African Language Structures
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AFRIC AN LAN G UAG E STRUCTURE S
Wm. E. Wêlmers
UNIVERSITY OF CÂIIFOBNIÀ PRESS B.rk L! . Los Ang.I6 . Lndon
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ISBN: G5204221G6 LTBRARY oF CoNcREss CÂrÀLooCaRDNUMBER: ?G186108 CoPYRrcnr @ 1973 BY BE
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Preface It is the pu.poseoI this sork to suNey a vâ.iety oI structuÌaÌpÌ'enomenâ which alpeâr comDonlyin Atricân lângu.gês,or in lânguagesÕl ohe famiìy or grout typical oI humânlânguag.in the broadin AÍrica, ìut which âre nôt nec€ssârily est seÍse. No efloú is mâde to jsolâteìinguistic "univeÌsãls"ât ã high lêvêl oi âbstraction,nor to investigat€the vâlidity of theoriesol linguisticuniverealswhch hâve b.en !Ìoposed. At the othe. extrem€,it is considered triliaÌ me.ely to ìist, Íor one or anothergroup of Ìanguages, certain superliciâtchârâcterhticsof phonoÌogy or eÍâDnâr irrespectiveol their signilicãncefor the total linguislic sye tem, foÌ p.oceduÌesin lingüisticânalysis,or lor compaÌisonvitÌì other languâg€s. Betve€n the ÌevelsoI ân âbstract theory oI human languageand the trivia ol isÒlâteddetails,how€v€r,there âre nâny phenon€nawhich havc npcât.dly pwnted pÍoblemsot analysisto a ìârge number oI studerts of Áfrican languagq. Inãdequat€Ìytained investigatorshâvelrequentlylâiledtô not€,or hãve simply ignoÌed, signilicãntareasof linguistic data. Just ás freqüently,an unsotlisticâted analysiâhaÊât Ìeast par-tiallydisbrred the picture oi a linguistic systm. It is hopedtÌ'ât tlis study ol sofre types of widespreadstÌucturâl!hÈ noDenawill contribuìetô morê âdeqüâte,more thorôugh,Ìnd môre consistent
ânâlyses oÍ Álricânlânsuases. A major souÌceoÍ the dâtâ on which this work is basedjs tle authoÌ\ own Ìesearchand expe.ience,o. researchwith which ìe has beendirectly asociated, coveringâ spân ol thirty yeâB. Much ol this res€archis .ep.esentedin publications,but someoI it is reltectedonly in .ough field notes,ând süll no.e ol it in hitherto unrecorded memories.StudiescontrÌbutingto this work hale rang€d from a few ìours to sevêÍaìyeãrspe. language,$ith native speãkersor pe.haps seventyto eigàty languages.Substantiâlexperiencecân be cÌâimedin the case ol only about twenty languages,but in many other instânceseven a very briet exposurehas lrovid€d significantdâta Ío. the study oi Ìanguagestructures. LãnguagesoI the NigeFcongolamiÌy accountlor most oi the data, ìut some Nilo-SaÌìa.anând ÂlÌo-Asiaticlanguages are alsorepresented. The Íoregoiúgpâragra?ìsare by no meansiDtendedto imlrly that ea.lier scholaremadeno uselulcontribtrtionsto the sttrdy of ÁfÍican laneuâecs.Od the contrary,the utmost respectis due to pioneeranâlystssucì âs J. G. Christall€r, Diedrich Westermann,lda C. Wârd, R. C. Abrahâm.and many othe6. How€vd, it hâs beenthe âuthor's privil€geto have the oppoúunity to work independently with moú oI the languâgesiÍvestigated by the* â.d some ôther Ior himself, schoÌa.s,ànd to ve.ily o. i! somecasesto modify thei. concÌusions hearing, and the Thus, for most ol tÌìe datâ cited, the sâDeearshave donethe samepÌinci!Ìes oÍ analysishave beenãpplied.
In relâtileÌy recentJears,particuìarìy$itlin tìe last decad€,the.eìâs been àn enormousinoeâseií the íumb€r of scholarsvithexcellenthaining in descriprive linguisticsçorking on Atrican languages.For ìangDages ïjth which the th€ir publicationsor pe.sonalcomauthor has had little or no direct experienc€, municatioDslìave lrovided ã secondimpo.tant and qluable sourceoI dâtâ, Àt the sametime, no âpologyis olÍeredtor relying ãs buch âs posibÌe on analyses thâi could be ÌreÉonauyveÌjtied. It is not the pu.poseof this soÌÌ tô súNey th€ vàst literâiure on African Ìânguâges, which rângesin quâlity lrón cleaÌtyo. apparentlyexcelìeútto virtDâlly useless.The purposeis rath€Í to present$nplesoÍ pìronologic and grammaticalsystem8in sucha way tÌ'at othe6 can recoglize or ìook loÌ sinilãr or signiiica.tly difier€nt systemsin otheÌ languâges. Srbúâniial âmoüntsoI dâta aÌe cit€d tron a relâtiveÌyíew lãnguâges, sôDewell knÕwnând otherelittÌe knovnr smâlleranounis ol data, dosn to isoÌãteddetails, âre cited f.om sco.esoÍ other Ìa.guâges. In sÕÌnecas€s,genemlstâteÌnentsar€ mâde lof groDpsof laneuag€ssuch âs tsântu or Mânde; availâòlelit€râtüre in mâny suchcâseswill le.iit what is hereillustratedby dâtâ from ÕrÌy â fes Ìânguâgesin suchgroups. [Íost úI the contentoI this work has beentìe subjectmattêr oI a gÌadlatÈ level couFetaught âdnuâllytor somefitteen yeâÌ6. Somekúowledgeof linguistics on lhe part oÍ the úseris nalurallyassumediho*ev€r,the nat€rjãl is pÍesented in such a Nay that the .elative beginneras well a3 the advarcedstudent @n profit lrom it, cla$room jnstructiono. prjvateÌy in connectionwith the study of a particular'n lânguâg., In âddiliôn to presentjngmâny oI the kiÍds of struc lhe ânâlyst is lik€ly to neet, soÍnesugg€úiÕns ândsarningsâÌeinclüdtures that p.ocedurês. tÕ fi€ld Personâl refe.ences in ed í.levanl connectionsith woÌk on a limitationsol numberoÍ lânguâgesâre includedonÌy tÕ explãin the DnâvoidâbÌe tìrc datâ. OtheNise.the sometimes infoÍnaÌ ând evenanecdotalstyle is intended triúârily as a reminderthat, in spite ot the .ecognizedtechnicalitiesot linguie ândundentoodin the tic anãlrsis,ve âre still dcaliDgwith reâllanguâgesspok€n Nork and pls,a.the jôys ând sorross,oI dàjly lii€ Nó €lloú hâs beennâde to p.esentalÌ ol the material sith a singtethec ÌeticaÌ linguisticoutlook. The aDthor'sÍirst traiúingìvas,natumlly, in tâtonornic linguisrics. Dêy.lÕpm€ntssnticipating msny espectsol moE recent th€oÌies, however,dãte bâck tó very eârly NÕrk.and âre retlectedât úany points. Somè re.ent Nork illustÌatesthe applicationoI contenpora.yth€oriesmore expÌicitly. Fôúunâtely,this vâ.iety in approachhas neler seemedconfusingto students. It would be irnpossibl€to âcknosÌedgeindiliduaÌÌy ãlI of ny coÌl.agu6, students,languageinlormânrs,àdd lriends*ho hàve help€dto mâke this work possibleby their âdvice,tìeir oiticism, ând esp€ciaÌlytheir encouÌâg@entand inspiÌation. ln Norìdly preslige, they Ìange írom distinguished university prof€-!sorsro l]âretool.cd children;the relative value ot eâchone\ cont.ibuüoncallot be asesed in terms oÍ any sociaìor educationaÌscale. I hote they w l foÍgive me lor not listidg their many nanes. I coüld not to.give nyseÌf. ìoweveÌ, ü I did not expres my uD'queindebtedness to my {iie B€atÌice. She}âs followed
me into the most impmbâbÌe âdr€trtuÌ€s, listen€d pâtieÍtly to ny efiort| to forúulat. ltÌuclu.ãl ltstqrents conceroing *hâtéve! liúgúistic datâ I hâpp4êd to h€ wo.kirg or, beconè r Espdt }Iê pEcli€l lingüist in he. own Íght, suc@s Íuüy âccomplishedÌ€sêâÌeh sld t€acüiúg tâ3kÊ for which I hâd opportüúty but no time, leamed â substântial amount of at Ìeâst eight AJÍicau lâÌìguag€., pÌoven h€!!êü âr iNpired lânguage teâcher, b€€n an €quaÌ colaboÌat r i[ maior puuicâtioN, lnd through it âÌl Main€d a lelaed aDd 8rácious @mpmion and hostss, and my most loyal Íân. ln 1853,Stumurd lviÌhelm KoèÌle cÌosedth€ Prcíâce of his gEat Pot!çioÍla Á/ricand úth the ronoúng words, whieh I would üke to make nile otr rìi! oÈ @ion: 'lvlay the fouowing feeble dd€ãvoÌ in búãlf ol Àftica be loutrd us€ÍuÌ; ând nay üat laüd of the retuEl sun son be equaÌly dhtirgütuhed â3 üe land ov€r {hich th€ Sun of RichteousÍ$s Êhineth l"
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Angel?J,O.tob.Ì, 1971
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Contents 1. Th. Eisloncal and ClassificatorltS.ttinq 2. Vou.l Sgtlaíts
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A, ContonoÃl Stslns
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6. ivoün CÌossad ConcordSlrsías; Án ÌnímducÍion 7. Functionai dnd vcrÍiaial Norn C?a$Sqrráns
1Á9 134
E. Noncldss Noünürsrnns 9. Adicclioes and Un-anicctio.s
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10. Olh.. Noun ModiÍieìt; Conjunclion 11. B.ins, Haoins,o^tl vub
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12, VübaI Constructions in Niq.ÈConoo
13. Vcúal&tst ns 16. Aalpêúials, Id@phon6, Semdntic Ranqês
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11. Oüêtltont, R.lotíue.s, Subordinalion
Inde of Lswuaa. Naxnâ
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The Historical and Classificatory Setting r.1. Similaritiesin linguisticahúcttrr. ârein làrgemeàsurea IunctionoI langüage inter-Ìeìât€dness.Russianãnd C€ÌrnânhaÌe soú.$hal sinilar syslemsoI noun gendeh ând câsesbecâusethey both inheritedtnen fron a commonIndo-Euro, leân ancestÌâlÌanguãge.Tagâlogand \Íâlayan hâre siúilaÌ syícns ol !€rb moÈ phologJbecâüsethêìânguages havea connon origin in troto-Malayo-Pollnesian. In the samewây, we may êxpectto tind significãntstructuralsinila.ities anong Alricân lânguagesprimârily within a group or lãmily of .clatcd hnguâges,languâgêswith a commonorigin, This is not to sâythât âny isolatedsihilâriry is prooi ol lânguagerulâtionship. It is uídoubtedly a coj.cidencetlat the lÍande languages of \à est Àfrìca and tìre Mayan languâgesot CentrâlAberìcâ hâve úrikingÌy sinilar disliDctionsÌret{een alienablyand inalienablyposse$ednouns. The German(but Dot Dnglisìì)useof the 'p€rÍect" to expr€s siúple pâst a.tion is presnnâblyÌhc resuÌtol dittusion from FrencÌr. ConveNe\, isolateddifie.encesin linguistic siructure do not die !Ìove Ìelationship. The tâct that EnglishhasÌost lirlually everytraceoi godel ând casedistinctionsin nouns doesnot nakc Englisl soDclhingother than a Gemânic ìánguàge.Yet in a hroâders€nseâ siúdy of commonstru.turâl chârãcteristicscannot be divoÌcedfrom considerations of Ìanguager€lationshipsând languagcclâssificâtion.lt is Ìele!ânt, therefore,to súrvey the prcsentstate oI scholarshipin the íieÌd of AlÌican Ìãnguageclasilication. 1.2. Th€ most importãnt, most cÕmprehcnsive, ând most widely accepted geneticclassilicationoI the Ìanguagesof Atrìca is that proposedby JôsephH. (1963).1ProbablyeveryscholârwiÌì agreethat eârlierrttcmpts ât clâsGreenberg sificâtion{ere c}amcterized,ât leâst in sone respects,by unçânanted âsumpprotions, inadequâteevidence,and in somecasessheergu€swo.k. Greenbergrs includingnot only lexicâl cedureis â mâs côúpârisôn"ol Ìâneuagevocahularies, items in nãjo. lom cÌasses. but aho bound morphemesconmonìt' des$ibcd as grmâticâl haünÉ onÌy a lunction. IÍ a number ot langüagesshos stíking siúilârities in both foÌm and meaning.pârticularÌyin items pÌesumedÌ€lativ.ly unlikely to ìe invoÌvedin crossìângrâgeâdoption("borowins"), it is concludcd that thoselânguagesâre Ìelated. Higher degreesoI suchsinilâritl'refìect cÌoso relâtionshipsilower degÌeesof similarity rellect nor€ distânt r€ÌationslÌips.Completely unÌeÌatedlanguagesshow only a very Ìitue randon siDilarity, âttributâbÌê tô coincidenceoÌ possiblyto âdÒptionot occâsionallexicãl items irom one ì) mosl lÍÈ lãnguageto ânother. All Òfthis, ôI couFe,hâs long beenrecognized r Fdr â súNey dt tìie rludy 0l Àlrican ianguagesprior io 1945,incìudi.g cìàsificâtion, se. Coìê1971. Som. detalls oi Ci€enbÊrs\.lasili.slion ârc Íu
ÀFRrcÀN LÁNcuÀcE SrRUcruÂEs
guists. G.cenbere\câ.eÍrlly detinedprocedure,ând the cônctusions to eìich it hasÌedhim, hâvemet with widesp.€adapprovaÌ;but tìe âpprovaÌis not univeBâI, âdd objectionstohìscÌâssificâtion must be considered.Si'Ìcethe nâjor objections are theoreticalor havetheoreticaÌimplications,they canbe discus.d without detâil€d referenc.to sp€ciÍiclângüâgegÌóüpings. 1.3. 'Io en exteDt unpârâlÌeledin the study of lângüa8esânrvhere elsèin the sôrìd, AhicâÍ lâdguàg€clâ$iticâtiónnâsbeenbesetby pe.sistenthypothêss or languagemixture, internediateor transitionalÌanguâges, sulstnta, penâsive ext€rnâlinllüencelar in ex@s ol what is usüâìlyRcogniz€das nomáI, and innovativeexuberaú.eunnãtchedin recordedlangüâgehistory. Perhâpsthe most drâfrâtic-ãnd pÍ€posterôus-êxdplê of specüìâtionin ìinguistichistory is provided by Sir Harry Joì.ston (1919,p. 27): "A g.eat jumble of events,âDdlo lnew languâgesspring suddenÌyinto existence." Johnstonìâd roted thât languagessmtteredâìì over Weú Af.icâ hãvêsyúêmsol noun classes, with varying deg.eesoI concord,some{hat resembìingthe well-knowncÌassând concoÍdsystems oÍ tÌ'e Bantu languâges.He believedtÌrat the most highly dev€lopedând regulár BântD languag€srepresentedthe oldest and nost ôrigináÌ protGBaÍtu type, In somedim periodoI the pãst,he speculated,speak€ÌsoI suchâ lâí8úage had coltact with West Alrican tribes which at that time spokelang!âgesunr6 latcd lo Bântu. By sÕnemomentousând amazinglyrapid proces oÍ fusion,th€ o.iginal \\est Âhican lânguâgesacqujred,almost oÌ€Ìnightì entire chutrÌs of Bantu norpholog'calstructureand a small amoutrtoI their mostbâsicvocâbuÌârt. Within West AJ.ica itseÌf, Johnstonìelieved that the Moré lânguage({hich has a suitix'markedclasssystem)wâs onceunrelatedto Fula, but botowed the entire noun classsyst€m-as â norphologicshücturc ând con@ptl Írom FuÌa. Tìe inplication appeaÌstobe,theoretically,thât â societycân,by sÕmêconcerted and conscious decisioí,steerits lânguageinto substantiaÌlynes stÌuctu.alsìâpes. .lohnstonappa.ently beìievedjüst ihât, for in anotÌrr context he say8 (1919, p. 38). "Zulu-Kâffú wiÌì becone the s€condÌaüguageol South dricã il its exponentsare wise enougì to eliminÂtethe silÌy clicks Nlich at pÌesentDar its phonôlogyând câusethe EuÌopeãnto tãke up insteadthe ugly and stupid jârgon known as Kitcììen-Keffir."' Á theory notve.y diiterent Irom Joìnston s hasmoÍ€ r.cently beenproposed hypôthesbof À gelet,c ÌÈ by lklcoln Guthrie as an alter.ative to Greenherg's lâtionshipbelweentheBântu lângusges ánd most ofthelanguag€sotUestAÍÌica. GDth.ie(1962)atlributestheoblious grânfraticâl ând lexicâlsimilaÌitiesbetweên th€ West -A.trican Ìânguages in questionand Bantu to the incorpo.ationof Bâútu l€âturcsìniô lânguâgcsot ã quite disti.ct o.igin" in the fom of 'gÌannaticaì conlâmination"and "loan-words". No explanationis ofÍeredfor the incredible historicaÌupheavâÌsthÀt must have been inloÌved in such peNasivelinguisüc restructuring(cl. WeÌlnêrs1963b). CaÌÌ Meinhof (1940,p. 164)brought the "l{lschsprâche"coÍcept more sp& thrt "Bantu is a mixed lângrâge,so cilically into the pictuÌe by his strggestion tô speâk,des.endedÕf a Hmitic ÍatheÍ aúd a Negro mother." PeÌìâps no con_
THE HBroRrc^L dD
Cl^sstFrc^roRy SEnlNc
tempomry schola. vould ca.e to delend this specific suggestion($hicì wâs based but ollêecdlanguâgeDixmolê on culturâÌ thâÍ ó. lin8üistic considcrãtiôns), post is úiU ated by some in the case of the so-mÌled Nilo-Hamitic Ìânguag€s, tuÌe thc so-câÌl€dSeni-Bartu languages,and numerousit not counll€s indìvidual Ìânguagesand ìânguagegroüps. E. O. J. Weúphâl (1957)specificaÌìycoítends thât a givenÌânguagemay be most closelyÌeÌâlcd to oneÌãnguagephodologicãlÌy, to ânothermo.phologically,ând to still anotherlexically. In speakingof "genetic' relâtionsÌ'ips,ìe wa.ns againstassumingthat, Ior any onelanguage,th€re is only one 'paÌent" Ìanguâge.M. A. Bryan (1959)hasused thesetleone3 as tle basisto. positingextensivelângüâgemixtures ir Àfricã, natürally rejectingthe gen€ticclâÊsificâtion basisoI Greenberg'ã in the p.oces. Àn explicit statementof tle theoreticalbasis lor sucì hytothesesis given by David Dalby (1966).He rejêctsthe tmditional conceptot g€netic.elationship ând SeneticcÌãssilication, assnmingthatìhete.m "g€netic"hasto do with "geneí', and that â multipÌe oúgi! for existitrglânguaees,on tìe anâlogy ol the mültiple origin oI genesin human heredity,is th€reloreto be tâlien lor grânted. He citespidgin and creolelângu.ges(like Krio of Sjera Leone),âúd the unusuelcase ol Mbugu in Eâst Àfricâ, âs unquestionabìe instancesot nixcd languâges.Or couBe! Greenbergaúd tìe body ol scholâBwho gen€râllyshârehis theoÌetical bias Íever intendedthe so.d "g€netic"to be âssÕciâted sith 'genes"or "genealogy in the wãy Dalby asumes; it is associatedrather wilh "genesis oÌ origin, ând 'geneticÍelâtionsbips'hâ!€ to do vith lingüisticchârâcteristics tìât âÌe inìe.it€d by one generatiôúÕf speakersfrôn ânóther, as oppôs€dìô lhose shicÌ) ãre âcquúedtrom other sources.Àn assesnent ol the tìeoreticâlissuesinvolved mãy be made on the basis or â relâtively elemeÍtary oulÌine oI lhe nature oI 1.4. Unquestionablythe most nornâI, though by no Ìneansthe onl)', varjety oI languagehistory is the continuous,unbroììentransmissionoÍ a systemoI coDmúnicationfrom onegeneÌationto tle next. Parentsand child.en,grandpârents and grandchiìdreÍ,communicâte$ith eâchother the "eeneratiônCàp"hâslittle to do with the basic lexical, phonoìogic,or grâmÌnâiicaÌchâracteristicsof Ìhe ládguâgeused. AÌl oi the recognizedvarietiesof linguistic changeÍìây be, and uldoubtedly are, taking plâce,but tle lines of cornmunicãtionâre not totally Àssufrethât ã linguisticallyhomogeneous communitÌ splits into t*o g.oups, thÌotrgh à pmcesssuch as nig.ation or invâsionthât deâtesâ e€ogrâphicaì sq'gives compìetely up its own lanaration betweenthem. Às long as Deithe.group guageto adopt the languageot sone other people,therewill nos be two sepaÌate generation-tGgeneÌation continuâ. Linguist'c changes sjll take plâcewithin each contiÍuun, but nany or ãll of tle cììangeswill be dìIferentfor the tvo. ÀIter â lew genemtions,melnbersol the tÍo groups,il reunited,will úilÌ be ableto understãndeâch other, though they sjlì note peculiâritiesiú eâchother's Êpe€cì. But ãfter sevemlcenturiês,enoughdive$e changessill haveaccumulatedso thât membe.soI the two groupswiu no Iongerbe abÌeto communicãtewitheacì otÌ'er.
