ADVANCES IN CATALYSIS VOLUME 16, Volume 16

ADVANCES IN CATALYSIS AND RELATED SUBJECTS VOLUME 16 Contributors to This Volume H. P. BOEHM J. L. GARNETT JOOST MAN...

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ADVANCES IN CATALYSIS AND RELATED SUBJECTS

VOLUME 16

Contributors to This Volume H. P. BOEHM J. L. GARNETT JOOST MANASSEN MILTONORCHIN HERMAN PINES SAMUEL SIEGEL W. A. SOLLICH-BAUMGARTNER

ADVANCES IN CATALYSIS AND RELATED SUBJECTS VOLUME 16 EDITED BY

D. D. ELEY Nouingham, England

HERMANPINES Evanaton, Illinoie

PAULB. WEISZ Paulabom, New Jeruey

ADVISORY BOARD

A. A. BALANDIN Moscow, U.S.S.R.

P. H. EMMETT Baltimore, Maryland

G. NATTA Milurn, Ilaly

J. H.

DE

BOER

Deut, The Netherlands

J. HORITJTI Sapporo, Japan

E. K. RIDEAL London, England

P. J. DEBYE

Ithoea, New York

W. JOST Q6Uingen. Germany

P. W. SELWOOD Santa Barbara, California

H. S. TAYLOR Princeton, New Jeruey

-

1966

@ ACADEMIC PRESS A Subsidiary oJ Harcourt Brace lovanovich, Publishers New York London Toronto Sydney San Fraiicisco

BY ACADEMIC PRESSINC. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. NO PART OF THIS BOOK MAY B E REPRODUCED I N ANY FORM, BY PHOTOSTAT, MICROFILM, OR ANY OTHER MEANS, WITHOUT WRITTEN PERMISSION FROM THE PUBLISHERS.

COPYRIGHT 0 1966,

ACADEMIC PRESS INC. 111 Fifth A v e n u e , New York, New York 10003

United Kingdom Edition published by

ACADEMIC PRESS, INC. (LONDON) LTD.

24/28 Oval Road, London NWI 1DD

LIBRARY OF

CONGRESS CATALOG CARD

NUMBER: 49-7755

PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA 808182

9 8 7 6 5 4 3

Contributors H. P. BOEHM,Institute of Inorganic Chemistry, University of HeideZberg, Heidelberg, Germany J. L. GARNETT,Department of Physical Chemistry, The University of New South W a b s , Sydney, Australia JOOSTMANASSEN,The Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovoth, IsraeZ MILTON ORCHIN,Department of Chemistry, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, Ohio HERMAN PINES,The Ipatieff High Pressure and Catalytic Laboratory, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois SAMUELSIEGEL,Department of Chemistry, University of Arkansaa, Fayetteville, A r k a n s a s

W. A. SOLLICH-BAUMGARTNER, Department of Physical Chemistry, The University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia

This Page Intentionally Left Blank

Machines and Systems A Preface The aircraft, the printing plant, and the meteorological station, are each systems containing many machines. The mode of co-action is quite complex and very specific-in each case achieving a particular over-all result. To study or describe any one of these systems, we may proceed to analyze this complexity of interaction by taking for granted the “si.mple” existence of the elements such as the aircraft engine, the printing machine, the chronometer, etc. Of course, each of these is itself a complicated mechanism, containing many “simpler” elements, like wheels, rods, pulleys, etc. To a large extent the elements are not dissimilar, but the mode of interplay is again complex, and differs in each machine in achieving its specific objective. The term “mechanism” and “mechanistic study” is quite popular in our (and all other) scientific endeavors. Presumably, we thereby mean an interest in identifying the parts that make a whole. Since we use the term so freely, it occurred to us to meditate upon the great broadness of its meaning, and therefore the desirability for recognition of the specific “machine” or “system” level to which we intend to apply it. If A transforms to A’ on catalyst X , the result of an investigation that “ A produces a complex A X A X is unstable and rearranges in a certain steric manner to A ’ X and A‘X dissociates into A’ and X” might characterize a study of the mechanism of the kinetic course of the reaction. The finding that “ A X is an ionic compound A + X -and its electronic configuration is relatively unstable compared to that of the rearranged A’ +X-” would constitute an element of information concerning the mechanism of electronic interaction (involved in a particular reaction step within the kinetic course of events of the reaction system!).Perhaps this simple example distinguishes at least two major levels of machines and systems, and therefore categories of study: the mechanism of kinetic course of the over-all reaction; and the mechanism of electronic interaction in a specific reaction step. In this volume the editors are presenting a set of what they believe are recent outstanding developments which concentrate heavily on mechanisms involved in several different classes of catalytic reactions: Isomerization of olefins (M. Orchin), dehydration of alcohols (H. Pines and J. Manassen), hydrogen exchange (J. L. Garnett and W. A. Sollich-Baumgartner), and hydrogenation of unsaturated hyvii

viii

PREFACE

drocarbons (S. Siegel). They are concerned largely with the courses of the kinetic processes, and in some cases delve into the electronic features of specific reaction complexes of the catalytic systems. In a volume otherwise heavily concerned with mechanistic questions, the editors have included a contribution (H. P. Boehm) from another sphere of investigative interest which struck us as having the quality of the imported spice to stimulate new interests within the accustomed sphere of catalytic gastronomy. It concerns the chemical nature of the surface groups on a series of materials (e.g. silica, alumina) which happen to be so frequently and universally used by the catalytic researcher. January, 1966

P. B. WEISZ

Contents CONTRIBUTORS.

...................... ... ... ..... v AND SYSTEMS:A PREFACE. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vii MACHINES The Homogeneous Catalytic lsomerization of Olefins by Transition Metal Complexes MILTONORCHIN

..... ........ . . . . . . . .. .... .... ............ . .. .... . The Carbon-Metal Pi Bond . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Stability of the Carbon-Metal Bond .......... ....... The Carbon-Metal Delocalized Pi Bond . . . . . . . . . , . . . . . . Double-Bond Isomerization in Olefins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

I. Introduction

11. The Carbon-Metal Sigma Bond

111. IV. V. VI. VII.

3 4

8 12 21 43 45

The Mechanism of Dehydration of Alcohols over Alumina Catalysts HERMANPINESAND JOOST MANASSEN

.. . ....... ... ... ......... ..... .. . .... ....... ... .... ... ......... .... ........... . .. . . ..... ......... ..... . . ......... . . ........ .... ..... ...... . ........... . ... . ...... ..... ........

I. Introduction . . .. . 11. Purpose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111. Early Mechanisms and Observations . .. . IV. Nature of Alumina Catalysts . . . . V. Isomerization Following Dehydration VI. Steric Course of Dehydration . . . . . . . VII. Dehydration of Aliphatic Alcohols . . VIII. Dehydration of Secondary and Tertiary Alcohols IX. Conclusions . . . . References ... . . . .

50 52 56 59 71 83 89 90

Hydrogen Exchange on Group Vlll Transition Metal Catalysts

t Complex Adsorption in

J. L. GARNETTAND w.A. SOLLICH-BAUMGARTNER

.

.

.

. . . . . . . . . 95 . . ...... .... 6 . . . . . . . . . . . 102

I. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..,. .. . ... . . . 1Complex Adsorption 111. Associative and Dissociative ?r Complex Substitution ... ... ....... .. . Mechanisms ix 11.

.

CONTENTS

X

IV . Experimental Evidence for R Complex Adsorption and Reaction Mechanisms ....................... V . Conclusion .............................. References ..............................

106 119 120

Stereochemistry and the Mechanism of Hydrogenation of Unsaturated Hydrocarbons SAMUELSIEGEL I. I1. 111. IV.

V. VI . VII .

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Development of Some Stereochemical Concepts . . . . . . . . Variations in Stereochemistry as a Criterion of Mechanism . . . . . Conformational Analysis and the Geometry of the Pertinent Transition States in the Hydrogenation of Cycloalkenes . . . . . The Reaction of Aromatic Hydrocarbons with Hydrogen ...... Hydrogenation of Multiply Unsaturated Hydrocarbons ....... Some General Mechanistic Considerations ............. References ..............................

.."12&

125 132 144 151 160 167 174

Chemical Identification of Surface Groups

.

H . P BOEHM

I. I1. I11. IV. V. VI . VII .

-. 179 -.c Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181 Surface Groups on Carbon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225 Surface Groups on Silica . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Surface Groups on Titanium Dioxide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249 254 Surface Groups on Alumina ..................... Surface Groups on Silica-Alumina . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259 264 Conclusion .............................. 264 References ..............................

................................ SUBJECTINDEX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

AUTHORINDEX

275 287

ADVANCES IN CATALYSIS A N D RELATED SUBJECTS

VOLUME 16

This Page Intentionally Left Blank

The Homogeneous Catalytic lsomerization of Olefins by Transition Metal Complexes MILTON ORCHIN Ilepcrrtineiit of Chcmi.qtry. (Jniiwsity of Cincinnati, Cinriiinati, Ohio

Page 2 3

I. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11. The Carbon-Metal Sigma Bond . . . . . . .............................. 111. The Carbon-Metal Pi Bond. . . . . . . . . . .............................. IV. Stability of the Carbon-Metal Bond .................................... V. The Carbon-Metal Deloealized Pi Bond ................................. A. Ferrocene ........................................................ B. n-AllylComplexes ................................................ VI. Double-Bond Isomerization in Olefins .................................. A. Cobalt Systems; the 0 x 0 Reaction . . . . . . . . ..................... B. Olefin Isomerizations with Iron Compounds ..................... C. u + m Ligand Conversions and Rearrangements. ...................... D. Isomerization with Palladium and Other Group VIII Metals . . . . . . . . . . . . VII. Summary.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ............................ References .........................................................

4

8 12 14

18 21 21 29 34

38 43 45

Many of the recent advances in the understanding of catalysis have emerged from a study of the structure of molecules adsorbed on surfaces. New experimental tools have given new insights into the bonding between the metal surface and the substrate. On the other ha,nd, recent advances in structural inorganic chemistry, especially with respect to coordination compounds, have advanced the understanding of the nature of the bonding between organic ligands and metals. Practically every issue of the most important general journals contains reports of new and exotic complexes. Indeed, there are now special journals devoted exclusively to a description of the chemistry of organometal complexes; most of these new complexes are now isolated in pure crystalline form and are well-characterized. Many of these complexes have organic ligands bonded to the metal in a manner analogous t o their bonding on the solid surface of the same metal. There is no longer any doubt that the chemistry of absorbed molecules and the chemistry of the coordination compounds are intimately related, and insight into the chemistry of either have significance for both. Part of the art of catalysis consists in 1

2

MILTON ORCHIN

arriving a t conditions favorable to the formation of selective intermediates-stable enough to provide the low-energy path to products, but not so stable that their collapse to products is energetically prohibitive. Accordingly, it behooves the more classical physical or physicalorganic chemist t o become better acquainted with the chemistry of transition metal complexes and, in particular, with the chemistry of the reactions in which the transition metal complexes have been established as catalysts for certain conversions. In this report, I have attempted to focus on one such conversion of classical interest t o all chemists concerned with catalysis, namely, that of olefin isomerization. History has shown that it is possible for the creative chemist to develop a technology based on incompletely understood scientific principles; this results from clever extensions of known reactions or from guesses or theories (however wrong) as to how these reactions proceed. I n reviewing some of the principles of bonding in transition metal complexes and in integrating many of the examples in which some of these complexes have functioned as catalysts for the isomerization of olefins, it is hoped that some chemists will be stimulated to speculate, to calculate, and to experiment in this exciting field.

1. Introduction The catalytic homogeneous isomerization of olefins by protonic acids as well as by Lewis acids is well-known and there is little doubt that such isomerizations proceed through carbonium ion transition states or intermediates. Thus, strong acids isomerize 1-hexene to all possible hexene isomers, including cis and trans isomers where these are possible. The isomerization to 2-hexene may be written as a proton addition-elimination : CH,CH&H&H&H= CH,

+[HI+ -[HI+

+

[CH,CH&H&H&HCHJ

-[HI+

d

CH&H,CH&H =CHCH,

+[HI+

The anion presumably plays only a minor role, if any, especially in aqueous systems. Now the formation of 3-hexene may be explained in either of two ways. The intermediate carbonium ion, written in brackets, can undergo hydride migration to form a new carbonium ion, which can then collapse by proton loss t o form the 3-hexene. Such a process does not require the intermediate formation of 2-hexene. The alternate explanation involves the discrete formation of 2-hexene followed by addition and elimination of a proton t o give the desired 3-hexene. There is no question but that the hydride migration occurs, and with great

ISOMERIZATION OF OLEFINS

3

speed. However, the proton addition and elimination occurs simultaneously so that both mechanisms make some contribution to the isomerization process, with the hydride rearrangement probably predominating. The acid-catalyzed isomerizations of olefins are characterized by alkyl group rearrangements (when branched olefins are substrates) and by polymerization reactions. As a matter of fact, such predictable side reactions add to the confidence in the mechanistic picture of carbonium ion intermediates. Not only can acids catalyze olefin isomerization, but strong bases can also effect isomerization. These base-catalyzed isomerizations proceed through proton abstraction of an allylic hydrogen atom followed by protonation of the allylic anion to regenerate either the original or the isomeric olefin : blow

CH,CH,CH=CH,

0

CH,CHCH=CH, 0

CH,CH=CHCH,

0

+ (CH,),COG +CH3CHCH=CH2 + (CH,),COH

+ (CH,),COH

Q

CH,CH= CHCH,

t ,

CH,CH=CHCH,

+ (CH,),COo

In the present chapter, no explicit discussion or review of the acidand/or base-catalyzed isomerization of olefins will be included. The discussion will be confined to isomerizations achieved with soluble transition metal complexes. However, it will be seen that addition and elimination reactions and allylic intermediates figure prominently in discussions of the mechanisms.

.

II. The Carbon-Metal Sigma Bond Although many compounds possessing a carbon-metal sigma bond, such as the Grignard reagent and tetraethyllead, have been known for many years, examples of nlkyl-transition metal bonded compounds have been extremely rare until quite recently. Practically all of those prepared even in very recent years have unsaturated ligands simultaneously attached to the metal, and these ligands donate a sufficient number of electrons so that the metal usually acquires the electronic configuration of a rare gas. A typical example is CH,Co(CO),. The paucity of examples of simple alkyl-transition metal compounds can be considered prima facie evidence that the alkyl-transition metal bond is both thermodynamically and kinetically unstable. I n molecular orbital (MO) terminology, the MO formed by overlap between the carbon hybrid orbital and the metal hybrid orbital is called a sigma orbital. An atomic s orbital is perfectly spherical and hence has the highest possible symmetry. It has the same sign everywhere, by

4

MILTON ORCHIN

convention plus; i.e., the orbital has no nodes. The sign of an electron wave, like the sign of a standing wave which it resembles, changes sign on passing through a node. A standing wave can be represented by a typical sine wave:

The signs of the wave change periodically on passing through the point where the amplitude is zero (the node). The s orbital has no nodes, t h e p orbital one, the d orbital two, etc. Although the u (sigma) molecular orbital does not have spherical symmetry, it does have cylindrical symmetry around the internuclear axis, and because of this s-like atomic orbital property the molecular orbital is called a u orbital. The bond that is formed by the u orbital is called a u bond. An orbital has cylindrical symmetry if, upon rotation of the orbital around the internuclear axis by any angle, there is no change in sign. Antibonding as well as bonding orbitals may be symmetrical with respect to the internuclear axis, and if this condition is fulfilled the antibonding orbital is called a U* (sigma starred) orbital. The u and u* orbitals of the H,molecule and a carbon-metal u orbital are shown schematically in Fig. 1.

0-03

- -*-

--#---+

(a)

(b)

(C)

FIG.1. Examples of a and u* MO's: (a)the u-bondingMO of H,; ( b )the a*-antibonding M O of H,; (c) the a-bonding C8pa-lLIdspa MO.

111. The Carbon-Metal Pi Bond Although the first olefin-transition metal complex, potassium ethylene trichloroplatinite, K[C,H,PtCl,], was discovered in 1827, it was not until 1953 that its correct structure was elaborated. Extension by Chatt and

ISOMERIZATION O F OLEFINS

5

Duncanson ( I ) of the molecular orbital bonding concepts of Dewar ( Z ) , which he developed to explain the structure of Agf-olefin complexes, led to the suggestion that ethylene is symmetrically coordinated t o the metal. Platinum, atomic number 78, has the electronic configuration of the xenon core ( ls2 2s22ps 3sa3p83dl04sa4pe4dl05s25p6, Z = 54)) then 6s1, 4f14 (lanthanide series), 5d9. Pt(I1) is derived from Pt(0) by loss of a 6s’ and a 5d1, and hence has a ds configuration with empty 5d 6s6p3 orbitals. However, in Pt(I1)four-coordinated square planar complexes, dspz orbitals are used for bond formation, leaving a n empty 6p orbital. I n the Pt(I1) anion [C,H,PtCl,]-, then, the three chlorides and the ethylene each occupy a single site in the square plane and each of these four ligands can be thought of as donating a pair of electrons to Pt. The electrons contributed by the ethylene are its pn electrons making up the familiar n bond of ethylene. Such electron donation is frequently denoted by the arrow shown in Fig. Za, and the expression “T bonding” has been \ /

C

(C)

FIG.2. The ethylene-platinum bonding: ( a ) ,thc common representation emphasizing electron donation; ( b ) , the. o-bonding molecular orhitat: (c). the n-bonding molecular orbital. n

used to describe this coordination. In MO terms, the bond is formed by the overlap of the T orbital of ethylene with one of the four equivalent dspa orbitals of Pt(I1);this bonding is depicted in Fig. 2b. It will be noted that the orbitals are symmetrical with respect to rotation around the internuclear ethylene-platinum axis; hence the n-bonded ethylene forms a sigma bond with Pt. At this stage of the description, i t would be reasonable to conclude that, since the two p n electrons of ethylene are now being used not only to bond the two carbons to each other but $0

6

MILTON ORCHIN

bond the ethylene to the platinum as well, the bonding between the two carbon atoms must necessarily be weakened. This in fact is true; the bonding between the carbon atoms is less in the complex than in free ethylene. Although the above explanation is correct, the major decrease in this bonding (easily verified by the shift of the infrared C =C stretching frequency to lower energy) arises from back-donation of elcctrons from the filled d orbitals of Pt into the antibonding orbitals of ethylene. Because of the importaiice of this interaction, some space and at,teiitioii will be devoted to a modest review of t.his concept. When two atomic orbitals (AO’s) are combined, two MO’s always result. The necessity for generating two MO’s from two AO’s is readily rationalized. Since every orbital can accommodate a maximum of two electrons, the comliiuation of two AO’s must generate a sufficient number of MO’s t,o accommodate a maximum of four electrons, namely two. The particular combination of AO’s that is choscw is t h o combination that rcwilts from ntItlit,ioti and snl)t,ract,ioilof tJlwAO’s ant1 this is t,hc h s i s of‘ t h inct,liotl cilll(?d thc linear comhinatioii of atomic orl)it,ds ( IAlAO) whicli is most frcqurntly usod for dcvelopiilg M O ’ s . If we w w e t o coinbincb ld two the AO’s of’,for cxamplc, two hydrogen atoms, wc ~ ~ o i i geiiorat,e Mu’s, a hondiiig M O (the addition) shown i n Fig. I n ant1 an antibontling MO (the subtraction) shown i n Fig. I b . T n the H, molecule thore are onl!, two electrons and these occupy the lowest-energy MO. I f somehow we could arrange to have two more electrons brought into the syst,em, these electrons would both occupy, with opposed spin, the antik)ondiiigorbital. Now, since the bonding and antibonding orbitals are equally occupied and since in a first approximation the bonding energy ofthc bonding MO is cancelled by the repulsive energy of the antibonding MO, there is no stability to such an electronic configuration. T h i s is the reason He,, which would have such a configuration, does not exist, and, as a matter of fact, this explains why all rare gases are monatomic rather than diatomic. The generation of MO’s by the addition and subtraction of AO’s is frequently represented by molecular orbital level diagrams. For the combination of H atoms, the diagram is shown in Fig. 3a. Now in ethylene we are concerned only with the pn electrons and so attention is focused only on the 2p orbital on each carbon atom because their addition generates the TT bond. The contours of the MO’s formed from the AO’s by addition and subtraction of the CzPxorbitals are shown in Fig. 3b and the level diagram is shown in Fig. 3c. If we examine either the T or 7r* orbitals of ethylene, we see that rotation around the internuclear axis by 180”reverses the signs of the orbitals and hence both orbitals are antisymmetric with respect to this operation. Such orbitals are called .rr-type orbitals and the bonds are called T bonds because they have the

ISOMERIZATION O F O L E F I N S

(C)

FIG. 3. Molecular orbital representations: (a),the level diagram for H,; (b), the MO's formed by the addition and subtraction of 2pn AO's; (c), the level diagram for , ,orbitals of ethylene.

symmetry of t h e p atomic orbital. The antibonding orbital having a node between the two carbon atoms is called n*. In ethylene we see from Fig. 3c that r* is unoccupied and, if ethylene is forced to accept electrons, such electrons must go into this orbital. Now if we return to the complexed ethylene in [C,H,PtCI,]-, we recall

8

MILTON ORCHIN

that the p r electrons of ethylene are donated to platinum to form the u bond shown in Fig. 2b. Such donation would place a negative charge on the electropositive Pt atom. A mechanism exists for relief of this charge. The Pt(I1) has the ds configuration with four filled d orbitals. One of these d AO’s of the Pt has symmetry (and energy) which matches that of the n* orbital of ethylene, and hence these orbitals can overlap. The bonding MO which is formed by such interaction is depicted in Fig. 2c. Examination of this orbital with respect to rotation around the internuclear axis shows i t to be antisymmetric. Accordingly, this bond, arising from the back-bonding of Pt electrons into T* of ethylene, is a r-type bond. Occupation of the r* orbital of ethylene cancels in part the effect of r bonding in ethylene, and hence we expect that the C=C stretching frequency will be shifted to lower frequency in the complex: such shifts always occur.

IV. Stability of the Carbon-Metal Bond It is desirable to examine in greater detail the reasons for the thermodynamic instability (small dissociation energy) of the alkyl carbontransition metal u bond, which appears to be so much less than the carbon-metal u bond of the nontransition metals, The reasons for the instability are: (a)the very small covalent^' energy of the metalcarbon bond; and ( b )the relatively small difference in electronegativities between the transition metal and the carbon atom, which accounts for the small “ionic resonance” eiiergy contribiition tlo the total energy of the bond. One of the early efforts to evaluate quantitatively the bond dissociation energy of particular bonds in a compound was the work initiated by Mulliken (3) in his so-called Magic Formula. Although this formula contains five terms, the two most important for the evaluation of a bond dissociation energy, D , (uncorrected for zero-point vibrational energy), between two atoms i and j,are the covalent bond energy, X , , , and the ionic resonance-energy, IRE. The evaluation of X,,takes the form: xi,

= -4&,2,,/(1

+ 8,)

where A is a proportionality constant, 8,is the overlap integral (01) bctween atoms i a n d j , and 1 is the average ionization potential (IP)of the two atoms. (In a first approximation, the IP of the atoms in the ground state can be used.) The overlap integral is a measure of the bonding between atoms and theoretically varies from zero to unity. For the Csp3-C,p3bond of ethane, for example, the value is about 0.65 and for the C-C T bond in ethylene the value is about 0.27. The first

ISOMERIZATION OF OLEFINS

9

ionization potential is the energy, usually expressed as electron volts, required t o remove an electron from the outer orbital of an atom, I n general, t h e overlap integrals for the C-M bond as well as the ionization potentials of the transition metals are somewhat smaller than those of the elements forming stable organometal bonds. The importance of the other major contributor to the bond energy, the IRE, can be illustrated in Pauling's (4)original terms. He showed that the reaction A-A

+ R--R

-+ 2A--B

is almost always exothermic and the explanation for this is that contributions from ionic structures such as A+B- and A-Bf stabilize the A-B bond. If atom A has a small ionization energy and B has a large electron affinity. or vice versa, one of the ionic structures will make a substantial contribution to the stability of the A-B bond, and thus it can acquire extra stability as compared with the sum of the A-A and B-B bond energies. This extra stability will increase as the two atoms A and B become more and more unlike with respect to their electronegativity, which is defined as the relative ability of an atom in a molecule to attract electrons to itself. Specifically, the I R E can be evaluated from the electronegativities of the two atoms: IRE = (XA

- XB)'

The energies are usually expressed as electron volts. The IRE for the CSpS-Cspllbond in ethane is zero and for CH,Na it is 2.56 ev. The stability of alkyl carbon-metal bonds for a variety of metals has been evaluated by Jaff6 and Doak ( 5 ) . They point out that not only is the Xii (the measure of covalent energy) for the C-M bonds of transition metals appreciably smaller (perhaps one-half) than the corresponding values for other elements, but the ionic resonance energy of the alkyl-transition metal bonds is also appreciably smaller (perhaps one-third) than that of alkyl-alkali or alkyl-alkaline earth metal bonds. It is well known that, although CH,Co(CO), is unstable, the acylcobalt

0

II

tetracarbonyl, CH,CCo(CO),, is readily prepared and is comparatively stable. I n the former compound the carbon attached to the metal is sp3 while in the acyl compound the carbon is sp2 and the carbonyl bond is highly polarized. Jaffd ( 6 )has emphasized that the state of hybridization of the carbon atom affects the following factors: the overlap integral, S; the ionizational potential of the carbon atom; and the ionic resonance energy. Increasing the s character from sp3 to s p 2increases S and hence increases X , . The valence state ionization potential t o which Xij is also

10

MILTON ORCHIN

proportional increases with increasing s character of carbon. Finally, the clectronegativity of carbon also increases with increasing s character, and, because cobalt is less electronegative than carbon (1.6 and -2.5, respectively)) the electronegativity difference and hence the ionic resonance energy increase in the acyl compound. The polarization,

n

>C = 0, further increases the electronegativity of carbon. I n addition, the n system of the carbonyl group, because it interacts with pn or dn orbitals of the transition metal, makes a substantial bonding contribution. Such interactions will be elaborated below. All factors thus combine to stabilize CH,COCo(CO), relative to CH,Co(CO),. The same kind of reasoniiig helps to explain why aryl and vinyl groups bonded to transition metals are more stable than alkyl-transition metal compounds, since the carbon bonded to the metal in such compounds has high s character and is part of a multiple bond system. Finally, the recent series of o-bonded perfluoralkyl-transition metal complexes should be mentioned. These compounds presumably owe their stability to the large ionic resonance energy contribution brought about by the substitution of the very highly electronegative fluorine atoms for hydrogen atoms on the carbon attached to the metal (7). The above discussion was concerned solely with some factors affecting the thermodynamic stability of carbon-metal bonds. I t is appropriate now to also consider factors affecting kinetic stability (reactivity) of complexes, although frequently i t is difficult to separate thermodynamic and kinetic contributions to stability, and no attempt to do so will be made here. The stable complexes invariably have uncharged ligands bonded t o metal in addition to the alkyl or aryl group. The common ligands responsible for stability are the cyclopentadienyl group, carbon monoxide, olefins, tertiary phosphines, arsiiies, and stibines. Not only does each of these ligands contribute a pair of electrons to the metal, but they all also have empty orbitals of appropriate symmetry and of appropriate energy t o bond with metal d orbitals. The transition metals are characterized by partly filled (n - l)d orbitals which are close in energy to the valence s and p orbitals. In the absence of unsaturated, electron-donor ligands coordinated to the M-C complex, it would be possible, with only a small expenditure of energy, to promoted electrons into antibonding u orbitals (u*)of the M-C bond, or to promote an electron from the bonding M-C orbital into an empty d orbital on the metal. Either type of electronic change would weaken the metal-carbon bond and cleavage of it would lead to a reactive carbanion or radical-i.e., the organometallic compound would readily go to “pot.” Now in order to minimize such electronic promotion and thus stabilize

ISOMERIZATION OF OLEFINS

11

the compound, it is necessary to maximize the energy difference between the occupied orbital of highest energy and the unoccupied orbital of lowest energy (a quantity which can be measured by the frequency of the longest wavelength band in the ultraviolet spectrum). I n order t o obtain a better picture of the situation, it is desirable to examine the relevant orbitals and their relative energies in somewhat greater detail. I n the crystal field theory, which neglects covalent bonding completely, it is assumed that the metal ion is surrounded (in the square planar case) by four negative ions or neutral dipolar molecules so arranged that the negative ends of their dipoles are pointed toward the central ion and the interaction between the metal ion and the ligands is electrostatic only. The energies of the five d orbitals of the metal, in the absence of an electrical field, are all equal (degenerate). But in the presence of the negative field produced by the four ligands these energies are split (8).If we assume that the four ligands in the square planar complex are on the 2 and y axes in the xy plane, the two d orbitals in this plane will be repelled more than the three other d orbitals. Furthermore, of the two d orbitals in the xy plane, the d z l - l l orbital which points directly a t the ligands will be repelled more than the dzy orbital which points along the bisectors of the angles between the bond directions. Thus the influence of the ligands is to destabilize both the dz2-yzand the d,, orbitals, the former t o a greater extent. The energy level scheme of the five d orbitals is shown in Fig. 4.

FIG.4. Energy levels of the d orbitals in a square planar complex.

Now in a ds ion such as Ni2+,Pd2+,or Pta+,there are eight electrons which will occupy the four lowest-energy orbitals. The pertinent factor affecting stability will then be the energy difference, AE, between the and the occupied dry. (AE is frequently expressed in unoccupied dz2-l12 Dq units, where 10 Dq is the energy splitting between the two sets of

12

MILTON ORCHIN

degenerate d orbitals in an octahedral field.) The greater the field effect of the ligand(s), the larger will be this split and the more stable the organometal complex. Phosphine ligands, especially triphenylphosphine, are excellent electron donors and the lone pair on the phosphorus is responsible for a strong field effect. Accordingly, AE (the ligand field splitting) is increased and the phosphines stabilize the complex. The ligand field splitting decreases in going from the heavier to the lighter metals and, as a matter of fact, alkyl derivatives of platinum and palladium having triphenylphosphine ligands are known, but the corresponding nickel complexes-have not been prepared. The above discussion has considered the stabilization of complexes in terms of the crystal field theory. It is desirable to consider the same topic in terms of modern molecular orbital theory. Although the development, and sophisticated consideration of the MO treatment is far beyond the scope of this chapter, an abbreviated, qualitative picture will be presented, focusing again on the energy levels of the highest occupied and lowest empty orbitals and again using the square planar d8 case. The metal orbitals available for bonding are the eight (n - l)d, ns, and np orbitals. Since there are only four ligands, it will be necessary to generate four bonding and four antibonding orbitals by combinations between four ligand orbitals and four appropriate metal orbitals (9).The appropriate combinations are shown in Fig. 5 . The four lowest and four highest orbitals are the bonding and antibonding orbitals. I n addition, there are four nonbonding d orbitals. The highest filled orbital is again the d,, orbital, but the lowest unoccupied orbital is now an antibonding orbital generated from an appropriate ligand orbital and the d,,-u, metal orbital. Now the better the bonding between the ligand orbital having d,.-u? symmetry and the metal d12-MIorbital, the greater the splitting between the bonding and antibonding orbitals generated from the combination; this effect raises the antibonding level and hence increases AE. But particularly important, if the ligand is capable of forming 7r bonds, particularly with the dP,, orbital, the energy of this orbital will be lowered and hence AE will increase. Ligands with strong donor properties that are also capable of forming r bonds, either because of low-lying antibonding IT* orbitals (carbon monoxide, olefins) or empty d orbitals (phosphines, arsines, stibenes), should thus be capable of stabilizing the organometal complex, and thus complexes such as (R,P),MR, are stable o-bonded M-C complexes.

V. The Carbon-Metal Delocalized Pi Bond As indicated above, in a complex such as [C,H,PtCI,]-, the Pt(I1)is assumed to have a 5ds configuration, Ethylene and each of the three

13

ISOMERIZATION OF OLEFINS

Complex Ligands

Metal

FIG.6. The molecular orbital scheme fords square planar transition metal complexes.

chlorine atoms are assumed to donate a pair of electrons so that the configuration of Pt becomes 6sa6p45d1°. Now usually the transition metal in a complex,tends to accept a sufficient number of electrons so that the total number of electrons surrounding it, its effective atomic number (EAN), is equal to that of the closed shell configuration of the inert gas following the metal in the periodic table. For transition metals this means that the ns, np, and (n - 1)d orbitals (n = 6 in Pt) become filled with eighteen electrons. Square planar Pt(I1) and Pd(I1) do not meet this requirement; they both have an empty p orbital. This may be one of the reasons for their very important catalytic reactivity which frequently involves nucleophilic attack and the attainment of fivecoordinated intermediates and transition states.

14

MJLTON ORCHIN

A. FERROCENE The bookkeeping on electrons in ferrocene, dicyclopentadienyliron, can be done in either of two ways. The compound may be thought of as Fe(I1) with 2 = 24 and two cyclopentadienide ions, [C,H,]-, donating six electrons each to give the 4s24p03d1° configuration, or as Fe(0) with 2 = 26 and two cyclopentadienyl radicals,C,H,. ,donating five electrons each. No decision can or need be made between these alternate methods of bookkeeping, In neutral complexes such as ferrocene, it is usually most convenient for electron counting to assume the metal to be in the zero oxidation state and the ligand t,o be a neutral radical or olefin. Then n complexed ligand having n carbon atoms in its x system may be considered an n-electron donor, each carbon contributing one p x electron to the metal. It is desirable to analyze the bonding in the ferrocene molecule so that important concepts affecting bond strength and stability may be

(d)

(el

(0

(g)

(h)

Pro. 6. Molecular orbital and resonance structure representation of cyclopentadienyl anion.

ISOMERIZATION OF OLEFINS

15

brought out. Since the MO treatment of ferrocene, n-Cp,Fe, can be found elsewhere (10,11),only certain features which emphasize the difficulty of writing an accurate but concise representation of the structure will be discussed. Consider first one isolated cyclopentadienyl ring. Although as mentioned above, the ring may be considered as a five-electron donor for electron-counting purposes, for structural purposes there is some Again this is a advantage in assuming it to exist as the anion [C5H5]-. matter of convenience, since in the molecular orbital treatment all the appropriate molecular orbitals are first generated and finally all electrons are placed in these orbitals in the order of increasing energy of orbitals. The p v AO’s of the five carbon atoms in the cyclopentadienyl group are combined to give five MO’s. The lowest-energy MO would look like two five-sided doughnuts separated by a nodel plane and having opposite signs (Fig. 6 a ) . If attention is focused on the sign of the orbital, this MO can be represented, looking down from the top, by a plus sign everywhere, as is shown in Fig. 6a’. One realizes of course that there is a second portion of this one orbital, not shown in Fig. 6a‘, which is identical to the top half but which has the opposite sign. Figure 6a‘ is usually said to have no nodes, the one in the plane of the molecule being disregarded, since all the MO’s are generated from pr atomic orbitals, which of course have a node in the molecular plane. The four other MO’s of cyclopentadienyl are made up of two pairs having different energies; the MO’s of each pair however have the same number of nodes and identical energy (doubly degenerate), The degenerate pair with one node (Fig. 6b) is lower in energy than the degenerate pair with two nodes (Fig. 6c). I n [C,H,]there are six electrons to account for, the aromatic sextet. These will occupy, two in each, the three MO’s (Figs. 6a and b). Orbitals ( 6 c )which are antibonding will be used only if more electrons are forced on [C,H,J(e.g., by back-bonding from a metal) or if electrons in lower-energy orbitals like b are excited (e.g., by ultraviolet radiation). In the ground state of [C,H,]-, the three MO’s are equally occupied and hence the electron density is uniform around the ring. It has become increasingly popular to represent [C5H,]- by the structure shown in Fig. 6d. This representation is a valence bond structure notation ; it is intended to represent the five equivalent resonance structures (three of these are shown as Figs. 6e, f,and g ; the other two are similar), in which the negative charge is located a t each carbon in turn. Each double bond is thus only a partial double bond and, if the usual notation of writing a partial double bond by a dashed line were applied, the structure would be written as 6h. The solid circle ( 6 4 is a rapid way to write the 6h structure. In a completely analogous

16

MILTON ORCHIN

(b)

(a)

(C)

FIG.7. Resonance structures of benzene.

manner, the two resonance structures of benzene (Figs. 7a and b ) can be represented by the single structure shown in Fig. 7c. Figures 6d and 7c are not MO representations; they are not intended to represent the familiar doughnut-shaped orbitals of lowest energy. The solid circle inside the ring is a notation first suggested by Sir Robert Robinson t o represent the so called <‘aromaticsextet.” Now before appropriate combination of the MO’s of [C,H,]- can be made with the AO’s of iron, the second cyclopentadienyl ring on the opposite side of the iron atom needs to be considered. The orbitals on this ring are identical with the orbitals of the first ring. Combinations (by addition and subtraction) of the five MO’s of each ring system are made to generate ten MO’s of Cp,. To show how these combinations can be made, consider first the combination of lowest-energy MO’s of each ring, the MO of Fig. 6a. End-on views of the orbital shapes of these two rings are shown in Fig. 8a for the addition and in a’ for the subtraction, which

(b)

(b‘)

FIG.8. The overlap of Cp, orbitals with some metal orbitals of similar symmetry.

ISOMERIZATION OF OLEFINS

17

is achieved by reversing the signs of the orbitals of the lower ring. It will be clear that the symmetry of a is appropriate to combine with a p orbital of Fe and that the symmetry of a’is appropriate to combine with the 4s and 3d,a orbitals of Fe. The orbitals of Fe are shown by a dashed line, those of Cp, by a solid line. The effectiveness of the combination of the Cp, orbitals with the metal orbitals, i.e., the degree of bonding, will depend on the relative energy of the Cp, orbitals and the iron orbitals and the overlap integrals of these orbitals. Naturally, orbitals of similar symmetry will tend to have relatively large overlap integrals and those of dissimilar symmetry will have zero overlap in the first approximation. It is instructive to take one more example of Cp, orbitals. Consider the combinations of one of the degenerate orbitals of 6b, the one with a node through carbon atom 1. If this orbital on each ring is viewed on edge, the Combinations by addition and subtraction would appear as shown in Figs. Sb and Sb’, respectively. These orbitals have appropriate symmetry to overlap a 3d orbital (say d,) of Fe (Fig. Sb) and another 4p orbital (say p,) of Fe (Fig. 8b’). The complete MO treatment would consist of developing all ten MO’s of Cp, and matching (combining)them with the nine 4s4p and 3d orbitals of Fe which have similar symmetry. Each combination of a Cp, and an Fe orbital would generate two MO’s, one bonding and one antibonding. Orbitals which cannot combine because of nonmatching symmetry (or large differences in energy) are nonbonding orbitals; if weakly bonding, they are said to be mostly on the metal or mostly on the ligand, depending on the location of the orbital under discussion. Having generated all the bonding, nonbonding, and antibonding orbitals, the eighteen electrons are fed into these orbitals two at a time, until all eighteen are accounted for, giving the level diagram for n-Cp,Fe (21). In writing structures of the transition metal complexes,it is convenient to employ the convention of a dashed (or solid) line to connect the carbon atoms on the ligand which are part of a delocalized 77 system and a single

Fe

or

Fe

18

MILTON ORCHIN

line from the center of this delocalized 7 system to the metal atom. Thus ferrocene may be written as shown here (A or B). The second representation is a variation of the first, as explained earlier for Figs. 6d and 7c ;both structures are intended,to imply a system delocalized over the five carbon atoms of the cyclopentadienyl rings and this delocalized 7 system bonded to the metal atom. The exact nature of the bonding is (perhaps) purposely left vague. The linear notation for the structure is r-Cp,Fe. Other delocalized n systems are written analogously. If the cyclopentadienyl ring were bonded to iron by a a bond, the linear notation is u-CpFe-.

B. T-ALLYLCOMPLEXES From the MO point of view, the three carbon pn AO’s of the allyl system combine to generate three MO’s, all of which will have a node in the plane of the carbon atoms. Because all the carbon atoms are sp2,the C-C-C angle should be approximately 120” and the three carbon atoms as well as the five hydrogen atoms all lie in one plane (Fig. 9). The three MO’s are shown in Figs. 10a, b, and c.

FIG.9. The p n atomic orbitals of the allyl group,

For purposes of bookkeeping, the allyl group may be thought of as bringing into the metal either three electrons as the radical or four electrons as the anion, with, of course, an adjusted formal charge on the metal, if the anion bookkeeping is used. No real distinction can be made between these alternate choices, just as none can be made between the cyclopentadienyl group as a five- or six-electron donor in the form of the radical or anion, respectively. I n the well-known, 7r-allylcobalt tricarbonyl, if Co is regarded as zero-valent (2 = 27), then six electrons are provided by the three CO’s, three electrons by the ally1 radical, which when added to cobalt’s nine brings the total t o eighteen. However, if Co is regarded as Go+ (d*, 2 = 26 with eight d electrons), then the allyl may be regarded as an allyl ion which contributes four electrons, which together with the six from the CO’s brings the total to eighteen. As indicated earlier, for neutral complexes it is convenient to regard the

19

JSOMERIZATJON OF OLEFINS

@, Bonding

(a)

QL2Nonbonding

(b)

G3 Antibonding (C)

group: n ( # bonding), b FIQ. The molecular orbitals c t 3 a and c (hantibonding), and d , the metal d orbital overlap with 4%.

(4%nor-

on(

allyl group in the r-ally1 complexes as providing three electrons to the zero-valent metal. I n any case, however, the allyl group is regarded as a bidentate ligand; it occupies two coordination sites on the transition metal, and thus is a chelating ligand. Bidentate or multidentate ligands always add stability to a complex as compared to a complex with the same groups or atoms separately coordinated. From the shape (or symmetry) of the three MO’s of the allyl group (Fig. 10) it can be seen that the lowest-energy MO, &, which is strongly bonding in the allyl group, has appropriate symmetry t o combine with metal s,p , and d,, orbitals. The next orbital, +2, which is nonbonding as far as the allyl group is concerned, has appropriate symmetry for combining with a metal p; and d, or d,, orbitals. The MO with one of these d orbitals is shown in Fig. lod. The antibonding orbital of the allyl group does not have the symmetry for good overlap with any of the metal orbitals. The complete MO treatment of the molecule is complicated by symmetry problems and because the precise structure of the molecule has not been determined. The entire molecule probably has only a plane of symmetry, but the two moities making up the molecule (the group of

20

MILTON ORCHIN

three CO’s and the allyl group) are each individually more symmetrical than the entire molecule; i.e., there is considerable local symmetry. The five-coordinated Co complex probably has distorted trigonal bipyramid geometry. The bidentate allyl group may occupy an equatorial-apical site, or the two equatorial positions, as in Fig. lla. Slight distortion of

d

0

&-bC3-H

\Cl

R

H

anti- 1-Alkyl-r-ally1 (C)

H

H

syn- 1-Alkyl-n-ally1

(d)

FIO.11. Probable structure of r-allylcobalt tricarbonyls.

this trigonal bipyramid could give a structure resembling a threelegged piano stool with CO’s on each leg, the cobalt a t the apex and the allyl group as a sort of partial seat on which the carbon atoms and all hydrogens are in the plane of the seat (Fig. 1 l b ) . The MO treatment of this complex is beyond the scope of this review, but it should be pointed out that the overlap of the appropriate d orbital with the nonbonding~J!,z orbital of the allyl group (Fig. lOd) makes a substantial contribution to the bonding. The planar geometry of the ally1 group and the partial double-bond character of both C-C bonds permit terminally substituted n-ally1

ISOMERIZATION OF OLEFINS

21

metal complexes to exist in two stereoisomericforms, called anti and syn, depending upon whether the R group is trans or cis to the hydrogen on the middle carbon atom (12)(Figs. l l c and d). Although the carbon atoms in n-ally1complexes are symmetrically located with respect to the metal atom (the point at the intersections of the plane with the tail of the arrow in Figs. l l c and d can be used to judge the symmetry), the two hydrogen atoms on each terminal carbon of the unsubstituted n-ally1 complex are not equivalent. The hydrogen atom on carbon-3 cis to H, is in a different environment than the hydrogen atom of carbon-3 trans to H,; this nonequivalence is amply demonstrated by the NMR spectra of the n-ally1 complexes.

VI. Double-Bond lsomerization in Olefins Double-bond migration in olefins necessitates the making and breaking of carbon-hydrogen bonds. If olefin isomerization is catalyzed by a transition metal hydride, one is compelled to assume that the hydride is acting as a donor-acceptor center, furnishing a hydrogen to the olefinic substrate and then removing it or another hydrogen atom.* The detailed mechanism of specific hydrogen transfer reactions will be explored in subsequent sections. Only a few years ago transition metal hydrides were a rarity. One of the earliest hydrides to be prepared and characterized was the hydride of cobalt carbonyl, HCo(CO),. Today a myriad of transition metal hydrides is known: [(C,H,),P],Pt(H)Cl, HMn(CO),, n-CpM(CO),H (M = Mo, W, Fe), HRh(CO),, HRe(CO),, IrHCl,(CO)(Ph,P),, IrH,Cl(CO)(Ph,P),, and H,Fe(CO), are a few, all of which possess metal to hydrogen cr bonds. I n addition, polynuclear hydrides, those containing two or more metals to which hydrogen is bonded, are also known. Because of its ready availability and its importance in the commercial 0x0 syntheses, and because substantial experimental and theoretical work on its properties and reactions has been reported in the literature, our discussion will begin with a consideration of isomerizations in which HCo(CO), is the catalyst. A. COBALTSYSTEMS; THE 0x0 REACTION After the experimental demonstration by Orchin and associates (13) that under 0x0 conditions the catalytic form of the active catalyst is cobalt hydrotetracarbonyl [systematic name, hydrogen tetracarbonylcobaltate( - I)], HCo(CO),, considerable effort has been devoted to the

* However, see below.

MILTON ORCHIN

22

examination of the reaction of olefins with HCo(CO), under mild conditions, usually 1 atm pressure of CO or N, and room temperature or below. Fortunately, the preparation of solutions of HCo(CO), in known concentration is readily achieved by employing the general homomolecular disproportionation reaction of dicobalt octacarbonyl with Lewis bases, elaborated by Wender et al. (14):

+ 12B

3[co(CO)~Is

+

+ ~[CO(B)~][CO(CO)~I~ 8CO

(1)

When hexane solutions of the octacarbonyl are treated with a n excess of dimethylformamide (DMF)and the resulting mixture is slowly acidified at 0"with 12 N HC1, according to the procedure of Kirch and Orchin (15), the liberated HCo(CO), goes into the hexane layer. The bottom aqueousDMF layer containing CoC1, is syringed away from the top layer; the top hexane layer is then washed and dried and provides a dilute solution of hydrocarbonyl of known concentration. I n studies of the isomerization of olefins by HCo(CO),, i t must be borne in mind that the catalyst HCo(CO), is consumed stoichiometrically via the hydroformylation reaction with the formation of aldehydes and dicobalt octacarbonyl, as shown by Kirch and Orchin (16): CO

+ RCH=CH, + 2HCo(CO), + RCH,CH,CHO + Co,(CO),

(2)

Since under these conditions the olefin is not isomerized by Co,(CO),, any isomerization that occurs must proceed at a rate about equal to or greater than the rate of hydroformylation. The stoichiometry of Eq. (2) requires the absorption of 1 mole of CO per 2 moles of HCo(CO),. However, Heck and Breslow ( 1 7 )showed that, when olefin is used as the solvent, the absorption of CO approaches 1 mole per mole of HCo(CO),, and they further showed that the 1 : l : l HCo(CO),: C0:olefin complex suggested as a possible intermediate by Kirch and Orchin (16) was in fact an isolable intermediate, namely, an acylcobalt tetracarbonyl, RCOCo(CO),. Accordingly, the formation of aldehyde and dicobalt oct,acarbonyl proceeds: RCH=CH,

+ HCo(CO), + CO -+

-

RCH,CH,COCo(CO)~

KCo(CO),

RCH,CH,CHO

+ Co,(CO),

(3)

I n the presence of a large excess of olefin, most of the HCo(CO), is quickly converted t o the acyl compound and none is available for acyl cleavage to the final products; hence, under these conditions aldehyde yield is very low and a 1 :1 ratio of absorbed CO :HCo(CO), is approached. On the other hand, in the absence of a large excess of olefin, the rate of acyl formation is slower, and sufficient HCo(CO), is available t o cleave the

ISOMERIZATION OF OLEFINS

23

acyl compound; aldehyde yield is much higher and the absorbed CO:HCo(CO), ratio of 1:2 is approached. Although Eq. (3) indicates that CO absorption is required for aldehyde formation, it has been shown by Karapinka and Orchin (18)that at 25" and with a moderate excess of olefin the rate of reaction and the yield of aldehyde are similar when either 1 atm of GO or 1 atm of N, is present. Obviously CO is not essential for the reaction and a CO-deficient intermediate, probably an acylcobalt tricarbonyl, can be formed under these conditions. The relative rates of HCo(CO), cleavage of tricarbonyl and tetracarbonyl are not known, and thus the stage a t which CO is absorbed in the stoichiometric hydroformylation of olefins under CO is not known with certainty. Heck (19)has shown conclusively that acylcobalt tetracarbonyls are in equilibrium with the acylcobalt tricarbonyl : RCOCo(CO), p RCOCo(CO),

+ CO

(4)

Part of the evidence consisted of showing that the reaction of the tetracarbonyl with triphenylphosphine is independent of the concentration of the +3P,thus indicating that the reaction proceeds by a dissociative mechanism. The stoichiometric reaction can be written: RCH= CH,

+ HCo(CO), -+

RCH&H,Co(CO), -+ RCH,CH,COCo(CO),

Now t o return to the question of how olefins isomerize in the presence of HCo(CO),, at least four mechanisms should be considered. 1. Discrete 1,Z-Addition and Reverse Elimination of HCo(CO),

The hydroboration of olefins at about room temperature leads to trialkylboranes by anti-Markownikoff addition (20): GCH,CH,CH,CH= CH,

+ BIHe + 2(nC,H,CH,),B

(7)

If an internal olefin is treated similarly and the resulting branched trialkylborane heated a t about 160" in diethylene glycol dimethyl ether, the molecule is rearranged and finally the terminal trialkylborane is produced. The isomerization of the organoborane proceeds through a series of eliminations to regenerate olefin and dialkylborane, followed by

24

MILTON ORCHIN

readditions until the borane has been completely converted into the more stable tri-n-alkylborane: RYHCH&H,

RCH=CHCH,

B

/ \

R'

RCH$HCH, I B / \ R' R'

-I

R'

B-H

RI:' R'

11 (RCH&&CH,),B

. =RCHICH=CHz 4-

B-H

/ \

R'

R'

After equilibration is complete, the tri-n-alkylborane can be refluxed with an excess of thigh-boilingolefin. whereupon the boron is transferred to it and the terminal olefin corresponding to the alkylborane is liberated (21). The over-all process is thus rearrangement of an internal to a terminal olefin; the driving force is presumably the formation of the less sterically hindered n-alkylborane. Essentially the same sequence of reactions was proposed (22a) to explain the isomerization of olefins which accompanies the stoichiometric hydroformylation of olefins. I n particular, it has been suggested that the active catalyst is cobalt hydrotricarbonyl, which first adds by Markownikoff addition and is then eliminated in the opposite direction: HCo(CO),

HCo(CO), + CO

HCo(CO), + RCH=CHCH,

RCH CHCH, HCo(CO),

T

It was further shown (22b), presumably in support of these suggested reaction schemes, that ethylcobalt tetracarbonyl decomposes at 170" to give about 50% and at 220" 80% of ethylene, although at room temperature the reaction was not reversible. Karapinka and Orchin (18)made an extensive study of the isomerization of 1-pentme under stoichiometric hydroformylation conditions.

ISOMERIZATION OF OLEFINS

25

Some of their results are shown in Table I. The speed of the isomerization reaction is very great. Thus in the experiments at 25' in which 100mmoles of 1-pentene are treated with 4 mmoles of HCo(CO),, the reaction is complete (disappearance of all HCo(CO),) in less than 3 minutes. Since about 40% aldehyde is produced, and each millimole of aldehyde requires 1 mmole of olefin and 2 mmoles of HCo(CO),, about 99 mmoles of olefin 1 - Pentene

TABLE I of Carbon Monoxide (30 Minutea)

+ Cobalt Hydrocarbonyl-Effect

Aldehyde l-P/CoR

Gas

Total 25 25 2

2 25 25 a

N*

co N*

co

N,

co

Pentene

Temp.

25 25 25 25 0 0

39 37 7 53 31

B/Sb

1-

2-

t/cc

2.6

48 65 10 98 51

52 35 90

0.9 0.8 5.4

2.2 >2 5 0.3 2.4

2

-

49

0.8

No reaction

Ratios of millimoles of 1-pentene/millimolesof HCo(CO),. Branched/straightchain. tram/cis.

remained a t completion and half of this had been isomerized. Assuming that olefin and HCo(CO), must complex in order for isomerization to occur, i t would appear that the complex is a t least about fifty times more likely to rearrange and collapse to isomerized olefin than to intermediates (acylcobalt tricarbonyl) leading to aldehyde. Karapinka and Orchin further found that under conditions in which the postulated alkylcobalt (and acylcobalt) carbonyl concentrations should be optimum, olefin exchange in a manner analogous to that obtained with boron alkyls was not successful. Accordingly, these authors do not favor the 1,2-additionelimination scheme to explain the isomerization under the very mild conditions employed. 2. The AZZyZic Exchange of RCH,CH=CH, with HCo(CO), A second scheme for the isomerization of olefins by HCo(CO), consists of an exchange of an allylic hydrogen of the olefin with the hydrogen of the hydrocarbonyl through a six-membered transition state (18):

H

26

MILTON ORCHIN

The electron shifts pictured here involve proton transfer but hydride shifts could be pictured analogously. Polarization of the olefin would proceed subsequent t o its incipient .rr-complexing with the cobalt and partial displacement of a CO ligand. After .rr-complexing, the above hydrogen exchange (isomerization) initiated by nucleophilic attack on hydrogen could occur. Alternately, attack of the polarized olefin on a ligand CO could result in direct acylcobalt formation. Or, finally, carbon attack on Co could lead to alkylcobalt formation. Exact knowledge of the fate of the complex is still lacking. The basic difference between is that the latter involves allylic exchange and 1,2-addition-elimination a true u bond between cobalt and carbon. Some support for the allylic shift pictured above comes from the work of Goetz and Orchin (23) on the isomerization of allyl alcohol to propionaldehyde by DCo(CO),. These authors found that in the deuterated aldehyde all the D was on the methyl carbon and the following reaction path was suggested:

Ordinarily, DCo(CO), would be expected to add to an olefin t o an appreciable extent by anti-Markownikoff addition, since with olefins more straight chain than branched chain product results. Such addition would place deuterium on the penultimate carbon atom. It can be argued that allyl alcohol is not an olefin and therefore might be expected t o behave differently. As usual more work is necessary. A similar isomerization of allyl alcohol t o propanal using Fe(CO), has been reported by Emerson and Pettit (24). 3 . The Addition of Hydrogen Followed by Rearrangement

Although HCo(CO), is a strong acid in aqueous solution and is capable of protonating even weak bases like dimethylformamide, there is no evidence that it protonates olefins in hydrocarbon solvents to form carbonium ion intermediates which might then rearrange by conventional 1,e-hydride shifts followed by proton elimination: +

RCH,CH=CH,

+

+ H+ $ RCH,CHCH, + RCHCH,CH,

- H+ H+

RCH=CHCH,

(12)

The secondary carbonium ion could also collapse directly to the 2-olefin

27

TSOMERIZATION OF OLEFINS

rather than rearrange before the loss of the proton. However, essentially no skeletal rearrangements of importance have been reported, even when olefins known to undergo such rearrangement are treated with HCo(CO),. Furthermore, HCo(CO), is not a polymerization catalyst under any known conditions. Accordingly, there is little evidence for a carbonium ion mechanism.

4. Rearrangement of Alkylcobalt C'arbonyls Takegami et al. (25) reported that when ethyl a-bromopropionate is treated with KCo(CO), in toluene a t 0" in the presence of 1 atm of CO and the product cleaved with iodine, both the expected ester, ethyl methylmalonate, and the rearranged ester, diethyl succinate, are formed, the latter in smaller quantity. At 25", however, the succinate predominatefl. PO

-

0" I,, EtOH + CHSCHCO,Et.+ KCo(CO), -+ [intermediates]

I Hr

+ CH,CHCO,Et

13t,0,CCH,CH2C0,Et

(13)

I

C0,Et 7%

19%

The authors believe that the rearrangement necessary to explain the formation of succinate occurs at the alkylcobalt tetracarbonyl stage. The reaction is complicated since CO is liberated during the reaction and other products were not identified. Although no mechanism for the isomerization was suggested, it is of interest t o speculate concerning it. One attractive suggestion is the possibility of splitting out of HCo(CO), followed by its readdition: CH,CHCO,Et p CH,=CHCO,Et

+ HCo(CO), + CH&H,CO,Et I

i'o(CO),

4

(14)

succinate

This scheme is particularly attractive because Heck and Breslow ( 2 2 ~ ) reacted methyl acrylate with HCo(CO), a t 0"in pentane in 1 atm of CO and obtained both products, the malonate in 25% yield and the succinate in 5% yield. I n view of the coincidence of yield and of distribut'ion of products, one must consider the possibility that a dehydrohalogenation to acrylate occurred prior t o the formation of alkylcobalt carbonyls: CH,CHCO,Et

I

+ [Co(CO),]- + CH,=CHCO,Et + HCo(CO), + Br-

(15)

BT

It is difficult t o make a decision from available data as to whether the production of succinate proceeds via an initial, base-catalyzed

28

MILTON ORCHIN

([Co(CO),]-) dehydrohalogenation [Eq. (la)] followed by addition of HCo(CO),, or whether splitting out of HCo(CO), occurs from the alkylcobalt [Eq. (14)], which is the malonate precursor, followed by HCo(CO), addition in the opposite direction. In one case [Eq. (15)], olefin formation proceeds directly from the bromide and no reversibility of any steps is required, while according to Eq. (14) olefin formation proceeds from elimination of HCo(CO),. The same authors (25) prepared butanoylcobalt tetracarbonyl and found that they could isolate isobutyrate ester, presumably via the following reactions: 0

II

CH,CH,CH,CCl CH&HCo(CO),

f

0

+ KCo(CO),

CH,CH=CH,

I

It

--f

CH,CH&CH,CCO(CO)~

11 + HCo(CO), + CH,CH,CH,Co(CO), + CO

(18)

CHa

It is difficult to explain the rearrangement except by the indicated reaction steps. If these steps do occur, the propylene and HCo(CO), must be rather tightly complexed; otherwise part or all of the volatile olefin would be lost. The title of this section, “Rearrangement of Alkylcobalt Carbonyls,” is perhaps misleading because an analysis of the reactions discussed here shows that the critical reaction accounting for the rearrangement is essentially the elimination and readdition of HCo(CO), discussed earlier under the section “Discrete 1,2-Addition and Reverse Elimination.” However, the earlier section dealt with olefinic starting materials and this section deals with them as postulated intermediates. A further difference is that, as Eq. (16) shows, the acylcobalt complex, as well as the alkylcobalt complex, can furnish an olefin intermediate. It is of considerable importance to note here that such rearrangements with postulated olefin intermediates have been invoked (26) tcr explain the coenzyme B,, (a cobalt-containing enzyme) intermediated interconversion of methylmalonyl and succinoyl CoA and may be of general applicability. One final interesting isomerization achieved in the cobalt carbonyl system should be mentioned. Heck and Breslow (22b) found that acylcobalt tetracarbonyl compounds undergo alcoholysis with the formation of HCo(CO),. With methanol, the reaction proceeds at 50”: 0

I1

RCCo(CO),

0 II

+ CH,OH -+ RCOCH, + HCo(CO),

(17)

The hydrocarbonyl is readily trapped by a base such as dicyclohexylamine. Since the acylcobalt tetracarbonyl can be generated by the

ISOMERIZATION OF OLEFINS

29

treatmeht of an alkyl halide with [Co(CO),]-, these authors devised a clever, catalytic scheme for the conversion of alkyl halides to esters by taking advantage of the reaction sequence: 0 1 I CO -+ R’CCo(C0)a

+ [Co(CO),]- + R’COCo(C0). + CHaOH RCO,CH, + HCo(CO), HCo(CO)( + R,N -+ R,&H + [Co(CO),]R,N R X + CO + CH,OH -----+ R’CO,CH, [CdCO),I-

RX

3

(18)

When l-chlorooctane was treated in this manner at looo, the product (35% conversion) was about a 5:l mixture of methyl nonanoate and methyl 2-methyloctanoate, respectively. The authors suggest that the rearrangement conceivably proceeds in a manner somewhat analogous to that represented by Eq. (16). B. OLEFINISOMERIZATIONS WITH IRON COMPOUNDS Because the hydride of cobalt carbonyl is an isomerization catalyst, it might be expected that the hydride of iron carbonyl might behave similarly. The hydride of iron corresponding to HCo(CO), is H,Fe(CO),. and The dissociation constants of this acid (27)are K , = 4 x K , = 4 x 10-14, and thus as a monobasic acid H,Fe(CO), is somewhat stronger than acetic acid but not as strong as HCo(CO),, which is essentially completely dissociated in aqueous solution in which .it is soluble to the extent of about 0.05 M at 25”. The solubility of H,Fe(CO), M . Fe(CO), reacts with Ba(OH), to give the in water is 1.8 x half-acid salt: 2Fe(CO),

+ 3Ba(OH),

--f

[Fe(CO),H],Bs

+ 2BaC0, + 2H,O

(19)

In strongly alkaline solution, the dibasic salt is formed: 4NaOH

+ Fe(CO),

3

Na,Fe(CO),

+ Na,CO, + 2H,O

(20)

However, some [HFe(CO),]- is also present owing to hydrolysis. Sternberg et al. (28a)postulated that [HFe(CO),]- can exist as a dimer because (among other reasons) of its ability to function as a donor of molecular hydrogen. The ion was shown to be a catalyst for olefin isomerization; shaking l-hexene at room temperature with an ether solution of [HFe(CO),]- for 24 hours isomerized all the I-hexene to 2and 3-hexenes. Similar isomerizations also have been reported to be catalyzed by H,Fe(CO), (28b) and by Fe(CO), (29). One of the most extensive studies to date of the isomerization of

30

MILTON ORCHIN

olefins by iron carbonyls was reported by Manuel (30).The isomerizations were achieved by heating the olefin either with Fe(CO),, if it boiled above IOO", or with [Fe(CO)&, if the olefin boiled between 60 and 100". If the heating was continued sufficiently long (4 hours of refluxing for 1-hexene and 19 for 2-methyl-l-pentene), the mixture of olefins approached the distribution expected for the thermodynamic equilibrium with respect to both position of the double bond and cisltrans ratio. The addition of small amounts of polar substances such as acetone or dimethoxyethane accelerates the rate of isomerization. When the reaction was carried out in a sealed vessel, the partial pressure of CO which developed was sufficient t p completely inhibit the isomerization. It seems clear that some type of n-complexing is essential. The more highly hindered the double bond, the more difficult (slower) is the isomerization. It is of interest that at the end of 4 hours of refluxing 1-hexenewith 0.6 mole yo Fe,(C0)12the equilibrium mixture of hexenes was obtained, but, after 19 hours of refluxing cis-2-hexene under the same conditions, only about 12% conversion of cis-2-hexene was obtained. The slow step seems to be the initial n-complexing and Manuel suggests that isomerization occurs within the complexed species without liberation of the intermediate olefins. Basically, two mechanistic paths were suggested for the isomerization, both involving carbonyl hydride intermediates. The first of these has been represented:

Although the reaction responsible for the generation of the hydride is not specified,it is assumed that it arises from a disproportionation of iron carbonyl complexes. The hydride presumably adds after 7r-complexing to form the a-bonded complex which then splits out the metal hydride in either direction. The n-complexed olefin may then be displaced by another olefin or undergo another hydride addition-elimination sequence. The second path involves olefin complexing with the deficient Fe(CO), species and formation of a n-allyliron hydride intermediate : H

.R 'H

(L

H ,

/

c'H+ 'c,

H H

Fe(CO),

-

H I

R, &\ ,H F c,H H

I

c'l

Fet

co

co

-

H

I

ISOMERIZATION O F OLEFINS

31

The isomerization of cis- to trans-stilbene achieved by refluxing 1 .O gm of the cis compound in 25 ml of cyclohexane with 0.2 gm of Fe,(CO),, for 22 hours under nitrogen cannot be explained by such a conventional w-ally1 intermediate since there is no allylic hydrogen. Some kind of complex involving the aromatic ring must be essential but no suggestions have been published. The w-allyliron tricarbonyl hydride has the rare gas (krypton) electronic structure. Emerson and Pettit (31) showed that protonation of dieneiron tricarbonyls leads to w-allyliron tricarbonyl cations:

The EAN of iron in this complex is 34, but it may be a solvated ion. Treatment of the salt with water gives 2-butanone, which was presumed t o have been formed via nucleophilic attack on the cation to give a n-ally1alcohol complex. This complex was then assumed to rearrange via the tricarbonyl hydride to an enol complex, which collapses to the ketone : H

/CH3

0

CI&CC%CH, II

"">C+H H3C

Fe(CO),

In support of this mechanism, it was shown that allyl alcohol on treatment with Fe(CO), is isomerized to propionaldehyde. The identical isomerization of allyl alcohol has been demonstrated (23)to proceed by HCo(CO), catalysis and evidence secured for a similar 1,3 or allylic hydrogen shift [Eq. (1l)]. Certain conjugated iron diene tricarbonyl compounds have been

32

MILTON ORCHIN

isomerized to conjugated dienes with a different structure (32). The conversion of 2,6-dimethyl-2,4-hexadieneto trans-2,5-dimethyl-l,3hexadieneiron tricarbonyl may be written as proceeding through r-allyliron hydride intermediates :

The complete shift of a, conjugated diene to a new conjugated diene sygtem has also been observed in the !-ionone system (33).Such diene rearrangements require a stoichiometric quantity of Fe(CO),. The rearranged diene ligand is conveniently liberated from the Fe by oxidrttion of the complex with FeCI,. Nonconjugated dienes are rearranged to iron carbonyl complexes of conjugated dienes when treated with Fe(CO), or Fe,(CO)I,. Thus 1,4-pentadiene gives trans-l,3-pentadieneirontricrtrbonyl (34) possibly by the route:

ISOMERIZATION OF OLEFINS

33

/ HFe(CO1,

Fe(CO),

1,4-Dihydromesitylene likewise gives a 1,3 complex (34) and 1,4cyclohexadiene gives 1,3-~yclohexadieneirontricarbonyl. 1,a-Cyclooctadiene on treatment with catalytic quantities of Fe(CO), gives 1,3-cyclooctadiene(35),as the iron tricarbonyl complex is probably not very stable and is continuously displaced by fresh 1,b-diene until isomerization is complete. The n-pentadienyliron tricarbonyl cation is an important grouping. It can, for example, be generated by treatment of cyclohexadieneiron tricarbonyl with triphenylmethyl fluoroborate. This salt is a powerful hydride abstractor (36) and the reaction gives rise to x-cyclohexadienyliron tricarbonyl cation (37):

The ionic complex may be formally regarded as a carbonium ion complexed to the Fe(CO), moiety. The diene moiety before reaction is obviously a four-electron donor. After hydride loss the four p n electrons are distributed over the five spa carbon atoms, all of which must be in a plane and all simultaneously bonded to iron. It would be expected that considerable back-donation from the metal d orbitals occurs in view of the positive charge, and this is substantiated by the abnormally high C-0 stretching frequency of the carbonyls in the complex. When uncomplexed cyclohexadienyl cation is treated with q5,CH, hydride transfer occurs and 4,C+ is formed; i.e., cyclohexadienyl cation is a stronger acid than +&However, I+. as seen above, the c m p l w e d cyclohexadienyl cation is a weaker acid (more stable, less electrophilic) than q&C+ since it will not abstract the hydride from +,CH. The difference in electrophilicity is reasonably ascribed (32) to the extensive electron transfer (back-bonding) from the metal to the cyclohexadienyl moiety, thus giving further support to the suggested structure of the complexed cation. It should be noted that the n-cyclohexadienyl cation can

34

MILTON ORCHIN

theoretically be obtained from the protonation of benzene and this fact suggests certain interesting possibilities. It is important that the five carbon atoms making up the n-pentadienyl fails to abstract a hydride system have the cisoid arrangement. Thus from trans- but does from cis-l,3-pentadieneiron tricarbonyls (38):

@cH3

-+-no reaction

+ @,c+

(284

FdCO),

However, treatment of cis-l,3-pentadiene with Fe(C0) leads to formation of the trans-l,3-pentadieneiron tricarbonyl, probably via a nallyliron hydride intermediate as shown for the conversion of 1,4pentadiene to the trans-l,3-pentadieneiron tricarbonyl [Eq. (26)]. The cis-1,3-pentadieneiron tricarbonyl [Eq. (28)] could be prepared only indirectly by borohydride treatment of x-pentadienyliron tricarbonyl cation (see below). The n-pentadienyl cation system can also be generated by perchloric acid treatment of complexed alcohols and an interesting rearrangement of a primary t o R secondary alcohol can thus be achieved (39): H3C

c%oH +

Fe(co),-

H , c q L c b o H Fe(CO),

(29)

c. a $ x h l A N D CONVERSIONS AND REARRANGEMENTS I n 1961, Green and Nagy (40) reported that treatment with HC1 of a a-ally1 group coordinated to iron gave a n-propene complex cation :

35

ISOMERIZATION OF OLEFINS

The cation can be isolated as the chloroplatinate, [T-C~F~(CO),C,H,], PtCl,. Similar cations had been prepared from ethylene by Fischer and Fichtel(41). Green and Nagy also found (42)that it was possible to form the same complexed propene cation by hydride abstraction with +,C+-BF,- from the n-propyl complex as indicated above. Thus the identical cationic rr-propene complex can be generated either by proton addition to the a-ally1 or by hydride abstraction from the o-n-propyl complex. They then discovered that NaBH, reduction of the cationic 7-propene perchlorate complex in THF gave the a-isopropyl complex T-Cp(CO),FeCH(CH,), in good yield. Thus it is possible by successive hydride abstraction and addition to isomerize the normal propyl t o the isopropyl group :

Studies by Green and Nagy (43) on the hydride removal from the isopropyl complex -Fe-CD<EE:

showed that the carbon atom beta

to the metal is removed, and they suggest that the removal is an SN2type reaction, e.g., with the ethyliron complex:

It is unlikely that the hydride addition to the cation proceeds via an isolable iron hydride, ?r-CpFe(CO),H,plus CH,CH =CH,, followed by readdition of the hydride to the olefin, because it was not possible to transfer the iron to either 1-hexene or butadiene during the reduction. The conversion of u + 7r by external removal of a hydride (with qi3C+) and the subsequent conversion of T + u by external supply of hydride (with NaBH,) has been suggested (43) as a model system for the doublebond isomerization of chemisorbed olefins on metal surfaces in which the metal can act as the internal banking site for hydride: R\

P' C$,CH2

R\

___t

CH I -M-

R\ C!$

/R'

CH=CH I H

-d-

Ck

C% ,R 'CH I

(33)

-M-

In this connection, a recent article by Phillipson and Wells (44) dealing with the isomerization of butenes is of interest. The Group V I I I metals catalyze both the hydrogenation and isomerization of butenes, cobalt

36

MILTON

ORCHIN

being the most selective for isomerization and iridium and platinum for hydrogenation. It might be expected that, since an adsorbed C,H, species is a necessary intermediate for the hydrogenation, i t is also a reasonable intermediate for the isomerization. However, the authors demonstrated that butene isomerization on a cobalt surface, after adsorption of the butene, proceeds via abstraction of hydrogen as a first step to a C,H, species, even in the presence of a hydrogen atmosphere. With the good hydrogenation catalysts, C4H, is probably the first species formed or it is formed in competition with C,H,. The protonation of a o-allyltungsten complex to the cationic n-propene complex and the NaBH, reduction of this to the isopropyl complex in complete analogy to the corresponding iron compounds has been demonstrated by Green and Stfear( 4 5 ) :

I

W / I\\CH&H=Cri,

cococo

(34)

The interconversion of u- and n-ally1 complexes has been observed by Kwiatek, Mador, and Seyler in the interesting homogeneous catalytic system of potassium pentacyanocobaltate(II), K,Co(CN), (46). This solution absorbs molecular hydrogen to form the active hydride species, K,[Co"'(CN),H]. Addition of butadiene to the hydride results in the formation of a a-methallylcobalt complex :

+ CH,=CHCH=CH,

[(CN),CoH]

+ [(CN),CoCH,CH=CHCH,]

(35)

An analogous u-allylcobalt complex is formed by treating ally1 halide with K,Co(CN),: 2[Co(CN),]a-

+ CH,=CHCH,X

-+ [(CN)sCoX]S-

+ [(CN),COCH,CH=CH,]~-

(36)

Loss of a cyanide group converts the o-ally1 complex to a n-ally1 and when excess CN- is added reconversion occurs (47): /

CN

CH=CHR

CN CN

37

ISOMERIZATION OF OLEFINS

Some of the evidence for such structures comes from the change in product distribution of the butenes as a function of cyanide concentration when butadiene is hydrogenated with pentacyanocobaltate(11) catalyst or when the u butenyl complex is reduced with the hydride complex [HCo(CN),]3-. Thus 1-butene is the major product in the presence of excess CN-, and trans-2-butene is the major product in the absence of excess cyanide. The 1-butene presumably arises from the cleavage of a u complex, and the 2-butene via an intermediate wallyl complex. The r-ally1 complexes of cobalt tricarbonyl are well-characterized and can be prepared either from butadiene and HCo(CO), (48)or from methallyl halide and NaCo(CO), (49). H I

CH*=CHCH=CH,

+

-

HCo(CO), - -

.

or CH,CH=CHCH,X

+ NaCo(CO),

The protonation of the o-allylic cyanocobaltate complexes has been reported by Kwiatek and Seyler (50)to proceed with the liberation of the corresponding olefin. Thus the complex prepared from butadiene [Eq. (35)] on treatment with aqueous HC1 liberates 1-butene. The carbonium ion which probably forms first can cleave directly to 1-butene or it may first rearrange to a n-olefin complex, from which the olefin is then displaced with either H,O or chloride: [ (CN),CoCHzCH=CHCH3]

3-

+ H+

-

[ (CN),CoCH,6HCH2CH3 I s-

/

[(cN),coJ~- + CH,=CHCH,CH,

-

(39) 2-

The n-olefin complex is analogous to the complex which Green and Nagy (40) reported for the protonation of the a-2-butenyliron complex:

Kwiatek and Seyler (50) also showed that, if the R group in the cobalt

38

MILTON ORCHIN

u complex is saturated, protonation results in rearrangement of the R group and the formation of the nitrile, RCN, on further treatment with alkali. The postulated sequence is:

9-

-

(41)

[OH]-

CH,CH,C&CN

The rearrangement is reminiscent of the well-known carbonyl insertion in the alkylmanganese pentacarbonyl system (51): 0

This CO insertion occurs under the influence of nucleophiles other than carbon monoxide, e.g., triphenylphosphine. The independence of the rate on the concentration of ligand suggests (52) a rate-controlling dissociation of the octahedral complex assisted by a nucleophilic (ether) solvent.

