then rearrange them into the correc t order: Instructions for the use of the student microscope

Th e apparat us is now read y, and the object can be exami ned by . .. . Nex t, the slide should he . .. by placing it . . . . If necessa ry, th e qu an tit y o f light ca n be co nt rolled by . . . . . During the initial examinatio n at low power, a coarse foc us is o btai ned by . .. . . First of all, the object to be exa mi ned sho uld be suppo rted by T he o bject is subseq uently exami ned aga in at high power by using . Before examining the o bject. the light must be . . . in order to . The object is usually first examined at low power of magnifica tion by mean s of .... During the seco nd examinatio n, a fine focus is ob tained by _ In order to change from low to high power. the object ive lenses .

Section 3

Reading

5. Read Ihis passage : Biological experiments Expe riments are ca rried o ut in the laborato ry in order to o bserve the

effects of changes in the environment on o rganisms. Two similar orga nisms may be stud ied in the experime nt. One of these is ke pt in a no rmal environment. This is call ed the co ntrol. The other orga nism is placed in an environment in which one co ndition. such as temperature. is changed . The results are then co mpared. The contro l pro vides a standard aga inst wh ich changes in the o ther o rganism may be measu red. Co mplete th ese sentences: a) b) c) d)

T he purpose of experiments in th e la bo ra tory is . . . T he o rganism which . . . is ca lled th e co ntrol. Dur ing the experiment o ne o rganism . . . while the o ther . . . . ... is a n exa mple of a co ndition which may he cha nged in an experime nt. c) T he pu rpose o f th e con trol . . .

6. Look and read :

An experiment to Invest igate the effect of light on photosynth esis

!

!

Plant A

PlantB

Q

!

~

starch present

~ no starch 91

Two similar green plants are used in this experiment. One plant (B ) is kept in the da rk for several days. The ot her plant (A) is exposed to sunlight for the same period . Both plants arc kept at the same temperatu re and wat ered daily. The leaves of both plants are then tested fo r starch. It can be observed that the leaves of plant B do not co ntain starch. whereas starch is still present in plant A. We can conclude that the plant which was kept in the dar k was unable to prod uce starch. The reason for th is is that energy from sunlight is necessary for ph otosynt hesis. During photosynthesis sta rch is prod uced in the lea ves of pla nt s.

Answer these question s : a) b) c) d) c)

Wh ich plant is used as a control? What co ndition is different for the two plants? What co nditions are the same fo r both plants? What difference is observed after the experiment" Why must green plants be used in this experiment?

7. Now read this : Reporting experiments A report of an experiment should usually include the following : a) a statement of the purpose of the experiment ; b) a descript ion or d iagram of the apparatus or equipment used ; c) a report of the procedure followed in the experiment ; d) an o bserva tion of the results; e ) conclusions drawn from the experiment. or facts demonstrated by the experiment ; f) an explanation of the results. where this is known .

Now match the stages in the report of an experiment (a- f) with different parts of the report of the experiment on photosynthesis (exercise 6).

92

8. Look and read : T o show that carbon dioxid e is needed for photosynthesis Air is drawn through eac h ja r by a f ilter pu mp .

air

to filter pump

Two destarched. potted plants

The con trol has free

are w atered and placed u nder bell jars with t he soil and po ts covered. as shown in th e

access to air

diagram.

pot and soi l

co vered

. I :

:'

Con tro l W itho ut carbon dioxide. starch

Sample leaves from each plant are th en

is not produced. Therefore

tested fo r sta rch.

carbo n dio xide is necessary for photosynthesis.

The leaf from the bell jar w hich does not co ntai n ca rbo n dio xide d oes not t urn blu e. whereas th e leaf f rom t h e co ntrol turns blue.

Du ring phot osynthesis. plan ts use carbon dio xide absorbed from th e air to provide starch .

Now write a repo rt of the experi ment, placing the a bove sentences in the co rrect order , with the following head ings :

Purpose Description ofapparatus Procedure (5 sentences)

Observation oj result Conclusion Exp lanation

Section 4

Listening

9. Listen to the first par agraph of the text and complete this chart :

+

... <

... precipitate

Sodium citrate

= Benedict's solutio n +

cup ro us oxi de

+ Copper sulphate

93

Now listen to the text a nd number th ese diagra ms in the o rder in wh ich they a re described :

:(/ ~

6.

bo il for two mi nu tes

'i

o

.(Y

~dd ,ocm" ~d "< cuprous oxide

pass through • Wter

Sodium crush leaf c ells

~: 6.

bicarbonat .r'

bo il for eig ht minut es

Listen to the text again a nd th en a nswer these quest io ns : a ) How ar e the j uices extrac ted fro m the leaves? b ] How is th e acid neutral ised ? c) \Vha t is the pur po se o f bo iling the solutio n fo r two minu tes? d) Wh a t is the purp ose of add ing Benedict's solutio n and bo iling fo r eight m in utes? e ) \Vha t co lo ur s will appear if the lea f co nta ined suga r'? f) In wha t fo rm is the suga r at the beginn ing: and end of the test '?

94

Unit 12

Consolidation

\. Read this passage: . T here are man y different kinds of an imals a nd pla nts. These can be a rra nged in groups an d sub-gro ups. Such gro uping is ca lled classificatio n. Organisms are classified after observing their properties. Plants or an ima ls which possess fea tures in co mmon a re placed in gro ups. Th ese fea tures distinguish them from organisms which belon g to o ther groups. The la rgest gro up of orga nisms is called a kingdom, of which t here a re two: a nima ls an d plants. An ima ls are divided into phyla (sing ular phylum) a nd pla nts are d ivided into d ivision s. Orga nisms which belong to one of these gro ups have a similar general structure. An exa mple of a phylum is Arthropoda, a nimals with jointed lim bs a nd a n external skeleto n. Phyla and divisio ns are sub-divided into classes, eg Insecta, jo intedlim bed a nimals with 6 legs. Eac h class in turn is divided into di ffe ren t o rders. such as Diptera, 2-wingcd insec ts. Each order co nsists of one or mo re families. An example of a family is Muscidae, house flies. Mem bers of a family a re very similar in structure a nd a ppea ra nce. A family includes o ne or more genera (singular genus), eg M usca, the hou se fly. Finally, genera are sub-divided into species, such as Mu sca dom estica, the common house fly. A species is made up of all individ uals which arc ca pa ble of breeding togeth er an d reproducing th eir own kind . An o rganism is named with Latin words. the genus name first. with a ca pital leiter, followed by the species na me, with a small leiter. Now complete this chart: Kingdom

e.q. e.q . e.g .

e.a. e .g. e .g .

e.q .