ÀERrcÀNLÀNGU^GESÌRUcrunEs
They mây tìen be said to speâkdiff.renì lânguâges, €acÌrof which is equaÌlyâ "direct" decendânt ot the ôrìginalconnon laDguâge.Sone of the changesthat hale tâken placein eachare internal thât is. ìânguãges changeevenâpârt lÌom contactwith other languag€s.Súne ot tì€ .hanges.on the othe. ìând, may be, and usually âre, tlc result ol ext€.nâl influe.ce; the most @nspicüótrs of such changesis the adoptionof foreignwôrds. But no nâtieÌ how exteÌsivethe externâÌ inlÌuences hâve been, each resultant lângüâgê hashâd a continuous history t.om jts ?oint oI Õrigin,the comDonparentÌanEuage.Suchlanguâges aÌe indeed geúeticãlìy Ìelated, and ior seveÌal milÌcniâ ìhe relãtionship will remain appâÌent in pâÍrÌlels discoverableby w€lÌ-estâbÌishedtechniques or conparative Ìingüistics. The similaritiesoi eitherlânguage to otherlanSuâges, üeãted by süchlhenomena âs bortuwedvocabulary,do not constitutè relàtionship"oÌ "afiiliation;" they mêÌelJ attest to coDtact, 1.5. Sonê internal changesin languageare nonsyúemâtic. SuchincÌüdeiÍnÕvationor invention,the sourceoI 6uchEnglish*ords as r.ep and úlu.ü, or thê u8eoI ofÕil âs â v€Ìì- to Õrbit â sâtelliteii.Equauy non{ystmâtic is ânâlogic chãnge,ìhe sourceoI the mode.nplumt.oDs replacingtìe oÌiginaltdne,or oÍ the neologismàooÀ?L.id. Semantic châng€,iÌlustmt€d by Dodem p..,enl, shich ôncê Dêânt "pncede,' is àlso nonsystemaüc.Àpaú from w.itten recoÌdsor â gÌeât deal oI compâmtiveevidenc€,thesêtypes of cìânges,whicì apply to individuãÌ words or individuâlgramaücal constructions, sooDìecone unrecoveEble,and they tend to oìscu.eg€neticr€lationshilrbetweenÌanguâg€s. Cl€aÌly,changesdue to externaliDfluenceârê âÌsônonsystemâtic.Although the adoption of new rocâbulary itens is the most obvious and coÌnmonest such change,it is nottheonly oÍepossibl€.The occurcnceol tvl and tzl in woÌd-initiaÌ positiónin Englishis the resultottleadoption of â nunher ôl wôrdsfrom FÍench; the âppearanceof cÌick colsonantsin somesoüthernBântu lâúeuages!such âs xhosâ, is undoubtedÌyattributableio the âdôptionof wordstuntâiningsÌch consonâútsl.om the Kìoisen lang!âges. Thus the lhÕnoÌogicsystemof â IangÌãgê nây be modiiied as a Ìesult of contact. Sinilarly, details in the gÍânmâticâl structtrreoI a languagemây be âtfectedìy externâlinfluence.Thè useof the socalled"perf€ct"to expresstâsttiFe in Gemãn, thougnÍotin English,is ìelieved to be the resultol dillüsionlrom French. The only historicâlchângein langüagethat is systemaücoÌ regulâÌis phon€tic chânse. ln a given laneuage,Ior exemple,a lkl soundmay chaDgeto [ël beroÍe a vo*el soundìike lil. Tìis cìânge úilÌ âIfect everyword in the lângüâge thât oncehâd the sequence [Ìi]. ln a Ìeìatedlanguage,such a changeDay not occur. As â resuÌt, in every word descêndedfrôD the côDmon paÌent language shich oncehâd thc sequence [ki], tne lirst laneuge wilÌ hâve [èi] bút th€ second wiÌl ìâve [ki]. The appearanceor suc] reguÌâ. coÌrespoDderces denoüstrâtes thât the lânguagesare ÌeÌáted, and mâkes it posiue to reconstruct sonething oÍ the phonoÌogic syst€m and the vocâbulaÌy or the commôn pârent laúgüage. To cite an Ar.icaD example, consider three ÌanguagesoÍ Liberia and Sierrâ Leone KleÌle, Lona, ând Mende. TheÌc âre â gMt mâny words in th$e thÌee
TrE Hrsro8rcal dD
Cr^ss,F,cÀÍoky SEnNc
which are sFiìâr or evenidenticâI. A sizabl. lisl can be c'ted in whicì languages alÌ ol the KleÌle woÌds begin wjth 01,âlì ol rhe Lónâ words b€g'n w'tì ldl, ând ÀÌl of the MeDdewords beginvirh [nd]; the sôrds ar€ sinilar in othe. Ìespectsãs weu, ând âre paÌâÌleì in Ìneãning. TÌ'e concÌusion drarn is that these words have a conmon o.iei!, and ónceìegàn sith à .onsonânl*hich hâs.rcguÌârly,ìecome [Ì1,td], aDd [nd], ÌespectivoÌ1,in $e rhÌee lângÌages.The thÌee languagesaÌe geneticallyrelated,ánd the woÌds jh qucíion ìâ!e lÌad â coDtinuoushistory in 1.6. GÌeenbeÌgìas not, to be suÌc! dmonstrâted thc existenceof .eguìâr phonetic cÕrespondences anong all tÌ'e Ìanguagesìn âny oÍ the lour lãnguage fámilieshe losits foÌ Àfrica, though it has alreadybeeniDplied that sucÌrconestondencesâre uÌe only real Ìroof ot genetic relâtionshif. HoNeler,laiÌure to provide {hât is cÌained to be the "only r€al tÌoof" doesnot inply tlìe total âb*nce oI evidence;in lâct, evidencethaì fâìls sàoú of cleardenoníÌation ol regmay neverthelesbe ores-ìeìning. \Áhat GÌeenulâr phoncticcorreslond€nces beÌg has done is, ror eâchrâftily, tô cit€ lrom â wide vaÌiely of relrresentatire lâneüâgesâ numbe.oÍ wo.dswhicÌ' showst.iking sinilârity in toün ând in Íneâning. That two lâDguages might by accid€ntor by int€Ìactionhare similâÌ fo.Ìns lor a few suchsords is, to be surc,quit. conccivâbìe.BDt thât Dany languâges zerostâtis shouldìave so nany sinilaÌ Ioms with similârm.aningsapproâches tical lrobàbiliry. The onÌy álternariveihat lÌas bccn suggeúcd-and the only âlternativethat is even rmotely possible-is that somelanguagesadoptedthe vocabularyitms in questionfrom oth€Ì Ìanguagesijuútlis hypothesisol loanwordí' ìas beeDIrroposedto explâln the lexicaì similariesbetweenthe Bantu larguagesand many Nest ÀIricaD ]ânguages.Ân exaDinatìonof the evidcnce, howeler,intie Ìight ol the nârúÌe oí vocâbuìâryâdoptiono. "borrowing",makes this hypoth€sisinoedible. The.eisanple docunentationjn th€ lãneuâgesoI thc world that lângüagesâdopt newwôrdsprinarjly for coDcepts new to the culture oI their speâkers.Stec'alizedaúiiacts ând activities,Ìrroductsoi â dilterent cultur€ Òr environment,t€cìnical conceptsin such â.eâsas ÌeÌigion and lãs-these readily moveÍrom one societyto anotìrer,and $ords for lÌtem l.om oneÌanguâge to ânother. Butbodypaús, activit'eslike eatingand dying. conmon enlirÕrmentâÌ iiens Ìike wâteÌ and trees,univeÌsâl con@lts lüe bignessând mâÌlnestheseare trot innovationsin any culture.and thc wordstor tleÌì ãre seldôr!given up in fâvor ot wordsâdoptedlrom anotherlânguage.Yet it is voebulary items oÍ just thesetyp.s lor which Greenòerglinds siniÌar foÌns and sinjìâr nêâning, not words Ío. cuÌtuÈlly nobile itos and concepts. That a tew such iteÌìs in a few Ìângüàges miglt be adoptedis possible;but that liity or moÌe in hundreds of Ìanguâges haveìe.n ãdotted is unbelievabÌe.\{iúout â s1üdyol ÌegulaÌ phoDeticcon6pondences,we nay be unâbÌeto estâblishnâny detailsof thc genctic inteÌrelâtionshipsof the languagesin question.ând wc ceÌtâinly cânnot reconstructthe ?honologicsysten oI the parentlânguagewithanI degrceol censinty; but the nature of the similar Íoms with similaÌ meaningswhicÌì Gre€Dberg cites,
ArsrcÀN LÀNcu^cE SÌnucruíEs and the numbeÌ of them, is such thât the lâct of genetic reìationship caí be coÍ1.7. Tle investigationof the geneticr€Ìâtionslipsol diÌdgent ÌinguisticcoÍtinua doesnot in âny senseimplyâ denialot the reality of olher impoìtânt âspects of ìinguistichirtory, sDchas exteÍnal inlluence. As has beenlointed out, howeveÍ, laÍguãgê chângesdüe to extemaÌ inflDenceâ.e non$ystenâtic, ând nâny of thm in tìme become unrecoveÌable. lt i6 possiìÌe to arrive at broad genemlüations oÍ the bâsis of tle phonetic and seÍnântic similârities with which GÌeenbêig works; it is not possibleto aÌ.ive at suchgenemiizâtions on the bâsisof a study ol prov€n Õr hypotheücãlinstâncesol dte.naÌ irfÌuênce. It is dilficuìt jl nôt inpossibÌe to âssign a ìinguisti@ìly râtionaÌ inter?Ìetâtion to â stâtementsuchas the following (Jâcquotand RichaÌdson1956,p. 22): "l,lbo ÌânguagesshowvocãbularyâIfinities with Ewondo,Bülu, N. Mb.nE, and DDâla;?honeti@llytheir ÌelatioDshiptendstorard Bâmileke;SrammaticaÌly they to Ewondo,BuÌu,ând N. Mbenê." The ÌesuÌtsof pâÌseemtó be Ìinked especiâÌly âlÌeÌ continuoushistory and the po$ible resì,ltsof contact betweenlanguâges se€n ìopelessly confused. Greenbe.gjusüliably distinguish€s thêse, and lor pürposesof Ìânguag€classificationconfi.es himsell to qu€stionsoI geneticreÌâtionship, which involvê only the axis of continuoushistory. The resultsof contact, though iÌnpoúant and inte.estiDg in so fa. as they can be recovered lor the sìudy ol â languâgeâs a totâlity, haveto do with contectonly, not with Ìelationships. Nor doesthe investigationor geneticrelationsÌritson the ìaeis ol phonetic and semantic sirDiìarity oI specilic lôrms irDply a deniâl ol the Ìeaìity ôÍ such noísystematic internaÌ changesin lânguages ãs innovation, analogic change, oÌ s€take place. ln a lew cases,GÌeenmantic change. lt is obviouÊthat suchchangeÊ hypothesesof analogicchangethat seeÍnreasonbe.g and otheN have süggested âble;instâncesol âppâ.entsmântic changeaÌe íÌeqDently.e@gnizãble.But on@ more, such cìângesãre noí+ystematic ând sporadic. By tâking obviorìscases into account,we nay add to and streDgthenouÌ evidencefoÌ geneücÌelatioDships. But in thhseÌves, they lrove notòing ÌnoÌe tàan thât such chângesâciual\ do tâke plâce. On the other hand,the significânceof suchtypes oI inte.nâl changesems to be ignóredby sriters wìo resoÌt to hypotìesesoi such uneÍplain€dph€nomeDâ as "inteÌmediatê"languâges(e.g.,WestemanÍ ând BÍyân 1S52,p. 37, iôr Snsu; 'Weste.mann1952. ã4, lor the Benue-Cross ìânguâges).The impÌicâtionof t. such hypo ìcses se.ms to be thât inde?endent inteÌnâl dev.Ìopnent oveÌ â period of ceDtu.iesor even a millenium oÌ Dore is oI little coÍsequence.E!€n thoughwe mây be unâbÌeto ÌeconstÌuctTeciÍic instãncesoÍ sp€cüictypes of iÍÌcÌnâl change.it is inevitaÌiÌeand obüols that such cÌ,ange have occur€d. 1.a. lx ìás âÌreâdybeen noted thÀt €xieÌnãÌ inlluencecãn occasionmodificâtionsin the phonologicaDdgramnaücâl structuÍe ol a languâge.But agâin, hypÒtheses ol externeÌinfìnencein this area BhouldhardÌy be the scholar'slúst resort, and at âny time th€y shouÌd b€ âdvanced ÕnÌy with the greatest c!ütion.
THE HrsroRrc^f, aND Cl^ssrFrcÀmR! S€nNG
rn âl we know of Ìanguagehistory, suchintlueDcesare insigniÍicantshen compa.€dwith iDtemaÌchân8eor ewenwith theâdoptionot foreienvocabularyitds. Eúgtishhâs bo.roved vast nunbers of woÍds lron French,but the phonologyor EngÌish hâs been afÍected by French in only â lew Dinor details, aDdthe 8ÌammÀÌ even tess,if at âÌ1. Similarly, hundredsof deÌnonstrablyadopt€dwords cân be fotrnd in the KpeÌle languâge of LibeÌiã, but only one el€meDtin the phonoÌo$r oÍ Kpelle canlo$ibly be âttributed to the iniluencêoI neighìoringlanguages a.d of EígÌish, ând nothing in the g.ammaÌ. Swâhili has âdotted loreign vocaluÌâry itemsevônmoÌe extensively,especiauyÍrom AÌabic, but âlsol.on Englishandse me other sources. Swahiti has èqerieüced exteÍnâl infìuence to a degreethât lev ÌaÍgüâgesever do; in par[icular,many speahers of Arabic and other Ianguages haveusedSwâhiÌias â secondlanguage and evenâdôptedit âs their only lánguage. has somewìatmodilied the Suchinlluen@has int.oducedsomenew consonants. Ìules for syllâblestructure,ând has ìeen responsibleIor the lossol tonal contÌast6. h grammaÌ, however,S*ahili is unmistâhãblyã Bantu lângüage.No significânt leâtu.es ol AÌâbic, English, o. othe. foÌeign Sranmâticâl structures have cÌept into Swahili. There have, to be sure, been some simplirications of Íâther compld Bântu eraÌnmaticâÌ pâtterns, but .ven the* aÌe âttest d in other Bantu Ìânguag€sÌ\,ìere external iniluence is alJlJarently out ol the question. rn the light of the$ considerâtions, it indeed sems ?.eposterous to suggest that such complex, âbstÍâct, and petuâÊive g.amaticâl .hârâcteristics as the noun clâs ând âgrement systons of colntÌess W€st Afriqtr languâgesdevelo?ed by a processof gmmmaticalcontànination" due to someâncient contactsith speakeÍsoí Bantu laÍguages. There is simply Do known precedentlor such a substântive rêstructuring oí grâmmãti€l systêns. On the Õther hând, âIthÕDgh we mây neverbe âbleto explainalì the details,â hypothesisof commongenetic o.igrnwould reqúneonly the positingol a nuDbe. oÍ ânalogicand lerhaps soDe inúovâtive chânges which, though adnittedìy extensive jn this monplacein kúown lânguagehistory, ând ât least as extensiveiú many well-ât1.9. Claimsthãt sone languâgesare'mixed Ìânguâg€s"lare no bette. thân clâims oI extensivegrãÍnnaticâl restructuriÍg, in the light oI &nown Ìanguage history and even of colmon experience. The chiÌdren ol parents {ho speâk diflerent ÌaDguags natively may Ìeam both of thei. parent$ languages.but they do not developsomenew, 'mixed" languâge{ith structural cÌraracteÌistieând vocãbularyderivedabout equalÌyíÌom eachol thei. paÌent'slanguâges; at most, their bünguâÌismúây result in â sprinkÌingoÍ Àdoptedwoídsând lràccsol other modificÀtions itr each language. NoÌ is there âny Ìecorded caseol a grout of peopÌe, evena bilingual @mmunity, seÌectingroughly conparablesetsof structunl chaEcteÌistics ând amouÍtts of vocaòulary from one laneuage, and othem lrom anotherlaígüâge,to createanything thâ1.ân r€âsonablybe câlledâ mirttrre. (For pidgin ãnd creolelaneuages, se€l,14-15ìelow.) To b€ sure,wh€n a member of úe "PennsylvâniâDutch" cômunity sâys he jumped the Ienceover,'he betÉys his Geman background.But in that community,thereis Dot.uly 'mix-
ARrcÀx LNcuÀcE SmúcNREs ed" Ìânguâge;in fâct, ther€ are two Ìanguage, ceman aDd EngÌish, ecà showiíg some.€sültsof nomâl extdnãl influencef.om tle other, This is not to ssy, oÍ course,thât in pâúiculârthê lêaicâÌstockôf â lânguâge roy not have a mixed backg.ound. In fact, over a period of several miÌlenia which is undoubtedly the âge of the lour language fmilies Greenbe.g posits for Africa the numbe. of vocabulÀry itens trâ@âble tô the oÌiginal laquage by direct descent is reÌâtively iísignificqnt. A substaDtial pa.t oI modem English vocabülâry hâs beenâdopted from French. Lâtin, and Greek; â strbstânürÌ though eâsily exaggeratedpart ol modern Swâhili vocabülâry hâs bêen adolted Írom Arâbic and English. But in structure, àíd in genetic relationship âs reflected in Egular phonetic conespondencesin inheritêd vocâbulâry, EngÌiôh is still GeÍnanic and Swahiliis súll Bantü. 1.10. Perhâpsthe most explicit hypothesisof languagenixture has to do with Mata (Mbugu), â ìadgoageoÍ Tãnzania, which hâs heen câlled 'â non-Bântu Ìânguage,which has adopted the Bântu cìass ând coÌlcoÍd system" Clücker ând Bryan 1966,p. 270n). It hasaÌsobeeí describedas having "ã ìâÌge Irâqw lcushiticl vombuÌary ãnd a Bantu gmnmaticâI syúem (TuckeÌ and BÍyâD 136ô, p. 592). It hasbeenâÌlegedthãt the Cushiticvocabularyis alÌnostentiÌely nominal, and that Mata veÌbs are oI someotìe. oriein (TuckeÌ and Bryan 195?,!. 72). The evidenceavailableiÍ publicationsis scânty,buÌ unpublishedreMch (Chri$ topher Ehret, ?emonaÌ conmuni@tion) suggeststhat thê dêvelolment of Mâ?a, though certainÌy nnusuaÌ, is within the Íâniliâr lrânework of cotrtinuous lâtrSuagehistory with exten8iveexternalinÍluence.Actuãlly, nany Mâ?a verbsand other wo.ds, as weÌl as nouns, aÌe of Cushitic ortin. These have pârauels üot otrÌyin lrãqw,but in óther soüthernCushiticlanguâges, and cleârlyindicâtethal the continuous ôr genetic hiâtory ol Ma?a is Cushitic. What, then, úl the âlleged Bântu g.ammatical system? There are, indeed, a greât naüy Bântu gramrÌatical chaEcteristrcs in Mâea. But there â.e also â numher of ga?s ãnd inconsistencies in thei. applicãtion, suggestingthat they do not òelong to the mainstream of the Ìânguâge's history. It appeaB that the stcâÌers of Mâta have been biìineüaÌ tor sevemÌ genemtions, theiÌ scond lânguagebeing a BâDtu ìanguage. The Bântu vocabularlyin Mata is largely moDg the nouns,which is typicãÌ oI âdopted vocabulã.ly in most Ìanguages. The adoption ol such vocabuìary from a wellknown lânguâgeresult€din Mà?aadoptingìoth singüÌaÌand plural IomB lÌom Bântn, so thât a vâriety if nôt ãll oI the Bântu noDn-cÌâssprefixes came into the language.Sinceit wâs appÍopriatein the lamiliar Bantu *cond languageto use conordiâl or âgre€ment p.efúes with modifieN of such nouns ând with verbs, that Bântu usâge was t.aÍsfened along with the nouns fo. which it was âppropriâtê. Finâlly, ât leâú to somedtent büt òy no meansconsistedtly,the useol noun-classprefixes and concoÍds was extended even to someof the originâÌ Cushitic vo@buÌâry of the Ìanguâge. The ÌêsuÌt is inde€d unusual, if not weiÌd, bnt it is súll atrributâble to tvo nomal types or language development-contidúous itrte.nal change and DonsystematicextemaÌ influen@. It should pâ.ticulaü be nóted that Ma?a did not âdopt Bantu gÌIìÌmâti@Ì chârâcteristics in the âbstÍact;
TsE HrsÌo8rcÀL ÀD C!ÁseFrc^ÍoRy SErdc