D. ISOMERIZATION WITH PALLADIUM AND OTHERGROUPVIII METALS In 1934, Anderson (53)reported that hydrolysis of Zeise’s salt, K[PtCl,C2H,], gave some acetaldehyde. For some time this fact was partly responsible for the assumption that ethylene was unsymmetrically However, Chatt and coordinated to the platinum as -Pt=CHCH,. Duncanson (54)showed that the ethylene was symmetrically coordinated to platinum. One of the suggestions (55) made t o explain the formation of acetaldehyde was that the ethylene ligand was first hydrated to ethanol, which in the presence of Pt(l1)is then oxidized to the aldehyde. However, Joy and Orchin (56)showed that, although such an oxidation proceeds very well, its rate is considerably less than the formation of acetaldehyde from Zeise’s salt under identical conditions. Interest in the ethylene oxidation skyrocketed when Smidt, Hafner, and co-workers at the Consortium for Electrochemical Industries in Munich reported (57) the commercial process for converting ethylene to acetaldehyde via a palladium complex analogous to Zeise’s salt. The stoichiometry of the reaction is: C,H,

+ PdCI, + H,O + C,H,O + Pd f 2HC1 Pd + 2CuC1, + PdCl, + 2CuCl

(43)

ISOMERIZATION OF OLEFINS

39

The oxidation of elementary palladium formed as a n intermediate in the process was best achieved by CuCl,, since CuCl is more easily oxidized by oxygen than is palladium (58). I n view of the commercial importance of the reaction, considerable effort has been expended on elucidating its mechanism and extending the reaction to a variety of other synthetic processes based on olefins. The formation of acetaldehyde from the sr-olefin complex was shown to involve intramolecular migration of a hydrogen atom from one carbon of the ethylene to the other, rather than OH- attack on a vinyl group -OH --f generated by hydride abstraction with Pd (CH,=CH+ CH,=CHOH) followed by rearrangement of the vinyl alcohol to acetaldehyde, since hydrolysis in D,O yielded acetaldehyde free of deuterium (59). One possible mechanism for the reaction may be written as follows:

+

H

H

[A1 The complex [A] is essentially the intermediate inferred in the mechanism proposed by Stern (60)t o explain his results from the reaction between propene and PdCl, in the presence of acetic acid. The kinetics of essentially the same reaction have been carefully investigated by Moiseev et al. (61)and a thorough study of each step in the reaction was recently reported by Henry (62). Henry, assuming that PdCl, in an aqueous system exists in the form of [PdC1J2-, proposed that the steps in the reaction were as follows: [PdCI,]z-

+ C,H, + [PdCI,C,H,]- + C1P I

[B]

+ H,O

i.? [PdCI,(H,O)C,H,] $. C1-

[CI

[C]

+ H,O

$

[PdCl,(OH)C,H,]-

+ H,+O

[Dl slow

[D] --+CIPdCH&H,OH [A1

+ CI-

(49)

40

MILTON ORCHIN fnst

[A] ---+

HCI

+ PdO + CH,CHO

The hydroxo 7~ complex [D] is assumed to rearrange to the a-bonded compound [A] since only a secohdary isotope effect is observed with C,D,, and if the 7~ complex went directly to acetaldehyde Henry claims that the hydride shift involved would have produced a primary deuterium effect. Although the hydroxo complex [D] would have been expected to be trans,i t was suggested that kinetically significant amounts of the cis isomer are present, Henry chooses to write complex [A] as an activated complex in which the palladium somehow is assisting the migration of hydride [A']:

[A' 1

Stern showed rather conclusively that the palladium does not depart to leave a carbonium ion but that both hydride migration and collapse to an aldehyde proceed simultaneously. The removal of the 9, hydrogen in a complexes by the heavier Group VIII metals has been documented. Thus Chatt and Shaw (63) showed that a platinum hydride complex could undergo the reversible addition of ethylene: (Et,P),Pt(Cl)H

+ CH,=CH,

+

t (EtsP)2Pt(CI)H*C,H, (Et,P),Pt(Cl)C,H,

(51)

The loss of ethylene from the a-bonded ethyl group most reasonably proceeds by migration of hydrogen from a carbon of the ethyl group t o platinum. This mechanism again represents reversible addition of H-M to a double bond. It is worthwhile noting that in the preparation of the unusual hydride [IrHCI,(PPh,),], in which the hydride hydrogen is captured from ethanol, Vaska and DiLuzio (64) showed that when CH,CD,OH was used the iridium was coordinated to deuteride. Thus it is likely that the hydrogen alpha t o oxygen (beta to metal) is abstracted by the iridium: CH,CD,OIr

--f

IrD

+ CH,CDO

(52)

I n an extensive study of the isomerization of hexenes and heptenes by platinum, palladium, and ruthenium, Harrod and Chalk (65) found that in many cases the equilibrium mixture of isomerized olefins was obtained. Isomerizations were achieved with: Pt(I1) (as 1,3-bisethylene-2,4dichloro-p-dichlorodiplatinum(I1) with alcohol as cocatalyst), Pd(I1)

ISOMERIZATION OF OLEFINS

41

(as 1,3-bisbenzonitrile-2,4-dichloropalladium(II), Rh(II1) (as trichlororhodium(II1) dihydrate with alcohol as cocatalyst), and Ir(II1) (as trichloroiridium(II1) in the presence of alcohol as cocatalyst). The authors conclude that in all cases isomerization may be explained by the formation of the metal hydride, coordination with the olefin, reversible addition of H-M to the olefin to form the o-bonded intermediate, and dissociation again t,o the isomerized olefin. I n an interesting example of isomerization of a conjugated diene to the nonconjugated position, Rinehart and Lasky (66) demonstrated that 1,3-cyclooctadiene is rearranged to the 1,5 isomer via a rhodium(1) complex. Treatment of the 1,3 diene (1 ml) with RhC1,.3H,O (2 gm) in ethanol (20 ml) a t 50" for 24 hours gave [1,5-C8H,,RhCl],. Treatment of this complex with aqueous KCN liberates the nonconjugated diene. The square planar configuration of this dimer complex originally suggested by Chatt and Venanzi (67) was confirmed by an X-ray structure analysis by Ibers and Snyder (68):

The preferred mechanism (66)for the isomerization involves n-complexing followed by hydride abstraction to give a n-allylrhodium hydride intermediate, e.g.,

A variety of n-ally1 complexes are possible, including the transannular ones. It should be noted that, although 1,3-~yclooctadieneis thermodynamically the most stable diene, the stability of the 1,Fi complex provides the driving force for the rearrangement. The 1,4 diene complex does not appear to be an intermediate, suggesting that the hydride abstraction-addition sequence is not straightforward. Davies (69) has carried out a series of isomerization experiments in a medium consisting of acetic acid, palladium(I1) chloride, and sodium chloride, the latter in a 1:l mole ratio. I n this system sodium 1,2,3,4p,p'-dichloropalladium(I1)was assumed to be present:

42

MILTON ORCHIN

When 1-octene was the substrate and the reaction was carried out in CH,C02D, no D appeared in the mixture of octene isomers. I n order t o determine whether the 2-octene formed was obtained via a 1,3 shift [Eq. (54)l or two cocurrent 1,2 shifts [Eq. (5511, the isomerization was carried out with 1-octene labeled in the 3 position, C,H,,CD,CH=CH,. The 2-octene isolated was not labeled in the methyl group. Hence, Eq. H

C

T

C,H,,CH,CH-CH,-C~H,,HC~~+CCH, Pd Pd H / -

A c,H,,cH,cH-CH, L/ J d

-

C,H,,CH-CHCH, T Pd

\

C,H,,CH-CHCH, f Pd

(54)

C,H,,CH=CHCH,

(55)

(54) is improbable but Eq. ( 5 5 ) is consistent with the data. Positive direct proof of deuterium incorporation at carbon-2 was not obtained, C

I

however. Isomerization of C-C-C-C=C was also attempted with the palladium catalyst under conditions which isomerized 1-octene. The fact that no isomerization occurred was taken as additional evidence for the correctness of Eq. ( 5 5 ) , since the above compound has no hydrogen on the methyl-substituted carbon but allylic hydrogens are available for reaction by Eq. (54). No precise mechanistic path for the isomerization was suggested. The suggestion that the palladium chloride-catalyzed isomerization of a 1-olefin to a 2-olefin is achieved by migration of hydrogen from C-3 t o C-2 and from C-2 to C-1 has been challenged by Harrod and Chalk (70). These authors prefer a reversible metal hydride additionelimination mechanism and contend that if a large isotope effect, k,/k,, is operative, Davies’ results are consistent with the reversible metal hydrogen mechanism. They studied the isomerization of CH,CH,CH,CH,CD=CHD and found that it proceeded 3 times as fast as I-hexene. I n the metal hydride addition mechanism, the reaction leading to isomerization involves metal-carbon u bond formation a t C-2: RCH,-CD(M)-CH,D. Reversion to l-olefin would require elimination of either MH or MD while isomerization requires elimination of MH only. Hence, isomerization of the deuterated species proceeds more rapidly than that of the nondeuterated species, since in the latter the analogous o-bonded intermediate obviously can revert to

ISOMERIZATION O F OLEFINS

43

1-olefin without a deuterium effect. Harrod and Chalk also report that no deuterium migration occurs as would be required by the Davies mechanism. Davies' retort ( 7 1 ) to these arguments is that the metal hydride mechanism requires an appreciable concentration of MH and such species have not been detected. Recently Roos and Orchin (72) studied the isomerization of allylbenzene with DCo(CO),. They found that isomerization to the propenylbenzenes proceeded very nicely but that no significant quantity of deuterium had been incorporated into either recovered allylbenzene or its isomerized products. These authors propose an interval 1,3hydrogen shift.

VII. Summary Transition metal hydrides play a key role in the catalytic homogeneous isomerization of olefins. The pure hydrides such as HCo(CO), can function as the catalyst, or transition metals complexed t o stabilizing ligands can function as catalysts; the catalysis almost certainly proceeds through hydride intermediates in many cases. The most attractive mechanism for olefin isomerization consists of initial complexing between olefin and metal, addition of H-M across the double bond (via a four-centered transition state) t o generate a u carbonmetal bond, and then elimination of H-M in the opposite direction with eventual release of the isomerized olefin. The evidence for such a mechanism is compelling, especially with the heavier transition metals. However, when some a-alkyl metals of cobalt and iron have been treated with olefins under conditions appropriate for isomerization, no transfer of the metal t o the olefin occurred. An alternate mechanism in which an allylic hydrogen and the metal hydrogen are exchanged with simultaneous bond migration has been suggested, and there is now evidence (72) that interval 1,3-hydrogen shifts also occur. Fe(C0) isomerizes simple olefins, nonconjugated dienes to conjugated dienes, and i t can also catalyze the migration of both double bonds in a conjugated diene t o give a new conjugated diene. An attractive mechanism for the isomerizations involves wallyliron hydrides :

H

44

MILTON ORCHIN

B:

H

That the stability of the final complex is of great importance is dramatically illustrated by conversion of the conjugated 1,3- t o the nonconjugated 1,5-cyclooctadiene by a rhodium catalyst. One of the most intriguing recent developments involves the skeletal rearrangement of alkyl groups a-bonded to the iron in a cyclopcntadienyliron dicarbonyl group. Though not an olefin isomerization, the rearrangement is of much significance for the mechanism of such isomerizations. The skeletal rearrangement proceeds by conversion of the a-alkyl to n-alkene complex by abstraction of hydride from the carbon beta to the metal and then hydride addition to the n-alkene complex :

ISOMERIZATION OF OLEFINS

Q

@ c+ s

45

1

CH,

The abstraction and addition of hydrogen by a metal without the metal and substrate ever being separated is of particular significance for heterogeneous catalytic isomerization of olefins and hydrocarbons on metal surfaces, as well as for certain biological systems. Aqueous cobalt cyanide systems that activate hydrogen and catalyze hydrogenation of dienes produce different olefin isomers, depending on the cyanide concentration, and a reasonable case for a + rr interconversions can be made t o explain the stereoselectivity observed. Such mechanisms may well have a bearing on the steric control obtained in certain transition metal catalyzed polymerization of dienes. Practically all the heavy transition metals can be made to catalyze olefin isomerization, presumably through transient formation of metal hydrides. A stable platinum hydride has been shown t o react with ethylene to form a o-C,H,Pt complex which can eliminate ethylene to regenerate the hydride. The commercially successful processes for the conversion of ethylene to acetaldehyde and ethylene to vinyl acetate via PdC1, catalysis have stimulated enormous interest in the mechanism of these reactions, their application to other conversions, and their extension to other catalytic systems. The various stages in the conversion of ethylene are quite well-understood and an important step in the reaction involves hydride migration. The exact role of Pd in the migration has not yet been elucidated. It seems almost certain that the phenomenal interest in the whole area of transition metal isomerization in the last several years will be more than matched by the wealth of work that is certain to pour out of research laboratories in the next few years. ACKNOWLEDGMENT The author is grateful to Drs. W. Clement, J. Kwiatek, I. Mador, and L. Roos for criticisms end helpful discussions and to Sharon Butryrnowicz for help with the manuscript.

REFERENCES 1. Chatt, J., and Duncanson, L. A., J . Chem. Soe. p. 2939 (1953). 2. Dewar, M. J. S., Bull. SOC.Chim. France 18, 71 (1951).

46

MILTON ORCHIN

3. Mulliken, R. S., J. Phys. Chem. 66, 295 (1952). 4. Pauling, L., “Nature of t h e Chemical Bond,” 2nd ed. Cornell Univ. Press, Ithaca, New York, 1940. 5. Jaff6, H. H., and Doak, G. O., J . Chem. Phys. 21, 196 (1953). 6. Jaffb, H. H., J. Chem. Phys. 22, 1462 (1954). 7. Treichel, P. M., and Stone, F. G. A., Adwan. Organomelallic Chem. 1, 143f (1964). 8. For a review of this subject, see almost any modern text on inorganic chemistry or coordination chemistry. A particularly attractive account is contained in Orgcl, I,. E., “An Introduction t o Transition Metal Chemistry,” Wiley, New York, 1962. 9 . A full treatment of the bonding involved can be found in Coates, G. E.,“OrganoMetallic Compounds,” 2d ed. p. 311. Wiley, New York, 1960; also in Gray, H. U., and Ballhausen, C. J.,J. A m . Chem. SOC.85, 260 (1963). 10. Coates, G. E., “Organo-Metallic Compounds,” 2d ed., p. 237ff. Wiley, New York, 1960. 11. Richardson, J. W., in “Organometallic Chemistry” (€1. Zciss, ctl.), pp. 22f. Reinholcl, New York, 1960. 12. McClellan, W. R.,Hoehn, H. H., Cripps, H. N., Muetterties, E. L., and Howk, B. H., J. A m . Chem. Soe. 83, 1601 (1961). 13. Orchin, M., Kirch, L., and Goldfarb, I.,J . A m . Chem. Soe. 78, 5450 (1956). 14. Wender, I., Sternberg, H. W., and Orchin, M., J . A m . Chem. Soc. 75, 3041 ( 1 953). 15. Kirch, L., and Orchin, M., J. A m . Chem. SOC. 80, 4428 (1958). 16. Kirch, L., and Orchin, M., J. A m . Chem. Soc. 81, 3597 (1959). 17. Heck, R . F., and Breslow, D. S., Chem. h Ind. (London) 17, 467 (1960). 18. Karapinka, G. L., and Orchin, M., J . Org. Chem. 26, 4187 (1961). 19. Heck, R. I?., J . rim. Chem. SOC.85, 651 (1962). 20. Brown, H. C., and SubbaRao, B. C.,J. A m . Chem.Soc. 81,6428,6434 (1959);Hennion, G. F., McCusker, P. A., Ashby, E. C., a n d Rutkowski, A. J., ibitl. 79, 5190 (1957); Brown, H. C., and Zweifel, C . , ibitl. 82, 1505 (1960). 21. Brown, H. C., and Rhatt, M. V., J. A m . Chem. SOC.82, 2074 (1960). 22a. Heck, R.F., and Breslow, D. S . , J . A m . Chem. Soc. 83,4023 (1961). 22b. Heck, R. F., and Breslow, D. 8.. J. A m . Chem. Sor. 85. 2779 (1963). 23. Goetz, R. W., and Orchin, M., J. A m . Chem. Soc. 85, 1549 (1963). 24. Emerson, G. F., and Pettit, R., J. A m . Chem. SOC.84,4591 (1962). 25. Takegami, Y., Yokokawa, C., Watanabe, Y.,and Okuda, Y., Bull. Chem. Sor. Japan 37, 181 (1964). 26. Whitlock, H. W., Jr.,J. A m . Chem. Soe. 85,2344 (1963). 27. Krumholz, P., and Stettiner, H. M. A., J. A m . Chem. Sor. 71, 3035 (1949). 28a. Sternberg, H. W., Markhy, R., and Wendcr, I., J . A m . Chem. S o r . 78, 5704 ( 1 956). 2Rb. Sternberg, H. W., Markby, R., and Wender, I., J. A m . Chem. S o r . 79, 61 16 (1957). 2!). Asinger, F., and Berg, O., Ber. 88, 445 (1955). 30. Manuel, T.A., J. Org. Chem. 27, 3941 (1962). 3 1 . Emerson, G. F., and Pettit, R., J. A m . Chem. Soe. 84, 4591 (1962). 32. Pettit, R., and Emerson, G. F., Advan. Organometallic Chem. 1, 16 (1964). 33. Cais, M., private communication. 34. King, R. B., Manuel, T. A., and Stone, F. G. A.,J. Inory. Nurl. Chem. 16,233 (1961). 35. Arnet, J. E., and Pettit, R . , J . A m . Chem. Soc. 83, 2954 (1961). 36. Dauben, H. J . , and Honnen, L. R., J . A m . Chem. SOC.80, 5570 (1958). 37. Fischer, E. 0..and Fischer, R. D., Angew. Chem. 72,919 (1960). 38. Mahler, J. E., and Pettit, R., J. A m . Chewa. Soc. 85, 3955 (1963). 39. Mahler, J. E., Gibson, D. H., and Pettit, R., J. A m . Chern. SOC.85, 3959 (1963).

ISOMERIZATION OF OLEFINS

47

40. Green, M. L. H., and Nagy, P., Proc. Chem. SOC.p. 378 (1961). 41. Fischer, E. O . , and Fichtel, K., Chem. Ber. 94, 1200 (1961). 4 2 . Green, M. L. H., and Nagy, P. L. I., J. A m . Chem. SOC. 84, 1310 (1962). #3. Green, M. L. H., and Nagy, P . L. I., J . Organomet. Chem. 1, 58 (1963). 44. Phillipson, J. J., and Wells, P. B., Proc. Chem. Soc. p. 222 (1964). 4 5 . Green, M. L. H., and Stear, A. N., J . Organomet. Chem. 1, 230 (1964). 46. Kwiatek, J., Mador, I. L., and Seyler, J. K., Advan. Chem. Ser. 37, “Reactions of Coordinated Ligands,” p. 201, (1963), J . A m . Chem. SOC.84, 304 (1962). 47. Kwiatek, J., and Seyler, J. K., Proc. 8th Intern. Congr. Coord. Chem., L’ienna, 1964 p. 308. 48. Jonassen, H. B., Steams, R. I., Kenttgmaa, J., Moore, D. W., and Whittaker, A. G., J . A m . Chem. SOC.80, 2586 (1958). 49. Heck, R. F., and Rreslow, D. S., J . A m . Chem. SOC.82, 750 (1960). 50. Kwiatek, J., and Seyler, J. K., to be published. 5 1 . Coflield, T. H., Kozikowski, J., and Clossen, R. D., J. Org. Chem. 22, 598 (1957). 6 2 . Mawby, R. J., Basolo, F., and Pearson, R. G., J . A m . Chem,. Ror. 86, 3994 (1964): Calderazzo, P., and Cotton, F. A., Inorg. Chent. 1, 30 (1962). 53. Anderson, J. S., J . Chem. SOC.p. 973 (1934). 54. Chatt, J., and Duncanson, L. A., J. Chem. SOC.p. 2939 (1953). 55. Chatt, J., and Duncanson, L. A., J . Chem. SOC. p. 2942 (1953). 56. Joy, J. R., and Orchin, M., 2. Anorg. Allgem. Chem. 305, 236 (1960). 57. Smidt, J.,Hafncr, W., Jira, R., Sedlmeier, J., Sieber. R., Ruttinger, R., and Kojer, H., Angew. Chem. 71, 176 (1959). 58. Anonymous, Chem. Eng. News April 1961, p. 52. 59. Hafner, W., Jira, R., Sedlmeier, J., and Smidt, J.,Chem. Ber. 95, 1575 (1962). 60. Stern, I<., Proc. Chem. SOC.p. 111 (1963). 61. Moiseov, I. I., Vargaftik, M. N., and Sirkin, Y. A., Dokl. Akad. N a u k S S S R 130, 821 (1960); 139, 1396 (1961); 147, 399 (1962); 152, 147 (1963). 62. Henry, P. M., J . A m . Chem. SOC.86, 3246 (1964). 63. Chatt, J., and Shaw, B. L., J. Chem. SOC.p. 5075 (1962). 64. Vaska, L., and DiLuzio, J. W.. J. An$. Chem. SOC.84, 5037 (1962). 65. Harrod, J. F., and Chalk, A. J., J . A m . Chem. SOC.86, 1776 (1964). 66. Rinehart, R. E., and Lasky, J. S., J . A m . Chem. SOC.86, 2516 (1964). 67. Chatt, J., and Venanzi, L. M., J . Chem. SOC.p. 4735 (1957). 68. Ibers, J. A., and Snyder, R. G., J. A m . Chem. SOC. 84, 495 (1962). 69. Davies, N. R., AwrtralianJ. Chem. 17, 212 (1963); Nature 201, 490 (1964). 70. Harrod, J. F., and Chalk, A. J. Nature 205, 280 (1965). 71. Davies, N. R., Nature 205, 281 (1965). 72. Roos, L., and Orchin, M., J. Am. Chem. SOC. in press.

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The Mechanism of Dehydration of Alcohols over Alumina Catalysts HERMAN PINES The Ipakiefl High Pressure and Catalytic Laboratory Northwestern University. Evanaton. Illinois AND

JOOST MANASSEN The Weizmann Inatituie of Science. Rehovoth. Iarael

. ...................................................... I1. Purpose .......................................................... I11. Early Mechanisms and Observations .................................. I Introduction

. .

Page 49

IV Nature of Alumina Catalysts ........................................ V Isomeriaation Following Dehydration .................................. A. Cyelohexanol ................................................... B I-Butanol ..................................................... VI Steric Course of Dehydration ........................................ A Menthol and Neomenthol ........................................ B Alkylcyclohexanols ............................................. C 1-Decalols ...................................................... D. 1.4.Cyclohexanediols ............................................ E . 2-endo- and 2-exo-Bornanol ....................................... F endo- andexo-Norbornanol ....................................... VII Dehydration of Aliphatic Alcohols .................................... A Ethyl Alcohol ................................................... B. Dehydration in Solution: General Observation ....................... C Dehydration over Aluminas: General Observation .................... D Primary Alcohols ............................................... VLII . Dehydration of Secondary and Tertiary Alcohols ........................ A 2.Butanol. 2- and 3-Pentanol ..................................... B. 3.3.Dimethyl. 2.butanol and 2.3.Dimethyl. 2.butanol ................. C 3.3.Dimethyl. 2.pentanol and 2.3.Dimethyl. 2.pentanol ................ IX Conclusions ....................................................... References ........................................................

.

.

.

. . . .

. . . . . .

50 50

52 56 56 58

69 59

62 63 66 68 70 71 71

72 74 74 83 83 85

89 89

90

1. Introduction Although the dehydration of ethanol over alumina was discovered in 1797 ( I ) . a century elapsed before any systematic study of alcohols over this catalyst was undertaken (2.3). Much of the experimental material is 49

50

HERMAN PINES AND JOOST MANASSEN

difficult t o interpret for three reasons: (i) the earlier workers did not realize the importance of the chemical nature of the alumina used; (G) analytical techniques lacked present-day precision; (iii) alcohols used were not broad enough to provide a base for understanding the mechanism of dehydration. I n discussing the mechanism, there has been a tendency t o take as evidence the results obtained on alumina with a single reactant, mostly ethanol. Almost all of the deductions have hinged on the relationship between the formation of ether and of ethylene. Additionally, the various investigators failed to realize that the structure and the mode of preparation of the catalyst were important. Furthermore, most of the investigations did not differentiate between primary and secondary reactions. In many instances the olefins formed must have been readsorbed and subsequently isomerized. In order to evaluate various possible mechanisms i t is important not on' y to study the kinetics of the reaction but also t o apply chemical knowledge to interpret the data. More recent studies in this field have revealed the importance of the intrinsic acidic sites on the aluminas in directing the course of the dehydration. Recently the consideration of stereochemical factors involved in the dehydration and the use of gas chromatography as an analytical tool has led to a better understanding of this reaction, with a resultant better appreciation of the reaction mechanism.

II. Purpose An exhaustive review of dehydration reactions has been written recently by Winfield (3) and most of the relevant literature can be found there. The purpose of this chapter is to review some recent developments and to point out the resemblance of alumina-cataIyzed dehydration of alcohols to solvolytic reactions. It will be demonstrated that by careful selection of model compounds, such as olefins and alcohols, it is possible to throw light on the catalytic action of alumina and to reveal the presence of active catalytic sites. Steric effects, molecular rearrangements, anchimeric assistance, and the use of tracer techniques have provided useful information about the nature of catalytic sites of aluminas and have led to a unified mechanism of their action.

111. Early Mechanisms and Observations I n his chemical autobiography, V. N. Ipatieff describes how he used kaolin as a binder for a graphite tube and discovered that kaolin in the

MECHANISM OF ALCOHOL DEHYDRATION OVER ALUMINA

51

graphite was responsible for the dehydration of alcohols (2). Ipatieff investigated the dehydration of many alcohols and assumed that alumina forms a hydrate corresponding to sodium aluminate (NaAlO,). The dehydration of alcohols was considered to follow these equations:

\

OCrtH?n+I

Ipatieff explained the observed skeletal isomerization of olefins by readsorption of the olefins and formation of a cyclopropane intermediate, e.g. : AlO(0H)

+ CH,CH,CH=CH, AlO(OH)

+ CHS-/

9 I

--f

CH,CH,-CHOAlO

CH,

\

-+

CH3 CH-CH,

I

+ CH,= C-CH3

The aluminate formation with some minor variations was also proposed by Sabatier and Reid ( 4 ) . This theory was recently revived by Topchieva et al. ( 5 ) . Eucken and Wicke ( 6 )proposed a mechanism which necessitates the operation of several sites, and which can be pictured schematically as follows:

I

-c-c-c-c-

I I

H

.:

0 [ A1

:

I

I

1

.O H.'H' I

0 I A1

'

0 t A1

The AI-OH gives its proton t o the water formed and one of the A1-0 groups receives the proton from the alcohol. Schwab and Schwab-Agallides (7) have studied the competitive dehydration and dehydrogenation of ethanol over y- and a-alumina and

52

HERMAN PINES AND JOOST MANASSEN

proposed that the dehydration occurs mostly in the pores of the catalyst, while the dehydrogenation takes place on its surface. Their conclusion was based on the observation that the dehydrating activity of the alumina diminished when heated a t high temperatures, where healing of the irregularities in the crystal lattice occurs. This opposes Balandin’s multiplet theory, which assumes that the dehydration occurs “on” and not “in” the surface of the catalyst (8). Feacham and Swallow (9) have shown that the decrease in sodium content enhances the catalytic activity of alumina with respect to the rate of dehydration of ethanol to ethylene. Adkins and co-workers (10-12) have pointed out the advantage of having the smallest spacings possible within the alumina crystal. Adkins and Watkins (13)reported that the dehydration activity of alumina, prepared from aluminum isopropoxide, was twice of that of commercial alumina and also was more active in causing rearrangement of double bonds. Zelinsky and Arbuzov (14)described the isomerization of cyclohexene to methylcyclopentenes over alumina. Adkins and Roebuck (15) showed that alumina catalyst prepared from aluminum isopropoxide was almost ten times more active for the skeletal isomerizatiori of cyclohexene than a standard commercial alumina catalyst. They also reported that i t was active in establishing equilibrium between hydrocarbons differing only in position of double bonds. Whitmore (16),when developing the idea of carboiiium ions, included reactions over dehydrating catalysts. The application of carbonium ion mechanism to the dehydration of alcohols over alumina has found several supporters (27, I S ) .

IV. N a t u r e of Alumina Catalysts I n spite of the fact that alumina is an excellent and widely used catalyst for the dehydration of alcohols, there is no agreement in the literature with regard to the mechanism of this reaction or the nature of the olefinic products. For example, 1-alkenes have been obtained from primary alcohols such as 1-butanol (19-22), 1-pentanol (23), 1-hexanol (24-26), I-heptanol (27), and 1-octanol ( 2 5 ) ; but mixtures of olefins differing in the position of the double bond (13, 26, 28) or even in the carbon skeleton (29) have been reported from other primary alcohols. It was further reported that olefins such as unbranched hexenes (24, 30) undergo only double bond shift without skeletal rearrangement over alumina. On the other hand, rearrangement of the carbon skeleton has been observed in the interconversion of cyclohexene to methylcyclopentenes (14,15).

MECHANISM O F ALCOHOL DEHYDRATION OVER ALUMINA

53

While double bond migration in olefins might arise from base (31)as well as acid catalysis (32),the occurrence of skeletal isomerization under these conditions can be ascribed to acid catalysts. This presumption would attribute acidic properties to the alumina. Abundant evidence has been gathered t o show that pure alumina, prepared either from aluminum isopropoxide or aluminum nitrate and ammonia and calcined a t 600-800°, has intrinsic acidic sites. Several physical methods have been used to study the acidity of alumina. Titration with butylamine (33),dioxane (34),and aqueous potassium hydroxide (35) as well as chemisorption of gaseous ammonia (35), trimethylamine (36), or pyridine (37) gave apparent acidity values which approximated those of silica-alumina. On the other hand, the indicator method for testing the acidity of solids as developed by Walling (38)showed no indication of even weak acids (39, 40). Pines and Haag (36) showed that indicators, which give colored complexes with typical Lewis acids, produce the same colors when adsorbed on aluminas. Exposure of the catalysts to atmospheric humidity before testing inhibited the color test in the aluminas. A similar observation was made by Eschigoya and Shiba (37)using p-dimethylaminoazobenzene as indicator, which changes color a t pH 2.8-4.4. Aluminas, which were not active towards the isomerization of cyclohexene to methylcyclopentenes, but which did promote skeletal isomerization of 3,3-dimethylbutene, gave no color with phenolphthalein. However, a color test was obtained with crystal violet leuco base, malachite green leuco base, and p,p’-methylenebis-[N,N-dimethylaniline] (36). The activity of alumina for dehydration and isomerization is markedly decreased by adsorbed sodium or potassium ions (36, 37, 41, 42). The approximately parallel decrease in conversion with increasing sodium content indicates that the catalytic centers for dehydration are the same as those for isomerization (36). Pines and Haag studied the correlation between trimethylamine adsorption and catalytic activities of aluminas for isomerization and dehydration (36).From the results obtained they reached the following general conclusions: ( a ) there is a satisfactory correlation between catalytic activity and amine chemisorption values for aluminas obtained from the same methods of preparation-both wbeasure “acidity”; ( b ) there is no satisfactory correlation between catalytic activity and amine index of aluminas obtained from different sources. These seemingly conflicting results are due t o the heterogenous nature of the surface of alumina which contains centers of different acid strengths. Since catalytic activity is known to depend on acid strength

HERMAN PINES AND JOOST MANASSEN

54

and amine chemisorption apparently does not, a direct correlation can be expected only when the acid strength distribution of the acid centers of the different aluminas is the same. The study of the product distribution from the isomerization of 3,3-dimethylbutene proved useful for evaluating the strength of the acid centers in aluminas (36).Pure alumina from aluminum isopropoxide which was calcined a t 700" showed optimum activity. Heating a t higher temperatures decreased the number of acid sites as well as their acid strength. Aluminas obtained from potassium or sodium aluminate contained alkali in amounts of 0.08 to 0.65%, depending on the way of precipitation and on the number of washings.

0 0-mc' H+*

(2")

mc

a c - _ H _ + t

(3")

(1")

(I 1

::

c c c c + -n+ c - ctI- cI- c - - - - F c+- cI- c I- c c c - c - c - c - c c c - c ~ c = c - c

(3")

C

I

(2')

(1")

(Ild)

Although the energy barriers separating isomeric carbonium ions are not known and depend strongly on the nature of the attached anions, the relative rates of carbonium ion rearrangements can be estimated from

MECHANISM OF ALCOHOL DEHYDRATION OVER ALUMINA

55

the relative stability of the carbonium ions involved, which is tertiary > secondary > primary (3" > 2" > l o ) .Accordingly, the isomerization of cyclohexene (I)involving the rearrangement of a secondary to a less stable primary carbonium ion can be expected to proceed with greater difficulty than that of 3,3-dimethylbutene (IIa), which involves the rearrangement of 2" to 3". The 2,3-dimethylbutenes formed according to (IIa) can in turn form 2-methylpentenes (IIb) by steps which involve an unstable primary carbonium ion. Therefore, (IIb) should proceed more slowly than (IIa) or require stronger acid sites. For similar reasons the conversion of 2-methylpentenes to hexenes (IId) should also proceed slowly. For that reason not only the total conversion of 3,3-dimethylbutene is important, but also the depth of isomerization. Rearrangements of olefins proceeding through 1 O carbonium ions [steps (I),(IIb), (IId)] are believed to occur with reasonably fast rates only on relatively strong acid sites, whereas those involving 2" and 3" carbonium ions take place on both strong and weak acid centers. The relative activities of different alumina catalysts for the above-described reactions were used as a measure of their relative acidities. The extent of isomerization, or the total amount of 3,3-dimethylbutene consumed, will be defined by the amount of acidic sites. The depth of isomerization, or the occurrence of reactions (IIb) and (IId), will give information as to the strength of the acidic sites. This method gives excellent relative information for comparing and characterizing different aluminas. Aluminas, which were prepared from sodium aluminate and which retained about 0.1yoof sodium ions, had a large amount of weakly acid sites, and were therefore excellent dehydration catalysts. At the same time these aluminas did not isomerize cyclohexene, owing to the absence of strong acid sites, which were neutralized by the alkali metal ions. Pines and Haag (36)determined that the upper limit of the total number of acid sites, capable of dehydrating butanol, and of the number of strong acid sites, capable of isomerization of cyclohexene, was 10 x 10l2 and 8 x 10l2sites per cm2, respectively. The Lewis acidity of the dehydrated surface of alumina could best be explained by not fully coordinated aluminum atoms and its formation during calculation could be pictured by a model suggested by Hindin and Weller (43):

The adsorption of moisture by the surface of the catalyst deactivates the

56

HERMAN PINES AND JOOST MANASSEN

Lewis acid sites and therefore inhibits the color change of the Ieuco base indicators:

The Lewis acid sites can thus be converted into Bronsted acid sites. The Lewis base sites of the aluminas also participate in the dehydration of primary and secondary alcohols by the removal of a proton from either the 8- or y-carbon atom in relation to the OL carbon containing the hydroxyl group. The nature of the hydroxyl group on alumina was studied by Perri and Hannan (44) by means of infrared spectroscopy and they found that the attachment of the hydroxyl groups is largely ionic. The hydroxyl groups exchange hydrogen easily, but the rate is significantly slower than the rate of isornerization of 1-butene into 2-butene on the same catalyst. Consequently they doubted that the hydroxyl groups, which are visible by infrared techniques, are catalytically active for the isomerization reaction (45). To account for the surface hydration and catalytic properties of y-alumina a model for the surface of y-alumina was proposed by Perri (46).He also studied, by means of infrared techniques, the OH- and appear to sites which chemisorb ammonia to form NH,include those sites which isomerize olefins (47). These sites are ion-pair or acid-base sites. Lippens (48) has studied the texture of the catalytically active aluminas by means of diffraction and adsorption techniques. Hie concluded that the structure of q-alumina formed from bayerite consists of lamellae with an average thickness of about 15 A and a distance of about 25 A. y-Alumina prepared from gelatinous boehmite is composed of fibrillar-shaped particles of about 30 x 30 A. Both structures can easily account for the “pseudosolvent” effect of alumina, which will be referred to in more detail in the forthcoming discussion.

+

V. lsomerization Following Dehydration A. CYCLOHEXANOL Pines and Haag (49) studied the dehydration of cyclohexanol over various alumina catalysts. Over alumina containing about 0.4% of sodium or potassium ions, cyclohexene was the only product, in agreement with numerous reports in the literature. However, the high-purity

MECHANISM OF ALCOHOL DEHYDRATION OVER ALUMINA

57

alumina prepared from aluminum isopropoxide gave a mixture containing up to 60% methylcyclopentenes.

020 (I)

and

(n)

a (III)

The relative proportion of (111)in the unsaturated product increased with increasing temperature. Two mechanistic pathways may be considered by which methylcyclopentenes could be produced from cyclohexanol. I n the first, (11) and (111) are formed from (I)in parallel reaction with or without consecutive interconversion of the cycloalkenes:

The second possibility is that of a consecutive reaction with cyclohexene on a desorbed intermediate: (I) -+ (11) + (111)

(2)

The product composition varies as a function of contact time (Fig. l ) ,

Tima vorioMa, HLSV-'

FIG. 1. Dehydration of cyclohexanol over pure alumina (P) at 410". Influence of contact time.

58

HERMAN PINES AND JOOST MANASSEN

which strongly suggests that cyclohexanol is dehydrated to cyclohexene, which in turn undergoes a slow isomerization to methylcyclopentenes [Scheme (2)]. It was independently shown that cyclohexene is converted to methylcyclopentenes under the same conditions over pure alumina, while catalysts containing alkali gave only 0.9% of isomerization. To further test Scheme (2), the composition of unsaturates was plotted against total amount of unsaturates produced (Fig. 2). Extrapolation to

0

20

40

€0

80

100

Olefins produced (%I

Fro. 2. Dehydration of cyclohexanol over pure alumina (P)at 410”.

zero conversion indicates that the primary dehydration product on the “acidic” alumina consists of pure or nearly pure cyclohexene. The above study indicates that kinetic investigation should be made in order not to confuse the primary product with subsequent products of reactions.

B. ~-BUTANOL Results similar to cyclohexanol were obtained with 1-butanol. Again alkali-containing catalysts gave a high yield of the expected dehydration product, 1-butene, especially a t lower temperature. It was accompanied, however, in all cases by some 2-butene. With the alkali-free high-purity alumina the proportion of 2-butene was much higher and approached equilibrium values under more vigorous conditions. The available data again indicate that the primary dehydration

MECHANISM OF ALCOHOL DEHYDRATION OVER ALUMINA

59

product from 1-butanol on all the alumina catalysts was the expected 1-butene. Dependent on the nature of the catalyst and the reaction conditions, this may then undergo double bond shift or even skeletal isomerization into isobutylene. I n agreement with this view is the observation that the 2-butenes produced during the dehydration of 1-butanol have a similar &/trans ratio as those obtained from the isomerization of 1-butene over the same catalyst. It will be noted that the 2-butenes are not formed in their selective equilibrium concentration, but in a stereoselective way favoring the cis isomer.

VI. Steric Course of Dehydration One of the most fruitful approaches to the elucidation of reaction mechanisms in organic chemistry is the study of the effect of structure on the reactivity and the course of the reaction. This approach is used extensively in homogeneous reactions and found to be equally rewarding in the study of the mechanism of dehydration of alcohols over alumina catalysts. Much information was obtained by changing the configuration of the alcohols.

A. MENTHOL AND NEOMENTHOL Much evidence supports the conclusion that the elimination of the group HX from alkyl halides by bases is a trans elimination reaction. This means that the atoms H and X leave from the opposite site of the incipient double bond. It is mostly explained by assuming that the electrons which are left by the leaving proton and which will form the double bond prefer to attack the leaving group X- from the rear ( 5 0 ) . The transition state for the elimination, if it is concerted, is most stable if H, X, and the carbon atoms 1 and 2 lie on one plane, which in most molecules is best realized in the trans position (51).*

I n order t o determine whether trans elimination may occur also in the removal of elements of water from alcohols, the dehydration of menthol *Throughout this review, A represents acid sites, and B represents proton-accepting sites.

60

HERMAN PINES AND JOOST MANASSEN

and neomenthol was studied. These alcohols are ideally suited for the study of the stereochemistry of the dehydration. The pyrolysis of esters and xanthates (52),of trimethylammonium hydroxides (53), basecatalyzed elimination of menthyl and neomenthyl chlorides ( 5 2 ) ,and decomposition of the amine oxides (53)follow the expected steric course. Pines and Pillai found that 2-menthene is the preponderant product of dehydration of menthol over alumina catalysts at 280-330” (54). The general picture also shows that 3-menthene is also formed in all experiments even when the extent of dehydration is small. Also revealing is the fact that traces of 1-menthene are formed at all times even though 1-menthene is not t o be expected from a simple 1,2 elimination of the elements of water. The preferred formation of 2-menthene is a clear indication of trans elimination. This was further supported by the results obtained from the dehydration of neomenthol which yields 3-menthene aa the preferred compound.

(2- menthene)

(3- menthene)

compoeition,

(I 1

*

(n)

-

(1 menthene)

Q (XI)

80-90

18- 10

4-25

75- 95

<1

OH

When the dehydration of menthol is carried out on an “acidic” alumina or a t a long contact time the 2-menthene can isomerize t o the more stable 1- and 3-menthenes. I n order to avoid the consecutive reactions which proceed by acid catalysis, the alumina can be modified either by adding pyridine to the menthol or by passing ammonia over the catalyst during dehydration.

MECHANISM OF ALCOHOL DEHYDRATION OVER ALUMINA

61

For the neomenthol to undergo trans elimination i t would be necessary for the original chair conformation with the hydroxyl in the more stable equatorial position (55, 56) to flip to another chair conformation with hydroxyl in the axial position.

/OH

The trans elimination can take place if the basic sites of the alumina attack the hydrogen from one side of the plane and the hydroxyl group is removed from the opposite side of the plane by the acidic sites of the alumina. This may be possible if the reaction occurs within the pores of molecular dimensions (46) or within the crevices of the aluminas. “Crevice sites” on silica-alumina catalyst have been proposed by Burwell and co-workers (57) on the basis of racemization and exchange reactions of hydrocarbons. I n summary i t could be said that dehydration involving trans elimination requires the participation of the acidic and basic sites of the alumina. For that reason alumina may act as a “solvating” agent as it must surround the alcohol molecule, whereby the acid sites of the alumina would act as proton donor or electron acceptor and the basic sites as the proton acceptor or electron donor. The strong parallel between solvolytic elimination reaction of menthol and neomenthol systems (52,58,59)and the dehydration of these alcohols over alumina (54) give ample support to this concept. A similar parallel can be drawn in other dehydration reactions as will be indicated below. A trans elimination reaction of hydrogen chloride from menthyl and neomenthyl chloride over heterogenous catalysts has also been recently reported by Andrdu and co-workers (60). The dehydration o f menthols over alumina, prepared from aluminum isopropoxide and having intrinsic acidic sites, was accompanied by double bond migration of the cycloalkenes produced. The isomerization was, however, suppressed by the preferential neutralization of the “strong acid sites” with bases. The neutralization of acidic sites thus preventing isomerization was confirmed by von Rudloff (61) who evacuated pyridine-treated alumina for 6 hours, when about 0.8% base was retained.

62

HERMAN PINES AND JOOST MANASSEN

B. ALKYLCYCLOHEXANOLS The kinetic data obtained by Kochloefl et al. (62) can be interpreted by a trans elimination reaction (Table I). From the similarity of the activation energy of dehydration of the aliphatic alcohols and of some of the cyclohexanols it can be assumed that the mechanism of the dehydration of the two groups of alcohols is identical. The presence of a neopentyl-type carbon atom as in 2,2dimethylcyclohexanol diminishes the reactivity only slightly, but among stereoisomeric alkylcyclohexanols the cis isomer reacts much faster than the trans. The distinct dissimilarity in activation energies of the two TABLE I Rate Conatants and Activation Energiea of Dehydration of Secondary Aleohole over y-Alumina

E

k,,

Alcohol

for 200"

(kcal/mole)

--___

-

4-Heptanol 2 -Methyl-3-hexan01 Cyclohexanol 2,2-Dimethylcyclohexanol cis-2-Methylcyclohexenol tram-2-Methylcyolohexanol tmna-4-Methylcyclohexanol cia-2-tert- Butylcyclohexanol cia-4-tert-ButyIcyclohexanol trana.4-tert -Butylcyclohexanol

1.o 1.0 1.0 0.9

33 34 36 34

12.1 1.8

44

21

38 19 27 38

1.9

40.3 13.6 2.1

stereoisomers in the same chair conformation is clearly connected with a different geometry of the reacting molecules. For 4-tert-butylcyclohexanols the alkyl group is fixed in an equatorial position placing the hydroxyl group in an axial position for the cis isomer and in an equatorial position for the trans isomer. H

cis -

trans -

63

MECHANISM O F ALCOHOL DEHYDRATION OVER ALUMINA

The geometry of the cis-alkylcyclohexanol is favorable for trans elimination since the hydroxyl and the neighboring trans hydrogen are coplanar, but this is not true for the l,$-trans isomer; hence the molecular conformation has to flip over, to set the hydroxyl group in the axial position for the trans elimination to occur. This would require a few kilocalories of energy and for trans-tert-butylcyclohexanolit would be more difficult to achieve than for trans-methylcyclohexanol. It is, therefore, possible that the trans-tert-butylcyclohexanolundergoes either cis elimination, trans elimination from a boat conformation, or possibly even an epimerization from the trans to the cis isomer which then undergoes a trans elimination reaction. Such an epimerization was found to occur under conditions of dehydration of certain alcohols over alumina, as will be seen under 1,4-cyclohexanediol. The more facile elimination of the cis-4-tertbutylcyclohexanol system as compared with the trans system in solution was also reported in the literature (63). Kochloetl et al. (62)did not report the structure of the olefins from cis- and trans-2-methylcyclohexanol; however the unpublished data by forms Pines and Blanc (64)showed that the cis-1-methyl-2-cyclohexanol 1- and 3-methylcyclohexene, while the trans isomer produces mainly 3-methylcyclohexene.

C. 1-DECALOLS The dehydration of the four stereoisomers of 1-decal01 over alumina was investigated by Schappell and Pines (65), who found that the

TABLE I1 Composition of Octalins from the Dehydration of 1-Decalols over Alumina" at 275'

Octalins formed (mole %) Alcohol*

c,c-I-OH c,t-I-OH t,c-1-OH t,t-1-OH

Conversion to octalins (%) 15.2 8.2 8.7

-

cis-1,29.9 94.8

-

trans-1,2.-

23.4

63.1

1,984.7 5.2 57.5 24.8

9,lO5.4

14.8

-

__ trans-2,3-

-

4.3 12.1

"Preparedfrom aluminum isopropoxide and calcined at 700"for 4 hours; 20-40 mesh. ac,c-l-OH-c~,c~8-l-decalol; c,t-I-OH-cis,trans-I-decalol; t,c-l.OH-trans,cis-ldecalol; t,t- 1 -OH-trans,trans- 1 -decalol.

64

HERMAN PINES AND JOOST MANASSEN

octalins produced depended on the stereochemistry of the 1 -decal01 used (Table 11). The formation of 1,9- and cis-1,2-octalin from &,cis-1-decalol is a clear indication of the dehydration by means of a trans elimination reaction:

1,Q-Octalin

cis -1,2-Octalin

The dehydration of ciqtrans- 1-decal01 supports the trans-diaxial elimination scheme proposed above. Unlike its epimer this alcohol offers only one path for trans elimination and that will lead to the formation of cis-l,2-octalin, although this isomer is thermodynamically less stable than 1,9-octalin. The following structure, which pictures this process being carried between two alumina surfaces, could readily explain the observed data: //////A////

cis, trans-

f

a3

cis-l,2-Octalin

As with the &,cis-1-decalol, trans,cis-1-decalol, with its hydroxyl group locked in an axial position, presents the catalyst with two paths for trans-diaxial elimination. In agreement with the previous observation, the production of the more substituted 1,g-octalin was favored over the trans-1,2-octalin (66).

MECHANISM OF ALCOHOL DEHYDRATION OVER ALUMINA

65

1,g-Octalin

trans -1,2-Octalin

trans,trans-l-Decalol, unlike any of the other three isomers, offers no conventional route for trans elimination because its hydroxyl group is locked in an equatorial position. While ring flips with interconversion of axial and equatorial positions are not possible in the trans-decalin system, either one or both of the cyclohexane chair forms may be distorted to a boat form. If such a process occurs, the hydroxyl group and the hydrogen become well-oriented for trans elimination leading to the formation of trans- 1,2-0ctalin: truns,trunsl-Decalol

H

bans - 1,Z-Octalin

The formation of 1,g-octalin from trans,trans-1-decalol can best be explained as occurring by the following steps, in view of the evidence presented by Winstein et al. (59) that the rates of elimination are enhanced by hydrogen participation :

66

HERMAN PINES AND JOOST MANASSEN

H !

D.

1,g-Octalin

1,4-CYCLOHEXANEDIOLS

The reaction of cis- and trans-l,4-cyclohexanediol over alumina is another example of stereospecificity of the dehydration reaction. This reaction, which was first reported by Olberg et al. in 1944 (67)and studied in more detail by Manassen and Pines ( 6 4 , can be presented schematically as follows:

trans

OH

The cis- and trans-l,4-cyclohexanediolswere dehydrated at about 250" over aluminas containing 0-2% by weight of sodium ions, The

trans isomer formed 1,4-epoxycyclohexane as the main product and

MECHANISM OF ALCOHOL DEHYDRATION OVER ALUMINA

GT

cyclohexenol as the minor product of reaction. The reaction was anchimerica!ly assisted and the rate of dehydration of the trans diol was about fifteen times greater than that of tert-butyl alcohol. The rate of dehydration of the cis diol was about fifty times slower than that of the trans diol and the product of the reaction consisted mainly of cyclohexenol. The 1,4-epoxycyclohexane formed in the reaction was formed after a prior epimerization of the cis to the trans diol; this was demonstrated by means of tritium tracer technique. When trans- 1,4cyclohexanediol was dissolved in tert-butyl alcohol-T having the hydroxyl hydrogen marked with tritium (C,H,OT) the 1,4-epoxycyclohexane produced iii this reaction had a very low tritium content. A similar reaction carried out with cis-1,4-cyclohexanediol produced a highly tritiated 1,4-epoxycyclohexane. The insertion of tritium in the 1,4-epoxycyclohexane produced from the cis diol can he explained as follows:

H H

H H

T T

Q-

HO T T

The type of anchimeric assistance encountered in the Irans-l,4cyclohexanediol dehydration had also been shown in solvolytic reactions of noncyclic diols (69, 70) and of 1,4-cyclohexanediol system (71). The acid sites of the alumina determine the rate of the reaction. The dehydration occurs most likely by a n intramolecular concerted ring closure analogous to a S,2 reaction. The acid sites of the alumina attract

68

HERMAN PINES AND JOOST MANASSEN

the hydroxyl group while the basic sites remove the proton from the other hydroxyl group. For this to occur the chair conformation of the trans diol has to change into the boat form to give the right conformation for the attack: )r-:

HO

B

s o : I -OH

The basic and acid sites on alumina surfaces have been represented graphically (43, 72). I n order for the acid and the basic sites of the alumina to attack trans- 1,4-cyclohexanediol from different planes of the catalyst surface i t is necessary for the dehydration to be restricted to submicroscopical holes or crevices or to occur between channels of those particles. Since the basic and acid sites of the alumina have t o surround the cyclohexanediol, as in the solvolytic reaction, the alumina therefore can be considered as a pseudosolvent for such dehydration reactions.

E. Z-endO-

AND

2-exo-Bo~NANoL

The dehydration of d-2-endo- and 1-2-exo-bornanols was studied by Watanabe et al. (73) a t 275” using an ((acidic)’alumina and the same alumina modified by the introduction of piperidine to the hydrocarbon solution of the bornanols. Under ‘(nonacidic” conditions of dehydration, 2-exo-bornanol formed 4.3% tricyclene, 95.2% camphene, and 0.5% camphor. 2-endo-Bornanol under similar conditions formed 12.5yo tricyclene and 86.5% camphene.

dCH3 dCH3 & %

&cH3

CH, CH, OH

2- endo-Bornanol

CH3 2-exo -Bornanol

CH,

Tricyclene

CH,

Camphene

The camphene produced retained its optical activity. The relative rate of dehydration of 2-exo-bornanol over 2-endo-bornanol is greater than 7.2. The function of piperidine was to neutralize the relatively “strong acidic” sites of the alumina and still leave the ‘(weak acidic” sites to act catalytically. In the presence of ((acidic)’alumina a reversible isomerization of carnphene t o tricyclene occurs. The dehydration reaction of endo-bornanol seems to proceed in a

MECHANISM OF ALCOHOL DEHYDRATION OVER ALUMINA

69

concerted way whereby the acidic sites are attracting the hydroxyl group while the basic sites of the catalyst are removing the proton.

C

c:

dc C

The faster rate of dehydration of 2-exo-bornanol over that of 2-endobornanol can be attributed in part to the anchimeric assistance of the C( 1)-C(6) bonding electrons which are trans to the electrons bonding the OH group to C(2) carbon, as with solvolytic reactions (74).The occurrence of tricyclene as the primary product of dehydration of 2-exo-bornanol can best be explained by an elimination reaction which takes place within the submicroscopical pores of the aluminas.

70

HERMAN PINES A N D JOOST MANASSEN

The retention of optical activity of camphene rules out methyl migration (Nametkin rearrangement) (‘71) or a symmetrical intermediate. On the “acidic” alumina a t low contact time the retention of optical activity is high, about 80%. At longer contact time, however, there is essentially complete racemization. Hence, the dehydration mechanism seems to be the same on the acidic and on the base-modified alumina. The acidic alumina, however, causes the readsorption of the dehydration product leading to isomerization and equilibration.

F. endo-

A N D eXO-NORBORNANOL

The dehydration of norbornanols was carried out at 280’ and 310’ over “acidic” alumina, and over alumina modified by piperidine (73). The rate of dehydration of norbornanols is about three to six times slower than that of the corresponding bornanols. 2-exo-Norbornanol dehydrates six times faster than 2-endo-norbornanol. These results agree with those obtained by Winstein and Trifan ( 7 4 ) from the solvolysis studies of the corresponding p-toluenesulfonates and chlorides. Nortricyclene is the only product of dehydration of 2-endo-norbornanol in the presence of the modified alumina. With longer contact time especially at higher temperature, the nortricyclene isomerizes t o norbornene. 2-exo-Norbornanol forms 70% nortricyclene and 30% norbornene.

OH

Nor bornene

MECHANISM O F ALCOHOL DEHYDRATION OVER ALUMINA

71

The greater rate of dehydration of 2-exo- over 2-endo-norbornanol can be interpreted by an anchimeric assistance which involves the delocalization of C(1)-C(6) bonding electron pair; this helps in the removal of a hydroxyl ion and facilitates dehydration. This delocalization is probably responsible for the formation of norbornene as one of the primary products of dehydration.

I n order t o explain the formation of nortricyclene from 2-exonorbornanol, it is necessary to assume a “back side” attack a t the hydrogen attached to carbon 6. The general mechanism here is similar t o the trans elimination reaction as discussed under menthol, 1,4cyclohexanediol, and bornanols.

VII. Dehydration of Aliphatic Alcohols A. ETHYLALCOHOL Before discussing the mechanism of dehydration of primary alcohols, it might be worthwhile to consider some of the published results on the dehydration of ethyl alcohol. Chiefly, two products result: ethyl ether and ethylene. Most of the discussions over the years have centered around the problem whether ether is formed simultaneously, in-

72

HERMAN PINES A N D JOOST MANASSEN

dependently,'or by a precursor of ethylene. This problem, which pertains to ethyl alcohol and the lower primary alcohols, is certainly not the central problem of dehydration. The kinetic studies carried out in recent years on the dehydration of ethyl alcohol did not lead to identical conclusions. Much of the divergence is probably due to the fact that the various investigators paid no attention to the intrinsic acidities of the aluminas used in their studies. Brey and Krieger (18)proposed the following scheme: C,H50CsH,

+ H,O

t

2C,H,OH -+ 2CH,= CH,

+ 2H,O

Ballaceanu and Jungers (22) suggested ethyl ether as a precursor of ethylene:

- FI.O

2C,H60H _ _ j C,H,OC,H, + C,H,OH

+ CH,=CH,

t&-WC*H,

+ W,O

Topchievct and co-workers ( 5 ) proposed still another scheme for dehydration :

\ AlOH . 1 + CK,=CH, /

The latter mechanism is similar to that of Brey and Krieger (18)with the exception that a different bond t o the catalyst is proposed. It seems that kinetic studies of ethyl alcohol dehydration cannot bring us nearer to the solution of the general problem of dehydration of primary alcohols which, as we shall see, is very challenging and interesting and mostly unsolved up t o now. B. DEHYDRATION IN SOLUTION : GENERAL OBSERVATION Before discussing the problem of dehydration of primary alcohols over aluminas i t is helpful to review what is known about the mechanism of dehydration of alcohols in solution. The dehydration of alcohols is mostly an acid-catalyzed reaction and much work has been done by Taft and co-workers to elucidate the mechanism (75-77). These investigators proved that the intermediate in the dehydration of tertiary alcohols or hydration of branched olefins in dilute acid solutions resembles the conjugate acid of the olefin and it is

MECHANISM OF ALCOHOL DEHYDRATION OVER ALUMINA

73

more or less free of covalently bonded water. This is actually the definition of a carbonium ion and its existence in the reaction of tertiary alcohols is considered to be fairly well proven: C

C

I --3 -4-c-c-cH+ I

I

C

-c-c-c-c- I I OH

H

--f

- nIo

--C-C--~--~--

+

C

+ -c-c=

I c-c-

0 /+\H

With secondary alcohols the picture is different. By measuring rates of hydration, isomerization, dehydration, and exchange, in the system of butenes and 2-butanol, Manassen and Klein (78) proved that the hydration-dehydration intermediate in dilute acid solution is equally bonded to two water molecules : H

H

\O/

&+

0 H

/

\g

The intermediate has a finite lifetime, but it is not free; the less stable secondary carbonium ion is stabilized by specific interaction with two molecules of water. The same kinetic study on primary alcohols made by Dostrovsky and Klein (79) shows that oxygen exchange in dilute acid solution does not proceed by way of an ion, but by a concerted mechanism. For the same reason the elimination reaction has to be of a concerted nature and cannot proceed via an unsolvated carbonium ion. The behavior of alcohols in dilute acid solutions can be summarized as follows: tertiary alcohols-form more or less free carbonium ions; secondary alcohols-form stabilized intermediates, which can be considered as being between carbonium ion and the transition state of a concerted reaction; primary alcohols: dehydration occurs via a concerted reaction. The above picture applies to dilute aqueous acids and in a more acidic medium the ionic character will shift in the direction of the primary alcohols. It is, however, doubtful that a nonresonance stabilized primary carbonium ion exists, even in the most acidic medium.

74

HERMAN PINES AND JOOST MANASSEN

C. DEHYDRATION OVER ALUMINAS : GENERALOBSERVATION When an alumina catalyst contains a small amount of alkali metal ions, it loses its olefin isomerizing properties, inasmuch as the relatively strong acidic sites of the alumina are neutral. Most of the dehydration reactions are usually performed over such aluminas. Consequently, the sequence of reaction types as discussed for weakly acidic media seem also to apply to dehydration over alumina catalysts. The greater basicity of alcohols over olefins is responsible for the fact that dehydration can be performed by weaker acidic sites than are necessary for olefin isomerization. There are, however, also other factors, such as participation of neighboring groups, which may influence the rate of dehydration of alcohols. It can be assumed that the dehydration of tertiary alcohols proceeds through the participation of Briinsted acid sites of the aluminas, A-Kf. The reaction may be presented as follows: C

C

I A-H+ + HO-C-C+AI C

H

+I

.... O....C-C H

I

C

The greater the length of the oxygen-carbon bond, the more one is justified in speaking of a carbonium ion. The intermediate might have a certain lifetime and have the opportunity to rearrange. For asecondary alcohol the oxygen-carbon separation will be smaller than in the tertiary alcohol, and even if a carbonium ion intermediate exists it may not have enough time for rearrangement as it was shown in the dehydration of 2-boriianols to camphene, which proceeded with retention of configuration. Any rearrangement accompanying the dehydration of primary alcohols will have to be explained by a concerted mechanism, and not by a carbonium ion mechanism.

D. PRIMARY ALCOHOLS 1. l-Butanol

Pines and Haag (49) h a w found that the dehydration of l-butanol over alkali-containing catalysts a t 350" resulted in the production of 97.3% 1-butene, the remainder being 2-butenes. With alkali-free highpurity alumina the ratio of 2-butene was much higher, and under more vigorous conditions approached equilibrium. The 2-butenes are not formed in their relative equilibrium concentration but in a stereoselective way favoring the cis isomer.

75

MECHANISM O F ALCOHOL DEHYDRATION OVER ALUMINA

The dehydration to 1-butene proceeds most probably via a trans elimination reaction. The formation of 2-butenes, which were the primary products of reaction, can best be explained by a removal of hydrogen from a y-carbon atom, as was indicated in the case of menthols:

2 . 2-Methyl-1-propanol (Isobutyl Alcohol) and 2-Phenyl-1-propanol

Herling and Pines (80) studied the dehydration of 2-methyl-lpropanol and 2-phenyl-1-propanol. The two alcohols were passed over alumina under "nonacidic" conditions at temperatures of 350" and 270", respectively (Tables 111 and IV). The 2-methyl-1-propanol underwent, in part, skeletal isomerization forming butenes, whereby the ratio of cisltrans 2-butene produced was four to six times greater than the equilibrium ratio. The extent of skeletal isomerization depended to some extent on the method of preparation of the alumina. TABLE I11 Dehydration of 2-Methyl-I-propanolover Alumina Catalysts at 350"

Composition of C,H, -.-

Al,O,"

HLSV*

Dehydration

Isobutylene

1-Butene

2-Butene cis

-

A A A

197 94 47

trans

cisltrans

-.