Musca domestics

Levels of biological cla ssificati on 95

2. Now' answer these questions :

a) b) c) d)

What must be done before classifying organisms? What is the smallest gro up of organisms called ? What distinguishes members of a phylum ? What a re families sub-di vided into ?

e) What do es a class consist o f? f) What is a single o rganism belonging to a speci es ca lled? g) Which class includ es the o rder Dip/era ?

h) What is made up of d ifferent classes of plants? i ) What are the species a nd the ge nus of On iscus asellus't 3. Read these sentences and then match the letters with the missing phrases below to make a complete text : Woodli ce and evolution

Woodlice are a gro up of Arthropods which live on land (A). T hey belo ng to the orde r lsopo da. Wo odlice are an interesting gro up to st udy from the point of view of evolution (B). Many land animals have reduced water loss by evolving a har d o uter layer. or integ ume nt (C ). However. this so me times ca uses

problems with the exchange of gases (D). The integument also provides suppo rt but restricts growth (E) . The nature of the integument is an impor tant fac to r in the ecol o gy

of terrestrial art hropods . Th ese may be divided into two gro ups : (F). Woodlice lack a waxy ou ter cuticle and hence belong to the group which do not po ssess an impervio us body-co vering. Th ey c on se-

quently lose water quickly in d ry air (G ). a) tho se with an im pervio us bo dy-covering and tho se witho ut one. b) as the co mmon spe cies sho w varying degrees of ada pta tion to

conditions on dry lan d. c) except by moulting. d ) but they are related to so me similar water animals.

e) by inhibi ting the d iffusion of oxygen and carbon dioxide. f) Th e rate of water lo ss va ries fro m spec ies to spec ies. g) whic h is impervious to wa ter vapo ur.

4. You will hear a description of the structure of one species of woodlouse. Listen 10 the passage and add the labels to the diagram :

a)_-=:::j::;;~ f) b) ~?<~;::g) c}

e ,..=:::::::~~

""'-=-'''-- j)

flageII um dorsal view pereipod compound eye pleop ods pcreio nites anten na ve ntral view

pleonites

antennule Oniscus asellus, sho wing dorsal and ventral sides in two halves

96

5. Read this passage:

The life cycle of a woodlouse The life cycles of several species of woodl ice have been studied. The number of eggs ranges from seven per brood in one species to onc or two hundred in anot her. The fema le Oniscus carries its eggs inside a thoracic brood pouch. or mar supi um. which is attached to the pereion . After hatchin g. the you ng of Oniscus remain in the marsupium for a maxi mum of three days. They are released th rough an opening in the marsupium. The first moult occ urs within twenty-four hou rs of this. The yo ung arc now in danger. since if the environ ment is too dry at this time. they will quickly lose water and d ie. On the o ther hand. if it is too wet. they are liable to be attacked by fungi . The lifespan of woodlice varies from species to species. but most do not breed until thei r second year. Moulting ta kes place in two stages : the outside of the anterior part of the body is cas t so me time after the poste rior part. This helps 10 protect the animal from predat or s.

Now nu mber these points in the order in which they occur in the pa ssage : the effect of lack of moisture on the young the variation in the number of yo ung in different species the time of the first moult the time of the first breeding the location of the marsupium how the yo ung arc initially protected the purpose of mou lting in two stages the function of the marsupiu m how the yo ung leave the mother the result of exce ssive moi sture the variation in the lifespan of woodlice the meth od of moulting 6. Now read this: Water loss Loss of water is an important factor in the survival of terrestrial isopods. Since the integument lacks an impervious cov ering. water may be lost through the body cove ring. T he rate at which this occurs will be affected by (i) the size of the anima l. (i i) its behaviour and (iii) the relative dryness of the surrounding air. Evaporation ta kes place more ra pidly from a la rger surface than from a sma ller surface. By rollin g into a ball. a .wood louse can reduce its exposed surfaces and thereby reduce the rate of evaporation. Rema ining close together in groups has the same resu lt.

97

Answer these question s : a) Wh ich part of an iso pod is the integument ? b) What does 'impervious' mean '! c) If the surrounding air becomes dr ier, will the rate of water loss be reduced o r increased '! d) What is evaporation directly proportional to? e) Describe two ways in which the wood louse redu ces the ra te o f water loss. f ) Why is water loss greater from a flat shape than from a com pact one ? g) Why do you think woodlice tend to remain in gro ups and in narrow, dar k places?

7. Look and read : It is probable that o ne of the most important factors affecting the

woodlouse's choice of habit at will be humid ity (the amo unt of water vapo ur in the air). This assumption can be tested in the laboratory by using an apparatus like the one in the dia gram . This gives the a nimal a choice between a wet and a dry place.

.

ope ning between,_ upper chambers

plast ic Petri d ish

--I..c;;;;;;;;;i1~'U:~:~'~: ~'~:..~:~" ;. 0':. : ';.::

0 ..

' ~oo 0 0 <>0<> 0 0 0 ..

000

0

''':'0 0

.0"o

o

•0 0 0 0 000

00

0

hole r insert ing ---- w oodfolice

,

." Q o Q~ .0 0 0

perfo rated zinc

•• 0

000 0'"

Cho ice chamber construc ted from two plastic Petri dishes

w elded by solvent

rubb.rband----

-,[::Jr-'i"' I"---~ --

damp cotton w oo l

.

plastici ne plug

~alt t hiocyanate +--

- - ---- ---- - - - -- -- f~"""n
paper

- - )- - - perforat ed zinc

•

calcium ch loride

Section throu gh choice chamber The appa ra tus consists of two pai rs of plastic Petri dishes j oined together. A hole is cut in each of the inverted upper dishes. and the dishes are connec ted by holes in the sides. A sheet of perforated zinc separates the upper sections from the lower sections, and the apparalus is held together by rubber bands. One of the lower sections contains anhydrous CaCl r which absorbs water from the air ; the other contains damp cotton woo l. Wood lice of the sa me species and size must be exposed to the same humidity for several days before the experiment. Five of them are

98

then int roduced to each of the upper sections and the holes at the top arc filled with a mat erial which holds th iocyan ate paper to check the humidity of the two sectio ns. After 15 minutes. the number o f wood lice in each dish is noted. Th e expe riment should be repeated several times usin g different wo odl ice. Now answer these question s :

a) What is the purpose of this exper iment? b) Which part of the apparatus gives the animal a cho ice between a wet and a dry place ?

c) What is the functio n of the holes at the top of the dishes'! d ) What allows the wood lice to pass fro m one dish to the other '! e ) What prevent s them fro m en tering the lower sectio ns'?

f)

Why is the sheet of zinc perforated ?

g)

How is one side made wet and the o ther side made dry'?

h) How does the scientist ensure that the wood lice will have the i)

same need fo r humidity ? What proc edu re is followed during the experiment?

j) k) I) m)

What What What What

is the function of the thiocyanate paper? is observed at the end o f the experiment ? will pr obably be the result of the experiment? conclusion is likely to be drawn fro m the result ? n) What explanation may be given fo r this?