they câmeintô the lânguâgeâs incidentalsto the adoptedÌocabülãry. Furlher, it wouÌd appearthât such ext€nsive€xternâÌìnfluencejs possibleonly ìn a settilg of inteÍsive biliÍgtrãlismthrougÌ'outtlìe conmunity. Even tìere, il is by no lneaN inevitábÌe; the.e aÌe nany othe. bilinguâl cômfrunitiesin Africa and throughoutthe world, in whicì two lânguâgesexist sid€by sideNith tar Ìessinnuenceof either on the other. lú sum, the estâblishedprinciplesóf comparativeand ìistoricâl ìinguistics, ând aÌl we know about Ìanguagchistory and lângüâgechânge,demandthat, in the aÌea oI diÌeÌgent linguistic stÌuctures,ae seekexpìânâtionsfirú on the bâsis of recognizedprôcesses ol internâl change.$e shouÌdìook to extcÌnâl influ' enc€,and laúicüÌarly to ânything like languâg. "nixture". only às ã lâst resort. UnfoÌtunately,there ìas beenaÌÌ too nuch oI lleeingto hypoureses ol external influence,àllegedsecordaryãffinities,andcÌcnmtaed lângúãg€sâs a lnst resoú. Mâ?âhâsbeeútriufrphântly cit€d âs ã cãseof langDage mixiure, aDdas evìdence thât suchmixruÌe nây be rery .ómmon in África. EÌên if ne $ere to admit the t€Ím "mixed lenguage"Ío. Mare and even theÌe the lerh âs conmonly used hardÌy seemsap!Ìopriatrit is ìardly lâir to.lâim tìat sitiilar delelôpments may he conlnon. The very fâct thal !Íâea is so consticuouslylnusuaì suggeús that other conpârâblecâses{ouÌd be readi\ recognizabìe and definâble. But vith the possibÌeexceptiônof óneor two oth€r languãgeslo. shich inadequate evid€ncêis avaiÌabl€,no compaÌablecaseshale )een.epoÌted, eren $ìeÌe the coúditionsseen sinilar. Ànd even Matâ cÌeâ.Ìy âppearsto hav€ìâd â continuous genetic histôrJ shich is Cushilic.rilì r€mârkablyextenrivebut enlirely explicaìÌeext€rnalinlluence. LU. So far. there have be€nonÌy pâssingÌete.€ncesto inslâncesin shich a Sroup of speakersoI â giveú langúâgeadôpts a ne$ languagevhich it hâs not spokenbelo.e,ànd conpleteÌylosesits osn o.iginaÌlânguâge.This is outs'detle realmol ünbrokengen€Ìation-tcgenemtion lânguagehistorywith tìe usualkinds of Ìânguagechange,and perlaps dilÍerent ruÌes apply to languagechange$ìen ole lânguageis súbúituted lôr ànother. Thâi suchsulJíilutions Ínây Ìake place ìs obvioDs â substânlialportion oI the populationoi the United Stat€slrasexpe.iencedlânguagesuhstitutionin its ovn lifetime or within th€ pàst IeY gen.ratioÍs. Many peopÌeof ethnicaÌlyÀrabic origin speaka Bantu lânguaee,SìlahiÌi, âs their Íirst langüage.Many peópl€oI MalâFd orjgin speâkAhikâans âs their rirst tanguâse. Through the laÌgely untraceablehistory oi the Ìan'ndigenous guagesofAJri.â,th€reìâveundoubtedlyìeen mâny casesôl languâge subslitution, on the part of sizablegroups oÍ leople as well as countlessindiriduâls, lh€ question may )e raisedwhethe. such histoÌicãl events mây .ot vitjãte â gôôd many ol Greênberg'shypothesesin regârd to genelicreÌãtionslìip,and whether sometling like the "mixed languages"so commoDlytlou€ht to exist Dây Dôt 1.12. Whenan individuaìmovesjnto a nev lineuisticcomnunity and begins to adopt its Ìaúguagêin place of his own, he Ínay tor leârs ând elen decades speak the new lânguage imperlectÌy, sith recognizable chaÌacteristics of his fiÌú
l0
À.RrcÀN LaNGU GE SÌÂucruÂls
language,especiallyiú pronünciâtion. Büt his osn clildren, born in th€ név comDünity,wiÌl probabìynot leârn his Iirst lâ.guageat all, and in their us€ôf the new languâgethey wül conformalmost perfectly to tìe communityaÌoxnd them. They actuâlly enter intó thê ubrok€n continuumoI the languâgeol tb€ communib, and lor lurposesoI linguistichistory Ìheir lâtìefs lângüâgedid not exist. There is no noticeâbleifrpâct ol ihe first languãgêof one individuâl on thaì oI the commu.ity into whicÌr h€ mo!€s, nôr evên on üe laÌguageol his children or at l€ast grandchild.en. Casesof this sort are tôo conrnolplâcejn Alri.â to make it n€cessâry to cite irdividuâl insÌânces. Ahie ìas certainlyknÕwnalsovhât hasìeen so connon a phetronenonin the United States tlat oI ã sizabÌe g.oup oi !€oplê rnoling inlo â n€w linguistic environnent ald adoptingthe languageoI ihat envirônnênt. In suchcaseFas âúply atteskd in tÌìe Unit"d Stâtes-the .ommunity may retâin its ethnic ideDtity Íor mâny gen€râtions.lt Day aho retain its oÌiginãl lâng!ãgeíor â while, thougÌtusually not foÌ more lhân tsô or three generâtions.The.e is a period of bilinguâlism. Eârly in ihât period,the new lânguag€nray be spokenwitì recognizabÌe chã.âcteristicsof the original languagÈin pronunciation,usãge,ând somêdelailsof rocâbulary. Someind'viduâlsnay alsospeaktheir first lâ.guage, âs far âs g.ammaticalstruchtr€is conc€rn€d. sith Ìã.g€ numbe$ of sords tâken Iron thc ne* lânguage.Lâterin the pe.iodorbiÌingüalisn,tìe secondgen€Ìâtion nây sp€âkthe origiíâì ìanguâgeonìy for linited puÌpos€s. and with Ìecognjzâble charâcteristics of tìe new langxage. But by row, they are conlorming mo.e and IÍôre to the neNlângDâge âroundlheD, so that within anoth€rgeDe.arion oÍ two theirspeechisvttuaìly ortotaìly indhiinguisÌrable lrom tÌre speecìoÍ tÌreir neighbo.s. OnlJ a lew deiails of into.ation and $ord usageare likeÌy to bet.ay the SwedishoÌigin oÍ nany a Minnesotân,Õrthe Dutch Õriginofmary a MichigaDd€Ì o.Iowan,lhôugh suchpenonsnay be in only the thiÌd gene.atiotrin this coultry. The coDmunily bâsìy now aüìost compl€telyjoined the najnslreâm ol th€ unbroken history ol the new languâge,without apprecjâbìydistuÍbing its genetic There âre, in fâct, sone $eìì-ãt1€sted instancesof qnite the sâme!ìenomenon in Al.ica. There have ìeen nig.ations from SoÌth At.icÀ to ãreasÍarther nortì, after which the migratiDggroup hâs âdoptedÌhe lâneuâg€âround ìheh. Alter â fe{ generâtiÕns, hârdÌy ânJthing is l€ft, linguistically,to bêtray their dille.ent lineuisticorigin perhapstheiÌ ovn nâne foÌ theiÌ leople, somepÍoper names,and â few other soÌds. Mucì like sÕnanl communitiêsoi loreign oÌi8in in the United Stâtes,they háy€ .etained somethingof tìeir own identiiy, but they canb) nomeansbesaidtospeakanixed o. substantiâÌlynodified laÍguâge. Il caught sithin â lea decâdesalter nigrâtion, tn€J mây be in a trãnsitionâI, ?artly bilìngDâlstate, but in time tìey ent€Í into the nry linguisiic stftâm ând are lost in that unòroÌen continuün. Mrch thê samepÌocesstãkes llâce whên a linguistic coDnunity doesnot move at al!, but is oveNhelned )y nesconeF who speakâ new laÍguâge ând $ìose languâgethe ôriginaÌ cótuunity adopts. In such qses, biÌingualis is
THE HrsroRrc^L ÀND C!^ssrFrc^roRy SEmNc
Ìl
fâr môre persistent-Englishin the Unitêd Stàl€s and SFnish in Mexico hâye beê! sêcondlánguagesot countles Indianstor â Ìongtime, ìut many oI the originâl Iídiân Ìâíguâgeshâle survivedin âdd'tion. Agsi!, howeve.,iI the new languageeÌentually predominát€s, it is not seriouslyaff€ctedby the old. Even to ex?lainthe differencêbetweenMexicanand Peninsuìa.Spanisì,oDeshouldlook first to the procesesof internâÌ changebelore proposinghypothesesâboDt the inlluenceoÍ IÍdiân lânguageson SpaDish,oÌ on the English ot thc Southv€stern United Stat€s. Agâin, there ã.e many pã.alìeìsin Àirica. Selerâltribes in nÕúhernNigeriâ have ãdoptedHausa as a secondÌanguage.and in somecasesthe fi.st language is gÌeduelly dying out-though not as commonlyno. as Ìapidly as somepeopÌe wotrld like to beliêv€. In Ghana,Etutu sas the ôriginâììanguageot the coâúâl to\tn of Winn€bâ,but hâs âlmost totauy disãppearedin iâvor oI Fânte. In the northwesternlvo.y Coast,a town wheÌe Sena.iwas o.ig'nâlly sloken has adott ed Mâninka as its languâg€by local legisìatiÕn,But all of ihesecases,by tìe time the originâllanguâgeis loú, tle newlanguagehas'nb€enacquiredvith liúual Ìy no moditicationfroh tìe fom in whìch it hâd been spolen natively jn the surroundingcommunity. Mino. modilicationsin ploíology and in a tew details of usage,and a Íair numberoI âdoptedwords,mây lâter be recognizâble. büt in nothing lìke the dime.sionsposiÌedfÕr suppos€dfri*ed ìãneúees. 1.13. Súppose,however,that a community shich adoptsâ new lângúâgeis isolatedlÌom its native speakes belorethe new Ìânguâgeis peíeclìy acquired. Wouìd the resuìtnot b€ the perpetuationoI sometlingcoÍnparableto the heaviìl accentedbroken EÍìgÌishof â young inmigrant conmunityÌ The ânsw€rsouìd appeârto be n€gâtive. Not only is it impossibìeto think oI a clear êxâmpleof süch â situation, but the linguìsticrealitiesBouÌd seen to prevent it. While the secondlânguâgeis stilÌ so ihperlectly leaÍned,lheÍirst languageis still retâincd. II coÍtact with tìe secondìanguageis tìen Ìoú, the community{ould and undoubtedlydoes .evert to its limt Ìânguage,çilÌì hardly â trâceof tle secondlaneuageexcÊplposiÌb\ a numb4 oÍ âdoplcdwords. In shoú, if a community hâs Ìeachedthe loint where its iirst languâgeis úsedin onÌy a lìnited way and imperlectly,Ìhe secondÌânguage{ouìd hav€be€n leârnedvery nearìypeíectÌy, and the communitycan be coDsidered to hare been abso.bedinto a new lingüisüc mqinstreamor continúum. On the ôther ìand, ii â communitybegiÍ6to acquirea secondlanguageand is inte.ruptedin the prc ces before full naste.y has been âchieved,it remainsin its original linguistic mãinúream. In eithêr case,there mây be sômeÌângüãeêchangedDeìo the contâct ôf the two Ìanguages,but it is not likely to be extensrv€. 1.14. How, th€n, would one explain and cqtegorìzesüch â Ìinguisticentìty as KÌio or SiemaIf,ole? There is clearly a backgroundoÍ inperfectly leârned EngÌish in Krìo, compârâbÌeto shat is found in yôung imnigmnt commulities. 'l'herejs âlsoa phonologythat is in many r€spectssiDilar to tÌìái ofâny olseveral Wêst Atricân Ìângüages,ând â eÍâDDâticaì stnctuÌe thãt lâcÌs Dâny EnSlisì châracte.isticsãnd in somedetails resemòtes W€ú Àfrjcân Ìãnguages.li there
12
ÀFÂrc^N L^Ncu^úÉ SrRUcrunEs
êv€Ìwâsa'imixêd" lenguage,Krio wouÌdseú to be â nôtewórthyexam!Ìe, And there âre, ol course,ottter ÌanguagesoÍ a sinilar type arouÍd the vorld, whose histoÌy is quite differentlrom the unbrokenhistory ol a lânguageor the vìrtuãly total acquisitioÍ ot â new langüagedesc.ibedup to this point, In terms of the discusion up to now. Krio is unqu€stioíâbìyab€Ìrânt. It is a Dewlangusge, without aDygenetichistory in the usuals€nse. But il suchan âbenant lânguâgeDay apFaÍ in Alrica, with â becloudedo. disputãbl€geneticbâckground,mây there not be otÌre. €ses ol the sãmetype, unrecordedand buried in the linguistichisto.y oI the continênt,shicì {ouÌd nôt in ãny norÍnalsat lil into Greenberg s geneticclâsirication? And if so, can we legitinâteÌy raÌk alout ÌcÌâtionshipsât âÌl? (SeeDálby 1966). 1.15.Betorewe discaÌdthe whoÌe conceptol genêticnìâtionship, and with it Greenbe.g's cla$iticalion,se shouldrotê the hjghly specialized circuDstãnces underwlich â Ìanguagesuchas Kno nay comeinto ìein8. The ongin ot KÌio is not conpâmbleto the casesol ìanguâgesubstitutiÕnwhich hâve alreadybeen discused. In those,ih€ ciÌcünstanc€sserê ol a hornogeneous grolp, speakers oI a singlelanguage,adoptiDga .es Ìanguagcin plâceot th€iÌ own. During the early stagesol tlÌe substitutionpÌocess,they wolld úk rh€ nêw láDguegeoúly in comnünicatingwith .âtive speâkersôl iti rmong themseÌves,tìey wôüÌd continueto usetheir list Ìanguag€.Th€ newlanguâgewouìdcoÍÌe into usewithin the Sroup onÌy aÍter it wâs weÌ|, iI not p€.fectÌy,l€aÌned. Tìe history oÍ KIio is significântlydiÍIe.ent. Âs a .€suìt oI extensivecoastaltrade, and ÌateÌ in the New wo.ld, lative speaÌeNoÍ a $ide variety of Airican languages werethrcwn profiiâbÌe, into each other's social n'Ìieu. They weÌe forced, or lound it to communicâte nót ónly with nâtive sleâkeh of English, büt âÌso with eâch otheÌ. They had no commoDnativeÌanguageto iaÌl back on. ln so ÍaÌ asthey @tMu!icàtedwith native spdkers ol English,the usualpr€Bsures to confom to EúgÌish prorunciationand gÌanmar Fere present. Bnt when they conmunicated rith êachothe., thosep.esuÌes werêâbsent. Undê. suchci.cumstãnces,habitsol imperfect !Ìonunciation and usãgenere ÌeiníoÌced,and â sort oí lowest common denominatorof phÕnologyand eÌúnâr wâs ânived âi. English Ìexicál items which couldsÀlelybe usediD â pronunciâtion,and in gmmnaticâl constÌuctioDs, did not seriously violate tÌÌe pattems of most ot tìe Àfricãn languâgesspoken üatively by various m€nbeÍs oI the cómDunity. Ànd in tifre, nâtive speâkeÌs of English. in .ômunicating sith them, probâbly ÍouÍd it easierto conlon to theìr newly-develolring inteúribaì codethan to imposeon them th€ liner points ôl Englishpronunciationand 8ramma.. To the extent that that happened,thêy no ìongerhad a mod€l of reâÌ EÍglish tô @nÍom to, ând the pâttems oÍ theiÍ p.onunciationand gramna. betame6tabilizêd.Finally, the retúÌn ôÍ Ìârgenumb€n oÍ thê commrnity to Àfrican soiÌfu.the. isolaftd theml.om an Englishnodel. Ìn such â situation, âs long as the native Ìânguag8 of the comunity aÍe lâDguageis a secondlanguagefÒr its Ìemembe.edand the newÌy-developed it is knovn as a "pidgin ' Ìângüâge.within a Í* generâtions, howevd, speakers, the children in such a lingtristicalÌy heterôg€neous.ôlmDnity nãy Ìearn only the
TlE HrsroÂrca! ÀND ClAssrFrc^roÂ\ SEm,lc
13
newÌy developed lânguâge, and it ìecones th€ir nâtive languâge. At thât stag. it is known âs â "creote"lânguâge. Sie.m LeoneKrio is thc nâtive bnguâgê ôf a sizablepopuÌation. In the nineteenthcentury,it was tÍânsportedby its nâtive sleàk€Ísto Cúeroon, Nigeria,ândsone otherpointsâlongthe $ estÀfricân coãst (thoüghnot, ãs hãs be€naÌleged,Liberia),whereit hasbecomeâ secondlansDãge ror inteÌtrilal communicâtior,and is onìy in the pidgjn stage€xceptperhapsin The unìqueând sigDificantconditionsfoÌ the origin ol a pidgjn and eventua! comDunity,with nô Ìy â creolelanguageare, then, a linguisticallyhetercg€neous predoninant lative languâge,and intenseprcsure to communicatevithin the comD!úity as welì ás with nâtiv. speak€rsof 1ìe languagesshÕsêvocâbulary the comnunity âdÕpts.: This hâs beentÌDe not only íor Sicna LeoneKrio, hut aho foÌ West AlricaDCrioulo(with Portlglese locabulary),loÌ Liberian "SoÌdier English" (â pidgin which rây not as yet ìe luÌìy stâbljzed),Haitian and Mauri tian and LouisianâCreole,P.piâÌnento ând 'Iakilaki in the Câribhean,GúlÌâh on the isÌandsofÍ tle SouthCarolinacoast,Melanesiân Pjdgin,and alìoth€Ìknown 1.16. In this light, the questionnây oncemoÌe be âsk€dNìetheÌ such languâgesmây not hâve aÍisenfreqìrentìywithin Ahica. It is not €nough,in ordeÌ for such a lânguageto derelop, to ìâve Digration, someintermarriage,or ordinary languagecontãct and inte.tribaì trade; such lactorscan accountloÌ only the standardfoÌms ot exte.nal inÍluencein lâneuâgechânge,or Íor oÌdinaÌy languagesubstitut'on. Even conqueúordinaÌily hâs no greateÌ im?act than lh€se. Even sÌaveiaiding muú be of suchan intensity and suchâ naturc tìât it rcsuÌts in â substãntiâlhete.ogeneous comnunily und.r pr€ssureto conmunicâtenitlin itselr âs welÌ as with the slave-owners.Sucìrpressureis understandâble in süch catacÌymic upheavaÌsas the slãve communitiesin tìe Neste.n Henisthere, o. the trãde patte.ns of Európeânpoyerssithin the last few centx.i€s. lt doesnot sem likely tlat similar pressureswould oÍten hale dereÌopedinterDallyinÀfÌjca, even under the greât empiresof ancjeúl1ines. Th€ socioìogyol slãveryând the nature ol trade {ithin Àhica hale been,in know! timesand presumablyalsâls, vaúly diffe.ent i.om tòe situation in Uìe context of European-Âfricancontãct; in dricâ, the ciÌcumstances would haÌe Ìent th€mselv€sfar Ìnore reâdiÌyto languagesubstitution rather tìan to the developÍnentol pidgirÌ languages.Ií xnknown pidgi'Ì and tinauy cÌeolelanguagesdid developin th€ ag€soÍ uDrecorded history in Africâ, theÌê islilLìe reâsonrÒleìiere thallhey vere núDerousorlarge. maLly a colc
ìanguagc,in d
anls in a conLÌ.ncc on pìdeinizarion and dcolizârlon in 1963 r{ched the sanc conclusion;scc psiicuÌ no{ {tdeÌy and Drcbabìy seneralì} âcceDtèd,\ras loÌlslìadosrd in $cìhrs l9ô3c, in }hlcì! rhd .ccsaÌ] and surlicicnl; thc lâcl ooÌu Xrio lìrd its oligins in thc western H.mlsDhere,$blcb h veÌy llkeìy not thr cs$ GeeHân.ock 197r, D. llt), dors no! liii
14
AFRIC^N L^NGu^cE SnlcroREs