9 14 22

88.6 87.8 87.0

4.7 5.2 5.2

4.7 4.6 4.6

2.0 2.5 2.5

2.3 1.8 1.8

A-P' A-T? A-P'

66 31 16

1.5 6 13

87.3 85.5 84.5

5.8 6.3 6.2

4.9 5.9 6.8

2.0 2.6 3.0

2.4 2.3 2.2

A-Na A-Na A-Na A-Na

27 13 6 3

8

14 25 54

86.5 88.6 87.0 88.8

6.0 4.8 5.3 4.4

5.7 5.2 5.7 4.6

1.8 1.4 2.0 2.1

3.1 3.7 2.8 2.2

A-H A-H A-H

32 15 1.6

3.0 7.5 20.0

77.5 77.0 77.5

10.5 10.6 10.3

8.3 9.6 9.7

3.7 3.8 4.5

2.2 2.5 2.1

~

~~~~

a-bSeefootnotes to Table I V p. 76. 'The 2-methyl-1-propano1 contained 20% by volume pyridine.

TABLE IV Dehydration of 2-Phenyl-I-propanolover Alumina C d y 8 t a at 270"

Composition of C,H,C,H, A1,O,a

HLSV*

Temperature ("C)

Dehydration

(%)

C=C+

C=G--c#

+C=G-C

I C

C k

trans

ezkltrana"

A A A

7.0 2.8 1.5

270 270 270

2.6 8.2 17.5

64.6 65.9 63.6

14.1 12.9 15.2

14.7 16.3 16.3

6.6 4.8 4.8

2.2 3.4 3.4

A-Pd A-Pd A-Pd

5.0 1.2 0.5

270 270 270

1.7 5.0 10.5

50.3 52.3 52.9

26.5 23.4 23.8

15.6 17.1 16.4

7.6 7.2 6.9

2.0 2.4 2.4

A-H A-H

9.0 3.4

320 320

12 20

39.0 40.3

32.2 33.4

18.0 18.6

9.5 9.0

1.9 2.0

'Catalysts: A, prepared from aluminum isopropoxide and calcined at 700' for 4 hours ;A-Na, contained 1yoby weight of sodium by impregnation with sodium carbonate; A-H, purchased from Harshaw Chemical Company; it contained 0.35% of sodium. *HLSV = hourly liquid space velocity, grams of alcohol per gram of catalyst per hour. 'The ratio of eisltrans at equilibrium is: at 250°, 0.15 and at 350°, 0.24 (unpublished results). 'The 2-phenyl-1-propano1 contained equal volume pyridine.

0 0

z

MECHANISM ‘OF ALCOHOL DEHYDRATION OVER ALUMINA

77

It is interesting to note that the A-H alumina, which is the least acidic (36),had the lowest dehydration activity, but caused the highest skeletal isomerization. Similarly, alumina in which the relatively strong acidic sites were neutralized by pyridine formed more skeletal isomerized product from 2-phenyl- 1 -propano1 than the “acidic” alumina, thus excluding classical carbonium ion mechanism. The dehydration reaction can best be explained by a concerted mechanism whereby the removal of the hydroxyl group is caused by the acid sites and the proton by the intrinsic basic sites of the aluminas. The elimination of the elements of water is aided by the anchimeric assistance of neighboring groups, such as methyl, phenyl, or hydrogen. The products obtained from the dehydration can be interpreted as follows:

HERMAN P I N E S AND JOOST MANASSEN

78

Cont!rary t o the statements of Schulman etal. (81)a n d Taft et al. (77), there is very little similarity between thermal decomposition of aluminum alkoxides and dehydration of alcohols over aluminas. The thermal decomposition mechanism would not explain th e skeletal isomerization occurring during the dehydration of 2-methyl-1-propano1 (82). 3 . 2- Phenyl-1-propanol-l-C’

I n order t o shed more light on the mechanism of dehydration of /3-substituted propanols Pines an d Herling (83) studied the dehydration TABLE V Dehydration of ~ - P h e n y l - l - p r o p a n o l - l - Cati 4270’

Conversion (mole yo) Composition of olefins (Yo)

Ph C

u

A

Catalyst“

P

37

20

42.8

42.7

27.1 18.7 11.4

25.5 19.8 12.0

\ C Ph C-C=C Ph C=C-C Ph C= C-C

(cia-) (trans-)

Radioactivity distribution

F)

Ph C(2)

(yo) 49.6

0.8

49.6

53

0

47

0 0.5

100 90

0 10

0 0

\ C(3)

Ph C(l)-C(2)=C(3)

100

0

Ph C ( I ) = C ( Z ) - C ( 3 )

88

11.5

“A-Alumina made from aluminum isopropoxide and calriiltd at 7 0 0 ” fnr 4 hours. B-Alumina “A” impregnated with sodium carbonate: contained 1 yo Nab.

of 2-phenyl-1-propanol-1-C14 over aluminas (Table V ) . They found th a t all the radioactivity in the allylbenzene formed was located on the benzylic carbon atom, This supports the mechanism t h a t the allylbenzene was produced by the removal of hydrogen from the y-carbon atom, accompanied by a migration of the phenyl group (80).

MECHANISM OF ALCOHOL DEHYDRATION OVER ALUMINA

79

The equal distribution of C14 a t C(1) and C(3) in a-methylstyrene is best explained by a trans elimination reaction of the elements of water followed by a rapid equilibration of from 2-phenyl- 1-propanol-l-C1*, a-methylstyrene produced through the formation of the highly stabilized tertiary carbonium ion : Ph

I

CH8--CH-C1'H,OH

Ph

- H,O

I

CH,-CH=C"H,

It is however not ruled out that the reaction might have proceeded through the formation of a symmetrical intermediate such as phenylcyclopropane. The distribution of the radioactivity between C(l) and C(2) in trans/3-methylstyrene shows that the relative rate of migration of phenyl va methyl group is about 8:l.

%g

.Ph

-H+

*,+',\

H3C-CH--\C14-H p h -@ ( b y CH-CL4H2OH

' A CH, (a)

CH,CH=C14HPh

-

-H+

PhCH=CL4H2CH,

4. 2-Phenyl- and 2-p-Tolyl-l-ethanol-l-C14 Pines and Herling (83) dehydrated the title alcohols over alumina B (Footnotes, Table V). The dehydration was made a t 350" and the contact time was adjusted in order t o obtain 50-60% styrenes. The dehydration was accompanied by a 6% of the phenyl and 9% of the tolyl migration from carbon atom 2 t o carbon atom 1 and can be explained as follows:

HERMAN PI N E S AND JOOST MANASSEN

80

5. Neopentyl Alcohol and tert-Pentyl Alcohol

Pillai and Pines (84)found that neopentyl alcohol, mixed with 10% by weight of piperidine and passed over alumina prepared from aluminum isopropoxide, yielded 2-methyl-1-butene and 2-methyl-2-butene, in a maximum ratio of 3, and small amounts of 1,l-dimethylcyclopropane. However, tert-pentyl alcohol yielded these two olefins in a maximum ratio of only 1.4, and none of the cyclopropane was produced (Table VI). Because of these facts a carbonium ion mechanism which is applicable to tert-pentyl alcohol is not adequate to explain the rearrangement taking place during the dehydration of neopentyl alcohol , TABLE VI Dehydmlion of Neopentyl Alcohol and tert-Pentyl Alcohols" otjer Aluminab

Composition of product (1

Temperature ("C)

345 345

HLSV

Dehydration

(Yo)

C =C-C-C

I

I

C

C

Neopentyl alcohol 32 64.H 19 73.7

345

1 4 8

27.5 275 275 327

Irvt-Pentyl alrohol 1 n5 57.4 4 45 55.9 8 29 58.0 Equilibrium' 33

5

=C- C

C-C

69.4

/

32.5 23.8 27.u

2.7 2.5 0.9

42.fi

-

44.1 41.9 66

-

-

"Thealcohols were mixed with 10% by weight of piperidine. lA1umina was prepared from aluminum isopropoxide. 'J. E. Kilpatrick, E. J. Prosen, K . S. Pitzer, and F. D. Rossini, J . Res. Nntl. Birr. std., A aa, 559 (1946).

MECHANISM OF ALCOHOL DEHYDRATION OVER ALUMINA

81

inasmuch as the two alcohols would have had the same ionic intermediate : C

C

I

H+

C-b-COH

---+ C-C-COH,

I

I C

C

C +

-H,O

1

+

-+ C-C-C

I

-+ C-d-C-C

I

C

C

The dehydration of neopentyl alcohol can best be explained by a concerted mechanism involving the removal of the proton from the y-carbon atom by the basic sites and of the hydroxyl group by the acid sites of the alumina, with migration of the methyl group: YH3 C€+C-CH,-

CH,

YHs CH,-C-CH, ‘C&?

y Participation has seldom been encountered in solution because most dehydration reactions have been studied in acid solutions, where an active proton abstractive role of the solvent is unlikely. Recently, however, some studies have appeared involving dehydration reactions in alkaline solutions which, however, involve methylene intermediates. Sanderson and Mosher (85) dehydrated neopentyl alcohol with dibromomethylene (from bromoform in aqueous potassium hydroxide) and found, in agreement with the results over alumina, that 2-methyl1-butene predominates over 2-methyl-2-butene by a factor of 2.3. They suggested the following interpretation for this reaction: H,C - 1 H O -H-CH,-C-C-0-CBr

H

‘n H,CIf’ D

H,C I -CH,=C-C-CH,

H 1 I D

+ CO + B;

Similar interpretation can be used in explaining the results of Skell and Maxwell (86) who dehydrated 2-methyl-1-butanol in the presence of bromoform and aqueous potassium hydroxide in solution.

TABLE VII Dehydration of 2-Butanol, 2-Pentanol, and 3-Pentaml' -4lkenes produced (yo) Experiment No.

1 2 3 4 5 6

Alcohol"

2-B 2-P 2-P 3-P 3-P 3-P

Temperature ("C)

273 275 275 300 300

300

HLSV

Dehydration (%)

4 1 4 1 4 8

'Catalyst: alumina from aluminum isopropoxide with piperidine. b2-B = 2-butanol; 2 - P = 2-pentanol; 3-P = 3-pentmol.

10 13

8 88 63 36

1-

cia-2-

trans-%

43.5 38.4 40.7 0.75 0.68 0.50

48.1 50.2 47.0 70.8 70.6 70.6

8.4 11.3 12.3 28.5 28.7 28.9

Cd

Ratio, &/trans 5.7

-

3.9

-

2.4

2M Gd

*

1 ': U 4

0

$ e

P

2

MECHANISM O F ALCOHOL DEHYDRATION OVER ALUMINA

83

VIII. Dehydration of Secondary and Tertiary Alcohols A. 2-BUTANOL, 2-

AND

3-PENTANOL

The dehydration of the title alcohols was made over alumina in the presence of piperidine (84). The experimental results listed in Table VII give the primary products. In all experiments the cis-olefins predominate over the trans-. The method of preparation of the alumina has a marked effect on the product distribution as shown in Table VIII ( 4 7 ) .Over the pure alumina (P) the olefinic products are nearly equilibrated. The alkali-containing catalysts, however, give kinetically controlled products. The very low activity of these catalysts for olefin isomerization had been ascertained independently. It may, therefore, be concluded that the composition of the olefins produced a t 350" is very nearly that of the primary dehydration products. Experiments 3-5 show a small trend toward more 1-alkene as the alumina becomes more basic. From a plot of product composition versus contact time and extrapolation to zero time Pines and Hnag (49)

:

'

c

I00

70 -

1.0

2.0

Time variable. HLSV-'

FIG.3. Distribution of butene as a function of contact time. 2-Butanol over Alto, (from isopropoxide) at 350".

84

HERMAN PINES AND JOOST MANASSEN

determined the primary products of the dehydration of 2-butanol over the alkali-free alumina (P) (Fig. 3). The per cent 1-butene content of the olefins was 26.0 as compared with 38.4,40.3, and 44.0 when the alkali content was 0.38, 1.0, and 1.5, respectively. The primary products obtained from 2-butanol are of mechanistic significance and may be compared with other eliminations in the secbutyl system (87). The direction of elimination does not follow the Hofmann rule (88) nor is it governed by statistical factors. The latter would predict 60% l-butene and 40% 2-butene. The greater amount of 2-alkene and especially the unusual predominance of the cis-olefin over the trans isomer rules out a concerted cis elimination, in which steric factors invariably hinder the formation of cis-olefin. For example, the following ratios of cisltrans 2-butene are obtained on pyrolysis of 2-butyl compounds: acetate, 0.53 (89,90);xanthate, 0.45 (87);and amine oxide, 0.57 (86);whereas dehydration of 2-butanol over the alkali-free alumina (P)gave a cisltrans ratio of 4.3 (Fig. 3). The kinetic preference for cis- over trans-olefin elimination from acyclic compounds is rare. Cope and co-workers (91) reported a slight preference for .cis- over trans-2-butene and 2-pentene in the thermal decomposition of the quaternary ammonium hydroxides, and Andr6u and co-workers (92,93)found a preponderance of cis- over trans-2-butene in the elimination of hydrogen chloride from 2-chlurobutane over solid catalysts. Neureiter and Bordwell (94) found the formation of cis-2butene rather than trans-2-butene in the release of chloride ion during the formation of alkene from a-chlorosulfone on treatment with alkali: HO-

+ CH,CH,SO,CHClCH,

-

fad

HOH

+ CH,CHSO,CHClCH, Girt

hlOW

CH,-C--C-CHs

\/

+CH,CH=CH-CH, (cis)

+ SO,

S

A high cisltrans ratio of 4.4 was observed by Haag and Pines (95)in the isomerization of 1-butene over the same pure alumina (P) catalyst. Although the close agreement of the ratio in dehydration and isomerization may be coincidental, it was suggested that both reactions proceed through the same intermediate. The elimination of the elements of water from 2-butanol can best be explained by trans elimination reaction involving the anchimeric assistance of hydrogen. The assistance of neighboring hydrogen in reactions in solution has been repeatedly observed ( 9 6 , 9 7 ) .The elimination reaction can be presented as followR:

85

MECHANISM O F ALCOHOL DEHYDRATION OVER ALUMINA

!! B H---c-c'-cH, C&

(OH A

-

:B

H,

---+

H ,'+', H--c-~---H

4

CH,

H

\H,

CH,

r B Hi

H CH,

- '="\,,' H \

cH3

H

+BH 3

The proton-olefin complex is probably responsible for the unusually high cisltrans ratio (47, 92). These intermediates have to be considered a5 hydrogen bond-like structures and evidence has been presented for an extremely high mobility of the proton in these structures (98, 99).

B. 3,3-DIMETHYL-2-BUTANOLAND 2,3-DIMETHYL-2-BUTANOL The experimental results of the dehydration of the two alcohols over alumina in the presence and absence of pyridine are given in Table IX (84). From 3,3-dimethyl-2-butanol, the major product of rearrangement is 2,3-dimethyl-l-butene. The distribution of the primary dehydration products is far from equilibrium. The maximum ratio of 2,3-dimethyl-1butene to 2,3-dimethyl-2-butene obtained from 2,3-dimethyl-2-butanol is about 10. This is higher than that to be expected if a proton is removed carbonium ion in a statistical manner. from the 1,1,2-trimethy1-2-propyl The maximum ratio of the two olefins obtained from 2,3-dimethyl-2butanol is also about 10. Hence it can be argued that the high yield of 2,3-dimethyl- 1-butene from 3,3-dimethyl-2-butanol does not necessarily rule out a classical carbonium ion mechanism. It is very unlikely, however, that the same intermediate is involved from both alcohols. If such were the case the product of dehydration of 2,3-dimethyl-2-butanol would contain appreciable amounts of 3,3-dimethyl-1-butene. The products from the dehydration of 3,3-dimethyl-2-butanol can be explained by anchimeric assistance of the methyl group and the removal of the proton from the y-carbon atom: H3C CH,

(a) I I 7 C&=C-CH-CH3

TABLE VIII Dehydration of 2-Butanal and 2-Pentanal over Various Aluminas at H L S V = 0.5 Alkenes produced (%)" Experiment

Catalystb

P P D A I 6 7 8

P D D

Temperature ("C) 280 350 350 350 350 327 350 350 410 327

Alcohol

2-Butanol 2-Butanol 2-Butanol 2-Butanol 2-Butanol Equilibrium' 2-Pentanol 2-Pentanol 2-Pentanol Equilibrium'

Dehydration (%) 90 93 70 35 25

79 77 76

-

X

m

trans-2-

cis-2-

Ratio, cisltrans

38.4 21.5 38.4 40.3

32.0 46.2 15.5 15.1

29.6 32.3 46.1 44.6

0.92 0.70 3.0 3.0

%

44.0 21.2 14.2 33.7 28.3 12.5

14.0 49.7 57.5 12.7 25.2 53.9

42.0 29.1

3.0 0.59

% U

28.3 53.6 46.5 33.6

0.49 4.22 1.84 0.62

1-

"The %.olefins were ndrmalized to 100%. The total olefinic product contained in addition to the olefins listed: Expt. 1, 1 % isobutylene; Expt. 2, 2.5% isobutylene; Expt. 6, 14.87; of a fourth compound, most likely 2-methyl-2-butene. 'Alkali content: P, 0.0%; D, 0.38%. A, 1.0%; I, 1.5%. 'J. E. Kilpatrick, E . J. Prosen, K . S.Pitzer, and F. D. Rossini, J . Res. Natl. Bur. Std. A36, 559 (1946).

E %.

21

M La

* 2

0

%

F

TABLE IX Dehydration of 3,3-Dimethyl-2-butanoland 2,3-Dimethyl-2.butanol

,-.

Expt.

Catalyst"

Temp. ("C)

I

HLSV

ccc=c I C

1 >

I

3 4 0

6 7

x A

x A(lO% pip.) A(lO% pip.) X(lOyo pip.) B2

A( 10% pip.) 4 1 0 % pip.) -I(10% pip.) 11 X(10% pip.) 12 4 1 0 % pip.) 13 A( 10% pip.) Equilibrium' 8 9 10

280 280 280 340 340 340 290 345 345 345 275 275 275 327

1 4

8 1 4

8 1 1 4

8 1 4 8

-

I-

zM

c c

G

cc-c=c I

I

c c

3,3-Dimethyl-2-butanol 11.7 29.5 67.4 24.5 70.3 25.6 70.1 23.5 76.4 18.3 78.1 17.3 50.1 40.8 2,3-Dimethyl-2-butanol 0.2 84.6 0 88.4 0 89.0 0 89.2 0.2 87.9 0.3 87.1 4 44

cc =cc I

I

c c

I

V

Others

8

Dehydration

s2

(YO)

E

______

0

r 4

58.4 7.5 2.8 3.9 1.7 1.6 6.7

0.05 0.56 1.45 2.1 2.4 2.1 2.4

0.41 0.07 0 0.48 0.67 0.94 0

100 100 83 85 26 16 4

13.5 9.9 9.7 9.4 9.3 9.0

0 0 0 0 0.2 0.3

1.7 1.7 1.5 1.3 2.4 3.2

100 97 85

52

-

-

60 28 18

-

r

Q 0

F

U

rc

U

E

8z 0

c

E P

r

c:

z w

5 "A refers to alumina prepared from aluminum isopropoxide. A(10% pip.) refers to reaction on catalyst A where the alcohol feed by weight of piperidine. B2 refers to alumina prepared from sodium aluminate and washed twice. was mixed with "J.E. Kilpatrick, E. J. Prosen, K. S. Pitzer, and F. D. Rossini,J. Res. Natl. Bur. Std., A36,559 (1964).

30 4

TABLE X

X

E

Dehydration o j 3,3-Dimetl.yZ.Z-penta~~ and ?,3-Dirnethyl-Z-pe~anol"

Expt.

Alcohol

Dehydration (9.0)

I

CCCC=C

F

2

C

C

Cb

\-/

I

c c c c =c cI cI

ccc-cc

cc =c-CC'

c cI

cI ct

'I

ccc=cc

2

cI cI

Ef

Z b

2

C

4

1 2

3 4

3,33,33,32,3-

14 10 3

100

77.8 79.0 75.9 0

2.0 2.05 2.3 0

5.0 4.9 5.0 92.1

7.7

6.3 6.9

0

7.2 6.7 8.4 0

"Temperature, 275"; catalyst, alumina from aluminum isopropoxide with piperidine. !'Two unresolved peaks, probably c b and trans. This cia isomer was identified by comparison with authentic eample. 'Twooverlapping peaks, probably cis and tram isomers.

1.4 1.1 1.6 7.9

0 0

2

f

MECHANISM OF ALCOHOL DEHYDRATION OVER ALUMINA

89

follows: H,C-C=C-CH, I t H,C CH,

c. 3,3-DIMETHYL-2-PENTANOL AND

2,3-DIMETHYL-2-PENTANOL

The dehydration of the two alcohols over alumina catalyst in the presence of piperidine was studied by Pillai and Pines (84).The experimental results which are given in Table X indicate that, although carbonium ion mechanism can interpret the products obtained from the tertiary alcohols, another mechanistic path has t o prevail in order to account for the formation of the various dehydration products from 3,3-dimethyl-2-pentanol.The mechanism, as proposed above for the dehydration of 3,3-dimethyl-2-butanol, would also explain the hydrocarbons formed from the dehydration of 3,3-dimethyl-2-pentanol.

IX. Conclusions Pure alumina catalyst prepared either by hydrolysis of aluminum isopropoxide or by precipitation of aluminum nitrate with ammonia, and calcined a t 600-800°, contains intrinsic acidic and basic sites, which participate in the dehydration of alcohols. The acidic sites are not of equal strength and the relatively strong sites can be neutralized by incorporating as little as 0.1yoby weight of sodium or potassium ions or by passing ammonia or organic bases, such as pyridine or piperidine, over the alumina. The mechanism of dehydration of alcohols over “acidic” and “nonacidic” alumina is the same. I n the presence of the (‘acidic’’ alumina, however, readsorption of the dehydrated product can occur, leading to either double bond migration or skeletal isomerization, depending on the strength of the acid sites, the structure of the olefins produced, and the experimental conditions. The dehydration of tertiary alcohols over aluminas can be interpreted by a carbonium ion mechanism. Experimental evidence demonstrates that secondary and primary alcohols are dehydrated by a concerted mechanism, whereby both the intrinsic acid and base sites of the alumina participate. The steric course

90

HERMAN PINES AND JOOST MANASSEN

of the reaction proves that the dehydration of alkylcyclohexanols proceeds via a trans elimination. The participation of neighboring groups, such as hydrogen, methyl, phenyl, and hydroxyl, during the dehydration was observed. As a consequence of this, methyl group migration during the dehydration of isobutyl alcohol under “nonacidic” conditions takes place, leading to the formation of unbranched butenes. The relative rate of migration of the phenyl as compared with the methyl group in 2-phenyl-1-propanoll-U4was 7.5. Evidence was presented to show participation of the hydrogen on the y-carbon atom relative t o the hydroxyl group. This leads to the formation of 1-p-menthene from menthol, optically active camphene from bornanols, allylbenzene from 2-phenylpropanol, etc. In the dehydration of alicyclic secondary alcohols the cis-olefin predominates over the trans-, and greatly exceeds the equilibrium concentration. There is a strong parallel between elimination reactions in solution and the dehydration of alcohols over alumina. The trans elimination reactions and the anchimeric assistance of alcohols over aluminas suggest that the dehydration must occur within either the submicroscopical pores, or crevices, or channels of the aluminas. The aluminas therefore must surround the alcohol molecules providing acid sites to act as proton donors or electron acceptors and basic sites to act as proton acceptors or electron donors, For that reason the aluminas seem to act as “solvating” agents and therefore may be considered as a “pseudosolvents” for dehydration reactions.

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MECHANISM O F ALCOHOL DEHYDRATION OVER ALUMINA

91

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92

HERMAN PINES AND JOOST MANASSEN

50. Ingold, C. K., “Structure antl Mechanism in Organic Chemistry,” pp. 464-472. Bell, London, 1953. 51. Cram, D. J., “Steric Effects in Organic Chemistry” (M. S. Newman, ed.), pp. 314-329. Wiley. New York, 1950. 59. Huckcl, W., Tappe, W., antl G. Legutkc, Ann. 548, 191 (1940). 53. Cope, A. C., and Acton, E. M., J. A m . Chem. SOC.80,355 (1958). 51. Pines, H., and Pillai, C. N., J . A m . Chem. SOC.83, 3270 (1961). 55. Hassel, O., and Ottar, B., Acta Chem. Scand. 1, 929 (1947). 56. Barton, D.H. R., Ezperentia 6, 316 (1950). 57. Durwell, R.L., Jr., Portc, H. A., antl Hamilton, W. M., J. A m . Chem. SOC. 81, 1828 (1959).

58. Huckel, W., Ber. 77B,905 (1944). 5D. Winstein, S., Morse, B. K., Grunwaltl, E., Jones, H. W., Corsc, J., Trifan, D., and Marshal, H . , J . A m . Chem. Sor. 74, 1127 (1952). 60. AndrCtu, P., Bussmann, E., Noller, H., and Sim, S. K., 2. Elektrochem. 66, 739 (1962). 61. von Rudloff, E., Can. J . Chem. 39, 1860 (1961). 62. Kochloefl, I<., Kraus, M., Chou, C.-S., Beranek, L., and Bazant, V., Collection Czech. Cham. Commun. 27, 1199 (1962). 63. Winstein, S., Darwiah, D., and Holness, N. J.,J . A m . Chem. SOC. 78,2915 (1956). G d . Pines, H.,’ancl Blanc, E., unpublished data. 65.Schappell, F., and Pines, H., unpublished data. 66. Huckel, W., Maucher, D., Fechtig, O., Kurz, J., Heinzel, M., and Hubele, A., Ann. 645, 115 (1961).

67. Olberg, R.C.,Pines, H., and Ipatieff, V. N . , J . A m , Chem. SOC.66, 1096 (1944). 68.Manassen, J., and Pines, H., Pioc. 3rd Intern. Congi. Catalyais, Amsterdam, 1964, pp. 845-856. North-Holland Publ., Amstardam, 1965. 69. Heine, H. W., J. A m . Chem. SOC. 79,6268 (1957). 70. Heine, H. W., Miller, A. D., Barton, W. H., and Greiner, R. W., J . A m . Chem. SOC.7 5 , 4778 (1953).

71. Noyce, D. S.,and Bastian, B. N., J. A m . Chem. Soc. 82, 1246 (1960). 72. Pines, H., and Ravoire, J.,J. Phya. Chem. 65, 1859 (1961). 73. Watanahe, K., Pillai, C. N.,and Pines, IX., J . A m . Chem. SOC.84,3934 (1962). 74. Winstein, S., and Trifan, D., J. A m . Chem. SOC.74, 1147 (1952). 75. Taft, R. W., Jr., 3. A m . Chem. Soe. 74,5372 (1952). 76. Taft, R. W., Jr., and Riesz, P., J . A m . Chem. Soc. 77,902 (1955). 77.Taft, R.W., Jr., Purles, E. L., Riesz, P., and DeFazio, C. A., J. A m . Chem. SOC.77, 1584 (1955).

78.Manassen, J., and Klein, F. S., Chem. SOC.(London)Spec. Pztbl. 14, 4203 (1900). 79. Dostrovsky, I., and Klein, F. S., 3. Chem. SOC.p. 4401 (1955). SO. Herling, J., and Pines, H., Chem. g! I n d . (London) p. 984 (1903). 81. Schulman, C. P., Trusty, M., and Vickers, J. H., J. Org. Clirrn. 28, 907 (1963). 8,”. El-Ahmadi Hciba, I., and Landis, P. S., J. Catalysia 3, 471 (1964). 83. Pines, H., and Herling, J., unpublished results. 81.Pillai, C. N., and Pines, H., J. A m . Chem. SOC.83, 3274 (1963). 85. Sanderson, W .A., and Moshcr, H. S. J. A m . Chem. SOC.89, 5033 (1961). 86. Skell, P. S.,and Maxwell, R. J.,J. A m . Chem. SOC.84, 3962 (1962). 87. DePuy, C . H., and King, R . W., Chem. Rev. 60, 431 (1960). 88. Hanhardt, H., and Ingold, C. K., J . Chem. SOC.p. 997 (1927).

MECHANISM OF ALCOHOL DEHYDRATION OVER ALUMINA

93

89. Froemadorf, D. H., Collins, H . C., Hammond, G. S., and DePuy, C. H., J . A m . Chem. Soc. 81, 643 (1959). 90. Haag, W. O., a n d Pines, H . , J .Org. Chena. 24,877 (1959). 9 1 . Cope, A. C., LeBel, N. A., Lee, H. H., and Moore, W. R., J. A m . Chem. Sor. 72, 4720 (1957). 92. AndrBu, P., Letterer, R., Low, W., Noller, H., ancl Schmitz, E., Proc. 3rd Intern. Congr. Catalysis, Amsterdam, I W 4 , pp. 859-870, North-Holland Publ., Amsterdam, 1965. 93. Noller, H., Low, W., ancl AndrBu, P., Naturwissenschaften 51 (9). 21 1 (1964). 94. Neureiter, N. T., and Bortlwell, F. G., J. A m . Chem. Sor. 85, 1209 (1963). 95. Haag, W. 0.. a n d Pines, H., J. A m . Chem. Sor. 82, 2488 (1960). 96. Smith, W. R., Bowman, R. E., and Kmet, T. J., J . A m . Chem.Sor. 81,997 (1959). 97. Cram, D. J., a n d Taclanier, J.,J. A m . Chem. SOC.81, 2737 (1959). 98. Zundel, G., a n d Schwab, G. M., J . Phys. Chena. 67, 771 (1963). 99. Dinius. R. H.. Emerson, M. T.. and Choppin. G . R.. J . Phys. Chena. 67, 1178 (1963).

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Complex Adsorption in Hydrogen Exchange on Group Vlll Transition Metal Catalysts

n

J. L. GARNETT

AND

W. A . SOLLICH-BAUMGARTNER

Deportment of Physical Chemistry, The University of N e w South lVrtle.~ Sydney. Aziatmlio

Page

I. Introduction . . . .

........ . . . . . 95 ............................................ 96 11. n Complex Adsorption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98 A. Effects Due to n Complex Adsorption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98 B. Factors Influencing n Complex Adsorption ........................... 100 ........

C. Direction of Charge Transfer in x Complex Adso 111. Associative and Dissociative 71 Complex Substitutio A. Associative x Complex Substitution Mechanism B. Dissociativc x Complex Substitution Mechanism ...................... IV. Experimental Evidence for ion Mechanisms . A. x Complex Adsorption . .............. ............... B. x Complex Mechanisms ..................................... C. x Complex Adsorption in Hydrogenation and Related Reactions V. Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...................................... References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

104 106 106 113 119 120

1. Introduction Group VIII transition metal catalyzed hydrogen exchange reactions are important in providing useful information concerning the fundamental processes of bond rupture and bond formation on catalyst surfaces. The reactions are also a convenient source of deuterated and tritiated compounds for chemical and biological research ( 1 ) . The present article is a review of rr complex adsorption which has recently been proposed in catalytic reaction mechanisms (2-11). The main evidence for this intermediate has been obtained from isotopic hydrogen exchange reactions with aromatic compounds where an interpretation according to classical theories has met with increasing difficulties. The limitations of the classical associative and dissociative exchange mechanisms originally proposed by Horiuti and Polanyi (12) and Farkas and Farkas (13-15) are discussed. This is followed by a 95

96

J . L. GARNETT AND W. A . SOLLICH-BAUMGARTNER

quantum mechanical treatment of x complex adsorption in terms of charge-transfer theory including a description of two new exchange mechanisms formulated on this new mode of interaction. The advantages of an interpretation of catalytic exchange reactions in terms of 7r complex adsorption are outlined with a summary of available evidence to support the theory. The possible role of x complex adsorption in hydrogenation and related reactions is also discussed,

CLASSICALMECHANISMS Mechanisms proposed for catalytic exchange reactions have been reviewed by Taylor (16)and may be divided into two classes, dissociative and associative exchange mechanisms. The common feature of all dissociative theories, originally advanced by Farkas and Farkas, is that hydrocarbon molecules chemisorb through carbon-hydrogen bond rupture, whereas in the associative mechanism Horiuti and Polanyi propose that unsaturated hydrocarbons chemisorb by the opening of a double bond. The following reactions show how these two types of chemisorption may lead to exchange and hydrogenation.

Classical Dissociative Mechanism D D2 + 2 Pt

G====

I

2 Pt

LQ+'

Q + 2 R

Pt \

Pt

Q+'

Pt

\ Pt

Q.2.1 \D

According to Farkas and Farkas exchange and hydrogenation occur by two unrelated mechanisms; hydrogenation involves the simultaneous addition of two chemisorbed hydrogen atoms to the physically adsorbed hydrocarbon in the van der Waals layer.

?r COMPLEX ADSORPTION IN HYDROGEN EXCHANGE

97

H H adsorbed

adsorbed

Classical Associative Mechanism

pH+’

hydrogenation

Pt

H

Pt Pt half-hydrogenated state

H 1 Pt

exchange

D

It is generally recognized that saturated hydrocarbons exchange by a dissociative type of mechanism; however, no agreement has been reached in the case of unsaturated hydrocarbons (16). The strongest evidence supporting the classical associative mechanism is that exchange reactions with unsaturated hydrocarbons are very much faster than those with saturated hydrocarbons (3, 16). It is difficult to explain this observation by the dissociative theory, which, because of the noninvolvement of ?r electrons in the dissociative process, predicts approximately similar reactivities for saturated and unsaturated hydrocarbons under conditions where reagent displacement and poisoning side reactions are negligible. I n terms of the dissociative theory the chemisorption of hydrocarbons and hydrogen molecules is similar; i.e., both involve the abstraction of a hydrogen atom by a “metal radical” (+-H.*.Pt).It is also generally accepted in the dissociative theory that dissociation is the rate-determining process. However, this is inconsistent with the greater reactivity yet stronger carbon-hydrogen bond strength of aromatic molecules when compared with aliphatic hydrocarbons in catalytic exchange. I n favor of the dissociative mechanism, but contradicting the exclusive involvement of the associative mechanism, is the fact that exchange

98

J . L. GARNETT A N D W . A. SOLLICH-BAUMGARTNER

reactions occur between normal and deuterated hydrocarbons, e.g., C,I),-C,H, (16). However, owing to toxic side reactions and the rejuvenation of the catalyst surface by hydrogen gas ( 1 6 ) ,these exchange reactions are usually considerably slower than those bctween ethylene and deuterium gas. A further difficulty involved in the associative chemisorption of aromatic molecules such as beiizene is the loss ill resonance energy. The seriousness of this effect may be gauged from hydrogenation studies, which show that the first pair of hydrogen atoms add to the ring by an endothermic process. This effect should be of even greater importance in associative chemisorption since unfavorable lattice distances produce strain in the two adjacent carbori-metal bonds. Finally there is the problem concerning the interpretation of differences in the adsorption strengths of chemically similar aromatic molecules (benzene, diphenyl, naphthalene, anthracene, etc.) observed during exchange (2-4) and hydrogenation reactions ( 1 7 ) .This effect has been studied hy examining the degree of retardation of these aromatic compounds on the rate of a standard exchange or hydrogenation reaction. Extensive data in this field has only recently become available because of the shift in emphasis in exchange studies from gas phase to liquid phase systems. This change in emphasis, due to the extensive use of catalysis for the preparation of deuterated and tritiated compounds (18) has resulted in the investigation of the cxchange properties of a number of relatively nonvolatile homologous series such as the halogenated benzenes and naphthalenes, heterocyclics, polycyclic aromatics, and alkylbenzenes. In each series, systcmatic trends in adsorption strengths were observed. Differences in the catalytic toxicities of acetylene, ethylene, and benzene had previously been reported, but these were attributed to side reactions associated with the different chemical properties of these molecules (16). A similar explanation is difficult to maintain for the reactivities of the above homologous series where classical theories predict approximately equal chemisorption strengths, A new approach was thus necessary to explain aromatic adsorption strength in such a manner as to involve the different r electron properties of these molecules.

II.

r Complex Adsorption

A. EFFECTS DUE TO

x

COMPLEXADSORPTION

The difficulties associated with the classical theories may be resolved if the results are interpreted in terms of a third mode of adsorption whereby unsaturated hydrocarbons adsorb on group VIII transition

?r

COMPLEX ADSORPTION IN HYDROGEN EXCHANGE

99

metals by rr complex formation (2-4). This postulate was found to have three important consequences :

(i)

complex adsorption can lower the activation energy of the chemisorption process by resonance effects in the transition state as well as by binding the species undergoing chemisorption more tightly to the catalyst surface than in van der Waals adsorption ; (ii) the strength of ?r complex adsorption can determine the concentration of the second reagent of the exchange reaction a t the catalyst surface through competitive adsorption on identical sites. This results in the displacement of the second reagent and a decreased reaction rate; (iii) two new exchange mechanisms may be formulated on the basis of rr complex adsorption, namely the associative and the dissociative ?r complex substitution mechanisms; new mechanisms can also be proposed for hydrogenation and isomerization reactions. ?r

The decrease in activation energy for Lhe chemisorption process as a result of T complex adsorption is readily explained by Lennard-Jones’ general theory of catalysis (19).Curve I in Fig. 1 represents the van der

Distance from metal surface

*

van derWaols odsorption

I

CtAisorption (Carbon-metol

u bond)

FIG.1. Decrease of activation energy in dissociative chemisorption by van der Waals adsorption (E2), R complex adsorption (Es), and resonance effects ( E P ) E ; , is activation energy of homogeneous reaction.

Waals interaction of a molecule with the catalyst surface. If a chemical bond can be formed with the surface, then a curve of type I1 exists. The point of intersection of curves I and I1 corresponds to the activation energy (E,) of the reaction. The intersection of curves I V and I1 represents the activation energy of a homogeneous reaction. For n complex adsorption the situation is represenbed by curve 111. Since ?r complex adsorption is stronger than van der Waals adsorption curve 111 will

100

J. L. GARNETT A N D W. A. SOLLICH-BAUMOARTNER

intersect curve I1 at a lower point, so that the activation energy of chemisorption is decreased from E , to E,. Resonance effects in the t,ransition state provide yet another means of lowering the activation energy ( E d )in chemisorption. Reactions which occur via a x complex intermediate are particularly prone to resonance effects (20-22). A more detailed description of this resonance effect is presented in the discussion of the dissociative x complex substitution mechanism; however, for the present its effect may be designated by the broken line in Fig. 1.

B. FACTORS INFLUENCING x COMPLEX ADSORPTION x Complexes may be described in terms of Mulliken's charge-transfer theory (23-25). This theory attributes the complex formation of stable aromatic molecules t o an electron donor (D)-electron acceptor (A) interaction which is approximately represented by the combination of three wave functions: +(I)&

= "+"(UA)

+ WqD+A-) + Ch(D-At)

If the donor is a strong base and the acceptor a weak acid, then the charge-transfer complex is adequately described in terms of only two wave functions, +,, and Adsorption via this extreme form of chargetransfer interaction has been studied by Matsea et al. (26).These authors derived an equation showing that the heat of adsorption a t zero coverage, under conditions of approximately equal orbital overlap, was a simple function of the metal work function and the ionization potential of the base. The equation was successfully applied t o the adsorption of longchain aliphatic nitriles, esters, alcohols, amines, and thiols, where adsorption strength was found to increase with decreasing ionization potential of the adsorbing molecule. A quantitative treatment of n- complex formation is, however, more complicated, since i t is generally recognized that all three wave functions are necessary for an accurate description of the bond. For instance, it has been pointed out by Orgel (27) that x complex stability cannot solely be the result of T electron donation into empty metal d orbitals, since d8 and d'* ions (Cu+, Ag+, NiO, Rh+, PtO, Pd++)form some of the strongest complexes with poor bases such as ethylene. T Complex stability would thus appear to involve the significant back-donation of metal d electrons into vacant antibonding orbitals of the olefin. Because of the additional complication of back-donation plus the uncertainty of metal surface orbitals, i t is only possible to give a qualitative treatment of this interaction a t the present time.

n COMPLEX

ADSORPTION I N HYDROGEN EXCHANGE

101

For stable complex formation, i.e., effective combinations of wave functions 4G0, t,hl, 4GZ, the following conditions are necessary.

(a) Energies of $o, t,hl, and 4GZ should be of comparable magnitude. I n the present case this is largely determined by the ionization potentials and electron affinities of the organic molecule and metal catalyst. ( b ) The “charge clouds” of the complexing species should overlap, i.e., the overlap integral should not be zero, otherwise the resonance integral will also be zero. This fact gives rise to the observed steric hindrance effects in 71 complex adsorption. and t,hz should have suitable symmetries to prevent both the (c) a+50, resonance and overlap integrals from being zero due to internal cancellation. This factor largely determines the orientation of the donor relative to the acceptor molecule and is generally referred to as the “orientation principle.” The last condition, the “orientation principle,” is illustrated for the benzene-iodine and ethylene-platinum complexes. It is seen that the orientation depicted in Fig. 2a leads to a positive overlap integral and eneznB e-?+

8

C-

orbital

banding

loo;; antibonding

(b)

FIG.2. Orientation principle in the benzene-iodinecharge-transfercomplex: (a) S and /3 # O;(b)Sand/3 = 0.

complex formation while the orientation illustrated in Fig. 2(b) results in an overlap integral of zero and no complex formation. The importance of the orientation principle in the simultaneous electron donor (bonding orbitals) and acceptor (antibonding orbitals) action in the ethylene-platinum ir complex formation is represented by Fig. 3 (28).Here the empty 5d6s6p2 hybrid orbitals of platinum overlap with the free rr2p bonding orbitals of ethylene in an electron donor action towards the metal; the reverse charge transfer occurs through the overlap of full 5dsp hybrid metal orbitals with empty 712p antibonding orbitals of ethylene. I n this manner the complex tends t o maintain its electrical neutrality .

102

J . L. GARNETT AND W . A. SOLLICH-BAUMGARTNER

5 d s p (full) .5d6s6pz(ernpty)

FIG.3. Orientation principle in the ethylene-platinum r complex.

C. DIRECTION OF CHARGE TRANSFER IN 7~ COMPLEX ADSORPTION Since n complex adsorption involves the forward- and back-donation of electrons, the direction of the net flow of charge needs to be established. Mignolet (29) discusses this problem in connection with the sign of the resulting double layer when gases such as oxygen and xenon are adsorbed on metal surfaces. On the basis of this treatment, net charge transfer would be expected to occur from the aromatic to the metal, despite the low work function of the latter (4.5 ev) and the relatively high ionization potential of aromatics (8-9 ev). This energetic data has sometimes led to the suggestion that net charge transfer should occur from the metal to the aromatic and not in the reverse direction as suggested by the present authors. The former view, however, fails to consider that metals with work functions of the order of 4 ev are also comparable with the most electronegative atoms. Accordingly, these metals would be outstanding acceptors in relation t o aromatic molecules of generally low electron affinity (0.1-0.5 ev). The direction of net charge transfer is explained quantum mechanically by symmetry factors associated with the bonding and antibonding orbitals of the organic molecule. Because antibonding orbitals are more complex and contain a greater number of nodal planes than bonding orbitals, the "bonding orbital" interaction should predominate so that net charge transfer occurs towards the metal. This conclusion is consistent with Selwood's (30)magnetic studies of benzene and ethylene adsorption. Consequently, rr complex adsorption will be designated by the following symbol:

Pt

111. Associative and Dissociative

7~

Complex Substitution

Mechanisms On the basis of rr complex adsorption it is possible to formulate two new mechanisms for transition metal-catalyzed exchange reactions between aromatic molecules and water or hydrogen gas (2, 4 ) . Similar t o

n COMPLEX ADSORPTION I N HYDROGEN EXCHANGE

103

the classical exchange theories these may for convenience be distinguished by the terms “associative” and “dissociative.” However, the new mechanisms differ significantly from their classical counterparts in that the dissociative mechanism involves n electrons in the dissociation process, while the opening of a double bond is not involved in the new associative mechanism. Both mechanisms, termed the associative and dissociative n complex substitution mechanisms, proceed via n complex adsorbed aromatics (e.g., benzene) which occupy a position on the catalyst so that the plane of the ring is parallel to the catalyst surface [Eq. ( 7 ) l :

Pt

A. ASSOCIATIVE n COMPLEX SUBSTITUTION MECHANISM The associative mechanism resembles a conventional radical (hydrogen atom) substitution reaction where the n-bonded benzene molecule is attacked by a hydrogen atom formed by the dissociative adsorption of water or hydrogen gas. The activation energy in this process is essentially due to the partial localization of one n electron in the trailsition complex (21,31). The transition state differs, however, from conventional substitution reactions by being n-bonded to the catalyst surface:

n-Bonded adsorption may have two effects. First, by facilitating a close approach between the two reagents i t may’ decrease the activation energy by the previously outiined Lennard-Jones mechanism. The second effect is not as readily established. For instance, n complex adsorption may assist the reaction by decreasing the localization energy; alternatively, it may hinder the reaction by preventing n complex formation with the attacking radical, which some authors (20, 32) consider as a n important intermediate in substitution reactions. An interesting feature of the transition state is its formal resemblance t o the “half hydrogenated” chemisorbed intermediate of the classical associative mechanism

104

J. L. CARNETT A N D W. A. SOLLICH-BAUMCARTNER

Pt

Pt

b

without, however, suffering from the same energy restrictions. This is mainly due to the short lifetime of the transition state by comparison with classical associative chemisorption, smaller x electron localization, and independence on lattice spacings.

B. OISSOCIATLVE x COMPLEXSUBSTITUTION MECHANISM

In the dissociative mechanism, the r complex adsorbed aromatic reacts with a metal radical (active site) by a substitution process. During this reaction [Eq. (9)] the molecule rotates through go",* and changes from its horizontally r complex adsorbed position to a vertically ubonded chemisorbed state:

Pt horizontally n-bonded

Inclined 4 5"

vertically o-bonded

Pt

The postulated transition state of the v-u bond conversion occurs when the plane of the rotating benzene molecule is approximately at 4.5"to the catalyst surface. The electronic hybridization changes involved in this process (Fig. 4 ) are similar to those proposed by Melaiider (22) for homogeneous substitution reactions and show how resonance interactions may achieve a lowering in the activation energy. This aspect has previously been discussed in terms of the Lennard-Jones theory where the activation energy is lowered more effectively by resonance effects *Rotation of the ring is necessary, since "edge on" n coniplexirig is prcvcntrtl liy orbital Rymmetry and hy the steric hindrance of aromatic hydrogen at(nms.

T

105

COMPLEX ADSORPTION IN HYDROGEN EXCHANGE

M

M

FIG.4. Hybridization changes of n and u electrons at different stages of dissociative chemisorption: B.R., plane of benzene ring; 4, n complex adsorption; I, u bond.

(broken lines in Fig. 1) than by the closer proximity (stronger bonding) of the reagents as a consequence of T complex adsorption. The authors believe that the resonance effect is the main reason why aromatic molecules exchange a t a faster rate than aliphatic molecules in the dissociative mechanism, i.e., why C-H bond rupture is not the ratedetermining process in aromatic exchange. While o-bonded, the aromatic undergoes a second, slower,* substitution reaction a t the carbon-metal bond with a chemisorbed deuterium atom [Eq. (lo)] and returns to the rr-bonded state. It should be noted that multiple exchanged species can be formed if this process is repeated several times before desorption takes place. A feature common to both T complex mechanisms is the nature of the second reagent in the exchange reaction [Eqs. (1 l ) , (12a), (12b)], namely heavy water or deuterium gas. Water is generally preferred in exchange reactions as it does not produce hydrogenated by-products. The important aspect concerning water and deuterium gas is the rapid exchange between these compounds on transition metal catalysts, which has been explained by dissociative chemisorption.

H,O

+ 2Pt+

H

1

Pt

+

I

0

I Pt

H

I I

O

0 Pt

+ Pt

H

* PtII + it

(12b)

With hydrogen this has been deduced from the rapid equilibration of deuterium and hydrogen gas mixture. With water the extent of dissociative chemisorption is not so clearly established. The formation of *See Section dealing with isotope effect.

106

J. L. QARNETT AND W. A . SOLLICH-BAUMOARTNER

chemisorbed hydrogen atoms by Reaction (12b) appears t o be unimportant in view of the great affinity of hydrogen for chemisorbed oxygen. The main evidence for the dissociative chemisorption of water [Eq. (12a)l originates from the rapid equilibration of water-deuterium gas mixtures (33, 34). However, this evidence is not as conclusive as in the case of H,D, mixtures, since rapid exchange is also possible by a proton transfer mechanism [Eq. (13)]: H

I

'

D(6 + ) (6-)0-H

Pt

Pt Pt

H $

I

D-0(6-) Pt Pt

(6

+)H

I

Pt

The uncertainty concerning the dissociation rate of water relative to hydrogen gas could explain the conclusion derived from randomization experiments between normal and deuterated benzene (see Section IV,B), namely that aromatics exchange with water almost exclusively by the dissociative mechanism. In this respect i t is important t o note that organics can exchange by the associative mechanism only when a second substance is present which produces hydrogen atoms by dissociative chemisorption. This restrictibn does not, however, apply to the dissociative mechanism. The postulated associative type of mechanism €or the exchange between deuterium gas and a series of alkylbenzenes ( 5 ) is therefore consistent with the operation of the dissociative mechanism when water is the second reagent of the exchange reaction.

IV. Experimental Evidence for x Complex Adsorption and Reaction Mechanisms

A.

x

COMPLEXADSORPTION

Most of the evidence €or x complex adsorption is derived from the study of competitive reagent adsorption in liquid phase exchange or hydrogenation reactions. This arises from the fact that the majority of homologous aromatic series exhibiting systematic variations in n electron properties important in x complex adsorption (e.g.,polycyclic aromatics) do not possess sufficiently high vapor pressures to be investigated by gas kinetic techniques. The property utilized in these investigations is the toxicity of an aromatic compound produced by strong competitive adsorption and not by toxic side reactions. This leads to the displacement, from the catalyst surface of the other reagents in the exchange reaction

7r

COMPLEX ADSORPTION IN HYDROGEN EXCHANGE

107

(water and/or second aromatic) and consequently to a lowered reaction rate. Five different methods are used to establish the relative toxicities of aromatic molecules : catalytic exchange at temperatures of 120-170" with a standard reaction mixture of deuterium oxide and benzene containing the aromatic under investigation in quantities approximately equal to benzene; a measure of aromatic toxicity is obtained from the degree of retardation exerted on the benzene exchange rate and from the extent of deuteration of the aromatic poison; exchange between toxic aromatics and heavy water a t 120-1 70"; exchange between toxic aromatics and deuterated benzene a t 120-170";

exchange between heavy water and benzene containing toxic aromatics in low coilcentrations (0.36 mole yo)a t 32°C; randomization reactions between normal and deu terated aromatics a t 32 and 120". From reactions (ii)and (iii)it is possible t o demonstrate that both D,O and benzene are displaced from the catalyst surface, i.e., that slow exchange between D,O/benzene in reaction (i) is not due to the displacement of only one reagent, water or benzene, but due to the displacement of both. Reactions in group (iw) are performed a t low temperatures (32") to show that toxic side reactions, which are more likely to occur under high-temperature and high-concentration conditions, are not responsible for the exchange rates observed in reactions (i), (ii), and (iii). Randomization reactions serve t o establish the reactivity of toxic aromatics, i.e., capacity for exchange under conditions where water is not displaced from the catalyst surface. By these reactions i t is possible to distinguish further between cases of strong n complex adsorption and those where poisoning is due t o a side reaction (autocatalytic poisoning) such as polymerization. The results of relative toxicity studies on a number of aromatic systems (2-4, 17, 18) are summarized below. 1 . Polycyclic Aromatics

The experimentally observed sequence of toxicities of several polycyclic aromatics (3) is listed in Table I. Benzene is the least toxic and naphthalene the most toxic of the compounds investigated. The toxicity of naphthalene decreases, however, when bulky inert substituents such as F, C1, and CH, are introduced.

108

J. L. OARNETT AND W. A . SOLLICH-BAUMOARTNER

2. Alkylbenzenes

The toxicities of nine alkyl aromatics ( 4 ) are appreciably less than those of the polycyclic aromatics. No significant retardation is observed in benzene-deuterium oxide exchange reactions at 30" even when the poisons are present in benzene in concentrations of 3.6 mole yo.The high temperature exchange rate (Table 11) of sterically unhindered ring positions* in the alkylbenzenes indicates that adsorption strength TABLE I Trends i n n Complex Adsorption Strength from Competitive Exchange

decreases with increasing bulk of the substituent (e.g., toluene > tertbutylbenzene) or with increasing number and symmetry of methyl substitution (e.g., toluene > p-xylene). Similar observations with respect to steric hindrance in the adsorption of alkylbenzenes have been reported by Rader and Smith (17)in competitive hydrogenation studies (Table 111). 3 . Monohalogenated Benzenes and Naphthalenes Trends in aromatic toxicities (Table IV) are somewhat obscured in these two series by the toxicities of the individual substituents (2). Fluorine and chlorine substituents are reasonably inert; however, the bromine and iodine atoms, particularly the latter, are extremely toxic. I n the case of inert substituents (F, C1) the results resemble those of the alkylbenzenes in terms of steric hindrance to adsorption. The above data indicate considerable differences in adsorption strengths of aromatic molecules. This observation is difficult t o interpret by either the classical associative or dissociative chemisorption theories, particularly by the latter, since this fails to explain why different aromatic hydrocarbons, possessing the same carbon-hydrogen bond strengths, should on chemisorption form carbon-metal bonds of differing strengths. The difficulties with respect to the associative 'theory are not as severe, since T electron energies differ greatly for individual members of the above series. Consequently differences in chemisorption strength *See ortho deactivation effect in Section IV,B.

TABLE I1 Deuterium Ode-Alkylbenzew at 120Q

Run

1A 2B 3B 4B 5B

6C 7C 8B 9B 10B 11D 12D 13D

Substance

Benzene Ethylbenzene o-Xylene Isopropylbenzene (cumene) Toluene Benzotrifluoride Toluene (reference sample for Run 6C) m-Xylene p-Xylene tert-Butylbenzene tert-Butylbenzene (reference sample for Run 12D) Hemimellitene ( 1,2,3-trimethylbenzene) Mesitylene

Reaction time (hours)

D,

Percentage of D in active aromatic hydrogens

9

k; (hour-')

Active aromatic hydrogens

Retarded reactivity

(X)'

Ionization potential (ev)

1 3.0 6.1 6.7 9.3 13

9.24 8.76 8.55 8.68 8.82 9.68

2 4 4 4 4 2 2

63.0 65.0 71.5 66.0 66.6 77 66.6

52.0 58.5 48.7 42.9 35.1 14.0 16.0

0.87 0.58 0.28 0.26 0.19 0.10 0.14

6 5 4 3-5 5 3 5

4 4 4 24

77 71.5 77 77

27.9 13.7 1.74 47.1

0.11 0.053 0.005 0.039

3 4 3 3

15 33 350

24

77

9.2

0.006

3

2400

24

77

0.00

0.00

0

-

-

m

b

-

8.56 8.44 8.68

-

8.39

"X = k: (benzene)/k; (substance), where k: are rate constants, standardized for different catalyst-reagent ratios and different reaction conditions (A,B,C,D); the latter was achieved by the inclusion of reference samples. c

0 (0

110

J. L. GARNETT AND W. A. SOLLICH-BAUMGARTNER

may be attributed to smaller losses in rcsonance energy. However, the observed trends in adsorption strength together with the difficulties discussed in Section I indicate that chemisorption of this kind is relatively unimportant. Alternative explanations available to the classical theories assume that TABLE I11

Exchange Reactions of Monoha2ogenated Benrenes and Naphthalenes" Reaction Run

Reagents

Quantities (moles x lo2)

_ I

Completion of reaction

Time (hours)

Temp.

("C)

(70)

la

D*O Fluorobenzene

2.5 1.0

46.5

130

100

lb

D*O Chlorobenzeno

2.5 1 .o

46.5

130

66

D,O

1.0 2.5

46.5

130

2-4

Bromobenzene

DZO Iodobenzene

1.o

48.6

130

0.0

2.5

2a

DaO Bromobenzene

7.6 1.5

45

180

8

2b

DaO Iodobenzene

7.6 1.5

45

180

1-2

3a

D*O

7.5 1.5

22

130

100

7.5

22

130

24

3.5

130

75

3.5

130

56

Ic Id

Fluorobenzene 3b

D,O Chlorobenzene

1.6

D*O

7.5

Benzene

3.0

DaO Fluorobenzene

7.5 3.0

5a

D*O 1-Fluoronaphthalene

7.0 1 .o

72

130

100

5b

D*O 1 -Chloronaphthalene

7.0 1 .o

72

130

22

5c

DaO Naphthalene

1.o 1.o

72

130

16

5d

DaO 1-Bromonaphthalene

1.o 1.0

72

130

6

4a 4b

"All reactions performed with 100 mg of prereduced hydrogen-activated catalysts.

?r COMPLEX ADSORPTION IN HYDROGEN EXCHANGE

111

different toxic side reactions accompany the exchange of each aromatic, or that van der Waals adsorption determines the reagent concentration and consequently the exchange rate. The former explanation may be rejected for several reasons : (a) consistency in results of low- and high-temperature reactions

[(iv) and (i), (ii), (iii)]; ( b ) failure to detect toxic products of side reactions; and ( c ) ready randomization reactions of toxic molecules (e.g., naphthalene). An explanation involving van der Waals adsorption is excluded by the absence of a correlation between toxicity and boiling point of the reagent. This is strikingly exemplified in the case of diphenyl and naphthalene, where toxicities differ greatly despite similar boiling points. The observed trends in toxicities of the three characteristic aromatic series 1, 2, 3 may be explained by the factors governing x complex adsorption. It is important t o realize that in toxicity studies the metal orbital factor in T complex adsorption is held constant by confining investigations exclusively t o platinum catalysts. Considering the polycyclic hydrocarbon series, it is realized that individual compounds differ considerably in ionization potential and electron affinity as well as in the symmetries of bonding and antibonding orbitals, whereas steric hindrance effects are negligible in all species. The ionization potential decreases as the number of aromatic rings increases ( 3 4 , i.e., as the aromatic nodal pattern becomes more complicated. At the same time the electron affinity of the aromatic molecule increases (21).Consequently, changes in ionization potential and electron affinity with increasing ring number act in the same direction; i.e., both tend to TABLE IV Relative Adsorption Strength ~~

~~

Compound Benzene Toluene o-Xylene rn-Xylene p -Xylem 1,2,3-trirnethylbenzene 1,3,S-trimethylbsnzene

Relative adsorption strength

_____

1.0 0.8

0.33 0.22 0.16 0.08 0.02

112

J . L. OARNETT AND W. A. SOLLICH-BAUMOARTNER

increase the strength of n complex adsorption. This effect tends to be compensated for by the increased complexity of the nodal pattern of aromatic bonding and antibonding orbitals which decreases the resonance and overlap integrals and consequently the bonding strength through internal cancellation. Thus differences in aromatic adsorption are readily explained by n complex formation; however, because of the two opposing effects in bonding, it is difficult to predict these adsorption trends. The relative importance of the opposing effects may be gauged from the observation (Table I ) that the aromatic toxicity reaches a maximum at naphthalene and then decreases with increasing molecular complexity, indicating that the advantageous effects of the ionization potential and electron affinity are eventually cancelled by the increased nodal complexity of bonding and antibonding orbitals. The results of the alkylbenzene series may also be readily explained in terms of n complex adsorption. I n this series, the molecular orbital symmetry of individual members remains constant while the ionization potential, electron affinity, and steric factors vary. Increased methyl substitution lowers the ionization potential and consequently favors n complex adsorption. However, this is opposed by the accompanying increase in steric hindrance as a result of multiple methyl substitution, and decrease in electron affinity (36).From previous data (Tables I1 and 111) it appears that steric hindrance and the decreased electron affinity supersede the advantageous effects of a decreased ionization potential. The results of Rader and Smith, when interpreted in terms of n complex adsorption, show clearly the effects of steric hindrance, in that relative adsorption strength decreases with increasing size, number, and symmetry of substituents. I n the monohalogenated benzene and naphthalene series (Table IV) steric hindrance due to the substituent is not significantly different for chloro, bromo, and iodo derivatives (van der Waals radii, 1.8A, 1.95A, and 2.15~4,respectively) whereas that due to fluorine ( 1 . 3 5 4 is relatively small in comparison to methyl substitution. The molecular orbital symmetries are identical for individual members of the naphthalene and benzene series, whereas the ionization potential decreases steadily towards the iodo derivative. From these data a simple correlation between toxicity and ionization potential is evident, similar to that reported for the stability of the homogeneous complexes involving silver ions (37); i.e., the exchange rate decreases and the toxicity increases towards the iodo derivative. However, this trend may not be due exclusively to a n electron interaction, but could also be influenced by the decreasing inertness of the halogen substituents which are capable of charge transfer adsorption (26). Fluorine is the only substituent sufficiently

x COMPLEX ADSORPTION IN HYDROGEN EXCHANGE

113

inert as t o render this kind of complex formation negligible. Thus fluorobenzene and fluoronaphthalene possess properties similar to the corresponding methyl derivatives, in that each exhibits a drastic reduction in toxicity, which again demonstrates the importance of steric hindrance in x complex adsorption.

B.

x

COMPLEXMECHANISMS

Since the associative and dissociative x complex substitution mechanisms are not mutually exclusive, both may participate simultaneously in exchange reactions where deuterium oxide is the second reagent. It is therefore of interest to distinguish between the relative importance of these two mechanisms. 1. Exchange between Normal and Deuterated Aromatics Exchange reactions between two aromatics provide a ready test for the dissociative mechanism. This arises from the fact that aromatics cannot exchange by the associative mechanism in the absence of a second substance which provides transient hydrogen atoms by dissociative chemisorption. Consequently, exchange between two aromatics can only proceed by the dissociative T complex substitution mechanism. Evidence for this mechanism is provided by low- and high-temperature exchange (30 and 120") between lOOyodeuterated benzene and normal hour-'; diphenyl (38). Exchange a t 30" occurs at a rate of 2.0 x the exchange rate for the deuterium oxidelbenzene reaction under hour-'. This result shows therefore identical conditions is 7 . 0 x that the dissociative x complex substitution mechanism operates in aromatic exchange. However, one cannot reach a conclusion concerning the relative importance of this mechanism in deuterium oxidelbenzene exchange since the slower reaction rate (29% of total) with diphenyl may be due to the displacement of benzene from the catalyst surface. Water and benzene on the other hand adsorb noncompetitively (16) and consequently do not produce similar rate-determining displacement effects. To ascertain whether the dissociative mechanism is exclusively responsible for deuterium oxidelbenzene exchange, it is necessary t o eliminate reagent displacement effects. This is best achieved by randomization reactions between normal and 100yo deuterated benzene. The mathematical description of these reactions is complicated by nonrandom deuterium incorporation as a result of multiple exchange. Special procedures are necessary to express changes in the mass spectrum of the reaction mixture by a rate constant. Results of these experiments (38) give randomization rates of 5.9 x hour-l, while those of the

114

J. L. GARNET: A N D W. A. SOLLICH-BAUMQARTNER

deuterium oxide/benzene reaction are 8.6 x hour-’. The fact that randomization occurs a t a rate which is only 7 0 % of exchange is readily explained by the catalyst activation effect of a water-benzene reaction mixture (39). It is probable, therefore, that the dissociative TI complex substitution mechanism is the only process whereby aromatic hydrocarbons can undergo significant exchange with deuterium oxide. Extension of these experiments to higher temperatures (120’) gives identical results. Under high-temperature conditions reagent displacement effects are less severe, since benzeneldeuterium oxide and benzene/ diphenyl exchanges occur at approximately equal rates. The importance of the strength of 7r complex adsorption on the reaction rate through the operation of displacement effects is further demonstrated by naphthalene randomization reactions. Naphthalene exchanges very slowly with deuterium oxide. That this is due to the displacement of water by normal naphthalene and not due t o a toxic side reaction, such as polymerization, is shown in randomization experiments with mono or-deuterated naphthalene. Randomization is completed within 24 hours at 120”’whereas no significant deuteration occurs under the same reaction conditions with water. This result furnishes additional proof for the dissociative exchange mechanism. 2. Isotope Effect Once the dissociative mechanism is established, it is possible to apply Gutmann’s theoretical treatment (40) to the elucidation of the ratedetermining step of the exchange reaction. For deuterium-tritium I % , i t may be double labeling procedures, i.e., D 2 0 % loo%, T,O shown that the following normalized equations apply under initial exchange conditions :

<

k,’ and k,’ are the rate constants corresponding to the reaction where chemisorbed tritium and deuterium atoms react with the carbon-metal bond of dissociatively chemisorbed benzene [Eqs. (14) and (15)]. Deuterium Exchange [(a) = adsor bed]

Tritium Exchange %

+

CeHa+ C ~ H ~ WH(*) I

( 1 5a)

kE‘ kT’

CJ35(a)

5kn

+ T,,J $ Ce.H,T + CeHIT(a) + HM PH*

(15b)

kT

The fact that an isotope effect of 1.7 & 0.1 is observed (38) in the benzeneldeuterium oxide reaction a t 30°C indicates that this reaction is the rate-determining step of the dissociative rr complex substitution mechanism. I n this respect the result agrees with the direct observations made by other investigators (42, 42),namely that unsaturated hydrocarbons chemisorb a t a faster rate than their subsequent interactions with chemisorbed hydrogen. 3. Ortho Deactivation Effects Ortho deactivation effects, i.e., decreased exchange rates in the ortho position, have been observed by infrared and mass spectrometry in alkylbenzenes ( 4 , 5) and other substituted benzenes ( 2 ) .These effects have been divided into two classes, namely “severe” and “complete.” “Severe” deactivation occurs when the ortho position is adjacent to a single methyl group (e.g., toluene). “Complete” deactivation occurs in the ortho position adjacent to large substituents as in tert-butylbenzene, or when it is between two meta-oriented methyl groups (e.g., m-xylene). These drastic deactivations of the ortho positions are difficult to explain by the associative mechanism since rr-bonded molecules are readily accessible to the attacking hydrogen atom. The situation resembles here the acid-catalyzed exchange of alkylbenzenes (43) which proceeds by a conventional substitution mechanism (D30+),but where only small steric hindrance effects are observed. Ortho deactivation effects are, however, readily explained by the dissociative mechanism. Since in the dissociative mechanism a r-bonded molecule rotates through an angle of 90”to form a carbon-metal a bond, a methyl substituent may exercise two different steric effects; i.e., it may hinder the formation of (i) the r complex and (ii)the a bond. The former determines the reactivity of sterically unhindered ring positions while the latter is responsible for the

116

J. L. GARNETT AND W. A. SOLLICH-BAUMOARTNER

orientation effect (Figs. 5 and 6). An alternate explanation based on the inductive effect of the substituents is excluded by “complete” ortho deactivation of benzotrifluoride ( 4 ) and “severe” deactivation in the halogenated benzenes (2).

Cotalyst surfoce

Fro. 5. Steric hindrance to dissociative chemisorption in doubly flanked ortho position of m-xylene resulting in “complete” ortho deartivation.

Catalyst surface

FIO.6. Steric hindrance to dissociative chemisorption in the ortho position of toluene resulting in “severe“ ortho deactivation.

C. x COMPLEXADSORPTION IN HYDROGENATION AND RELATED REACTIONS

A number of features common to hydrogenation and exchange reactions suggest the possibility of a correlation between the two reaction systems in terms of .rr complex adsorption. r Complex adsorption has already been applied to hydrogenation by Rooney ( 6 ) who proposes the following reaction scheme: H H

Q ‘. ‘ pt

-

-Qc;X”-(J(

- -

Pt

H

-

\

\-

-

H

etc.

(16)

Pt

Volter interprets the decrease in activation energy in the hydrogenation of a series of alkylbenzenes by an increase in the strength of x complex adsorption, which is assumed to follow the trends of the homogeneous charge-transfer complexes with electron acceptors such as iodine ( 8 ) . In view of the more direct evidence for adsorption strengths of alkyl benzenes (Tables I1 and 111), it would appear that greater emphasis should have been given t o steric hindrance effects in heterogeneous complex formation.

?T

COMPLEX ADSORPTION IN HYDROGEN EXCHANGE

117

Crawford and Kemball ( 5 ) propose an exchange mechanism for aromatic hydrocarbons and deuterium gas involving species (I) and (11):

Pt H

Pt

The first of these has a structure which is basically that of cyclohexadiene, involving the loss of resonance, and is therefore considered by these authors to be unstable and not readily formed. The second structure implies that the five ?T electrons, remaining after one of the carbon atoms has been converted to sp3 hybridization, can be utilized in bonding the species to the catalyst surface. The deuterium atom attacks from below the plane of the benzene ring, and i t is proposed that exchange occurs only if the hydrogen atom can be removed from the upper side of the ring. However, the authors indicate that no satisfactory explanation for ortho deactivation effects can be given on the basis of this mechanism. The nature of species (11),whether an unstable intermediate or transition state, requires discussion because of its possible importance in catalytic reaction mechanisms. By analogy to homogeneous substitution reactions a distinction can be made between electrophilic and radical attack. Electrophilic substitution reactions, with a proton for example, appear to proceed via a charge-transfer complex

which a t a later stage of the reaction coordinate changes into a relatively stable intermediate (111)termed the u complex ( 2 1 ) .This intermediate is similar t o the complex in the transition state of the substitution reaction and consists of,an ion pair, namely the base (B)- and a positively charged aromatic nucleus with the attacked carbon atom in sp3 hybridization.

J. L. GARNETT AND W. A . SOLLICH-BAUMOARTNER

118

I n radical substitution reactions stable intermediates do not appear to be formed ( 2 1 ) ; the transition complex (V) involves only a small degree of localization and is consequently less stable than intermediate (111).Furthermore, the progress of the radical substitution reaction does not depend on the abstraction of the hydrogen atom in the transition state by a second reagent. I n catalytic exchange and hydrogenation reactions the attacking species is generally regarded as a transient hydrogen atom. Consequently the degree of r electron localization in transition states should approximate more closely the transition state of a homogeneous radical substitution reaction than one wherc an electrophilic reagent is involved. However, the two transition states, (IV) and (V), do not correspond exactly because of simultaneous 7r complexing to the catalyst surface in (IV). This interaction leaves a small positive charge in the ring, which ( b ) exchange via dissociative n complex substitution mechanism [Eqs. (9) and (10) 1

(e) exchange via associative n complex substitution mechanism [Eq. (8) 1

I

P Pt

(a )

I

( d ) transition complex

( g ) half-hydro-

genated state

(c) hydrogenation

of benzene in van der Waals laye r

H

H D D (f )

D D

7r

COMPLEX ADSORPTION IN HYDROGEN EXCHANGE

119

by analogy t o species (111)should have a stabilizing influence. It follows also from this argument that the transition state of the dissociative 7r complex substitution mechanism (VI) is of approximately equal stability to that of the homogeneous reaction (V). Consequently the stabilities of the various species are (111) > (IV) > (V) M (VI). The more precise formulation of the transition complex of 7r complex substitution reactions makes it possible t o write a reaction scheme [Eq. (17)] showing the possible interconnection of a number of hitherto unrelated hydrogenation and exchange mechanisms. Thus the rr-bonded aromatic (a)may react with a metal radical (active site) and undergo exchange (b) via the dissociative rr complex substitution mechanism; alternatively, it may enter the van der Waals layer and be hydrogenated (c) by chemisorbed hydrogen according t o the mechanism proposed by Beeck ( 4 1 ) ,Rideal et al. ( 4 2 , 4 4 , 4 5 ) ,and Farkas and Farkas (14, 15). Finally there is the possibility of the 7r-bonded aromatic reacting with atomic hydrogen to form transition state (d). If the lifetime of (d) is sufficiently long it may react with another hydrogen atom and be hydrogenated (f) by a mechanism similar t o the one proposed by Rooney ( 6 )or even that of Farkas and Farkas ( 1 4 , 1 5 ) ,i.e., by the simultaneous attachment of two hydrogen atoms. Alternatively, exchange may result by the associative rr complex substitution mechanism (e) if the hydrogen atom in transition state (d) becomes detached before another atom can react with the ring. Finally it is possible that species (d) rotates slightly and forms the classical halfhydrogenated state (g)without involving the serious restriction of metal lattice spacings. The function of species (g)in reactions (h) and (i) closely resembles the exchange and hydrogenation mechanisms in the chemisorption layer (41, 42, 44, 45). Thus species (8) may exchange (h) or hydrogenate (i) by the loss or addition of a hydrogen atom.

V. Conclusion It has been shown that the interpretation of catalytic reactions involving group VIII transition metals in terms of 7r complex adsorption possesses considerable advantages over classical theories by providing a link between theoretical parameters and chemical properties of aromatic reagents and catalysts. The concept has led to the formulation of a number of reaction mechanisms. I n heavy water exchange the dissociative 7r complex substitution mechanism appears t o predominate; it could also play a major role when deuterium gas is used as the second reagent. The dissociative mechanism resolves the main difficulties of the classical associative and dissociative theories, in particular the occurrence

120

J. L. OARNETT AND W. A. SOLLICH-BAUMOARTNER

of randomization reactions, different aromatic adsorption strengths, and the faster exchange rates of unsaturated hydrocarbons. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Thr authors thank the Australian Iristitute of Nuclear Scicnco and Engincering for financial assistance. Acknowledgment is also made to the donors of The Petroleum Research Fund, administered by the Arncrican Chemical Society for support of this research. REFERENCES 1. Garnett, J. L., Nucleonic8 20, 86 (1962). 2. Garnett, J. L., and Sollich, W. A., AustralianJ. Chem. 14, 441 (1961). 3. Garnett, J. L., and Sollich, W. A., AustraZianJ. Chem. 15, 56 (1962). 4 . Garnett, J. L.,and Sollich, A., J . CaCalyeie 2, 350 (1963). 5. Crawford, E., and Kemball, C., Trans. Faraday SOC.58.2452 (1962). 6. Rooney, J. J.,J.Catalpis 2.62 (1963). 7. Bond, G. C., “Catalysis by Metals,” p. 313. Academic Press, New York, 1962. 8. Volter, J., J . CatUl@8 3, 297 (1904). 9. Gault, F. G., Rooney, J. J., and Kemball, C., J . Catalysis 1 , 266 (1962). 10. Barron, Y., Cornet, D., Maire, G., and Gault, F. G., J. Catalysis 2, 162 (1963). 11. Anderson, J. R., and Avery, N. R., J . Cdalysis 2, 642 (1903). 12. Horiuti, J., and Polanyi, M., Nature 132, 819, 931 (1933). 13. Farkas, A., and Farkas, L., Proc. Roy. SOC. A144, 467, 481 (1934). 14. Farkas, A., and Farkas, L., Trana. Furaduy SOC.35, 906 (1939). 15. Farkas, A., and Farkas, L., Trans. Faraday Soc. 36,622 (1940). 16. Taylor, T. I., “Catalysis” (P.H. Emmett, ed.), Vol. V. Reinhold, New York, 1957. 17. Rader. C. P., and Smith, H. A,, J. A m . Chem. SOC. 84, 1443 (1962). 18. Garnett, J. L., Henderson, L.,and Sollich, W. A., “Tritium in the Physical and Biological Sciences,” Vol. 11, p. 47. Intern. Atomic Energy Agency, Vienna, 1962. 19. Lennard-Jones, J. E., Trans. Faraday SOC.28. .333 (1932). 20. Brown, R. D., J. Chem. SOC. p. 2232 (1959). 21. Streitwieser, A., Jr., “Molecular Orbital Theory for Organic Chcmists.” Wiley, New

w.

York, 1961. 22. Melander, L., “Transition State.” Spec. Pu61. Chem. Soc. (London)16. 77 (1962). 23. Mulliken, R. S., J. A m . Chem. Soc. 74, 81 1 (1952). 24. Mulliken, R. S., J . Phys. Chem. 56, 801 (1952). 15. Mulliken, R. S., J . Chem. Phya. 23. 397 (1955). 26. Matsen, F. A.. Makrides. A. C., and Hackrrmann, N., J . Chem. Phys. 22, 11100 (1954). 27. Orgel. L. E.,“ A n Introdurtion to Transition-Metal Chemistry.” Methiten, London. 1960.

28. Chatt. J., and Dunranson, L. A., J . Chem. 9oc. p. 2939 (1953). 29. Mignolet, J. C. P., in “Chernisorption” (W. E. Gamer, rd.). Academic Press, New

York, 1967. 30. Selwood, P. W . , J .Am. Chem. Soc. 79, 3346, 4837. 5391 (1957). 32. Coulson, C. A., Research (London)4, 307 (1951). 37. Nagakura, S . . and Tanaka, J.. Bull. Chem. Soc. Jnpan 32. 731 (19.59).

r COMPLEX ADSORPTION IN HYDROGEN EXCHANGE

121

33. Eley, D. D., Advan. Catalysis 1, 185 (1948). 34. Hanner, 2. K., Acta Chem. Scand. 10, 655 (1956). 35. Watanabe, K., Nakayoma, T., and Mottl, J., A Final Report on Ionization Potentials of Molecules by a Photoionization Method. Contrib. No. DA-04-200-ORD.480and 737. Univ. of Hawaii, Honolulu, 1959. 36. Briegleb, G., Angew. Chem. 76, 326 (1964). 37. Andrew, L. T., and Keefer, R. M., J . A m . Chem. SOC.72, 3113, 5034 (1950). 38. Garnett, J. L., and Sollich, W. A,, J . Phys. Chern. 68, 3177 (1964). 39. Garnett, J. L., and Sollich, W. A., Australian J. Chem. in press. 40. Gutmann, J. R., Intern. J . Appl. Radiation Isotopes 7, 186 (1960). 41. Beeck, 0.. Discussions Faradaysoc. 8, 118 (1950). 42. Jenkins, G. I., and Rideal, E. K., J. Chem. SOC.p. 2490 (1955). 43. Lauer, W. M., and Stedman, G., J . A m . Chem. SOC.80,6433 (1958). 44. Baker, M. M., Jenkins, G. I., and Rideal, E. K., Trans. Paraday Soc. 51, 1592 (1955). 45. Baker, M. M., and Rideal, E. K., Trans. Faraday Soc. 51. 1597 (1955).

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Stereochemistry and the Mechanism of Hydrogenation of Unsaturated Hydrocarbons SAMUEL SIEGEL Department