8. Look at these gra phs:

Taiga (sub - Arctic coniferous forest) em 'C

36 34 32 30

36 32

Tropical rain forest

'C 36 32

em

24

36 3' 32 30

28

20

28

26 24

16 12

26

2.

16 12

22 20 '8 6

8

22

8

-.

20

28

•o

4 2

8 -1 2 16

o 8 6 4

- 20 -2' -

2

o

J FMAMJJASO N D M onths

- 28 - 32 - 36

28 2' 20

•o

18 16 14

....1

12 10 8 6

- 16

- 20 - 24

4 2

o

-4 -8 12

28 J FMA M J J A SO N D

- 32 - 36

M onths

99

em

Tund ra ( Arctic)

'C 36 32 28 24 20 16 12

36 34 32 30

28 26 24 22 20 18 16 14 12 10 8

Middl e-l atitude deciduous forest em ·C

36 34 32

36 32 28

30

24

28 26 24

20 16 12

8

22

8

4

20 18

4 0

-4

16

-4

o

-8 14 - 12 12 - 16 10 - 20 8 6 - 24 6 4 - 28 4 2 -32 2 o J FMAMJ J A S 0 N 0 -36 o J F M A M J J A S O N 0

-m - 24

-28 - 32 -36

M onths

M onths

M iddle - latitude grassland

-8 - 12 - 16

Midd le- latitude desert

em

'C

em

'C

36

36 32 28 24 20 16 12 8

36 34 32 30 28 26 24

36 32 28 24 20

34 32 30 28 26 24 22 20 18 16 14 12 10

16 12 8 4

22

4

20 18 16 4 -8 14 -12 12 -1 6 10

o

o

-70

8

6

-24 4 28 2 - 32 OJ F M AMJJ A SON 0 -36

~~: Months

4

8 6 4 2

:IIW

o

-8 - 12 16 20 24 26 32 36

~.

J FMAM JJ A SOND M onths

The range of temperature and rainfall thro ugho ut the year in di fferent kinds of hab itat

100

Now say which regio ns arc described by these sentences: a) The climate is extremely cold, and rarely exceeds O'c. b) This region is in the so ut hern hemi sph ere. The c1ima le is usuall y excessively humid. especially during the summer. c) The temperature is never excessive. but there is a co nsidera ble rainfall during mo st of the year. d ) During most of the year the amount of rain is negligib le but the temperature ranges over approxima tely 25°C . e) This region has a minimum temperature of - 2"C and a maximum temperature of 22'C. f) The temper ature varies very little and is always ext remely hot. g) The temperature ranges fro m -1 2' C 10 16' C.

9. Now read the following descriptions of plants and animals and say in which regions the y are likel y to be found, and where they are not likely to be found : a ) Lich en s : th ese can surv ive in very cold clima tes. Th ey have very low growth a nd ca n live in exposed places. b) Grass : does not grow well in excessively dry or excessiv ely wet climates. 11 has narrow leaves and hence a small leaf surface.This reduces water loss. It has an extensi ve fibrous root system for water absorptio n. c) Lianas: need a hu mid clima te, grow high up and usc ot her trees for suppo rt. They have adve ntitio us roots which absorb wa ter fro m the a tmos phere, growi ng fro m nod es a long the stern. d ) Squirrel : thi s a nimal feeds on the bark of trees and pla nt shoo Is and seeds. It escapes from predato rs by climbing trees. It ca n survive fairly cold winters by hibernatin g . e ) Reindeer: has feet which spread out when it walks and prevent it from sinking into the sno w. It feeds on moss and lichen s. It is m igrato ry an d conseq uently needs open spaces. f) Mon key : has prehensile limbs for hol di ng on to tree s. Generally lives high up, feedi ng on fru it and sa fe from carnivores. M ost species need a hot climate. g) Biso n : feeds o n grass and migrates ac ross o pen spaces.The body has a hairy co vering. h) Oak tree : needs a clim ate witho ut excess ive heat or cold a nd with sufficie nt rainfall in summer. Seedlings need space . i) Spruoe tre e : has leaves which are narrow and cylindrical in shape to prevent snow co llecting. T he leaves are pro tected from the cold by a thick cuticle. Thi s also restricts water lo ss. j) Ka nga roo rat: lives underg round to protect itself from the heat during day-time. It searches for food at night, jumping long dista nces with its long hind legs. It does not lose water as it has no sweat glands, a nd produces a lmost d ry urine. k) Cactus plant: the leav es a re reduced to spines. The stems contain large cells for sto ring wate r. It has increased powers of water abso rptio n. I) Snow-shoe hare : lives underg ro und in winter . It has large flat feet for plodding a bo ut in th e sno w.

101

Glossary

This list gives the pronunciations o f the techn ical and semi-technical words used in this book and definitions of those words that are not fully explained in the text or dia gram s. It also includes some common word-elements (prefixes. stems and suffixes) which are used in biology. An asterisk (*) means that a wo rd in the definition is itself explained in the Glossary. The number after each entry ind icates the unit in which the word first appears . Pronunciations are shown in the system that is used in the new Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English. The symbols are shown in this table, with a key word for each. The letters printed in bold type represent the sound value of the symbol.

Consonants p b t

d k

g

pea bay tea day key gay

f

rew

v

view thing then soon zoo

e 3 s z

1

fishing

pleasure choo se d3 jump I led r red 3

tl

h

hot

m n

su m suu

~

J

w

sung yet wet

Vowels u

e e 0: 0

sheep ship bed

o

bad

el make ou note

A

caught put boot cut

au now

calm

3:

bird

or

cot

0

about

or

u:

at

bite boy

10

eo uo elo ouo ara

aua "0

here there

poor player lower tire tower employer

Notes

n

1. A small raised at the end of a word means that the {rl is pronounced if a vowel follow s (at the beginning of the next word), but not otherwise. For example. f ar Irotl means that f ar away is pronounced Ifo:e ~we l l bUlfar down is Ifo: daon j. 2. The italic I,}! means that the sound faj can be used but is often omitted. It may be found before the consonants 1m , n, I), I, rl in certain positions. For example . travel /'trrevalj means that the pronunciation /'trreval/ is possible but /' trrevl/ ma y be moore common. 3. The mark j'f means that the following syllable has main stress, and 1.1 means that the

following syllable has secondary stress. For example. understand !.And;}'st<£ndj.