Wê Inãy conceìvâbÌyíind tmces of strchdelelopnents in the Í!tur€, but it is extreneÌy unljkely thât they ìâvè b€en suüicient to distort our pictuÌe ol langusSeÌelationsÌ'ipsiÌ Alricã ât all s€riously. TheÌe have heen,to be sü.e,other known lingDistjcdevelopments in tle di pidgintâtiôn in Àfrica. the pÍessures rectionol Under ol BelgjânadnjDistmtion ánd missioDaryeducatioDin the Congo,â somerÌrâtpidginiz€dtorrn of KiKoheo ìas developed,Ìno{n âs KiTubã, Tráde KiKongo, KiKongo vdhicuÌâire,and by vârious other nmes; it has Ìost th. tonâl system ôt iídigenoüsKiKongo, and â Íew of the suìtìer grâmmâticâìcôníructions,but is r€âdilyundeÉtoodìy native speakesof unafiecteddiâlectsoI KiKonSo. In East Àfrjca, the pr€ssures oÍ centuries of AÌabic slale trâde foÌlow€dby â period of Eüropeandonination ìave nade Swahiìi a ïehicÌe ol intêrlÌìbâl communicâtion.The conditioD6fo. the oÌigin oÍ ã pidgìn hãve haÌdly beenfully meL bequse the cohmunily is nôt so commu.ity âs ã cltrsterof sizaue, viable homog6 mDch a singleheterog€.eous neoüscommunities.Yet tle cìrcmstâncesare somewìâtsinilaÌ, and the resuÌt ìâs beenthe developn€ntof somewìâtpidginizedfoÌÍns of Svâhiìi süchas "UpCountrySwalili", KìSetllâ, ândLjHindi. On the otherhand,foÌ alÌ the enormous Irressurethere app€âmto be to spreadHa!.a in West AIrica, úe circmstãnces hâae not beenâppropriãte,or the tÌessuÌe hâs b€€ninsufiicient,to bring âbout tle develôpmentôf âny recôgnizedpjdgin or crêoìelângüage. A reâlistic asessment ÕÍ the sitnâtion, th€Ìeto.€, suggeststhat the possüility oI tle atpeâranceoI new c.eoÌelânguâg€swithin Àfricâ th.oughout it! histoÌy, suffìciênt tÕ distoÌt se.iousÌy the Ìeconstructiotr oI Ìãnguage ÌêÌâtiônships, is so .emôte as to be regligible. In addition, âllhougìi deoÌe languag$ nay pshaps be called nixed' languagesif one sô desiÍes,th€y âre ol qüite a difieÌent type from the Ìind of nixed Iangragesposited by the lertiie inagirâtions of sone writ€Ìs. And more SeneÌâÌly,the tendencyelidencedby someto attÌibute ev€ryÌestnctuúng, thiÍg posiìÌe to languâgemixtuÌe, Smmmaticâ!ând phÕnologicâl or even úe âdôplion ol loreign vocâbülâry, is tôlâlly unjustiri€d. The study oI exteÌDaìlyDotivâted lânguagêcbângeis, ol couÌsê,justifiâblêând iDportant. So is, it goeswithout saying,tle study ol iDrovative,ãDalogic,aDdsenaÍtic change wìich is internâÌly rotivâted. BÌt sucì úudi€s cân, for the most part, ìe vâli. in qu€stior. dated only in the contextoíthe geneticclassilicatjonof the ìânguages IÍ we b€ginwith a realistiôrecognjtionoI tìe natuft oi continuouslanguagehistory, èverydaycommunicâtiÕn b€twêeÌ old and young, theE can be no doubt of possibility validity the geneticclassilicationof ìanguages.And such the and ol a classjlicâüon hâs impoÌtânt im!Ìicâtions fo. the study oÍ structuÌâÌ chancteÈ istics acÌosslanguageboundãries. 1.17. To ârrive ât â geneticcÌassjÍicaüon of the laDguages oÍ Àfdca, G@!b€Ìgh proc€dureol nass coÍÌrpârisôn of ÌexicaìiteÍhsis .eúãinly vâlid. Àlthough tìe it doesnot go so Íar as a dmonst.ation of regular!Ì'oietjc corespondences, simìÌâ.iti€scited strongly suggestthât sDch corespônden@sexist, tÌrough ve may have inadequateevidenceto state tìem iuÌly. Reìying on sDchâPP.oxibut the mátionsDay, to b€ sure,involvethe Ìisk of oc@sionaÌeÍoneou8guessès;
THE HrsÌoRrc^L ND C!ÀssrFrc^roRr SEnNc
15
likeÌihood tìât the entir€ lrânework of the clâsificâtion is .ompletely vjtiated is so Ìmote as tobe unvorrhy Õl consideration, by Ìêìianceon fâÌsecomparisons Gmnting that GÌeenbe.8's ÌrÌoceduÌeis vaìid, howeve.,the qDestionrdaiís whether he actuâlÌy âpplied it with sufiicient (iÌe and consistency to ânive ât â delinitive clâssitication.At the gÌossestextreme,the assignmentot individuâl lânguaSes or groupsoÍ cÌeaü cÌoseÌyrelatedlaneuãges to oneoI the ÍourlangDâg€ families he posìts,there €n be little doubl tìât the assignnentsãÌe coÌ.ect, vith pe.hâls à very oc@sionâtsÌip $h€re thc avâilâbleêvidencêis rinìDal. FoÌ all prâctical lurposes, tìê vâlidiiy oI Greenberg'stour lâmiliescân be considered estâblishedithey are AÍro-Asiatic, NilGsâharan, Niger-Kordofaniân,ând Khoisan. GÌeenbergÌecognizedtne possibilityof a ÌeDote relationshipbetseen two or moÍe of thesefâmilies,but he wâs not preparedto lropos€ âny ìypotheses on th€ basisot availableeÌidence. MoÌe recentÌy, E. A. GregeÌson(1970)hâs presentedevidencefor rhe ultimate .elalioDshi! ol the Nilo-Sâhâranând NigêrKordofaniânlamilies; to the süp€Fphylumhe posjtshe givestÌre nme Ko.goSaheân. G.egeBon,foÌlowingG.eenb.rgì p.oceduÌeand lorúãt closeÌy,discussB a numler of boundmorthemes,ând citescompaÌisons Io. seventy-fivelexi@Ì items, SomeoÍ the conparisonsaÌe highly dubious,ìut tak€n âs a wìole the €lidênce is reàsonâbÌyconvincing. Within Nitcsâharan, the mosl basic subvitÌ'in Nigerdivisionâppearsto b€ betweenSoíghaiand âll tÀe otlìer lângúages; KoÌdoÍâniânthe most basicsubdivisìoDis presumabÌybetweenKordotaniânand Nige.-Congo.On imtressionisticgrounds,Gregersonsuggests the posibiÌity thât Songhai,the .est of the preseÍt Niìo-Saharan.Ko.dofa.iãn, ãnd NigeÌ-Congo may Íâther be four "coordinâtê"bÌãnchesol Koneo-SâhâEn. Althôugh som€ ÌeãÌtnment ât the deepestleÌeÌs oI reÌationship nay eventually b€ necesary, the coÍcept oI DultipÌe cooÌdinâteìrânchesmì'st be landled sith ext.emecãre. Languagedivision usually âppeaBto tâIe thê torIn ol biftrrcation;it must normâlly be exlected that the modeÌ lor the origií ot four bÌânch€swould ìe one of the
À thÌee-wÀydivisioDfrom a single node is histoúcãlly posibì€, of côurse;bul wbere there is âd€quateevidencefor reconslÌüclingÌangDageìistory. Iew süch tÕ coordinatêbrancìreí' sloüld not @s€shavê b€endmonstrated. Reterences be tãken as actuaÌ hylothesesol rnultiple diüsions from singÌenodes;th€y a.e more Ìikely to bê, by jmpÌication,meÌe admissionsthat th€ order oÍ ìiÍurcatioDs
lô
ArRrc^N LNGUÀGE SmucrGEs
is nôt cìeãrfrom thc evidenceto dâle. Until unânbiguousevidercei! available, Greenb€Ìg'slourJâmiÌy clâssilicâtiôn ôl th€ lângüâgesof Àlrica Íenâins entiÌeÌy âdeqDate;the Ìecognitionof s p.obsble .€lstionshìpbetseen Nito-Sãharânând Nige.-Kordolaniandoesnot constitutea mdicâÌ .ealignrnent. 1.1a.Á.Ìsome points in the sübclassiiicatioD of the lour languagefaBiÌies of ÀÍrica, Greenberg's outrinehâs beenqüestionedwith nore .eason. First of âll, in the Aho-Àsiâtic lmily, GreenbeÌg recognizesIive "cooÌdinate ìÌanches": âncient Egyptian (extinct). Semitic.Cushitic,BeÌber, ând Châdic. On@ more, it is not to be âssufred thât the tiÌe branchesare eqüally closeÌy or distantÌy reÌated to eâch othe., but rathe. thât th€ .€Ìaüve degreêsoÍ relâtionsìip have not beên establish€d. In this cas€,Greenbergsas expÌicitly reáctine against a $,ideÌy accepted theory tÌìat Egyptian, Cushitic, ând Berber constituted â uúity knwn as "Hamitic , whichwasin túrn Dore distântly relatedto Smiüc i! a la.ger "Hanitcsenitic" Imily. Grcenbergì contenüon is mereÌy thât no such folmDlÀüon had evêr been doonstratedì it was, in lact, meÌely the resDlt oÍ accidênts in thê history ol compâ.âtive scholâBhip ÌeÌationships betNeen Egyptian, Cushitic, and Berber {eÌe consideredestablished belore many Semitbts were !Íepâred to oÍ ân) oÍ lì@ lo 5pmrlir. a...pl lhê reìâlionship Furtìer sulclassilication within the bmnches oÍ AÍrc-Àsiatic p.@!ts a problem in only two câses.Therecan,of couNe,be no gubclassilication of ESDtian. FoÌ the SeÌniticÌanguages, there is â Ìong tÌadition oí distinguishêdscÌolaBhip, aDd Greenbergimplicitly .eteÌÊ the reader to that; in any qse, Íor AfÍica, he iÊ conce.ned onÌy with Arabic and the Semitic langusges of EthioliÀ. The BeÌì€r Ìânguagesare ÌeÌâtiveÌy cÌÕsêÌyinteFÌelated, ând theÌe aÌe no burnitrg issuesconerning their subclãssilicãiion. Greenberg posirs live groups of Cushitic ìãnguâges, ând nine groupsôl Châdiclanguâges.Àgain ihe intêneìãtionshitsmong tÌìe gÌoups are not estabÌished, but there has been Do serious diegrement úth the gÌou?ings themselves. 1.19. In his delinition ând deÌimitation of tìe Nilo-Sahamn lamily, Greenbe.e (1963)incorporâtesa numbeÌ oI originâÌhypotheses of reÌationsNpând subcÌâsificãtion wìich coutd have been basd onÌy on careful examination oÍ the evidenceand cautiousjldgnent. He incÌudesin Nilo-SaìâÌân$ven laneuagesor smalÌ g.ouls oÍ lâl8uages wlich he hâd tentãtively Ìisted as sepâÍâte langüâge famìli€sin his earÌierrlassilication(1955). In his.ej€ctionor the old NiÌGHmitic hypothesis-the view that ceÍtâin larguâges vere i! somenây mixtures of Nnotic ând CushiticeleúentFhe was determinedtÕ mâkê âs strong â caseãs posible lor the inclusion oI the languagesin questionwith the Nilotic langüages.For NiÌosâhâran mo.è thân foÌ any of the otheÌ Ímilies, Gr@nberg's cÌasüication woÌked rroD the bottom up; even though tle eviden.e lor soúe oÍ the Ìanguâges is lâ.Imm extensiÌe, the gÌoupings lÌoposed have a strong claim to vaÌidity. At the sme tire, thê six bÌãnches ol NiÌesahaÌân âre list€d, as are the brancles of other Íamities, without any indiqtion oÍ tle reÌatiÌe degÌeesof int€ÌrelÀtionship.Five ol the bmnchesâremâdeüp oi onÌy oneto six Ìãnguâg$each. The súth ìrrnch, Cha.i-Nile, is füúher subdivided ìnto lour paÌts, two ol which
THE HrsroRrcÀL ND Cl^sslF,cÀroN
sEn,Nc
t7
aÌe stilÌ further subclâssified into ten and seven Erou?s ÌespectiveÌy. It is this shicì, tiÌoÌgh úill câpâbleôl r€Iinem€nt,pÌovid€s lâtt€r bTe oI subclassification yalúâble a foundationfor more detailed and Ìigid comlaratile studi€s. 1.20. In the caseor the Niger-KordofanianImily, the situat'o! in r€gâ.dto subclâsüicatiônis more cohplex. In his eârìi€Í classificâtion,Greenberghad listed the Ko.dolânisnÌanguagesas a selaÌate lamiÌy. \Ãhen he concludedtÌrat the Ko.dolanian lsnguagesâÌe related to the Niger-Congolangxageswhich he hãd aledy definedas a fânily, it was natuFl to liew KordolanianaDd Nig€F Congoas unities reìâted tô eâch other âs t*ô ìrânches ol â lârger íâhily- It (not inhad alrudy been estâblished(Welners 1S58)that. within Nig€tsCongo cluditrgKo.dofaniân),the Mândelanguâgesrepnsent the old€ú divisionhom the parent stock;the ÌeÌationshipbetweenthe Mândelânguâgesand âny olher Nigeris moÌe Ìenote than any other reÌationshipsjthin Nigêr-Congo ConeolangDaees âpârt itufr Mânde. Il the dichÕtony ôf Kordolaniânând NigeFcongÕis vâlid, then KordoÍaniannust be more distantÌy reÌat€dto all olNiger-Congo, incÌuding impression Mânde,than Mande is to the rest of Nigertongo. lt is Greenberg's that this is t.ue, but it remâinsto bc proÌ€n. It is po$jble thât tìe reÌâtionsÌr'p is betweenthe KoÍdofanianÌanglagesand tììe non-MardeNigeÈCongolanguages closerthân the relationshipof âny Õt th€n to Mânde. Ií this shouldproÌe to be the casê,the divergenceofMaÌde would b€ the most sncient.and tÌr€ dile.gence oí Ko.dolânian Í.on the Ìeú ol Nige.-CongosouÌd be somewhâtlâteÌ. five groupsof Ìaúeuâgesas constitutingKordolânìân. Greenbergrecognizes The najor subcla$iÍicatorydivisionis bet{€en onegrou! (Tumtun)andthe other rou.; the inteneÌationshipsmong tle Ìatte. four arc not statedin futher detail. For NigeÌ-Congo,creenbergrê.ognizessixbrânches:$est Atlantic, Marde, Gur, Kwã. Benue-Congo, ãnd Adãnasa-Eâst€rn. As m€ntion€dâbovc,the najor division among th€seis letween Mânde ând aìl ol the otlers. \trithin Mânde, the losition of Bobo-Fing(Syâ) reúâins in sohe doübÌ. The ÕtherMo.de languãgescleârÌy lâll into t*o grôups,each íDúher sübdividedinto two, ãnd ÍoÌ Inâny of the individuaÌ lãnguagesthe r€ÌâtiÌe degre€sol .€tatio.shi! aÌe cleaÌ; thb is prôbâbly tie mosi comptêÌe,and perhapsthe b€st €úâblish€d,subclassification of âny @npârâbÌelânguâgegrôup in At.ica. G.eenb€rgcoDsideFthe Êecondnajor dichotomyto be pÌobâbly betweenWest Atlantic and the renâini!8 bEnches. Dàlby (1965,1970).on the othe. hand,questionsthevery integrity of the West Atlântic ìrânch, and even suggeststhât someot tìe la.guagesassiSnedto it may be ÌnoreclôselyÌelat€d to Ìângüages in other bÌaDchesoI Nig€Ìin NigeÈCongo,it Congo. If West Atlantic do€srepÌesenta very old divergeDce is to be expect€dthât somei.ter-Ìelatìonshipswithin the ìÌanch are distant, and the incÌusion of sonê ÌânguagesÍnây seem dDbious. Or tìe otler Ì,and, the hypotlesis of â close.relationslip of sone oí theselanguâgesto Bântu sìouÌd be easyto d€monstmtewith ã Ìittle ÌexicãÌevidence;d€monstrationhasnot been branchesto be paúicularly GÌeenberg.onsiderstÌìe Kwâ and BenDe-Congo closely related; at Ìeast it is clÉ. that the diÌ€Ìgences involving tne Gür ând
l8
ÀFÂrcÂNL^NcuÀcE SÌnucruREs
ÀdãDâwa-Eastern langlagesaÌe old. Othe. pÍoblens aÌise,honever.in ü€ @se of GuÌ, Ksa, and Benue-Congo. Arong someoí the languages Gre€nberg asigns inter-ÌeÌaüonships to lhe Gur branch, âplear to be ãt leastâs distant a6 between sone oI them ând some ot the Xwa lân8üages. GÌeenòeÌg's âsignÌÌent of thè K.u groüp to Kwâ is âdnittedly tentative; Kru mây welÌ desene the status of a setarate braDch. The asignneDt of Ijo to Kwa is also coDsideÌ€d tentâiivei Ijo, howèÌer, doesâppeârto be âbout âs closelyrelâtedto Yonlâ and to Akaú as the latter areto eacì other. Theseand severalotÌ'er relat'onships within Kwa, howeve., a?!eã. to be at Ìeast ãs distant a6 between some ol tÀ€ eâsteÌnmost IaDguâges assign€dto Kwâ ând ìânguâgesthât cìrârìy beÌoìg ií Benüe{ôngo. Within Greenbergs Benue-Con8o, the IiNt tso sDbgmups of ìis C.6eRiveÌ eÌoup (C.1,2) a!!eãr to ìe slightly moÌe clo*ìy related to soDe ol the subgÌoups of K1{a (especiaÌlyI, g) than to the Ìest ol BenuÈCoÍgo.ã Delinitive r€cìâsjÍicâüonwithin th€se bÌânches,however,will bê no easv task. TÌteÌe is evidencetìât, dunng a ÌeÌatively òÌiel peíod ìn tle distânt pâst (perhâpsâbout tournilìeDiâ ago).the.e werewidespr€adând com!Ìex populâtion mÕvements*hich resuÌted jn Ìârge nuúbeÌs ôl languâge diaisions, priÌnâriÌy in grouP3now loünd in WêstÀlri.â. By noú, the relâtive d€gÌeesoÍ reÌaüonship, and thús tìe detâils ôI classilicaüon,eÌe diflicult to determine. In somecases, perhapsmuìtiple near-simlttaneous divisionwill have to be posit€d. Th€reis no reasonto suppose,howeveÌ,thât aDythingtrânspìÌedotheÌ than the usualtoms oi langurgechâDge.Languâgesâre not Ìife foms thât inter!Ìeed, tmnsÍigu.eoÌ mutiÌât€eâchotìer beyond.ecognition,oÌ Sivebi.th to deíomed âsweÌlas nomal offspriúg. Languagesare vhat peoplêxse in everydaylite, ãndgenerationsleaks to generationin each unìÌoken continuum. in tÌre complex inWlatever otle. realignnentsnay be roÌnd neceÊsary cluding Greenberg'sKwa and Benue-CoDgo, one najor concÌnsionhe Ìeâched standsout clearÌyas indispxtable,eventlough theÍe âre sóDewho still refuseto with a Dunler ol othèr acceptit. Thãt js the incÌusionol tìe Bantu laDguages Ìanguâges to the noúhwestofBântu in â Benue-Congo bRnch oI the Njger-Corgo aDd ultimat€ly tle NigeÌ-KordoÍanianfamjly. Dâvid w. CÌabb nãs süggested certainf€âturestbât app€ârto be innovâtionswithin Brntu, andvhich cantherelorê be usedâs dúgnosticteststo deterhinewhethe.a laiguageshouÌdbe caÌl€d Bantu o. not.{ Thus,witbin Benue-Co.go, Bântu is specificâÌìydelineeted.GÌe€nberg does not proposeâ subclâssitication ol tle RlàtiveÌy closely ìlterÌeÌated zonesby GuthÌie Bantu languages.Tle clasiíicaüoDof Bantu jnto geogrâphicâl (1948)is not, aDdis not intendedto be,e full geneticcÌassiÍication.For somêor the zones,however,detâiÌsôl ú€ geneticsubclâsificâtionlndoubtedly corespond to his geogra!ìical boundaries. 1.21. Thô Khoisan ímily is the snaÌlest of the Ìanguagê Íámilies ol Africá. It inclDdesthe so{âlledBüsbmânãnd Hottentot languages ol sóúthêrnAfrtcá ?lus t These suse.tltoft arê based o his cìrsiricarìon oI rhe Mïde raìgua84 (weìme., 1e53). r crabb 1965; noie êspe.iâlly tbe FoÌc*ord by Jo&ph H. c.ce.bcr8.
TsE HrsroRrc^r dD C!ÀssrFrcÁroRrSrmrNc
l9
Sandaweand Hâtsa in TânzaÍiâ. FôlÌowingthe view of D. F. Bleek(1927,1929), thaf the culturaÌ dillerênmsbetw€cnthe Buehmenand the Grêêíìêrg Ìêcognizes pârâlteÌ Hottentots do not â linguistic dichotomy. Rather. the Soulh Àfricân Khoisân ìângüagesfalÌ into three strbgroüpscutting acrossc'rltürâÌ boundaries. Sândâweand Hatsa constitutetwo branchesof Khoisãn distinct lrom th. South lvestpháI (1971)proposesa clasilication Irerhapsbette. descÌibedas ân unclasificâtion-ol the KhoisânÌânguâges in which he doeslittÌe frore thân ìist numerousgroupsoI the Dost closelyrelâted laúguags. since ".elationship to 'lvestphalseensto impÌy somethingvery closeto nutuaÌ intelligibility, a hore Ìeâlistic geneticclasificâtion is cÌeàrÌypossible. Whetherthe BÌeek-Grenberg cìa$iticationis vâlid I Àn not competentto jüdge lor ìâck ol evidenceon hândj it wouÌd ha.dly appear,however,that a drastic reyision vould be deÍeúsible. 1.22. Whâteve.elsemây b€ saidin c.iticismo. in delenseofG.eenberg's cÌâs silication oI the lânguagesof Africa, there is universaìagreemenron one loint: il is time to expandour efÍo.ts to wo.k out compârativestudiesof the most obliousÌy closely-reÌâted groupsoI laúguages,theú to compa.eg.ôtrp with group, ând thús tô {ork Írom the bÕttomto the top Õt the gen€t'cphyla with moìe detailed evidenceaíd more thorough investigatioí than coüld conceirabÌyhaÌe beênposibìe lor Grêenberg.ln the pro@s, the ã$umptionscoDcerning lãnguage compârison,Ìângüagehistôry, and ÌângüâgecìâsiIicâtionwhich und.rÌine Gr€enbe.g'scÌâsilimtion @n hardly sutle., and tìere is every hopethât hypotheses oi lãnguâgemilture, secondâryâtfiliations,and contâminationwilì be seenlo.wlat tley a.e*sheer speculâtion.