0;

Chemistry. University of Arkansas. Fayetteville. Arkansas

.

I Introduction ....................................................... I1. The Development of Some Stereochemical Concepts ......................

Pagr 124

125 A . The Geometry of Adsorption .................................... 125 B . The Structure of Chemisorbe maturated Hydrocarbons . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129 131 C. The Immediate Source of Hydrogen ................................

I11. Variations in Stereochemistry as a Criterion of Mechanism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132 ....................... 133 A . Branching Reaction Paths . B . Consecutive Reactions . . . . . ....................... 135 C . The Dissociative Mechanism ation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140 I V . Conformational Analysis and the Geometry of the Pertinent Transition States in the Hydrogenation of Cycloalkenes ............................ 144 A . Interactions with the Catalytic Site or Surface ........................ 145 B Geometry ofAdsorbed Alkenes .................................... 146 C . The Geometry of the Transition State for Adsorption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148 D . The Geometry of the Transition State for the Formation of the “HalfHydrogenated State” ........................................ 150 V . The Reaction of Aromatic Hydrocarbons with Hydrogen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151 A . Geometrical Considerations of the Mechanism for Exchange ............ 153 B . The Stereochemistry of Addition of Hydrogen to Aromatic Compounds .... 155 C. The Detection of Cyclohexene Intermediates ......................... 157 VI . Hydrogenation of Multiply Unsaturated Hydrocarbons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160 A . Acetylenes ...................................................... 160 B. Allenes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162 C. 1,3.Dienes-Evidence for Allylic Intermediates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162 D . The Competitive Hydrogenation of 1,3.Dienes and Acetylenes . . . . . . . . . . . 164 V I I . Some General Mechanistic Considerations ............................... 167 A . The Principle of Minimum Structural Change ........................ 167 B. Surface Sites and the Transition Metal Complex Analog . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168 C . Geometrical Details ............................................... 169 D . Formation and Stability of Unsaturated Surface Complexes . . . . . . . . . . . . 171 E . Reactions of n-Ally1Complexes .................................... 172 References ......................................................... 174

.

123

124

SAMUEL SIEOEL

1. introduction The successful mechanism for a reaction is a theory that correlates the many facts which have been discovered and is fruitful for the prediction of new experiments (I).One approach t o mechanism is the study of stereochemistry which seeks information concerning the geometrical relationships between the reactants a t the critical stages in the reaction. Information is gleaned from the examination of the products, if several isomers differing only in configuration may be formed, or from a study of the reactivity of closely related substances whose molecular shapes are varied in a specific manner. Occasionally a stereochemical fact places a considerable restraint upon the allowable mechanistic postulates, but the most effective employment of stereochemistry generally depends upon its detailed correlation with other experimental methods. This review is concerned mainly with the development of the concepts and methods pertinent to the application of stereochemistry t o the study of the mechanism of the surface-catalyzed reactions of hydrogen (or deuterium) with unsaturated hydrocarbons. Although much of the literature concerning these reactions has been carefully reviewed by Taylor (Z), Smith (3),Bond ( 4 ) ,and Bond and Wells ( 5 ) ,and the stereochemistry has been reviewed by Burwell (6, 7), additional attention t o the significance of the stereochemical evidence seemed in order. I n comparison with its role in clarifying the mechanism of organic reactions, stereochemistry has been of minor service in heterogeneous catalysis. However, as the result of improved instrumental methods for the separation and analysis of complex mixtures, such studies have begun t o make more significant contributions. The use of several different experimental techniques t o investigate a given system is likely to be particularly revealing. Two noteworthy examples in which stereochemical considerations had a part are provided by Taylor and Dibeler (8)on the reactions of deuterium with the butenes on nickel wires and by Meyer and Burwell (9, 10) on the deuteration of multiply unsaturated hydrocarbons. Although reference is made t o other kinds of information pertinent t o the mechanistic problems which are considered, the discussion emphasizes the stereochemical contributions t o mechanism. The recent review of the “Mechanism of the Hydrogenation of Unsaturated Hydrocarbons on Transition Metal Catalysts” by Bond and Wells ( 5 )may be consulted for a more detailed analysis of the kinetic and exchange data which are available as well as a briefer, and in some respects different, evaluation of the stereochemistry of these reactions. The literature has not been searched exhaustively, the examples

STEREOCHEMISTRY AND HYDROGENATION MECHANISM

125

having been chosen as illustrative of the application of stereochemistry in several current problems under the general heading of this review.

11. The Development of Some Stereochemical Concepts A.

THE GEOMETRYOF ADSORPTION

Explanations of the stereochemistry of hydrogenation have been dominated by ideas concerning the manner in which a given unsaturated compound may best be fitted onto a planar surface from which hydrogen is abstracted. Cis addition is readily understood in such terms. The formation of meso-dimethylsuccinic acid from dimethylmaleic acid and the racemic mixture from dimethylfumaric acid implies that both hydrogen atoms add t o the same side of the unsaturated molecule (11). Bourguel (12) also noted that disubstituted acetylenes yielded initially cis-ethylenes but that trans isomers were formed if the hydrogenations were protracted. HSC\

/CHJ

F=?

t.

HSC&""

H

CO,H CO,H

cis

meso

trans

vacemic

R-CSC-R

-

R

R

H

H

,c=c, \ cis

Following their studies of the catalytic hydrogenation of benzene and its exchange with deuterium, Farkas and Farkas (13) stated that the above stereochemical facts were consistent with their proposal that the hydrogenation reaction involved the simultaneous addition of two atoms of hydrogen to a double bond, the hydrogen coming from the catalyst. Greenhalgh and Polanyi ( 1 4 ) showed, however, that a stepwise addition of hydrogen, in which the configuration on carbon is retained at each stage of the reaction, can also account for cis addition. Clearly, the particular stereochemical facts given above allow for a variety of mechanistic

SAMUEL SIEGEL

126

interpretations; but as with other experimental approaches, more detailed information places added restraints upon the allowable hypotheses. To account for the formation of principally cis-2-alkylcyclohexanols from 2-alkylcyclohexanones, Vavon ( 1 5 )suggested that steric hindrance between the substituent and the catalyst directed the attack of hydrogen on the carbonyl group from the side away from the alkyl group. However, the concept of hindrance between catalyst and substrate was more clearly developed by Linstead et al. (16) who asserted that it operated at the adsorption stage of the reaction. They established that the hydrogenation of derivatives of cis-as-octahydrophenanthrene (I) yielded mainly cis-syn-cis-perhydrophenanthrenes(11) and similarly diphenic acid (111) or cis-hexahydrodiphenic acid (IV) gave principally cis-syncis-perhydrodiphenic acid (V).*

(I) *

The concept of catalyst hindrance is illustrated by reference to the hydrogenation of cis-as-octahydrophenanthrene(I) (Fig. 1). If the aromatic ring, lying with its face parallel to the surface, anchors the molecule t o the catalyst, two arrangements are possible. In one, ring A is inclined away from the surface, and the hydrogen atom a t C-13 is directed toward it. If hydrogen adds from the underside of the molecule, the hydrogen which becomes attached a t C-12 is on the same side as that a t C-13 and therefore yields the syn arrangement of the cycles. The opposite situation holds if the molecule is adsorbed so that ring A is directed towards the surface; the addition of hydrogen at C- 12 now yields the anti arrangement with regard to C-13. That the first manner of adsorption is preferred over the second is a reasonable assumption; consequently, the *A heavy dot at a ring junction symbolizes that the hydrogen atom is on the side of the molecule which faces the viewer (17).

STEREOCHEMISTRY AND HYDROGENATION MECHANISM

127

--Catalyst- Preferred adsorption: Ring A cleor of cotolyst.

Hlndronce between catalyst and ring A

FIG.1 . Catalyst hindrance according to Linstead el al. ( 1 6 ) :reproduced with permission of the publishers.

products of szp hydrogenation should and do preponderate. The same argument may be applied to the diphenic acids assuming that they are adsorbed in a conformation which brings the carboxylic acid groups together. The development of theories which allow the estimation of the relative energies of the various conformations of molecules, a classic paper being that of Beckett et al. (18),was applied by Siege1 (19) to a rationalization of the stereochemistry of hydrogenation of substituted cyclohexanones. Stereoselective hydrogenation of a ketone (platinum oxide in acetic acid) was assumed to be a consequence of the adsorption of the ketone onto the catalyst in a conformation which minimized the nonbonded interactions between the surface and the cycle, while the substituents a t the 2 , 3 , and 4 carbon atoms tended t o be equatorial (Fig. 2). The contrasting stereochemical behavior on reduction of cholestanone and coprostanone (20) was explained by reference to these conclusions. Accordingly, the stereospecificity of the reaction does not arise simply from steric hindrance between catalyst and substituent but rather from the steric interactions

R - equoloriol

R - axial

FIG.2. Alternative conformations of a 4-substituted cyclohexanone.

128

SAMUEL SIECEL

between the substituent and the atoms of the cycle combined with the requirement of a precise orientation of the carbonyl group on the catalyst. Earlier Balandin (21)in his “multiplet hypothesis” had suggested that there is a necessary relationship between the geometry of molecules and the distribution of at80miccenters on a surface which catalyzes their transformations. Although this concept has stereochemical consequences, the theory was not elaborated in this direction. More recently, Balandin and Klabunovskii ( 2 2 )aiid Balandin (23)have described the hydrogenation of certain derivatives of tryptycene whose geometry prevents their reduction a t a planar surface. From these results they deduce that the catalytic sites reside on eminences or peaks. Again the deductions stem from considerations of the manner in which one may bring together the catalyst aiid substrate, the geometry of the latter being as i t is in the unassociated condition. The possibility that the stercochemistry of hydrogenation might be established a t stages in the reaction other than adsorption was considered by Siege1 and Dunkel (21). However, from their data on the hydrogenation of a group of dimethylcyclohexenes, they concluded that the geometry of the organic moiety a t the product-controlling transition state was like that of the cycloolefin in its most stable conformation. A similar conclusion was reached by Robinson (25) from studies of the hydrogenation of steroids having a double bond in the B ring. Hadler (26)employed conformational analysis t o explain the difference in the proportion of cholestane to coprostane derivatives resulting from the reduction of A* and A5 steroids. He suggested that the hydrogenation process involved the formation of a quasi-ring structure between the unsaturated carbon atoms and two hydrogens originally dissolved in the metal, a mechanism which is similar to one proposed by Beeck (27)and by Jenkins and Rideal(28). He assumed, in effect, that the saturated struc-

ture of the product was fully developed in the transition state for the addition of hydrogen t o the double bond. [For a discussion of the application of this theory t o the hydrogenation of steroids see Fieser and Fieser (29).]More recently Sauvage et a2. (30)proposed that the proportion of &/trans isomers obtained upon hydrogenating various dialkylcyclohexenes could be understood if one assumed that the cycle was adsorbed in a pseudo-boat conformation. It was necessary to assume further that a small substituent a t the 4 position would tend t o occupy the

STEREOCHEMISTRY AND HYDROGENATION MECHANISM

129

ando rather than the ex0 configuration, but with increasing size the exo configuration is adopted (Fig. 3).

exo- R,

endo- R,

FIG.3. Alterriative boat conformations of a 4-substituted 1 -methylcyclohexene.

The concept that the stereochemistry of reduction of an unsaturated hydrocarbon is determined a t the adsorption stage of the reaction ia evident in each of the above accounts, and others could be cited. However, the development of techniques which permit the identification of different product-controlling reactions directs one to consider the stereochemical consequences of various postulated reaction sequences and this will be discussed in Section IV.

B. THESTRUCTURE OF CHEMISORBEDUNSATURATED HYDROCARBONS

There is little direct evidence concerning the structure of olefins which are adsorbed upon metallic catalysts so that the concepts of these structures have been developed through inference and analogy. Twigg and Rideal(31)assumed that, on nickel, an associatively adsorbed alkene has a saturated structure which is joined by covalent carbon-metal bonds t o two appropriately spaced atoms on the surface. Using reasonable values for the bond distances, they showed that ethylene covered the surface more completely than did methyl-substituted ethylenes. The uncovered nickel atoms provided space for the adsorption of hydrogen, Accordingly, the fact that the ortho-para hydrogen conversion was inhibited much more effectively by ethylene than substituted ethylenes was readily explained. Eischens and Pliskin have interpreted the infrared spectra of ethylene chemisorbed on nickel dispersed on silica (32).When introduced t o a surface previously exposed to hydrogen, ethylene gave rise to absorption bands which correspond to the C-H stretching frequencies of a saturated hydrocarbon (3.4-3.5 p ) and a deformation associated with a methylene group (6.9 p). A weak band a t 3.3 p was attributed to an olefinic C-H. Treatment of the chemisorbed ethylene with hydrogen caused the spectrum to change to one which was interpreted as due to an adsorbed ethyl radical. Apparently in the presence of hydrogen most of

130

SAMUEL SIEOEL

the chemisorbed ethylene has a saturated structure, although if the pressure of hydrogen is sufficiently low, or the temperature high, unsaturated structures are produced. However, the unsaturation may be associated with either 1,2-diadsorbed ethylene or a n-complexed olefin. H H HI\C-~A-I /

/

Ni

\

Nt

H

/

/c=c Nt

n~

H

/ \

Nt Ni

1,a-Diadsorbed ethane

1,2-Diadsorbed ethylene

-

n Cornplexed ethylene

Various authors have suggested that olefins and other unsaturated hydrocarbons may form n complexes by associating with a single atomic center of the catalyst. These structures are assumed t o be analogous t o the n olefin complexes (33,34)of the transition elements which have been the subject of recent intensivc investigations (35). For example, Fukushima and Gallagher (36)discussed the reaction of deuterium with cholesterol in terms of the Horiuti-Polanyi mechanism for the addition and exchange of olefins but proposed that the adsorbed alkenes were n complexes in analogy to the structure of the platinumolefin complexes described by Chatt (33).Similarly, Burwell et al. (37) recognized that this relationship might apply to the reactions of hydrocarbons and deuterium on chromium oxide gel. n complexes, held t o the surface in a manner similar to the bonding in compounds such as ferrocene, were believed by Rooney et al. (38)to provide an explanation for the patterns of exchange with deuterium exhibited by a number of polymethylcyclopentanes. I n particular, they suggested that such complexes could unite with hydrogen from the gaseous or physically adsorbed phase as well as with hydrogen chemisorbed on the surface. I n support of the concept that acetylenes form n complexes with a single surface atom of the catalyst, McQuillin et al. (39) have cited the parellelism between the effect of substances such as amines and phosphines as inhibitors for the hydrogenation of butynediols to butenediols on a palladium catalyst with the ability of these same substances t o form complexes with metals of the class to which palladium belongs (40). According to Dewar (41) the metal-to-olefin bond in such complexes consists in part of the overlap of the z-electron density of the olefin with a a-type acceptor orbital of the metal atom and in part of the backdonation of electrons from filled metal d,, or other dn-pn hybrid oribitals into the antibonding orbitals on the carbon atoms. In a compound such as the ion of Zeise’s salt, [(C,H,)PtCI,I-, the plane of the double bond is approximately perpendicular to the plane contain-

STEREOCHEMISTRY AND HYDRUGENATIUN MEC‘HANISM

131

iiig the platinum and three chlorine atoms which allows for n b o d i n g with the metal ( 4 2 ) (Fig. 4). Because the presence of the metal can cause a mixing of the u and 71 orbitals of the olefin, the C-H bonds will bend out of the plane containing the carbon atoms and away from the metal (33). Similarly, 71 bonding between a metal atom and more unsaturated structures such as acetylenes and dienes results in stable structures (43).The chemistry of these substances may be expected to be analogous to that of the organometallic compounds which are undoubtedly formed on catalytic surfaces; consequently information gained in the study of organometallic compounds in homogeneous systems may be applied to the study of hetero-

Q-

Type bond

tan -Type bond

FIG.4. Orbitals usocl in tho coiiibiiitltioii OF othyloiio with pliitiiiuiii uiiil the spucicrl tlrrangemerit of atoms iu LC!,H,PtCl,] ( 3 4 ) . Hoprotlucecl in modified forin by porrrtission of the publishers. Coates, “Organo-Metallic Compounds.” Wiley (35).

geneous catalysis. The catalytic activation of hydrogen has been discussed by Halpern ( 4 4 )with this in mind, and the review by Bond and Wells ( 5 ) considers these analogies for the hydrogenation of unsaturated hydrocarbons. The similarity between heterogeneous and homogeneous catalytic hydrogenation has been emphasized recently by the demonstration that platinum-tin complexes (45)catalyze the homogeneous hydrogenation of acetylene and ethylene a t room temperature and certain complexes of rhodium (46) are effective for the hydrogenation of 1-hexene. Earlier, Halpern et al. ( 4 7 ) showed that chlororuthenate (11) complexes catalyze the homogeneous hydrogenation of maleic, fumaric, and acrylic acids although simple olefins could not be reduced.

C. THEIMMEDIATE SOURCE OF HYDMWBN Although the mass of evidence indicates that the two atoms of hydrogen which add to a double bond do so in the cis sense, the direction of approach to the hydrogen acceptor is deduced from indirect argu-

132

SAMUEL S I E G I ~ L

meiits. Assuming, for example, that 1 , 2 - t l i t ~ i e t t i y l ~ y ~ l o ~ is ~ ~ad11t~11e sorbed on a surface in the manlier indicated i n the prcvious section, addition of hydrogen from the dircction of thc gas phase, as iii an Eley-Rideal mechanism (48, 49), or from the surface, as postulated by Farkas and Farkas (13) or Horiuti and Polanyi (50),lcads to the samc result. However, in those instances in which different stercoisoniers may form if the hydrogen adds from the alternative sides of the molecule, the main product is the one corresponding to addition from the least sterically hindered side (51).An interesting example has becn noted by Burwell ( 6 ) ; trans-cyclononene hydrogenates readily uudcr mild conditiotis although the conformation of the cycle completely blocks oiic side of the double bond to the attack of any external reagent. Because either the olefin or hydrogen must be adsorbcd oil the catalyst, the hydrogcn must add from the direction of the surface. The precise state of hydrogen which is chemisorbcd on active metallic catalysts is a continuing subject for investigation (52). l’liskin and Eischens (53) interpreted the infrared spectra of hydrogen or deutrrium adsorbed on alumitia- and silica-supported platinum catalysts as implying that two forms of chemisorbcd hydrogen are present-a weakly and a strongly bound species. They proposed that the strongly bound form is attached to two platinum atoms and the weakly bound hydrogen to one. The analysis of such data leans heavily on analogy with the properties of complex hydridcs of the transition metals ( 5 4 ) ; consequently, the clarification of the structure and properties of the latter should aid the characterization of chemisorbed hydrogen. Other cxperimeiital nicthods provide information about the condition of adsorbed hydrogen but direct structural data is lacking. It seems unlikely that “dissolved” hydrogen is directly involved in the mechanism of hydrogenation; indeed palladium, which dissolves hydrogen readily, becomes inactive for hydrogenation if thc pressure is too high (55).

111. Variations in Stereochemistry as a Criterion of Mechanism Studies on the variatioti in the distribution of stereoisomeric prodrrcts as a function of the accessible independent variablw permit deductions concerning the multiplicity of the reaction paths, A classic examplc is found i n Hughes’ and Ingold’s studies into the mechanism of the solvolysis of alkyl halides in aqueous-alcoholic media, an important variable, being the concentration of base or other nucleophilic reagent (56).The obvious variable in hydrogenatioii studies is the pressure of

STEREOCHEMISTRY AND HYDROGENATION MECHANISM

133

hydrogen and the resulting changes in the distribution of product aid in defining the product-controlling step.

A. BRANCHING REACTIONPATHS The stereochemistry of hydrogenation of 1,2-dimethylcycl~hexene and 1,2-dimethylcyclopenteneis instructive. Each of these substances would be expected to yield only the cis-1,2-dimethylcycloalkanevia cis addition. Both cis and trans isomers, however, are formed from either of these two cycloalkenes when hydrogenated in the liquid phase (acetic acid) over reduced platinum oxide-one of the more stereoselective catalysts ( 5 7 , 5 8 ) .The ratio of isomers which is produced is a function of the pressure of hydrogen, the proportion of cis increasing with increasing pressure (Fig. 5 ) . This fact implies that the trans isomer is formed via a

40

i I

0.2

0.5

I0

I

so

100

so0

PRESSURE OF HYDROGEN (Atm )

FIG.5. Variation with the pressure of hydrogen of the proportion of cis- and transdiinethylcycloalkanes obtained from 1,2-dimethylcyclohexene 2,3-dimethylcyclo1,2-dimethylcyclopenterie and 2,3-dimethylcyclopentene (8); reduced hexene (A), PtO, in glacial acetic acid at 2.5".

(a),

(a),

reaction path.which has a lower dependence upon the pressure of hydrogen than that path which yields only the cis isomer. The Horiuti and Polanyi mechanism (50)accommodates this result and i t is convenient to discuss the stereochemistry of hydrogenation by reference to their formulation which follows.

134

SAMUEL SIEGEL

Hydrogen is assumed to dissociate upon adsorption on the surface, reaction ( l ) , H H, 4 2* + 2 1

(* represents a surface site)

(1)

and the adsorption of the olefin requires two sites, reaction (2),

The remaining steps consist in the union of the adsorbed olefin and its derivative, the “half-hydrogenated state,” with an adsorbed hydrogen atom, reactions which occur with retention of configuration of the substituted carbon atom, reactions ( 3 ) and (4),

-C-L-I

?

+ Hk-l 1 c-c-IT + 2* ~-

*

b.-,

1 1 H H

(4)

The last reaction is effectively irreversible under the usuti, conditions employed to hydrogenate olefins; however much information pertinent to this discussion has been obtained by studies of the exchange of saturated hydrocarbons with deuterium (7, 59), a reaction which is initiated through the reversal of reaction (4). The reverse of reactions (2) and (3) can yield an olefin isomeric with the initial substrate if the hydrogen atom abstracted in (3) is different from the one originally added. Thus, to explain the formation of transdimethylcycloalkane, the 1,2-dimethylcycloalkene must be transformed to the 2,3 isomer which yields both cis and trans saturated products via cis addition (Fig. 6).

FIQ. 6. Reduction and isomerization of 1,2-dimethylcyclopenteneaccording to the Horiuti-Polanyi mechanism.

STEREOCHEMISTRY AND HYDROGENATION MECHANISM

135

Although this mechanism is plausible, the first studies failed to detect the isomeric olefin, but the fact that the 2,3 isomers were selectively reduced in the presence of their precursors was noted ( 5 7 , 5 8 ) .Recently, the postulated olefinic intermediates were isolated and it is clear that isomerization is the main if not exclusive path leading to the formation of the trans-dimethylcycloalkanes(60) (Fig. 7). Similarly Smith and Burwell (61)concluded that desorbed ~Il,~-octalin is a common intermediate in the formation of cis- and trans-decalin from the hydrogenation, or deuteration, of 9,lO-octalin although they suggest that isomerization probably proceeds via the formation of a hydrogendeficient species, possibly an allyl-x complex (see Section 111,C). Huntsman et al. (62)hydrogenated optically active ( - )-3,7-dimethyl1-octeneon a palladium catalyst and obtained a saturated product which was in part racemic. When the reaction was interrupted (50% completion) the 2,6-dimethyloctane isolated was only 7 yo racemized, CHS

CH,

I ( - )-CHsCH-CH&HaCH&*-CH I I

(

1

IH1

H

+ )-2,6-dimethyloctane

CH,

CHS

I

I

= CHa + CHsCHCHaCH&HaC=CHCH,

1

[HI

( +_ )-2,B.dimethyloctane

although the residual olefin was entirely the inactive 3,7-dimethyl2-octene. The addition of alkali to the reaction mixture caused a reduction in the rate of hydrogenation as well as the rate of double bond migration; however, only the terminal double bond could be hydrogenated under these conditions. The resulting saturated alkane was not racemized, which supported the inference that racemic hydrocarbon came only from the inactive olefin.

B. CONSECUTIVEREACTIONS A different stereochemical pattern is evident in the hydrogenation over a platinum catalyst of 2-, 3-, or 4-alkyl-substituted methylene. these compounds increasing, the pressure cyclohexanes ( 5 7 , 6 3 , 6 4 )With of hydrogen decreases the proportion of the more unstable saturated isomer in the product (cis-1,2-,trans- 1,3-, or cis-1,4-dialkylcyclohexane), a result which is not consistent with a mechanism involving an isomerization to an olefin which yields a proportion of cis and trans isomers different from that given by the methylenecyclohexane. For such a mechanism implies that the hypothetical olefin would yield a larger portion of the more unstable saturated isomer than is obtained from the initial reactant.

136

SAMUEL SIEQEL

I

I

I

I

I

I

1

2

3

4

5

b

Per cent reduclion

FIG.7. The formation of 2,3-dimethylcyclopentene(0) as well as ria-(.) and / r a m (A) 1,2-dimcthyIcyclopcntane during the hydrogcnation of 1,2-cliniethylcyclopentenr; PtO, (60). 10 86-

4-

3v)

C

e :2 k?

u

I -

-

A

A

FIG.8. Variation, as a function of pressure, of the proportion of saturated stereoisomers formed during the hydrogenation of 4-lerl-butylmethylenecyclohexane and 4-feithutyl-I-methylcyclohexene ( A ) ; PtO, ( 6 4 ) .

(a)

STEREOCHEMISTRY AND HYDROGENATION MECHANISM

137

A particularly clear example is shown in Fig. 8, the hydrogenation of 4-tert-butylmethylenecyclohexane(64).I n this instance, the most likely initial product of isomerization is the endocyclic isomer, 4-tert-butyl-lmethylcyclohexene, which would yield mainly trans-4-tert-butyl-lmethylcyclohexane. Further, the exocyclic olefin, the original substrate, is reduced selectively in competition with its endocyclic isomer so that the latter cannot be an intermediate in the hydrogenation of the former. The Horiuti-Polanyi mechanism can account for the change in cisltrans ratio because the product-controlling step in the given sequence can be altered by varying the pressure, and different product-controlling steps could lead to different ratios of saturated stereoisomeric products, the difference depending upon the nature of the required geometries of the respective transition states. Consider how the relative rates of reactions (2), (3)) and (4)depend upon the pressure of hydrogen if the concentration of hydrogen on t h e surface

is a function of the hydrogen pressure. Whatever the nature of this function, the rate of reaction (2) is independent of the pressure of hydrogen and reaction (4) will increase faster than (3) because its rate is a function of the concentration of the half-hydrogenated state (which itself is a function of the pressure of hydrogen) as well as the surface concentration of hydrogen. Several limiting situations can be imagined. 1. The Reduction of the “Half-Hydrogenated State” is Product Controlling

If the addition of the second hydrogen atom is the rate-controlling surface reaction, then the preceding steps would tend to be reversed, the degree of reversibility being a function of the relative rates of the several reactions. Two effects are expected: (1) the isomerization of the initial olefin is pronounced and (2) the proportion of saturated products should tend towards the equilibrium distribution. Indeed, such effects are commonly observed when palladium catalysts are employed (5, 65, 66) (Fig. 9). I n the reactions so far studied, the formation of an equilibrium distribution of olefins is more readily attained than is an equilibrium distribution of saturated products. But, if two or more isomeric olefins may be formed from a given substrate, the initial distribution may be far from the equilibrium value, as illustrated in Fig. 9 for the hydrogenation on palladium of 2-methylmethylenecyclohexane. This distribution must in part be a consequence of the manner in which the half-hydrogenated

138

SAMUEL SIEOEL

PER CENT

REDUCTION

FIG.9. The distribution of products as a function of the extent of the hydrogenation of 2-methylmethylenecyclohexaneOIL a palladium catalyst; Pd/C (65).

state, formed in reaction (3), reverts to olefin and in part of the quite different competive rates of hydrogenation of the several olefins which decrease in the order 2-methylmethylenecyclohexane > 2,3-dimethylcyclohexene > 1,2-dimethylcyclohexene. Clearly this example is not a truly limiting case for the mechanistic category under disucssion ; however, one might be attained by the use of other substrates, catalysts ( 5 ) ) or lower pressures of hydrogen. 2 . The Formation of the “Iia2f-Hydrogenated State” i s Product Controlling Two other liillitJingconditions can be defined by the use of a formalized

argument (61)basec upoii a simple steady state analysis of the HoriutiPolanyi mechanism. Let OH, 8,, arid O,, represent the fraction of the accessible surface which is covered by hydrogen, alkene, arid “half-hydrogenated state,” respectively. Asuperscript t (e“,, Oit) ki,etc.) will refer t o the adsorbedspecies, which by further abstraction of hydrogen from the surface would lead to the trans-dialkylcyclohexane,and a superscript c to the related cisforming species. Because the suggested pathways leading to the respective cis and trans

STEREOCHEMISTRY AND HYDROGENATION MECHANISM

139

isomers separate a t the act of adsorption, the rate of formation of each isomer can be written independently as follows (the constants k,, k- , etc., are defined on page 134) :

d[cisl - k;.p,.e, dt

(5)

and the steady state assumption gives Eqs. ( 6 ) and (7))

dt dt

=

ki[E] - kC_,.pE- k;.&.B,

=

&.&.OH

-

+ kT30;

=

0

kF3.PK - k",p8",.O, = 0

(6) (7)

which together yield Eq. (8)) the rate of formation of the cis isomer,

An equation, identical in form, is obtained for the rate of formation of the trans isomer. The assumption that the rate-limiting surface reaction is the formation of the "half-hydrogenated" state [reaction (3)] provides the condition that kC_31ki 1 and, consequently, leads to the approximate expression (9): d[cis] - kik;[E] B, (9) dt k?, G-8,

<

+

and a similar statement for the rate of formation of the trans isomer. The ratio of isomers is expressed as (10):

[cis] - kik;(kl_, 1 k t -kC [trans] k, 3( - 2

+

%.OH)

+ ki.0,)

(10)

If k - , > k3.BlI,e.g., the pressure of hydrogen is sufficiently low, then the equation reduces to (1 1): [cis] _ - k t % g 2 = k; [trans] k",k3$

Kc Kt

where K c and K *are the equilibrium constants for the adsorption of the alkene t o form, respectively, the cis or trans diadsorbed alkane (or n-complexed alkene). Under these conditions, the ratio of isomeric alkanes is determined by the ratio of the rate constants for the formation of the respective "half-hydrogenated states" from the alkene.

140

SAMUEL SIEOEL

3. The Adsorption of the Alkene is Product Controlling At high pressures of hydrogen, it is probable that k , - 9 , > k - , and accordingly the cis to trans ratio would approach k:lki, the ratio of the rate constants for the two modes of adsorption of the alkene. Under these conditions, the reaction consists of the consecutive addition to the double bond of two atoms of hydrogen. Whether the limiting conditions are actually attained under practical operating procedures is not certain, although the stereochemical evidence suggest that it is approached. Other forms of evidence such as experiments with deuterium are needed to answer such questions.

C. THE DISSOCIATIVE MECHANISMFOR OLEFINISOMERIZATION The preceding analysis of the mechanism of the hydrogenation of olefins, though based upon the Horiuti-Polanyi formulation, is also consistent with other alternatives. Indeed it is only by intercomparisons among various forms of evidence that a truly satisfactory theory for these reactions can be evolved. The explanation of the stereochemistry of the hydrogenation of 1,2-dimethylcycloalkenesis centered on the idea of the existence of two competitive reaction paths, the one which yields the cis-dimethylcycloalkane having a dependency of higher order with respect t o the pressure of hydrogen than the other which provides the trans isomer. Although the alternative reactions of the “halfhydrogenated state” satisfy this requirement, a dissociative mechanism for isomerization as suggested by Farkas and Farkas (13)which accompanies the addition reaction is also consistent with the stereochemistry and has experimental support. 1 . Butenes

Taylor and Dibeler ( 8 ) , among the first to apply mass spectrometric methods to the study of the interaction of deuterium with olefins, used this technique as well as infrared spectrometry to study the exchange, addition, double bond migration, and cis-trans isomerization reactions of 1- and 2-butenes on a nickel wire. Hydrogen or deuterium is required for the isomerization of 1-butene to cis- and trans-2-butene or for the interconversion of the cis and trans isomers. Unless hydrogen (or deuterium) is admitted to the reaction chamber first, the rates are not reproducible. At pressures of about 10 cm for each reactant, the rate of addition of hydrogen to 1-butene and its isomerization were about equal a t 60’ but a t 125” the double bond migration was about 2.5 times faster. Because the activation energy for double bond migration is grcater

STEREOCHEMISTRY AND HYDROGENATION MECHANISM

141

than for hydrogenation, the reactions were assumed to have different rate-controlling steps. Both reactions show a kinetic isotope effect: a t 60' the rate of double bond migration is four times faster in the presence of hydrogen than in the presence of deuterium; a t 130" the rates differ by a factor of 2.5; therefore, a hydrogen (or deuterium) bond must be broken in the rate-controlling step in both reactions. I n the presence of deuterium the initial rate of double bond migration for 1-butene was approximately the same as the initial rate of exchange. Apparently all the above reactions of 1-butene have the same pressure dependencies, i.e., proportional to the square root of both the initial butene pressure and the initial hydrogen or deuterium pressure. The Horiuti-Polanyi mechanism is in accord with the above data. For example, if the formation of the half-hydrogenated state is rate controlling, the rate of both hydrogenation and double bond migration should exhibit a kinetic hydrogen isotope effect and the rates should be proportional to the one-half power of the pressure of hydrogen. The relative rates of isomerization and hydrogenation depend upon different reactions of the half-hydrogenated state, and therefore the activation energies may differ. It is unnecessary t o assume that the two reactions have different rate-controlling steps. However, the exchanged butenes were not highly deuterated and followed a different distribution pattern than the deuterobutanes; consequently, Taylor and Dibeler (8) suggested that the exchange and addition reactions probably occur on different types of sites and by quite different mechanisms. Accordingly, they postulated that the exchange and double bond migration proceeded via an allylic complex : CH,=CH-CH,CHS

-t

D I

f-*-*

-

CHI-CH-CH-CH3

-

H

CH,D-CH=CH-CH,

+

D H

I

:

I--*

the formation of the complex being aided by ally1 radical resonance and the tendency of hydrogen to form a metal-to-hydrogen bond. They suggested that the same intermediate could yield the other products also. Although Taylor and Dibeler (8)found that the isomerization of cis- to trans-2-butene required either hydrogen or deuterium, the reaction showed no kinetic isotope effect. The isomerization was eight to ten times faster than exchange and three t o five times faster than hydrogenation a t 75'. The lack of an isotope effect could be explained by the associative mechanism if the loss of hydrogen from the half-hydrogenated state were rate controlling, because to obtain the trans from the cis isomer the hydrogen removed in this step must be different from that added in the

*-* I

142

SAMUEL SIECfEL

preceding elementary reaction ( 5 ) . However, the exchange and isomerization reactions should then proceed a t the same rate (Fig. 10).

FIQ.10. Isomerization and exchange of cis-2-buteno according to the associative mechanism.

The dissociative mechanism can explain both facts in that the hydrogen removed in the first step may recombine with a n isomeric form of the allylic intermediate to yield the isomeric olefin. Apparently syn and anti x-allylic complexes (67, 68) retain their configurations unless each may be converted into a common a-bonded complex in which the nonterminal carbon atoms of the allyl group are connected by a single bond and the isomerization of the intermediate can be represented as in Fig. 1 I . However, the recombination of the hydrogen atom with the allylic intermediate must be faster than the rate at which it enters the surface pool of

syn

anti

Fro. 1 1 . The interconversion of ,Pyn and anti s-ally1 complexes via a U-bonded allyl structure.

hydrogen and deuterium atoms. Taylor and Dibeler also suggested that the presence of hydrogen or deuterium might be required to reduce the extent of strong two-point adsorption of the double bond. and thus permit the olefin to dissociate on a bare site. 2. Octalins

Smith and Burwell (61) showed that the reaction of deuterium with A gJO-octalin, which is catalyzed by reduced platinum oxide, yields a mixture of cis- and trans-decalins containing an average of nearly three deuterium atoms per molecule. Under the same conditions ~I'*~-octalin gave somewhat less of the cis isomer but the saturated products contained an average of two deuterium atoms per molecule. From a detailed analysis of the distribution of deuterium in the products they concluded that most of the cis- and all of the trans-decalin produced from

STEREOCHEMISTRY AND HYDROGENATION MECHANISM

143

AS~'O-octalinwas derived from a common intermediate in which three 10-d. Accordingly, hydrogen atoms are equilibrated, possible A1~9-octalinthey assumed that the reaction with A 9~10-octalinproceeded mainly through 1-monoadsorbed A 9,10-octalinand thence A1'g-octalin-lO-d.

m-q==q) *

t

cis

cis and trans

3. Unsaturated Steroids

Because of their relatively fixed geometry, steroids provide excellent material for the study of the geometrical requirements of reactions involving organic structures. A double bond in the 7,8-(VI) or 8,s-(VII)position of a steroid which has the trans A/B ring configuration isomerizes t o the 8,14 position (VIII) when treated with hydrogen and a palladium catalyst or platinum in the presence of acetic acid (69) (Fig. 12). Once the double bond reaches the 8,14 position it cannot be hydrogenated; however it may be isomerized by treatment with HC1 in chloroform t o yield a A14 isomer which can be reduced catalytically.

PI

m

PII

Fro. 12. Relationship between configuration and the ease of the palladium-catalyzed isomerieation of a double bond in the steroid nucleus.

Because the configurations of the reactants and products are known, the above isomerizations demonstrate the facile 1,3transfer of hydrogen by the removal and addition of hydrogen on the same side of the molecule. Presumably, the molecule is adsorbed on the 01 side (arefers to the side of the ring structure opposite t o the direction of attachment of the angular methyl groups a t (2-10 and C-13; B represents the epimeric configuration) which is the Iess hindered for steroids with these particular configurations; and hydrogen is transferred between the surface and the substrate. To account for the influence of the acetic acid in facilitating the isomerization, Bream et ad. (70)suggest that an allylic carbonium ion-catalyst complex is formed. This suggestion is related t o the

144

SAMUEL SIEGEL

mechanism of Taylor and Dibeler referred to previously and to the hydrogen switch mechanism of l'urkevich and Smith (71). The fact that compounds wit11 an 8,14 double bond (VIII) cannot be hydrogenated implies that the isomerization cannot proceed via a halfhydrogenated species, an essentially saturated structure. To avoid the excessive compression between the angular methyl groups at C-10 and C-13 which is enforced by the required geometry of the transition to the half-hydrogenated state (IX) the isomerization proceeds via an allylic intermediate (X) which permits the carbon atom a t C-8 to retain its sp2 hybridization (Fig. 13).

;b I

= I1

Ix

A

FIG.13. Geometrical relationships which affect the mechanism of the metal-catalyzed double boxid migration in steroids.

Apparently, in the reaction of olefins with hydrogen on catalysts such as palladium and platinum, both the dissociative and the associative mechanisms operate for isomerization and exchange. However, the dissociative mechanism accompanies those factors which tend t o slow the addition or accelerate the removal of hydrogen from either substrate or intermediate. These factors may be any of the independent variables, such as the pressure of hydrogen, the structure of the substrate, or the catalyst ( 5 ) .

IV. Conformational Analysis and the Geometry

'

of t h e Pertinent Transition States in the Hydrogenation of Cycloalkenes The development of techniques for identifying possible product controlling steps offers the possibility of examining the influence of various

STEREOCHEMISTRY AND HYDROGENATION MECHANISM

145

independent parameters upon these rates. It also permits the application of structure-energy relationships such as conformational analysis (72)to the elucidation of the required geometry of the group of atoms associated with the reaction center a t each critical stage (57).A practical aim is the development of theories which allow the prediction of the ratio of the epimeric stereoisomers formed in the reduction of an olefin which would yield different stereoisomers via cis addition to the alternative faces of the double bond. If the arrangement of groups about the unsaturated center precludes the approach of a reagent from but one face of that center, the simplest concept of adsorption onto a surface adequately predicts the configuration of the principal saturated stereoisomer. However, flexible structures such as the alkyl-substituted methylenecyclohexanes or dialkylcycloalkenes (other than the 1,2 isomers) adjust t o the demands enforced by the topography of the reaction center, and yield ratios of products which are the resultant of the forces acting upon the organic moiety in the pertinent transition state. The nature and relative magnitude of these interaction mechanisms may be deduced by appropriate comparisons among structurally related substrates.

A. INTERACTIONS WITH THE CATALYTICSITEOR SURFACE Probably the most important factor governing the geometry of the surface complexes is the required arrangement of those atoms most directly involved in binding the substrate or its derivative (intermediates and transition states) to the surface site. The bonds to the surface constrain the motions of the remainder of the substrate which will tend t o adopt the most stable conformation(s). Other interactions which affect the ratio of the geometrical isomeric states may be subdivided into ( a ) those acting between the organic moiety and the reaction site on the catalyst and ( b )those among the parts of the organic structure. Interactions with neighboring adsorbed molecules will influence the conformation which the critical complex will adopt, This phenomena is demonstrated in the change in the mode of adsorption of toluene on a liquid mercury surface from a flat to a vertical arrangement as the film pressure is increased (73). In the present context, the attraction of the surface for the substrate, whether chemical or physical, will cause neighboring molecules to crowd one another so that an adsorbed molecule may adopt a conformation which is different from the conformation of lowest energy in the isolated molecule. A guide to the determination of the geometry of the atoms most directly involved in the formation of the transition state for adsorption is

146

SAMUEL SIEOEL

the principle that its structure lies between that of the reactants and the products of the elementary reaction t o which it pertains. The geometry will be %uchthat bond breaking and bond forming processes can ba: as concerted as possible. Assumptions must be made about the geometrical disposition of the surface orbitals which are associated with a single atom or a group of two or perhaps more atoms on the surface. In analogy t o olefin complexes of the transition elements the olefin may form a n complex with a single atom, or a binuclear complex (u) with two adjacent atoms. The latter would be the a$-diadsorbed alkane postulated by Horiuti and Polanyi.

B. GEOMETRYOF ADSORBED ALKENES Some of the evidence upon which is based the structure and geometry of chemisorbed alkenes is presented in Section I1,B. Lacking direct information relatively involved arguments have been advanced to deduce these geometries. Burwell et al. ( 7 4 ) have discussed the geometry of a$-diadsorbed alkanes in connection with studies of the exchange of cycloalkanes with deuterium. In agreement with the prior report of Anderson and Kemball (75) they find that the initial isotopic exchange patterns from cyclopentane and cyclohexane exhibit marked discontinuities following the species corresponding t o the complete exchange of hydrogen on one side of the cycle. The effect disappears for cycloalkanes larger than cycloheptane which shows a slight discontinuity after d,-cycloheptane. From this they concluded that the exchange must proceed via a vic-diadsorbed

1,2- diodsorbed

bicycle[ 2.2.11heptone

I - complexed

bicyclo[2.2. (heptene

FIQ.14. Alternative representations of adsorbed bicyclo[2.2. llhepteno.

STEREOCHEMISTRY A N D HYDROGENATION MECHANISM

147

alkane in which both bonds to the surface are in the same plane, an eclipsed conformation. I n the smaller cycles only the cis vicinal hydrogen atoms can be eclipsed but in cycloheptane and higher homologs both cis and trans hydrogens may do so. Accordingly, the exchange of hydrogen atoms on both sides of the cycle may proceed, during a single sojurn on the catalyst, via the a,P-diadsorbed alkane in the larger cycles, but some other process is required in the six-membered and smaller cycles. The exchange of deuterium with bicyclo[2.2. Ilheptane appears to offer a particularly good test of this hypothesis. Because only the hydrogen atoms on C-2 and C-3 may be eclipsed, the initial exchange should be and is limited t o only two hydrogens ( 7 4 )(Fig. 14). As a n alternative, the adsorbed olefin, an important intermediate in the exchange reaction of alkanes, may be represented as a x complex ( 7 ) , and the patterns of multiple isotopic exchange of the homologous cycloalkanes on transition metals can be related to the ease of formation of the derived cycloalkenes ( 7 ) .The ability of hydrogens on both sides of the cycle to participate in the a$ exchange process coincides with the ready formation of both cis- and trans-cycloalkenes in cycles containing eight or more carbon atoms ( 7 2 ) ;trans-cycloalkenes are unknown in C, and smaller rings and the recently prepared trans-cycloheptene is quite unstable (76). Although the difference in the stability of cis- and transcyclooctene is appreciabIe [the difference in AH" being 9.3 kcal/mole ( 7 7 ) ] , this difference in internal strain is apparently reduced in the x complex (78, 79). Recently, Rooney (80)expressed the view that the a,j3 exchange process involved n olefin complexes and asserts that this explains the pattern of exchange on a palladium film of deuterium with 1,l-dimethylcyclobutane. Its failure to exhibit appreciable multiple isotopic exchange was attributed t o the difficulty of forming a x olefin complex because of the strain in cyclobutene. Apparently, the exchange patterns can be explained qualitatively by reference t o either structure for the adsorbed olefin, the eclipsed 1,2diadsorbed alkane or the olefin x complex. This argument should, of course, refer to the transition state for the formation of chemisorbed olefin from monoadsorbed alkane, the critical step in the a,j3 exchange mechanism; however the revised argument would be much the same. Nevertheless we are provided with two alternative descriptions of the chemisorbed alkene under conditions closely related t o those employed in hydrogenation studies.

SAMUEL SIEUEL

148

c. THE GEOMETRYOF

THE

TRANSITION STATE

FOR

ADSORPTION

Whichever structure represents the chemisorbed olefin, the transition state for adsorption will have a geometry which lies between that of the adsorbed and the free olefin. To maximize the overlap between the orbitals of the substrate and of the surface, the olefin must be oriented so that the plane of the double bond is perpendicular t o a line drawn between its center and the surface site-if a single atom-or parallel t o the surface if the site, whether mono or binuclear, is part of the surface array of atoms. The groups attached to the double-bonded carbons become displaced outwardly from this plane as the olefin moves closer to the surface. Both n complex and 1,2-diadsorbed alkane share qualitatively this geometrical feature but the difference in geometry relative to the olefin is maximized in the latter, an essentially saturated structure. According t o the analysis of the preceding section, the stereochemistry of hydrogenation of disubstituted cycloalkenes or alkyl-substituted methylenecyclohexanes obtained at high pressures of hydrogen should relate to the stereochemistry of adsorption of the olefin. Much of the data can be explained qualitatively by the assumption that. the structure of the olefin is largely retained in the transition state for adsorption. Thus the fact that 2-, 3-,or 4-alkyl-substituted methylenecyclohexanes yield more of and cis-l,4the axial-equatorial dialkylcyclohexane (cis-1,2-,trans-1,3-, dialkylcyclohexanes) is explained by the assumption that the olefin which exists mainly in the chair conformation approaches the surface so that the cycle is inclined away from the reactive site and substituents prefer the equatorial positions on the cycle (57, 64) (Fig, 15). The cis addition of hydrogen then yields the more unstable disubstituted cyclohexane from this preferred intermediate. Similarly, to explain the stereochemistry of hydrogenation of dialkylcyclohexenes (other than 1,2 derivatives) a t high pressures of hydrogen, R

I

Methylenecyclohexotm

I

Complex

II u

i

Complex

FIG.16. Reference structures for the transition state for the adsorptionof 4-substituted methylenecyclohexanes.

STEREOCHEMISTRY AND HYDROGENATION MECHANISM

149

Siegel and Smith (57) suggested that, in the transition state for adsorption, the cycloalkene adopts a pseudo-chair conformation, the most stable geometry of an isolated cyclohexene (81)(Fig. 16). For example, this

4-terf-Butyl- I-methylcycloherene

2,3-Dimethylcyclopentene

FIG.16. Preferred conformationsof the transition states for the absorption of endocycloolefins.

assumption accounts for the virtual 1:1 ratio of cis and trans saturated products obtained a t 100 atmospheres from 4-tert-butyl-l-methylcyclohexene, because in this conformation the double bond is equally approachable from either face (64). I n contrast, the limiting ratio of saturated isomers obtained from the isomeric methylenecycloalkane corresponds to about 60% of the less stable form because the cycle, which in this compound is virtually restricted t o asingle chair form in which the tert-butyl group is equatorial, provides a greater hindrance from the direction which would yield the trans isomer than the other which would lead to the cis. Similar results are obtained with other alkyl-substituted methylenecyclohexanes a t high pressures of hydrogen (63). From the fact that 2,3-dimethylcyclopenteneyields more trans- than cis-l,2-dimethylcyclopentane(63% trans a t 290 atmospheres), Siegel and Dmuchovsky (58)concluded that, in the transition state for adsorption, the geometry of the organic moiety has departed significantly from that of the cycloolefin. They noted that the repulsive interactions between the vicinal methyl groups increase as the complex progresses along the reaction path leading towards cis-l,2-dimethylcyclopentane, a n effect which runs counter t o the interaction of the 3-methyl group and the catalytic site. The effect associated with the interactions between vicinal groups disappears when the substituents are not adjacent because 1,3-and 2,4-dimethylcyclopenteneyield 88% of cis-l,3-dimethylcyclopentane a t 200 atmospheres. Apparently the geometry of the transition state for adsorption is approximately that of a n-complexed olefin in that its structure seems to be only slightly distorted from that of the isolated alkene. However, this does not necessarily mean that the adsorbed state which is formed in the elementary reaction to -which the stereochemistry refers is a n complex, because the same geometry also represents a stage in the progression of olefin to the eclipsed 1,2-diadsorbed alkane. Hopefully other experi-

160

SAMUEL SIEaEL

mental criteria may be found which will distinguish between these alternatives.

D. THEGEOMETRY OF THE

THE

TRANSITION STATEFOR

FORMATION OF

THE

‘‘HALF-HY DROOENATED STATE”

According to the analysis in Section 111,B,2, the ratios of saturated stereoisomers which are obtained a t low pressures of hydrogen on a platinum catalyst are characteristic of the transition state of the elementary reaction which yields the “half-hydrogenated state.” This transition state has a geometry which lies between the geometry of this intermediate and that of the chemisorbed olefin and is likely to be identical with the critical complex implicated in the exchange reactioh between a saturated hydrocarbon and deuterium in which vicinal hydrogen atoms are exchanged via the a$ process (57). Although the transition state for the exchange reaction may be described as the critical complex for the conversion of the “halfhydrogenated state” to either a n-complexed olefin or an eclipsed vicinal diadsorbed alkane, the stereochemistry of hydrogenation of cycloalkenes on platinum a t low pressures can be understood if the transition state has a virtually saturated structure. For example, the proportion of the axial-equatorial saturated isomers obtained at low pressures from substituted methylenecycloalkanes is greater than the ratio a t high pressures of hydrogen which is consistent with a structure in which the distinction between the alternative points of attachment of the surface site to the cycle is large. I n effect the catalyst acts as a large substituent which assumes that position on a cycle in which the repulsive interactions are minimal (Fig. 17). To account for the formation of mainly trans-dialkylcyclohexanefrom R

R&cH3 .I ,’*

endo

-NR,

5

,

II

,,

, I

8

exo- R,

4 -Substituted I - methylcyclohexene

: A:

i-

4 -Substituted rnethylenecyclohexone

FIO.17. Preferred conformations of the transition state which yields tho “half-hydrogenated state” from a 4-substituted methylcyclohexene and a methylenecyclohexane.

STEREOCHEMISTRY AND HYDROQENATION MECHANISM

151

4-tert-butyl-l-methylcyclohexene, Sauvage et al. (30)assumed that substituted cyclohexenes were adsorbed in a boat conformation, a very large group such as the tert-butyl group being forced to take a position exo to the boat. Their arguments sought to explain the results obtained a t about one atmosphere of hydrogen which approximate better the limiting cisltrans ratios obtained at low pressures than those at high. And indeed their suggestion can be modified (58)so as to refer t o the formation of the half-hydrogenated state which the previous analysis suggests is the product-determining reaction under these conditions. To develop the geometry of the above transition state, one assumes first that the eclipsed 1,2-diadsorbed alkane adopts a boat conformation. Clearly, a large group a t C-4 should prefer to be exo (trans to the C-1 methyl group) ; however the driving force which causes the cycle to adopt the boat instead of a chair conformation, as in cis-hydrindane (82),also would cause a small substituent to prefer to be endo (cisto the C-1 methyl group), and indeed the proportion of cis isomers obtained from d-alkyl1-methylcycloalkenes increases in the order tert-butyl < isopropyl < methyl, the per cent being 36 [c.f. Siege1 and Dmuchovsky ( 6 4 ) ] ,47, and 57, respectively, a t about one atmosphere of hydrogen (30). The driving force for the adoption of the above conformation in this instance has been assumed to be the spreading surface pressure arising from the saturation of the surface by various adsorbed species (73). One may gather from the preceding discussion that the application of conformational analysis to the determination of the geometry of these transition states is in an early stage of development. However further studies coupled with refinements in the theory of interaction between nonbonded groups can be expected t o lead t o a clearer picture of these important structures.

V. The Reaction of Aromatic Hydrocarbons with Hydrogen Studies of the kinetics of the addition and exchange of deuterium with benzene resulted in the first detailed mechanistic proposals of Polanyi and his associates (50,83)and of Farkas and Farkas (13,84,85). Farkas and Farkas suggested that the critical step in hydrogenation involved the simultaneous addition of two hydrogen atoms t o an adsorbed benzene molecule, whereas exchange with deuterium required the prior dissociation, on the surface, of benzene t o form a phenyl radical and a hydrogen atom. The phenyl radical then combined with a deuterium atom, which had been produced by the dissociation of a deuterium molecule, and the monodeuterobenzene was desorbed.

152

SAMUEL SIEOEL

Hydrogenation (Farkas and Farkas) : Ha C,H, C,H, ads

+ surface ;r 2H ads + surface $ C,H, ads

fwt + 2H ads slow -+ C,H, ads +C,H,, + surface

Ezchange (Farkas and Farkas) :

+ surface C,H, ads + D ads C6H6

--f

C,H, ads

--f

C,H,D

+ H ads

+ surface

Horiuti and Polanyi (50) argued differently and concluded hat the exchange reaction had an associative mechanism as does the addition of hydrogen to benzene. However, they assumed that in the latter the two atoms of hydrogen added consecutively.

Hydrogenation (Horiuti and Polanyi) : H

H,

+ 2* 'r 2 cI

CeH,

+*

$

(* represents surface atom)

CEH, (ads) H

I

C,H, (ads)

fast

+ H1 "r C,H, -+ C,H, (ads) +C,H,, I nlow *

*

Exchange (Horiuti and Polanyi):

Later Greenhalgh and Polanyi (14)formulated kinetic expressions for this mechanism. They showed that the dissociative mechanism for exchange according t o Farkas and Farkas would yield the same mathematical function as the associative mechanism if the combination of deuterium atoms with phenyl radicals was the slow step. However, they continued to favor the associative mechanism. One or the other mechanism for exchange is preferred by different authors, the choice being based upon facts or theories other than the kinetics of the reaction (86-88).However, there seems to be general agreement that the hydrogenation of benzene requires the addition of two hydrogen atoms to attain the composition of the critical complex (14,84,86, 88,89),this being in accord with the most reliable kinetic data showing the first-order dependence of the rate upon the hydrogen pressure.

STEREOCHEMISTRY AND HY DROOENATION MECHANISM

153

A. GEOMETRICAL CONSIDERATIONS OF THE MECHANISM FOR EXCHANGE 1, The Associative Mechanism

Stereochemical arguments can be used to deny that the associative mechanism for exchange can take place in the manner proposed by Horiuti and Polanyi. If an adsorbed deuterium atom unites with an adsorbed molecule of benzene, the deuterium atom will occupy a position which bears a different geometrical relationship t o the surface (reactive site) than does the hydrogen atom originally present on the same carbon atom of the cycle (A or B). The reversal of the reaction will not lead t o exchange unless the intermediate can turn over, a process requiring the breaking of the bond to the surface.

i

(B)

(A)

Recently Harper and Kemball (90) have elaborated the associative mechanism in a manner which avoids the above geometrical limitations. Much of the reasoning upon which they base their ideas is recorded in papers by Gault et al. (91) and by Rooney (80). They postulate that r-bonded benzene or molecular species such as B can combine either with a hydrogen atom from the surface or with a hydrogen molecule from the gas or physically adsorbed phase:

-(p;

(

*

*

*

*

* The removal of hydrogen must proceed along the same paths; consequently exchange will occur via this associative mechanism only if these alternative reactions occur a t approximately the same rate. One difficulty is that reaction (13) would seem to require a much larger activation

154

SAMUEL SIEGEL

energy than reaction (12) (c.f. refs. 59 and 92) and there is as yet no compelling evidence that n-adsorbed hydrocarbon species combine with molecular hydrogen as postulated. Because the latter mechanism has geometrical implications it should be subject t o test by appropriately designed stereochemical studies. 2. The Dissociative Mechanism

Although the bond dissociation energy of a hydrogen-carbon bond in benzene is about the same as that of methane (93),the rate of exchange of deuterium with benzene on metallic surfaces is much faster than with methane. This result has been thought to support some kind of associative mechanism (87), but perhaps, in the transition state for dissociative adsorption, the r-electron cloud of the aromatic ring can interact with vacant d orbitals of the metallic center to which it is becoming attached in a manner similar t o the interaction which stabilizes phenyl complexes of transition metals according to Chatt and Shaw (94). Garnett and Sollich (95) suggest that the transition from wbonded benzene t o o-bonded phenyl reaches the critical stage when the benzene ring is inclined a t 45' to the final bonding direction. At this point the hydrogen has weakened its hold on carbon and has begun t o be attracted to the metal. I n support of the dissociative mechanism they cite the deactivation of the platinum-catalyzed exchange with deuterium oxide of the ring hydrogen atoms in alkyl benzenes which are flanked by two methyl groups or are ortho t o one tert-butyl group, and attribute it t o a steric effect.

Horizontally n-bonded

Transition state, inclined at 45"

Edge on o-bonded

Crawford and Kemball (87) had earlier demonstrated that, on films of nickel, deuterium exchanges rapidly with both side chain and ring hydrogens of alkylbenzenes. The hydrogen atoms in these molecules can be classified into groups according to their ease of exchange. The most reactive included those on carbon atoms a to the ring and in ring positions not ortho to any substituent. The next most reactive hydrogens are those ortho to a single alkyl group such as methyl or isopropyl while the least reactive were hydrogens ortho to two methyl groups as in nz-xylene. They assumed that the exchange of the hydrogen atom on the a carbon atom occurs through the formation of species in which the benzene ring is

STEREOCHEMISTRY AND HYDROGENATION MECHANISM

155

rr-bonded to the surface. On the basis of experience with the exchange

M

M

reactions of saturated hydrocarbons on nickel (59) they questioned that multiple exphange might proceed via species which have lost two CY hydrogen atoms as in :

However the analogy may be inappropriate (see Section VI1,D).

B. THE STEREOCHEMISTRY OF ADDITIONOF HYDROGEN TO AROMATIC COMPOUNDS The mechanism for the union of hydrogen with benzene also has been illuminated by stereochemical studies. Linstead and his students demonstrated that the hydrogenation of substituted benzenes occurred with considerable stereospecificity (16).Thus the hydrogenation of diphenic acid yielded mainly compounds with either cis (one ring reduced) or cis-syn-cis (both rings reduced) configurations.

Q-pQ-pQp / \

HO,C

CO,H

HO,C

CO$

cis

HO,C

COsH

cis-syn-cisperhydrodiphenic acid

They concluded that when a benzene ring is hydrogenated during a single period of adsorption the stereoisomeric products are formed in a proportion which is determined by steric interactions between the substituents on the cycle and the catalyst. The benzene ring was assumed to be adsorbed with its face parallel to the surface from which hydrogen was abstracted. Further, the formation of mainly syn isomers suggested that the diphenic acid, or the intermediate with one ring reduced, was adsorbed in a conformation which brings the carboxylic acid groups together. Undoubtedly, the most important of these concepts is that steric effects determine the manner in which a molecule is adsorbed upon a surface and this is revealed in the configuration of the products. These ideas, based upon a classic example of stereochemical research,

156

SAMUEL SIEGEL

served a generation of organic chemists and were not seriously questioned until convenient methods for the analysis of mixtures of stereoisomers became available. The demonstration that the ethyl esters of both A'- and A2-tetrahydrophthalic acid as well as ethyl phthalate yielded only cis-hexahydrophthalate when hydrogenated under the same conditions (reduced platinum oxide in acetic acid a t one atmosphere of hydrogen) showed that the proportion of stereoisomers obtained from hydrogenating an aromatic compound did not of itself distinguish between the postulates that ( a )the benzene ring is hydrogenated during a single period of residence on the surface or that (a) intermediates, such as the tetrahydro derivatives, were desorbed from the surface before the final step of saturation was accomplished (96).

Although the principal stereoisomer formed a t ambient temperatures in the hydrogenation of disubstituted benzenes has the cis configuration, trans isomers are also produced, the amount being a function of the structure of the substrate, the pressure of hydrogen, the temperature, and the catalyst (97-100).Mixtures are formed although the products are virtually unaffected under these conditions; consequently the trans isomers result from a kinetically controlled process. Detailed studies of the stereochemistry of hydrogenation of the several xylenes and their tetrahydro derivatives suggested that the cycloalkenes which would result from the cis addition of four atoms of hydrogen to the xylene molecule were released from the surface before final readsorption and reduction (24, 97). Indeed the ratio of the cis and trans saturated stereoisomers which are produced from a particular xylene can be estimated from a knowledge of the ratios obtained from each of the possible derived cycloalkenes under the same conditions and the assumption that the cycloalkenes are formed in a proportion corresponding to the random addition (cis) of hydrogen to the aromatic ring. Accordingly, o-xylene should yield the following proportion of cycloalkenes: 1,2-dimethylcyclohexene, 16.6y0; 2,3-dimethylcyclohexene, 33.3% ; cis-3,4-dimethylcyclohexene, 33.3%; and ~is-4,6-dimethylcyclohexene, 16.6%. Separately, 1,2- and 2,3-dimethylcyclohexene yield ratios of the dimethylcyclohexanes which are a function of the pressure of hydrogen (Fig. 5) while the cis-3,4-and cis-4,5-dimethylcyclohexenes should form only cis-1,2-dimethylcyclohexane.Indeed Mahmoud and Greenlee (101) have shown that the geometric isomers of 3,4,5-trimethylcyclohexene

167

STEREOCHEMISTRY AND HYDROGENATION MECHANISM

retain their stereochemical integrity upon reduction under comparable conditions. Accordingly the percentage of the cis isomer a t 1, 4, and 100 atmospheres is estimated to be 90, 87, and 88 while the observed values are 93, 88, and 91, respectively (Fig. 18). Similar results are found with other xylenes. .#"

20

-

10

-

tn 6 -

p \

t

4 -

2 -

I 0.2

I

I

I

0.5

I

5

I

,,.I 10

1

I

I

I

I

50

I00

J 500

PRESSURE OF HYDROGEN (Atm )

FIG. 18. Comparison of &/trans ratios obtained from o-xylene and its tetrahydro derivatives 1.2- and 2,3-dimethylcyclohexene as a function of hydrogen pressure; PtO, (97).

Alternatively, if only a single cycloalkene is released from the surface, then a t least 40--50%of the aromatic precursor must be reduced via this alkene.

C. THEDETECTION OF CYCLOHEXENE INTERMEDIATES The postulate that olefins are released from the surface during the hydrogenation of aromatic hydrocarbons has gained considerable support. Madden and Kemball (89) observed cyclohexene during the early stages of the vapor phase hydrogenation (flow system) of benzene over nickel films a t 0" t o 50". The ratio of cyclohexene to cyclohexane diminished with time, and little or none of the alkene was detected if the films were annealed a t 50" in a stream of hydrogen. Later, Weitkamp (102) isolated the octaliiis formed in the hydrogenation of methylnaphthalene, or naphthalene, over a platinum sup-

158

SAMUEL SIECEL

ported on alumina catalyst at about 100-150". Unfortunately this work has not appeared in the usual channels of publication. More recently Hartog and Zwietering (103)used a bromometric technique to measure the small concentrations of olefins formed in the hydrogenation of aromatic hydrocarbons on several catalysts in the liquid phase. The maximum concentration of olefin is a function of both the catalyst and the substrate; for example, a t 25' o-xylene yields 0.04, 1.4, and 3.4 mole yo of 1,2-dimethylcyclohexene on Raney nickel, 5% rhodium on carbon, and 5% ruthenium on carbon, respectively, and benzene yields 0.2 mole yoof cyclohexene on ruthenium black. Although the cyclohexene derivatives could not be detected by this method in reactions catalyzed by platinum or palladium, a sensitive gas chromatographic technique permitted Siegel et al. (104) to observe 1,4-dimethylcyclohexene (0.002 mole yo)from p-xylene and the same concentrations of 1,3- and 2,4-dimethylcyclohexene from m-xylene in reductions catalyzed by reduced platinum oxide. I n a detailed study of the reduction of the xylenes in the liquid phase on a 5% rhodium on carbon catalyst, Siegel and Ku (105)showed that both 1,2- and 2,3-dimethylcyclohexenes are formed from ortho-xylene (Fig. 19). The initial (extrapolated) ratio, 1,2-/2,3-,lies between 0.5 and 1 but rises as the reaction proceeds. If the initial distribution of cycloalkenes was random as previously postulated (97)the ratio should be 0.5.

:::L v,

I

10

20

30

40

5 0

I

,

,

bO

70

00

Per cent reductLon

FIG. 19. Formation of 1,2- and 2,3-dimethylcyclohexene in the hydrogenation of o-xylene in the liquid phase (acetic acid) on a 6% Rh/C catalyst (105).

STEREOCHEMISTRY AND HYDROGENATION MECHANISM

159

The rapid change in the ratio as the reaction proceeds reflects the relative reactivity of the 2,3 isomer in competition with the 1,2 isomer (57, 60). I n comparison, the ratio of 2,4-/1,3-dimethylcyclohexene obtained from m-xylene is close to unity (1.2) and the ratio changes little during the course of the reaction. An initial random distribution should yield equal amounts of these isomeric cycloalkenes and the relative constancy of the ratio is consistent with the fact that, in competition with one another, 1,3- and 2,4-dimethylcyclohexene are reduced a t comparable rates. The failure to observe the other postulated dimethylcyclohexenes is to be expected, because none would have substituents attached t o the double bond in the cycle. Consequently, because of their expected greater reactivity in competition, their maximum concentration should be no more than a few per cent of the most reactive of the cycloalkenes actually observed in these experiments. Although there is no question that olefins are released from the surface during the hydrogenation of an aromatic hydrocarbon, the significance of this fact is a subject of controversy. The stereochemical argument requires that a large fraction (greater than 50%) of the aromatic hydrocarbon is reduced via the desorbed cyclohexene ; whereas Hartog and Zwietering (103) conclude from their kinetic analysis that the fraction is small. They show that the manner in which the concentration of cyclohexene changes during the course of hydrogenating benzene can be described by a two-parameter equation derived from a kinetic scheme of the form

x

--

k

x, +Yo

k

2

It Y

where X is the aromatic compound, Y the intermediate tetrahydro derivative, and Z the fully hydrogenated product, and the subscript a means adsorbed. Later, Hartog et al. (106)conclude that, in the hydrogenation of benzene on ruthenium black, only 1yoof the benzene that is hydrogenated leaves the surface as cyclohexene, the remainder being hydrogenated during one soiourn on the surface. If the above interpretation of the kinetics is correct, there must be a mechanism whereby a xylene molecule may be converted to a transdimethylcyclohexane without leaving the surface. Indeed, this is proposed by Harper and Kemball in their formulation of the associative

SAMUEL SIEGIEL

160

mechanism for hydrogenation and exchange (90). However, the kinetics may be interpreted in other ways and a definitive answer must await further study. Noteworthy in this connection is van Bekkum's report (107)that the hydrogenation of 2-tert-butylbenzoic acid over a rhodium catalyst yields cis-2-tert-butylcyclohexanecarboxylicacid and 2-carboxy-3-tert-butylcyclohexene (which attains a concentration of 22 mole yo)and only in the final stages, after most of the aromatic compound has disappeared, is the trans isomer formed, obviously via the hydrogenation of the tetrahydro derivative. t -Bu

t-Bu

cis

t -Bu

I

VI. Hydrogenation of Multiply Unsaturated Hydrocarbons Meyer and Burwell's (9, 10) recent studies of the hydrogenation of multiply unsaturated hydrocarbons illustrate the value of employing a variety of techniques, including stereochemical, t o an examination of the mechanism of a reaction. These studies were designed t o better identify the structure bf the surface intermediates involved in the reactions of hydrocarbons with hydrogen and to illuminate the pathways of their further transformations. Following gas chromatographic separations, nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy served to locate the deuterium in the products and mass spectrographic analysis gave the distribution of the deuterated species. The reaction between deuterium and 1-butyne, 2-butyne, 1,2-butadiene, and 1,3-butadiene, respectively, was conducted in a flow system at near ambient temperatures. The catalyst (0.03 wt yo palladium on alumina) was prepared by impregnating hard alumina pellets with palladium chloride so that the metal was probably confined t o an outer shell of each particle.

A. ACETYLENES The reactions are highly selective in the sense that little if any of the product butene reacts further as long tts any of the more saturated substrate remains. 2-Butyne yields cis-2-butene-2,3-d2almost exclusively;