102

a-; an- no t, without [anhyd ro us "} a b- from. away fro m (abse nt) a bdomen I' rebd ;;lffi;Jn! in vertebrates : the region con raining intestine", liver . kid neys etc. : in arthropods : the posterio r gro up o f segments similar to each other 2 a bsorb l ~ b ' D :b , -' SJ:b! to take from surroundings by chemical or molecula r ac tio n 4 absorption !ob 'zo:pIan, -'so:p-I 9 adventitious !,redv;,n 'uI;,s! growing in an , unusual position : ad ventitious roots grow from the plant stem 12 adreoalin !;,'d ren;,lrn! C aerial l'e;,rl;,1! in the ai r 10 alga I'reldp l pl. algae I'reld3i:1 4 aliment ary canal !a:lt,ment3r1 b 'nrel! 5 amino acid !~ , m i ::n ;,u 'resld! an o rganic compound : during di gestion, proteins" are broken down into amino acids before pa ssing through the walls of the intesti ne " 5 ammonia !a'm:mnla{ (N H 3 ) 6 amoeba lo'mi:bol 4 amphibian !rem 'frblan! I amylase I' reffillels! an enzyme " wh ich break s u p starch" o r glycogen" 5 anae mia !a'n i:ml:,)! a lack of red cells in the blood 7 anhydrous !ren 'hald r;,s/ with o ut wa ter 12 antenna lren'tena! . pl. -tennae I-'teni:! 2 antennule Iren 'tenju:l! 12 antigens I' renudy nzj 10 anus l' eIn;,sj 4 aorta !eI''J:b{ I a pertu re I' rep;,tI;,' j the openin g in a microscope, ca mera etc. which lets light in I I appendicular skeleto n {repen , d l kj u l ~ 'skelnn j the skeleton of the limbs (leg, ann, wing) 3 aquatic {;,k'wa:Uk/ living in wat er 9 arterioles ja :'tIJ rIJulz/ small b lood vessels" tak ing blood from th e' arteries" to the capillaries" 8 artery I'o:t
bacilliform {b;,'sthf:mn l hav ing the sha pe of bacilli (rod -sha ped bacteri a) I bacillus tuberculosis fha,sllas tju,b3:kju'louSisl pl. bacilli tuberculosis rba. srlar tjo.barkj u'Iausis j bacterium Jbcrk 'uarlam! pl. -te ria I-o on ol I barnacle l' oo :n ak.JI/ a small organism" in the sea with a shell, whic h attaches itself to rocks and ships' bott oms 10 bl- two (biped = two- legged animal) bile jball/ a green-brown liq uid which is secret ed by th e liver and sto red in the gall-bladder; it break s up fat in to sm all pa rticle s" during d igestion 5 bio- life (biology ~ st udy of living things) boro n I' bJ:r;m! (B) 7 ca lcium I' ka::lsl;,mj (Ce) 7 calory /,k:eIJ rI/ unit for measuring the hea t gained in the body d uring digestion of food and lost during work 7 ca lyx I'ketltksl 2 cambium j' krem blJ mj 2 capill ary /b 'p ll.m / a m inu te tube receiving blood from a sma ll artery [a rte riole") and re tu rni ng it to a sma ll vein; the excha nge of substa nces " between blood and tissues- takes p lace thro ugh capillary'" wall s 2 carbohydrate /,ko : bJ u'ha ld renl com po und of carbo n , hydrogen and ox ygen atoms. including suga rs. starch ", cellulose" etc. A ca m - meat, flesh (carnivore") ca rnivore f' ko m Iv'JII an o rga nism" wh ich feeds on the flesh o f animals 10 cartilag e I' ko rt3hd3/ stro ng elastic tissue" in vertebrates C ca rotene I' k:er:ltim! 7 caterpilla r I' ka:tJ,pll;{f B caud- tail (caudal fin) cauda l fin I,ko:dl 'ftnl 5 cavity I' krev;,u! a hollow space C ce-llular j' seljuIJ'1 con ta ining o r co nsisting of cells 7 cellulose j' selj u l ~u s/ fibrous material in wood and cell walls of plant s ; consists of a long chain of glucose" m olecules 3 cerc us j' s3: k;,s/ 2 cer ea l j' s l ~ n ~ l / 7 chara cteris tic / , k a: ldk t~ ' rIs u k / a feature wh ich di stingu ishes one kind of o rga nism" from another 12 chloro- green (chlo ro phyll") chloro phyll l'klo r;,fI1 f green colouring

103

matter in plants enabling them to ca rry out photosynthesis 3 chloroplast I' klo r. p l« Sl, 'kb :-/ 3 chlorosis jkb : 'r;}usisl 7 cholera I' k ol~ 1.j1 1 choro id coat I,b rr:lld 'k;}utl A clal'lcie I' klrevlkJI/ 3 clitellum /k lal'tel;}ml I clostridium tetani Iklos,w d l;lm ' tetanaif pl. clostridia tetani rklos.m dra 'tet;}nai/ I rottUs l'ko k;}sl pl. cocci I' ko ksal/ cochlea I' kokll. / C coeliac artery /,si:1Jrek 'o:t.1n / I cellenchyma Ib 'lelJklm;}/ plant tissue" which gives support. co mposed of cells with strong walls A colon I' k. ulo n/ 5 com-: con- with . together compound j' ko mpaundl made up o f more than o ne part 2 concentration l ,ka nSJn'treII.1n/ the rela tive amount o f one subs ta nce dissolved o r mixed with a nothe r (a high/low co ncentra tio n = a relatively large/small amount) 7 coniferous j k ~ ' n l f,)f;}sl trees wh ich rep rod uce" by mean s of co nes which conta in the seeds, e.g. fir. pine 12 conjunct i"8 /,ko ndJAlJ k'lalva/ A connective tissue Ib ,neku v 'tlI u:1 the cells o f the body which suppo rt. co nnect and protect the o rgans" and o the r wo rking parts 2 contractile vacuole /b n,t rcektall 'v« kju. ul/ 3 copper /'kop"/ ICu) 7 copper sulphate / , k o p~ 'S/dfe lt / (C u SO. ) II cornea I' k::l:n la/ A cortex I' k:'l:teks/ 2 coty ledon l,kot:t'li:d n/ 6 crania l f'k rernralf of the cranium or skull ; in vertebrates the cranial nerve emerges fro m the bra in. inside the skull C crysta lline lens r'kns talain 'lenz/ A cuprous oxide I,kju:p ras 'oksaid ] (C u, O ) II cyctops I'sa lklops/ 4 cyto- cell {cytopla sm" ) cytoplasm j' sa lt aup l~lJm,' all the protopla sm- of a cell except the nucl eus 2 de- to remove a property" from something o r reverse a process Idcsta rched. decomposes }