Vowel Systems 2.i. One of Gnthrie'soiteria for identifyirg a languageas Bantu is a "sl1metrical" vowel system:an odd number ol voweÌs,includingone low @ntrâì vowel ald ao equaÌnumberortront (un.ouded) ând back(Ìôunded)vowels(seeGuthde 1948,t. 12). Suchsystems,which are ind€edtypicâÌ thotrghnot univeBâIin the Bantu languages, permit variâtionssuchas the following:
In citing proto-Bãntuforms, a seven-vowel syslen is üsed. Becâuseof the rátnre of the coÌrespondeDces amongBantu lânguages,ìovever, most coDtmporary wite.s lind it convenient to cite the Ìeconstncted system with the folTq
Vovet sysths ol this soú âre âÌso eltremely commo! amolg the NigeÌCongo Ìaneuagesof West Africâ. À five-vo*el system ol this type b found in Jukun ând Nupe; sevenvos€ls â.e found in YoÌubâ, Bâribâ, Gã, the Senufolângtrâges, Bânbâ.â, Mende,Lômâ, Kpeìle,llanÕ; ând â ninÈvowel sFtem app€âÍs in ãt Ìeâstthe Fante dialectoÍ Akâ!, thoughthe ninêvowelsol FântecanpeÌhaps be analyz€das five with a prosodicfeature. Dan (Gio),which is very closelyÌelated to Mâno, hâs a somevhât siúilâr sylmetri@Ì system of ten vowels, with â lull rânge oI centraÌ vowels added; the centÉl vowels hâve cleaÌly developed úther Ìecently out of ãllophonic difierences, ând the cóntrâst betw@n the ÍÌont ànd @ntral vowelsis still úuite Ìestrictedl
Among tìe Bantu langrages, there are a íew vith vowel systêms of s! even nunber ol vovêÌs, probãbÌy also symetricaÌ though peÌhaps in â difÍdent way. 20
VowE! SlsrEüs
21
to hâveâ seven-volÍel On the basisoÍ a pÍeÌiminâryânalysir,KiYanziseenrs systd
including e cont.ast oI unÌounded and Ìounded voNels in tle fÌont seri€s:
A number of West Aírican Nige.{ongo IaDguages have vowel systemswith ân êaen nümber of voseÌs, usualÌypaired in such a way that the basiccontÌast seemsto be betweenunróund€dând round.d s€ries. In someof thesesystems, the phoneticÌealizàtionoÍ /ã/ tends to be ràther rront, to$ard [e]. f iv ând Ewe have systemsÌike that on the left below;the systemoD the right ìs thatol lgbo, which mây perhapsbe anaÌyzedâs tour vowelsând â prosodicfeature;here,as elsewhere,the symbolsclosen âre not Íec€ssâriÌythoseused in works oD or in
WÌrile symDetry in pÌron€micsysteDsis commonall ov€r tìe world, it is, of couÌse,not univesal. HoweveÌ,one wouìd òc hârd pressedto find a NigeÌCongôvowel systen thât doesnÒt give evid€nc. Òf at leâst an underlyingsymmetry in oneofthe abovewâys or perhapsin a sljghtly ditlerent rây. 2.2. A peculiarlyÌestÌicted lack ot srmfretry is Iound in Efik. Itonly â lew mo.phemesin the languâgeare jgnored,soundslike [e] and [€] are clearly allophonesoi one phoneme;Iel occursonly in word-initiâl positjÕn,and [e] ÕccDrs position. Typicãl io.ms aÌe létól 'tÌee', IdÉpl 'buy', IèÉl only in postconsonantal 'rathe.'. Ií, on the basisoI süch lorms, Iel and tel are analyzedas alÌophonesot a phoneme/e/, then Efik hasa symmetricalvowelsystemÌike that oÍ Tiv oÌ Ewe: unÌoünded/i, e, a/ and round€d/u, o, c/; th€ ro.ns cited would b€ /étó, dép,èté/. rn â very lew morphemeqnowever,â soundvery much more like the pôstconsonantal[€l than like the initiaÌ Ie] occursin *ord-initial position;ône cân hârdÌy be blamedfor hearingit as "tìe same"as postconsonânral lel. The foms in quee tion includethe secondând third personsingulaÍsubjectpronoünsjdepêndingon the loÌlowingvowel.the secúndpersonhasthe íorms [i:, à', ], ò-1,a.d the third persÕnhâsthe loms [ê. á-, i, ó-]; rhe sinsülár fôrns lÈÌ ând têl âre in ninimaÌ contrastwith their pÌuÌâl coünt€rpâús,which aÌe tt-l ând [é-Ì withoui variation. Initjâl [e] occuÍsaÌsoin the third peNonsingula. independentpronounlÈyé1, the dmonstrâtive [Éni] 'this , the noun lÉkÈl'pÕsession(usedonìy Nith posesors other than singular lrronouns,as in [ékè úmi] 'ihei.s ), and â Ìe.y Im other words {ith â kind oÍ deDonstrativèmeaning-though not, as one might erpect, in the singulâ.pos€sive noun [ésyè]'Àis,hers.' Considerations of phoneticsimilârity Nould seemto lavoÌ tÌ,e idcntiricãtion oI üê initial [ê] of a vê.J few morphemeswith the pôstconsonanlel [.]. This so-
22
ÀFÂrc^N LNGU^CE SlRL'cirÂEs
Ìution wúuÌd, hÕwevêr,Ìeãve two phonelnes,/e/ and /Ê/, both witÌì restrict€d dist.ibutions. It would seêmpÌelê.abÌe to identity the iniiiâÌ [e] ol the vast Ìnãjority of foÌms with the postconsonântal [€Ì, ând in&Ìp.et the initiâl [s] oI a leÌr norphenes âs â separate phonene /s/; the Ìâtter would, oI course, have â highly Íest.icted distÌibution, òut the Ìemainde. of the vowel system would be more neatly desoiled. ActuaÌly, tlte initiâl [€] mây ìe â slightly low€Ì voweÌ than thê po6tconsonantaÌ[€]t pa.ticuÌârly in the dúonstrátive lÉmil, the initial vowel is sonetines h@Ìd alrnost âs ÌÕwas [e]. The sjtuãtionis luúheÌ compÌicated,however.òy the lãct thãt, underspecial position*heÍe ciÌcmstances, a húher vow€l Ìik€ Íel occursin postconsonantâl n normaì. ThÈ ; restricted to three verbal construction nãÌkers: the colnIEI !ìetive, which elswÌrere has the Ío.ms [mé, má, mó, nó]; tì€ contÉstive past, which eÌsewhere hãs the lorms [kÉ,ká, Ìá, kó], and the conbâstiveluture, which else*here has the fom [yÉ] without va.iation. II the next vowel alteÍ the const.uction mã.ker is [i] or Í€1,the ÍoÌms [mé, ké, yÉ] app€ar slter the lirst lerson singulaÍ sübject pronoun (â homo.gânic stlabic nasãl úth high toúe), the secoÍd thúd p€.sonsinsuhr [!] and [ê1, âúd the Íirst personplural [i]. IÍ, howêve., the pÌecedisg pronoun È tÌre secondor third peNon pluÌÀI, [e] or lé-1,the construction markeF have the iorms Imé, ké, yéÌ. Tbe foregoiÍg staìementsâre iuuÊtrated in tle Íollowing phonetictmnsc.iptions(no ellort is made to Ìefl€ct the cÕntrastive force ol tvo ôf the consiructions in the English tÌãnslrtions): hkóküt Ìhbòról lókóküt ììbò.ó] lékóküt übòró] líyÉküt ÌhbòróÌ likÉdèp òbòróÌ òbòról [ékédèp lékédÈpÌh!òról léyédèpÌìbò.ôì
't sãv bananas' 'h€ sawbânãnas' 'they sawbãnânas' 'I'lì seebânanas' 'I bolght banânas' 'he bought òânanas' 'they bought banânâs' they'U huy bananàs
Agâin, jt the !ÌincipÌe of lhonetic simiÌâ.ity is determinãtive, a phoneme /e/ *ôuÌd occur initiâlÌy in âll büt a very lev forms in the langìrage, and postconsonantally in only threeúorph€rnes;conversely,â phoneme/Ê/oouÌdoccurin postpositio! in aÌl but thre€ morphemes,ând initiaÌy in only â hâídfuÌ consonâDtaÌ ol Íoms. Further, the occuÌrence oÍ lel in the thÌee ve.baÌ const.uctionna.keÌs is predictâble in te.ms oi the Íollowing ând preceding voweÌs (in thât ord€Ì). lt hãs aheady been süggestedthat tle usuaÌinitiaì [e] and postcotrsotrantaÌ [êl bê interpretedas a phonene /e/, and thât only the êxceptionâlinitial [e] be int€Ìpreted âs a secôndphondq /e/. By a sinilar device,the exceptiotrâÌpostconsoDântaÌ[e] could now be interpretedas úill ánother unit in the systm, say /ç/-or, tor that Ínatter, âlso/ê/, il /ê/ is delined âs 'the !ôsiüonally unexpected allophoneoÍ /e/.' This has proven to be a pracücal aDd not confusingânaÌysis
23 iD tiÁchiog Elik to sp€akersof E[glbh ror aÌe Dâüvespeâkcr8of Efik confw€d Thê Elü dat{ thüs prcüde Âr inta€ltiDg lppÌicatior oÍ thè principle oÍ ÍÌârlcdr€ls; ilitial [€l ad po€t4oúooanblÍe] arc u[malì(€d,vhilê initial [€] ãnd postcô o ntal Iêl âÌe nâIked. ÀpâÌt lÍon thes€speciâìcâs€âol mDking, Efik ha! s EpicÁt synmetrical six-voç€l sy3tên. The âboveanâly3isírâs woÍLêdoüt in 196446(WeìmÈsr96E.). 2.3. T,"es ol alophoric uÌiatior q,ithir vocalicaFt€ms likê tho* outÌired abovedo not diíí€r lignüicâdly fmm vrriaüols toud ir other languageraü over the q,ortd. Proceduru íor deteÍririnA a vocâlicinventory, actâÌdinely, aÌe aÌlo fei y st-ândâÌd.BÌièl utt2Ìâtrc€!(th@, two, or evenonêsyÌkbÌe) canusüaly be elicit d e!ú in th€ anaÌysüto pÌovide rninimal or neâÌ miniÍml contrÂrh dtuplâying the êntir€ voì/ÊÌ 8ysta. Onè rc3âtive oheMtion, howeveÌ,i. woúh naking: tonc tu ÌâÌely iI ever â conditioÍing fâctor in vow€lquâÌity. Recogri"abÌydifÍercnt aÌlophonerof vowêk cônditionedby prec€dingconsoDsntsaF &tvery commoD, but thèy are@odêd. Itr K!€ìÌe, the shortunrcunded eowêhii, ê, ./ âre front li, r âl iÀ rnonoryllabl€sonly after /y/; aÍter vêlaÌ conloDâút! úey âre coüideÌâbly cêütÍâÌizêdi.ÌtêI aI other coÍronÂnt!they arê ronê{hst cêrtÍalirêd. The c€Dtralir.ì alÌophoDs occu in ÍomB of more than one lylabk ody in certâin specialtyp.r of combhations(s!ê W€llnfl 19ô2). Allopholic vrriâtion in voìüebconditionedby toÌÌowingcorsomntu is ako uncommo!, €xccpt in lâlgurg€. which peÌmit sylable-Íinal colsonatrts(i.€., clo!êdsyllrbleN). In Efik, vhiú hâ3tro phoftnic vowd teÍgth, vowêb in clo!êd rylâbl€ aÌe 3hortcrthân tìcre in opensylÌâblêr;in Ãddition,/V atrd/u/ arc iomÈ rhat lovêr 6rd sÌighuycmtmlir€d i! cloEd syülbl€â. The delinition oI a 'cro8€d .yllable" in Efik must sÌrâit  disculsionof the Efik comonantsyst€úìin the folÌowingúâptér. VÂriâtiom involviúA pmgÌ€$ive d€rou[diog of mud€d vor,€k have b€€n Ì€coÌd€din a NnbêÌ of laDguagls, h Kpelte, shoÉ /o/ and /o/, when ronow€d by s ftont vowd, êitn.r diEctly or âlteÌ sr inteÍvèniús /Ì, Ì, n/, hâveâlÌopnonêi whiú endunÌlunded qnd 3oÌneçhâtfronted; eâÌly phoÍetic hansiption oÍ thsê alIophon€5 w€Ìctwll ard Iv,Ì'|. TlÌeÌeis m contrâstingivel oÌ /wr/, but botà patt!r[ congÍüity and nâiive speâku Í€âctioÍ stÌongly íâvor the intrrpÍetation of therê a3/o/ ând /ôi r€5p€stively. In a numberof lÂngu!8€r,â limilâr dercundi[g i. n€oÌdêd, priMily bêíoÈ [rì louoçrd by atr unrcundedvoweÌ. Sêquerc$fiÌst tramarib.d !! lôaÌ4 often plove to bê best âülyzêd Âs hÌa/ or ioral. In 3õmêlànguag6, z.Ío ârrophon€B or vow€I., mmaÌly /i/ o. iül, nwt be ncogtriz€d. In S€nari,wod-firal i{ì, -lì, -rì, -vl -nü/, whicháE .on€tim€she!Íd Â! kìl etc. in c!rcful !pêeú, ârè cônmonly âctuâlizedby the consoDÂntãÌüculatior donc, sylÌabicand with low to[€. In onedialect of Sdari, /u/ ir â ÍoÌn r lìG .túd.ra oínqrrphy oi Êlt( do.! nor d!!n8ú!h b.tr& /./ dd /o/, hut lom rpar@ àrs bé. rrugltt to Érd e dthognphy ÉÍècthg th. satt5ls pEút€d ü..e, ú.t DrÌ. tà. pep.. r ttlrcilm..vo vh6 tì@ t' notìiÌA Iì tÌ. cdì.í i. Eqúlrô dê ô. tìc
E l nrl nL
.L
d.L
dnLLl Lr
u
AFRTCN L^Ncu^cE SÍÂucÌuREs
/kpum./ i, actualizedby the reÌeaseof the velar cÌosureoÍ the itritiaÌ /kp/, accompaniedby openingof the nâsâlpasâge,unvoiced;thê lips remaincloseduÍtil the Ìeleaseor the /m/. In Fante, /mü/ ãt the end or ã phÌase is a syÌÌâbic [!n] with low tone, with sone .ounding ol â preceding ünrounded voweì. The citâtion of lurtheÌ detâik on âllophônic vâriatión could nâlúrâlly be extensive,but most of it would be trivial. SoDewidespreadphenomenainvoÌving tength, naelization, vowel hamony, and eÌision ârô treâted in onnection vith thosetôpics in the lollosing sections. 2.4. ConÌraús between shoú ând Ìong vôw€ÌsaÍe conmon ãmoÍg Nig€r.côngo Ìânguâges. Phonemi@lly long vocâlic segments cân, in .very known @se, be readily intêrpreted as doubìe vowels. In innumerable in6tance, this is demonstÌâbly the best analysis. LoDg vowels tend to occur with tone glid6 which do lot occú.with shôú vowêÌs. SuchgÌideslnqy usüallybe inteÍpretedâs sequences of tones; identical *q&nces occu. wìth cl€aÌÌy bisylÌâbic s€gmental sequences. KpelÌe,ío. exampl€,has â sequeÍceof mid tone followedby tâlling tone in bisyllabic lorns Ìik€ ikonâ/ 'mortâ.'or /neni/ 'woman.' A glide Lom mid to high to low, âccompanyinga ìông vo{eì, is theí best interpreted âs the sametone sequence a@mpãnying a doubÌ€vowcÌ,as in /tsÊl llack duikeÌ , /sãâ/'tÌ€e Gp.)'. But no comparâbletone glide occu$ with shoú (i.e., sinSle)vô*els. This is not tô sây that tône glidesor eled phodmic tone sequences occür onÌy with doubìevowelsin alÌ laDguages.As will be noted uúder the discusion ot toÍe, somelângüâgesìave glidês which câd be interpretedas ünit tonemes occurring with short vôwels; ând some lânguãgeshave s€quencesof two or even three tones,âct!âlizedâs gÌides,âccompânying shôú, singìevô{eÌs. Wherelong vowelsoccurin contrâstsiih shorl vo*€ls, howeÍeÍ,there is hequendyevidence from the tonâÌ systemÌo suppoú an ânalysisoI long vowelsas doubìe;aúd therc is no cÌeãr-cut caseof such ãn anaÌysis being im!úsible o. undesi.ãbÌe. By wây of cÕntrãstsith úis typically Niger{ongo pattern, long voweÌsin Hâusaìave â soinewhatdifr€rentstâtus. To be sure,Hôdge 0947) ânâlyzs (oÌ ât leastmitet then as doublevorels, but objectionscanìe rãì6edto thisâÍâlysis, ând it certâinly cânnot be def€ndedon the bâsisof congruen@with bisyllâbic sequences.Haue has Íive vowels that occur clearly long. oÌ iÍ positions in which long and shoú vowelsdo not contrãst;short counterparteof three oftheseoccur in poútiods wher€ contrâst is posibÌe, but occurenc€sof short counterparbof tÌre other tso are apparentlynârginâl ât best,ât leastin nâny diaÌects.This reúriction makes it seem stRnge to say that there are live voweÌs plüs doubÌing or a pìôneme Õt length: thc occuÌ.ence of two of the voweÌsby thmseÌves, shoÍt or single, wouÌd ìe qüestionable. An aÌte.native ãnaÌysis iÍ tems ol five bâsicâIy Ìong vÕweÌs!Ìus a phonemeof shorteningis certainly peculiar,thoügh lerhaps posille. The Hausâsysten seehsratheÌ to be bâsicâÌlyoneol eight voselB,five of {hich are inherently ìong, and threê inhercntly shoú. There â.e also difíeÌencesin vowel quaÌity ìetween the lonÉ and shoÍt vowels. The Íolowing chart iDdicâtes both the length and qüaìity dilferences, but treats all êight voweÌs âs of equalthon€mic statuÊ;thì8 is Btrikinglyiêminiscêít of sone vonel syst€msin
VowÉr StsrEMs soú€ Smitic (âlsÕAÍro-Asiatic)languâges, includi.g ãncientHebÌew,Ge€2,ând Doddn Tigre. Thó Hâusasysleú then isl iú èõ ã Even ir short Íe, .l *ere to be âdd€dto thh clâú as âdd'tjonaÌunit phonenes naking â conplete set ol fivê lairs-the interp.etâtionol lóng vowelsas double still has no laÍt,cülaÍ merit, âs it so conmonly doesin Njger-Colgolanglag€s. 2.5. In NigeÈCongúlangnâgeswhich do not have contrastivevowel Ìength (or douìÌe vosels),thêÌe is Í.€qÌêntly alÌophoriclcngth. In mânt ol tle Bantu lâneuages,pârriculâü in southe.nAlrica, tìe trext-tolâst vos€Ì ot â phÌasejs very long; Ìength may âlso âppeâÌ,tholgh less€xtrênìel)',with l)ìe next-tolast vowel of woÌdswithin a phrase. Ìtr Swâhili.somesuchaÌlophonicl€ngthtypicãlly âccompâni€s tlte alhost perÍecuy .onsistentpenuÌtimâteword stÌ€ss. L€ngth Ínây also be conditiôned(as âbove)in sÕDepósitions,but phoÍemic ünder otheÌ (and peÌhapsrest.icted)circrmúânces. Ssahili has doublevoweh which are clearly diiÍerent fron tÌre sligltly lengthenedstressedslort vo$eÌsSohe southe.nBaltu Ìa.guag€sìave contÌa6tsof short and long voweìsin other thân penuÌtinìateposition; suchÌong vowelsare rare, but they âre phonetically quite simib. to the autorrâti$Ìly long penuÌtinat€ vosch. Thjs is â typical pÌobleÌnot phonemjcoveÍlapping;but there s€€mslo be no seriôüsobie.tion to aÍaÌyzing penuÌtimatevowelsas autonatically IoDgand not indicatedas long in any sây, *hile long vÕ{els in other positionsare anâlyz€das phonenicâllyloÍg Lengrh (oÌ doubling)hãy côndition quãlitâtiveas velÌ âs quântìtâtivedil feÌencesin voweÌs, In Kpelle, as hâs been not.d, thê sìÒrt lront unrÕuìd€d voweÌs/i, e, €/hâve centralizedaÌloplonesaltêÌ nost consonanlsin monosyllables aíd in sometypes or bisyllábicforms: [i, r, ã]. ìhe doubìêvóÌels /ii, ee,€€i, on the otheÌ hand, aÌe alsays rrontr ti:. €:, El. In ânâÌyticpÌocedure,the problemis âgainone ot simply comparingvocâÌic s€gnents;D maxinaÌly simila. envircnments.In due couÌse,iÍ lengtì o. doubling €xists,one @n usuaìlyfind contrastingpairs like the lollowi.g in Kpell€:
ri
'that'
tÉ
goup'
6ô
Ìeâk'
6ó0
'slilpe.y clay'
28
AFRrc^N L^Nc!ÁcE SrÂuouÂEs