STEREOCHEMISTRY AND HYDROU ENATION MECHANISM

161

multiply exchanged cis-butene, the other butenes, and butane sum to only 1yo of the product. This is in accord with the classical mechanism,

**

CH,C=CCH,

HSC,

*'

,CHI

c=c *'

the formation of the minor products arising via alternative paths of decomposition of the half-hydrogenated intermediates. The 1,2 addition of deuterium to 1-butyne is accompanied by an additional exchange reaction involving the original acetylenic hydrogen. Exchanged 1-butyne appears in the vapor phase but the amount of 1-butene-(h,d), which is formed is much greater than can be expected from the simple addition of deuterium t o this exchanged acetylene. Consequently, 1-butene-(h,d), must be formed largely from an adsorbed species derived from the original substrate. A suggested path involves the sequence : HCrCCH,CH,

-

H;C=C/CHaCH'

*

*'

CH,CH, I

111 C I

which is an alternative to the more direct reaction for exchange: CH,CH, I

H-CECCH,CH,

H

tl

+ i

C I

The first sequence includes one reaction (the last) which requires a greater amount of molecular reorganization than any of the other steps which are needed to explain the major course of the reaction. A perhaps more satisfactory sequence is the following:

*

162

SAMUEL SIEOEL

The last step is analogous to the reaction which accounts, in part, for multiple exchange in methane (59),e.g.,

B. ALLENES The proportion of products obtained from 1,2-butadiene are 0.53 cis-2-butene, 0.07 trans-2-butene, and 0.40 1-butene. The predominant deuterated species are again those which result from simple 1,2 addition to one or the other double bond. However 1-butene is more extensively exchanged than cis-2-butene. The fact that much more cis than trans-2-butene is formed is considered to be the consequence of a steric effect. If adsorption of 1,2-butadiene is to occur a t carbon atoms 1 and 2, the allene must approach the surface so that the plane of the CH,=group is parallel to the surface. Of the two possible directions of approach, one ( b ) which would yield the H\

1'') 1

c, =c =c,

,CHs

"t t (a)

trans isomer is hindered by the methyl group; consequently the other.(a) which generates cis-2-butene is favored. Application of the concepts developed in Section I V would yield a qualitatively similar argument, attention being focused on the geometry of the transition states for either adsorption or the formation of the half-hydrogenated states.

c. 1,Q-DIENES-EVIDENCE

FOR

ALLYLICINTERMEDIATES

The addition of deuterium to 1,3-butadieneyields mainly I-butene and trans-2-butene. The isotopic distribution in these products is nearly identical and 70% of the initial product corresponds to simple 1 , 2 or 1,4 addition. Meyer and Burwell suggest that 1,3-butadiene is adsorbed on the surface in the trans conformation. Addition of deuterium to a terminal carbon atom produces an allylic species which is a common intermediate for the formation of both major products, 1-butene and frans2-butene.

STEREOCHEMISTRY AND HYDROGENATION MECHANISM

CH,D H \ /

CH2=CH-CH=CH2

J‘

163

/c=c\

13cHaD

2

CHP H \ / ,CZC.\

H

CH,

H

CH,

CH,= CH-CHD-CH,D

Evidence derived from a study of the stereochemistry of hydrogenation of 1,2-~yclononadiene and 1,2-~yclodecadiene led Moore (108)to conclude that ally1 complexes like those postulated above must be intermediates. He noted that, of the four ways in which either allene could be adsorbed on a surface, two, a and b, would yield via cis addition of hydrogen the cis-cycloalkene and two, c and d , the trans isomer. Examination of

(a)

@)

molecular models of the dienes showed that adsorption along c and d is hindered seriously by the methylene chain of the cycle, whereas the alternative approaches, a and b, are unhindered. Thus the classic view would predict the formation of cis-cycloalkenes. The formation of substantial amounts of the trans isomers, which are the less stable geometrical isomers in cycles with fewer than eleven carbon atoms, implies that an intermediate is produced which is capable of yielding both cis- and trans-cycloalkenes a t comparable rates. As Moore suggests, the addition o f a hydrogen atom to C-1 (A) gives a half-hydrogenated state (B) identical to that which would be formed from the corresponding acetylene and would yield the cis-cycloalkene by the replacement, with retention of configuration, of the bond t o the catalyst by hydrogen. However, if the first atom of hydrogen is added to C-2, an allylic species is formed and models indicate that configuration (C) should be preferred in the nine- and ten-membered cycles. Hydrogen

164

SAMUEL SIEGEL

/

\

should be equally accessible to either C-1 or C-3 of this structure. Addition to C-1 would give a cis-cycloalkene, to C-3 the trans. The same allylic species can be formed from the related 1,3-diene and indeed cis,cis-1,3-~yclodecadieneyields a t least 38% trans-cyclodecene although the saturation of one double bond which did not involve its neighbor should obviously yield the more stable cis isomer. The result implies that the allylic intermediate, which would be formed initially in the cis,& conformation, has time t o rearrange on the surface t o its more stable cis,trans configuration before it reacts further with hydrogen. The isomerizes first to the less possibility that the cis,cis-l,3-~yclodecadiene stable cis,trans-diene was discounted. The rearrangement of the allylic intermediate could be accomplished via a a-bonded complex, as indicated an page 142 of Section II1,C.

D. THE COMPETITIVE HYDROGENATION OF 1,Q-DIENES ACETYLENES

AND

According to Meyer and Burwell (lo),a further indication that the initial chemisorption of 1,3-butadiene involves more than the formation of 3,4-diadsorbed 1-butene is the fact that 1,3-butadiene competes for

STEREOCHEMISTRY AND HYDROGENATION MECHANISM

165

hydrogen on equal terms with 2-butyne, although the enthalpy of hydrogenation of the dieiie is approximately 10 kcal less than that of the acetylene. Generally there is a rough correlation between the enthalpy of hydrogenation, the strengths of binding to metallic ions (and presumably the catalyst), and the relative rates of hydrogenation of unsaturated hydrocarbons. The expected relationship fails, presumably because 1,3-butadiene is adsorbed in a manner which is quite different from 2-butyne, perhaps as a 7 complex as suggested in another connection by Rooney et al. (.38). However, a different view focuses attention upon the nature of the half-hydrogenated species. For simplicity the mechanism of hydrogenation of 2-butyne is represented as a sequence of three reactions (14-16) and the chemisorbed acetylene is written as a 7r complex.

+

H,

2*

H 2!

*

*I

* If the last reaction is effectively irreversible, the rate of disappearance of 2-butyne (Y)is -d[Y]/dt

=

k3k&/k- zk-,[Y] [HI

=

k3KlK2[Y] [HI

(17)

where [HI represents the surface concentration of hydrogen atoms and K , and K , the equilibrium constants for reactions (14) and (15). An analogous sequence can be written for 1,3-butadiene (E);again the chemisorhed diene is represented as a 7 complex.

166

SAMUEL STEOEL

+

1

H

k, k--t

+

1-butene, cis- 2-butene,

or trans-2 butene

(20)

-

Both reactions (19) and (20) are more complicated than shown in that two different n complexes may be formed, the syn and anti, although apparently mainly the latter is formed in this instance (1 0 ).Each complex can yield l-butene and either cis-2-butene from the syn or trans2-butene from the anti complex. However to emphasize the more immediate question, reactions (19) and (20) are presented in this simplified fashion, With the last step controlling, the rate of hydrogenation of 1,3butadiene is

-d[E]/dt = k7k6k6/k-5k-6[EJ (21) The relation between the constants of the above mechanism and the apparent rate constants measured when 2-butyne or 1,3-butadiene are examined separately depends upon whether the most stable species on the surface is the r-complexed butyne (or 1,3-butadiene)or the respective half-hydrogenated states. If the former situation prevails, the apparent rate constants are k,K, for 2-butyne and k,K, for 1,3-butadiene; if the latter, the respective constants are k, and k,. If the two compounds are allowed to react in competition with one another, the relative rates will be d [ Y l / d [ E I = k&iK,[YI/k,K&6[KI

(22)

Therefore, the measurement of the relative reactivities in separate and in competitive experiments will permit the evaluation of either K J K , or K I K , / K , K , depending upon whether the principal surface species are the 7-complexed multiply unsaturated hydrocarbons or the respective half-hydrogenated states. If the former situation exists, the evaluated ratios might be expected to correlate with the association constants of the hydrocarbons with silver ion (78),but nGt if the main surface species are the half-hydrogenated states. Apparently, it is the latter condition which prevails. Hussey et al. (109) have recently reported measurements of the kinetics of hydrogenation in the liquid phase of a large number of cycloalkenes, both individually and competitively. The data permit the kind ofanalysis

STEREOCHEMISTRY AND HYDROGENATION MECHANISM

167

outlined above and it is clear that such information is useful for the identification of some of the factors which influence the rates of the surface-catalyzed reactions. Wauquier and Jungers (110) have employed a similar treatment to abstract from kinetic data the relative adsorption constants of a number of aromatic compounds on a nickel catalyst. Rader and Smith (111)have extended the measurements to all the possible methyl-substituted benzenes on a platinum catalyst and Smith and Campbell (112) have studied the same series on rhodium.

VII. Some General Mechanistic Considerations A. THE PRINCIPLE OF MINIMUM STRUCTURAL CHANGE The preceding discussion has shown that the major course of the reduction of multiply unsaturated compounds can be understood in terms of a relatively small number of elementary reactions. Other reactions have been postulated for various reasons and it is obviously desirable to find criteria for judging the probable importance of the many conceivable changes. Perhaps the most important criterion is an experimental one which is coupled with the principle of minimum structural change. Thus the demonstration that 2-butyne yields, almost exclusively, cis-2-butene-2,3-d2implies that the structure (A), a logical

(A)

intermediate, reacts with hydrogen on the surface to yield desorbed cis-2-butene. By analogy, the dissociately adsorbed olefin (B), which Sauvage et al. (30) advanced to explain why the hydrogenation of 1,2dimethylcyclohexene gives trans as well as cis-l,2-dimethylcyclohexane, must proceed to 2,3-dimethylcyclohexene rather than be transformed on the surface to the saturated products (97). Later Siege1 ct al. (60)showed

I:&(

- qCHs

cis- and trunsl,2-dimethylcyc~ohexane

H

*

(B)

CH,

168

SAMUEL SEIGEL

that the isomerization of 1,2- to 2,3-dimethylcyclohexene (which is able to form both cis and trans products via cis addition) and the reduction of the latter were fast enough to account for the production of most if not all of the trans isomer.

B. SURFACE SITESAND

THE TRANSITION METAL COMPLEXANALOG

The practice of considering the catalyst as a featureless surface or a planar array of atomic centers deprives theory of a n adequate concern for the geometry of the transition from reactants to products. Balandin (23) recognized the importance of the concept of a transition state t o the development of a mechanistic theory of catalysis, and in his hands the “multiplet theory” proved fruitful. However the directional properties of binding orbitals, a subject of more recent development, apparently has not been incorporated into his theory. A guide to the manner in which structural theory may be applied to a detailed consideration of the mechanism of a surface-catalyzed reaction is found in papers by Cossee (113),Arlman ( I r a ) ,and Arlman and Cossee (115) concerning the mechanism of the stereoregular heterogeneous catalyzed polymerization of propylene. Particular crystallographic sites are shown to be the active centers a t which the reactants combine and ligand field theory is used to demonstrate a plausible relationship between the activation energy for the conversion of adsorbed reactants to the product and the properties of the transition metal complex which constitutes the reaction center. There is a growing recognition that the reactions which are catalyzed by metals may best be analyzed in terms of a localized domain of the surface with little dependence upon the theory of the gross properties of metals. The surface presents geometrically different sites depending upon their location on the various faces, edges, or dislocations of the crystal (116).The reactions which may occur a t one of these sites will be a function of the number of liganda which may be associated with the atomic center; and the energy of such associations will depend upon the nature of the metal and its oxidation state, the nature and number of neighboring atoms of the lattice, and the sweep of unobstructed space associated with the optimum bonding directions. The last factor in particular might be explored by stereochemical studies. I n discussing the mechanism of the para hydrogen conversion or the hydrogen deuterium exchange reaction, Eley (117)suggested that i t could occur a t a single metal atom. Two orbitals are needed t o bind the activated complex and these can be provided easily by the d orbitals of

STEREOCHEMISTRY AND HYDROGENATION MECHANISM

169

an atom a t the surface. The number and spacial 'distributions of the available orbitals depends on the crystal structure and the lattice planes

which are exposed. However, hydrogen is the smallest possible ligand and a metallic site which might coordinate with several hydrogen atoms could accept fewer large groups. This is one source of selectivity for reactions which have quite different steric requirements. For example, if the dissociative mechanism for the exchange of benzene given in Section V,A,2 is correct, this reaction should have a smaller steric requirement than the addition of hydrogen to benzene; in the latter, the molecule must present, R face to the reaction site, in the former, an edge.

C. GEOMETRICAL DETAILS 1. The Exchange of Saturated Hydrocarbons

A noncommital representation for the exchange reaction of methane is H CH, CH,+2*F?.l

H

CH,

+!"!I

€I

I

C

H

+!'!I+!

which coupled with the reaction D D,+2*F?.2

I

provides the minimum number of simple reactions required to account 0

FIG.20. Geometrical relationships for the simple exchange of methane with deuterium involving adjacent surfwe atoms each of which haa available two octahedral bonding directions suitable for the reaction.

170

SAMUEL SIEGEL

for its exchange on a variety of metallic surfaces. The first step in the reaction can proceed a t a single atomic center. However, the exchange with deuterium probably requires the cooperation of a second site which is written in accordance with the model employed by Sherman et al. (118) (Fig. 20). The loss of a second and possibly a third atom of hydrogen from methane (accounting for multiple exchange during a single period of residence on the surface) could be represented as in Fig. 21. The particular r

l*

Fro. 21. Geometrical relationships for the multiple exchange of methane.

orientation of the groups in the transition state is chosen so that, as the C-H bond is loosened, the overlap between a p orbital on carbon with an appropriate d orbital of the metal can be maximized. 2 . The Associative Mechanism for Exchange and the Addition of Hydrogen

The reaction of an olefin with hydrogen may be analogous to the The olefin may form a T complex related homogeneous reaction (44,46). with a single center and combine with hydrogen in the sequence shown in Fig. 22A. Besides the reverse of the preceding sequence, an alternative

A Additlon and exchange at o single center.

p

-$

c

H

-

B. Exchange involvinp two centers.

FIQ.22. Geometrical relationships involved in the associative mechanism for addition and exchange of an olefin.

STEREOCHEMISTRY AND HYDROGENATION MECHANISM

171

mode for the loss of hydrogen from an alkyl group is indicated in Fig. 22B, a reaction which corresponds to the multiple a$ exchange process which is so important on metals (see page 146). The direct desorption of an olefin from the 1,2-diadsorbed state is likely to be slower than the desorption of olefin from a rr complex, because of the much greater electronic reorganization which the first process implies. Consequently, the proposed sequence would allow a rapid reversible adsorption of the olefin to form a n complex, but once the half-hydrogenated state is reached it could undergo multiple exchange through the 1,2-diadsorbed state without returning an appreciable amount of exchanged olefin to the gas phase. Such a relationship may account for the phenomena of selectivity in the competitive hydrogenation of olefins and the smeared pattern of deuterium in the product while relatively little exchanged olefin reappears in the gas phase (8). Indeed the distinction between the mechanism for the reaction of hydrocarbons with hydrogen on metals compared to oxides may be that the metals have open the above avenue for a$ exchange while the reaction on oxides is restricted t o a single atomic center (37).

D. FORMATION AND STABILITY OF UNSATURATED SURFACE COMPLEXES Structural theory may be applied to a consideration of the relative stability of the several complexes on a particular metal, or the variation in energy which follows a change in the metallic atom or its neighbors (ligands).For example, the relative stability of CH,

and

I

CH,

/I

(and presumably the transition states leading from one t o the other) will depend upon the ability of the metallic center to form d - p x bonds with the

(a)

(b)

(c I

Fro. 23. Diagrammatic representation of overlap between dzlorbital of metal atom and p orbital(8)of (a)methylene; ( 6 ) carbon monoxide; and (c) vinyl group.

172

SAMUEL SIEGIEL

methylene group (Fig. 23), and similar considerations apply to the stability and formation (Fig. 24) of vinyl or aryl complexes (94) and

FIG.24. Geometrical relationships for the dissociative adsorption of ethylene at a single atomic center.

explain the rates of dissociative exchange of benzene. Such an effect may account for the comparable rates of exchange of methyl and ring hydrogens with deuterium over freshly deposited films of nickel and other metals (59).The bond dissociation energy of the benzyl-hydrogen bond is much less than an aryl-hydrogen bond so that an interaction mechanism which enables the aryl hydrogens to overcome this disadvantage must enter into its transition state for exchange. The fact that sintering the nickel diminishes the rate of exchange of aryl hydrogen more than i t does the exchange of benzylic hydrogens may be explained as a change in the fraction of sites a t which p - d n bonding is most favorable. Indeed the fact that the introduction of a small amount of carbon monoxide has an effect similar t o sintering the film (119)supports this notion because a likely mode of interaction between CO and a metal involves the same kind of metal orbitals (120,121).

E. REACTIONS OK T-ALLYLCOMPLEXES A final example concerns the question of n-ally1 and related complexes with hydrogen. Again the evidence cited in the preceding section suggests that the principal reaction of r-ally1 complexes with hydrogen is to yield olefins, desorbed from the surface, although the possibility that a r-bonded olefin is formed first is a geometrically feasible process (Fig. 25). To account for the exchange and isomerization of a number of polymethylcyclopentanes, Rooney et al. (38) postulated that intermediates corresponding to the n-ally1 structures written above were not only able to abstract hydrogen from the surface as in the classical mechanism, but also could accept an atom from molecular hydrogen according t o an Eley-Rideal mechanism (Fig. 26). Studies on the exchange of 1,1,3,3-tetramethylcyolohexanewere claimed to support strongly the above mechanism (80);however, the

STER,EOCHEMISTRY A N D HYDROGENATION MECHANISM

-H

173

j?+:=

H

L

FIG.25. Geometrical relationshipsfor the formation and reaction of a n-ally1complex at a single atomic ccnter.

FIG.26. The alternative paths for the combination of a n-ally1structure with hydrogen according to the mechanism of Rooney, Gault, and Kemball.

Fro. 27. Geometrical relationships for a possible dissociative mechanism of exchange involving an allylic intermediate.

same exchange pattern could result from other reactions of a r-ally1 complex such as that indicated in Fig. 27. The latter mechanism recognizes that allylic hydrogen atoms, because of their lower bond dissociation energy, are more easily removed than nonallylic and can give rise t o multiple exchange via an cu,a-diadsorbed species. I n this sense, the exchange of benzylic and allylic hydrogens with deuterium is analogous, the reaction being faster than with nonallylic. Consequently, one hydrogen atom in the trimethylene chain is set apart from the other five. The same type of intermediate may also account for the racemization of (+)3-methylhexane during its exchange with deuterium ( 7 4 ) .

174

SAMUEL SIPGEL

One may inquire whether the evidence that n-ally1 complexes yield desorbed olefins when formed from dienes and hydrogen, or from alkenes, is pertinent to the question concerning the course of the exchange of such complexes formed by the adsorption of saturated hydrocarbons. The composition of the surface must be different under the two circumstances: in one there must be few sites not occupied by olefin or half-hydrogenated intermediates, while in the other (the exchange of saturated hydrocarbons) many sites must be vacant. Consequently, in the absence of an excess of any unsaturated hydrocarbon, there is no driving force for the desorption (or displacement) of the unsaturated intermediates which are formed on the surface and intermediates of any degree of unsaturation remain bonded to the surface and leave it only as saturated hydrocarbon. Yet the evidence obtained from the reactions of the unsaturated hydrocarbons must indicate the paths which may be traversed under either circumstance. With its emphasis on the concepts of molecular structure and the relationship of structure to reactivity with all its implications, stereochemistry provides a unifying theme for the study of mechanism. This review will have served a useful purpose if it conveys this sense to the reader. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The author’s contribution t o research on the subject of this review has been supported by grants from the National Science Foundation and the Petroleum Research Fund administered by the American Chemical Society. Grateful acknowledgment is hereby made to the donors of this fund. Valued support was also given through research grants by the Monsanto Company, St. Louis, Missouri. The review was begun during the tenure of an International Award in Petroleum Chemistry administered by the American Chemical Society; and through the kind offices of Professor Charles Kemball, the author enjoyed the stimulating environment for the study of surface chemistry provided by the Department of Chemistry of the Queens University of Belfast. Discussions with Dr. George Blyholder concerning bonding in surface complexes were also helpful. Figures 1, 8, 9, and 18 are reproduced with the permission of the American Chemical Society; Figure 4, with the permission of Professor J. Chatt and the Chemical Society, London; and Figure 14, with the permission of the North-Holland Publishing Company, Amsterdam.

REFERENCES

R. G., “Kinetics and Mechanism,” 2d ed., pp. 1-7, Wiley, New York, 1961. 2 . Taylor, T. I., in “Catalysis” (P. H. Emmett, ed.), Vol. V, Chapter V. Reinhold, New York. 1957. 1. Frost, A. A., arid Pearson,

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175

3. Smith, H. A., i n “Catalysis” (P. H. Emmett, ed.),Vol. V, Chapter IV. Reinhold, New York, 1957. 4. Bond, G. C., “Catalysis by Metals.” Academic Press, New York, 1962. 5. Bond, G. C., and Wells, P. B., Advan. Catalysis 15, 91 (1965). 6. Burwell, R. L., Jr., Chem. Rev. 57, 895 (1957). 7 . Burwell, R. L., Jr., Rev. Inal. Franc. Petrole Ann. Combust. Liquides 15, 145 (1960). 8. Taylor, T. I., and Dibeler, V. H., J. Phys. Chem. 55, 1036 (1951). 9. Meyer, E. F., and Burwell, R. L., Jr., J . Am. Chem. SOC.85, 2877 (1963). 10. Meyer, E. F., and Burwell, R . L., Jr., J . Am. Chem. SOC.85, 2881 (1963). 11. Bourguel, M., Compt. Rend. Acad.Sci. 180, 1753 (1925). 12. Bourguel, M., Bull. SOC.Chim. France [4] 51, 253 (1932). 13. Parkas, A., and Farkas, L., Trans. Faraday Soc. 33, 837 (1937). 14. Greenhalgh, R. K., and Polanyi, M., Trans. Faraday SOC.35, 520 (1939). 15. Vavon, G., Bull. SOC.Chim. France [4] 39, 668 (1926). 16. Linstead, R. P., Doering, W. F., Davis, S. B., Levine, P. and Whetstone, It. R.. J . A m . Chem. SOC.64, 1985 (1942). 17. Linstead, R. P., and Walpole, A. L., J . Chem. SOC.p. 842 (1939). 18. Beckett, C. W., Pitzer, K. S., and Spitzer, R., J. Am. Chem. Soc. 69,2488 (1947). 19. Siegel, S . , J . A m . Chem.Soc. 75, 1317 (1953). 20. Ruzicka, L., Helw. Chim. Acta 19, 90 (1936). 21. Balandin, A. A., 2. Physik. Chem. (Leiprig)B2, 289 (1924). 22. Balandin, A. A., and Klabunovskii, E . I., Dokl. Akad. N a u k S S S R 110,571 (1956). 23. Balandin, A. A., Advan. Catalysis 10, 96 (1958). 24. Siegel, S., and Dunkel, M., Advan. Catalysis 9, 15 (1957). 25. Robinson, M. J. T., Tetrahedron 1, 49 (1957). 26. Hadler, H. I . , Experientia 11, 175 (1955). 27. Beeck, O., Discussions Faraday SOC.8 , 118 (1950). 28. Jenkins, G. I . , and Rideal, E. K., J. Chem. SOC. p. 2490 (1955). 29. Fieser, L. F., and Fieser, M., “Steroids,” pp. 271-274. Reinhold, New York, 1959. 30. Sauvage, J. F., Baker, R. H., and Hussey, A. S., J . Am. Chem. SOC.82, 6090 (1960). 31. Twigg, G. H., and Rideal, E . K., Trans. Faraday SOC.36, 533 (1940). 32. Eischens, R. P., and Pliskin, W. A., Advan. Catalysis 10, 1 (1958). 33. Chatt, J., J . Chem. SOC.p. 3340 (1949). 34. Chatt, J., and Duncanson, L. A., J. Chem. SOC.p. 2934 (1953). 35. Coates, G. E., “Organo-Metallic Compounds,” 2d ed., Chapter VI, p. 244 Methuen, London, 1960. 36. Fukushirna, D. K., and Gallagher, T. F., J. A m . Chem. SOC.77, 139 (1955). 37. Burwell, R. L., Jr., Littlewood, A. B., Cardew, M., Pass, G., and Stoddart, C. T. H., J . A m . Chem. Soc. 82, 6272 (1960). 38. Rooney, J. J., Gault, F. G., and Kernball, C., Proc. Chem. SOC.p. 407 (1960). 39. McQuillin, F. J., Ord, W. O., and Simpson, P. L., J . Chem. SOC. p. 5996 (1963). 40. Ahrland, S., Chatt, J., and Davies, N. R., Quart. Rev. (London)12, 265 (1958). 41. Dewar, M. J. S., Bull. SOC. Chim. France 18, C79 (1951). 42. Wunderlich, J. A., and Mellor, D. P., Acta Cryst. 8, 57 (1955). 43. Chatt, J., Guy, R. G., and Duncanson, A. L., J. Chem. SOC.p. 827 (1961). 44. Halpern, J., Advan. Catalysis 11, 301 (1959). 45. Cremer, R. D., Jenner, E. L., Lindsey, R. V., Jr., and Stolberg, U. G., J . Am. Chem. SOC.85, 1691 (1963). 46. Osborn, J. A., Wilkinson, G., and Young, J. F., Chem. Commun. 1, 17 (1965). 47. Halpern, J., Harrod, J. F., and James, B. R., J . A m . Chem. SOC.83, 753 (1961). 48. Eley, D. D., Proc. Roy. Soc. A178, 452 (1941).

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49. Twigg, G. H., and Rideal, E. K., Proc. Roy. Sac. A171, 55 (1939). 50. Horiuti, I., and Polanyi, M., Trans. Faraday Sac. 30, 1164 (1934). 51. Eigenmann, G. W., and Arnold, R. T., J. A m . Chem. Soe. 81, 3440 (1959). 52. Hayward, D. O., and Trapnell, B. M. W.. “Chemisorption,” 2nd d., Chapter VII. Butterworth, London and Washington, D.C., 1964. 53. Pliskin. W. A., and Eischens, R. P., 2. Physik. Chern. (Frankfurt)24, 1 1 (1960). 54. Cotton, F. A., and Wilkinson, G., “Advanced Inorganic Chemistry,’’ pp. 631-636. Wiley (Interscience), New York, 1962. 55. Amano, A., and Parravano, G., Advan. Catalysis 9, 717 (1957). 56. Ingold, C. K., “Structureand Mechanism in Organic Chemistry.” Cornell Uritv. Press, Ithaca, New York, 1963. 57. Siegel, S., and Smith, G. V., J. A m . Chem. Sac. 82, 6082 (1960). 58. Siegel, S., and Dmuchovsky, R., J. A m . Chem. Soc. 86, 2192 (1964). 59. Kernball, C., Adwan. Catalysis 11, 223 (1969). 60. Siegel, S., Thomas, P. A., arid Holt, J. T., J. Catalysis 4, 73 (1965). 61. Smith, G . V., and Burwell, R. L., Jr., J . A m . Chem. Soc. 84, 925 (1962). 62. Huntsman, W. D., Madison, N. L., and Schlesinger, 8.I . , J .Catalysis 2 , 4 9 8 (1963). 6 3 . Siegel. S., Smith, G. V., Halpern, W. H., and Coxort, R., unpublished work. 64. Siegel, S., and Dmuchovsky, B., J. A m . Chem. SOC.84,3132 (1962). 65. Siegel, S.,and Smith, G. V . , J . A m . Chem. SOC.82, 6087 (1960). 66. Sauvage, J . F., Baker, R. H., and Hussey, A. S., J. A m . Chem. Sac. 83, 3874 (1981). 67. McClellan, W. R., Hoehn, H. H., Cripps, H. N., Muetterties, E. L., and Howk, B. W., J . A m . Chem.Soc. 83, 1601 (1961). 68. Bertrand, J. A., Jonaasen, H. B., and Moore, D. W., Inorganic Chem. 2, 601 (1963). 69. Loewenthal, H. J. E., Tetrahedron 6 , 269 (1959). 70. Bream, J. 3..Eaton, D. C.. and Henbest, H. B., J. Chew. SOC.p. 1974 (1957). 71. Turkevich, J., and Smith, R. K., J. Chem. Phya. 16, 466 (1948). 72. Eliel, E. L., “Stereochemistry of Carbon Compounds,” Chapters 6 . 8 and 9. McGrawHill, New York, 1902. 73. Kernball, C., and Rideal, E. K., Proc. Roy. SOC. A187, 53 (1946). 74. Burwell, R. L., Jr., Shim, B. K. C., and Rowlinson, C., J . A m . Chem. SOC.79, 5142 (1957). 75. Anderson, J. R., and Kemball, C . , Proc. Roy. SOC. A226, 472 (1954). 76. Corey, E. J., Corey, F. A., and Winter, R. A. E., J. Am. Chcm. Soc. 87, 934 (1965). 77. Turner, R. B., and Meador, W. R., J. A m . Chem. Sac. 79, 4133 (1957). 78. Muhs, M. A., and Weiss, F. T., J . A m . Chem. SOC.84, 4697 (1962). 79. Traynham, J. G., and Olechowski, J. R., J. A m . Chern. SOC.81, 571 (1959). 80. Rooney, J . J., J. Catalysis 2 , 53 (1963). XI. Beckett, C. W., Freeman, N. K., and Pitzer, K. S., J. A m . Chem.Soc. 70,4227 (1948). 82. Angyal, S. G., and MacDonald, C. G., J. Chem. SOC.p. 686 (1952). 83. Horiuti, I., Ogden, G., and Polanyi, M., T r a m . Paraday Soc. 30,663 (1934). 81. Farkas, A,, and Farkaa, L., Trans. Paraday Soc. 33, 827 (1937). 85. Farkas, A., and Farkas, L.,T r a m . Faraday SOC.33, 678 (1937). 86. Anderson, J . R., and Kemball, C., Advan. Catalysis 9, 51 (1957). 87. Crawford, E., and Kernball, C., Tram. Faraday Sac. 68, 2452 (1962). 88. Hartog. F., Tebben, J. H., and Zwietering, P., Actes 2‘ Conyr. Intern. Catalyse, Paris, 1960, Vol. 1, p. 1229. Technip, Paris, 1961. 89. Madden, M. F., and Kemball, C., J. Chem. SOC.p. 302 (1961). 90. Harper, R. J., and Kemball, C., Proc. 3rd Intern. Congr. Catalysis, Amslerdam, 1964, Contrib. No. 1-70, North-Holland Publ., Amsterdam, 1965. 91. Gault, F. G., Rooney, J. J., and Kemball, C., J . Catalysis 1, 255 (1962).

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92. Burwell, R. L., Jr., and Peri, J. B., Ann. Rev. Phys. Chem. 15,131 (1964). 93. Cottrell, T. L., “The Strengths of Chemical Bonds.” Butterworth. London, ancl Washington, D.C., 1954. 94. Chatt, J., and Shaw, B. L., J. Chem. SOC.p. 1718 (1960). 95. Garnett, J. L., and Sollich, W. A., J. Catalysis 2, 350 (1963). 96. Siegel, S.,and McCaleb, G. S.,J. A m . Chem. SOC. 81, 3655 (1959). V7. Siegel, S., Smith, G. V., Drnuchovsky, B., Dubbell, D., and Halpern, W., J. A m . Chem. SOC.84, 3136 (1962). 98. Schuetz, R. D., ancl Caswell, L. R., J. A m . Chem. Soc. 27, 486 (1962). 99. Rylander, P. N., ancl Steele, D. R., Engelhard Ind. Tech. Bull. 3 , 91 (1962). 100. Baker, R. H., and Schuetz, R. D., J. A m . Cheni. SOC.69, 1250 (1947). 101. Mahrnoud, B. H., ancl Greenlee, K. W., J. Org. Chem. 27, 2369 (1962). 102. Weitkamp, A. W., Petroleum Prcprints 7 , No. 4, C-139 (1962). 103. Hartog, F., and Zwietering, P., J. Catalysis 2, 79 (1963). 10-1. Siegel, S., Ku, V., and Halpern, W., J . Catalysis 2, 348 (1963). 105. Siegrl, R., and Ku, V., Proc. 3rd Intein. Congr. Catalysis, Amsterilum, 19Gi, Contrib. No. 1-80. North-Holland Publ., Amsterdam, 1965. 106. Hartog, F., Tebben, J. H., and Weterings, C. A. M., Proc. 3rd Intern. Congr. Catalysis, Amsterdam, 1964, Contrib. No. 1-81. North Holland Publ., Amsterdam, 1965. 107, van Bekkum, H., Proc. 3rd Intern. Congr. Catalysis, Amsterdam, 1964, Discussions of Contrib. No. 1-80. North-Holland Publ., Amsterdam, 1965. 108. Moore, W. R., J. A m . Chem. SOC.84, 3788 (1962). 109. Hussey, A. S., Baler, R. K., and Keulks, G. W., Abstr. Papers lJ8th Meeting, A m . Chem. SOC.,September, 1064, p. 60s. 110. Wauquier, J. P., and Jungers, J. C., Bull. SOC. Chim. France, p. 1280 (1957). 111. Rader, C. P., and Smith, H. A., J. A m . Chem. SOC.84, 1443 (1962). 112. Smith, H. A., and Campbell, W. E., Proc. 3rd Intern. Congr. Catalysis, Amsterdam, 1964, Contrib. No. 11.14. North-Holland Publ., Amsterdam, 1965. 113. Cossee, P., J. Catalysis 3, 80 (1964). 114. Adman, E . J., J. Catalysis 3, 89 (1964). 115. Adman, E . J., and Cossee, P., J. Catalysis 3, 99 (1964). 116. Hulburt, H. M., “Catalysis” (P. H. Emmett, ed.), Vol. 11, Chapter IV. Reinhold, New York, 1955. 117. Eley, D. D., J. Phys.Chem. 55, 1017 (1951). 118. Sherman, A., Sun, C. E., and Eyring, H., J.Chem. Phys. 3,49 (1934); see also Glasstone, S.,Laidler, K. J.,and Eyring, H., “The Theory of Rate Processes,” pp. 345-346. McGraw-Hill, New York, 1941. 119. Phillips, M. J., Crawford, E., and Kemball, C., Nature 197, 487 (1963). 120. Blyholder, G., J . Phys. Chem. 68, 2772 (1964). 121. Blyholder, G., Proc. 3rd Intern. Congr. Catalysis, Amsterdam, 196d, Contrih. No. 1-38. North-Holland Publ., Amsterdam, 1965.

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Chemical Identification of Surface Groups H. P. BOEHM Institute of Znoqanic Chemistry, University of Heidelbery Heidelberg, Uermany Page I. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179 11. Surface Groups on Carbon . A, Surface Compounds on . . . . . . . . . 182 B. Surface Groups on Graphite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217 C. Surface Groups on Diamond . . . . D. Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223 111. Surface Groups on Silica . . . . A. Identification of Surface Groups on Amorphous Silica. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226 B. Identification of Surface Groups on Crystalline Silica ..... . . . . . . . . . 246 C. Summary ... ............................ . . . . . . . . . 247 IV. Surface Groups o V. Surface Groups o VI. Surface Groups o VII. Conclusion ......................................................... 264 References . . ........................................ 264

1. Introduction The surface of crystalline solids may be considered as an extreme case of lattice defect. On a perfectly clean surface, there is an abrupt termination of the regular array of atoms. The coordination of the atoms must be different from that within the structure. This is true for the covalent bond type as well as for purely ionic lattices. Consequently, the atoms in the surface will have unsaturated “bonds” capable of reacting with other elements or compounds. The strengths of the bonds thus formed with other elements foreign to the bulk structure can vary to a very great degree. We speak of a true surface compound only if the bonding is similar in character to the bonding within the structure and if its strength is of the same order of magnitude as is found in chemical compounds. There is no distinct threshold between physical adsorption, i.e., reversible adsorption with small activation energy of desorption, chemisorption with a significant activation energy of desorption, and formation of surface compounds with a high activation energy for 179

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decomposition. Usually, it is not possible to remove the heteroatoms or surface groups as such from the surface; other stable compounds are formed, sometimes containing surface atoms of the bulk structure. The same principles that are valid for the surface of crystalline substances hold for the surface of amorphous solids. Crystals can be of the purely ionic type, e.g., NaF, or of the purely covalent type, e.g., diamond. Most substances, however, are somewhere in between these extremes [even in lithium fluoride, a slight tendency towards “bond formation” between cations and anions has been shown by precise determinations of the electron density distribution ( I ) ] . Mostly, amorphous solids are found with predominantly covalent bonds. As with liquids, there is usually some close-range ordering of the atoms similar to the ordering in the corresponding crystalline structures. Obviously, this is caused by the tendency of the atoms to retain their normal electron configuration, such as the sp3 hybridization of silicon in silica. Here, too, transitions from “Crystalline” t o “amorphous” do occur. The microcrystalline forms of carbon which are structurally descended from graphite are an example. Each particle of a predominantly covalently bonded amorphous substance can be considered as a macromolecule. The surface groups are equivalent to the “end groups” of macromolecular chemistry. The subject of this article is the discussion of the functional groups on various surfaces, their chemical identification, and possible chemical reactions with these groups. Surface groups consisting of atoms foreign t o the structure can be formed on a great variety of substances. It is not intended t o discuss all possibilities; this would surpass the scope of an article limited in volume. Furthermore, research in this field has but begun; surface compounds have been studied only on a selected group of substances. Most of the investigated substances, however, are very important from an industrial viewpoint. Therefore, in this article the chemistry of surface compounds will be described for a few characteristic and well-known examples. Borderline cases, such as the chemisorption of carbon monoxide on metals, will not be considered. The properties of a surface are influenced by the surface groups to a very great extent, Knowledge of their existence and of their chemistry is important for many technological processes. Apart from heterogenous catalysis, surface chemistry is important in lubrication, in re-enforcement of rubber and other elastomers, in flotation, in the behavior of pigments in laquers, printing inks, and textile additives, and in many other applications. The existence of surface groups was first observed with finely divided

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substances of high surface area. Only when the surface area exceeds 50-100 mZ/gm does the amount of heteroatoms bound to the surface become analytically significant. Research on surface groups started with active carbon and with silica. The chemistry of an important group of naturally occurring materials is characterized by surface reactions: many clay minerals possess what can be considered “surface” a t its extreme. All clay minerals capable of intracrystalline swelling with separation of the silicate layers are-to overstate it-surface with a silicate layer on each side. Many principles and techniques of surface chemistry were first found with clay minerals. Nevertheless, the clay minerals will not be considered in this article, except for some comparison and analogies with surface compounds. Only a few examples, chosen also for reasons of the author’s familiarity with them, will be discussed: surface compounds on carbon, on silica, on titaiiia, and, less extensively, on alumina and silica-alumina.

1

II. Surface Groups on Carbon

There are three forms of carbon known: diamond, graphite, and black microcrystalline carbon. The diamond structure consists of a regular network of tetrahedrally bonded carbon atoms with cubic symmetry. Diamond is the parent of all aliphatic saturated compounds with sp3 hybridization of carbon. The graphite structure, on the other hand, is the prototype of all aromatic compounds. The carbon atoms form hexagon layers, each carbon atom bonded by c bonds to three neighbors (sp2hybridization). The fourth electron of each carbon atom is present as a T electron. There is some overlap of the T orbitals of neighboring atoms (2). In consequence, electricity and heat are conducted along the layers. The distance of 1.420 A between neighboring carbon atoms is intermediate between the values expected for single and double bonds and is what is expected for the bond order 1.5. The carbon layers are stacked with a separation of 3.354 A (at 15”).This distance is typical for van der Waals bonds. In well-crystallized graphite, consecutive layers are shifted + or - a13 with respect to each other; the stacking sequence is ABAB. In the direction of the c axis, perpendicular to the layers, electrical and heat conductivity are very small. The anisotropy of the electrical conductivity is p,,/p, = 104(3).Each layer of the graphite structure can be considered as a macromolecule of condensed aromatic rings: Microcrystalline carbon was formerly called “amorphous” carbon. It is known in many varieties: active carbons, carbon blacks, carbon

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brushes for electrical machines, cokes, etc. Its structure derives from graphite as was shown by Hofmann and Wilm ( 4 )using X-ray diffraction. It consists of graphitelike layers of limited size stacked parallel to each other without further ordering. The carbon-carbon distance within the layers is the same as in graphite. The interlayer spacing, however, is larger than in graphite; it is about 3.6 A. The various forms of microcrystalline carbon differ in the size of the crystallites (from a few tens t o a few hundred angstroms) and in their mutual orientation. Sometimes, there is a considerable content of disorganized, tetrahedrally bonded carbon (5-7), often cross-linking different layers. Also, a considerable amount of foreign elements is usually found by chemical analysis. The heteroatoms can be bound at the edges of the crystallites and form surface compounds, or they can be incorporated within the carbon layers forming “heterocyclic” ring systems. This is analogous to substitution defects in crystals. I n the surface of the crystals or crystallites of either form of carbon, the rcgular array of carbon bonds is disrupted, forming “free” valeiices which arc very reactive. Usually, most of these valences do not remain free for any length of time, but form compounds with any suitable element being present. The surface compounds of carbon were investigated first with microcrystalline carbon. Therefore, a detailed discussion will be in the order : microcrystalline carbon, graphite, diamond.

A. SURFACE COMPOUNDS ON MICROCRYSTALLINE CARBON Most important and best known among the surface compounds of carbon are those with oxygen and with sulfur. Other elements, e.g., chlorine and hydrogen, can also serve as “end groups.” 1. Surface Oxides

Surface oxides of carbon were first observed more than 100 years ago. The first observation was published by A. Smith (8) in 1863. He discovered that oxygen was chemisorbed by charcoal and could be recovered on heating only as carbon dioxide. In 1887, Baker (9) found that oxygen was bound by freshly outgassed charcoal even at - 13”;the gases evolved at 450“ consisted mainly of carbon monoxide. The combustion of charcoal was studied in detail by Rhead and Wheeler (10)in 1913. Reaction occurred at temperatures as low as 300”. More oxygen was consumed than was contained in the evolved carbon oxides, CO and CO,. On subsequent heating to higher temperatures, up to lOOO”, the fixed oxygen came off the surface (as CO and CO,). The authors concluded that the first step of oxidation was the formation of

CHEMICAL IDENTIFICATION OF SURFACE CROUPS

183

carbon oxides with a low oxygen content, e.g., C,,,O. They did not realize, however, that this oxygen was bound on the carbon surface. The structure of carbon was not yet known a t the time, even though Aschan (21)had visualized already in I909 the correct structure made up from polycondensed aromatic nuclei. Another investigation worth mentioning was made by Lowry and Hulett (12), who confirmed that oxygen was irreversibly adsorbed a t 25" by previously outgassed charcoal. Beginning in 1922, Bartell and Miller (13) and Miller ( 1 4 , 15) published a series of observations on the adsorption of acid by sugar charcoals which had been activated at 800-1000" by admittance of a limited supply of air. From neutral salt solutions, the anions were adsorbed and exchanged for hydroxide ions. Burstein and Frumkin (16) and Frumkin ( 1 7 ) observed in 1929 that acid was adsorbed by carbon outgassed i n a high vacuum at 1000" only if oxygen was present. The reaction was formulated as C,O

+ N20 -+

C,

+2

0

+ 20H-

The oxygen was adsorbed irreversibly; it was not liberated in molecular form on addition of alkali (17). A t the same time, it was found that carbon could acquire acid properties as well on oxidation. If it is heat-treated and cooled in a high vacuum, i t shows basic behavior on admittance of molecular oxygen a t room temperature. It turns acidic, however, if it is exposed to oxygen a t moderate temperatures, e . g . ,400". This was first observed by Ogawa (18) in 1926. Kruyt and de Kadt (19)found 3 years Iater by measuring the electrokinetic potentials that the Same sample of outgassed carbon could acquire basic or acidic properties depending on the temperature at which it reacted with oxygen. This finding was later confirmed by Kolthoff (20)arid by King (21). An electrochemical explanation of the basic reaction was suggested by Frumkin ( l 7 ) , while Shilov et al. (22, 23) claimed surface oxides of definite structure to be the only cause of either acidic or basic reaction. Shilov formulated the acidic surface oxides as carboxylic acid anhydrides bound to the edges of the carbon layers. Thus, two kinds of surface oxides became known. Basic surface oxides are formed always when a carbon surface is freed from all surface compounds by heating in a vacuum or in a n inert atmosphere and comes into contact with oxygen only after cooling t o low temperatures. As is now known ( 2 4 ) , the irreversible uptake of oxygen starts a t ca. - 40"; there is only reversible, physical adsorption a t lower temperatures. Acidic surface oxides are formed when carbon is treated with oxygen a t temperatures near its ignition point. King ( 2 1 ) found the maximum

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H. P. BOEHM

amount of acidic groups when the carbon had been oxidized a t 420". Later on, i t was observed that acidic groups are formed also on reaction with oxidizing solutions a t room temperature. Both types of surface oxides are found on technical products. Rubber grade carbon blacks are produced in different processes. Channel blacks are made by cooling a flame on iron plates, the so-called channels. The resulting carbon blacks are acidic in character because an excess of air is present (25). I n the production of furnace blacks, the fuel, mostly oil or natural gas, is burned with a limited supply of air. Thermal blacks are obtained by thermal cracking of the gas, which sometimes is diluted with hydrogen. In consequence, both types show weakly basic reaction in aqueous suspension. Starting the next period of development, chemical investigations of the oxygen-containing groups with the aim of their identification were published by Villars (26, 27) in 1947 and by Hofmann and Ohlerich (28) in 1950. The work of the latter group was impired by the results obtained on graphite oxide (also called graphitic acid). This compound must not be mistaken for surface oxides on carbon or graphite. Graphite oxide is a lamellar compound which is formed by the action of potassium chlorate or permanganate on graphite suspended in concentrated sulfuric or nitric acid. I n this compound the carbon layers are still intact; however, oxygen or oxygen-containing groups are bonded to the carbon atoms which assume, a t least partially, sp3 hybridization. I n consequence, the layers become puckered. Graphite oxide is capable of intracrystalline swelling (29) and is similar t o the clay mineral montmorillonite in this respect. By chemical methods, hydroxyl and carboxyl groups were detected (30, 31). The carboxyl groups are situated a t the edges of the carbon layers. A short summary with literature references is contained in an article by Boehm et al. (32). It was assumed from the beginning that functional groups known from classical organic chemistry would be present in the surface oxides. a. Acidic Surface Oxides. The studies on acidic surface oxides will be discussed first, because they are rather well-known. Pretreatment of carbon. In all experiments it has to be ascertained that no adsorbed impurities are present on the carbon surface. Extractable matter should be removed by extraction with organic solvents, e.g., xylene. This is especially important for carbon blacks (25). Oxidized carbon may contain small amounts of oxalic acid. King ( 3 3 , 3 4 ) found 0.002 meq/gm of oxalic acid in oxygen-treated sugar charcoal. More severe is the contamination of the surface with adsorbed gases, mainly carbon dioxide and water. Activated carbon with narrow pores may contain considerable amounts of carbon dioxide (28).The best

CHEMICAL 1DENTIFICATION OF SURFACE GROUPS

185

purification is outgassing in a high vacuum a t elevated temperatures. In my laboratory, a temperature of 100"is considered sufficient. Outgassing a t 300" practiced by Hofmann and Ohlerich (28) destroys the most sensitive groups on the surface (35).The decomposition, starting near 240", is easily recognized by a sudden evolution of gas, blowing fine carbon particles through the apparatus. A similar gas evolution observed near 100"is due to adsorbed water. Of course, the outgassed samples must be stored in tightly stoppered bottles. I n order to obtain a clean surface, the carbon is heat-treated either in a vacuum or under argon or nitrogen. It is not known at which temperature precisely all surface oxides are removed. Even after outgassing a t lOOO", there is a small oxygen content in many samples. At least a part of this oxygen is very probably incorporated within the carbon layers. The acidic groups are completely removed after outgassing at 900" according t o Puri and co-workers (36). It is advisable to heat the samples as high as possible. However, most carbons start recrystallizing a t temperatures exceeding 1200"; definite crystallite growth can be observed (37). Near 2400 to 2700", some carbons will graphitize; perfectly or nearly perfectly crystallized graphite is formed (37).Therefore, heating to 1200" seems to be the optimum temperature for heat treatment without significant structural changes. Oxygen content. The oxygen content of oxidized carbon is primarily a function of the specific surface area. Values as high as 13% were observed with an activated sugar charcoal that had been heat-treated at 1200" (Table I). 11.6% oxygen were found in "Carbolac No. 1," a carbon black used as a pigment (38).The color blacks are oxidized in the course of production (25).Commercially produced rubber grade channel blacks contain around 3% of oxygen (25),the greater part of which seems to be bound a t the surface. Wetting properties. A clean carbon surface is hydrophobic. Surface oxides provide sites of adsorption for water and other polar compounds. The more surface oxides there are, the more distinct is the hydrophilic behavior of the carbon. This was confirmed by Healey et at. (39) for graphitized carbon black, and by Kraus ( 4 0 ) and A. V. Kiselev and his group ( 4 1 ) for carbon black. Beebe and Dell (42) measured the sulfur dioxide adsorption on channel black and found an increase after oxidation a t 600". Further evidence for selective adsorption of polar compounds was provided by Gasser and Kipling (43). Neutralization behavior. A neutralization isotherm of sodium hydroxide on oxidized active carbon was determined by Hofmann and Ohlerich (28). The maximum neutralization was achieved with 0.01 N solutions

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H. P. BOEHM

TABLE I Neutralization Behavior of Acidic Surface Oxides on Microcrystalline Carbon” Neutralization in meq/100 gm by Productb

SC 1, H.T. SC 3, H.T. SC 1, act. SC 2, act. SC 3, act. SC 1, act., H.T. SC 4, act., H.T.

Eponit CK 3, sample 1 CK 3, sample 2

CK 3, H.T. Philblack 0 Spheron 6 Spheron C

%or

5.4 9.2 7.3 13.6 15.9 10.7 13.2

5.5

_ _ _ _ I _ _ _ _

_____

NaHCO,

Na,CO,

NaOH

NaOEt

16 42 21 47 GO 36 47 15 31 76 14 57 59 63

32 82 43 94 106 72

69 124

85 165 89 215 214 137

ion

71 163 167

102

118

139 62 89 237 39 164 196

128

188

34 60 152 27 1(J9

106

315 70 233 295 255

“All carbon samples had been oxidized by heating in moist oxygen to 420-450” [after Uiehl ( 4 7 ) ] . *Explanation of the abbreviations: SC 1, SC 2, etc.: sugar charcoal, preparation No. 1, No. 2, etc. Eponit: activated charcoal, “Eponit,” manufactured by Degussa, Frankfurt a.M., Gcrmsny. CK 3: carbon black, “CK 3,” manufacturecl by Uogussa, Frankfurt a.M., Germany. Philblack 0:carbon black, “Philblack 0,”manufactured by Phillips Petroleum Co., Akron, Ohio. Spheron 6: carbon black, “Spheron 6,” manufactured by Cahot Corp., Boston, Mass. Spheron C: carbon black, “Sphcron C,” manufactured by Cabot Corp., Boston, Mass. H.T.: heat-treated under nitrogen a t 1200”. act.: activated by partial oxidation with CO, a t 950”. The burn-off was about 40-500/o. ‘Determined from elcnientary analysis by clifferrnce from 100%.

of sodium hydroxide and no further increase was observed with higher concentrations. Direct poteiitiometric titration with alkali gave rather flat curves without distinct inflection points (26, 4 4 ) . Villars (26)concluded that no chemical groups of distinct acidities were present. However, very often the potential becomes constant only several hours after the addition of alkali. Therefore, it was attempted in my laboratory (45-47) t o differentiate the acid groups by neutralization with bases of different basicities. The samples were agitated for at least 16 hours with 0.05 K solutions of four bases: NaHCO,, Na,CO,, NaOH, and Na ethoxide. The

CHEMICAL IDENTIFICATION OF SURFACE GROUPS

187

acidities of the conjugate acids are: H,CO,, pK, = 6.37, pK, = 10.25; H,O, p K = 15.74*; C,H,OH, p K = 20.58.* Other authors (48) think t h a t still longer periods, e.g., 3 or 10 days, are needed to reach tru e equilibrium with alkali hydroxides. \Vith carbonate a n d bicarbonate, a few hours are sufficient. With a great number of oxidized carbons, simple ratios of the four neutralization values were observed (Table I), Twice as many acid groups were neutralized with Na,CO, as with NaHCO,; with NaOH a n d with Na ethoxide three and four times the NaHCO, neutralization was achieved. Sometimes, there was a little higher NaOH consumption. Invariably, more sodium ethoxide was bound by the carbon blacks than was expected from the previous experience. We think this due t o the presence of disorgaixized, aliphatic carboll in carbon black ( 6 , T), which on oxidation may produce groups capable of reacting with sodium ethoxide, e.g., alcohols or carbonyl groups. P The figures presented in Table I were confirmed by other reactions giving identical results, as will be shown later. It seems very improbable tha t the ratio of 1:2:3:4of the neutralization values occurred by chance. The simple ratio implies th at four different groups of characteristic acidities occur side by side in equivalent amounts. Very likely, they are part of a bigger complex. This stoichiometric ratio was observed only when the samples had been completely oxidized, Complete oxidation was achieved by heating smaller samples in an oxygen stream t o 420-450" (after 5 hours the burn-off was about 25-50%). It was difficult t o achieve by heating in air; only after prolonged oxidation, 36 hours at 420°, was a neutralization ratio near 1 :2:3:4obtained. Another important point is the slow cooling of the samples under oxygen. The oxidation temperature is well above the decomposition temperature of some of the acid groups. B y rapid quenching, samples were obtained which had a neutralization ratio of 1 :2:2:3.Na,CO, and NaOH neutralizations were equal. Incomplete oxidation seems t o be the main reason for the discrepancies in the results found in different laboratories. Surface oxides on commercial carbon blacks, with the exception of color blacks, never show this ratio because they are never completely oxidized. There is evidence t h a t the NaHCO, neutralization is caused by carboxyl groups ( 3 5 , 4 5 , 4 6 ) Sometimes . carboxyl groups were determined by neutralization with sodium or calcium acetate. This method is inaccurate because it does not allow for the presence of basic surface sites which bind some of the acetic acid liberated. It is shown in Table I1 th a t *Calculaterl from tho ion products (IO-" ant1 4.5.10-?", rcspwtivcly) m u l t i p l i ~ ~ hyl t h r number of moles per liter.

188

H. P. BOEHM

TABLE I1 Neutralization of Acidic Groups by Acetates and of B a s k Surjace Oxides by AcitE“

Product NaHCO, (oxidized at neutralization

NaOAc

420-450”)*

SC 1 , H.T. SC 1, act. SC 3, H.T.

Acetic acid liberated from

16 21 42

Ncutralization Sum of liberated of HCI AcOH and HCl Ca(OAc), neutralization

-

0

11

27

5

15

-

9

17 20 36

‘All results are given in meq/lOO gm. *For abbreviations see Table I.

the NaHCO, neutralization was equivalent t o the sum of acetic acid set free from acetates and of the basic surface oxides as determined independently by hydrochloric acid neutralization. With NaHCO, solutions, the amount of Naf ions remaining in the solution is determined by adding an excess of standard HCl and backtitrating after boiling off the CO,. The same procedure is used with Na,CO,. With sodium acetate, the liberated acetic acid is usually titrated directly. Preferably, the acetate solution should be exchanged to NaOH by an anion exchanger, allowing a determination of the decrease in the Na+ ion concentration. Similar results were obtained when carbon was oxidized in liquid medium. Carbon in aqueous suspension is attacked by many oxidizing agents, e.g., permanganate (49-52), chromate (52-54), hypochlorite (52, 55), persulfate (52, 56, 57), and bromate ions (52, 56, 57); chlorine (49),dilute nitric acid (52,58), and concentrated nitric acid (28). The neutralization behavior against the four bases used in Table I was studied with a few samples oxidized in liquid medium (45, 46).The same ratio was observed as with the oxygen-treated carbons, except that twice the amount of groups reacting with sodium bicarbonate was found (Table 111). In this case, too, complete oxidation was essential for finding the simple ratio of the neutralization values of 2:3:4:5. Completion of the oxidation was recognized by the appearance of brown colloidal solutions when the samples were washed with alkali. The colloids were removed by washing first with alkali, then with dilute hydrochloric acid and water, before any further experiments were done. Half of the more strongly acidic groups present on the “liquid oxidized” carbons were destroyed 011 vaciiiim outgassing a t ctt. 200”. Att

189

CHEMICAL IDENTIFICATION OF SURFACE GROUPS

TABLE 111

Neultalization of Acidic Croups on Corbon Oxidized in Liquid M e d i u m Neutralization in meq/100 gm by Carbon"

Oxidant

___

Preparation NaHCO,

RC 12, act., H.T. KMnO, KMnO, KMnO, Eponit, H.T. KMnO, NaOCl (NH4)xSxOn (NH, )&O* (NH,),S,O, CK 3, H.T. "H,)*S,O*

1st 2nd 3rd -

let 2nd

3rd

-

30 39 61 I9 107 145 89 87 21

Na,CO,

NaOH

NaOEt

45 02 89 116 163 203 89 132 30

63 87 125

81 95 147 220 262 339 171 236 57

160 214 269 119 173 36

"For abbreviations see Table I

the same time, an equivalent amount of carbon dioxide was split off (35). The neutralization ratio became 1 :2:3:4 again. On further heating, the group reacting with sodium hydroxide but not with carbonate started to decompose a t 240" with evolution of CO. It was completely destroyed before the other groups were attacked, too. CO, was formed on destruction of the group neutralized by carbonate and stronger bases. Puri and collaborators (36, 59) found that the amount of CO, given off on heating to 1200" was always equivalent to the Ba(OH), or NaOH neutralization. Evolution of CO, was complete between 750 and 900". Samples oxidized in liquid medium evolved more CO, in relation to CO on heating than did samples treated with oxygen (36,55). Puri and Bansal (59) suggested that the neutralization of alkali was caused by carbon dioxide chemisorbed on the carbon surface ('TO, complex"). If .carboxyl groups were responsible, 1 mole of CO, should be formed for each equivalent of alkali consumed. The author of this article thinks, as will be shown below, that very likely carboxyl groups of different environment are responsible for bicarbonate and carbonate neutralization as well as CO, evolution. The carbon blacks used by Puri and Bansal(59) seemed to be different from the carbons used by Boehm et al. (35).Titration curves published by Puri and Bansal(59)show distinct breaks at p H 10-1 1. Other authors (26, 44) did not find this inflection. Possibly, 110 phenolic groups were present in Puri's samples. As will be shown below, the group neutralized by NaOH, but not by Na,CO,, was identified as phenolic hydroxyl group,

190

H . P. BOEHM

No phenols are formed if the carbons are quenched rapidly after heating in oxygen. It should be pointed out here that the use of Ba(OH), in the place of other alkalies has two disadvantages. First, adsorbed CO, will give a precipitate of BaCO,, while soluble carbonates are formed with NaOH or KOH which can be backtitrated as well as the hydroxides. More severe is the fact that, in general, two ways of neutralization are possible, as shown here. -COOH + Ba(OH),

-COOH

I

-I

-COOH

-COOH

-coo-coo-

-COO+ 2Ba(OH), ----+

Ba2'

+ 2 H,O

Baa OH-

-COO- BaZ+OH-

+ 2H,O

Equivalent neutralization is normal if the acid sites (carboxyl groups in the example) are close together as is the case with most ion-exchange resins. If, however, there is some distance between the acid sites, equimolar neutralization will occur. The charges will be compensated much better in this way. As Pauling (60) has pointed out, positive ions will seek the places of highest negative potential and vice versa. Experimental proof of this tendency which is not only valid for the interior of crystals, but for surface as well, was first presented by A. Weiss ( 6 1 ) using kaoliiiite and by Boehm and Schiieider (62) using finely divided silica. Studebaker (63)studied the potentiometric titration of surface oxides in nonaqueous medium. Using sodium aminoethoxide in ethylene diamine, he found indications for the appearance of two breaks in the titratioii curves. The first break was attributed to carboxyl groups or groups of similar acidity, the second one to phenols. Only two-thirds of the acidity that was determined by NaOH neutralization could be titrated in iioiiaqueous medium. Sitr of the acidic surfaw oxides. The question whether the acidic surface oxides are bound to the periphery of the carbon layers or to the basal planes of the crystellites could be resolved by oxidation of a graphitized carbon black ( 3 6 ) .The particles of carbon black arc, at first approximation, spherical. The graphite-like crystallites show such preferential orientation that their c axis are aligned in a radial direction (64, 65). A schematic representation of this secondary structure is given in Fig. 1. On recrystallization between 2000 and 3000", maiiy small

CHEMICAL IDENTIFICATION O F SURFACE GROUPS

191

crystallites merge forming a pyramidal-shaped graphite crystal. The particles assume the shape of polyhedra consisting of a few graphite crystals (65, 66).The apices of the pyramids are turned to the center of the polyhedron (Fig. 2). Therefore, the surface of graphitized carbon black consists of graphite basal planes only and is very homogeneous in consequence. When graphitized carbon black was oxidized with oxygen a t 420", no acid groups were formed a t all within the usual limits of detection ( 4 6 ) .

FIG.1 . Schematic representation of the structure of the particles of carbon black and graphitized carbon black [after Roehm (66)j.The short lines indicate the orientation of the layer planes.

The conclusion from this observation is that the acidic groups are bound only to the peripheral carbon atoms of each layer, as had been expected. Hennig (67) proved in an elegant way that almost no oxygen is bound a t the basal planes of graphite. Large single crystals of graphite had been heated to 800" and cooled in pure oxygen of low pressure. Afterwards, the surface oxides were decomposed in a vacuum a t 900"and the amount of carbon oxides was determined. The same quantity of gas was evolved when the crystals had been cleaved five times before oxidation. The number of atoms in the cleavage faces was multiplied by this cleaving, while the number of edge atoms remained constant. It is remarkable that the oxygen content exceeded the number of peripheral carbon atoms significantly. Hennig thought it likely that part of the oxygen was bound in between the carbon layers forming ether links between adjacent layers which are puckered a t the periphery. Using tritiated water as a tracer, Montet (68)showed in a very similar manner that water vapor is adsorbed predominantly by the prism faces of graphite crystals. The water film could he removed completely only by outgassing at 800-900". Methylation. The reaction with diazomethane has often been used for differentiating the acidic groups (28, 35, 38, 45, 46, 69). Diazomethane reacts, in general, with carboxylic acids, forming methyl esters which are easily hydrolyzed by dilute hydrochloric acid. With phenols, ethers are formed which are stable to hydrolysis. Alcohols are methylated only if catalysts are present, e.g., BF,, ZnC1, (TO),or H,O (72). As Garten et al.

192

H. P. BOEHM

(44)pointed out, diazomethane reacts with lactones of the fluorescein type transforming them into the quiiioid form (72):

A similar grouping could be present at the edge of a carbon layer (73):

dilute acid

\

Diazomethane is capable of addition reactions with double bonds. Pyrazoline rings are formed. Studebaker et al. (38)saw in this reaction an indication of quinone groups:

OH

0

However, from the nitrogen content a lower percentage of quinoiie oxygen was calculated than from the hydrogen uptake during reduction with sodium borohydride. Other double bonds can react with diazomethane as well (74):

mo moMefwM ChN, &O/MeOH

CH

~

\

HC’

I

H,C-N

‘N

I1

Therefore, i t is not feasible to estimate the quinone content from the nitrogen uptake. The results of methoxy determinations after the reaction with diazomethane are presented in Table IV. The same carbon samples were used as in Table I. When dry ether was taken as solvent, acidic groups

1!U

CHEMICAL IDENTIFICATION OF SURFACE GROUPS

TABLE IV Comparieon of Neutralization Values and Methoxy Determinations after Methylation with Diazornethane [after Diehl (-17)r

Productb

-OCH, in meq/100 gxn Neutralization in meq/100 gm by __-_ Resistant to Na,CO, NaOH NaOEt Total Hydrolyzable hydrolysis

SC 1

50

81

-

SC 1, H.T. SC 3, H.T.

32 82

69 124

85 165

SC 1, art.

43

71

89

SC 2, act. SC 3, act.

94 106

103 167

215 214

7-2 34 60

102 62 89

137 106

SC 1, act., H.T.

Eponit CK 3, sample 1

-

82 109 72 124 122 72 92 211 168 215 140 107 89

50 79 34 81 81 42 62 141 106 156 99 46 56

32 30 3x 43 41 30 30 70 62 59 41 61 33

"The carbons were oxidized with oxygen at 420-450". CH,N, was used in anhydrous etheric solution. Figures in bold face were obtained using ether saturated with water as solvent. *Forabbreviations see Table I.

equivalent to the sodium hydroxide neutralization were methylated. Using ether saturated with water, higher methoxy values, equivalent to the sodium ethoxide neutralization, were obtained. A part of the methoxy groups was readily hydrolyzed by refluxing dilute hydrochloric acid. Presumably, methyl esters of carboxyl groups were saponified. Their number was equivalent to the carbonate neutralization. The methoxy groups resistant to saponification seem to be phenol ethers. I n accordance with this conclusion, the NaOH neutralization decreased after hydrolysis to the Na,CO, value (Table V). This behavior would fit the assumption by Garten et al. (44)that fluorescein- or phenolphthalein-type lactones were present. A s is well known, the lactone ring in phenolphthalein is opened by sodium carbonate, giving rise to the red coloration. It does not react with bicarbonate. The results of Tables IV and V could be interpreted by assuming the presence of free carboxyl groups and lactones of this type. However, there is another, equivalent explanation (35,46). Lactols, i.e., hydroxylactones of the type

194

I€. P. AORHM

R OH

react in a similar manner. Such lactols are tautomers of formylacid carboxylic acids. For instance, 4-formylphenanthrene-5-carboxylic is formed by the action of ozone on pyrene dissolved in acetic acid (75)or by oxidation of pyrene with hydrogen peroxide in the presence of osmium tetroxide (76):

This compound is known to exist normally in the lactol form (77, 78). TABLE V Neutralization Behavior ajter Hydrolysis of Methyl Esters [ajter Diehl (47)y

Productb

sc 1 SC 1, H.T. SC 3, H.T.

SC 1, act. SC 1, act., H.T.

CK 3, sample 1

Neutralization in meq/100 gm by -_____ NaHCO, Na,CO, NaOH

27 (27) 16 (16) 40 (42) 21 (21) 36 (35) 32 (31)

"The carbons were oxidized with oxygen at 420-450". Esters were hydrolyzed by refluxing with 1 N HCI. The results for the starting materials are given in parentheses. *For ahhreviat,ions RRA Tahln T

CHEMICAL IDENTIFICATION OF SURFACE GROUPS

195

Likewise, aromatic ketocarboxylic acids with the carbonyl and the carboxyl groups attached in the 1,2 position react as lactols ( 7 8 ) :

Diazomethane gives with these compounds the easily hydrolyzed carboxyl methyl esters (78):

K:roMe Am')

With methanol and hydrochloric or sulfuric acid the pseudoesters of the lactol form are obtained (77, 7 8 ) :

Very likely, the pseudo-esters are susceptible to saponification as well. Both esters can be distinguished by their reactions with carbonyl reagents. A phenylhydrazone is formed only by the compound with a free carbonyl group. A definite decision between the models proposed by Garten et al. ( 4 4 ) and by Boehm et al. (46)is not yet possible. An attempt was made by de Bruin and van der Plas (79) to identify lactones in carbon blacks using ammonia dissolved in methanol or hydrogen bromide in glacial acetic acid. I n the first case, either an amino acid or an amide of an hydroxycarboxyl acid should arise. Ammonium salts could be formed, too. Therefore, the increase in nitrogen content is not very specific. With hydrogen bromide, formation of the corresponding bromocarboxyl acid is expected. Uptake of bromine was observed. However, no increase was found in the carboxyl content as determined by the sodium bicarbonate and the calcium acetate methods. A definite proof of either presence or absence of lactones could not be given. Further evidence must be obtained by reaction with carbonyl reagents and by reduction experiments. Instead of diazomethane, dimethyl sulfate can be used for the methylation as well (35).If the reaction is allowed to proceed in the presence of

196

€ P. I. BOEHM

an excess of alkali, only phenols are methylated. The same methoxy contents were found as after saponification of the diazomethanetreated samples. The carboxyl groups were methylated, too, if dilute sodium hydroxide was added very slowly, so that the medium was kept only slightly alkaline. A pH-stat might be useful in this operation. The resulting methoxy content was then equivalent to the NaOH neutralization. Methylation by refluxing with methanol in the presence of dry hydrogen chloride is thought (31) to attack carboxyl groups only, I n Table VI it is shown that after repeated reaction the methoxy of content TABLE VI Formation of Methyl Ester8 by Rejluxing Oxidized Carbon with Methanol in the Preeence of Hydrogen Chloride [after Diehl (47)r ~

~~

Productb

NaHCO, neutralization

Difference Na,CO,-NaHCO, neutralization

SC 3, H.T. sc 1, act. SC 2, act. SC 1 , act., H.T. CK 3, sample 1 Eponit, H.T. (oxidizd with NaOC1) Eponit, H.T. (oxidized with KMnO,, incomplete oxidation)

42 21 47 47 31 107 14

40 22 47 53 29 56 16

Methoxy content 44 23 48 67 35 60

16

‘All results in meq/lOO gm. *Forabbreviations see Table I. If not otherwise stated, the samples were oxidized with 0, at 420-460’.

was only equivalent to the NaHCO, neutralization or, rather, t o the difference between Na,CO, and NaHCO, neutralization. This was confirmed by the neutralization behavior of the esterified sample “SC 3, HT. 020x.”:NaHCO, and Na,CO, neutralization t e r e equal. Therefore, the less acidic carboxyl group must have been esterified. The neutralization of sodium ethoxide decreased from 166 to 82 meq/100 gm, indicating that the group capable of reaction with ethoxide, too, had been affected by the methylation. The same degree of methylation as by refluxing with methanol was achieved by blowing a stream of methanol vapor and nitrogen over the carbon heated to 120”.

CHEMICAL IDENTIFICATION OF SURFACE GROUPS

197

These results made the presence of various functional groups very likely. Definite proof by other, independent methods was needed. IdentiJication of carboxyl groups. It was assumed that the stronger acidic groups, giving methyl esters with methanol, were carboxyl groups. In agreement with this assumption, CO, is evolved on thermal decomposition (35, 36). Puri and co-workers (80, 81) observed that water and alcohols were strongly adsorbed by the groups which give CO, when the samples are outgassed a t 1200". No adsorption occurred on the groups disposed as CO. About 1 mole of water was very firmly held per mole of CO, forming groups. The heat of immersion in water was proportional to the amount of oxygen present as CO, complex and not to the total oxygen content (82). Clearly, these effects are due to groups capable of forming strong hydrogen bonds with water and alcohols. Hydroxyl and carboxyl groups are such sites. The groups capable of reaction with NaHCO, reacted with solutions of potassium iodide and iodate liberating an equivalent amount of iodine according to 51-

+ 10,- + BH+ + 31, + 3H,O

(46).The pH of such a solution is stabilized close to 7 . Rivin ( 8 3 , 8 4 )found a close agreement between NaHCO, neutralization by carbon blacks and their adsorption capacity for diphenylguanidine from benzene solution. The carbonate neutralization, again, was twice the bicarbonate value (84). The carbon dioxide evolved on vacuum pyrolysis was roughly equivalent to the carboxyl content. Acyl chlorides of the stronger acidic groups are formed by the reaction with thionyl chloride (35, 45). The amount of easily hydrolyzed chloride was equivalent to the NaHCO, neutralization or t o the difference between Na,CO, and NaHCO, neutralization. Both values were equal in most examples. About twice this amount of chlorine was bound a t the same time in a form that was resistant to hydrolysis. The nature of the chlorine bonding is not yet known; there was no sulfur in the samples. Unambiguous identification of carboxyl groups was achieved by two reactions of the acyl chlorides (35). I n a Friedel-Crafts reaction, the chloride was treated with dimethylaniline in the presence of aluminum chloride. Nitrobenzene was used as solvent. After exhaustive extraction, the nitrogen content was equimolar to the former chloride content. No NaHCO, was neutralized by the reaction product; the other neutralization values decreased correspondingly. Further confirmation was gained by the successful Schmidt rearrangement. This was done in the variation described by Schroeter (85).

108

H. P . BOEHM

The acyl chloride was treated with a solution of sodium azide in ethanol. The nitrogen content of the extracted substance was equimolar to the initial chloride content, which was hydrolyzed easily. The reaction stopped at the urethane stage: R-COCI

NaN,

--+ R-CON,

- N. __f

t EtOH

R-NH-COOEt

No free amino groups could be detected. The ethoxy conteiit corresponded to two ethoxy groups, one apparently being present as ethyl ester of the carboxyl group neutralized by Na,CO, or stronger bases only. This information was obtained from neutralization experiments. Information concerning the position of the carboxyl groups relative to each other was obtained from the neutralization behavior after reaction with thionyl chloride (35,4 7 ) . More base ought t o be consumed by such products because additional alkali is used for the neutralization of the hydrochloric acid liberated on hydrolysis. As is shown in Table VII, the additional alkali consumption was equivalent t o the quantity of chloride ions found in the solution. However with all the samples which had been activated with carbon dioxide, less sodium ethoxide was consumed than had been expected. The deficit was equivalent to half the NaHCO, neutralization value. This strange behavior can be explained only by TABLE V I I Reaction of Acidic Surface Oxides with Thionyl Chloride [after Diehl (47)y ~

Sample*

SC 1, H.T. SC 1, act. sc 2, act. SC 3, act. SC 3, act., reduced with LiAlH, Eponit, H.T., oxidized with (NH,),S,O,

NaHCO, neutralization

Difference Na,CO,NaHCO, neutralization

C1hydrolized

Change in neutralization by NaHCO, Na2C0, NEOH NaOEt

16 21 47 60 60

15 22 47 46 35

16

+16

23 45 48 38

+20 +45 +47 +35

$19 +17 +47 $45 +35

+18 +21 $49 +41 +35

59

30

31

+30

+32

+30

0

-7.5 -29 -34 -31

+ti