104

decay Id l'kell to decompose" and ro t as a resu lt of the action of bacteria 6 deciduous jd l' sldju:Js/ (tree s) sheddi ng leaves at one season of the year 12 decompose l , d i :k~m ' p:)Ozl to break down chemica lly to simpler co mpounds" o r elements 6 deficiency !d l' fJ r, nSl! 7 denitri fying l,d i:'naltn fal-ilJ l 6 -derm skin (ectoderm) di- two (dicotyledo n"} dia- th rough. across (diaphragm) di- ; dis- sp reading. sca ttering (d ila te. d issolve) diabetes I,dol. 'bi:) i:z! C dicotyledon l.dalkolJ'li:d n/ large class of flowerin g plants with two co tyled ons (seed lea ves) 6 diffuse Id l' lju:z/ to sp read ou t in all d irections 8 diffusion IdJ' lj u=3Jnl 12 dilat e !daJ'len l 8 dioxide Ida l'o ksaldl 6 diplo- two (diplococc us) diplococcus f , d l pl ~u' k o k asl pl. -rocci ,., koksal/ I Diptera I'd lp l. r. / 12 dolphin I'd olfm! 9 dorsal l'do:"l/ 2 duodenum I,dju::>'d i:nam/ 5 e-: ex from . ou t of (evo lve. expe l) ecro- outside (ectoparasite) ectopa ras ttlc / , e k t ~ll pa: r;l ' s , u k/ 10 elongate 1'i:1olJg.en/ to make o r become lon ger 6 embryonic I,embrl'o nlkf of the embryo i.e. the young plant befo re it ha s fully germina ted. o r the young animal befo re it is born or hatched 6 endo- inside (cndodc nn) endocri ne glands / ' end ~u k ra ln gla:nd zl gla nd s which secrete directly into the bloodstream C enzyme I'enzalml a protein" which acts as a catalyst. assisting in chemica l react ion s ; metab oli sm" depend s on the presence of enzymes 5 epl- on . over Iepigynous] epicot)'l /,epl'ko tlll 6 epidermis l,ep,'d3:m lsf 2 epithelium /,ep l'Oi:llaml 5 ethanol I'cd anol. 'i:9:>-/ ethyl alcohol (C, H. O ) II eustachian lu be /ju:,steII I;)n 'tj urbj C excrete /Ik 'skri:tl to pass o ut unwanted products of metabolism". including waste matter a fter d igestion 6

faeces I'fi :si:zl waste matter excreted" fro m the co lon a fter d igestion 5 rotigue /f. 'ti:g/ loss of energy, ti redness 7 femur I' fi mt~ rl 2 -ferous bearin g, ca rrying {co niferous "} fertilise I' f'3 :t ~la lzl to make fema le reproductive" cell fertile by un ion with male cell 6 fibula l' f1 bjul./ 3 fibre I' fa l ~ r! elongated" cell with tough walls and tape ring ends, fonning part o f support tissue " o f plants 2 fibrous I' falbr;,sl 10 filament I' fJ l~m~mtl very fine thread or thread-like pa rt of an o rganis m" 5 flagellum /O~' d3el~m f pl. flagella jfl. 'd3el. / long threads a tta ched to the bod ies of some micro-o rgan isms", used for movement 1 Ioli- lea f (fol iage" } foliage I' f~u h. ld31 all the lea ves of a p lan t 6 fore- fro nt (fo re-wing} fructose I' frA k t~usl form of sugar (six carbon a to ms) fou nd in fruit and other parts of plants 5 rungi I'fAQgaJ/ 6 ga lactose I g~ ' I a: k l ~usl a form of sugar, a constituent of lactose" 5 gall bladder 1'g:>: I ,bla:d . ' / 5 gastric I' g~ s t rJ k l o f the sto mach 5 gene Id3iml the unit of the materia l of inherita nce, passed from pa rent to children 10 genetic /d3;J 'neUk/ 10 genot ype I' d3en. talp/ 10 germination l ,d33:rm 'nelfon/ the first stage in the growth of a plant from a seed 6 gill /gIll I girdle /g3:dl/ 3 girth /g, :fJ1 4 glucose I' g l u :k ~)Us / a six-ca rbo n atom sugar : a co nstituent of sucrose". sta rch". cellulose" and glycogen" ; a product o f pho tosy nt hesis in plants 5 glycerol r'ghsc rof 5 glycogen I' g la l k ~ud3Cn l sta rch" in the fo rm in which it is sto red in the liver and muscle A -gra m; -graph writing, draw ing [sre reogram", phot ograph) gua rd cell I'gard sell 3 -g)'IIOUS; lo'n· female Ihypogynous. gynaecology) habitat " he bne u rbe place in which an organism- usually lives 4

hepatic Ih l'pa:tJkl of the liver 2 herbi- grass, plan t (herbivorous) herb ivorous I h 3 : ' b l vc1 r~s l 6 hind- ba ck (hind-legs) hippopotamus l , h l p~ ' p D {~m~sl 9 holo- whole, complete (holozoic) holophytic l,ho IOl'fllTkl A holozoic l , h ol~ ' z~U l kl A honnone l ' h:J:In~onf subs tanceproduced fro m gland s and transported to other parts of the organism" where it has an important effect on d ifferent processes C humerus I' hj u :m., r~sl 3 humid I' hjurffild / 8 humidity I hj u : ' m ld ~ul concentra tion" of wa ter d roplets in the ai r 12 hydra I' hard r. / 4 hydr o- wa ter, liq uid (hyd rostatic) hydrostatic pressure ! , ha ld ~u, stzU k ' p reJ~ rl the pressure caused by a n unmoving (sta tic) liqu id 8 hYJM>- under (hypogynous) 2 hypocetyl I' harp. u,kD. I! 6 hypogynous /har'pod3In. s/ 2 ileum I' J II ~m l 4 imago Il'melg;lu! B lmpervlous I l m ' p3:V I~sl not allowing fluids to pass throu gh 12 induction Im'dAkIanl drawing a conclusion from evidence ; a gene ralisa tion ba sed on o bservatio n offacts 10 inherit Im'herItI to receive gene tic characteristics- from paren ts to Insecta /In'sekt./ 12 insulation l,msju'leII,ml material which prevents o r red uces the transfer of hea t, elect ricity etc. 9 insulin I' lnsjuhnl C integument I ID ' tegj um~m tl 12 Inter- between (internode) internod e I' lD t~n~udl 2 intestine Im'testlnl the pa rt o f the alimentary can al between the stomach and the anus I Iodine I'arad imf (I) C iris l' a l ~ C1 sl a part o f the fron t o f the eye A a plant I I iron I'aron/ (Fe) 7 -ite a salt which co ntai ns less oxyg en tha n another similar salt (nitrite) -ject throw (reject) jugular vein ! , d3Agjll l~ 'vem! 2 ka ngaroo rat l , k ~lJ g~ , ru : 're u 12 labium " I e l bl ~m ' the lower lip of an