KpeÌlealsohas,phonetic:ry, a longlel withour â co.responding shoÍt counterpârt, âs in lkel 'yaws' ând [$é:] 'weaverbi.d'. Unlike oth€r long vowels, this doesnot occurin foms {ith âú âdditionâlsyllâbl€. This [e:] by il3eÌfjs ânaìyzed as /€ya/; the sequ€nce twel, with deÌounding,is anâlyzedâs /oyá/. This analysis,tiNt âÌrived ât vilh no moft evidencethan the above,iB confimed by the lâct that, in somediâlects,theseare actuauyleyal and [ôya] in sÌow spe€ch; thê anâlysis âlso rellects â nore *idespread native speÀke. r@ction to syllabiÍi. câtion,and is .einlorcedby â pronunciationusedin singing. Thus the phoneti@lly lrânscribedIo.ms âboveare phonemicized as /k€ya/, /sjyá/. 2.6- The recogíition or dcÌüsioí ol extra shoú vo*els, in âppârentcotrsc naÍt cÌust€.ssepamt€dby â quick.eleasewith littÌe evid€nceof ãny specüic vow€Ìqnâlity, nây givelârgreater difiicnlty in anâlysis. In Fante,earlyanalyses interpreted two diflerent verbs as p.a. lt wâs noted thât these verbs difler in the vowel haÌnony whìch they detemine in prelixes, but the stems vere thought to be ideDticâÌ, and one of ìhem therefoÌe irr€guÌar. Àctuâlly, there is a cleârly audibledilte.encein tìe qralily ol the releâseof [p] in the t{o verbs,and their tonal bêhaviôris âlso cleârìythat ot bisyllâbicsi€ms. Th€ teo lerbs âre /piú/ 'hurt'and /pìrá/ 'sweep';the fi.st vor€l in eâchh voiceÌss and very shoÌt, but there is âudible palâtal frictión with /i/, but not with /r/. Past tenselormÊlike /òpiràà . . ./ 'he hurt' and /òpiràà . . ./ 'he sqept' showa high tone thâtnust be assignedto the vowel thât Ms at lirst nÕt even recognizedas b€iÍg there i !Ìthough th€ voweìsâre voicelessin theseforús âs well, they hâve âtensen€sschâÌâcteristic oÍ high tone, ând a high pitch is heârd shen vôicing beginsduriíg the /Ì/. ln contemporaryothography,the tonâl b€ìávior is still ignored;tÌ'e t*o st€ms ãR written pi.d and p.d rGpectiveÌy,though their syllabic stÌucture ând tonal behâvio. is identicaÌ. Similarvery slort vowelsoccurin fjrst positionin Kpeìleforns suchâs/ylla/ 'dog', /pêlee/'singingand dancing',/kéìeê/'aìl'. CãÌeful attention to tonal pâtterns, in particular,*ill betrãy the vocaÌiccharacterof such short segmentsin most laDguag€s wheÌetÌrey have be€Í noted. In the caseof Kpeìle, the quaìitative diflerenceber{e€n /i/ ând /€/ is âlso âudible.thougì Dot conspicuous.Dân (Gio) pÌovides another exaÌnpleof an almost ideÌticâÌ situationi in thh câse, ear\ trâúscÍjptioússhowedconsonantclusles in.Ìuding pr, lr, ld, pi, ,(r, but not /l-almost certaìDlvbecauseonly tl doesnot occur in Engìish; the othe.s weÌe reminis@ntol EngÌish consonantclusteÌs,but tÌre anaÌogyor torms ìike 'teÌe8râphy' suggestedâ vowel in tìe lâst case. Tone pâtte.ns.€qDirethe preelce of a vowel in all ol thesecases.FoÍ Dân, the vowelis identifiedas id€nticalwith the vowel tollowing the /l/ or /./ì a foÌm Íi.st trânsdibed pio, lor €xâmpÌe, is irterprêted lhoneúicâuy as /pâla/. In Gã and Ewe, the oúhographiesrecognizesimiÌâ. coÍsonantclúste8, lut the tonaÌ evid€Dcesuggeststhât an iDterveningvowel is !Ìesent. In Ewe forns like the lollowing. loÌ exãntÌe, the relese or the consonãnt precedinS/l/ oÌ /Ì/
27 is slow,voiced,ând ôn the sâmepitch âs tÌÌât oÍ the lollowingvoìvel;ton€ nârk in€F âÌê added to o.tlogÌâphic foÌms here: ÍÌd 'buy', dztd selt , kpla anÍ| , òtgbtè 'farn'. But id the fôÌloüng, the releaseol tle /Í/ beÍore/U hasa hieh tone,cleaÌly distinct fÍôm the precedingand followinglow tones:!àí'Ìdhé 'excuseme'. By âÍâlogy vith such fo.ms, it would appeaÌ that theÌe is âlways a tone-bearing segmentbetseènàny consonântând /l oÌ /r/, thoush the tode mây b. the same â3 the foÌlowingone. And a tone-bea.ingsegmentis ordinaÌily thought ot as a voseÌ, although other tossibilitiesshould also be consid€red. an exhaustivestudy oi Ewe phonotacticshas not beenmade,it wouìd^Ìthoügh appeartÌtat the tone-b@Ìingsegmentcoüld be inteÌpret€dasii/. or p.rhapsâs/i/ betoÌeunÌoünded voweÌsând /u/ beÍor rcundedvoweÌs. lt this pÌovesifrposibìe (becâus.oI thc occu.ence of /CilV/and the Ìike with tulÌ vocaìic.€aÌizãtion),the Ìemainingpossibility isto recognize tonê-beârins.In any casc,the Gã /U ãnd /r/ âsbeìngthemselv€s and Ewe datã point up the cruciaÌimpoÌtaDceoI taking tone into consideÌation from the ìeginningof ânâÌysisithe recognitionôl a tone nây leãd to the .ecogni üoÍ oi a vowel one might oth€Nise hâve i8noÌed. In someoÍ the Kru ìânguages(ôr diatects?),the âdall'sisis eÌen le$ cl€ar at present. In Tchien, ân ânãlyst reporfs appárentcontrastsb.L{cer CVVIV, CVIV. and ClV. If theÌe h an inte.veninsrowel betweenthe initiâl consonânt oI rôNel lengfhmust ând the /l/in thelastoÍ these,then apparentlythÌee d€grees ìe recognized.OtheNise,clusterswith /l/ oÌ /r/ must be Ìecognized.ln g€neràì, suchclüstersshouldnot be assuDeduntil it is cleaÌthatthey will not contusethe tonaÌ anâÌysis;at best,they areÌare, and an ânaìysisol ânt lânguâgeshjch .€cognizes them shouldbe consideredsuspectu.less that analysisis exlìlicìtìr defênded agâinú otheÌ âÌternatives. Clust .s ol consonàntpÌDs/r/ have also beenr.coeniz.d in thc oÌthography ol EfiÌ. ònt âÌe best ãnâlyzedâs ìâving thc vowcl iil bctveen the consonanl and /r/. When ã speakerof Elik was first exposedto this analysis,in the vord /tìÌé/ ttop', orthog.alhically he, ìis IiFt Eactiôn was,"But ve don't sar Itì.:1." Thên, havine heard himseìl say it, ìe thought tôr â moment ând âdd.d, "You know, in somediâlectsihey do say ltìré1." This js hardly concìusire,but it is the kind of Ìeadthât shÕüÌdbe followedun. For Elik, considerations oI tone ar€ indetermiÍâtive,but there is other conlincing eridencefor the inìêrprelâlionsuggested. AìÌ other CViV seqtrences ÕccuÌwith lhe liret vowelr@dily identiliabl€i interpreting the pr€süned Crv sequenc.sâs CirV neâtly tills out the patt€rn. FD.theÌ ÌêinfoÌcêm€ntcomêsfrom nedative formâtions, Alter ve.b stenÌs of the shuctuÌe Cv, a negaôle suüix consistsoI /g/ (phon€ncalyusuâìlya uvula. Ílàp) plus a voweÌ determincdby the vowel of the !Ì€cedingstem. Thüs,fÍoú â st!Ìn /di/ 'come', a n€gatìle lo.m is /ídigé/ 'I m not coming'i lrom /tâ/ eat'. /úúsál 'l'n not eatidg'; r.oú /bò/ 'recei!e', /úbòsi/ 'I'm not ÌeceivinÊ'.AIteÌ cl€aÍÌy bisyìlabic verb st€Ìns, horvever, âs well as aft€r aÌl consonant-lirâl úems, the negâtivesulíix is /ké/. Thus, rron a sten /yéné/ 'hâve', the coresponding
2a
AFArc^N L^Nc!ÁcE SrÂlcrlnEs
negàtiveforD is iíténéké/ 'I don't have'; from /dónó/ 'trJ', /ídómóké/ '1'm nottrying'. Fron verb steús oúhogrâphicâìlyrepresented as CÍY monosylÌabÌes, negativelorms have the suÍIix /ké/ like negativesÍrcm obvioüsòisylÌãbicstens; thus, t.om /tiré/ stop', th€ corespondingnegativeis /úthéké/ 'I'n nÒtstopping'. II the úen were interpretedâs *itrèl (and â rising tonê with a monosyÌlableis no obstaclein the câseol EÍik). the expectedí€gative sould be ./útrëgé/,which docs nôt occur. (A similâr argúm€nt, in the olposite diÌection, ío. inteÌpreting ccúâin Eiik sequences âs CyV and CwV ÌÀthe. than CiV and CuV, is llesentad in the follo*ing chapter.) In shoú, in nost câsesvhere adequateevidenceis availabÌe,appa.ent CÌ ând Cl clusterstürn out tó be illusoryi atr inteNen'ng vowel oÍ somekind is 2.7. In â fcw NigctsCongolânguagcs,types ôf vôweìshãve àeen repoúed which are describedas "nuffled" or "hoìÌow" (e.8., XÌu-Bâsâ, tle Dompãgo diálectoI KabÍe). The phoneticcharacteÌof thesesoundshas not beenclârified by comparingthe expe.i€n@oI more thân one quâlilied invêstigator,noÌ is it known wheth€Ì this phenomenonhas a specialstatus in the ltronemic systm. P€rnâpssomcforn oi tenseness or phâryn8€alresonânc€ is involved,âs p.esumably is thc câscfor somevoNeÌsin Akân ând lgbo: in thê ìâtter câses,suchdìstinctions aÌe best írcated in connectio.with voweÌhamony, vhich isdiscusd lâtd in this châpt€r. non-Niger-Congo langqâees,severalol the Nilotic Ìangua86 of the ^mong uppe. Nile vaììey hãve a scriesoi vowelsconnoÍÌy câlled "breâthy." Hâving heardand attemplcdto imitâte suchvowels in ADuak(duÌins a periodol a few days in 1950),and hawingì€ard them on tàpe recoÌdingsof Nu€Í and Dinka, I consid€rthe impresionÀtic ìâb€ìto be â good one. ÀpparêÍtly the voicirg of thesevowelsis suchthat the vocal cordsdo not entirely cÌose,peÍDitting the âir pâsing throueh frofr the lungsto p.oducean audibly lri@tive €Ífect. For Dinka, enoughelidencehas beenâlailable f.oD tlle .ecoÌdings,trânç criptionsat least part'aÌly reliable,and the not€sand imprêssiorsol â most obs€Ìvânt hissionãrJ,th€ R€v. TalmâdgeNihon, io ânive ât â tentâtive analysis of the vowel system. II this analysi6is côrrect,it is alsoremârkable,becausè the systemis quite unÌikeany otìe.k.own to me, especiállywh€Í the moÍphophoíemic aÌternâtionsoFÌatingwithin it aÌe considerêd.TheÌeappes.to be constrasts belween(1) v€ry lÕngvoweÌswith extremetycÌeÌ. "b.ãssy" quality and extrene ârlicülâtory positiods, (2) breâthy vovels ol inte.mediâte length ând somewlìat more neutral (i.e.. to{ard centÌal) tongue positions,and (3) very shoú, @ntmrized vowels;oI the Ìast type. any two vowelswith adjãceüttonguepositiom aÌe very hard to distinguish. There aÌe sevencontrastinglositions for eâch type. Thus tne vowel diagÌam is like ãÍ eight+poke wheel ì{ith the top spoke nissing (or. if preie.red,Ìike a hoN6hoe, rather than ìike the usualvosêl "triangÌê" oÍ trâpezôid). The vo{€l diãgÌãm mãy òe depictedâs fóìlows;a mâoon indicât€ã length, a di€ÌesisindicãtesbMthine$, ãnd â breveindicâtesshortnes ãnd cen-
:t
ëè
õ
n 'fhis rnâlysis is reinlorced by a nrorthophonemicpalterni alte.n,tions betweennoun singula.sand pÌuralsappearto involÌe rnost comÌnonlya moÌeDent cÌockwiseto the nexr spÕke,lut in lhe sâne positionon the spoke;that is, ìI tle singuÌarhâs /ü/, the ph'Ìâl hâs /ó/: it the singülarhâs /ô/, the pìu.al has /ò/j and so on aroundüntil il the singularhas/èi, the pÌural has /i/; but iI the singülar has /i/ theru is no chângein th€ pìural Gincethere js no spokejn the ncxt positioDclockwise), A les confron pâlt.rn is lr.cisely the reve.se,\'ith the .lternation in the pluraÌ one spôke.ÕunlercìockNise í.on, th. vow.Ì of thc singuÌâri it th€ singularis on the /u/ stoke, the.€ is nô changein thè plurâì. SliÌì other alte.nationsare one stet in or out oD the sam. spoke:/ôi to /õ/, iil 1o /ii/, ãnd the lik€. Ii thê abovediagramis fiued in with lìnes three concentrjchorseshôèsând sevenspokes then the Ììorphoplonemic alternationsperm singìc moÌ€s on any line, neler nore than one spaceand n€veracnNsà gâp il â linc. A Doteon the Dinka vo{el systeÌÌ by A.N. TuckeÌ ând ìL r\. Bryan (l9ij6, pp.402-3) difters irom the above analysisin some.estects,though they àgr.. in .ecognizingthreetypes oi ÌoweÌs. lhey âdmit. ho{e!€r. beinguncertâ'nas to "phon.nic bÒundâries".Eight rathe. than selen a.ticulatorypsitionsâre notcd, butqÌite posibly this rep.esentsoverdiifereÌitiation.Only ióuroI the yery shoÌt, centralizedvo$cls arc distinguished, btrt it is ev.n úore lik.ly that this.epresenls underdifie.enliãtion. Theseverr shoú vowcls,âs well âs those ol int€rmediâte length, are describedas br€âthy"i shâterer b..athin.ss mÊy l)t preseDiis ctr_ taiÍÌy not p.ominent. veÉioìBoI geDe.ativephonôl It shouldbe notedthat, in Dsn) coDteÌnporâry ogy, it is idpossibìetÒ capturethe entirely reâsonablenórphophônemicpatte.ns of Dinka, as describedâbove,in âny conveni€ntset of rüles. SomcphoDologists, however,now seemto be prepãredto posit distinctire l€aturescomtsrâble to moveson a ganìeboard. A nüüberotother Niìo Sâhfuànlânguàges, iicÌudirÌgalleast Dhoj-uo rmong th€ NilÕtic langDages, hâve vo*el syÍems DUch no.ê like thosetypicrlly iound among Nig€r-congolanguaees. 2.4. In langDâges which hale ìong voveìsinlerpreledâs doubìcvoveìs.clus ters ot unlike Ìowcls âre aìsoto be cxpectcd. À conìron I robletnof anallsis in this connêctionis that of sequences shich migìt be transcril,edâs lia, ua, ir. uel etc.; the queúiôn oÍten ârisesas to Nhelher theseâre to be núerFeted as /ia, ua, . . ./ or /iya, uwa, . . .i. The questioncan olten bè ànsNer.diÌr termsoi the ore.-
30
AÉRrcN Lrxcu^cE SÍÀucÌunEs
âìl pattern oI vo{êÌ occnrences. If dotrblevoúeÌsând âlsosequences ol the t}Tes €ã, ou/ occur, ih€n the anâÌysis ua, . . ./ is Ìikêly to be pÌêfemble. On the /ea, /iâ, if the.e other hând, aÍe no doublevovels, and ât b€st only restuict€dvo{eÌ clusters such as /âi, üi/, but a pervâsiveYCY lâttern elseìehere, then the ânalysig theÌe may be /iya, u*a, . . ./ is nore likely to be convincing. ID a lew laDguages, a contÌast between /iY, !Y/ and /iyv, uwv/; in such câses,th€ consomDtal quality ol /y/ ând /w/ is Ìikely to b€ striking. Ànother âltdnâtive is thât *quenes mây best be analyzed as /yV, Ì,V/; this possibility wiÌl be discusredin conneG tion siü the occüneÍce of such sequenc€safter consonants.in the Íouowing Vow€l clDsteÌs cãn present a dilterent typê ol prôblem to th€ anâlyst who hear8prinarily in tems ol an EngÌishsyst€m,shich js comoÍ ánd undeÌstaÍdable âDong even the b€st Engìish-speâkinglinguists ât fìrst. The cont.âst between Ìong, "pure" vowelsãnd diphthongsnay not be at âll easyto h€ãÍ at first. In KpeÌle, one musi leârn to contÍâst /ee, ei, eei, Êi, êÉili the additionaÌ contÌâsts or /e, e, €€l âÌe .elativ€ly easy. But suchcontÌastsneedDot bepemaneltly confusiDg. It soonbeconesapa.ent that, jn Kpelìe, úms wiih singÌeaíd double vosels âre lâirÌy common, and also that sxlfixes wiú tÌ'ê vos€Ì /i/ (adÌony two dilleÍent suflixessith ditf€rent tonet occuÌ alte. such stens. Thüs laiF such âs /a, âi; o, ôi; ââ, ãâi; oó, ooi/ can soonbe identified. By analogyeith thês€, .it is not too ha.d to ideltify the on€sthat may give phonetic difficulty; e.g.: 'lé nãa
'it isn t therc'
t€s
a chicken'
'it doesn'texist' 'Íêi â 'téeì he is cuttingit' a t€i he is 8oiÍg ulr' the chicken 'É.i
2.9. PhoDmic nasalizâtionis laiÌÌy cúnnon anongthe west€ÍnNigs-Congo languages, thougÌr.arê anong thê Bantu Ìanguages and tìe BenuÈCoÌgogoups apparently most closely Íelated to Bãntu. A Íreqlent patterD is tìat nãsâlizãôon occüÌswith the linaÌ voNeÌ ol â horph€m€; but its scopehay incÌudeâ doublê vos€Ì oÌ vowel ciuster,and otten â lre@ding resonânt(e.9.,/w, I, r, yD aÌd thê voseÌ b€Íore that. In KlelÌe, loÌ exmple, nâsaltâtion is phon€mic after stops and tricatives,and ãlter nãsalssith ?hon€mictone; iÍ lhe Íollowing exúples, nasalizationbeginsat the poiDt narked (o. with a pÌecedingnasal),and .ontinues tÕ the end of thê fo.m: sii kpéla
'spide.' àúui .t 'his no*' 'water cheÌÌotain' òéla 'â design, nâÌk dt
'thepeBon' núui 'th€ log' 'its loh' Ìhéìã split it
Alter úêÌn'initiâl nasâlconsonants(shich do Dot have phonemictone), nasâlizâtion is aÌways pÌesent. By analogy with co.r€sponding lorms in which th€ nasal has a tóne, it seemsbest to interpret such !Ìems as iDcÌuding the phoneme ot nasâlizationjthe .atìonaleol the foms oÍ the riÂht abovebecomescÌ4Ì€r il
3t the underlyingstems â.e coÍnpâred:/núu/ pe6Õn', /lúu/ 'fôe', /-nÉlâi 'ho.n', As the phonologyoI Kpelle hasbe€ndescribedto datu, nâsâlizãtiondôesnot appsÌ âíteÌ the stem-injtialr€sonants/w, y/. The possibilityhasheenconside.€d, however,oÍ interpreting[!i, nv]! which occur o.ly heIo.e nãsâÌizedvowels,as âllophonesof /w, y/ befoÌe nâsalizedvÕwelsrather thân ãs unit nãsâlconsonânt phoneneshw, Íy/. TheÍe ãÌe distibutionâìproblemsat the morphoplonemic level which havemiÌitated ãgaìnstthis inteÌpretãtion(seeWelneB 1962.pp- 7375). Nasâìizationdôesnot apteâr after the implosive-Irlus-Íesonant series/6, Ì, y/ eithê.. Thê samedistriòtrtionalproìÌemsmâke it difficuÌt to inle$Íet/D. D. ÍJ/ as âllophonesol /6, I,y/ beforenasalizedvoweìs. The reúrictions otr the distribution of nasaìizâiionin Kpell€ âr. cÌosely pâralleledin Faote, wherenasâlizâtionoccuB only alter voicêlessstopsand lricatives ãnd (noncont.astively)âfter nasâlconsonãnts, but not aftc. voic.d stops nor r€sonants(the.e aÌe no Ìoicêd rÌicãtiv€4. The scole of nâsãlizatioÍis cleaü a syÌlabÌein Jukun. This is not obvious âlter stops ând Íri.arives, which cânnot be nasalized;but contrâúing oml and nâsalizedvowelsconditionna.kedÌy diite.ent alÌoplonesof precedingnasahând (i.e., with Íesonânts.BefoÌe ân o.aÌ vowel, a nasâl consonantends denasaliz€d a homoÌganicvoicedstop). BefoÌe a nasaÌizedvowel, e rcsonantis nâsãlizedto tììe extent thât the.e is often complete oÌàl stoppâge. Thus:
noise lnèlt Indèl 'mâke' /myã/: [mbyá] 'd.ink' /wâ/: twãÌ /yúrà/: [yüra]'íorest'
tftL /nê/: /wà/: /yúnìt/:
'hoe' Iúj Inõl 'snatch' I':"àl tnyúnòl 'day'