~~~

“All results in meq/100 gm. ‘For abbreviations soe Table I. With the exception of Eponit, all samples were oxidized with 0, at 420-450’.

CHEMICAL IDENTIFICATION OF SURFACE GROUPS

I99

assuming that with the “activated” samples always two of the more acidic carboxyl groups were in close vicinity, allowing the formation of a carboxylic acid anhydride. Acids like phthalic acid will give anhydrides, rather than chlorides, on reaction with SOCl,. Chlorides of carboxylic acids will consume 1 mole of sodium ethoxide: R-COCl

+ NaOEt + R-COOEt + NaCl

Anhydrides of carboxylic acids will consume only half a mole of sodium ethoxide per original carboxyl group: It-CO

\ R-CO

/

0

+ NaOEt -+ R-COONa + R-COOEt

Therefore, no change in the sodium ethoxide consumption should be expected with samples transformed to the chlorides. A decrease points to the formation of acid anhydrides. The conclusion that the groups neutralized by NaHCO, were in the close vicinity was confirmed by the reaction with ammonia. Here, too, a differentiation between “activated” and “nonactivated” oxidized carbons was observed. The amount of ammonia retained after outgassing at 100” was equivalent to the NaHCO, neutralization with carbons originally not “activated.” With carbons that had been activated, the ammonia retention was equivalent to only half of this value (35, 46). There is normally a considerable difference in acidity of neighboring carboxyl groups due to the formation of one hydrogen bond between the groups. Stable ammonium salts are formed only by stronger acids. An imide, e.g., phthalimide, is formed when the ammonium salts are heated to higher temperatures. The formation of imides could be excluded since ammonia could be expelled with magnesium hydroxide from the samples (outgassed at 100”).

After treatment with ammonia gas and outgassing a t 20” an NH, uptake equivalent to the Na,CO, neutralization value was observed repeatedly (35). There is a strong fixation of ammonia at higher temperatures. Hofmann and Ohlerich (28)found that the fixed ammonia was resistant to hydrolysis and that it formed no salts with hydrochloric acid as would be expected of amino groups. The formation of amides was not excluded. Studebaker ( 8 6 ) investigated the reaction of carbon blacks with ammonia. He observed also that the nitrogen became completely unreactive after heating, towards acids as well as towards alkali.

200

H. P. BOEHM

Van Slyke determinations for primary amino groups were unsuccessful. There remains the question why “activated” carbons differ from carbons heat-treated at 1200”with respect to the relative position of the carboxyl groups. Perhaps this difference is based on the structure of the edges of the carbon layers. Hennig (87, 88) found, by observations with single crystals of graphite, that after oxidation with dry oxygen the “armchair” configuration of the periphery resulted:

I n the presence of small amounts of water, however, the “zigzag” structure was observed:

Since siigar charcoal-and nearly any other carbon-always contains some hydrogen, the “zigzag” structure should be expected after oxidaTABLE VIII Identijcution of Phenolic Hydroxyl Groups on Oxidized Curbona [after Diehl (37)l’’ Reaction with Product6

SC 1, H.T. SC 3. H.T. SC 1, art. SC 2. art. SC 3, art. SC 1 , act., H.T. SC 4, act., H.T. CK 3, sample 1

Difference NaOH - Na,CO, neutralization

Acid-resistant -OCH, groups

38 42 29 69

38 43 50

61

62

62

30 39 32

41

31 37 13

_ I _ _ _ -

DNFB

p-Nitrobenzoyl chloride

37 42 30

TO

33

40

29

“All results in meq/100 gm. ’Vor abbreviations see Table I. All samples were oxidized with oxygen at. 420-450”

CHEMICAL IDENTIFICATION OF SURFACE GROUPS

20 1

tion. It is not known, unfortunately, which structure of the edge prevails after activation with carbon dioltide. If it were the “armchair” form, it might be preserved, a t least partially, during the subsequent covering with surface oxides. However, this seems rather unlikely in view of the substantial weight loss during oxidation. Identijication of phenolic hydroxyl groups. The groups which are neutralized by sodium hydroxide, but not by the carbonate, and which give acid-resistant methoxy groups, seem to be phenols. This was confirmed (35,46) by the reaction with typical phenol reagents, dinitrofluorobenzene, and p-nitrobenzoylchloride (Table VIII). Dinitrofluorobenzene (DNFB) reacts with phenols and, which is not of interest here, with amino groups. Hydrogen fluoride is eliminated. DNFB does not react with carboxylic acids. Alcohols, if they react at all, form dinitrophenyl ethers very slowly. Very weakly dissociated phenolic hydroxyl groups, e.g., in salicylic acid (pK = 13.4), are inert towards DNFB. A procedure given by Zahn and Wiirz (89)was followed. 0.5 gm of the carbon was agitated with 25 ml of a 1 M solution of DNFB in dimethylformamide (DMF) for 20 hours. In order t o neutralize the H F set free, 10 ml of a 1% aqueous solution of NaHCO, were added. The reaction products were washed and extracted successively with DMF, dilute HCl, methanol, and ether. Nitrogen determinations, Kjeldahl as well as Dumas determinations, gave identical results. Treatment with piiitrobenzoylchloride followed standard procedures. In all examples, excellent agreement was observed for the extent of the DNFB reaction or for the p-nitrobenzoyl contents with the difference between NaOH and Na,CO, neutralization and with the content of hydrolysis-resistant methoxy groups. Of course, other hydroxyl groups of similar acidities, e.g., enols, would react in the same way as phenols. However, the presence of phenols at the periphery of an aromatic system is much more likely. With acetyl chloride, the carboxyl groups were acetylated as well as the phenols (45).The resulting acetyl contents were equivalent to the NaOH neutra!ization. Determinations of active hydrogen by the Zerewitinoff method were undertaken by Studebaker (63).With many carbon blacks, there was a very good correlation with the difference between the first and second breaks in the titration curves attributed to phenolic hydroxyl groups (see page 190). This seems peculiar, since the stronger acidity titrated at the first break is very likely due to a free carboxyl group and, furthermore, lactones seem to be present also. There would be an active hydrogen either in a free carboxyl group or in a fluorescein-type lactone. No active

H. P. BOEHM

202

hydrogen would be contained either in a carboxylic acid anhydride or in a normal lactone. The presence of normal lactoiies in oxidized carbons was postulated by Garteii et al. ( 4 4 ) . However, Zerewitinoff determinations proved to be impracticable with porous carbons, such as sugar charcoal, because of extremely slow and incomplete methane evolution. An attempt was made by Diehl (47) to obtain information concerning the relative position of the phenolic groups with respect to each other. Comparison of the ion exchange with univalent and divalent ions can provide information on the relative distance between ion exchange sites. As was pointed out on page 190, equivalent exchange of hydrogen ions for barium ions is t o be expected only if there is no great distance from one acid group to the next one. Otherwise equimolar ion exchange will occur. A barium ion will be bound by each acid group, the remaining charge being neutralized by an anion, e.g., an hydroxide ion. Actually, a higher neutralization value resulted with barium hydroxide than with sodium hydroxide as is shown in Table IX. This indicates widely spaced acid groups. The Ba(OH), neutralization value was not twice as large as the NaOH value, however. Therefore, some of the acid groups were sufficiently close together to allow equivalent ion exchange. By use of the same oxidized carbon after diazomethane treatment and saponification, i.e., with the phenolic groups converted to methyl ethers, i t became clear that the equivalent exchange was caused by the phenolic groups. Twice as much barium hydroxide was neutralized now as sodium hydroxide. No experiments have been made yet with “activated” carbons. Evidence for the presence of hydroquinones, which are phenols as TABLE IX Equimolur and Equivalent Ion Exchange with Barium Hydroxide [after Diehl ( 4 7 ) ]

Neutralization of

SC 3, H.T., 0, oxidized meq/100 gm

NaHCO,

SC 3, H.T., 0, oxidized, CH,N, treated, saponified meq/100 gm

NalCO, NaOH Ba(OH),

42 82 124 199

40 81 163

Ba(OH),’

206

164

83

“Calculated for equirnolar exchange with carboxyl groups (NaHCO, and Na,CO, neutralization) and equivolent reaction with phenol groups.

CHEMICAL IDENTIFICATION OF SURFACE GROUPS

203

well, was presented by Hallum and Drushel (90). They used polarographic methods in the investigation of carbon black surfaces. The results will be discussed in detail in the following section. Identi$cation of carbonyl groups. It has often been claimed that the carbon layers of graphite terminate in carbonyl groups:

No proof for such structures was ever presented. Although the existence of carbonyl groups has been proven by other research workers, their amount was never sufficient to cover the whole surface in this way. Studebaker et al. (38)attributed the nitrogen uptake on reaction with diazomethane to the formation of pyrazoline rings by addition to quinones. This assumption was substantiated by the ability of the samples t o bind hydrogen from sodium borohydride or on catalytic hydrogenation. With acidic carbon blacks, twice as much hydrogen was bound catalytically (using Adams catalyst) than by reaction with sodium borohydride (63).With basic furnace blacks, the quantities were equal. The results with NaBH, indicate that 18% of the oxygen on the carbon black surface reacts like quinone. Garten et al. ( 4 4 ) thought the existence of fluorescein-type lactones very likely (see page 192). There is a carbonyl group formed on change to the carboxyl form of the lactone. In the similar proposal of a lactol (page 194) an aldehyde would be formed. Garten and associates substantiated their evidence by infrared spectra of the carbon black “Carbolac No. 1 ” (color black). It is difficult to obtain useful infrared spectra with carbon due to the scattering by the particles and to a high background absorption. “Carbolac” showed an absorption at 1600 em-’ which was attributed either to aromatic C =C bonds or to carbonyl groups chelated to phenolic hydroxyl groups. Another absorption at 1760 cm-l arises from the presence of a carbonyl group which may be that of a lactone. This band disappears when the sodium salt is formed. Instead, a weaker band appears at 1720 cm-l which may be caused by an aldehyde or a ketone. Using the same type of color black, Hallum and Drushel (90) observed that the band near 1585 cm-I decreased in intensity after methylation with diazomethane, while a distinct band appeared at 1750-1700 em-’, the wave number usually found with normal carbonyl groups. At the same time, a weak absorption band arose at 1240 cm-I which can be attributed to aromatic methoxy groups. The authors concluded that originally an aromatic hydroxyl group had been hydrogen-bonded to a

204

H. P. BOEHM

carbonyl group. Identification of hydroxyl, carbonyl, and carboxyl groups by their infrared absorption was also reported by A. V. Kiselev and collaborators (91).They, too, noticed interaction between hydroxyl and carbonyl groups. Valuable information was obtained also by Hallum and Drushel ( 9 0 , 9 2 )from polarographic analysis of carbon black slurries in dimethylformamide using tetra-n-butylammonium iodide as supporting electrolyte, Distinct waves were found in the polarograms. From the half-wave potentials (between - 0.6 and - 0.8 volts) the existence of quinones was inferred. The reduction was a two-electron process. Treatment with lithium aluminum hydride or with methyl magnesium iodide caused the wave to disappear completely. Hydroquinones were detected in a similar manner by anodic polarography. This wave disappeared upon treatment with hydrogen peroxide or diazomethane. The authors proposed a model based on the following types of surface groups:

A possible mechanism for the chemical interaction of carbon blacks with elastomers on the basis of this model is discussed in their paper. Similar waves in the cathodic polarogram were observed by Donnet and Henrich (58) using oxidized carbon black. The wave disappeared after treatment with isobutyronitrile. It was assumed that isobutyronitrile gives an addition reaction with quinones. No reaction with this reagent was observed after reduction with hydrogen iodide, after treatment with aniline, or after treatment with diazomethane. The latter finding confirms the assumption by Studebaker et al. (38) that diazomethane is added to the quinones in the carbon black surface. Further evidence for the presence of quinone functions was presented by Garten and Weiss (93). Attempts were made in my laboratory to determine carbonyl groups with various carbonyl reagehts, e.g., hydroxylamine, semicarbazide or dinitrophenylhydrazine. With hydroxylamine, oximes were formed to an extent that was equivalent to the difference between NaOEt and NaOH consumption. Errors due to binding of hydroxylammonium ions, which would show up in nitrogen determinations as well, were prevented either by methylation of the acidic groups with diazomethane or by ion exchange with dilute sodium hydroxide; oximes are stable towards dilute alkali. However, only half the quantity of carbonyl groups reacted with semicarhazide nr with dinit,rnphenylhydrrteiiie.

CHEMICAL IDENTIFICATION O F SURFACE GROUPS

205

This behavior indicates that two carboiiyl groups are always close neighbors, since it is typical for 1,2- or 1,3-diketones. De Bruin and van der Plas (79)also used hydroxylamine in an attempt t o identify carbonyl groups. I t is not stated whether this reagent was used as free base or as a salt. The considerable nitrogen uptake was very nearly the same as on reaction with amnioiiia in methanol. Perhaps ammonium satts had been formed in both reactions. The same authors found a pronounced reduction with TiCI, which exceeded by far the extent of all other reactions. The TiCI, reaction gave easily reproducible results. Reduction with LiAlH, was used by Rivin ( 8 4 ) in the determination of carbonyl groups. An increase in active hydrogen after reduction was ascribed to formation of Iiydroquinones from quinones. The difference t o the total reductioii was thought to be due to lactones. Oxygen had to be excluded scrupulously in these experiments i n order to preclude basecatalyzed oxidation of the carbon. At lower temperatures, the reaction with LiAlH, was used for the determination of active hydrogen. There was good correlation with the results of sodium hydroxide neutralization. The total number of acidic and nonacidic groups thus determined agreed well with the quantity of carbon oxides evolved on vacuum pyrolysis. The neutralization values were influenced by reduction with strong reducing agents, lithium aluminum hydride, sodium borohydride, and amalgamated zinc plus hydrochloric acid (35,46).For the most part, the consumption of Na,CO, and of NaOEt decreased in equivalent amounts. This is further confirmation of the assumption that lactones of the fluorescein type or of the lactol type are present. The reaction with sodium ethoxide was shown to be no true neutralization, that is, exchange of Hffor Naf, a t all, but an addition reaction with the formation of the sodium salt of a semi-acetal or ketal:

3s

+ 2NaOEt

or

-

COONa

3 d H ONa \

'OH

$'

OEt

-7

+ 2NaOEt

OH

+ EtOH

-7

-

-PrnNa

H. P. BOEHM

206

The usual consecutive reactions, Cannizzaro reaction or aldol condensation, would be prevented by the spatial fixation of the carbonyl groups on the carbon surface. Ethoxyl groups were detected in the reaction product obtained with NaOEt solution ( 9 4 ) .Since semi-acctals and their salts are extremely sensitive to hydrolysis, the ethanol used as solvent for the NaOEt reagent was removed by thorough washing with dilute NaOH. The samples were dried without removal of adhering NaOH and ethoxyl determinations were run. The results agreed always with the difference between NaOEt and NaOH consumption. Identification of f r e e radicals. The existence of free radicals in carbon has been shown by electron spin resonance (e,s.r.) techniques by a large number of scientists, notably by Bennett, Ingram, and I‘apley (95), Etienne and Uebersfeld (96n),Uebersfeld et al. (96b),and Mrozowski arid Andrew (97).It is not possible to summarize here all publications dealing with e.8.r. measurements on carbon. Attempts a t chemical identification by combination with free radicals were made. The reaction with “benzidine blue” was used by Garten and Sutherland (98).The reagent is obtained by controlled oxidation of benzidine. It is very unstable, however, and other methods proved to be better suited. Szwarc (99)found a great affinity for methyl radicals in carbon black. Donnet and co-workers (58, 100, 101) determined the concentration of free radicals on carbon black surfaces by the fixation of the radicals of isobutyroni trile, 3,5-dichlorobenzoyl peroxide, and lauroyl peroxide. The number of radicals bound by the surface coincided satisfactorily with the number of unpaired electrons determined by e.s.r. The reaction with the isobutyronitrile radical proved to be most TABLE X Free Radicals in Oxidized Carbon Blacka Quinonc groups” (mmoles/100 gm)

Free radicals“ (meq1100 gm)

Original

6 20 62

VI VIII

64 84

19 24 51 65

Sample

.- .-

20

F

3

78

““Philblack 0” oxidized with 40% nitric acid. Results calculated from values given by Donnet el al. ( 1 0 1 ) . lFrom fixation of isobutyronitrile. rFrom difference in fixation of isobutyronitrile radical and isobutyronitrile.

CHEMICAL IDENTIFICATION OF S U R F A C E G R O U P S

207

convenient. The radical is obtained by heating a solution of azoisobutyronitrile in benzene to the boiling point: h b 2 --t N,

hle,C-N=N-C

I

I

+ 2 Me--*

CN

C"

Me

I

CN

The nitrogen uptake is easily determined by the Kjeldahl method. However, quinones are powerful acceptors for free radicals, too. Therefore, it is necessary to determine the quinone content by other reactions, for instance with isobutyronitrile (see below). Besides, this check is necessary because isobutyronitrile is always present in solutions of its radical. The difference in the nitrogen content after reaction with isobutyronitrile and with isohutyronitrile radical is attributed by Doniiet to the free radicals in the carbon surface. Table X shows that after reaction with isobutyronitrile radical very nearly twice the amount of nitrogen was found than after reaction with isobutyronitrile. There seems to be a ratio of one free radical per quinone oxygen. Donnet et al. (101) concluded that either paraquinones or aroxylic radicals were present, which would react according to the following schemes. 0 Quinone: I1

6 0

after reaction with isobutyronitrile Me,CH-CN OH

(R-€I) :

OH

after reaction with isobutyronitrile radicals Me,C*-CN present) :

oR

Aroxyl:

I

OH

I

OR

(R*, R-H

is

208

H. P. BOEHM

after reaction with isobutyronitrile: OH I

after reaction with isobutyronitrile radical: OH

OR

Since the number of free radicals calculated from the difference in nitrogen uptake (1.13. 1OZ0/gm)agreed well with the number of unpaired electrons as determined by e.s.r. (0.80. 1OZ0/gm),the aroxylic structure seemed very likely. The reaction of oxidized carbon black with styrene can be explained on this basis (102). The reaction with free radicals plays an important role in the interaction of carbon black with rubber (103) and with styrene (58, 102). However, some workers doing research on e.s.r. are convinced that the unpaired electrons are not localized on the carbon surface. This point is not yet decided, as was pointed out by Singer (104).The concentration of unpaired electrons is diminished by formation of surface oxides as was shown by Jackson, Harker, and Wynne-Jones (105). I n contrast to these results, Antonowicz (206) found that spin centers originated on formation of surface compounds with oxygen, sulfur, chlorine, etc. Very likely, the type of starting material is decisive for its behavior on surface compound formation. 6 . Basic Surface Oxides. Although the basic surface oxides have been known even longer than the acidic surface oxides, their structure is not yet elucidated to an entirely satisfactory degree. As was mentioned in the introduction, Frumkin and his group [Kuchinsky et al. (107) and Frumkin et al. ( I O S ) ] proposed an electrochemical theory, according to which the adsorption of electrolytes by carbon would be determined by the electrical potential a t the carbonsolution interface, and by the capacity of the double layer. At higher concentrations some physical adsorption of acid might occur in addition. Shilov (23) attributed the adsorption of acids to genuine surface oxides of basic nature. According to Steenberg (109)) adsorption of inorganic acids involved primary adsorption of protons, by physical forces, and secondary adsorption of anions. The adsorbed anions were

CHEMICAL IDENTIFICATION OF SURFACE GROUPS

200

exchangeable. A part of the adsorbed acid could be displaced from the surface by water-immiscible unpolar liquids, e.g., toluene. This was confirmed by Strashessko et al. (110). Steenberg claimed physical adsorption t o be the main force in the binding of acid. Toluene is more strongly adsorbed than the acids. The opposing theories were reviewed in detail by Garten and Weiss (73,111).To summarize the facts: acid is adsorbed only in the presence of oxygen (16),the adsorption is dependent on oxygen pressure, a t least at low pressures (22,lie), and a part of the adsorbed acid can be removed by solvents such as toluene (109, 111). According to Burstein and Frumkin (113),hydrogen peroxide is liberated when acid is adsorbed in the presence of oxygen: C,O,

+ 2H+ + 2X- -+

C,2+Xp-

+ H,O,

The quantity of hydrogen peroxide found was not equivalent to the acid sorption. Catalytic decomposition might be responsible for this. The formation of peroxide-like substances when moist air and acid reacted on carbon was deducted by Lamb and Elder ( l l a ) ,Kolthoff (ZO), and King (33) from the positive potassium iodide-starch test and, in my laboratory, from the reaction with titanyl ions. The only concept able to explain all the observed phenomena was brought forward by Carten and Weiss (111). They suggested that the oxygen was bound in chromene-like structures. On oxidation in the presence of acid, carbonium ions would be formed:

A transfer of the positive charges would be possible:

Benzpyran and benzpyrylium salts are model substances. Carbonium and oxonium bases are usually very weak bases, and complete hydrolysis of the salts should be expected on exhaustive washing with water. However, complete removal of the acid is apparently not possible (83, 115). As Garten and Weiss (73) pointed out, free radicals in the surface might as well be responsible for the apparent neutralization of acid, giving the same carbonium ion :

210

H. P. BOEHM

The presence of cationic surface sites on carbon blacks which had been treated with oxygen in the presence of acid was confirmed by Rivin (83) by various hydride-transfer reactions. Isopropanol was oxidized to acetone in refluxing 50% sulfuric acid: B+X- + Me,CH-OH

HISO,

---+

B-H

+ HX + Me,C=O

(B stands for the carbon black surface). Unoxidized carbon black reduced triphenylmethyl perchlorate to triphenylmethane and was then able to oxidize isopropanol : B-H

+ Ph,C+CIO,- + B+ClO,- + Ph,CH

Quantitative measurements were made using the reaction with refluxing formic acid. A determination was made of the evolved CO,: B+X-

+ HCOOH

4

B+HCOO-

B+HCOO- -+ B-H

+ HX

+ CO,

The amount of liberated carbon dioxide was equimolar to the HC1 adsorption. Rivin confirmed also that hydrogen peroxide is formed by reaction of carbon black with formic acid in the presence of oxygen. Physically adsorbed hydrochloric acid was removed by washing with dioxane. The remaining chloride ions on the surface were replaced by hydroxide ions on treatment with sodium hydroxide. The reaction was formulated as production of a carbinol: B+X-

+ OH- -+B-OH + X-

When the carbon blacks were treated with solutions of iodine in carbon tetrachloride, some iodine was chemisorbed. The samples thus treated adsorbed less acid in the presence of oxygen. Small amounts of iodide ions were desorbed in this process. None of these reactions could establish whether the positive charge is located on oxygen or on a carbonium ion, although the latter possibility seems more likely. Either way, the positive charge is due to the presence of bonded oxygen. One is justified in speaking of basic surface oxides. The evidence in favor of the chromene structure is rather circumstantial, although many phenomena are explained. A more direct proof should be desirable. It was found by Burstein and Frumkin (116) that a carbon that had been exposed to hydrogen at 1000"lost its ability to neutralize acid a t low concentrations, but was able to neutralize alkali instead. Experiments in

21 1

CHRMTC'AL TDRNTTFTCATTON O F SURFACE GROUPS

TABLE XI Persistence of Basic Surfuce Oxides upon Oxidation of Carbon [after Diehl ( I 1 7 ) ]

HCI consumption in meq/100 gm Product Before After oxidation with 0, at 420" SC 1, act., H.T. CK 3 CK 3, H.T. 1100" CK 3, graphitized at 3000" Graphite oxide soot, graphitized at 3000"

39 8

5 17 8

19 8 6 18 11

my laboratory (117)showed that with most carbon samples the ability to bind 0.05 N HC1 was not impaired by oxidation (Table XI). No connection between acid and base neutralization capacity became apparent. The graphitized carbon black adsorbed acid to an astonishing degree, while no acid oxides were formed on its surface. This is remarkable because the surface of graphitized carbon black is made up almost exclusively of basal planes (see page 191). Perhaps, the basic surface oxides are bound a t the basal planes; further studies in this direction are warranted. No change of the base adsorption capacity was observed on treatment with carbon dioxide a t 600 and 800"; an activated sugar charcoal that had been heat-treated a t 1200" was used in this experiment. I n conclusion, i t must be pointed out that the identified acidic and basic groups on oxidized carbon usually do not account for all of the oxygen present on the surface (35). 2. Sulfides

Carbon is able to bind sulfur to its surface. The reaction of sugar charcoal or wood charcoal with elementary sulfur a t temperatures of 400-1000" was studied in detail by Wibaut (118-122). In this reaction some carbon disulfide was formed as well as hydrogen sulfide, if hydrogen was present in the samples. The solid reaction products contained considerable amounts of sulfur, up to 20% by weight. The maximum sulfur uptake was observed a t 600". The sulfur was not completely volatized even by heating in a vacuum to 1000" (122). The sulfur came off in elementary form and as carbon disulfide. Neither could the sulfur be removed from the samples by extraction. It was disposed of by powerful chemical attack, e.g., by oxidation or by reduction with hydrogen a t 700". The formation of hydrogen sulfide started a t 450".

212

H. P. BOEHM

The presence of high-molecular weight p-sulfur with chain structure seemed improbable since the sulfur was not extractable with boiling toluene. The p-sulfur is known to convert to the soluble ring structure (8,) rather rapidly a t 115". Wibaut (119) thought the formation of a carbonsulfur complex similar to the surface oxide formed with oxygen very likely. He was not able, however, to analyze definite surface groups. Hofmann and Nobbe (123) established that the sulfur content was dependent on the specific surface area. Enoksson and Wetterholm (124) confirmed by X-ray diffraction that no crystalline sulfur was present in exhaustively extracted charcoal with 13% sulfur content. Juza and Blanke (125)investigated the reaction of carbon and sulfur between 100 and 1000" at various pressures. They thought it unlikely that there was genuine chemical bonding. The phenomenon of sulfur fixation was ascribed to capillary condensation, adsorption, chemisorption, and solution in the carbon structure. Hofmann and Ohlerich (28) found that the same quantity of sulfur was taken up a t 600" by activated sugar charcoal before and after covering with surface oxides. About equivalent amounts of oxygen and sulfur were bound by the same charcoal. A similar observation had been made by Baraniecky, Riley, and Streeter (126) who charred cellulose in the presence of hydrogen sulfide. The sulfur content corresponded t o the oxygen content of samples treated similarly in the presence of air. Dogadkin, Skorodumova, and Kovaleva (127)studied the reaction of carbon black with sulfur a t low temperatures. A solution in toluene was used at 145" in the presence of an accelerator. The sulfur sorption was negatively influenced by surface oxides. The oxygen-containing groups were not affected by the reaction, since no change in the water vapor adsorption was detected. No hydrogen sulfide was evolved under the reaction conditions. Carbon reacts also with other sulfur-containing compounds with resulting fixation of sulfur. Reaction of various forms of carbon with hydrogen sulfide was reported by Baraniecky, Riley, and Streeter (126) and by Polansky, Knapp, and Kinney (128). The reaction of carbon blacks with hydrogen sulfide and with sulfur was studied extensively by Studebaker (86).At 150°, the increase in sulfur content was proportional to the quinone content as measured by catalytic hydrogenation using Adams catalyst (see page 203). The same author (25)has shown that sulfur is bound to carbon blacks by the action of carbon disulfide a t 150". I n the presence of hydrogen sulfide, less carbon disulfide will react with activated carbon (129). The interaction of carbon disulfide and sulfur with coconut charcoal was studied by Sykes and White (130) a t low pressures in the temperature

CHEMICAL IDENTIFICATION OF SURFACE GROUPS

213

range 627-927". The results were discussed according to a scheme which postulates the chemisorption of sulfur and carbon disulfide as distinct but interconvertible entities. Reaction of carbon with sulfur dioxide was observed by Fischer and Prauschke (131).In my laboratory it was recently found that sulfur is bound by heat-treated carbon blacks and by graphitized carbon black on treatment with hydrogen sulfide, carbon disulfide, or sulfur dioxide at low temperatures, even a t room temperature. The sulfur content cannot be eliminated by outgassing at 100" or by prolonged extraction with various solvents. Very little is known of the constitution of the surface sulfides of carbon. Sykes and White (130) assumed that the same type of surface sulfide results from the action of sulfur or carbon disulfide. A speculative structure was postulated : s s

A t least a part of the sulfur is chemically bonded to the surface and is not present in elementary form. This was proven by the catalysis in the oxidation of azide ions by iodine: 2N,-

+ I, + 3N, + 21-

As Feigl (132) pointed out, this reaction does not proceed by itself. It is catalyzed by sulfide ions, insoluble inorganic sulfides, or organic sulfides. Elementary sulfur has no influence, nor does normal carbon. On addition of sulfurized carbon to solutions of sodium azide, potassium iodide and iodine, decoloration and the appearance of nitrogen bubbles was observed (69). This indicated that sulfides were present. Nevertheless, some long-chain sulfur might be present in the narrow pores of activated carbons which took up much sulfur at elevated temperatures. It is conceivable that rearrangement to soluble eight-membered rings might be sterically hindered in pores narrower than the diameter of S, molecules. At the temperature of sulfuration, e.g., 600", there is quite a high proportion of S, in the vapor, which could easily penetrate into the pores and polymerize there. Observations by Wibaut and van der Kam (122),that on evacuation at 600" some elemental sulfur came off the carbon, are in accordance with this assumption. All attempts of identifying the sulfides in the surface have been unsuccessful so far. Sulfhydryl groups (-SH) seem t o be present in minor quantities in some samples, as was shown by their ability to

214

H. P. BOEHM

adsorb Hg2+ ions from mercuric chloride solutions. The -SH groups account for only a small part of the total sulfur content. The importance of the knowledge of the reaction of sulfur and sulfurous compounds with carbon for understanding the mechanism of rubber reinforcement was pointed out by Studebaker (25). 3. Other Surface Groups

The interrupted bonds on carbon surfaces can bind other elements as well as oxygen and sulfur. Not much research has been conducted in this direction, however. The more important of the remaining surface compounds contain hydrogen or chlorine. Hydrogen is present in nearly all carbons. With many types of carbon, notably such that were prepared by pyrolysis of hydrocarbons or other hydrogen-containing compounds, considerable hydrogen contents were found by combustion analysis. Hydrogen contents ranging from 0.1 to 0.9% in carbon blacks were determined by Studebaker (25). The hydrogen content calculated on a molecular basis exceeds the oxygen content even with highly oxidized carbon blacks, the so-called color blacks. Four to six atom percent of hydrogen were found in most blacks. Very sensitive and precise hydrogen determinations by Smith et al. (233a)showed that in graphon (graphitized "Spheron 6" carbon black) less hydrogen was present after treatment with hydrogen a t 1000° than after vacuum outgassing a t 450". The hydrogen content of the hydrogentreated sample was 26 meq/100 gm. Furthermore, the authors concluded that the hydrogen content was distributed throughout the particles. However, it is not feasible t o determine the location of the hydrogen within the carbon black particles by stepwise combustion as was done by Smith et al. (133a)and by Snow et al. (133b).When carbon black is oxidized, the particles do not burn evenly from the outside in, but, instead, the interior is attacked first, leaving a hollow shell. This was shown by Hofmann et aE. ( 6 4 ) ,Clauss ct al. (133c),Donnet et al. ( 1 3 3 4 , and Heckman ( 1 3 3 e ) using the electron microscope. Moreover, some particles are attscked rapidly while others remain untouched. This is presumably caused by t,races of impurities which act as catalysts. Similar effects occur with graphitized carbon blacks (133f). A similar decrease in hydrogen content was observed with a sugar charcoal hydrogen-treated a t 1000" (133a).The oxygen bonded to the carbon surface was completely removed by hydrogen at 1000". No evidence of surface hydride formation was found in these experiments. However, graphon is not very well suited for such experiments because of the homogeneity of its surface which consists almost entirely of basal planes.

CHEMICAL IDENTIFICATION OF SURFACE GROUPS

215

Barrer (134a,b)demonstrated that hydrogen was taken up a t 790" by microcrystalline carbon as well as by graphite. Hydrogen sorption on graphite at high temperatures was studied by Redmond and Walker (134c).Samples previously outgassed in a high vacuum a t 2000" were heated to predetermined temperatures in pure hydrogen. A maximum of adsorption occurred in the adsorption isobars around 1100" with pressures exceeding 10 mm Hg. This indicates that the adsorption is an activated process. The hydrogen could not be removed by pumping after cooling of the samples. It was estimated for a nuclear graphite that more surface was covered by the hydrogen than was available for nitrogen adsorption in surface area measurements by the Brunauer, Emmett, and Teller (BET) method; very probably, at high temperatures internal pores became accessible to hydrogen. Thomas (135) also observed activated adsorption of hydrogen a t temperatures above 450". At low temperatures, e.g., - 183") some nonactivated chemisorption was found. The high-temperature adsorption increased after removal of surface oxides by carbon monoxide treatment a t 500". For each surface oxygen atom lost, two additional hydrogen atoms were bound. Rapid chemisorption of hydrogen a t room temperature on graphite wear dust prepared in a vacuum was noticed by Savage (136)and Savage and Brown (137). The formation of several volatile carbon hydrides in the hydrogengraphite reaction between 360 and 800" was reported by Breisacher and Marx (138). The formation of ethane, ethylene, propylene, and even butane suggests that the edge of the carbon layers became hydrogenated in the first step of this reaction. The results were discussed on the basis of a mechanism proposal by Zielke and Gorin (139). The difficulty in detecting surface hydride formation is that hydrogen is nearly always contained in the bulk structure of the carbons. Hydrogen is not easily determined with sufficient accuracy if only small concentrations are present. Precise analytic methods should be used in the measurement of the hydrogen uptake of carbons that were prepared with rigorous exclusion of hydrogen-containing contaminants. Carbon formed by the disproportionation of carbon monoxide

2co

* c + co,

would be well-suited, since i t has a sufficiently large surface area. The hydride surface is quite unreactive. Substitution by halogens, chlorine in the first place, is possible a t elevated temperatures. The reaction of carbon blacks with chlorine was first described in a patent by Kloepfer (140). As is shown in Fig. 2, the maximum chlorine uptake occurred between 400 and 500".It was nearly equivalent t o the hydrogen

21 6

H. P. RORHM

Fro. 2. Reaction of carbon black “CK 3” with chlorine [after Hoehni el ul. (6!1)]

content of the original samples (69). Bromine was bound to a lesser extent by the carbon blacks under the same conditions. After heat,ing the carbon blacks to 1100” the hydrogen content and the chlorine uptake decreased considerably. Chlorine was bound a t 450” even by graphitized carbon black “CK 3” with a surface area of 76 m2/gm to the extent of 30 meq/100 gm. This chlorine is presumably bound 011 the surface sites where the basal planes of adjacent graphite crystals meet (see page 191). The chlorine uptake of the original carbon black was 730 meq/100 gm. About 30 meq/100 gm chlorine were also bound by a natural graphite with 8 m2/gm surface area. Nearly all the prism faces of the crystals are accessible with graphite flakes but not with graphitized carbon black. The chlorine bound to the carbon black surface can be used for further reactions. On fusion with sodium hydroxide, i t was completely removed. A large part had been replaced by CN groups after fusion with sodium cyanide or treatment with copper (I) cyanide (69).Reaction wasobserved also with ammonia. However, no amino groups could be detected on the surface by the iisiinl methods.

CHEMICAL IDENTIFICATION OF SURFACE GROUPS

B. SURFACE GROUPSON

217

GRAPHITE

Because of the similarity in structure between microcrystalline carbon and graphite, it would be expected that the same type of surface compounds are formed on both modifications of carbon. There are only very few detailed investigations of the surface oxides on graphite, mainly because of the small available surface areas and the ensuing difficulties in determining extremely small quantities of functional groups. Graphitized carbon black, e.g., graphon, was used in some studies. Because of its peculiar structure, only a very small percentage of its surface area of 80 m2/gm is able t o form surface compounds. The first indications of surface oxide formation were obtained in the course of combustion studies. Bonnetain et al. (141)and Bonnetain (142) studied the kinetics of the graphite-oxygen reaction and concluded that oxygen was intermediately bonded to the periphery of the carbon layers. Graphite wear dust prepared by grinding of graphite in a vacuum or under argon is very reactive. Irreversible adsorption of oxygen, carbon monoxide, and carbon dioxide was observed by Savage and Brown (137). The crystal structure of graphite is seriously disturbed in the wear dust. A turbostratic ordering of the layers was found (143, 144). I n a finely ground graphite, Mrozowski and Andrew (97)observed an electron spin resonance which was in part irreversibly destroyed on admission of air. The authors assumed broken bonds in the carbon layers to be the cause. The reaction of graphite wear dust with carbon dioxide and with oxygen a t low pressures was studied by Vastola and Walker (145). Surface oxides were formed already a t 200". Carbon dioxide was the only gaseous reaction product. One molecule of carbon dioxide was formed for three molecules of oxygen fixed on the surface. On thermal decomposition of the surface complex, carbon dioxide was formed in limited amounts. Its evolution ceased virtually above 700", the main part being disposed of already a t 500". The evolution of carbon monoxide had its maximum at higher temperatures. The reaction of graphitized carbon black with oxygen at very low pressures was studied by Laine et al. (146, 147). Graphon with various levels of burn-off was used. The number of active sites on graphon was shown by Graham (148)to correspond to only 1.25% of the surface area. This active surface area increased rapidly on partial oxidation, while the total surface area was affected but little. The formation of a stable surface complex was inferred from the difference in consumed oxygen and evolved carbon oxides. At 625", one molecule of CO, was formed for each 0, molecule bound on the surface. The remainder of consumed oxygen appeared as CO. The ratio of CO to CO, was temperature-dependent with a good reproducibility. The oxidized

H. P. BOEHM

218

graphon behaved similarly t o oxidized wear dust on thermal treatment. The formation of surface oxides on the prism faces of graphite single crystals was shown by Hennig (67).The experiments have been described on page 191. Adsorption studies with tritiated water by Montet (68) confirmed this result. The most detailed investigation of surface oxides 011 graphite wear dust was accomplished by Kiselev and collaborators (24, 149-152). Natural graphite was ground under argon using a vibration mill. A pyrophoric wear dust with 380 m2/gmsurface area was obtained. Adsorption of oxygen and water vapor was studied without exposing the samples t o other gases. Gravimetric techniques were used. More oxygen was irreversibly adsorbed a t room temperature than by active carbons outgassed a t high temperatures, No or very little reaction with oxygen occurred a t -196", however (24, 149). On outgassing a t elevated temperatures, the oxidized graphite evolved molecular oxygen as well as CO and CO,. Gas evolution started a t 100". The formation of oxygen ceased at 250". The surface oxides were hydrated irreversibly on treatment of oxidized graphite with water vapor. An amount of 0.4 pmole/mz of water was bound by a surface containing 4.1 pmole/m2 of oxygen. A chemical analysis of the functional groups gave the results represented in Table XII. Carboxyl groups were determined by Na,CO, neutralization, tertiary hydroxyl groups from the difference between NaOH and Na,CO, neutralization. Hydroperoxides were determined iodometrically in aqueous isopropanol. The carbonyl content was estimated from the

TABLE XI1 Functional Group8 on Oxidized Cold-Milled Graphite [after Kiselev el al. (15Z)l

Content (meqlm')

-COOH

\

0.48

-C-OH

0.10

/ \ -C-OOH / \

0.04

/

c=o

0.07

CHEMICAL IDENTIFICATION OF SURFACE GROUPS

219

reaction with p-bromphenylmagnesium bromide. The groups in Table XI1 account for only 29% of the oxygen of the graphite. From the difference in the oxygen balance it was concluded that neutral or basic hydroxyl groups, radicals, and interstitial oxygen bridges might have been present also. The authors suggested tentatively that the primary oxidation products had radical character, e.g., 0

\

-c-0-0.; /

-c

//\

0.

The oxygen disposed of in molecular form on heating might be adsorbed by radicals in the surface or by defects in the basal planes possessing a high rr electron density. The differential heats of adsorption of oxygen on freshly ground graphite started with 100 kcal/mole, and decreased t o 50 kcal/mole at a surface coverage of 2 pmole/m2 (152).The high values seem to indicate the formation of carbonyl groups. The heat of adsorption of water on oxidized graphite was 40 kcal/mole a t low coverages. It decreased t o the value of condensation of water a t a coverage of 0.5 pmole/m2. Bobka (144) studied the adsorption of diphenylguanidine on graphite wear dust. As was shown by Rivin (83),diphenylguanidine adsorption is equivalent to NaHCO, neutralization in the determination of carboxyl groups. With increasing grinding time, surface area and diphenylguanidine adsorption increased parallel t o each other.

C. SURFACE GROUPSON DIAMOND Diamond is the prototype of all aliphatic compounds. One would expect on its surface free valences which are capable of surface compound formation. The surface compounds on diamond should differ somewhat in character as compared to the surface compounds on “aromatic” graphite or microcrystalline carbon. Apart from singly bonded carbon atoms on the edges and corners of diamond crystals

carbon atoms anchored with two or three valence bonds to the bulk structure ought to be present in the crystal faces (100) and ( 1 11):

220

H. P. BOEHM

(100)

(111)

The electronic structure of the free valeiices was recently discussed by Kouteckjl ( 1 5 3 ~ ) . Farnsworth and co-workers (153b) and Marsh and Farnsworth (153c) demonstrated recently by use of low-energy electron diffraction that the structure of “clean” diamond, silicon, or germanium surfaces is different from the ideal bulk structure. Fractional order diffractioii maxima were observed, indicating a regular displacement of surface atoms from their ideal positions. The displacement of carbon atoms on diamond was . changes relieved after treatment with hydrogen or oxygen ( 1 5 3 ~ )Such were most pronounced on the (111) crystal face. The results indicate mutual interaction of free bonds in the surface. It was shown (153b)that on (100) faces of silicon or germanium alternating rows of atoms are displaced in opposite directions. After oxidation, chemisorbed oxygen atoms as well as those of Si or Ge have the ideal array. Diamond occurring in the “blue ground’’ of volcanic pipes as well as freshly pulverized diamond show hydrophobic behavior. This is used in its isolation by flotation. Diamond found in sediments is hydrophilic, however. According to Plaksin and Alekseev (154),hydrophobic diamond turns slowly hydrophilic on storing with exposure to air. Hofmann (155) reported that fine particle size diamond forms stable suspensions in dilute ammonia after treatment with calcium hypochlorite. It seems rather obvious that formation of surface oxides is responsible for the hydrophilic properties. The adsorption of oxygen on diamond was studied by Barrer (156). Essentially no chemisorption was observed a t -78”. From 0 to 144” oxygen was chemisorbed, but no carbon oxides were liberated. Some carbon dioxide was formed as well from 244 t o 370” by interaction of oxygen and diamond surface not covered with surface oxides. Surface oxide formation was observed at low pressures. The coefficient of friction of diamond increases considerably after heating in a high vacuum. The measurements by Bowden and Hanwell (157) showed a decrease in the friction on access of oxygen, even at very low pressures. A chemical investigation of the surface oxides on diamond was undertaken by Boehm et al. (35). Using a fine particle size diamond powder with a specific surface area of 17 m*/gm, the oxidation was studied by use of a vacuum microbalance. Formation of surface oxides started a t a measurable rate with pure oxygen at 260”. A weight loss due t o formation of carbon oxides became apparent above 360”.

22 1

CHEMICAL IDENTIFICATION O F SURFACE GROUPS

The neutralization behavior was different from that of oxidized microcrystalline carbon. No relationship was observed between the neutralization values with different bases as is found in Tables I and I11 for black microcrystalline carbon. Samples outgassed a t .8OOo adsorbed no alkali. The results of several reactions are summarized in Table XIII. There TABLE XI11 Surface Reactions of Diamond [after Boehm et al. (35)]

Treatment of diamond

Reaction

Extent of reaction (meq/100 gin) ._

Oxidized with 0, at 400" Oxidized with 0, at 400" Oxidized with NaOCl Oxidized with 0, at 400"and outgassed at 25"

looo 200" 300' 400" 500" 960" Oxidized with 0, at 400" Outgassed and treated with H, at 800" Outgassed at 800"

-~

~-

~

NaHCO, neutralization 2.5 Thionyl chloride 2.6 Acetyl chloride 3.7 Active H, (with CH, MgI or D,O) 65 Potassium 23 Potassium 20 21 Potassium Potassium 22 18 Potassium Potassium I1 Potassium 5 Potassium Chlorino at 100' Chlorine at 320" Chlorine at 410" Chlorine at 500'

4. I

20 20 21 17

was good agreement between the neutralization of NaHCO, and the formation of acyl chlorides with thionyl chloride. The reactions are very likely caused by carboxyl groups a t the edges and corners of the diamond crystals. It was first thought that tertiary hydroxyl groups were present on the (111) faces of diamond. However, the existence of substantial quantities of tertiary hydroxyl groups can be excluded since determinations of active hydrogen by the Zerewitinoff method or by deuterium exchange with D,O agreed approximately with the carboxyl content. When potassium was distilled in a high vacuum onto the samples, about 20 meq/100 gm of potassium were irreversibly adsorbed after removal of surplus potassium by vacuum distillation. Presumably, ketyls of surface carbonyl groups were formed. The retention of potassium decreased after outgassing a t 400 and 500". Considerably less

H. P. BOEHM

222

potassium was bound by a diamond sample that had been treated with hydrogen at 800". It was assumed that free radicals might be formed on destruction of the surface compounds at high temperatures. The signal obtained from paramagnetic spin resonance measurements with samples outgassed at 800" corresponds to only 1.2 meq/100 gm of free radicals. The signal was influenced in its size and shape by subsequent surface oxide formation, but it was not destroyed. The absence of free radicals in the surface of heat-treated diamond is not surprising if one considers the results obtained by Lander and Morrison (158a, 158b) with atomically clean surfaces of silicon or germanium. They concluded from low-energy electron diffraction data that the diamond-type lattice is distorted in these surfaces and that two or more neighboring atoms are shifted towards each other with apparent mutual saturation of the "dangling" bonds. In certain crystal faces, interatomic distances were found to be shorter than a single covalent bond (158u, 158b). Hydrogen is chemisorbed by diamond a t temperatures from 400" upwards as was shown by Barrer (1346). Apparently, surface hydrides are formed as is indicated by the decrease in the capacity for potassium chemisorption (Table XIII). A significant decrease was also measured for the heat of immersion in water after hydrogen treatment a t 800" [ ( 3 5 ) , Table XIV]. Methane is liberated when hydride-covered diamond is heated in a vacuum ( 1 5 3 ~ ) . Surface chlorides, too, were formed on diamond. The samples were outgassed in a high vacuum a t 800" and immediately afterwards treated with chlorine a t temperatures from 100 to 500'. With reaction temperatures up to 400", 20 meq/100 gm were bound on the diamond surface, a quantity which is equivalent to the amount of potassium retained after treatment with this alkali metal. (Table XIII). The chlorine on TABLE XIV Heat of Immersion of Diamond Powder i n Water" Hent of immersion Sample

___ Diamond, oxidized with 0, at 400" Same sample, after vacuum outgassing at 800" Same sample, after hydrogen treatment at 800'

"Ca. 17 m*/gm specific surface area.

cnllgm

erg/cmP

0 .7 0.5

170 120

0.35

85

CHEMICAL IDENTIFICATION OF SURFACE GROUPS

223

the surface was resistant to hydrolysis, even with hot sodium hydroxide solution. Surface su[fide formation was attempted by Wibaut and van der Kam (222).The results were negative. However, i t seems doubtful whether a sufficiently finely divided diamond powder was used. Otherwise, the analytic methods used by the authors would have been too crude for the detection of the extremely small sulfur concentrations. One would expect that similar surface compounds as on diamond might be formed 011 silicon, silicon carbide, or germanium surfaces. Formation of surface oxides on silicon, occurring already a t very low pressures, changes the diffraction pattern that is obtained with lowenergy electrons (153b, 258a).Lander and Morrison ( l 5 8 a )described the existence of definite surface phosphides as well as surface chloride and iodide on silicon. A surface h.ydride was apparently not, formed.

D. SUMMARY A large variety of surface groups have been prepared and identified on microcrystalline carbon. Best known among them are the acidic surface oxides. Various functional groups known from organic chemistry have been detected. The existence of carboxyl groups, phenolic hydroxyl groups, and carbonyl groups is certain; the existence of lactones similar to fluorescein or to lactols of ketocarboxylic acids is very likely as well as the occurrence of free radicals associated with peripheral carbon or oxygen atoms. Acidic groups are bound only t o the edges of the carbon layers. Frequently, a difference was observed between the oxygen content of oxidized carbons and the oxygen accounted for by the identified functional groups. Therefore, it seems likely that still other ways of bonding oxygen to the carbon surface are possible. The existence of ether-type oxygen bridges between carbon layers of one stack cannot be excluded. One might imagine hydroaromatic buckling at the periphery of the aromatic carbon layers. A simple stoichiometric relationship of the amounts of the various groups has been observed with thoroughly oxidized carbons. This implies that a definite structure containing these groups is formed by the oxidation mechanism. A discussion of models, although tentatively tried (35,46),is very difficult because insufficient evidence has been obtained as yet on the relative position of the various groups. There are some indications that some of the groups, especially carboxyl and carbonyl groups, do occur pairwise; one might conceive that carboxyl groups are left when a carbon ring is destroyed in the process of oxidation:

224

H . 1’. ROEHM

However, with different pretreatment of the carbon, a different spatial arrangement of the groups seems to result during oxidation. These relationships deserve further studies. The effect of oxidation catalysts or inhibitors on the formation of the functional groups has not been studied yet. A definite influence is to be expected since the oxidation mechanism is certainly changed by additives such as water vapor or chlorine (87,88). A part of the oxygen not accounted for is bound in basic surface oxides which are present on any carbon. The structure of these groups has not been satisfactorily explained so far. Their chemistry seems important in oxygen transfer reactions. Very little is knowii of the nature of the surface groups which form when carbon is treated with sulfur or sulfur-containing compounds. Most authors were content to determine the increase in sulfur content. Rubber chemists might be interested in the nature of the bonding of sulfur t o carbon black. The large quantities of sulfur bound under certain conditions imply that long sulfur chains are attached to the surface. It seems likely that rearrangement of the sulfur chains with formation of S, rings is hindered by steric reasons only, since sulfur contents of 20 wt yoor more have been observed with porous activated carbons only. The existence of surface hydride groups of the types known in classic organic chemistry is very probable in most carbons. Direct chemical evidence is very difficult to obtain due to the relative inertness of the carbon-hydrogen bond. However, the fact that hydrogen is stroiigly chemisorbed on carbone and released at high temperatures only in the form of hydrocarbons is sufficient proof of the existence of true carbonhydrogen bonds. Investigation of the surface groups by physical methods, especially spectroscopy, is very difficult with microcrystalline carboii due t o its high absorptivity and its poor crystallinity with random orientatioii of the crystallites. Such methods might be more useful in future investigations with well-crystallized graphite. With graphite, most chemical reactions 011 the surface are difficult t o observe because of the extremely small quantities due t o the low specific surface area. Quite interesting results have been recently obtained with large crystals of diamond or silicon by low-energy electron diffraction (1536,c, 158). I n general, one would expect that surface compounds on graphite are identical in structure with those on microcryRtalline carbon. The only apparent

CHEMICAL IDENTIFICATION OF SURFACE GROUPS

225

difference-apart from the occurrence of “disordered,” i.e., nonaromatic carbon in microcrystalline carbon-would be the size of the layers and the correspondingly large reservoir of n electrons in graphite. Donation of electrons or acceptance without change of the planar layer structure seems more likely with graphite. With diamond, surface oxides, hydrides, chlorides, etc. are formed as well. Rather little hydrogen was detected in the surface oxides. Therefore, coverage with tertiary hydroxyl groups must be ruled out. Considerable distortion of the diamond structure near the surface was observed by low-energy electron diffraction. Linkage of neighboring carbon atoms by etherlike bridges seems more probable, therefore. It was shown that, under normal conditions, surface oxides are always present on diamond. A pure carbon surface can be obtained and preserved for some time only in an ultrahigh vacuum. The best approximation to an undistorted surface structure is obtained by hydrogenation. It should be interesting t o investigate the friction and wearing behavior of diamond in hydrogen or halogen atmospheres. Altogether, foreign atoms chemisorbed on any type of carbon are held very strongly by covalent bonds. Removal without simultaneous removal of surface carbon atoms is almost impossible. Even exchange reactions are difficult t o achieve.

111. Surface Groups on Silica Only with silica was the nature of the surface groups studied as extensively as with carbon. Silica, like carbon, has several polymorphs. Apart from the amorphous state, it is known to exist in numerous crystalline modifications. The most important forms are quartz, tridymite, and cristobalite. Each of these can occur in a low-temperature form and in a high-temperature form of somewhat higher symmetry. Tridymite is only stable if small amounts of alkali ions are present in the lattice (159). Ar. Weiss and Al. Weiss (160) discovered an unstable fibrous modification with the SiS, structure. Recently, a few highpressure modifications have been synthesized: keatite (161),coesite (162), and stishovite (163).The high-pressure forms have been found in nature in impact craters of meteorites, e.g., in the Arizona crater or in the Ries near Nordlingen (Bavaria). Stishovite is very interesting because it has the rutile structure with octahedral coordination of silicon. I n all other forms of silica, each silicon atom is surrounded tetrahedrally by four oxygen atoms. The bonding is intermediate in type between purely covalent and ionic (164). There is some dn-pn bonding between silicon and oxygen.