105

insect B lactase j'lrektels! enzyme* whic h splits lactose" into glucose" a nd

galactose" 5 lactose I' l rek t~l)s! fo rm of suga r occurring in milk 5 lamella ! b ' mel~! 3 larva ! I o rv~! B legume l'I egju:m! any plan t of th e fami ly Leguminosae (e.g. pea , bean) which has seeds in a pod a nd nodules on th e . roots con ta ining nitrogen-fixing bacteri a 6 liana I h ' a m~1 12 lichen j'la lb n, ' InI anl 12 lign- wood (lignin") lignin I' hgn m! complex substance" whic h forms th e woody cell wall s of p lants together with cellulose" A lipase !'Ilpeis. 'Ial-I enzymesw bich splits esters of fa tt y acids into alcohol and ac id 5 lipid /,IIpld / fa t 7 liver I' hVdr ! 5 longftudlnal j.Iondgr'tj urd mf along the lengt h I lumbar /'I Am b;}'! 3 -lumia- ligh t (illumi na te) magni- big (magnificatio n) magnesium !m reg'ni:zIam! (Mg) 7 maize I' melz! 7 . mal- bad (malformation) maltase I'm J:1tels! a n enzyme" whic h brea ks down maltose* into two molecu les o f glucose" 5 maltose I' m ;) :It~us ! suga r formed fro m th e brea kd o wn of starch": present in germina ting seed a nd dige stion 5 mandible I' m rend;}bJ lf 2 manganese I' mrel)g;}ni:zl (Mn) 7 marsupium /ma :'sj u:plam! 12 medial f'm hdra lj 2 membrane I' membre m/ a thin la yer of tissue" 3 meso- midd le (mesophylJ) mescphyll f'mesaf'rf 3 meta- ch an ge (meta morphosis"} metabolism Im a'treb:>lIzam ,l all th e chemi ca l cha nges. break ing down a nd building up substances. " wh ich tak e place in the body C met amorphosis ! . met~ · m ;) :f~s l s l period of transformation from la rval to adult fo rm 6 micro- minute* (mic ro-orga nism} ; o ne millioneth (m icrometre) microbe I' malkr::mb/ 10

106

micropyle I' m aikraupa il/ 6 millet /' m rlIt! 7 mmeral j'mrnsralj 7 minute (adJ.) !mal' nj u :t/ extreme ly sma ll 4 moisture I' m::)J s t J~f 1 8 molecule I' mohkj u:11 5 mono- one (monocotyledon) morph- sha pe, form (metamorpho sis") multi- many (m ult i-cellula r) Musca domestica 1 ' l1lt\sk~ da'mesuka/ 12 Muscidae j' l1lt\skldl:j 12 mut- change {muta tion"} mutation Imj u:'teTJa n / cha ngi ng ; beginnin g of a new cha ra cteristic'" in a n offspring whi ch is not inhe rited bu t is passed on to descend ants to nectar I' ne k t~r/ sugary fluid in flowers wh ich a ttracts insects B neutralise I' nj UItrJ la lz/ to add aci d to alka li o r a lka li to ac id a nd produce a neu tral substance" II nitrate I' na n reltl 6 nitric acid j,naltrl k 'resld ! (HN0 :J,) 6 nitrifying {'naltn fa l-ll)/ 6 nitrite I'nalt raltl 6 nitrogen I' naItr:K13an! (N) 6 node I n~ud! 2 nostril /n ostril/ 5 nutrition Inj UI' trlJanl feedin g B Oniscus asellus /~ . n l sbs er'selasr 12 operculum l~u ' p3 :k l u l ~m / 5 optic I' opu kl of sight or vision (o ptic nerve) A organ {':>:g;}n! a multicellular part of a plant o r a nima l whi ch form s a str uc tural a nd functio na l un it. e.g. leaf, kidney 5 org anism /' :>:g;m lu m/ a living th in g ; a n ind ividual ca pa ble of growth a nd

reproduction" I -ose suga r [lactose" = the suga r o f m ilk) -osj s di sease (chlorosis) osmosis / oz ' m ~\}sl sl if a stro ng so lutio n and a weak solution a re separated by a membran e," the solvent (e.g. wa te r) passes th rough the memb ra ne fro m the wea k to th e stro ng solutio n . the solut ions tend to become eq ual in concentration" 8 os.s icle j' oslkal/ C ov- egg (oval I'a uvsf = egg-sha ped) ova ry 1'::llJwm / 2 over- excessive (overheating) oviparous /au'vlpilras/ to pallisade cell j .pe h'serd sef 3 palm /po nn j 9

pancreas I' pl 3 pectoral fin l , pe k t Jr~ 1 'fJO! 5 -pel to push. force (expe l) 'peb tc tin I,pelvlk 'f m l 5 pelvis I' pelvls/ 3 pepsin I' pcpsml a n enzyme " whic h splits pro teins " in acid solu tion 5 peptidase I'pcptldcls,' a n enzyme " wh ich splits peptides " 5 peptides I' peptaldz! compou nd s" o f two o r morc am ino acids 5 per- th rough (pe rfo ra te) perfo ra ted J' p3:f;>rellldl 3 peri- around (perigynous) pericyele J'pe rlsa lkal/ 2 perig)'oous Ip;)'n d31O;>s! 2 per elopod /p;;l'ra l;:lpod/ 12 per eion /p:>'fa l:>nf 12 pereionites IpJ'ra m lts! 12 peris talsis l,pe rI'strelsls/ regula r movement of muscles in the walls of the intest ine." whi ch m ix a nd move along th e contents 5 permeable I' P3:tTI IJ hJ I/ a ble to be pe rme ated. a llow ing fluids etc . to pass thro ugh 8 -phage something which ca ts o r destroys (bac teriophage) phloem 1'f1 ;>o-em l 2 phosphorus /'fosfJ T>S! (P ) 7 photo- ligh t (pho to synt hesis) photosynthesis /,f;)ut:Ju'smO:Jsls! 6 -phylllea f Ichlcrophyll") phylom /,fall, m! pl. ph)"> /, fa,I, ! 12 -phyte plant (holophytic) pinna r pm;>1 C pist il j' Plstl J 2 pith ip l9/ 2 pituitaf)' gland Ip l'tj w t rl glrend ! C -plasm su bsta nce of living thi ngs (protoplas m .) plasma /, pla:nn al 5 plasmol ysis I p l a: z ' m ol ~s l sl shrink ing of cyto pla sm " away fro m the cell wall 8 -plas t sma ll body of den se matter in a ce ll. with specia l fun cti on (c hloroplast) pleon /, pli:on! 12