nâsah;the comThe interpretâtionof prenasâlized stops(or postdenâsâlized monly used teÌm "nasal compouldt' seemsmea.ingles and conlusing),[mb, nd, {gl and the like, âs nasal consonântsbeÍoreoÍal von€h is compl€telyconvìncing for Juku. but it do€snot seemto be appropriâtelor any oth€Ì known African Ìanguãge,thoügh the phonetics€quênces âÌe êx.eedinglycommon. (The sane inte.!Ìetâüon is Ìeported,however,Ior an IndiaDÌânguageãlongthe Paraguây-AÌsenünâborder.) Thê interpretãtionoí phonêtictts, nylas /w, y/ òeror€ nasalizedvoweÌsmay hrve â wide. appÌication;perbâpsev€n ftÒre cônhônly, hw, nyl may v€ll be interpretedas nasâl consonantr/r, yi, even in languages which do not hâve pÌronehicâllynasâlizedvÒwels.The lâtt€r is â most âttmctive intêrpÌetationfor Etik, and forthose dialectsof lgbo $hich do not hâÍe pÌroDemic nasalization,ând Ìery likely for nany nore ìânguages. The r€striction of nâsâìizâtiônto â singlevô{el in â !o*el cìusterìs rare, but it is atteskd. ln Dogon (Habe),fo.ns of the folloving types have beenrecorded(trom âÍ ünusüallybriÌliant, perceptive,ând sophisticat€d mãìeinlomant agedabout thirteên, on â visit to Kânkan, Guineâ,in I948i I nade no r€cordoI the !Ìecise consonanrvoseìsequencBnor ol glôsês); Ònlythe frarked vow€Ìis
32
À.RrcÀN LÀNGUÀGESrRUcmÀEs
nasalized,so that nasaÌizationDây occur with the first, the second,both, or neith€Ì of two successiv.vowels: kiú kiã
kiá kia
In lânguãgeswhich do not hâve phonênic nãsaltãtion, there is frequedtly â degree of noncontÌastive nâsâliziiion áIter nãsÌ coÍsonants. This $metimes âppearsin unexpectedplãcês;in Mende,which doesnôt have phonerDicnâsali. zation,/h/ a.d a followingvowel are âutonaticàlly naslized. Itr dialectsor Igbo which do hâve nâsâìizâtion,ihêrê àre respectãìÌea.gumentsloÍ attÌibutiÍg nasalizationto consonantso. coDsonantreleasesinst€sdof to vow€bi agaiD,/h/ 2.t0. IdDâny ìâdguâges, nasalizatioíocctrrswithonly somevoeel phoneln€s in the totâl inlentory. In seven-lowel systens, nasâlization is olten r€stricted to five voaelsi thê íollosing pãtteÌn is typi@ì of KpeÌÌe, the Senulo lãnguag€s, ând Bâribã, which âre by no neans closiy relatedto eachotherr ú
ã (The nasâlized i e/ in Kpell€ /kpélâ/ water chevrotâin', cited above, b âtt.ibuted to the scopeoÍ nasalization.NasalizÀtionis hârk€d sheÌe it begins,to showthe extent ol the scole; ìoweveÍ, the nâsâÌization is propeü âssigned to the final vowel,fron whicì the scopeexte.ds backward.) ìWh€resrch a patter! ol distÌi butiúnâlìy r€st.icted nâsaÌizâtion is Íound, it À âìso ìikely thãt the vowels not sulject to nâsâlizatiôn(/e, ó/ in the aboveard auraÌenuy very coÍunonly)âÌso do not occur,or occuÌonÌy .arely, alter nasalconsoÍânts. In Jnkun, as notedin pârlabÕve,thereareonly Íive vÕweÌphonene, and alÌ occurnasalizedas vell âs oral, but nasalizationconditioÍFÌowerallophonesoí /é, o/. IhDs the phoneticcharâcterof the aowelsis reminiscentol the dbtÌibltioÍâl restrictionol nasalizationDotedâbov€. The !ìonetics of the Jukun voweÌsystd
Lil tet
tul lol Lal
til 14
tãl
tôl t5ì
Naelized syllãblesare lar more lreqúent in Jükun thân in most Ìângüages; p€Ììâps foúy peÌcent or more ol tle nonosyllâbicmoÍpleDes oÍ the Ìaígüâge âre nâsâlized. In most laneuagesthe lrequency of nasalizetion iD â moÌphme list is no.e Ìike\ to be ten to twenty percelt. In YoÌuba, only three contrasts in nasaÌizedvoçeh occÌr with ãny lrequency. ú/ a.e cleaÌ; theÌe is also â low nasalted voweÌ, with âllophonês fâúheÌ and /i/ bâckthâí [ÀlâfterlonÌâbial consonqDts, and son.what ÍartherfoNârd thaÍ [ô] af-
33 te. labial consonants. In Yonbã o.thogÌãpìy, thes€ are written ás thoügh /ã/ and /3/ cont.sstêd*the orthoSraphic loms ar. an. í,n but rhe lwo could readiìy
be assignedto one lÌìoneme. rÀhetherthey âre âssisúedto /ã/ ôr /5/ may wlÌ dependon whêthe.â rewnã.ginaÌ cas€sor [ê] nust be analyzedas /è/, snd on thc saâtusthât /õ/ is th€n given in the sysl€ft. In thc diâlectsgeneraÌìyconsidered to confoÌn tô 'ttâídârd" Yorubâ, IêÌ occureonly nì lhc d.fronúralive liyÊl (orthogÌÀphiciVgn) thât', ând ocssionâlly âs the result ol conlrâctionsnÌ rapid speech.The deDoústativeGa diâlectboúo{ing, usedprimàrily in lormâlsp.cch; the contractionscan be consideredâDtomatic. Excludingo. including it NouÌd yjeld one of the Iollowjngsystms of oral and nãsaliz€dvo*els:
OR:
Sincein hâúy Niger-Congo languagescoDsonants eìthe.do not occurin rinâl positionat âll, or do so vith considerâble Ìcslriction, nâsâììzalioni'Ì rxclusi!€l] linâÌ posiaionmay oÍten he ânâìyzedâs â finâl nâsâI.ordinârilr'/d ôr h/. 'lhis can be done in ihe Senulolanguages, Bambara,Esc, and Yo.uha $ith no dir Iiculty. In Kpelle, finâl /rl/ occursin contrâst with nasâlization,ând doesnot have fie samenasâÌiziogellect over a precedingscopeiin súcÌÌâ câse,it seefrs pref€rableto inte.p.et nasaÌizationas a phonemeoÍ a differenttype r.om ã linãl nasal. In Akân, ÍnâÌ nâsálizationcont.astswith íinal /m/ and thereis otherwise ro /ÌJ/,so that nasalizationcould be inte.pretedas that third ^ì/r nasal. Such an int€Ìpretãtionmay be acceptâbleas a ìinglistic a.alysis,but it would be ãwkwârd if it were incorporai€dinto the oúhogÌâphy; i'Ì intc.ior diâlects(Àsante, Twi, etc.)finaÌ /n/ is phoneticaÌlyhl, but in coâúãl Fantc riDâlinl is plonetically lnl. Perhâpsit is not otrt ol plâce lo âdd that my ôwtr intuitive r€action,for shatever it is wo.th. is tÌrat nasalizationdoesnot "leel" like anotherlinalnâsâ|. A minoÌ detail is $eìl vorth noting. ln Fânte orthog.aphy,nasaÌizationis indicated(ìy â tiÌde) only in íorms shich contrâstmininally with lo.ms hâling oraÌ vow€ls-a wqrisom€ly typicâl devicelor avoidingthe use of diâ$itics or anythiDgeÌsethât depârtsfrom Eu.opeânoúhogrâÌrhies.Àmong the exanÌples given Íor tÌìe âppÌicationoÍ this ?.inciple,a cont.astis cited betweennd 'moth€.' and nd 'and' (MethodistBook Depot 1947,p. 11). The lso $rÌds couldneverbe conÍusedsyntacticâllyin any câse,but the most ridicuìousâspectollhe situation is that both words hâve eqüãlÌy nâsaiizedvow€ls: nàsâìizâtionof voscl. âflo nasalconsonaDts :s not cont.astive. The words do diÍfer. but the diÍferenceis in tone. The lengthsto which somepeopleNili go to avoid marking o. mèntioning tole a.e indeêd ÌemârkabÌê. 2.fl. More or lesspeNasivesystemsol vowel haÌmony are Nidespreadin Niger-ConeóÌânguàg€s, and aÌe loünd in at leâst son€ Nilo-Sâhâranlanguâges. Perìâps the most higlly d€velopedsystensa.e fotrndin a Ie* languagessuchas Igòo and Akan. Igbo has an eight-voNelsyúem, di!ìded neatly into lour pairs
3{
AFRrc^N LrNôu^cE
SrÂucruÀEs
by vovel harmony. AU vowelsbelongto ore or tìe oth€r of the foÌlowinggoupsi the orthogÌâphicforDs oI the most commonlyused Igbo writing systemâre includedin pãrentheses, and usedjn the iÌlustrativemâteriâl|,
o 9) Sone ve.bal forDs to iÌlustrateth€sein hâ.monics€queDce aÌe: ó riri ô mèrè ó gbúrü ó zòm
he âte' 'he did' 'he killed 'hê did
ó pì.1 ó sà.à ó zÈ.ü ó dÒrÒ
he €rved' 'he sash€d' 'hè bought' hê pulled'
ln the lollowing, the syuablewritten /nà/ h pronouncedÍnÀl only in very ca.etülspeech, âsshen conctingthe pronun.iâtion ol a leâ.ner;in noÍnal speech, tìe vowel is completulyassinilatedto th€ tollowjDg/è/; the combinalionis â long vowel. Tìis asimiÌâtion retìectsâsinilation ruLs which, shiÌe párriâlÌy ovdlapping vo{el harnony Ìüles, müst be s€pârâtelystâted. The underlying/a/ of /nà/ dete.minesthe harmonicsroup to which the precedingvowel /í/ belongs; the assimilationrulesãpply after tàe vo\reì harmonyruÌes. What is to be noted about vowel harnony in the folÌowingis the iniüal or prelix vowel ol the last word, which is â verbâì noún: ó nà àpí 'he È kiÌling'
'he is buying
With tcw.xceptioís, lgbó íôuns mây te ánâlyzedâs contâiningâ prelix (a vo{eÌ or syÌÌabicnasal)and a stemi the stem is very coDmonÌynonosyÌlãbic, and its vowel deterninesthe ìârmonic gÌoup to which a p.€iix voweÌ belongs. E.g., 'pot'
áíú
'goât'
úk*ú
'hat.ed
óji
Noun siems sith orther derivational
more than one syllablê lrequently involve rêdupli@tion or procêss€s; jn strcb cas€s, all vÕwels in the stem belong to the
t Íì thc tadnioÌs olBâ'tu lineuntics, i snd { Ìepr€s.nrthe nig maÌy to !* voseì 6yôboÌs rirh slbsoipr dors Õr sho.l veíi Thc lorn oI Igbociledhcn ând
âlÌed ConÌpronriseÌ8bo";
do .or hav. aspilaled ensonants or nasalizedvoNds, bnr vho h,ve in ì!Ígc mesuE âdaDted 1,, lhe pbonologyoÍ daÌccts like rbst or umüahlâ (yhlch does hâre asphrrêd co.sonsnls snd .,sâlized voveìs)in orher re8pecrs,ard ro rììe vocsbula.y,nd granrnar olrhe lrtteÌ. Sêêu€l n.tr ând \rv€lÌì€E 1963a, 1963b.
35 sâmehârmonicgÌoup.Occasionâl violaüônsofvoweÌhâünonyare Íoúndin nouns wlich âÌe proòaìÌy alÌ conpoundso. adoptêdwords, V€fb roots âr€ âll mo.otyllabic. Comtositeverb bâsesâÍe composedol two or mo.e no.ph€mes;in such Ío.ms, the appli@tionoI vowel harmonyis highÌy restrictêd,ãnd vâriesto some extent amongdialects. The nâjority or morphemesalÍectedby vowel ìa.mony consistof a vowel âlodè. It wâs a DâtiveTeske. oI lgbo yho appâr.ntly lÍst thought oÍ intertrêting this syúem âs consistingoi lewervowelspÌusa prosodicfeatu.eol voweÌhârnony (seeo8balu 1939,pp. v-vii). Actually, he wroÌc /e/ ãnd /a/ disiinctly in âny case,but otherwis€Ìnarked the secondharmonicgroup of vo*els with a single woÌd{inal n to indicatethe seriesto which all voweÌsin the precedingsequence beloúg. Às nôtedbeìow,a somevhatsimilaranalysis$orks ratÌrerwelì lor Fante: in Igbo, the f.eqüentmixtuÍe of ha.mon'cg.oupsi. compositeÌerb basesmakes the principlediïicult to apply cônsistently. In vowelharmory systemsof this sort, theremey weÌl be sôúe ône phoneììc leature or artic'rlâtorychãracteristicthat distinguishes alÌ the vowelsoI one harmonic group Írom thoseol the otheÍ. The presence ol pharyngealconstrictionor somekind ot "t€nsene$"has beensugg€úed;P€ler Lâdefoged(1964,pp.38-40) has demonst.atedthat, in the secondgroup in lgbo, /i, â, ú, o/, the root ol the tongue is more Ìetrâctêd.ând the phâryngeâlotening ihus nâro{ed, by compârÀon*ith tle vo*€h of the li.si group. Beforeelaboratìngón this,â c.uóially impo.tãnt point múst b€ hâde. Working onìy sitl the symbolsus€din trâne üiptioú, or relying on the acoüsticimlÌessionoi vowelÌreightând the ãnalogyoi the tenselax distinction of English, it is too easily assumed ând has, inde€d, beenexplicitÌy úat€d Ío. Igbo (Ssìlt. Àhaghotu.and Ugorji 1962.p.50) that the higher vovels (/i, e, u, o/) are "tense" and tle lower vos€ls (/i, â, u, eD âre "lâx." PreciseÌythe oppositeis th€ mseìperceptiblemusculartensìonir involved in nârrowingthe pha.yng€alpasage. When I wâs not very rsed to the sounds or lgbo, I oncefrÈtook /u/ for /u/ when there{€.e no other harnonizingvowels in the €nvironm€nt*hich might haÌc made th€ distidclion redundant,and I Ìepsted wìat I thought I had ìea.d with a very high vowel. The inlormânr sâid "No," repeatedthe fôrm çith th€ correctvowel /u/, ând then added, 'You ìave to iighten up your throât, here," putting h€r tingeF just âbovehe. larynx. InstÌuctiÕnsto conscioüslytenseând EÌâx the throât â.e àlmost indispensable to l€âchingspeake$ot EnSlishgoodlgbo pronünciatjon âdd itis the low€rvowelsin Igbo thât are t€nse. In the ìight ol âll Õt this, Lâdeloged'scommentson an intertretÀtion of lgbo ao{el hârmony in terms of distinctivefeatüresdeserves 2.12. In Akân, thc vowel harmonysyst€mdiliers somewhãtâúong diâlects. In Fânte,aÌl vosêìs within certâindclinableÌimits normally b€ÌongtoÕneor the
/i, e, !, oi andi a/ in Ìastpositionir /i/ or /ú/ preedes.
36
ÀFR,C^N LNcuÀcr
SÍRlcÍuREs
/ô/ or /o/ is rar€ly the only vowel ôI â sten, âdd seeúsin suchcasestohave developedìistorically rrom /ie/ or /uo/. In a sequence oI voweÌswithitr â stem, preceded or is almost inÌâriâbÌy by o. in the samestem. In the liGt /e/ /o/ /i/ /u/ gÌou!, /a/may occurãnysh€Ìein thê stemorin ã peÍixi butin the secondgroup /a/ occursonly in stems,ând onÌy alte. /i/ o. /D/ eârlie.in the stêm; inthe immediât€ sequences /ia, ua/, /â/ h$ a somewhâtfÍonted alìophône,towâ.d ÍFl. Tfte mâjô. application of vówel hamony i6 alternatron in prefú vowels conditionê.l by the li.st vowel or a stem. Thus alÌ five vowels in the fiÉt series a.e equâIy conditio.eB oí prelix vowels,but with â few quBtionableexceptionsonÌy/i/ald /u/ in thê secondse.iesconditioÍ prefix vovels. The systemmay be conveniently iuustrated by someverbal foms wìth prelixed proÍouns snd a constÌuction mark5bêì yèbêì àb€yÈ yèbÉdà òbókò yèbókü
'he wiìl sây' 'we will say' 'he wiÌl do we silÌ sle€p he will go' we wilÌ fight
òbésì 'he will build yèbésì we wiu build òbéyê 'it wilÌ be good' yèbósòá 'we will study' òbópò 'he {ill bâÌk' yèbóhü we wilÌ see
Thesedâta suggestthat tìe vowel systemnight be ânâÌyzêdâs consisüDg of Iive vow€ls, witì À p.osodic featuÌÈãcconlanying /i/ oÌ /n/ in an but â few êrceptionãlcases to indicâìe that a1Ithe vosels in the sequeÌcebeloDgto the sêcÕndgrôDp râther than the first. Thê five voweÌs in the firú emu! caú then be Íewritten /i, e, u, o, a/i the lom witten /òbÉsì/abovewould then be /Òbést/ ând the lorh wdtten /òbésì/ âbovê wouÌd be /òbésì'/,wÌìeÌe the âpostÌophe indicates tÌrÀt alÌ vovels in the ton beÌong to the second .ather thaÍ thê lirit harmonicg.oup; tìe saDe conveNionappÌiesto âll the othêr torms. with the apostrophe alter the ÍiNt vovel of the stem if there aÌe tleo or mÕre vos€ls. The secoDdgrcup is chosenlor mâ.king becausethe conditioning vowels arê moÌe reshicted; they are /i'/ and /u'/ except for a half dozônoÌ fewe. 3tem in the Âs written above, Fânte has pe.vasive moÌpÌtophonemic alte.netioís-pârtictrlârly in noun prelix€s,subject pÌonouns,and verbal const.uctionmaÌkeÈbetseen ìhê pâirs /r-i, ê+, a-e, ô-o, u-u/. Ttere âre secondâryâlteÌtrâtionsin somemorphemes or /e{-}o/. {here assimilationto unrcundedor roundedvoseÌs operatesin addition to lowel hârmony. As in Igbo, sofremusculârtensionis associatedvith the vosels of the gÍoup ê, /', u, ,, a/. Pharnyngeâltensiondoesnot apperÌ, impr$sionistically,to bê as shong as in Igbo. But pãrticllàrly in the caseol /r/ and /i/, the tensionis visible. In /i/, the lips a.e at rest; in /r/, the corn€Ìsof the lips â.e lulled back ând the lips thinned by obviousmuscuÌâ.elfoÌt. In Fante oúhography,sevenvoweh arê used:i, d, s, d, r, o, ü. Both /r/ and by e, and both /ú/aDd /o/ aÌe Ìep.esentedby o. Sincè/€/and /e/ are represent€d herdly erer occur in stens,the o.tìographyis viÌtually unúbiguous; forlow/o/
37 els under the domaiDof vo*el hamony, ? is Ìead as /,/ or /e/. and o as /ü/ or /ô/, de!êndingôn tìê fiÌet vowêl ol th€ stêm. Howevê.,tle ortlogÉphy làils to Ìened the systmatic vowel ìârmony rules of the lâneuâge. Àlthough phonolôgical analyses-tâxonomic!ìÕnenic. generativê,or shatever must òe carêfüÌly disünguisned from the establishment oí prâctical ortìographies, a maximum paralleÌ is certâinly desimbleid the àbsenceol cômpeìlingexternâl reâsônslor violaüng sucha paÌauel. FoÌ Fante,ân oúhographymorelike that ôt lgbo Dight Jüst to the west óf lgbó, @nteringin the tovn ol Agbor, is a ìâneuâgecÌosely reìatedto lgbo, commonlythought to ìe a dialectoI lgbo, ând coúmonly known as "WesteÌn Igbo." It hasa rine-vowelsystemlike that oí Fante; the ãddiüonaÌ low tront Ìowel is phonetiqÌly [e]. À very ì.iei inlestigationshãs shownthat there is vowel harmony,but the ruÌesthat invohe the lo$ front vowel (and very possiblydifÍerent rulesinloìving /ei ând /â/) ìrve not beenestablish€d. 2.13. Dho-Luo, â Nilotic (Nilo-Saharân)languageoI southweúernK€nya, has ã vowel hamôny systen .emarkabÌyìike, though in 6omedetails dilreÌing írom, that oI Fãnte. There âre nine voweÌs. Às stem voweÌsvhicì deteÍrnine the harmonicgroup ot affix vo{eh, thesefâlì into tso groups: /i, e, u. o/ and /Ì, e, ú, ô, a/. In tììe altixeswhosevoweÌsare determined,however,/a/ is neutral; jt may accompanyvowelsol the liiú âsweÌl as the secondgÌoup. Vowelhanony applieswithin a sten, and âho to both pÌelix and sutfix vowels. Uamony witìin forns not.ontaining obliors prefixesÕr suffi\cs is ilÌustrât€din the lollowingl gÌideshereinterpret€das /u. u/ ond /i, t beÍoreanothervosel may be analyzabìe they aÌe syìlàbic, ând they as /w/ and iyl repectively, but impressionisticálly quãlities hâve the vocalic ìere indicat€d:
kidi 'sheep(tl.)
.ómbó
\heep Gg.)