22G

H. P. BOEHM

The bond angle is near 140” (165).A review on the structural peculiarities of silica and silicates was recently given by No11 (166). Amorphous silica is similar t o the crystalline modifications in the close ordering of the atoms. However, the three-dimensional array of the SiOa tetrahedra is not as regular. An extensive review on the knowledge of the structure and chemistry of silica and silicic acid up to 1955 was given by Iler (167).Unfortunately, there is no recent edition of this book covering research in the last decade. Most work on the surface of silica has been done with amorphous silica of colloidal dimensions. This is due to its large surface area and to its technical importance. We shall therefore discuss first the identification of surface groups on amorphous silica. A. IDENTIFICATION OF SURFACE GROUPS ON AMORPHOUS SILICA The surface chemistry of amorphous silica is somewhat less complicated than that of carbon. Generally, only two kinds of “end groups” are possible on the surface: silanol groups and siloxane groups:

Hofmann and collaborators (168)were probably the first t o postulate that the free valences of silicon atoms in the surface of silicates must be saturated with silanol groups. Carman (169) visualized the structure of a particle of colloidal silica as a network of interlinked SiO, tetrahedra with hydroxy groups attached t o the surface, due to the tendency of silicon to complete tetrahedral coordination. Each particle of silica can be considered as a macromolecule of polysilicic acid. 1. Identijication of SilanoE Groups

a . Determination of Water Content. On heating, the silanol groups will release water with formation of siloxane groups. Repeatedly, the weight loss a t 1000 to 1100” has been used for the quantitative determination of silanol groups. It seems doubtful for various reasons, however, whether this simple method is applicable. In very narrow pores, water may be held even after drying at 100-120”. Furthermore, many types of silica contain hydroxyl groups within the bulk of the structure. This is especially true of silica which has been prepared by condensation of low-molecular silicic acids. It can easily be imagined that a few silanol groups will remain in the network not having

CHEMICAL IDENTIFICATION OF SURFACE GROUPS

227

found a partner for condensation. The presence of hydroxyl groups within the bulk structure has been shown using infrared spectroscopy for fused silica ( 170, 171) and even for crystalline quartz ( 17 2 ) . Of course, the larger the specific surface area is, the more of the remaining silanol groups will be located in the surface and the less severe will be the error due to this cause. Stober (173)found that, even after thorough outgassing at lOO", one molecule of extremely tightly adsorbed water is retained for each two silanol groups in the surface. This surprising result was confirmed by us (174) using chemical reactions as well as deuterium exchange (see Section 111,A, 1, e ) . Stober arrived a t his conclusion from the fact that the sites of reversible water vapor adsorption (in the first layer) were exactly half the number expected from the quantity of water expelled on heating. An unprobably dense packing of the silanol groups would result if the water came from silanol groups only. Further confirmation was provided by Darlow and Ross (175) who studied the desorption of water from saturated surfaces at 100-190". The rate of desorption was proportional to the square root of the amount adsorbed, The authors concluded from this result that there was one water molecule adsorbed for every two silanol groups. Consequently, one molecule of water is evolved on heating for each silanol group. Stober (173) found also that some hydrogen is given off during outgassing above ca. 500". He assumed that this hydrogen originated from silanol groups also. Hydrogen evolution from heated quartz was reported also by Zhdanov (176).Krasil'nikov, Kiselev, and Sysoev (177) found that silica gel acquired oxidizing power after dehydration in a vacuum. The oxidizing equivalent was three orders of magnitude smaller than the quantity of silanol groups. Also, evolution of hydrogen in addition to water was observed (178,179)when silica gel was outgassed a t 1000". There has been some speculation on the packing density of surface silanol groups. Iler (180) estimated the number of silicon atoms in the surface as 7.85/100 A=. He assumed that each silicon atom carries one OH group. However, it is more likely that only half of the silicon atoms have free valences protruding from the particle surface. Otherwise, each particle would be coated by a (H,Si,O s)n layer which had no bonding to the particle itself. Thus, a value of 3.93 OH groups per 100 A2 seems more likely. De Boer and Vleeskens (181)calculated the packing density of surface silanol groups from the crystal structures of cristobalite and tridymite. The results varied between 4.55 and 4.851100 A%.Similar estimates by Schneider (182) are presented in Table XV. The silanol groups on

228

H. P. BOEHM

amorphous silica must be arranged in a similar way to those on the crystal faces of the crystallized forms. By correcting for the lower density of amorphous silica (a? = 2-20), somewhat lower values are obtained. The average is ca. 5 OH/lOO Aa. TABLE XV Pack?& Denaity of st&molGroup8 on the Surface of Cryslalline and Amorphous Silica [afterSchneider (ISZ)] Packing density in OH/100 An SiO, structure Quartz (d = 2.665) Cristobalite (d = 2.32)

Crystal face Crystallized SiO,

Amorphous SiO,"

(001) (101) (100)

9.6 6.0

(iO1)

5.6 4.5 4.6 4.8

8.5 5.2 7.6 5.3 4.4 4.5 4.7

(111)

Tridymite (d = 2.26)

(001) (100)

7.9

"Calculated on the basis of the lower density of amorphous silica (d = 2.20).

A determination of the surface hydroxyl groups was made by No11 et al. (183).The total water content was determined by heating to 1100". The content of molecular water was titrated by the Karl Fischer method. Silanol groups react with this reagent only very slowly. Good agreement was observed with silanol contents determined independently by other methods. With silica gel, 5.2 silanol groups were found per 100 As. b. Neutralization Reactions. The silanol groups on the surface of silica react weakly acidic. Carman (169) found that silica particles aquire a negative charge in alkaline media. H+ ions are replaced by Na+ ions which, unlike protons, cannot form an undissociated compound by entering the electron shell of the 0-ions. The isoelectric point of silica is near a pH of 2 (184, 185). Silanols are more acidic than comparable carbinol compounds; they show a more pronounced tendency for hydrogen bonding and association, as was shown by West and Baney (186). Since the surface silanol groups react weakly acidic, neutralization with strong bases can be used for their direct determination. However, care must be taken that no dissolution of silica takes place. Greenberg (187) found that the adsorption of calcium hydroxide waR roughly

CHEMICAL IDENTIFICATION OF SURFACE QROUPS

229

proportional to the surface area. He noticed that less than the equivalent amount of sodium hydroxide was bound under the same conditions. Repetition of this work by Boehm and Schneider (188)showed that good agreement with other reactions was found if one assumed that calcium hydroxide was adsorbed not equivalent but equimolar to the silanol groups. The mechanism which was proposed by Weiss (61) has been explained on page 190. With this assumption, Greenberg’s results with Ca(OH), and NaOH adsorption agree better with each other. The Ca(OH), adsorption was determined by conductometry. Superposed on the neutralization reaction is a slower formation of insoluble calcium silicates which is analogous to the dissolution of silica by sodium hydroxide. Sears (189) and Heston et al. (190) used the adsorption of sodium hydroxide for the determination of the surface area of colloidal silica. An empirical factor was used for the conversion of alkali consumption into surface area. This is permissible provided the packing density of surface silanols is constant. The determination was performed in concentrated sodium chloride solution in order to keep down the dissolution of silica. Using the same technique, it was found in my laboratory that all surface silanol groups as determined by other methods are neutralized a t pH 9.0. At higher pH, siloxane boiids in the surface were opened. A maximum in the sorption of Naf ions occurred usually a t p H 10.5-10.6 which corresponded to a packing density of ca. 5 OH/lOO A,. On further addition of alkali, silicate ions H,SiO,- went into solution. Bolt (191),however, found in determinations of the charge density of “Ludox” silica sols a value of 1.8 negative charges per 100 Aa a t p H 10. Schneider (182) attempted to measure the neutralization of sodium ethoxide by Aerosil. About twice as many sodium ions were bound as from sodium hydroxide a t pH 9. However, the reproducibility was poor and still higher values were observed after prolonged reaction times. Very likely, siloxane bonds were broken. c. Reaction with Thionyl Chloride. Boehm and Schneider (188) and Schneider (192)used the reaction with thionyl chloride for the determination of silanol groups. For each hydroxyl group, one chlorine atom was retained on the surface. It was assumed that surface silanol groups were replaced by chlorine according to \

-Si--OH

\ + SOCl, + --Si-Cl

+ SO, + HCI

/ The silica sample is refluxed with pure SOCl, for a t least 8 hours. It is advisable t o use as little SOC1, as possible, just enough to form a stiff jelly with the silica, and to heat in an oil bath. Otherwise, violent /

230

H. P. BOEHM

bumping cannot be avoided. After distilling off the surplus SOCI,, the reaction product is outgassed in a high vacuum (10-5 mm Hg) a t 200" for a t least 48 hours. Samples are weighed with careful exclusion of moisture, covered with sodium hydroxide solution, and heated. Afterwards, chlorine can be titrated in the usual manner. Other reaction techniques using sealed tubes are described in ( 17 4 ) . The reaction of silanol groups with SOC1, was originally reported by Deuel for clay minerals (193) and for silica gel (194). However, no quantitative measurements are possible with narrow-pore silica gel, since the SOC1, molecule is rather large and excess reagent as well as hydrogen chloride cannot be removed completely by outgassing. The method works well with fine particle size silicas like Aerosil (Degussa), Cab-0-ail (Cabot Corp.), or Ludox (Du Pont de Nemours and Co.). It was doubted by Uytterhoeveii and Naveau (195)whether all of the surface silanol groups react with thionyl chloride. The authors found that less chlorine was bound than active hydrogen was fourid. However, the possible occurrence of strongly adsorbed water was not taken into account. The results of the thionyl chloride method agree very well with many other reactions of the silanol groups, e.g., esterification reactions or the determinations by No11 et al. (183).There exists no definite proof as yet that Si-Cl bonds are formed in the reaction. Attempts a t consecutive reactions, e.g., with metal organic compounds, brought no unambiguous results. It is conceivable that hydrogen chloride is very strongly adsorbed on the surface sites that had been occupied by water. However, in this case two HC1 molecules must be adsorbed in the place of one H,O molecule in order to account for the stoichiometry. Infrared spectra taken by Folman (196) with porous Vycor glass, which is essentially silica, showed disappearance of the OH adsorptions after treatment with thionyl chloride. This observation speaks for the presence of Si-CI groups. There was apparently formation of Si-NH, groups on subsequent reaction with ammonia. A marked decrease in the chlorine uptake was observed with increasing temperature of pretreatment of the samples. Very little chlorine was bound when the surface silanol groups were protected by esterification (see Section III,A,l,f and Table XVII). d . Active Hydrogen. Fripiat and Uytterhoeven (197)determined active hydrogen in Aerosil by using a modified Zerewitinoff method. This technique had been originally applied by Deuel and Huber (198)to the determination of surface silanol groups on clay minerals. Fripiat and Uytterhoeven obtained identical results with methylmagnesium iodide and with methyllit
231

CHEMICAL IDENTIFICATION OF SURFACE GROUPS

by this method than from infrared spectroscopic measurements. The authors concluded that only a portion (42%) of the hydroxyl groups were located on the surface of the particles. Free water was determined from its deformation band near 1600 cm-'. However, extremely strongly hydrogen-bonded water chelated by two or more silanol groups might give no absorption a t this wave number. Deuterium exchange with D,O was used by Shuravlev and Kiselev (199) in the determination of surface hydroxyl groups of silica gel. Adsorption isotherms of H,O and D,O were determined gravimetrically; they agreed with each other within the limits of experimental error. A distinction between silanol groups and adsorbed free water was attempted by Shapiro and Weiss (20Ua) and Weiss et al. (2006)using the reaction with diborane. Diborane reacts with free water with evolution of six moles of hydrogen per mole of consumed reagent: B,H,

+ 6H,O + 2B(OH), + 6H,

The reaction with silanol groups was assumed t o be

\

2-Si-OH

+ R,H,

\

-+ 3-Si-0BH2

+ 2H,

/ Only two molecules of hydrogen are formed for each B,H, molecule used. Shapiro and Weiss concluded from their experiments that the structural water retained after degassing a t 150" was entirely present in the form of silanol groups. However, Stober (173) pointed out that the observed ratios of H,/B,H, near 3 would agree well with the assumption of half a molecule of strongly adsorbed water per silanol group. He formulated the reaction with a H,/B,H, ratio of 3: /

OH

It would seem more likely to this author that the reaction is \ / \ + l&B,H, 2 43-OBH, + dB(OH), + 3H, / \ / resulting in a H,/B,H, ratio of 2.57. The same reaction was studied by Naccache et al. (201)and Naccache and Imelik (202) who found a considerably lower H,:B,H, ratio. The ratio was 2 for samples outgassed a t 150" and 1 after heating to higher temperatures. With different types of silica, a ratio of 1 was reached a t different temperatures varying from 300 to 500". The authors (202) -Si-OH...H,O*..HO--Sj-

--f

232

H. P. BOEHM

reported that illorganic salts with water of crystallization gave a ratio of 2, whereas compounds with hydroxyl groups would liberate only one H, molecule per B,H, molecule consumed. Therefore, they formulated the reaction with free silanol groups as \ \ -Si-OH

+ HyH,

--f

+ B,H,

--z

--Si-OBzH,

+ H,

/ / With samples dehydrated a t low temperatures, e.g., a t 150", there would be one H 2 0 molecule per silanol group reacting in this way: H

/

LSi-OH..O

/

H '

\

+ 2Hy

--Si--OH...O

/

\

BH,

The silanol group would be protected from the diborane gas. Mathieu and Imelik (203) supported this theory by infrared spectroscopy of the reaction products. There are no other examples known of analogous were ever reactions of diborane. No compounds of the type B,H,-OR disproportionates t o the observed; motioalkoxyborane BH,-OR dialkoxy derivative HB(OR), and diborane (204).I n view of the coiiflicting results and the unusual formulations, it would be desirable t o have further evidence, e.g., by direct determination of the boron and the hydride content of the samples. A possible adsorption of diborane in narrow pores of some types of silica cannot be excluded. Infrared spectra taken by Fraissard and Imelik (205) show also the presence of molecular water in silica outgassed at 150" in addition to hydroxyl groups hydrogen-bonded to different degrees. Naccache and Imelik (206) studied the physical adsorption of ammonia on silica and reported that, with xerogels outgassed a t moderate temperatures, one molecule of ammonia was adsorbed for each entity of water present in molecular form. If there was no molecular water left after outgassing a t elevated temperatures, the silanol groups would provide the adsorption sites. The results were compared with those of the diborane reaction. Aerogels with a higher proportion of surface silanol groups behaved differently. Stober (173) found also a close relation of the adsorption sites for ammonia and the number of surface silanol groups, Fused silica and crystalline quartz behaved in a similar manner. About the same concentration of adsorption sites was found in the SO2 adsorption. It is an important result of Imelik's work (201-206) that different types of silica may behave quite differently with regard to the packing density and the thermal stability of silanol groups as well as adsorbed water.

CHEMICAL IDENTIFICATION OF SURFACE QROUPS

233

e. Reaction with Chlorides. Determinations of silanol groups and adsorbed water on "Aerosil" after outgassing a t various temperatures were made by Boehm et al. (174).Reaction with boron trichloride or with anhydrous aluminum chloride was used. It was expected that silanol \

\

groups would form -Si-OBCl,

or -Si-OACl, /

/

groups. Free water

would give volatile trichloroboroxole, B,O,Cl, (207), or nonvolatile aluminum oxychloride, AlOCl (208, 209), as the only stable compounds in between the trichlorides and the hydroxides. The boron or aluminum contents and the chloride contents were determined in the samples after removing surplus reagent and volatile reaction products by extensive pumping a t 200". The reactions were accomplished by repeatedly vacuum distilling the reagents over the samples which were kept a t 200". SiO, is thermodynamically unstable in mixture with BCl, or AlC1,. However, no SiCl, was detected in the reaction products. Apparently, the activation energy for electrophilic cleavage of siloxane bonds is large. Analysis of the reaction products showed that the boron content was nearly equimolar to the chloride content after reaction with thionyl chloride. About twice this amount of aluminum was retained by the samples, however. Since the presence of unchanged aluminum chloride could not entirely be ruled out, the balance of aluminum versus chloride was established. From the chloride deficit was substracted the number of silanol groups as determined by the thionyl chloride reaction. This difference was ascribed to molecular water. About one molecule of free water was found for each two silanol groups in the temperature range of 100 to 350". The sample treated with BCl, contained considerably less \

chloride than was expected for -Si-OBCl, /

groups. Evaluation of the

deficit gave about the same quantities of free water as were estimated from the results of the AlCl, reaction. After outgassing below 100" more water was found than was required by the formula \

-Si-OH.. /

.H,O. -.HO-Si-

/

\

The content of free water decreased sharply after outgassing a t temperatures above 500". This decrease coincides with a drop in the silanol content. A graph of the number of silanol groups versus outgassing temperature is shown in Fig. 3. With decreasing packing density, the remaining silanol groups will be more and more isolated from each other. In consequence, bonding of water molecules by multiple hydrogen bonds becomes increasingly improbable.

234

H. P. BOEHM

I 200

400

600

Temperature

01

800

pretreatment

1000

[OC]

FIG.3. Content of silanol groups in "Aerosil" as determined by reaction with thionyl chloride [after Gokpek ( 2 3 1 ) ] .

This explanation is supported by infrared spectroscopic data obtained by McDonald (210). Absorption peaks occurred in Cab-0-sil evacuated a t 30" a t 3750 cm-' (isolated silanol groups), 3660 cm-1 (weakly hydrogenbonded hydroxyls), and 3520 cm-l (strongly hydrogen-bonded hydroxyls). Heating to 500" resulted in disappearance of the 3520 cm-1 peak. The peak a t 3660 cm-1 disappeared only after outgassing a t 940'. A t the same time, the absorption at 3750 cm-1 increased in intensity, indicating that more than two silanol groups were involved in the hydrogen-bonded complexes which absorb a t low frequencies. If only two silanol groups were involved, no silanol group would remain after splitting off of water. The stronger hydrogen bond is destroyed first, because many silanol groups are lost already a t 500" and the chance becomes less that silanol groups will have the right distance for forming strong hydrogen bonds. Bridges by strongly adsorbed water molecules become improbable, too. The fact that the low-frequency hydrogen adsorptions disappear first was observed by many others (211-215). Fripiat and collaborators (215) distinguished several types of hydroxyl groups from the kinetics of the OH-OD exchange. Wirzing (216a, 216b) found that the combination bands in the near infrared were particularly well-suited for the distinction of silanol groups and water. Bands were observed a t 4545-4365 cm-l and at

235

CHEMICAL IDENTIFICATION OF SURFACE GROUPS

5265 cm-I (combination bands of etretching and bending vibrations of silanol groups and water, respectively). The first overtone of the silanol stretching frequency appeared at 7355-7095 cm-'. The intensity of the water absorption at 5265 em-' was proportional to the amount of water adsorbed on the silica. The amount of structural water was estimated for silica gel and Aerosil by plotting this intensity against the weight loss a t l l O O o of samples with various water contents and extrapolating t o zero intensity. For an Aerosil sample it was found (216b)t o be exactly twice the amount expected from the silanol content as determined by the thionyl chloride method. This inconsistency would disappear if one assumes the presence of one molecule of tightly adsorbed water for every two silanol groups, which does not give the infrared adsorptions of normal water. Andersen and Wickersheim (217)used the same infrared absorption bands for distinction between molecular water and silanol groups. Lieflander and Stiiber (218) treated Aerosil and other silicas with solutions of triisobutyl aluminum, Al(C,H,),, in heptane. After thorough washing with heptane, about 5.7 pmole/ma of aluminum remained on the sur€ace. This figure agrees well with other reactions of the silanol groups. The reaction and subsequent hydrolysis were formulated as

\

+ AIR,

-Si-OH

-1tH ----f

\

hydrolysis

--Si-O-AIRI

___f

\

-Si-0-AI(OH),

/ / / It is not known whether free water would form soluble products of partial hydrolysis or, rather, hydrolyze Al-C

\

bonds of the -Si-0/

AlR, groups. The latter assumption is favored by the experience that incomplete reaction of the silanol groups occurs always with trimethylsilyl chloride. This is caused by steric hindrance (219, 220). Diisobutyl aluminum groups are a t least as bulky as trimethylsilyl groups. Therefore, since one aluminum atom is bound for every silanol group, a smaller ratio than two of alkyl groups to aluminum must prevail. No carbon determinations have been made, unfortunately. The reaction of surface silanol groups with trimethylsilyl chloride is similar in type: \

-Si-OH

/

+ (CH,),SiCI -+

\

-Si-0-Si(CH,),

+ HCI

/ However, as was shown by Stober (219),the silanol groups on a silica surface do not react quantitatively. Apparently, the trimethylsilyl group is too large and will block access t o neighboring silanol groups. About 40yo of the silanol groups on Aerosil formed trimethylsiloxane

236

H. P. BOEHM

groups, Similar results were reported by Kohlschutter et al. (220). A distinction between structural and adsorbed water is possible because volatile hexamethyldisiloxane is formed by the reaction of (CH,),SiCl with free water: P(CH,),SiCI

+ H,O + (CHS)BSi-O-Si(CH,), + 2HC1

Stober (219) observed very little reaction of trimethylsilyl chloride with silica pretreated a t 800”. The surface of silica turns hydrophobic on treatment with organosilicon chlorides. Water vapor adsorption isotherms measured by Stober (219) showed a very marked decrease in reversible adsorption. Less than 0.3 primary adsorption centers per 100 A 2 remained in the surface after covering with the organosiloxane layer. Similar effects were observed in the adsorption of ammonia. About 2.2 silanol groups per 100 Aa had not reacted with the trimethylsilyl chloride. Nevertheless, the greater part of these had become unaccessible for water vapor. Apparently, they were hidden underneath a trimethylsilyl “umbrella.” The influence of chemical modification of silica surfaces by treatment with trimethylsilyl chloride was studied also by A. V. Kiselev and collaborators ( Z Z l ) , Babkin et at. (222),and Babkin and Kiselev (223). They reported that no change occurred in (CH,),SiCl-treated Aerosil even after storing for months underwater (221). Lowen and Broge (224) investigated the influence on the heat of wetting and methyl red adsorption. Furthermore, Stober (219), and Stober et al. (225) found that the rate of dissolution of Aerosil (specific surface area = ca. 150 ma/gm) had diminished considerably after treatment with trimethylsilyl chloride. On agitating with aqueous solutions buffered to p H 6.9, no silicic acid was found a t all in the solution before 18 hours. After 8 weeks, one-third of the trimethylsiloxane groups were still present on the surface. No difference in the rate of dissolution as compared with untreated Aerosil was observed in slightly alkaline medium. f. Esterijcation. Another reaction which can be used in the determination of surface silanol groups is their esterification with alcohols. This reaction has also found industrial application. The formation of surface esters by the action of alcohols on silica is covered in a patent t o Iler (226). The reaction products, called “estersils,” are hydrophobic. Silica is heated with alcohols containing from two to eighteen carbon atoms to 190” (with primary alcohols) or 275” (with secondary alcohols). For small-chain alcohols an autoclave is used. Esterification with higher-boiling alcohols is achieved simply by refluxing while the water formed in the reaction is removed by rtzeotropic distillation. A small

CHEMICAL IDENTIFICATION OF SURFACE QROUPS

237

portion of the condensate is continuously drawn off a t the head of the column. Quantitative measurements of the degree of esterification were made by Stober et al. (225, 227) and Bauer and Stober (228).Esterification of the silanol groups was quantitative after heating with alcohols to 250' during 6 hours in an autoclave, whereas incomplete coverage was observed after refluxing or treatment with alcohol vapor a t 150". This is shown in Table XVI. Methanol and n-octanol gave higher alkoxy TABLE XVI

Eaterif cation of Sdanol Groups on Aerosil Surfaces [Calculated from Measurements by Sto'ber el (11. (227)] Degree of esterification in per cent after reaction Alcohol

Methanol Ethanol Pz-Propanol n-Butanol n-Octanol

-

With alcohol vapor at 150"

By refluxing a t norme1 boiling point

At 250" (autoclave)

40 27 23

27 21 23 47 89

128" 102 94 87 103

15 15

"Probably due to opening of siloxane bonds or to incomplete removal of adsorbed methanol.

contents under these conditions than C, to C, alcohols. The highest alkoxy contents were obtained with methanol under pressure. The dependence of the degree of esterification on the substrate, the reaction conditions, and the alcohol was investigated by Ballard and collaborators (229).The authors obtained the highest packing density of the alkoxy groups with methanol a t 290". Presumably, siloxane bonds in the surface had been opened to some extent. Irreversible adsorption due to esterification of silanol groups and opening of siloxane bonds during adsorption experiments had been reported by Stober (173) and by Belyakova and Kiselev (230). However, in this author's laboratory, higher methoxy contents were never obtained, even in a n autoclave, than corresponded t o the quantity of silanol groups known t o be present. The silanol groups which had not been esterified on reaction with methanol did still react with thionyl chloride. Gokpek (231)found that the sum of methoxy content (after reaction with methanol vapor at various temperatures) and chloride formation remained nearly constant,

238

H. P. BOEHM

as is shown in Table XVII. The number of methoxy groups decreased t o

some extent during reaction with thionyl chloride. Even a t higher temperatures, there was no substantial opening of siloxane bonds with the low methanol pressure used (ca. 0.1 mm Hg). TABLE XVII Esterifcation of Aerosil with Methanol Vapor at ca. 0.1 mm Hg a d Subsequent Reaction with Thionyl Chloride [ajter Q6kGek (23Z)l

After esterification

After SOCl, reaction: silanol groups

__

Temperature of esterification Blank 1ooo 200° 350' 450'

Silanol groups esterifid (meq/100 gm)

23.0 32.8 56.4 56.7

Esterified (meq/100 gm)

Converted to chloride (meq/100 gm)

Sum OCH, Cl (meq/100 gm)

0 16.7 14.8 54.6 51.5

56.5 33.6 40.6 4.4 4.7

56.5 50.3 55.4 68.9 56.2

+

Methoxy groups are also formed on the surface of silica by the action of diazomethane. This reaction was first described by Berger (232) and Ebert (233). Boehm and Schneider (288) found that methylation was somewhat incomplete when etheric diazomethane solutions were used. More methoxy groups were formed with gaseous diazomethane. However, polymethylene was formed as a by-product and explosions occurred occasionally. Incomplete methylation of silica gel with diazomethane in etheric solution was also observed by Shcherbakova (234) and Shcherbakova and Slovetskaya (235).The reaction product showed decreased adsorption capacity for methanol vapor. The influence of esterification of silica surfaces on the adsorption of vapors was also studied by Slinyakova and Neimark (236),Ganichenko et al. (237), and Aristov et al. (238). g . Adsorption of Metal Ions. The adsorption of alkali and alkaline earth ions from their hydroxides has been described as a neutralization rea,ction of the weakly acidic silanol groups. However, many metal ions are adsorbed also from nearly neutral or weakly acidic solutions. Hydrolytic adsorption occurs from solutions of aluminum or ferric salts. Hazel et al. (239)observed that on mixing of a silica sol of p H 3.20 and a aluminum chloride solution of pH 3.96 a lower p H of 2.71 resulted. The increase in acidity, which was observed with ferric chloride as well, is

CHEMICAL IDENTIFICATION OF SURFACE QROUPS

239

very likely caused by hydrolytic adsorption as represented by the schematic formulation : \

-Si-OH

/

\ + Fe(OH),CI .aq + -Si-OH.

/

Fe(OH), .aq

+ HCl

Similar effects were observed by Stigter et al. (185) with silica and aluminum chloride. The assumption of hydrolytic adsorption is supported by an observed increase of conductivity upon addition of silica to aluminum chloride solutions. Kautsky and Wesslau (24U) observed hydrolytic adsorption of Th*+ions. The reaction scheme given above is a simplification since, in reality, solutions of basic iron or aluminum salts contain polynuclear complexes. The size of the aggregates depends on pH and concentration. Chromatographic separation of various metal ions 011 silica gel columns was first described by Schwab and Jockers (241).The role of hydrolytic adsorption in column chromatography on silica gel was stressed by Umland and Kirchner (242).The use of this technique in analytical separations was investigated in detail by Kohlschutter and collaborators (243-246). An application t o thin-layer chromatography was described by Seiler (247). Aluminum ions, for example, are adsorbed quantitatively in the pH range 3.8-4.2 (245).The stoichiometry of this adsorption with regard t o the surface silanol groups was studied by Boehm and Schneider (248). Aerosils were used because their surface is completely accessible. More aluminum ions were adsorbed from 0.5 to 1 M solutioiis of formal composition Al(OH),Cl than silanol groups were present. Smaller amounts of chloride ions were adsorbed a t the same time. This is not astonishing, since polynuclear hydroxo complexes with aggregation numbers of up to 8 have been observed in basic aluminum chloride solutions by Jander and Jahr (249). Part of this adsorbed aluminum could be removed by thorough washing with large quantities of water. A quantity of aluminum remained 011 the surface, however, that was nearly equimolar t o the silanol groups. No chloride ions could be detected then. If solutions of the formal composition Al(OH)Cl, were used, equimolar adsorption of aluminum ions was observed as well. It is not known whether the surface complex should be formulated as \

-Si-OH

.Al(OH),

/ or as \

-Si-0-A1

/

(OH),

240

H. P. BOEHM

It is not known yet, either, if water is retained to provide for a coordination number of six of the aluminum ions. The Aerosil surface is remarkably protected by the chemisorbed aluminum hydroxide against dissolution. Even after agitating for 3 weeks with a NaCl/NaHCO, solution of p H 8.2, only 6 pg SiO,/ml were found whereas the saturation value of 123 pg/ml is attained normally within 24 hours. The same observation was reported by Lieflander and Stober (218) after treatment of Aerosil with trialkylaluminum and subsequent hydrolysis. The aluminum could be removed quantitatively with mineral acids. No strongly acidic properties were detected in the alumina-coated silica; there was no catalytic activity in the dehydration of alcohols. Stigter et al. (185)found that silica freshly coated with alumina acquired a positive charge in solution. The surface became more negative than that of the original silica, however, after prolonged standing in solutions of pH 9. One may conclude from these observations that no acid aluminosilica complex is formed on hydrolytic adsorption; the chemisorbed alumina will react with dissolved silicic acid, however, giving an acid which is probably similar to those in silica-alumina catalysts. Ahrland et al. (250) investigated the adsorption of various ions, including UOi+, U4+,and Pu4+ ions, on silica. They found that for each equivalent of metal ion adsorbed one equivalent of H+ was liberated. This finding is in accordance with a n earlier observation by French and Howard (251).I n a second publication by Ahrland et al. (252),separation of plutonium and fission products from irradiated uranium is described. The reaction of uranyl ions in aqueous solutions with silica gel was studied also by Stanton and Maatman (253a)who also found equivalent ion exchange. I n a later paper published by the same group (2536) describing exchange reactions with many other ions, equivalent exchange was reported for Th4+ and Fe3+ ions as well. The dissociation constant of the silanol groups was estimated as to lo-*. Equivalent exchange was also observed in my laboratory with Aerosil and uranyl acetate. This is somewhat astonishing, because the average distance between silanol groups is considerably larger than the length of a uranyl ion and, therefore, equimolar ion exchange should be expected. Perhaps pairs of silanol groups always occur with a distance fitting the uranyl ion. The reaction would be particularly well-suited for the determiiiation of silanol groups, if equivalent exchange could be ascertained under all conditions. The ion exchange is rapid and uranyl ions are easily determined by oxidation titration, e.g., with permanganate, after passing a Jones reductor.

CHEMICAL IDENTIFICATION OF SURFACE GROUPS

24 1

The adsorption of copper ions from ammoniacal solutions was first observed by Kolthoff and Stenger (254). The ratio of NH,:Cu in the reaction product was less than 4:1, suggesting that silanol groups may replace NH, molecules in the coordination sphere of copper. The adsorption of copper and zinc ions from their tetrammines was studied by Kozawa (255).The solutions contained ammonium chloride in large excess. Hydrogen ions were released during adsorption. The reported ratio of hydrogen ions liberated to metal ions adsorbed was 4 for Cua+ and 3 for Zn2f (in the pH range 5.48-6.38). A maximum of zinc adsorption was observed near p H 7.1-7.2. Zinc ion adsorption on heated silica decreased markedly with increase in the heating temperature. The results were interpreted assuming the formation of polyden tate chelates wibh t h e silanol groups, e.g., + MeCL,

+ ZNKCI

-E:

O-MeZt-Cl

I

-2NH;

+ 3 HC1

Only C1 and NH, were taken into account as ligands, because a 2 M NH,CI solution was present. h. Methyl Red Adsorption. The surface area of silica gel was estimated by Shapiro and Kolthoff (256) from the adsorption of methyl red (p-dimethylaminoazobenzene-o-carboxylic acid) from benzene solution. Iler (257) reports that this dyestuff is adsorbed only on hydroxylated silica surfaces. A sample of silica, dried at 150", representing about 10 nia/gm, is added to 25 ml of a methyl red solution in benzene containing 0.6-0.7 gm of the azo compound per liter. After agitating for about 2 hours a t room temperature, the concentrations of equilibrium solution and original solution are compared by spectrophotometry at 4750 A. The specific hydroxylated surface area in ma/gm is calculated from the formula: ,

d

- grams dye adsorbed x _ 116~x _-6.02 x ___ grams silica employed x 269

lo3

(One molecule of methyl red of molecular weight 269 covers about 116 Az.)

The adsorption of methyl red is not stoichiometric with regard t o the silanol groups because its molecule is too bulky. I n consequence, methyl red adsorption is not suited for quantitative determinations of surface silanol groups. It is a very convenient method, however, for a rough estimate of the number of free silanol groups, e.g., in partly esterified products.

H. P. BOEHM

242

A modified version of the methyl red adsorption employing column chromatography was used by Benesi (258) for the determination of the surface area of silica gels. i. Comparison of Methods. Most of the methods described in the preceding pages are useful in the quantitative determination of silanol groups only if little porosity is developed in the silica. Techniques not interfered with by narrow pores are deuterium exchange, determination of weight loss on heating to 1 loo”,and infrared adsorption spectroscopy as used by Wirzing (216u, 216b). I n all these methods, the possible presence of strongly adsorbed water is a severe and decisive limitation. In very narrow pores, water may be “persorbed” in addition to the water held tightly between silanol groups in stoichiometric amounts. The most convenient methods to be used with silica having no pores or very wide ones are the reaction with thionyl chloride, the esterification with methanol or n-butanol and higher alcohols, and ion exchange, e.g., with uranyl ions (however, the general applicability of the latter reagent TABLE XVIII Comparison of Varioua Silanol Determinations o n Aerosil

Reaction

Weight loss minus free water (Karl Fischer titration) Zerewitinoff

Specific surface area, (m”lgm)

(medl00 gm)

No11 et al. (183)

180

103

Uytterhoeven and Naveau (195) Uytterhoeven and Naveau (195) Boehm and Schneider (188)

178

122

178

02

146

66

Determined by

Thionyl chloride, outgassed at 180“ Thionyl chloride, outgassed at 180’ Deuterium exchange after outgassing a t 200’ Titration with NaOH to pH 9.0 Reaction with BCl, Methylation with CH,OH at 200-250” AP+ sorption from AI(OH),Cl U0,*+sorption from uranyl acetate a t pH 5.4 Infrared spectroscopy

Wirzing (216b)

SiOH groups

Boehm and Wistuba ( i n preparation) Boehm, after Sears (189)

146

113

146

67

Boehm el al. ( 1 7 4 ) Gokqek (231)

146 145

60 66

Boehm and Schneider (248) Boehm and Brand after Stanton and Maatman

145 146

00 62

146

116

(253)

CHEMICAL IDENTIFICATION O F SURFACE GROUPS

243

has not been tested yet). I n Table XVIII, the results of various determinations are compared for an Aerosil sample. There remains the still unsolved question : is there extremely strongly adsorbed water present in stoichiometric amounts or not? If this water is not present in molecular form, there must exist twice the number of silanol groups than is detected with a variety of chemical reactions. The packing density of the silanol groups would then be up to 6.6 OH/lOO .Aa. This value is higher than the packing density of ca. 5 OH/lOO A2 which is estimated from the structure of the SiO, network (see Section III,A,l,a). It is difficult t o understand why only half of the silanol groups would react with most reagents. Steric hindrance should not be expected with molecules as small as methanol. The only chemical reactions which would agree with the higher concentration of silanol groups are the neutralization reactions with calcium hydroxide (equivalent exchange assumed) and, maybe, with sodium ethoxide. However, with sodium hydroxide at a p H just before dissolution becomes appreciable, only 5 silanol groups per 100 Aa were detected. Furthermore, i t is very unlikely, that only half of the silanol groups would act as adsorption sites for water and ammonia. But, on the other hand, tightly adsorbed water molecules should physically adsorb water vapor as well. This puzzling problem deserves further work. 2. Identification of Siloxane Bonds

The existence of siloxane bonds on the surface of silica has been inferred mainly from the fact that the number of observed silanol groups is not sufficient for complete surface coverage. Practically no silanol groups are present in silicas heated to high temperatures. The siloxane bonds are quite unreactive. Actually, this is the cause of the inertia of fused silica vessels towards chemical attack. When siloxane bonds are opened, the process usually will not stop at the surface and dissolution of silica will take place. There seems t o exist strong dn-pr bonding between silicon and oxygen. I n consequence, as has been shown by Huggins (259),the oxygen loses much of its basicity and it shows extremely weak tendency of participation in hydrogen bonds. This is manifested by the fact that the surface of silica turns hydrophobic after heating t o high temperatures. A type I11 water vapor adsorption isotherm (in Brunauer's classifictation) was found by Young (211) with heat-treated Aerosil. Similar observations were reported by Gregg (260),Kohlschutter and Kiimpf (261), Egorov and collaborators (262), and Kiselev and Muttik (263). The dehydration of silanol groups is reversible and rehydroxylation of t'he siloxane honds will take place inst,antrtiieoudy if t>hedehydration

H. P. BOEHM

244

has been carried out below 400-450”. No rehydration will occur on adsorption of water vapor below saturation pressure if the silica has been heated to higher temperatures. This was observed by Young (211), de Boer et al. (264))A. V. Kiselev andMuttik (263))and Egerov etal. (262). Under liquid water a slow rehydration process was observed (178, 265). This difference in behavior depending on the temperature of pretreatment has been ascribed to “strained” siloxane bonds in silica heated no higher than 450”. The strain would be relieved by annealing on further heating. Boehm and Kiimpf (266) pointed out that surface self-diffusion in general becomes perceptible according t o Hiittig’s rule at ca. onethird of the melting temperature in OK. With silica, this would correspond to 400°C. Siloxane bonds are opened readily with strong bases. Nucleophilic attack at the silicon atoms is involved in the reaction mechanism. Attempts a t complete hydrolysis of the siloxane bonds on the surface of Aerosil by Boehm and Schneider (267)met with limited success. Partial hydrolysis was achieved with cold water over long periods, with boiling water in limited time, and by the action of ammoniacal pyrocatechol solutions. However, the number of silanol groups never exceeded 3.30H/100AZ.Ashasbeenshownonpage228,avalue of ca. 50H/100Az would be expected from theoretical considerations. Evaluating data from the literature, one hardly ever finds a higher packing density than 3.3 OH/lOO Ag. Heston et al. (190) observed a saturation value of 3.5 negative charges per 100 Aa even in moderately alkaline solutions. The only plausible explanation for this limitation in the packing density of silanol groups is that, due t o the random orientation of the silicon valences in the silica surface, a siloxane bond is more stablein some places than two silanol groups. Each surface silicon atom is anchored by three siloxane bonds t o the bulk of the particle. The fourth valence is consequently fixed in its direction. Hydrolysis of a stable siloxane bond would result in “stressed” silanol bonds. 3. Identi$catiqn of Free Radicals When hydrogen is lost during heat treatment of hydroxylated silica, either peroxo groups or free radicals must result:

\ /

/

\ \ / The existence of free radicals seemed likely when Ilin, Kiselev, and Krasil’nikov ( 178)and Krasil’nikov, Kiselev, and Sysoev (268)observed that oxygen was adsorbed by silica after heating t o 300-900”. Solonitsyn (269) observed adsorption of oxygen when silica gel or quartz was -Si-0-0-Si-

or

-Si-O.

CHEMICAL IDENTIFICATION OF SURFACE QROUPS

245

irradiated with light of 2500 A. Starodubtsev et al. (270, 271) noticed increased adsorption capability of silica gel for various gases after the influence of y-radiation or high-frequency discharges. The appearance of color centers which were sensitive towards hydrogen upon irradiation of silica gel with y- and X-rays was reported by Kohn (272). Kazansky, Pariisky, and Voevodsky (2'73)investigated the results of y-irradiation of silica gel using electron spin resonance techniques. Hydrogen atoms are formed and kept in the structure a t - 196". Recombination starts at - 150 to - 120". Irradiation of evacuated samples \ at room temperature resulted in the formation of -Si-O* radicals / \ which reacted with oxygen giving peroxide radicals. The ---Si---O/ radicals are stable in vacuum. Generation of acidity in silica gel by ionizing radiation was reported by Barter and Wagner (274).p-Dimethylaminoszobenzene was adsorbed out of anhydrous solution in CCI, in the red, acid form. About 3 peq/gm of acid sites were generated by a dose of 3 . lo7 rad, as determined by titration with butylamine. Intermediate formation of free radicals is very likely also in the socalled mechanochemical reactions of quartz and silica. Deuel and Gentili (275) reported that quartz became slightly hydrophobic after grinding in the presence of butanol. According t o Benson and Castle (276),Si-C and Si-0-C bonds were formed during milling of fused silica with olefins and alcohols. A detailed investigation was performed by Grohn and Paudert (277). Methoxy groups were identified after milling quartz with chloroform and hydrolyzable chloride after reaction with carbon tetrachloride. Hydrophobic reaction was observed in these cases and also when quartz was ground in the presence of alcohols. Carbon contents of ca. 2% were usual. Infrared spectra suggested the presence o f silrtnol esters. 4 . Other Groups Organic growps are bound t o the silica surface after grinding silica in organic liquids (277). A more controlled substitution of surface silanol groups was reported by Wartmann and Deuel(194). Silica gel which had been treated with thionyl chloride was allowed t o react with phenyl lithium. Silicon-phenyl bonds could be detected by infrared spectroscopy. The phenyl content of Aerosil treated in this way as estimated from carbon analysis corresponded to 85% of the silanol groups (188). However, it is not certain whether the reaction

246

H. P. BOEHM

\ -Si--CI /

+ Li-C,H,

\ /

-+ -Si-C,H,

+ LiCl

really took place. Phenyl groups are bonded to silicon, too, when lithium phenyl is allowed t o react with the original silica. Tetraphenylsilane, triphenylsilanol, and the polymer of diphenylsilanediol were isolated from the reaction products (278). One may conclude, therefore, that the reaction of silica with lithium organic compounds is analogous to the nucleophilic opening of siloxane bonds by alkali hydroxide: \

-Si-0-Si-

/

/

\ + Li+C,H6- --Si--C,H6 --f

\

/

\ + -Si-0-Lit /

No reaction at all, either with Aerosil or its chloride, was observed with Grignard compounds. The formation of silicon-jluoride bonds on the surface of silica after treatment with hydrogen fluoride was never proven directly. However, there is a pronounced change in the adsorption and wetting properties. The silica becomes hydrophobic as was mentioned in a patent t o . and collaborators (279b) found a type V Kimberlin ( 2 7 9 ~ )Neimark isotherm in the methanol adsorption on silica gel which had been treated with a solution of SiF, in absolute alcohol. Wilska (280) obtained a water-repellent silica when solutions of H,SiF, were precipitated with ammonia. The Si-F bond is hydrolyzed only slowly. A considerable fluorine content of 7-10% F was reported in an older patent (281)for a silica that had been prepared by hydrolysis of SiF,.

B. IDENTIFICATION OF SURFACE GROUPSON CRYSTALLINE SILICA I n principle, there is no difference in the surface groups on quartz and on amorphous silica. The most important question discussed in the literature is whether the structure of crystalline quart,z is represented in its surface, too. Many investigators (282-287) reported that there is a disturbed layer of amorphous character present on the quartz surface. It is more readily dissolved by water or by hydrofluoric acid. Holt and King (288) claimed that only a monomolecular layer of silicic acid was adsorbed on quartz surfaces. Evidence against a disturbed layer in powdered quartz was presented by Talbot and Kempis (289) and by Stiiber and Arnold (290). These authors attributed the solubility effects t o very small adhering particles among the larger 'quartz crystals. A plausible explanation of this contradiction was given by Talbot and Kempis (291)who found that quartz melted locally due to the high pressures occurring during the grinding

CHEMICAT, IDENTIFICATION OF SURFACE GROUPS

247

process. Of course, the melt is quenched rapidly. Evidence by Rieck and Koopmans (292) supports this theory; an increase in X-ray reflection intensity was observed after annealing of ground quartz powder a t 1200”. Very few direct measurements of the reaction of surface silanol groups on quartz have been reported. This is apparently caused by the small effects due to the limited surface areas available. Adsorption of sodium ions on quartz was measured by radioactive tracer techniques by Gaudin et al. (293). Saturation was achieved a t high p H ( >10) and sodium ion concent,ratioiis above 0.07 M . The calculated packing density of silanol groups was 4.251100 A=. Goates and Anderson (294) titrated quartz with aqueous sodium hydroxide and alcoholic sodium ethylate. The occurrence of two types of acidic groups was reported. Parallel investigations of amorphous silica and quartz were executed by Stijber (173, 218, 219, 225) with many reactions. No essential difference in reaction behavior and in the packing density of the surface groups was observed. Of course, quantitative measurements were not as accurate with quartz powder as with high surface area Aerosil. Slight differences in the adsorption behavior of quartz and amorphous silica were reported by Egorov, Kiselev, and Krasil’nikov (286, 295). The surface chemistry of coesite and stishovite was studied by Stijber (296).The packing density of hydroxyl groups was estimated from the water vapor adsorption. More adsorption sites per unit surface area were found with silica of higher density. Stishovite is especially interesting since i t is not attacked by hydrofluoric acid. Coesite is dissolved slowly. The resistance of stishovite is ascribed to the fact that silicon already has a coordination number of six. Dissolution of silica t o H,SiF, by hydrogen fluoride is a nucleophilic attack. It is not possible when the coordination sphere of silicon is filled completely. In contrast, stishovite dissolves with an appreciable rate in water buffered to pH 8.2. The surface chemistry of stishovite should be similar t o that of its analog, rutile. C. SUMMARY Only one functional group, the silanol group, is observed under normal conditions on the surface of silica. The other conceivable surface structure, consisting of siloxane bonds, was never directly identified. This might be caused by its chemical inertness, When hydroxylated silica is heated t o temperatures not exceeding 400-500”, so-called “strained” siloxane bonds are formed, which reconvert readily t o silanol groups upon access of water. When the silica is heated t o higher temperatures, the “strain” is relieved and the surface becomes unreactive. It is thought that the “strain” is h i e to strong distortion of the

248

H. P. BOEHM

SiO, tetrahedra in the surface. However, it seems possible, also, that polar groups but not siloxane bonds are formed by dehydration at low temperatures : OH I

OH

0

I

rr/ r ;I \r S i mMI\S i m

-%$ -

a0 l

rn,~i,7mT,,S
The bonding of hydroxyl groups or oxygen to silicon is more of covalent than of ionic character. Determination of the quantity of silanol groups on the silica surface, simple as it seems, presented unexpected inconsistencies. From structural considerations, a packing deiiaity of ca. 5 OH groups/100 A8 is t o be expected. Most reactions, such as silanolate formation (i.e., neutralization), esterification, and exchange for chlorine or hydrolytic adsorption of aluminum ions, give results agreeing well with each other, but differing by a factor of one-half from determinations of active hydrogen or water evolution on calcination. I n extensively hydroxylated surfaces, the number of silanol groups as determined by the majority of chemical reactions never reaches the calculated value, whereas more than five active hydrogen atoms per 100 A‘ are found. This discrepancy can be explained so far oiily by assuming either that one molecule of “free” water is extremely strongly hydrogen-bonded to every two silanol groups or that the surface contains only disilanol groups, OH

with only one of thc sileiiol groups reacting with alkali, alcohols, thionyl chloride, etc. Either explanation is not fully satisfactory. Further research should try to elucidate this point. Free radicals in the surface were found after irradiation of silica gel with ionizing radiation. Observations of hydrogen evolution during heating to high temperatures were not confirmed. Chemisorption of oxygen a t high temperatures has also been reported. Organic groups were detected on the surface after grinding of silica in the presence of organic solvents. Silicon-carbon bonds are also formed by nucleophilic attack on the siloxane bonds with lithium organic compounds. This reaction is analogous to the dissolution of silica with alkali hydroxides. No difference in behavior between amorphous and crystalline, tetrahedrally coordinated silicon dioxide has been observed, although

CHEMICAL IDENTIFICATION OF SURFACE GROUPS

249

the specific surface area of crystalline silica is too low to allow exact analytical determinations. A somewhat different behavior might he expected with stishovite which has the rutile structure.

IV. Surface Groups on Titanium Dioxide Titanium dioxide differs from silica mainly in two respects: (1) the Ti4+ ions are octahedrally coordinated in all three modifications of TiO,; (2) the Ti-0 bond is more pronouncedly ionic than the Si-0 bond. Using Pauling’s electronegativity values (297), one calculates a 63% ionic character for the Ti-0 single bond versus 50% for Si-0. In SiO,, there is certainly some double bond character involving 3d orbitals of the Si atom, causing lowered ionic character. Therefore, characteristic differences should be expected regarding the surface chemistry. Titanium dioxide occurs in three crystalline modifications: anatase, rutile, and brookite. I n all three forms, each Ti4+ ion is surrounded by six 0,- ions and each 0 2 - ion has three Ti4+neighbors. Both anatase and rutile are important white pigments which are produced on a large scale. Even though their surface chemistry is very important for their technological application, astonishingly little has been published in the chemical literature on this subject. However, it is very likely that many investigations have been undertaken in industrial laboratories. What type of surface structure is to be expected on titanium dioxide? A clean (001)cleavage plane of anatase should have the structure shown in Fig. 4a: one 0 2 - ion is missing in the coordination shell of each TiQ+ion; the 0 2 - ions in the surface bridge two Ti‘+ ions; the third coordinated Ti4+is missing. I n the presence of water, H 2 0 dipoles would certainly be attracted by the “naked” Ti4t ions and would fill the coordination sphere (Fig, 4b). The charges on Ti4+and 0 2 - would nevertheless not be balanced by the surrounding ions of opposite charge sign, Formally, the remaining charges would amount to + 8 and - 8 units. A decrease of the charges in the surface could be achieved by transfer of a proton from the chemisorbed water molecule to a neighboring 02-ion (Fig. 4c). The resulting formal charges would then be - and respectively. According to Pauling’s electrostatic valence rule (298),in a stable ionic structure the valence of each anion, with opposite sign, is exactly or nearly equal to the sum of the strengths of the electrostatic bonds ( = charge divided by coordination number) to i t from adjacent cations. I n other words: the state of lowest potential is preferred, which meaus in this case the state with the smallest charges separated by the least distance. Thus, the formation of hydroxyl groups on the surface of TiO, is favored. One would even expect two types of OH groups on the (001)

+&,

250

J f . P. l3ORHM

(b) (C) FIQ.4. Structures of (001) crystal faces of anatase: (a)clean, ( b )hydrated; (c) hydroxylated [cut through (100) face]. The broken circles indicate how the lattice would continue.

face exhibiting somewhat different reactivity. Analogous deductions are valid for the other cleavage faces of TiO, crystals as well as for most other oxides. Convincing chemical evidence for the presence of surface hydroxyl groups on titanium dioxide was presented by Liefllinder and Stiiber (218)and Stober et al. (225).A high surface area cbnatase powder having 47 me/gm was used in their studies. Surface esters were formed by heating up to 250" in a n autoclave together with ethanoi, n-butanol, or ethylene glycol. Reaction with trimethylsilyl chloride as well as with triisopropyl aluminum was also described. These reactions are analogous The number of reacting to the reactions of silica (cf. Section III,A,I,f). hydroxyl groups was from 28 to 33 meq/l00 gm, corresponding t o 5.9-7.1 peq/mB.

CHEMICAL JDENTIFICATION OF SURFACE GROUPS

25 I

Using infrared spectroscopy, Yates (299) proved the existence of hydroxyl groups on anatase as well as on rutile. Both forms still contained some adsorbed molecular water after evacuation a t 150", as evidenced by the bending vibration at 1605 cm-l. After outgassing at 350°, no free water was detected. There remained two OH stretching absorptions in the case of anatase (at 3715 and 3675 cm-l) and one weak band at 3680 cm-* with rutile. This is indication of the existence of two different types of OH groups on anatase. These results were confirmed by Smith (300). Hollabaugh and Chessick (301) concluded from adsorption studies with water, n-propanol, and n-butyl chloride that the surface of rutile is covered with hydroxyl groups. After evacuation a t 450°, a definite chemisorption of water vapor was observed as well as of n-propanol. The adsorption of n-butyl chloride was very little influenced by the outgassing temperature of the rutile sample (90 and 450'). A type I adsorption isotherm was observed after outgassing a t 450". Apparently surface esters had formed, forming a hydrocarbonlike surface. No further vapor was physically adsorbed up to high relative pressures. A packing density of 6.6 Ti4+ ions per 100 A2 was estimated on a theoretical basis by Hollabaugh and Chessick (301).From the values of irreversible and reversible water vapor adsorption, a surface density of 3.7 OH/lOO A2 was calculated for the substance activated a t 450" and of 11.4 OH/100 A 2 for a fully hydroxylated rutile surface. Wade and Hackerman (302) measured the heats of immersion in water of both anatase and rutile as a function of particle size and outgassing temperature. Apart from the distinct influence of the particle size, a maximum in the heat of immersion was observed after outgassing a t 300 to 350', indicating a rehydroxylation reaction. This is similar t o the behavior of silica. Whereas, with silica, the decrease a t higher evacuation temperatures is caused by the slowness of the reopening of siloxane bonds (see Section III,A,2), it is very probably caused by a decrease in surface area in the case of TiO,. The maximum in the heat of immersion curves was distinct only with samples of high surface area. Stiiber et al. (225)observed a decrease in the surface area of fine particle size anatase already at 450". Ganichenko and Kiselev (303)and Ganichenko et al. (304)studied the adsorption of water and determined the corresponding heats of adsorption. They concluded that hydroxyl groups exist on titanium dioxide even after outgassing at high temperatures. Further chemical evidence for the existence of hydroxyl groups on anatase was obtained by Herrmann (305).Anatase made by flame hydrolysis of TiCl, was used. Its surface area was 60 m2/gm. The

"62

T i . P. I3OEHM

results of various reactions are summarized in Table XIX. I n all these reactions, the number of reacting hydroxyl groups was either near 18-20 meq/100 gm or near 40 meq/l00 gm. The existmce of tJwo types of hydrox,vl groups Reenis very likely therefore. TABLE XTX Some RcarJionn of Surjace H!jdroxyl Groups on Ana!aRe [after Herrmann (3U5)]

Reaction'

Number of reacting OH groups (mniole/100 gm)

Sorption of F- from unhufferetl NnF Rnlution Sorption of F- froin NaF solution huffrrrcl to pH 4.65 Sorption of Naf from NaOH solution Sorption of Caz+ from Ca(OH), solution Exchange with D,O after evacuation at 100" Sorption of A13+from AI(OH),CI ~o1utinn.s Treatment with SOCI,, C1- content after outgassing at 250' Methyletion with diazomethane Benzyltttion with phenyldiazomethane Chemisorptionof NH,, outgassed at 20" Chemisorptionof NO,, outgassed at 20' Sorption of POIa- from NaH,PO, solution

22 44

36 41

38 43 43 18

17

23 21 40 ~~

'Most of the reactions have been described in detail in Section 111, A, 1.

Chemisorption of methanol or hexanol and formation of surface esters on heat-treated TiO, were described by Isirikyan, Kiselev, and Ushakova (306). I n working with titanium dioxide, care must be taken to avoid reduction of surface Ti4+ions. This reduction usually occurs when the samples are heated in a vacuum. The cause is the contamination of the surface with adsorbed organic compounds. Hollabaugh and Chessick (301)pointed to this source of possible errors. The surface contamination can be removed by extraction with suitable solvents, e.g., petroleum ether, or better by treatment with ozone a t 100" (305). Reduction is perceptible by discoloration or darkening of the samples. It is also propresented duced by irradiation with ultraviolet light. Gray et al. (307'~) evidence that the Ti3+ ions formed by reduction are located in the surface, Reduced titanium dioxide is an active catalyst in hydrogenation and cracking reactions as well as the Fischer-Tropsch synthesis. The stirface of titanium dioxide tmrn.9 Rtmngly acidic on reduction (.?05).

CHEMICAL IDENTIFICATION OF SURFACE GROUPS

253

Dimethylaminoazobenzene is adsorbed by TiO, as red salt only after ultraviolet irradiation. This surface acidity is very likely one cause of the detrimental effects of untreated TiO, pigments on lacquers. On exposure t o sunlight the binder, mostly polyesters, is destroyed and the paint starts “chalking.” This undesirable effect is prevented by the coating of the pigment particles with silica or alumina. The position of the OH infrared absorption frequencies indicates that alumina and silica lose their identity in these coatings (300).The formation of atomic oxygen during ultraviolet irradiation of TiO, is another cause of the destruction of lacquers (307b, 307c). Another source of error in the investigation of the surface properties of titanium dioxide is its tendency to adsorb acids or ions. Phosphate ions are very strongly adsorbed (see Table XIX) as well as sulfuric acid. Commercial pigments often have considerable sulfate contents. When titania is precipitated from sulfate solution, sulfate ions are strongly adsorbed (308).They are carried through all further stages of pigment manufacture. As Smith (300)has shown by infrared spectroscopy, carboxylic acids are adsorbed either by hydrogen bonding of the carboxyl group or by proton transfer to the surface. Carboxylate absorptions were observed in the spectra. Very likely 0,- or OH- ions acted as proton acceptors although no OH absorption bands could be detected after carboxylic acid adsorption. The isoelectric point of pure anatase is near p H 6.6 (305). Carbon dioxide is strongly adsorbed also. There is always a significant amount of CO, present on TiO, samples in contact with air. Its infrared absorption can be measured. Strong preferred adsorption of CO, was described by Yates (299). Precipitated titanium dioxide is partly hydrated and amorphous. Only after heating to sufficiently high temperatures are crystallographically pure anatase or rutile formed (309a).Very small anatase crystallites were detected by X-ray and electron diffraction in hydrated titanium dioxide (309b). In summary, the chemistry of the TiO, surface is in many respects similar to the behavior of silica surfaces. Under normal conditions, the surface is covered with hydroxyl groups. Reflecting the bonding within the TiO, crystals, the bonding of the hydroxyl groups is more ionic than covalent. Therefore, the hydroxyl groups-or, rather, hydroxide ionscan easily be exchanged for fluoride ions or oxygen ions of H,PO,- or similar anions. Dehydration of the surface at high temperatures is reversible. The TiO, surface is amphoteric in character; its isoelectric point is near pH 6.6. Surface eRterR may he formed. Two types of

254

H. P. BOEHM

hydroxide ions of somewhat different reactivity can be distinguished. The surface turns strongly acidic when surface Ti4+ions are reduced t o Ti3f ions. This reduction may be achieved by ultraviolet irradiation. The mechanism of this reduction and the behavior of reduced surfaces deserve further studies with a view to the use of titanium dioxide as a pigmeiit.

V. Surface Groups on Alumina The surface chemistry of alumina is complicated inasmuch as there exist many crystalline modifications as well as amorphous alumina. Furthermore, there are various forms of hydroxides and oxide hydroxides, e.g., hydrargillite, bayerite, boehmite. The most important forms of aluminum oxide are a- and yAl,O, with close-packed oxygen lattices. According t o the present knowledge, about eight different oxides ought to be substituted for “y-Al,03” although no general agreement has been reached on their structures (310-316). Comparison of the results of different workers is difficult, therefore. Glemser and Rieck (317) demonstrated by infrared spectroscopy that most of the aluminum oxides intermediate between the hydroxides and or-Al,O, contain hydroxyl groups which may be removed reversibly by heating. This result was confirmed by proton magnetic resonance measurements (318). The assumption that hydroxyl groups exist on the surface of alumina was expressed by Oblad et al. (319) and Cornelius et al. (320).Alumina which has been dehydrated by heating to 450-600” is a catalyst for many reactions, e.g., hydrogen-deuterium exchange (321, 322), dehydration of alcohols (323), or ethylene hydrogenation (324). The catalysts are poisoned by very small amounts of water. This behavior was explained by the assumption of “strained” oxide bridges or polar sites on the surface of dehydrated alumina which reconvert to the hydroxyl form on access of water (324-326). According to Hindin and Weller (327), thesurface of active alumina is poisoned by water only above 300”. Haldemann and Emmett (328) reported that water was t,aken up irreversibly by X-alumina which had been outgassed at 500”. The presence of significant amounts of hydrogen in the surface of alumina which had been dehydrated a t 500” was shown by Lee and Weller (329), using exchange with deuterium gas. The amount of hydroxyl groups thus determined agreed quite well with the weight loss observed on calcination, indicating that all the hydroxyl groups or ions are situated in the surface. Hall et al. (330) confirmed the existence of snrface hydroxyl ions by a similar technique. The exchange of hydrogen

('HEMIC'AL IDENTTFTCATION OF SURFACE GROUPS

255

with heavy water was also measured by Mills and Hindin (326)and by Haldemanii and Emmett (328). Hall and Lutinski (331) obtained indications for the existeiice of more than one type of hydrogen on alumina by determining the rates of this reaction. Wade and Hackermaii (332) fouiid increasing heats of immersion in water with increasing temperature of pretreatment. From the observation that a maximum in the plot of A H vs T as had been observed with silica and titanium dioxide (cf. page 251) did iiot occur, i t was coiicluded that the rehydroxylation of alumina is very rapid, independent of the temperature of dehydration. The specific surface area was not changed by the heat treatment. The authors assumed a packing density of up to 19 OH-/I00 A2.'Phis value was calculated from the packing density of the oxygen ions in a-AI,O,. In a detailed infrared spectroscopic study, Peri and Hannaii (333) confirmed the existence of a t least three types of isolated hydroxyl groups on y-alumina. The absorption bands of molecular water were seen using alumina oidy without heat treatment. After heating above 400°,well-resolved peaks were observed a t 3698, 3737, and 3795 cm-'. They became distinct at 650-700" and were still recognizable at 900". All three peaks were shifted by a constant factor to 2733, 2759, and 2803 cm-l on treatment with D,O. The hydroxyl groups must be situated in the surface since their frequencies are influenced by the adsorption of CCI,. Exchange with D, was observed a t 250 and 500", the rate decreasing in the order of increasing stretching frequency. At 200", only the OD groups absorbing a t 2533 cm-1 exchanged with butene. An exchange or intraconversion was observed also with the intermediate OD group, while the group characterized by the 2803 cm-l wave number remained unchanged. Only the peaks with the highest and the lowest frequencies were shifted to smaller frequencies by adsorption of ammonia. Water was adsorbed in molecular form on a sample which had been previously heated t o 800". The three types of hydroxyl groups did not exchange their hydrogen below 250". Iiidications for more than three bands in the OD region were observed with a specially thick sample plate. The authors assumed a density of 12.5 hydroxyl groups per 100 A2 for a fully hydroxylated surface. The amount of escliaiigeable hydrogen remaining after evacuation a t 400" corresponded to 40% and a t 800" to 2% of this value. Chemical reactions of the hydroxyl groups were reported by Stiiber el u1. (225).y-Al,O, of high surface area (80 ma/gm)was esterified with alcohols using the autoclave technique. About 7.7 OCH, groups per 100 were formed with methanol. The surface alcoholates are very sensitive to hydrolysis, however. Therefore, the reaction products were

256

H. P. BOEHM

not hydrophobic. The formation of surface alkoxides was also described by Egorov et al. (331)and by Babushkin et al. (335).The latter authors reported that -Al-C bonds characterized by ail absorption a t 1250 cm-1 were formed as well a t 250-300". The formatioil of a hydrophobic partially esterified aluminum oxide monohydrate is described in a patent to Bugosh (336). Stilber et al. (225) succeeded in obtaining a hydrophobic product in the reaction of y-Al,O, with trimethylsilyl chloride. It contained ca. 10 trimethylsilyl groups per 100 A?. More t8hana monomolecular layer of trimethylsilyl groups was found, since one -Si(CH,), group covers a t least 38 Az. Similar results were obtained with a-Al,O,. By burning off the methyl groups, alumina with a monomolecular layer of silica was made. This silica layer proved to be very resistant against dissolution. Only a small fraction could be removed at pH X.3. Weiss et al. (337)studied the reaction of diborane with alumina as well as with silica and silica-alumina. From the ratio of the volumes of diborane consumed to hydrogen generated, it was concluded that Al-O-B,H, groups were formed on alumina whereas Si-0-BH, groups resulted on silica. A characteristic difference was also observed when the material thus treated was brought into contact with diborane labeled with boron-10 (338).Boron exchange occurred involving 100% of the boron chemically bound on silica, but only 50% of the boron on alumina. The same exchange values of 100 or 50%, respectively, were observed when the products of the reaction with diborane were allowed t o react with labeled pentaborane. Most of the work with alumina was done, however, attempting to elucidate the nature of the catalytically active sites in dehydrated alumina. The catalytic activity of alumina is enhanced by treatment with hydrofluoric acid. Oblad et al. (319)measured a higher activity in the isomerization of 1- and 2-pentene. Webb (339)studied the effect of HF treatment on ammonia adsorption by alumina. There was no difference in the capacity. However, the ammonia was more easily desorbed at a given temperature from the untreated sample. Apparently, the adsorption sites grew more strongly acidic by the treatment. No NH,+ ions, only NH, molecules were detected by their infrared spectra, indicating that the ammonia was hound by Lewis acids rather than Br~lnstedacids. The effect of fluoridation with hydrofluoric acid on the surface acidity of catalytic alumina was also studied by Ballou et al. (340).About 1yoof fluoride was taken up by the catalyst. The surface acidity was estimated ). addition of using a titration technique developed by Benesi ( 3 1 2 ~After varying amotint~~ of hatylamine in hensene solntion, the color cli~wges

CHEMICAL IDENTIFICATION OF SURFACE GROUPS

257

of adsorbed Hammett indicators of different basicities were observed. The results indicate that the surface acidity of both fluoridized and nonfluoridized alumina is destroyed by trace amounts of water vapor. The number of acid sites was the same in both samples when the adsorption of water was eliminated. Both are very strong acids as judged by the effect on the indicators. However, more water was necessary for poisoning of nonfluoridized alumina. The difference in water content (ca. 0.4 mmole/gm) was roughly equivalent t o the fluorine content of the HF-treated sample. Hall and Lutinski (331)reported that the concentration of hydroxyl groups exchanging with deuterium decreased after treatment with hydrofluoric acid. The fluorided alumina was much more active in the isomerization of cyclopropane than the normal material ( 3 4 1 b ) . Hirschler (.?&'), who also observed no difference in the quantity and strength of acid sites 1)y titration with Hammett indicators, found a distinct increase in acid strength when arylmethanols were used instead. One may conclude that surface hydroxyl ions may be replaced by fluoride ions of nearly equal ionic radius. In consequence, fewer sites can bind water vapor by strong hydrogen bonds. All of the water is available for poisoning of the active sites. Also, hydrogen bonding by neighboring OH groups as demonstrated by Glemser and Rieck (317) becomes less likely. Concerning the nature of the acid sites on dehydrated alumina, the chemical evidence is more in favor of Lewis-type than of Br0nstcd-type acids. Trambouze and Perrin (323)estimated the content of Lewis acid sites by thermometric titration of a slurry in benzene with dioxane. The authors stated that Leuis acidity was not, observed in boehmite and its tlehydratioii productq, only in the products obtained from liydrargillite. As mentioned earlier, Webb (939) found no indication of Brensted acidity; ammonia did not forni ammonium salts. The quantity of ammonia chemisorbed per unit area in the range from 175" to 500° was not a function of the hydrogen content. After extensive dehydration, more ammonia was chemisorbed a t 100 mm pressure, even a t 500°, than corresponded to the hydrogen present (341b). Parry (344)determined the infrared spectrum of pyridine adsorbed on 7-alumina dehydrated a t 450". Characteristic differences in the 14001700 cm-1 region exist in the spectra of pyridine adsorbed via hydrogen bonds, pyridinium ions, and pyridine coordinately bonded to electrophilic sites. Pyridinium ions are characterized by a strong band at 1540 cm-1 and a very strong band a t 1485-1500 cm-1; coordinately bonded pyridine has a strong absorption a t 1447-1460 cm-'. No evidence was found for the existence of Br~lnstedsites on the alumina surface,

258

H. P. BOEHM

whereas Lewis sites were abundant. Physically adsorbed and hydrogenbonded pyridine were removed by evacuation a t 150”. It seems very plausible that, on heating, water is evolved from neighboring surface hydroxyl groups leaving an 02- ion and a “hole” in the coordination sphere of the A13+ions as shown in Fig. 5. ?’his “hole” would be a powerful acceptor for nucleophilic reagents, especially in the case of tetrahedral coordination (Fig. 51)). The strong poisoning effect of water would be easily explained. The influence of the type of alumina and the starting material 011 the acidity and catalytic behavior was pointed out by Simon et ul, (345a)and by MacIver et al. (345b).While there was about the same concentration of acid sites in y-alumina and in y-alumina, those in 7-alumina proved to he more strongly acidic, as followed from NH, cheniisorption and from catalytic cracking experiments (.331b, 345b). The nature of the surface of alumina is importaiit in its application as an adsorbent for chromatography. This subjwt is covered by special literature. Inorganic ions can be separated on alumina as well as on silica (241).Anions are adsorbed together with bivalent cations, but not together with univalent cations (346a),indicating, again, equimolecular ion exchange. I n summary, hydroxide ions are present under normal conditions on the surface of alumiiia. Their behavior is similar to that of the hydroxide ions 011 TiO, surfaces, as far as i t has been investigated. Using infrared spectroscopic methods, three types of hydroxyl groups of somewhat different reactivity could be distinguished. Almost all work with alumina was concerned with the surface acidity that develops when alumina is dehydrated a t elevated temperatures. A discussion whether this acidity is caused by Brmsted or by Lewis acid sites was coiiviiiciiigly decided in favor of the assumption of Lewis acidity. On thermal treatment, water is evolved from two neighboring hydroxide ions which leaves the coordination sphere of one aluminum ion incomplete. Such aluminum ions act as powerful electroil acceptors. Alumina inity be catalytically as active as silica-alumina; it is more easily poisoned by water, however (341b). Sometimes the activity is enhanced hy very small water additions. The catalytic activity in the parahydrogen conversion and in the H,-D, equilibration is enhanced by y-irradiation, with a-Al,O, (346b) its well as with y-Al,O, ( 3 4 6 ~ ) No . paramagnetic spin centers were produced (3463).However, a distinct effect i n the hydrogen adsorption hehayior was observed (3464.