pleonites I' pl i ~ n a lt sl 12 plcopods /, pli:>podzl 12 plumol e /, plu :mjo:11 6 pol)'p I' po llpl kind of aqua tic" a nimal with a cylind rical bod y which is fixed 10 rock etc. a t one cnd a nd has the mouth at th e other end 10 pore lp:>:rl a minute hole. especially in skin . for the passage of swea t 8 -pose put. place (expose. position) po tassium (pa'nesramj ( K) 7 pre- be fo re (predict) preclpitation Ip rJ,slpa'telfJ n/ the formation of a n inso luble solid whic h fa lls to the bottom ora liq uid precipita te I p rJ' s l p~ t e lt l I I predator I' p redat:{ 1 a n a nima l which feed s on o the r a nim als. but not a pa ra site" 12 prehensile !p n :'hcnsa ll! adapted fo r taking hold of branches. etc. 12 pro- fo rwa rd s (prAjection*) proboscis Ipr.t'b oslsf B property !,p ro p;>t11 a quality belonging be longing to a n individua l or cla ss I proportionately /pr;)' pd:f<1ndth/ 9 protein /' pr;;luti:n ! a complex o rga nic co mpo und " o f a m ino acids : th e main c hemical su bstance" of living matter 3 proto- o riginal. first. sim plest (protozoa) protoplasm I' pr;>utJ plrel .m1/ the substa nce of which living cells a re mad e 3 pulmonary !, palmanar t! I pop;l lpjo:pJ II A pylo ric sphincter !pa l,lon k ' s fl lJ k t ~r l 5 pyreneld I' palr;>n3Id / 3 rad - root (rad icle) radiation I,reld l'el!a n! sendi ng o ut wa ves o f hea t. ligh t etc. 10 radicle I' ra:d lkal/ 6 rad io-ac tivity l,rcld l:Ju rek'uvdu / radi a tion " of electrically-cha rged particle s" as a resu lt of the brea k u p o f a to ms in so me ma te rials to radius I' re l d l ~s l 3 ra dula I' ra-dj ulal B ratio I' r;'II laul 9 re- again {reprod uce") back (recessive ") receptacle lr;>'scptakall 2 recessive !rl'scsIV/ (gene") no t d omi nan t : a recessive ch a ra cteristic" does not appear if a n oppo site (do minan t) cha rac teristic is present 10 region / 'n :d33n / la rgc area . di stinct pa rt of the body 3 renal l' ri:n l! o f the kidne y 2

107

reproduce f,ri:pr;),dju:s! to produce offspring B reproduction f,ri:pr, 'd' k! nf B reproductive organs !. ri:pid'dAktlv ,:J:g~ nzl organs-for producing yo ung 2 response In 'spons! (in response to) the way in wh ich an o rganism- responds o r react s to a co ndi tio n in the en vironment ; co nverse of stim ulus - 8 retina I' re lJ n~ / A rhinoceros I ra l ' n osJ r~s ! 9 rigidit), I TI ' d3 Id ~ t1! sta te of being rigid. i.e. stiff. not flexible 8 saliva ry gla nd I's.e1l v.m ,gl:end ! 5 sa lmonella typhi / sre l m ~ , ne l~ 'tarfaf pl. salmonellae typhi Is:elm;l,neli: 'talfall I saprophytic l , s re p r~'l\l ' fIlI kl 10 sclero- ha rd (sclerotic coat) sclerotic coa t I s k l ~ , f()lI k ' k ~u t ! A -scope instrument fo r looking (microscope) • sec retion/sl'kmr.m ! the passa ge of ma te rial out of a cell (usually a gla nd cell) th ro ugh the walls 5 seed ling f'sl:dlll]' a yo ung recent ly germinated plant 12 segment I'segm;Jnt! a part. one of the d ivisions of a jointed an imal 3 semi- partly. half (semi-permeable"} sensor)' nerv e ending l ,sensJrl 'n3:V ,end llJl the ends of the nerves which registe r sensations (light . tou ch etc.) and pass them to the brain 2 sepal "sepal. 'si: p,JI/ 2 shrh'cl l'J lvalj to shrink a nd beco me wr inkled (stop being smooth and flat) with loss o f moi stu re 6 sieve tube I'slv tju:bl A soda -lime /,s:lUd J ' !;,u m l mixture of quicklime (e aO ) a nd cau stic soda (Na O H) \I sodium I'soudl, m/ (Na) 7 sod ium bkarbo na te I,SJoo lom bar'korbanen. -b,n'I/(NaIl CO, ) II sod ium ci tra te 1 , ~lId l~m 'sttren! II spatula I' spa: tIllI~ f 3 species I'sp i:Ji:Z1 sec un it 12 exer cise I 4 spinal cord I,spaln) 'b :dl the pan of the vertebrate" centra l nervo us system inside the vertebra l (spinal) co lum n. including bund les o f fi bres- like co rd (thick string ) 2 spinneret j,spm;l'ret! B spiracle "sparrcks f the external opening of an insect's breathing-lu be 2 spiral I'spa tcraf I