CHEMICAL IDENTIFICATION OF SURFACE QROUPS

259

VI. Surface Groups on Silica-Alumina Silica-alumina mixtures are of great technological importance in the oil industry as catalysts for petroleum processing. The cracking activity is closely linked to surface acidity. Other typical reactions catalyzed by silica-alumina are the dehydration of alcohols and the polymerization of olefins. Surface acidity and catalytic activity develop only after heat treatment of a coprecipitated mixture of amorphous silicon and aluminum oxides. Similar catalysts can be prepared by acid treatment of clay minerals, e.g., bentonite. The acidity is much stronger with silicaalumina than with either of the pure oxides. Maximum catalytic activity is usually observed after activation a t 500-600". At higher temperatures, the catalytic activity decreases again but, can be restored by rehydration, as was shown by Holm Pt nl. (347). The maximum of activity was repeatedly reported for compositions containing 20-40% of alumina. The nature of the acidic sites is still subject of lively discussion. One school of thought, based on a proposition by Thomas (348),attributes the acidity to substitution of Al3-t ions for Si4f ions in a tetrahedrally linked silica network. Electroneutrality is obtained by addition of protons. Others think that Lewis acid sites, as proposed by Milliken et al. (349),are responsible for the catalytic activity. Gray (350)suggested that only the alumina content was responsible and that a spinel-like phase was formed on heating with protons on certain octahedral positions. This subject has been discussed extensively in the literature (.351). The question is far from being settled; recent papers present evidence for either view. For instance, Ozaki and Kimura (352),using a deuterated catalyst for the isomerization of n-butene, found deuterium in the reaction products. This observation, which seems to favor the assumption of Bralisted acids, agrees with determinations by Hall et al. (330). Haldeman and Emmett (353) observed the same effect. They found, however, that the exchange rate was accelerated by adding small amounts of water, whereas an excess of water poisoned the reaction. The authors thought Lewis acid sites responsible (328).The enhancing effect of water was also observed by Hall et al. (341b). The poisoning effect of alkali ions on the cracking activity was demonstrated by Danforth (354) who reported a distinct influence of the ionic radius. Trambouze P t al. (355)determined Brernsted acidity by ion exchange with ammonium acetate and Lewis acidity by thermometric titration with dioxane. They reported that with increasing activation temperature the Brmsted acids decreased in quantity accompanied by an equivalent increase of

260

H. P. BOEHM

Lewis acid sites. Mapes and Eischens (356)concluded from the infrared spectra of chemisorbed ammonia molecules that the acid sites were mainly of the Lewis type. Nicholson (357),however, found that ammonia was adsorbed hy both Lewis and Brensted acids occurring in a quantitative ratio of 3:2. By measuring the exact wavelength of the Kor X-ray fluorescence radiation, Leonard et al. (358)concluded that essentially all of the aluminum ions are tetrahedrally coordinated in silica-alumina catalysts containing up to 60% of A1,0, and activated at 350"or higher. This observation supports Thomas's theory (348)of Brensted acidity. Brouwer (359),studying the formation of unipositive perylene radical ions on silica-alumina and fluoridized alumina, obtained evidence for the existence of Lewis acid sites. Rrensted acids were neutralized as sodium salts. The cracking of cumene was inhibited by this neutralization. Hall et al. (341b) also noticed a decreased activity in cyclopropane isomerization after treatment with alkali. The acidity was parallel t o the hydrogen content of the catalysts. On the other hand, Rooney and Pink (360) showed that a catalyst with its Lewis sites inactivated by adsorbed perylene radical ions was active in the polymerization of olefins. Apparently, there exist different sites able to catalyze different reactions. Holm and Blue (321) found that catalysts showing great activity in hydrogen-deuterium exchange proved poor in hydrogen transfer reactions, and vice versa. Hodgson and Raley (361a)attribute catalytic activity in olefin polymerization, in alkylation of aromatic hydrocarbons and in cracking reactions to Brensted acids, whereas oxidation sites were responsible for the formation of anion radicals. Oxidation sites are centers of varying affinity for single electrons, electron pairs, and hydride ions. Hirschler and Hudson (361b),however, favor the opinion that Brensted sites are exclusively responsible for the activity of silica-alumina. In studying the adsorption of perylene and of triphenylmethane, they concluded that carbonium ions are not formed by a hydride abstraction mechanism as claimed by Leftin (362). Instead, triphenylmethane is oxidized by chemisorbed oxygen to triphenylcarbinol in a photocatalyzed reaction, followed by reaction with a Brensted acid giving water and a triphenylmethyl carbonium ion. After treatment with anhydrous ammonia, the organic compound was recoversd by extraction as triphenylcarbinol. About thirteen molecules of ammonia per assumed Lewis site were required to poison the chemisorption of trityl ions. The authors explain the selective inhibition of certain catalyzed reactions by alkali by assuming that only certain of the acidic protons will ionexchange with alkali ions. Parry (344),analyzing the infrared spectrum of adRorbed pyridine as

CHEMICAL IDENTIFICATION OF SURFACE GROUPS

26 1

explained on page 257, found that both Brnrnsted and Lewis acidity were present on a Houdry cracking catalyst. This result was confirmed by Basila et al. (363)using the same technique. Approximately equal numbers of both types of acid sites were observed in dehydrated synthetic silica-alumina. Treatment with potassium acetate weakened the majority of Lewis sites and eliminated Brensted acidity. Water that was irreversibly adsorbed a t room temperature converted coordinately bonded pyridine into pyridinium ions. The chemisorbed water was removed, however, by pumping at 150". A similar effect had been observed by Leftin and Hall (364);the electronic spectra of chemisorbed carbonium ions disappeared upon addition of water and reappeared after brief evacuation. A model formulated by Basila et al. (363)suggests that all the primary acid sites were of the Lewis type centered on aluminum ions and that apparent Brraiisted sites were produced by a secondary interaction between the molecules adsorbed on these Lewis sites and nearby surface hydroxyl groups which are silanol groups. It would surpass the scope of this article to discuss in detail all the papers written on the complex question of whether Lewis or Brensted acids are responsible for the acidity of silica-alumina. The existence of hydroxyl groups or, rather, of active hydrogen was proven by exchange with D,O or D, (326, 328-330). Hall et nl. (330) compared the NMR spectra of silica, alumina, and silica-alumina catalysts. The spectra from silica-alumina outgassed at 500" were qualitatively indistinguishable from those from silica gel. However, this method is not very sensitive; Al-OH groups in amounts of less than 20% of the total hydroxyls would not have been detected. No indication of strongly acidic hydrogen was found; the lower limit of detectability was stated as 0.3 H+/100 Aa. The conclusion was that all or most of the hydroxyl groups were associated with silicon. Basila (365)studied the infrared spectrum of silica-alumina dehydrated a t 500". The technique developed by Peri and Hannan (333) was used. Only one OH stretching frequency a t 3745 cm-1 was observed. This coincides with the absorption of isolated hydroxyl groups on pure silica. The absorption peak is not influenced by the chemisorption of water vapor a t 150". The chemisorbed water retains its molecularity, does not form hydrogen bonds with the isolated silanol groups, mid is adsorbed on sites which can be poisoned by treatment with potassium acetate. A weak band at 1394 cm-I was tentatively assigned by Basila (365)t o surface A1-0 groups. It disappeared after exposure to water vapor a t 25 or 150" and reappeared on dehydration a t 400-500". It was not observed with samples treated with potassium acetate and also not with

262

H. P. BOEHM

FIG.5 . Ilrhy~lrationof liyclroxylatocl aluminn swfnrw: trtrnlieilml roorclinntinn of thc nluiniriuin inrlx.

((1)

witah nrttthehd; ( 6 ) with

pure silica. Perhaps this phenomenon is caused by surface configurations similar to Fig. 5. The observation of a single kind of surface hydroxyl grou 1)is in contrast to results by Weiss et al. (3.37) who measured the uptake of diborane by silica-alumina and the subsequent exchange ith laheled diboraiie (338). With samplc.; activated at, 100 a i d I50 , the ratio of tfihoi-aw consumed t o hydrogen evolved was intermediate betkt pen thc values found for pure silica and pure alumina. As has heen explained earlier, l0Oyoof the b r o i l bonnd by silica exchanges with diborane gas, while only half of the boron 611 alumina can be exchanged. With silica-alumina containing 12% Al,O,, exchangt. values between 50 and 1 0 0 ~ owere found, the result depending on the pretreatment temperature. The authors con-

CHEMICAL IDENTIFICATION O F SURFACE GROUPS

263

cliided t,hat,the hydroxyl groups were boiind to both silicon and aliiminum. With increasing temperature of pretreatment, a higher fraction of the hydroxyl groups was apparently attached to aluminum (27% of the total hydroxyls at 400" vs 38% at 250"). This result would indicate that hydroxyl groups on silicon are more easily removed during activation than those on aluminum. However, after treatment a t 500", only 13-19y0of the hydroxyl groups seemed t o be associated with aluminum. No evidence was ever obtained, though, that silica-alumina behaves like a mixture of silica and alumina. Determinations of active hydrogen with methyllithium and with methylmagnesium iodide were undertaken by Uytterhoeven and Fripiat (366).Only after outgassing at 600" or higher, did the results of both methods agree with each other and with the weight loss on calcination. The reactions proceeded more slowly than with L'Aerosil'' silica (195). Apparently, diffusion into the pores is hindered, especially with the Grignard compound. Fripiat and Gastuche (367)reported that ion exchange capacity and the number of hydroxyl groups which can be methylated with diazomethane agreed well for a fresh catalyst. More hydroxyl groups were detected by exchange with D,O. Assuming that the surface silanol groups were methylated exclusively and that all of the aluminum ions were located in the surface, the authors concluded that two hydroxyl groups were bound to each aluminum ion. Unfortunately, this result was not verified with a variety of catalysts. Surface compounds other than saltlike compounds on the surface of silica-alumina would not be expected to be very stable due to the strong surface acidity. Traces of water would decompose such compounds. Summarizing, it can be said that the existence of surface hydroxyl groups on silica-alumina is beyond doubt. However, in chemical reactions all of the hydroxyl groups behave just like silanol groups on silica. No conclusive evidence for the existence of hydroxyl groups bonded t o aluminum ions was ever obtained. The most that can be said is that surface silanol groups are much more stable than A1-OH groups. The silica-alumina surface is still more strongly acidic than the alumina surface. The acidity is less sensitive to poisoning by water. There has been much discussion whether the acidity of silica-alumina is caused by Brransted or by Lewis acid sites. This matter has not been settled definitely, although there is evidence that both types of acidity are present. This would explain the observation that the catalytic efficiency in different reactions may be selectively poisoned by different reagents.

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VII. Conclusion Surface hydroxyl groups are to he expected on all metal oxides. Only a few of the many insoluble oxides have been studied in this respect so far. With advances in the techniques of determination of traces of “impurity” elements or groups by physical methods or by microanalytical methods in combination with skillful preparative techniques, further progress in our knowledge of the surface chemistry should be expected. Interesting technological applications may be foreseen.

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Author Index Numbers in parentheses are reference numbers a n d indicate that a n author’s work is referred t o although his name is not cited in t h e text. Numbers in italic show the page o n which the complete reference is listed.

A

Ablyaev, Sh. A., 245(270, 271), 271 Acres, G. J. K., 258(346b), 273 Acton, E. M., 60(53), 92 Adkins, H., 52, 52(13, 15), 91 Ahrland, S., 130(40), 775, 240, 271 Alekseev, V. S., 220, 268 Alexander, L. E., 182(6), 187(6), 264 Alexanian, H., 246(285), 271 Amano, A., 132(55), 176 Anderson, J . H., Jr., 235, 270 Anderson, J. R., 95(11), 120, 146, 152(86), 176 Anderson, J. S., 38, 47 Anderson, K. H., 247, 272 AndrCu, P., 61, 84, 85(92), 92, 93 Andrew, J. F., 206, 217, 266 Andrew, L. T., 112(37), 721 Angyal, S. G., 151(82), 176 Antonowicz, K., 208, 267 Appleby, W. G., 52(27), g7 Arbuzov, Y. A., 52, 52(14), 91 Arendt, F., 227(174), 230(174), 233(174), 242(174), 269 Aristov, B. G., 238, 270 Arlman, E. J., 168, 777 Armstrong, E. J., 246(282), 277 Arnet, J. E., 33(35), 46’ Arnold, M., 246, 272 Arnold, R. T., 132(51), 176 Aschan, O., 183, 264 Ashby, E. C., 23(20), 46 Asinger, F., 29(29), 46 Avery, N. R., 95(11), 120

B Babkin, I. Yu., 236, 238(238), 270 Babushkin, A., 256, 273 275

Badger, G. M., 194(78), 195(78), 266 Bailey, G . C., 53(33), 97, 259(347), 273 Baker, C. J., 182, 264 Baker, M. M., 119(44, 45), 721 Baker, R. H., 128(30), 137(66), 151(30), 167 (30), 175, 176 Balaceanu, J. C., 52(22), 72, 91 Balandin, A. A., 128, 168, 175 Baler, R. K.,166(109), 177 Ballard, C. C., 237, 270 Ballhausen, C. J., 12(9), 46 Ballou, E. T., 256, 273 Baney, R. H., 228, 269 Bansal, R. C . , 187(48), 189, 265 Baraniecky, C., 212, 267 Barrer, R. M., 215, 220, 222, 267, 268 Barron, Y., 95(10), 120 Bartell, F. E., 183, 264 Barter, C., 245, 277 Barth, R . T., 256(340), 258(345b), 273 Barton, D. H. R., 61, 92 Barton, W. H., 67(70), 92 Basila, M. R., 261, 274 Basolo, F., 38(52), 47 Bastian, B. N., 67(71), 70(71), 92 Bauer, G., 236(227), 270 Bayer, L., 233(208), 269 Bazant, V., 62(62), 63(62), 92 Becker, H., 194(75). 253(309b), 266, 272 Beckett, C. W., 127, 149(81), 175, 776 Beebe, R. A., 185, 265 Beeck, O., 115(41), 119, 721, 128, 175 Behrmann, A. S., 188(49), 265 Belotserkovskii, G . M., 212(129), 267 Belov, N. V., 225(163), 268 Belyakova, L. D., 237, 270 Benesi, H. A., 53(40), 97, 242, 256, 258, 271, 273 Bennett, J. E., 206, 266 Benson, R. E., 245, 271

AUTHOR INDEX

276

Beranek, L., 62(62), 63(62), 92 Berg. O., 29(29), 16 Berger, G., 238, 270 Bergman, I., 246(287), 272 Bertrand, J. A , , 142(68). 176 Best, P., 233(220), 236(220), 270 Bhatt, M .V.,24(21), 46 Biltr, H., 191(71), 266 Blackburn, D. > I . , 53(33), 91 Blanc. E., 63, 9? Blanke, W..212, 267 Blue, R. W., 254(323), 260, 272 Blyholder, G.. 172(119, 120), 177 Bobka, R. I., 217(144). 219. 2/23 Boehm, H . P., 184, 185(3j), 186(45, 46), 187 (35, 45%46), 188(43, 46), 189. 190, 191, 1 9 3 0 5 , 46), 195. 196(31), 197(35, 45), 198(35), 199(35, 46), 201(35, 45, 46), 205(35, 46), 206(94), 21 1(33), 213(69), 214, 216, 220, 221, 222(35), 223(35, 46), 227(174), 229, 230(174), 233, 238, 239, 242, 244, 243(188). 246, 251(305), 252 (305), 253(305), 265, 2M, 267, 269, 270 271

Bohn, E., 236(225). 237(225), 247(225), 250 (225). 231 (223), 253(225), 256(225), ZiO Bolt, C. H.. 229, 269 Bond, G . C . , 95(7), 120, 124, 131, 137(5), 138 ( j ) , 142(5), 144(3). 175 Bondarenko, A . , 227(179), 269 Bondt, iv., 49(1), 90 Bonnetain. L., 217, 268 Bordwell, F. C., 84, 9.3 Boreskoc, G . K., 53(41), 91 Borisova, &I. S., 53(41) Bosman, J., 228(185), 239(185), 240(185), 269

Bouland, J . C., 214, 267 Bourguel, M.,125, 775 Bowden, F. P., 220, 2/23 Bowman, R. E., 84(96), 9.3 Bream, J. B., 143, 176 Breslow, D. S., 22, 24(22a, 22b), 27, 28, 37 (49), 36, 47 Breisacher, P., 215, 268 Bretschneider, O., 209(112), 267 Brey, W. S . , , J r , 32(1X), 72, 91, 254(323), 272 Brichard, R., 234(215), 270 Bridges, J. M.,258, 273 Briegleb, G., 112(36), 121 Broge, E. C., 236, 237(229), 270 Brouwer, D. hf., 260, 273

Brown, C., 215, 217, 267 Brown, H. C.. 23(20), 24(21), d6 Brown, H. T., 254(319), 272 Brown, J. F., 254(313), 272 Brown, R. D.. l00(20), 103(20), 120 Brunner, G . O., 227(172), 269 Bugosh, J.. 236, 273 Burstein, R., 183, 208(107, 108), 209, 210, 26J, 267

Burwell, R. L., Jr., 61. 92, 124, 130, 132, 134 (7), 13% 142, 146, 147(7, 74), 154(92), 160. 164, 171(37), 173(74), 175, 176, 177 Bussmann, E., 61(60). 92 C

Cais, M.,32(33), ./6 Calderazzo, F., 38(52), 47 Campbell, J. E., 194(78), 195(78), 2/55 Campbell. W. E., 167. l77 Cardew, M..130(37). 17.5 Carman, P. C., 226, 228, 2158 Cartwright, J., 246(287). 272 Castle, 1. E . , 245, 271 Caswell, C., 246(28?). 2i2 Caswell. L. R.. 166(98), 177 Chalk, A. J . , 40, 42, 47 Chatt, J., 4, 38, 40, 41, 45, 47, 101(28), 120, 130(33, 34, 40), 131(33, 34,43), 154, 172 (94), 175, 177 Cheselke, F. J., 254(330), 259(330), 273 Chessick, J. J., 185(39), 251, 252, 265, 272 Chmutov, K., 183(22), 209(22), 264 Choppin, G. R., 85(99), 93 Chou, C.-S., 62(62), 63(62), 92 Clark, A., 259(347), 27.3 Clark, D., 254(313), 272 Clark, W . C., 253(307b), 272 Clauss, A., 184(31), 191(69), 196(31), 213 (69), 214, 216(69), 265, 266, 267 Clossen, R. D., 38(51). -17 Coates,G. E., 12(9), 15(10), -16, 330(35), 131, 175

Coes, L., Jr., 225(162), 268 Coffield, T. H., 38(51), 97 Collins, H. C., 84(89), 9.3 Cornbrisson, J . , 206(96b), 2 M Cook, E. L., 253(308), 272 Cook, J. W., 194(78), 195(78), 2/55 Cope, A. C., 60(53), 84, 92, 9.3 Corell, hi.$194(75), 266 Corey, E. J . , 147(76), 176

277

AUTHOR INDEX Corey, F. A., 147(76), 776 Cornelius, E. B., 254, 272 Cornet, D., 95(10), 120 Corse, J., 61(59), 65(59), 92 Cossee, P., 167, 777 Cotton, F. A,, 38(52), 47, 132(54), 776 Cottrell, T. L., 154(93), 777 Coull, J., 52(24), 97 Coulson, C. A., 103(21), 120 Cozort, R., 135(63), 149(63), 776 Cram, D. J., 59(51), 84(97), 92, 93 Crawford, E., 95(5), 106(5), 115(5), 117, 720, 152(87), 154, 172(119), 776, 777 Crerner, R. D., 131(45), 775 Cripps, H. N., 21(12), 46, 142(67), 776 Crocker, G . R., 182(7), 187(7), 214, 26.1, 267 CsalBn, E., 184(29), 264 Cummings, W. W., 240(253b), 277

D Dagger, D. L., 240(253b), 270 Darnm, K., 228(183), 230(183), 242(183), 269 Danforth, J. D., 259, 273 D’Ans, J., 273 Darlow, B., 227, 269 Darwish, D., 63(63), 92 Dauben, H. J., 33(36), 46 Davies, N. R., 41, 43, 47, 130(40), 775 Davis, S. B., 126(16), 127(16), 155(16), 175 Day, M . K. B., 254(312), 272 de Boer, J. H . , 227, 244, 269, 271 De Bruin, W. J., 195, 205, 266 DeFazio, C. A , , 72(77), 78(77), 92 Deirnan, J. R., 49(1), 90 de Kadt, G. S., 183, 264 DeKirnpe, C. J., 260, 273 Dell, R. M., 185, 265 de Morgues, L., 259(355), 273 Dempster, P. B., 246(283), 277 DePuy, C. H., 84(87, 89), 92, 93 Deuel, H., 230, 245, 269, 277 Dewar, M. J. S., 5, 45, 130, 77.5 Dibeler, V. H., 124, 140, 141, 171(8), 175 Diehl, E., 185(35), 186, 187(35, 45, 46), 188 (45, 46), 189(35), 190(46), 191(35, 45, 46), 193, 194, 195(35, 46), 196, 197(35, 45), 198(35, 47), 199(35, 46), 200, 201 (35, 45, 46), 202, 205(35, 46), 206(94), 21 1, 220(35), 221(35), 222(35), 223(35, 46), 265, 266, 267 Dienes, G . J., 258(346d), 273

Dillon, J. A,, Jr., 220(153b), 223(153b), 224 (153b), 268 DiLuzio, J. W., 40, 47 Dinius, R. H., 85(99), 93 Ditmarsch, R., 228(185), 239(185), 240(185), 269 Dixon, J. A,, 194(76), 266 Dmuchovsky, B., 133(58), 135(58, 64), 136 (64), 137(64), 138(64), 148(64), 149, 151, 156(97), 157(97), 158(97), 167(97), 176, 177 Doak, G. O., 9, 46 Dobratz, C. J., 52(27), 97 Dode, M., 52(21), 91 Doering, W. F . , 126(16), 127(16), 155(16), I75 Dogadkin, B. A , , 212, 267 Donnet, J. B., 188(52, 58), 204, 206, 207, 208 (58, 102), 214, 219(100), 220(100), 265, 266, 267 Dostrovsky, I., 73, 92 Drogaleva, I. V., 236(222), 270 Drushel, H. V., 203, 204, 266 Dubbell, D., 156(97), 157(97), 158(97), 167 (97), 777 Dubinin, M. M., 238(237), 270 Duffield, J., 214(133a), 267 Dugger, D. L,, 240(253b), 277 Dugone, J., 208(103), 266 Duncanson, L. A,, 5, 38, 45, 47, 101(28), 720, 130(34), 775 Dunkel, M., 128, 156(24), 775 Dunning, H. N., 53(32), 97 Dussinger, C. S., 52(26), 97 Duval, X., 217(141), 268 Dzisko, U. A,, 53(41), 97

E

Eaton, D. C., 143(70), 776 Ebert, K. H., 238, 270 Egorov, M. M., 243, 244, 246(286), 256, 271, 273 Egorova, T. S., 243(262), 244(262), Eigenrnann,. G. W., 132(51), 776 Eischens, R. P., 129, 132, 775, 776. 273 El-Ahmadi Heiba, I., 78(82), 92 Elder, L. W., 209, 267 Eley, D. D., 106(33), 7?1, 132, 168, 177, 258(346b), 273

247, 277

260,

77.5,

AUTHOR W E X

278

Eliel, E. L., 145(72), 147(72), 176 Elliott, W .W , 254(313), 272 Emerson, G . F., 26, 31. 32(32), 33(32), 46 Emerson, M .T., 85(99), 93 Emmett, P . H . , 254, 2 5 j 3 259, 261(328), 273 Endell, K., 226(168), 268 Enoksson, B . , 212, 267 Errnatov, S . E., 245(270, 271), 271 Ervin. (; , 254(311), 272 Eschigoya, E., 53, 53071, 97 Etienne, h.,206, 266 Etzel, K.. 227(171), 268 Eucken, A . , 5 1 , 90 Ewell, R . H . , 52(23), 91 Eyring, H , 170(118), 177

F Farkas, A . , 95, 119, 120, 125, 132, 140, 151, 152, 175, 176 F‘arkas, L., 95, 119, 120, 125, 132, 140, 151, 152. 17.5, 176 Farnsworth, H. E., 220, 223(153b), 224(lj3b,c), 268

Fauss, R.. 228(183), 230(183), 242(183), 269 Feacham, G . , 52. 91 Fechtig, O., 64(66), YZ Fedorov, G G . 183(24), 218(24, l49-152), 219(152), 264, 268 Feigl, F.. 213, 267 Fichtel, K., 35, 37 Fieser, L. F.. 128, 175 Fieser, .\I.. 128. 175 Fischer, E. 0 , 33(37), 35 46, 47 Fischer, F , 213, 267 Fischer. J.. 2531307c), 272 Fischer. 0 , 192(:2). ?th Fischer. k. D., i3(371. Jh Flinn, R. X., 256/310j. 2 7 j Florke. 0 . LV . 225: 206 Folman, 11..230. 264 Fookson. -4.. 52126). 91 Fraissard, J.. 232, 269 Francois-Kosetti, J , 231 (201), 232(201). 2fL’ Franklin. R E.. 185f3-). 265 Freeman. S . K . . 149(81). I76 French, G . X l . , 240. 271 Frenzel, A . 184(29). 26J Fripiat. J . J , 230. 234, 260. 263, 269, 270 273, 27J Froem.idori D . H . 84(89j, 93

Frost, A . A . , 124(1), 174

Frurnkin, A., 183, 208, 209, 210, 264, 267 Fukushirna, D. K., 130, 175 G

Gallagher, T. F . , 130, 175 Ganichenko, L. G., 238, 251, 270, 272 Garnert, J. L., 95(1-4), 97(3), 98(2-4, IS), 99(2-4), 102(2, 4 ) , 107 (2, 3, 4, 18), 108 (2, 41, 113(38), 114(39), 115(2, 4, 38), 116(2, 4), 720, 121, 154, 177 Garten, V . A . , 186(44). 189(44), 191, 192 (73), 193, 195, 202, 203, 204, 206, 209, 219(111), 220(111), 221(111), 265, 266, 26 7 Gasser, C. G., 185, 26.5 Gastuche, M.-C., 234(215), 263, 270, 274 Gaudin, A. M.,247, 272 Gault, F. G . , 95(9, l o ) , 120, 130(38) 153, 165(38), 172(38), 175, 176 Geldreich, L , 208(102), 266 Gentili, R., 245, 271 Gerberich, H . R.. 257(341b), 258(341b), 239, 260, 273 Getrost, H., 239(243-246), 270 Gibb, J . G., 246(284), 271 Gibson, D. H . , 34(39), 46 Ginsberg, S. H., 254(315), 272 Glasstone, S . , 170(118), 177 Glernser, O., 253(309a), 254, 257, 272 Goates. J R.. 247, 272 Gokcek, C , 131, 237, 238, 242, 2iO Goser, C , 233(208), 2/24 Goetz, R. W . 26. 31(23), 46 Goldfarb, I . , 21(13), A Goldwasser, S . , 52(29), 91 Gordon, bl , 238(239), 270 Gorin, E.. 215, 268 Goubeau, J.. 233(207), 269 G r a h a m , D., 217, 268 G r a y , H. B.. 12(9), J6 G r a y . T. J . , 252, 259. 272, 273 Green. 11. L. H . . 34, 35, 36, 37, 47 Greenberg. S.. 228 269 Greenhalgh. K K . . 125. 152, 175 Greenlee. K . K., 156. 177 Gregg. S. J . , 233. 271 Greiner, R M’ , 67(70), 92 Grenthe. I . 240(250. 252), 271 Grohn. H.. 245. 271

AUTHOR INDEX Groll, E., 182(5), 264 Grunwald, E., 61(59), 65(59), 92 Gustafson, H., 188(49), 265 Gutmann, J. R., 114, 121 Guy, R. G., 775 H

Haag, W . O., 53, 54(36), 55, 56, 74, 77(36), 83, 84, 97, 93 Hackermann, N . , 100(26), 112(26), 120, 251, 255, 272, 273 Hadler, H . I., 128, 775 Hafner, W., 38, 39(59), 47 Haldermann, R. G., 254, 255, 259, 261(328), 273

Hall, W . K., 254, 255, 257, 258, 259, 260, 261, 274 Hallum, J. V., 203, 204, 266 Halpern, J., 131, 170(44), 175 Halpern, W . , 135(63), 149(63), 156(97), 158(97, 104), 167(97), 176, 177 Hamilton, W . M., 61(57), 92 Hammond, G. S., 84(89), 93 Hanhardt, H., 84(88), 92 Hannan, R. B . , 56, 91, 255, 261, 273 Hanner, Z. K., 106(34), 721 Hanwell, A. R., 220, 268 Hardy, P. E., 52(23), 91 Harker, H., 208, 267 Harper, R. J., 153, 159, 176 Harrod, J. F., 40, 42, 47, 131(47), 175 Hartog, F., 152(88), 158, 159, 176, 177 Hassel, O., 61(55), 92 Hay, R. G., 52(24), 91 Hayward, D. O., 132(52), 176 Hazel, F., 238, 270 Healey, F. H., 185, 265 Heck, R. F., 22, 23, 24(22a, 22b), 27, 28, 37 (49), 46, 47 Heck, W . , 185(35), 186(46), 187(35, 46), 188(46), 189(35), 190(46), 191(35, 46), 193(35, 46), 195(35, 46), 197(35), 198 (35), 199(35, 46), 201(35, 46), 205(35, 46), 206(94), 21 1 (35), 220(35), 221 (35), 222(35), 223(35, 46), 265, 266 Heckman, F. A . , 214, 267 Heine, H. W . , 67(69, 70), 92 Heinzel, M., 64(66), 92 Henbest, H. B . , 143(70), 176 Henderson, L., 98(18), 107(18), 120

279

Henne, A. L., 52(17), 91 Hennig, G. R. 191, 200, 218, 224(87, 88), 265, 266

Hennion, G . F., 23(20), 46 Henrich, G., 188(58), 204, 206(58, 100, 101) 207(101), 208(5S, lOZ), 219(100), 220 (loo), 265, 266 Henry, P. M., 39, 47 Hepp, E., 192(72), 266 Herling, J., 75, 78(80, 83), 79, 92 Hermans, M . E. A., 244(264), 271 Herrmann, M., 251, 252, 253(305), 272 Heston, W . M., Jr., 229, 244, 269 Hill, K. J., 254(312), 272 Hindin, S. G., 55, 68(43), 91, 254, 255, 261 (326), 272, 273 Hirschler, A . E., 257, 259(351), 260, 274 Hodgson, R. L., 273 Hoehn, H. H., 21(12), 46, 142(67), 176 Hofrnann, G., 239(243), 270 Hofmann, K. A., 220, 268 Hofmann, U., 182, 184, 185, 188(28), 190 (64), 191(28, 69), 196(31), 199, 212, 213(69), 214, 216(69), 226, 264, 265, 266, 267, 268

Hollabaugh, C . M., 251, 252, 272 Holm, V. C . F., 53(33), 91, 254(321), 259, 260, 272, 273 Holness, N. J., 63(63), 92 Holst, R., 190(64), 214(64), 265 Holt, J. T., 135(60), 136(60), 159(60), 167 (60), 176 Holt, P. F., 246, 272 Honnen, L. R., 33(36), 46 Horiuti, I., 132, 133, 151(50, 83), 152, 176 Horiuti, J., 95, 120 Howard, F. L., 52(26), 97 Howard, J. P., 240, 271 Hawk, B. H . , 21(12), 46, 141(67), 176 Hubele, A , , 64(66), 92 Huber, G., 230, 269 Huckel, W . , 60(52), 61(52, 58), 64(66), 92 Hudson, J. E., 260, 274 Hueber, F., 188(52), 265 Hiittig, W . , 254(315), 272 Huffman, E. W . D., 185(38), 191(38), 192 (38), 203(38), 204(38), 265 Huggins, G. M., 243, 277 Hulburt, H. M., 168, 777 Hulett, G. A., 183, 264 Huntsman, W. D., 135, 176

AUTHOR INDEX

280

Hussey, A . S ., 128(30), 137(66), I51(30),

166, 167(30), 775, 176, 177

’

I

Ibers, J . A , 41,47 Ignat‘eva, L. A , 256(334,335), 273 Iler, R. K., 226, 227, 229(190), 236, 237

(229), 241, 244(190), 268, 269, 270, 277 ll’in, B. W., 227(178), 244(178), 269 Irnelik, B.,231,232,269 Ingold, C. K., 59(50), 84(88), 92, 132, 176 Ingrarn, D J. E., 206,266 Ipatieff, V.N., 49(2), 50, 52(20, 28). 66(67),

90, 91, 92

Irby, B. N..240(253b), 271 Isirikyan, A A., 244(265), 252, 271, 272 J

IjI(73). 152(86, 87), 153. 154, 135(59), 157,159. 162(59), 163(38), 172(38, 59, 119). 77,i, 776, 177 Kernpis, E. B..246. 272 Kenttarnaa, J.. 37(48), J7 Keulks, C . W.,166(109), 777 Kimberlin, C. N..246(278). 271 Kimura, K.. 259. 27,3 King, A.. 183, 184, 209. M J , 265 King. D. T., 246,272 King, R.B., 32(34), 33(34), 46 King, R. W.,84(87), 92 Kinney, C. R., 212. 267 Kipling, J . J . , 185, 265 Kirch, L., 21(13), 22, 46 Kirchner, K., 239,270 Kiselev, A. V., 185, 204,227,234(214),236, 237,238(237, 2381, 243, 244, 252. 265, 266, 269, -370, 271

V. F., 183(24), 218. 219(152), 235, 243(262), 244(178,262,268), 247. 251, 256(335), 26J, 268, 269, 277, 272, 273 Klaubunovskii, E. I . , 128, 775 Klein, E., 233(309b), 272 Klein, F. S.. 73,92 Kloepfer, H., 213,268 Kmet. T. J., 84(96), 93 Kmetko, E. A . , 190(65), 191(65), 265 128, 775 Knapp, E. C., 212,267 Jenner, E. L., 131(45), 175 Knight, J. A., 231 (ZOOb), 256(337, 338),262 Jira, R.,38(57), 39(59), 47 (337,338), 269! 27.3 Jockers, K., 239,258(241), 270 Kochloefl, K., 62,63.92 Johnson, O., 53(39), 97 Kohlschutter, H. W.,233(220), 236, 239, Jonassen, H . B., 37(48), 47, 142(68), 176 243,270, 271 Jones, H. W., 61(59), 65(59), 92 Kohn, H. W.,245.258(346c), 277, 273 Joy, J. R., 38, 47 Kojer, H . , 38(57), 47 Jungers, J. C., 52(22), 72,91, 167, 177 Kolthoff, I. SI.,183. 241,26J, 271 Juza, R.,212,267 Kornarewsky, V. I., 52(25), 91 Koopmans, K., 247,272 K Korolev, A. Ya., 183(41),236(221, 222), 265, Jackson, C., 208,267 Jaeger, C., 214,267 Janchen, D., 273 Jaffi, H. H., 9,46 Jahr, K . F., 239,270 James, B. R . , 131(47), 175 Jander, C., 239,270 Jenkins, C. I . , 115(42), 119(42, 44), 127,

Kiselev,

270

Karnpf, G., 243,244,271 Koutecky, J., 220,268 Kantner, T.R., 261(363), 27-1 Kovaleva, N. V., 185(41), 204(91), 212, 236 Kapranos, S. W., 52(27), 91 (221j,265, 266, 267, 270 Karapinka, G . L., 23, 24,25(18), J6 Kozawa, h., 241. 271 Kartaradze, N. N.,204(91), 2M Kozikohski, J., 38(51), 17 Kautsky, H , 239,270 Krasil’nikov, K . G . , 227,238(237), 243(262), Kazansky, V. B., 245,271 244(177, 262,268), 246(286), 247, 256 Keat, P. P., 225(161), 268 ( 3 3 5 ) , 269. 270, 271, 272, 27.3 Keefer, R. M.,112(37), 121 Kraus, C . , 185, 265, 266 Keller, J., 233(207), 269 Kraus, SI.,62(62),63(62), 92 Kernball, C., 95(5, 9), 1 l 5 ( 5 ) , 106(5), 117, Krieger. K . A , 52(18), 72,97, 254(323), 272 120, 130(38), 134(59), 143(73), 146, Krug, J,. 180(1), 26.1

AUTHOR INDEX Krumholz, P., 29(27), 46 Kruyt, H. R., 183, 264 Ku, V., 158, 177 Kuchinskii, E., 208, 267 Kumar, S., 197(81), 266 Kurz, J., 64(66). 92 Kwiatek. J., 36, 37, 47

L La Bastide, G., 211(120), 267 Laidler, K. J., 170(118), 177 Laine, N. R., 217, 268 Lamb, A. B., 209, 267 Lander, J. J., 222, 223, 224( 158), 268 Landis, P. S., 78(82), 92 Lang, F. M., 214, 267 Lasky, J. S., 41, 47 Lauer, W. M., 115(43), 121 Lauwerenburg, A., 49(1), 90 Laves, F., 227(172), 269 Laxen, P. A., 247(293), 272 LeBel, N. A,, 84(91), 93 Lee, H. H., 84(91), 93 Lee, J. K., 254, 261(329), 273 Leftin, H. P., 254(330), 259(330), 260, 261. 274

Legutke, G., 60(52), 61(52), 92 Lennard-Jones, J. E., 99, 720 Leonard, A., 260, 273 Letort, M., 217(141), 268 Letterer, R., 84(92), 85(92), 93 Leunig, H., 188(53, 54), 265 Levine, P., 126(16), 127(16), 155(16), 175 Levit, R. M., 212(129), 267 Lewis, F. A., 181(2), 264 Lezhnev, N. N., 218(151), 268 Lichtner, A,, 258(345a), 273 Liebau, F., 226(165), 268 Lieflander, M., 235, 236(225), 240, 247 (218, 225), 250, 251(225), 255 (225), 256(225), 270 Lindsey, R. V., Jr., 131(45), 175 Linstead, R. P., 126, 127, 155, 175 Lippens, B. C., 56, 97 Littlewood, A. B., 130(37), 775 Low, W., 84(92, 93), 85(92), 93 Loewenthal, H. J. E., 143(69), 176 Losenbeck, 0.. 228(184), 269 Lowen, W. K., 236, 270 Lowry, H. H., 183, 264 Lutinski, F. E., 255, 257,(341b), 258(341b), 259, 260, 273

28 1

Lygin. V. I., 204(91), 234(214), 266, 270 Lyon, L. L.. 182(7), 187(7), 214, 264, 267 M

Maatman, R. W., 240, 242, 271 McCain, C. C., 252(307a), 272 McCaleb, C. S., 156(96), 177 McClellan, W. R., 21(12), 46, 142(67), 176 McConnell, B. L., 240(253b), 271 McCusker, P. A,, 23(20), 46 MacDonald, C. G . , 151(82), 176 McDonald, R. S., 234, 269 MacIver, D. S., 258, 273 McQuillin, F. J., 130, 775 McWhorter, J. R., 237(229), 270 Madden, M . F., 152(89), 157, 776 Madison, N. L., 135(62), 176 Mador, I. L., 36, 47 Mahajan, 0. P., 188(51, 56), 265 Mahler, J. E., 34(38, 39), 46 Mahmoud, B. H., 156, 777 Maire, G., 95(10), 120 Makrides, A. C., 100(26), 112(26), 720 Manassen, J., 66, 73, 92 Manuel, T. A , , 30, 32(34), 33(34), 46 Mapes, J. E., 260, 273 Markby, R., 29(28a, b), 46 Marsh, J. B., 220, 224(153c), 268 Marshal, H., 61(59), 65(59>, 92 Marx, P. C., 215, 268 Masse, N. G., 252(307a), 272 Mathieu, M.-V., 232, 269 Matignon, C., 52(21), 97 Matsen, F. A., 100, 112(26), 720 Matuszak, A. H., 52(17), 91 Maucher, D., 64(66), 92 Mawby, R . J., 38(52), 47 Maxwell, R. J., 81, 84(86), 92 Meador, W. R., 147(77), 176 Mears, T. W., 52(26), 91 Melander, L., 100(22), 104, 120 Mellor, D. P., 131(42), 775 Messenger, J. V., 254(319), 272 Meyer, E. F., 124, 160, 164, 175 Meyer, R., 188(55), 189(55), 265 Miedtank, S., 239(245, 246), 270 Mignolet, J. C. P., 102, 720 Miller, A. D., 67(70), 92 Miller, E. J., 183, 209(115), 264, 267 Milligan, W . O., 253(308), 272 Milliken, T. H., 254(320), 259(349), 272, 273

AUTHOR tNDEX

282

Mills. G . A., 254(320. 326), 255, 259(349), 261(326),272, 271 hloiseev, 1. 1.. 39. J i hlontet, G . L , 191,218. 266 hlontgorner). C. W.,52f24). 91 hlooi, J., 214(133a). 267 Moore. A . W.,18113).26-1 hIoore, D. b . .3’(48), 17. 142(68). 776 hloore. LV. R.. 84(9l),93, 163. 177 hlorrison, J., 222. 223,224(138j. 268 hlorse. B. K . . 61(59).65(59). 92 hlosher. H.S.. 81.92 hlottl. J.. 1 1 1 f 3 3 j . 721 hloulson. A J., Z Z ~ ( ~ ~268 OJ. hloureu. H . . 52(21). 91 hlrozowski. S.,206.217.266 hliiller, E . 191(70), 264 Lluetterries, E. L . , 21(12). J6, 142(67), 176 hluhs. 11 A . 117(78). 166(78), 176 hlulliken. R.S . 8,J6, 100. 120 Llurari. K . . 191(80). 266 hlurina, L.. V , 25li304j.272 Murray, .\I. J., 52(25), 91 hluttik. G . G.. 243,244,271 N

Nabors, L. G . , 183(38j, 191(38), 192(38). 203(38). 204(38), 26.5 Saccache. C . , 231,232.269 S a g a k u r a , S., 103(32), 120 S a p ) , P. L I.. 34,35,37?37 Sakayoma, T., 11 1(35),121 S a r a g o n , E. X.. 52(30),91 Nath, J , 185(36), 189(36),265 Naveau. H , 230,242,263(193),269 Seimark, I. E.. 238. 246,270, 271 Neureiter, N . T., 84,33 Sewrnan, hf. S., 194(77j. 195(77), 2Mj Newsorne, J. W.,234(310), 272 Nicholson, D.E.. 260. 273 Nissen, B. H.. 52(11).91 Nobbe. P., 212. 267 Soll, W , 226. 228,230, 242. 268,269 Noller, H . . 61(60).84(92.93).83(92),92, 93 Noren, 8..240(230), 240(230. 252).271 Novikova, 1. S.. 218(131), 268 Novce, D.S . 67(71).7 O U l ) . 2 0

Oberender. F. C . 194/76),266

O b l a d . A . G . , 254,256. 259(349),272, 273 O d d o u x , J . , 188(52),2% O g a w a . I . , 183. 26.I O g d e n . C . . 151f83).176 Ohlerich, G . . 184. 183. 188(28),199,212, 26 J O k u d a , Y . , 27(25). 28(23). 16 Olberg. R.C.. 66.92 OlechoHski. J . R . , 147(79). 176 O r c h i n , h l . , 21, 22(14). 23,24,25(18). 26, 31(23). 38,43,J6, J7 O r d . W . O . , 130(39),175 O’Reilly. D.E.. 2.54(330), 259(330). 273 Orgel. L . E.. l I ( 8 ) . $6, 100, 120 O s b o r n , J. A,. 131(46). 170(46). 175 O t r a r , B..61(35),!Z O z a k a , A , 259,273

P Paetzold, H . , I91(7l), 264 PapCe, D.. 234(316), 272 Pariisky, G B.. 245,271 Parravano. G . , 132f55). 776 Parry, E. P., 237,260,273 Pass, G.. 130(37), 175 Paudert, R.,245.271 Pauling. L.,9, 16, 190, 225(164), 249. 265, 268, 272 Pearson. R G . . 38(32). 47. 124(1), 174 Peri. J. B., 154(92), 177. 255, 261. 273 Perkins, P P..52(12),91 Perri, J . B . , 56, 61(46), 85(47), 91 Perrin. h i . , 257,239(33j), 273 Petit, J . , 233(307c),272 Pettit, R 26,31, 32(32). 33(33), 33(32), 34 (38,39). 36 Phillips, h l . J.. 172(119). 177 Phillipson. J J . . 35, J7 Pierotti, R. A , 214(133a), 267 Pillai. C. N . . 60.61(54). 68(73), 70(73), 80. 83(84). 83(84),89. M Pines, H.. 52(19). 53. 53(31). 54(36). 55, 36. 60. 61(54). 63,66(67. 68). 68(72. 73), 70(73),74. 7 5 , 77(36). 78(80. 83), 79, 80. 83(49. 84). 84. 83(84), 89. 91, 92, 9.3 Pink, R C.. 260,273 Pitzer. K. S., 127(18),l49(81). 175, 176 Plaksin, I. S . .220.268 Plass, R . 184(31). 196(31). 26i Plisken. W A . 129. 132, 175, 776 Pohl. K . , 258(345a), 273 ~

283

AUTHOR INDEX Poisson, R., 253(307c), 272 Polansky, T. S . , 212, 267 Polanyi, M., 95, 120, 125, 132, 133, 151, 152, 175, 176 Pornerantz, P., 52(26), 91 Ponornarenko, E. A., 208(108), 267 Popova, S. V , 225(163), 268 Porte, H. A., 61(57), 92 Pranschke, A., 213, 267 Pulatov, U. U., 245(271), 277 Puri, B. R . , 185, 187(48), 188(51, 56, 57), 189, 197, 265, 266 Purles, E. L., 72(77), 78(77), 92

Rowlinson, C., 146(74), 147(74), 173(74), 176 Rudorff, G., 190(64), 214(64), 265 Ruess, G., 184(30), 190(64), 214(64), 264,265 Ruttinger, R., 38(57), 47 Rundel, W . , 191(70), 266 Russ, A , , 190(64), 214(64), 265 Russell, A. S . , 254(310), 272 Ruston, W., 190(64), 214(64), 265 Rutkowski, A. J., 23(20), 46 Ruzicka, L., 127(20), 175 Rylander, P. N., 156(99), 177 S

R Rader, C. P., 98(l7), 107(17), 108, 120, 167, 177 Raffael, R. A,, 194(78), 195(78), 266 Ragoss, A . , 190(64), 214(64), 265 Raley, J. H., 273 Ravoire, J., 68(72), 92 Rechrnann, H., 253(309b), 272 Redrnond, J. P., 215, 267 Reid, E. E., 51, 90 Reitzer, C., 188(52), 265 Rhead, T. F. E., 182, 264 Rhee, K. H., 261(363), 274 Rich, E. H., 52(26), 91 Richardson, J. W., 15(11), 17(11), 46 Rideal, E. K., 115(42), 119, 121, 128, 129, 132, 145(73), 151(73), 175, 176 Rieck, G . , 254, 257, 272 Rieck, G. D., 247, 272 Rienacker, G., 53(42), 91 Riess, G., 188(52), 206(101), 207(101), 208 (102), 265, 266 Riesz, P., 72(76), 78(77), 92 Riley, H. L., 212, 267 Rinehart, R. E., 41, 47 Ritchie, P. D., 246(283, 284), 277 Rivin, D., 187(48), 197, 205, 209(83), 210, 219, 265, 266 Roberts, J. P., 227(170), 268 Robinson, M . J. T., 128, 175 Roebuck, A. K., 52, 52(15), 91 Rooney, J . J., 95(6, 9), 116, 119, 120, 130, 147, 153, 165, 172, 175, 176, 260, 273 Roos, L., 43, 47 Rosenblatt, D. B., 258(346d), 273 Ross, R . A., 227, 269

Sabatier, P., 51, 90 Sanderson, W. A., 81, 92 Sandle, N. K., 197(81), 266 Sappok, R., 185(35), 187(35), 189(35), 191 (35), 193(35), 195(35), 197(35), (35), 199(35), 201(35), 205(35), (351, 220(35), 221(35), 222(35), (35), 265, Sauvage, J. F., 128, 137(66), 151, 167, 7 76 Savage, R . H., 215, 217, 267 Schaad, E., 52(20), 91 Schaap, L . A., 53(31), 91 Schafer, H., 227(171), 233(208, 209),

198 211 223

175,

268, 269 Schappell, F., 63, 92 Scheibe, H., 258(345a), 273 Schlesinger, S. I., 135(62), 176 Schlier, R . E., 220(153b), 223(153b), 224 (153b), 268 Schmitz, E., 84(92), 85(92), 93 Schneider, A,, 259(351), 273 Schneider, M., 190, 227, 228, 229, 230(174), 233(174), 238, 239, 242, 244, 245(188), 246, 265, 269, 270. 271 Schock, R. U., Jr., 238(239), 270 Schroeter, G., 197, 266 Schuetz, R . D., 156(98, IOO), 177 Schulman, G . P., 78, 92 Schwab, G . M., 51, 85(98), 90, 93 Schwab, G.-M., 239, 258(241), 270 Schwab-Agallidis, E., 51, 90 Scott, A. I., 194(78), 195(78), 266 Sears, G. W., Jr., 229, 242, 244(190), 269 Sedlrneier, J., 38(57), 39(59), 47

Seeley, S. B., 268

284

AUTHOR INDEX

Seiier. H., 239, 270 Selwood, P. W., 102, 120 Seyler, J. K . , 36, 37, 47 Shapiro, I., 231, 241, 256(337), 338), 262 (337, 338), 269, 271, 273 Sharma, L. R., 185(36), 189(36), 197(82), 265. 266 Sharpe, J. W., 246(284), 271 Shatanovskaya, H., 183(22), 209(22), 264 Shaw, B. L., 40, 47, 154, 172(94), 177 Shcherbakova, K . D., 236(221, 222), 238, 2 70 Sheinfain, R . Yu.,246(279b), 271 Sherman, A,, 170, 177 Shiba, T., 5 3 , 53(37), 91 Shilov, N., 183, 208, 209(22), 261 Shim, 9. K. C., 146(74), 147(74), 173(74), 176 Shropshire, J., 225(161), 268 Shuravlev, L. T., 231, 269, 270 Sidorov, A. N., 234(212), 270 Sieber, R., 38(57), 47 Siegel, S., 127, 128, 133(57, 58), 135(57, 58, 60, 63, 64), 136(60, 64), 137(64, 65), 138(64, 65), 145(57), 148(57, 64), 149, 150(57), 151, 156(24, 96, 97), 157(97), 158, lj9(57, 60(, 167(60, 97), 175, 176, 177 Sini, S. K., 61(60), CL? Simon, A,, 258, 273 Simpson, P. L., 130(39), 175 Singer, L. S . , 208, 2M Singh, D. D., 185(36), 188(56), 189(36), 197 (80, 82), 265, 266 Sirkin, Y . A , , 39(61), 17 Skell, P. S., 81, 84(86), 92 Skorodumova, 2 . V., 212, 267 Slinyakova, I. B., 238, 270 Slovetskaya, K . I., 238, 270 Srnidt, J., 38, 39(59), 17 Smirnova, J. V., 5 l ( j ) , 72(5), 90 Smith, A., 182, 261 S m i t h , G . V., 133(57), 135, 138(65), 142, 145 ( j 7 ) , 149, 150(57), 156(97), 157(97), 158(97), 159(57), 167(97) Smith, H. A., 98(17), 107(17), 108, 120, 124, 167, 175, 177 Smith, 1. T., 251, 253, 272 Smith, R . K., 144, 176 Smith, R. N . , 214(133a), 267 Smith, W. B., 84(96), 93

Snow, C. W., 182(7), 187(7), 211, 261, 267 Snyder, R . G., 41, 17 Sollich, W . A., 95(2-4), 97(3), 98(2-4, 18), 99(2-4), 102(2, 4), 107(2, 3, 4, IS), 108 (2, 4), 113(38), 114(39), l l j ( 2 , 4, 38). 116(2, 4), 720, 121, 154, 177 Solonitsyn, Y. P . , 244, 277 Sommer, E. C . , 182(6), 187(6), 261 Spedden, H . R.,247(293), 272 Spencer, E. G., 192(74), 266 Spitzer, R., 127(18), 175 Stamm, H., 239(243), 270 Stanton, J. H., 240, 242, 271 Starodubtsev, S. V., 245, 271 Stear, A. N., 36, 47 Stearns, R. I., 37(48), 17 Stedman, G., 113(43), 121 Steele, D. R . , 156(99), 177 Steenberg, B., 208, 209(109), 267 Stegemann, W . , I88(55), 189(55), 265 Steinberg, H., 232(204), 265’ Stenger, V. A , , 241, 271 Stern, E., 39, 47 Sternberg, H. W., 22(14). 29, 46 Stigter, D., 228(185), 239, 240, 269 Stishov, S. M.,225(163), 268 St. John, D. S., 237(229). 270 Stoddart, C. T. H . , 130(37), 175 Stober, W., 227, 231, 232, 235, 236, 237, 240, 246. 247, 250, 251, 255, 256. 270, 272 Stolberg, U. G., 131(45), !75 Stone, F. G . A., 40(7), 32(34), 33(34), 46 Strashessko, D. N.,209, 267 Streeck, H., 194(75), 266 Streeter, E., 212, 267 Streitwieser, A., Jr.. 100(21), 103(21), 111 (21), 117(21), 118(21), 120 Strunk-Lichtenberg, G., 254(315), 272 Sttetiner, H. M. A., 29(27), 46 Studebaker. M . L., 184(25), 185(25, 38), 190, 191(38), 192, 199, 201, 203, 204, 212, 214, 261, 265, ?66 Stumpl, H. C., 254(310;, 272 Subba Rao, B. C., 23(20), 46 Sun, C. E., 170(118), 777 Sutherland, G. K., 206, 266 Suzuki, S., 260, 273 Svintsova, L. G., 246(279b), 274 Swallow, H. T. S., 52, 91 Sykes, K . W., 212, 213, 267

AUTHOR INDEX Sysoev, E. A,, 227, 244, 269, 271 Szwarc, M . , 206, 266 T

Tadanier, J., 84(97), 93 Taft, R. W., Jr., 72, 78, 92 Takegami, Y., 27, 28(25), 46 Talbot, J. H., 246, 272 Tanaka, J., 103(32), 720 Tapley, J. G., 206, 266 Tappe, W., 60(52), 61(52), 92 Tarkowskaya, I. A,, 209(110), 267 Taylor, E. H., 258(346c), 273 Taylor, H. S., 52(29), 97 Taylor, T . I., 96, 97(16), 98(16), 113(16), 120, 124, 140, 141, 171(8), 777 Tebben, J. H., 152(88), 159(106), 176, 177 Tertian, R., 254(316), 272 Thomas, C. L., 259, 260, 273 Thomas, K., 236(227), 270 Thomas, P. A., 135(60), 136(60), l59(60), 167(60), 176 Thomas, W. J., 215, 267 Tobin, H. H., 258(345b), 273 Topchieva, K. V., 51, 72, 90,256(335), 273 Trambouze, Y., 53(34), 97, 257, 259, 273 Trapnell, B. M. W., 52(8), 91, 132(52), 176 Traynham, J. G., 147(79), 176 Treichel, P. M., 10(7), 46 Trifan, D., 61(59), 65(59), 68(74), 70, 92 Trillo, J. M., 258(246b), 273 Trusty, M., 78(81), 92 Tsherwyatzova, L. L., 209(110), 267 Tucker, C. M., 254(310), 272 Turkevich, J., 144, 176 Turner, R. B., 147(77), 776 Twigg, G. H., 129, 132(49), 175, 776 U

Ubbelohde, A. R., 181(2, 3), 261 Uebersfeld, J., 206, 266 Uhlick, S. C., 52(25), 97 Umland, F., 239, 270 Ushakova, E. V., 252, 272 Uvarov, A. V., 256(335), 273 Uytterhoeven, J., 230, 242, 263, 269, 274 V

van Beckkurn, H., 160, 177 van der Karn, E. J., 211(122), 213, 223, 267 van der Plas, Th., 195, 205, 266

285

van Troostwyr, R., 49(1), 90 Vargaftik, M . N., 39(61), 47 Vasil’eva, V. S., 236(222), 270 Vaska, L., 40, 47 Vastola, F. J., 217, 268 Vaughan, P. A,, 225(161), 268 Vavon, G . , 126, 175 Venanzi, L. M., 41, 47 Vickers, J. H., 78(81), 92 Villars, D. S., 184, 186, 189(26), 264 Vleeskens, J. M., 227, 244(264), 269, 271 Voevodsky, V. V., 245, 271 Vollmann, H., 194(75), 266 Volter, J., 95(8), 116, 720 Vondjidis, A. G . , 253(307b), 272 von Rudloff, E., 61, 92 W

Wade, W. H., 251, 255, 272, 273 Wagner, B., 180(1), 264 Wagner, C. D., 245, 271 Walker, P. L., Jr., 215, 217(143), 268 Wallace, D. R., 182(7), 187(7), 214, 264, 267 Walling, C., 53, 97 Walpole, A. L., 126(17), 775 Wartrnann, J., 230(194), 245, 269 Wassermann, A., 188(49), 265 Watanabe, K., 68, 70(73), 92, 111(35), 121 Watanabe, Y., 27(25), 28(25), 46 Watkins, S. H., 52, 52(13), 91 Watson, W. F., 208(103), 266 Wauquier, J. P., 167, 177 Webb, A . N., 53(35), 91, 256, 257, 273 Weiser, H. B., 253(308), 272 Weiss, Al., 225, 268 Weiss, Ar., 190, 225, 229, 265, 268 Weiss, D. E., 186(44), 189(44), 191(44), 192 (73), 193(44), 195(44), 202(44), 203 (44), 204, 209, 219(111), 220(111), 221 (1 11), 265, 266, 267 Weiss, F. T., 147(78), 166(78), 176 Weiss, H. G., 231, 256, 262, 269, 273 Weitkarnp, A. W., 157, 177 Weller, S. W., 55, 68(43), 91, 254, 261(329), 272, 273

Wells, P. B., 35, 47, 124, 131, 138(5), 142 (5), 144(5), 775 Wencke, K., 53(42), 91 Wender, I., 22, 29(28a, b), 46 Wesslau, H., 239, 270 West, R., 228, 269

AUTHOR INDEX

286

h'eterings, C A X I . , 139(106). 177 Wetterholrn. A , , 212. 267 Weyl, tV I - . , 234(325), 27.3 Wheeler, R. V , 182. 263 M'hetstone. R . R.. 126(16). 127(16), 155 ( l 6 ) , 175

White. P.. 212. 213, 267 Whitehouse, H. S.. 194(77). 195(7'), 264 Whitlock, H . W . J r , 28(26), J6 . Whitrnore. F. C.. 52. 91 Whittaker, A . G . 37(48). 47 Wihaut, J P . 211. 212. 213, 223. M i Wicke. E . . 51. M Wickersheirn, K. A , 235, 270 Wilhorn, L.,233(209). 269 Wilkinson G., 131 (46), 132(54), 170(46). 175, 176 Willis, J. B . . 186(44), 189(44), 191(44), 193 (44), 195(44), 202(44), 203(44), 265

Wilrn, D., 182, 226(168), 264, 268 Wilrnot, W H . . 258, 273 Wilska, S., 246, 253(309a), 271, 272 Winfield. .II. E . , 49(3). 50 Window, S . 1 1 , 188(50). 265 Winstein, S., 61(39), 63(63), 65, 69(74), 70, 92 Winter, R . A . E., 147(76), 176 Wirzing, C , 234, 235(216b, 2201, 236(220), 242, 270 Wistuba, H , 246, 271 Witte, H., 180(1), 264

Wittig, F. E., 233(209), 269 Wolfel, E.. 180(1), 263 Wolfe, A . C., 185(38), 191(38), 192(38), 203 (38), 204(38). 265

CVondratschek, H . , 227(172), 269 b'right. G . F., 192(74), 264 LVurz. A , , 201, 266 Wunderlich, J . A . . 131(42). 175 Wynne-Jones, \.V. F. K . , 208, 267 Y

Yates, D. J . , 251, 233, 272 Yokokawa, C., 27(23), 28(23), 46 Young, D. .4,181(3), 267 Young, G I., 234(211), 243, 244, 270 Young, J. F . , 131(46), 170(46), 175 Yu, Y.-F., 183(39), 26,5 Yun Pin. K . , 5 1 ( 5 ) , 7 2 ( j ) , 90

Z Z a h n , H . , 201, 264 Zarif'yanrs, Y u . A . , 183(24), 218(24, 149152), 219(132), 264, 268 Zaverina, E. D., 238(237), 270 Zelinsky. N., 52, 52(14), 91 Zhdanov, S. P., 227, 234(213), 270 Zielke, 2 . W . , 215. 268 Zunder, G., 85(98), 9.3 Zweifel, G., 23(20), 46 Zwietering P., 132(88), 158, 159, 776, 177

Subject Index A

Acetylene, hydrogenation studies o n , 160162 competitive, 164-167 Acylcobalt tetracarbonyl compounds, isomerization studies on, 28-29 “Aerosil,” silanol gronps on, 230-237, 240 Alcohols, dehydration cf, 49-93 of aliphatic type, 71 -82 early work o n , 50-52 isomerization following, 56-59 of primary, 74-82 of secondary type, 83-90 in solution, 72-73 steric course of, 58-71 of tertiary type, 83-90 Alkylbenzenes, in A complex adsorption reactions, I08 Alkylcobalt carbonyls, rearrangement of, 27-29 Allenes, hydrogenation studies on, 162 *-Ally1 complexes, bonding studies on, 1821 Allylbenzene, isomerization studies on, 43 a-Allylcobait tricarbonyl, bonding studies on, 18 a-Allyliron tricarbonyl hydride, electronic structure of, 31 Alumina, surface groups on, 254-259 Alumina catalysts, in dehydration of alcohols, 49-93 nature of, 52-56 Anatase, surface groups on, 249-253 Aromatic hydrocarbons, hydrogenation of, 15 1-160 cyclohexene intermediates in, 157-159 B

Benzene(s), catalytic hydrogenation of, 125-126 halogenated, A complex adsorption reactions of, 108-110 resonance structures of, 16

Bornanols, dehydration of, 67-70 of nor-, 70-71 Butanol, dimethyl derivatives of, d e h y d r i tion of, 83-89 I-Butanol, dehydration of, 58-59, 74-75 2-Butano1, dehydration of, 82-85 Butenes, hydrogenation of, isomerization in. 140-142

c Carbon, microcrystalline, surface groups on, 182-216, 223-224 chlorine, 216 hydrogen, 214-216 oxides, 182-2 1 1 sulfides, 211-214 surface oxides of, 182-211 acidic type, 183-208 basic type, 208-211 (see also Diamond, Graphite) Catalysis, isomerization of olefins by, 1-47 1-Chlorooctane, isomerization studies on, 29 Cobalt carbonyl hydride, as olefin isomerization catalyst, 21-29 a Complexes, adsorption on transition metal catalysts, 95-121 Cycloalkenes, hydrogenation studies on, 144-160 1,4-CycIohexanediols, dehydration of, 6668 Cyclohexanols, dehydration of, 56 of alkyl-, 62-63 Cyclohexanones, hydrogenation of, 127 Cyclohexene compounds, in aromatic hydrocarbon hydrogenation, 157-159 D

1-Decalols, dehydration of, 63-66 Diamond, surface groups on, 219-223, 225

287

SUBJECT INDEX

288

Dicyclopentadienyliron. see Ferrocene 1,3-Dienes, hydrogenation studies on: 162164 competitive, 164-167 1,2-Dimethylcyclohexene~ hydrogenation stereochemistry of, 133-135 I ,2-Dimet hylcyclopentene. hydrogenation stereochemistry of, 133-133

Octalins, hydrogenation of, isomerization in. 142-143 Olefin(s), catalytic isornerization of, 1-47 dissociative mechanism for, 140-144 double-band type, 21-43

E

P

Ethyl alcohol, d e h k d r a t i o n of, 49-jo, 71-72 F

Ferrocene. bonding studies o n , 14-18 0

Graphite, surface groups o n , 217-219, 223224 oxides, 2 17-2 19

H I-Hexene. isornerization of, 1 Hydrocarbons, aromatic, see Aromatic hydrocarbons unsaturated, see Unsaturated hydrocarbons I

carbonyl hydrides, isomerization studies on. 29-34, 43 Isabutyl alcohol, see 2-hlethyl-I-propanol

0

Palladium, use in olefin isomerization, 3843 I-Pentene, isomerization studies o n , 24-23 Pentyl alcohols, dehydration of, 80-82, 8385 2-Phenyl-l-ethanol-l-C", dehvdration of, 79 2-Phenyl-l -propanol. dehydration Of, 75-78 of C"-ta%ged, 78-79 Platinum. isomerization studies on. 40-41 Polycyclic aromatic compounds, in I complex adsorption reactions, 107 Potassium ethylene trichloroplatinate, a s olefin-transition metal complex. 4-8, 12 R

R h o d i u m complexes, isomerization studies on, 41 Ruthenium. isomerization studies o n , 4041

Iron

M

.\I enthol, dehydration of, 59-61 of neo-, 59-61 hlethyl red, use in silanol group determination, 241-242 2-hlethyl-l-propanol, dehydration of, 7 5 78

S Silica, crystalline. surface groups on, 246-247 surface groups on. 223-249 identification of, 226-246 silanol type, 226-243 siloxane type, 243-244 Silica-alumina, surface groups o n , 259-263 Steroids, hydrogenation of, isomerization in. 143-144 Surface groups, chemical identification of, 179-273

N

T

Naphthalenes, I complex adsorption reactions of, 108-1 10

Thionyl chloride, use in silanol group determination, 229-230

SUBJECT INDEX Titanium dioxide, surface groups on, 249-

254 2-p-T0lyl-l-ethanol-l-C’~, dehydration of, 79 Transition metal catalysts, T complex adsorption on, 95-121 charge transfer in, 102 effects of, 98-100 experimental evidence for, 106-1 19 factors influencing, 100-102 in hydrogenation, 116-1 19 mechanisms for, 96-98, 102-106, 113-

116 o r f h o deactivation effects on, 115-1 16

Transition metal complexes, catalytic isomerization of olefins by, 1-47 carbon-metal bond stability in, 8-1 2 carbon-metal pi bond in, 4-7, 12-13 carbon-metal sigma bond in, 3-4 ligand conversions an d rearrangements in, 34-38

289 U

Unsaturated hydrocarbons, chemisorbed, structure of, 129-131 hydrogenation of, 123-1 77 *-ally1 complexes in, 172-174 consecutive reactions in, 135-140 geometrical details of, 169-171 “half-hydrogenation” state in, 137139, 150-151 mechanisms of, 132-144, 167-174 minimum structural change in, 167-

168 stereochemistry of, 125-131 surface complexes in, 171-172 surface sites in, 168-169 multiply, hydrogenation of, 160-1 67

Z Zeise’s salt, isomerization studies on, 38-43

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