108

spirillum /spa l' n laml pl. spirilla jspa l'n b! I spiro- spiral (sp irochaete) spirocha ete l , spa I J ~ ' k i :t1 I sponge /SPAl]d31a sea-anima l with a fibrous skeleto n full of boles: hen ce spo ngy = soft and able to abso rb wa ter like a spo nge 10 spore /sp:J:r/ a microscopic reproductive body o f bacteria. fungi etc . which becomes detached from a pa rent . producing a new indi vidu al I spyrogyra I,spalara'd;yu ara! a kind of a lga . minute plant in the sha pe o f a filament- 3 squlrre l I'skwrraf 12 sta lk I s t~ : k/ plan t stem 6 stamen "stermen/ 2 sta phylococc us l ,sta:fll;)'kokJs! pl. -coccl I-'koksall sta rch /sta :tI! an insoluble ca rbohydrate" compo sed o f amylose and amylo pectin : a main reserve food material in plants 5 stereo- three-dimensio na l (stereog ram") stereogra m r'stena gre rn. 'st!;)-I a d rawing in which o bjects a ppea r to be see n three -dimensiona lly 2 sternum I'st3rr1amf 3 stigma I'stlgma! 2 stimulus J'stlmjulas/ pl. stimuli I'su mjulat/ something in the enviro nment influencing the activ ity o f a n o rga nism . produci ng a response C stoma I'st;,um;,j pl. sto mata I' st :;)u m J t ~ 1 3 streptococcus I .strepta'knkas/ pl. -coccl (-'koksal/ l sub- under (subc uta neo us) ; pa rt o f (subgro up) substance I'SAbst;,ns! a kind o f matter whose chemica l composit ion is definit e and p redic ta ble (e.g. sucrose"). as d istinct from a material {e.g. wood ) 10 sucke r I'sAk;:,' / an o rgan - by which an animal sticks to a surface I sucrase I'sju:krcls. 'su:·1 [invertase. saccha rase) an enzyme" which splits sucrose- in to glucose" and fructose" 3 sucrose I'su.:.krdus! can e sugar. co m mon in plants. a compound of glucose" 5 sulphur 1'" lf, 'I (Su) 7 symmetrica lly ISI'met Tl klll in a reg ular forma tio n ; each side the same size. sha pe etc. as the opposite o ne 3

syn- together. with (synthesis) tarsus I' ta:s~s l 2 tenta cle l ' ten t ~ k (Jlj a lon g flexible organ* used for tou ching or ho lding B terrestrial It;,'restrl;>11 living on land (opposite ofaquatic*) 12 thiocyanat e paper f , €I a l ~tl ' sa l ~n el t .perpa'j paper containing thiocyanate. a salt or ester of th yocyani c acid (HSCN) 12 thoracic j€lJ::'rreslkl 3 thorax 1'9J::rreks! 2 thy roid gland l' €Ia lrJld glrend l C thyrox ine j€la l'rn ksm! C tibia /,ublOl 2 n ssue l' uJu :1living matt er con sisting mainly of cells of the same kind 6 to rto ise ! ' tJ : t ~s/ I trace I' trelsj extre mely sma ll quantity (of element s essent ial for healthy life) 7 tracheae !tr;;l'ki:;;ll B trans- across (transverse) transpar ent I t rre nz ' pre r~n tl allowing light through sufficiently so th at we can see th rou gh it 3 transverse Itrrenz'v3::s! across the width or diameter I trypsin /'trIpsml an en zyme* which splits proteins* and peptides* in alkaline so lution 5 turgor I' t3::g;;lr! the stiffening of the wall of a cell cau sed by int ern al water pressure 8 -ule sma ll (antennule") ulna I'AIn;}! 3 ultra- beyond (ultra-viole t) uni- on e (unicellular) vacuole I' v rej tl~ tl l! 3 vascula r bundle ! , v&s kj u l ~ 'be nd f longitudinal* strand of cond ucting (vascul ar) tissue - consi sting mainly of xylem" a nd phloem 2 vegetation I,ved3 I'teJJ.m ! gro wing plant s B vein I' veml a b lood vessel" taking blood fro m th e ca pillaries" to th e heart 2 ventral j'ven trof 2 ventricle "ventrtksf I vena cava f,vi:n a 'kerva/ pl. venae cavae I,vi:n i:: 'kclVi: / 2 vertebra I' v3:t1b r:Jj pI. -brae f-bri:1 vertebra te "v arttbren j invertebrate /IO 'v3:l1b reItI I vesscl rvess f a tube or canal in which a bod y fluid is co nta ined or circ ulated A \'ibrio cholerae "vrb rirou 'ko ulora ij I

villus I' vlb s/ pl. villi j'vlla ll 4 vision I'VI330/ sight. the ability to see 7 vitamin "vnamm, 'val-! organic substance" whic h an organism -mu st obtain from its environment and which is necessary fo r health in sm all amo unts 7 vlv-: vlt- life. living (viviparo us, vita min") viviparous IVI'vlpilr;ls! 10 -vore ; -vorous eating (carn ivore" herb ivo ro us) wax y I' wreksl/ like wa x, i.e. very smo oth. shiny and impervio us* 3 whorl /w3:1f 2 wilting !'wlllllJ! th e effect of loss of turgor" in a plant, causing the stem and leave s to hang down 7 wound !wum d! a cut or tear in the ski n or tissue of th e bod y 7 x-ray j' eks rell 10 xylem /' z.,loml 2 yeast !j i::stj 7 zinc IZlij kl (Z n) 7

Lon gman G ro up Limited London Associated companies, branches and represen tatives throughout the world

© Lon gman G roup Ltd

1977

All rights reserved . No pa rt of th is pub lication may be reproduced , sto red in a retr ieval system, or transmitte d in an y form or by a ny mean s, elect ron ic, mechanical . ph ot ocopying. recordi ng. or othe rwise. without th e prio r permission of th e Copyri ght owner.

First published 1977 Second imp ression 1977

ISBN

o 582 51302 2

Pr int ed in Hong Kong by Sheck Wah Tong Pri nting Press Ltd

109

Bibliography

n. Patterns 3 Energy. Schools Co uncil ln tegratcd Scie nce Project. Longman , 1974 Bio logical Sciences Curricul um Stu dy. Pat terns in the Living World. Joh n Murra y. 1972. CHUA II . n ., VEE, L. H ., LOURDUSAMY. A. Discovering Integrated S cience Book 3. Longman Malaysia. 1974. DA R lI I'GTO~ . A., IF.AlJLEV BROW S . A. One Approa ch 10 Er% KY. Longman, 1975. DODDS. C., HURr-;, J. B. Practical Biology. Edward Arn old. 2nd edn. 1972. H A ~ A l:ER . E. Biology M ade Simple. W . H. Allen. 1972. JOHSSQN. R .. GO D \lA S. A . Junior Tropical Biology, Longman. 1970. MACKEAN, D . G . Introduction 10 Biolog)' Tropical Edition. John M urray, 1969 . M odern Biology f or M alaysian S chools Form V. Longma n Malaysia. 1974. Nuffield Biology Texts I-IV. Lo ngrnanjPenguin Book s. 1966. Penguin Dictionary 01' Biology . Penguin Book s. 1951. PHILLI PSON, J. Ecolog ical Energetics. Edward Arnold. 1966. SOLOMON. M. E. Population Dynam ics. Edward Arno ld. 1969. STO:--E, R. H.• COZENS, A. 8. New Biology / or Tropical S chools. Lo ngma n. 1969. BAUSOR. i ., IIALL , W ., MOWL .

The au thors sho uld like to thank the staff of the London Zoo for their help.

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