Harmony in p.efix and sutfix vow€ìsis iÌlustrãtedin the Íollowing,mâny oI which âre incompleteutterances;in each of thee exâmpÌes,only the secondof the three voweÌsis â stm vowell gisÌtò'the)'rethrowing' gitedò noculè nâbkÈ nrcâmÈ
he returnedit 'I exchangedit 'you âie it'
For SouthcÌn L*o (northern Ugândâ),which is certâinly mutuâlly intelligible with Dhô-Luo,Tucke. and Bryan (1966,p. 40E)report â len-!ôwel system, with ãn âdditionaÌ!Õwel /â/ in thê tirst ìârmonic group. The sane type of sysg a lcN houE in Juìy, 1966,rhen an inÍoÌmant hâppen.d
38
AFÂrcÀN LÀNcu^GE SaFUduREs
ten is r€poú€dÌry them (1964,p.19.1)for Nândi; forat leastonediaìectoÍ Nândi, ìowever, the additional/â/ ãppearsto be a dunmy phonemrtheÌe seemsto be no phoneticdjfÍerencebetweentàì ând I.ì, but in sone foÌns /ã/ requiresthe vowels ol the liÌst haÌmonic gmup in aüixes, whiÌe in oth€r forÍns it ÌequiÍes the voseìs ol tÌte second. This is exceÌlentinternâì evidencefor Ìeconslrrcting â tenth vowel phonemefor an eârÌierúage of the language,but at pÌesentthe ÌÈ levalt datamust be ac.ountedfor at the morphophonehicleÌel, o. perhâpsmoÌe economi@llyby a p.osodicreaturenarki.g ole of the two groupsol voweÌs,or in the framewo.k oi gene.aüve phonology. For SouthernLwo, Tucker âíd Bryan desdibethe voweìsof the g.ou! /i, e, Ì. o, á/as having a "hotÌow"quality. ând thoseor thegÌoup/r, e,u,õ, â/ashaving â hârd" quality. A phoneticdistinctiÕnlor which such tems bight !e appÍopriate, oÌ a distinction conpâ.able to that describedlor Igbo âbove,is by no meaúsoblioüs in Dho-Lì,o. For vÕweÌhâmÕny systms oI the iypes d€soibedsô fâr, Tucher ândBryan (1966,p. 5) calÌ the tso gÌoupsoI voweh "cât€gories,"ãnd the ìârmonic cMccurrenc€s cstegory harmoDy." Cat€goryhârDony h dìstingujshedlrom "lull ìârmony," in $ìich the Ìovel ol an âfiix is identicll with the deteminilg vowel ol lhe úen. FoÌlowing tÌìe ânâlogy of nusicaÌ teminology, the Ìâtter coüÌd mo.e âppropriâtelyòe lâbeììed"únison"; the sim!Ìe t€m "voweÌ hãmoly" hâs lohg beennsed(e.g.,tor TDrkisì ând otìer lângüages as welÌ as Wtst Àfrican languages) for stst€ms iú *hiclì sücc6sive vovels are s€lected hom oDe of tso or The €videncecited ìy Tucker andBryan from â nunbêroI lâúguages âtleasl r€veâlslhât ÌoNel harmony systens,with somediller€ncesin detâil oÌ in consìstencyÕf àpplicâtiôn,âre hy no meâÍs uncômmonamongtìe Nilotic (includiÍg thei. "Pa.a'Niloiic") lânguâges.As wilÌ be seen.Ìes íully dêveÌopednânif€s tâiions ol voweìÌtârnony are fâr frore widestreâdin Niger4ongô thaú the consistent systems exêmplilied by Igòo and Fante âbove. 2.14. In Efik, as has been noted in 2.2 above,the secoÍd and third peÌson singular subject pronouns,ând two verbâÌ conúruction ma.Ìen, àave Iour ãlternant fo.ms eacì. In th€se, the vowel /ê/ (with sÕmecofrpÌicãtions invoÌving markedness) appearsbêfore/i/ or /e/ in the rollowingstem; /a/ beÍore/a/; /â/ beÍo.e /r/; and /o/ berore/u/ o! /o/. A similaÌ variatio! applie to the alìomo.phoI the negative suflix ãlter nonosyllâìic voseÌ-linal verò stms. The*, hôwêve., ere tìe only cleaÌqanpleÊ oI vowelìârmony in EIik. The 6econdand third peÍson pÌuÌâl subject t.onouns, lèl and lë:1,â.e invaÌiable. So srô the ont.asüve Ìrlu.al constructionmârker /yé/, thê lirst personplural subjectlroaoun /Ì/, the infìnitive mark€. /trdi/, and the other ãlloDorphof the DegaüÌesqíIix, /ké/. In toms othe. than veÌbs, sequences ot a vocalicpÌefix followedby a stem voweì shos sone restrictions,pâúicìnã y sitì the t{o lo{est vowels. St.angely, it seens easiest to deÍine the rest.ictiors in Ìems oi the prelix voweÌs Ìathèr thân the stem loweìs. Pnri\ /ô/ occurs€xclusivelybefÕrestem /o/. Prefix /â/ ôccurs alnóst exclüsilely hêlor€ sld /â/, âlthoügh thr€e ôl the very Í€w *cep-
39 tioDsâr€ iÌ coÌÌmoÍ ì,ords: /Àn'è/ 'Írho?' snd the independèútpÌonoünÍorns iÀmt/ 'I'ând /àfò/ 'you (rS.)'. Pdir /o/ ocaüÌ3bêrorêstêm/i, ô, u/. The pretixes /i, c, u/ ocauIíreeÌybdorc alÌ st€Ìnvoweb. 2,16. ÌrNkundo (Lol'Íonso)h$ partial voçeÌ hâÌnony, The vo*eÌ. /.i aod may occurtosEthêrin the sam€rorm, aod so may /€/ ald /o/; but neith$ /ei /o/ nor /ô/ mry occu. i! the ssne rorn úth /ei or /oi. the Ì€rìãining vowêb, /i, u, a/, nÂy occüÌlredy lfith eithÊrlê, ol or lê, ol. SomewhâtsinilâÌ Ìestrictioú! on co-occuÍc,úc$ol voweÌ! âr€ Íound in Yâr., Yoruba, lnd urdoübtèdly numeroüsothd làDgusgès.Ír sme l:Ns, oÌds müt bêtlken into coúside|ation---{3 in Efik, ÌrleÍ€ ./o+/ i! ân inperútuibÌe .eq!èúce, i! colmon. SFte&tic or Bymmetlicslr€ât.ictioN appeâÌto bè combut /H/ mon, tüough oÍ couse they onnot he dpest€d to be univeÉal. Itr m!Ìry oÍ the MâúdeÌángüâgèr,two-6yÌlabÌeloÍns úth identicalvowersin both síl&bles aÌe Ìmârkably tÍequent,but there aÌ€ ênoughexceptioNto mt è spternatic atât€mentsiÌnpo!,$bÌq a mereibtisticsl obsdeüor must súfice. Fimly, in 3omelaDSüags,àlÌophoric vdiaüoús iD voweb pattsn in such . {Ìsy rs to sugg€dta íoÌm of âÌlophonicvov€Ì harmony. In someof the Southem Bsntu laúguÀger,and in Ssâhili and peÌhâpr many oth€r ÌaIguag€s,theÌe âre fiv€ mwêls, but /ê/ and /o/ havehigheralÌophone',te, ol, h€loe the high vowels /i, u/, and rowerâìÌophones, [ë, ol, bdoÌê otüer voí/eb and in finaÌ positioÌr. Sinilll variatio! is Eportêd (Deínond Cole, plivâte comunicâüon), though undoult dly within a smalÌd EDgeol arlicllatory po.ition, iI hnguagB thct hàvê i€ven vowelphonene!t! b€ginÍith. Evenin lgbo,whichalÌ€adyhã3â phoneÍíic vowel hsrmory $rtrNÌÌ, th€Ì€ iB lone addirionaralophonic vovel hsÌmory. In paÌticulaÌ, /€/ i' dightly hth6, [e],bdore the hish vowelsii, u/, but slighuylower, [€1,beíorc ic, o/ or in rinal po$tiotr, For sme speaks, /a/ tu Bonwhat more like [e] beroÌeii, u/ than before/Â, e/ oÌ in riral pGition. 216. The possibility of sone Êort of voçeÌ elision €xist! Ìrhen teo vowêI. occurin s€quêDce acrorsâ morphemeboundaÌyin a phEs€. (An elidedvowelis, oí cour!€, quit€ diff€ÌÊnt from a z€m allophoft oí â voweÌ as diraursedin 2.3 above. In th€ caseof â zerc alopho!ê, s sp€cilicl'olfeÌ phorcmesuchas /i/ i! pdit€d oDthe bâsisof noúvocaUc phoneticphenornélasuú ss tone, in p6itioü3 lfheÌ€ âÌl other voìvebcÌearÌyoc4ür. lD the 6. oI u èÌidêdvoweÌ,any oÍ scvcral vowelsatt Átrd ir other coDtsts oÌ in sÌoìvÊpeechis siÍÌply nissiÍ9, with Do evid€ncein tÌle suÌÍácertluctürê of its identity or ev€nitN existenca) In a gÌeat mary lrnSuage!,vowel Bequeú@s acÌo$ moÍphenÌ€bounduiB m nr€, larSüàgB hàve snd iD â fcw l.Dguâgs pdh.Ps mnqistent. MatryNiger-Congo m initial vow€Ì. dcèpt loÍ a lew pmÍoun fomü ând otüer i!ôlated morphdë wÌrichconsilt of onty â vowcÌ, In AftÈAsiatic laryuagés,word-initiaÌ coDsonanüs rr€ ga€nly the rul€; in sme cales!âs Hâüss,initiaÌ vorrelsâpperr in the ortüogÌaphy, but phonetiesly ârc alì/âys pÌec4d€dby â gÌott l stop. In NiÌo-SahâÌân r.rguagè, woÌd-iriüal @nsonàtrt!áppearto predominate,àrd woÍdjinat con3onaDtsaE very .ommon. In KhoisanÌanguag$,word. in major ron chsr beginwith coNonânt!,Íìore oíten thân not {ith cÌick. Àctuaüy,rìe conditions
E l nrl nL
.L
d.L
dnLLl Lr
40
ArRrcÀN LÀNcuÁcE SrRUcÍuREs
for posible voweÌ elision are found by far most commonÌy in lnâny of the Kwâ and somenoúhwesteÌnBenÌe-Congolânguages(all Niger-Congo).In such languages,verbsnormaÌlybeginvith consoMnts,but most nours beginwith a voveì or â syltÀbic nâsâI which reflects â noun-cìâs prefii in ât leaú an eârlier stâgèof the lânguâg€.Wo.d{inaÌ consotrants do not ÕccurÀt âll in someof these iÍ number Ìânguages; other languages, the oÍ coisonaÍts that may occu.in wo.dÍinâl pôsitionis restricted. Thus sDchìânguages hâveâ grêât nâny phrâsês,consisüngIor qampÌe of verb plus noun objest,or noun plus nou!, in which vowels occur in sequenceacrossa morphemebouDdary. The actuaÌizationoI such s quencesva.iesconsiderably irom languageto language. 2.1?. In Akân (the Fânte diãlect),noun pr€lixesa.e /ì*V, /à-ò/, /À-è/, ând â syllabicnasalhomoÍganicwith the loÌlo*ing consonant,/rì ì/. The first twÕ ol th€sefôur prefixesâre excÌusivelysingularin Ìeferenc€.In noninitiaÌposition in â clause.they âre completelylost. This, however,is moÌe than mere elisionâlter ânoihervÕweÌ. The precedingsord nây end with â consonant(/w, r, m, D/ are pemissibleÍinal consonants);the noun prefix is stiu lost. E.9.,
The remaining two prcÍixes, howeveÌ, a.e neveÌ lost. NoÌ is there any elision when /à è/ ìs precededby the finaÌ vovel oÍ â veÌb or ânothernoun. However, pronôün (/nl/ fry'. /wú/ 'youÌ (sg.)', the ljnal vowel or a precedinspossêssive 'his, pmnóunsend in consonânts) her, its'; the llüral pôssessive is assinilated /ni/ to th€ noun preIix /à * è/; tle r€sült is a long vo*el, but with the hightone ol the DmnÕunÌâther than the low tone ôf the noun Dretix. TìÌs:
à.útòàbÉ
'he'sbuyingpâln nüts'
À some*hat sinilar phenonenonis fouDd in the Wukari dialêct ôf Jukun (knownto its speakemas Wàpã). Ìn isoìatedcitation or initiâlÌy in a cÌause,the vâsl mâjoriìy ol noNs beginswith â prerix /a/ (sith mid tone). In noninitial posjtioú,this prdix is cÕúplêtelyÌost; the.e is no lengtheningÕf the pre@ding vowel,a.d no modilicationol âny pr€cedingtone; €.9..
ku Ìi hwë kwi
'hê'sbuying â chicken' 'he\ couíting chickens'
A much smaÌle. numòer of nouns begins with â prelix /à/ (with lo* tone). In noninitial position, the vocaÌic quality of this prelix is lost, ând there b no Ìengthenine ôf the preceding voweì; hoveveÌ, the low tone oI the pr€Íix is.etain€d aÍter â p.ecedingmid or high tone, côDbiÍing with it to Íom a gÌide (which is in no wãy a Ìengtheningof the vowel); a precedinglow tone is not Ínodilied,so that
4l the third of the foÌlowingexampl€sis contleteìy homoplonoDswith the thiÍd oI
thoseabove: ku Ìi hwèrkwi
'he\ buying â góurd' 'heh countinggouÌds'
In Efik, on the other hând,lreÍix vowels(with nouns,adjectìves,nune.als, and demonstrativet are impeNiousto elision. They mây lollow anÕthervovcl (âÌthÕnghrhereârè âlsoâ grêâtúany consonaÍt-finaÌstems;/p, t, k, n, n, !/ are pemissibleíinàl clnsoúants),btrt thereis no eÌisionaDdnotÌtiDgatproximatiDg luÌl ãssimilâtionof eith€Ì vos€Ì to thê othe.. In caseslike the folìowins.botì rowelsin eachseouence aÌe easiÌvidentifiaòÌe: 6ìbéúnàm étó ibà
cut the meat 'two trees'
Ìnbòró émi ébwá ó.ò
'this bânana that dog
Efik does. howeve.. hâve a tew otheÌ casesol vowel eÌision. One is befoÌe a sentenc€-Iinat courtôsyoÌ pe$onsl inte.eú. The ÌeÌb !ãÌticÌe /óó/ which suggests lorm /ìDésyèÍé/ 'have yoü awakened?'is coDbinedwith this paúicle to lorm a colmon nôrning gÌeeting:/Ènésyèróó/.À lnorpheÍDecomspôndingroughÌy to 'ât'hâs the Ion /ké/ ìeloft a wo.d {hich b€gi.s Yith a syllabicnâsâì. Belore â word be€iÍningwith a vowel,hovever,the voweÌoI ikél is elided;its high tone i6 retainedbefo.ea low tone, but onÌy the consonant/k/ remainsbefo.ea hieh tonê, with no lowel lengtheningin either case. 8.g., úkàniká
ké íkànikáìbà
úfòk
kútòk
2.1a. lt hâs beensid that Igbo has â consideÌâble amount oÍ voweÌelision, paÍticularÌyofa IowervowelbeÍoreâ highervo*el (ôeeGrecnand Iewe 1963,p 2). Às a geDeralstatemeDt,ihis is â seriousoversinplilication. For nany speâkere, thereis compÌetelo$ of â woweliÍ onc môrphcúe;thc úo.phêmê,witÌr much tne sane meâningând usâseâs Efik /ké/, hâsihe rorns /ná - nà/ beroÌea syllabic nasal,its tone b€ingthe sameas that of the followingnasl. Beforeâ vowel,tlis is compÌêteÌyreducedtô /n/ by nâny sp€âk.N;fo. others.however,the vowel /á/ is meÌely âssimilâtedto the tolìowingvoçeÌ, so thât â Ìong voseÌ Ìesults. 8.9., ìJgbè úbà ànó úÌo àìá
't me : (placename): hou* : (placenane):
n ú ìò
The Ìast two of the above are pronouncedby sÕnet€ople (pãrticularlyaroúnd Aba l) as /núúÌò/ and /nààbá/. In otheÌ sequenco,the time requiredto !Ìonounce th€ lirst vo*eÌ, add its toÍe, aÌe not âIfected. The only voseÌ which is comlrletelyassimiìatedto a Íol-
AERICÁNLÀNcr,^cE SrRUcruÂEs
lowing voscÌ in quâÌity is /a/, ând evenihis conpleteasiDilation is h@Ìd primarily in very commonexpressions or in rapid Teech. In the foÌÌowingexânpl6, the exp.esions on the Ìelt are writt€n withoDt âssimilârion;assimilâtionis indi@ted in the expressions on the right: kèdú kà i di kà ó mésyá Ìi.à isé éhi nà éwú ó nà èri ó'rl
'how ãre you?' 'goodbye tifteen (ten ând fi!e)' 'â cow ând â gÕât' 'he\ eâtiÍe'
kèdúkìi d!
Ìn âll other sequences,the guality oI the fnst vowel me.ges very quickly into quâlity the oÍ the second. Tnrs the secondvowel is moÌe p.ominent, btrt the first .emâins identifiâhle. There mây be â slight centÍaìization oI a frcnt before a bãck vowel.o. of â back beÍorea lront vovel. but all contmstsà.e maintained. This hasbeenst.ikingly deno.strated by a numb€rol nâtive speâkers oÍ Igbo usedas modelsin teâchinglgbo to speâk€6ot English. Hea.ingthe slight cenhalizâtion or /e/ and the Ìâpid tÌânsition tron /e/ to /o/ in â ph.aselike /ébé 'ólé/ 'which plâce?,çhere?', studentssometimesgo to the ext €meot sãying[éhó'ólél ând similãú lébáàlIo. /ébéà/ 'this pÌace,here'. A naüve speake.or Igbo may hesitâte to reject such exagg€râtio.sout of hand, bDt the invãriàbÌeÌeaction is a Ìook ol dissâtisfâction ând â repetitiônol the phrâsein Ìropesof hearingâ more âccuÌaieimitãtion. In shoú, suchvowel sequences ir Igbo may be díficúìt to I€a.n to r€produceáccurrtely,but they âre by no meansinsiâncesol elision,and not ev.n ol lüìl vov€Ì âsimilâiion. 2.19. Full vovel elision,ôn the ôtherhâúd,is lypiml ôI sómetypesof phrases in Edo (Bini). NounsÌegnlârlybe*in with vowels,and all woÌds in the laDguâge eld with vowels. I! a sequenceof verb pltrs noun object, or in a noun-noun phmse,thc linâì vowêl of the liBt word is, undêr úany circumstances. totally elided.r Thüs the sequenceor /nvó/ 'drink'plus /èÍw€/ 'Diìk'is âcluaÌizêdâs /nwènwê/'suckle. Final /i/ or /u/ is not no.mauyelidedb€ío.ea vowel dilrerent frôm itself,thÕughâ lev qceptions cân be found in Melziân'sdictiona.y(Melzian 1937). Dunn (1968)stãtesthat rinâÌ /o/ with low tone becomes/u/, ând Íinal /e/ (appàrêntlyvith âny tone) b€cones/i/ beÍoreanother vowel, aÍd thus do not elide; there is no evidenceoÍ thh ât all iú Melzian,âÍd hê ngulârly indicates elision oI iol and /e/ possibÌy refl€cting anotheÌ dialect. À linâl rising tone âÌso the lollowingvowel; thns the sequence of seemsto be retained,and accompanies 'plây nasalizâtion ând a haÌp'is actuaìized âs Final /ákpátá/ /kpàkpáú/. /k!è/ the Íoìlowingvôweì. is alsoÌetained and accompanieâ There mây be other detâilsnot jÍcluded in the above statements,but the fact remains thât, in â vâst numbeÌ of Edo utterarces coÍtaining tÍinsitive v€rbs, the Íinâl vowel ol the verb simpÌy doesnot ãppeãÌ. ÀfteÍ a considerâbÌeâmount of elicitàtioí, ân investigâtor nay well be temlted to woúder how even a nãtive r Slch eìislonvs.codiìy
notcd cr. f.
spêalÌ.rol Edo in rhe eãÌìy .!on n.lrtan 1937 rnd Dün. 1963.
(}
rp€ák.Ì of Edo kno*s Ì.'hat th€ final vowelof a giaena€rb âctualy is. The ioÌuüon i. íound in en @phãtic
or t pic.lir.d
.on.t&ction,
ir which rìe obj@t i.
tÌânsposedto the begintriogol the senteÌce,and the veÌb âpp€âÌstu sentêncefinaÌ pGition. Only in 3uú .ircümstãncs do thè finaÌ vowêb of many vqbs app€rÌ. Sp€lkeÌs of Edo do not nNtoÌe elided voy,êÌsq,henspeakingcãr€íüIy to b€ginnirg l€áIn€r!, but th€y wil rcadily isoÌat the veÌb and pronounc,it by itleÌI with it8 liDâÌ vowel. Thê sihrsüoniI ühoho is somwh&t simikÌ, qcept thât it b not particülaF Ìy difficult to €licit carÊfulsp€€chíoÌm! Í,ithout elid€dvow€ls. In nore noÌmal lp€cch, íinaÌ \owêb other than /ii Ând iul beíorÊa nonidenticalvoÌrel elidê ãs ÍaÌ as theiÌ quality ând duÌâtion € conc€Íned.À íinaÌ Iow tone is alsolost. À íinal high ton€ k retained,hover€r, and repÌac$ tìê ton€ of the fo[owirg vowel ---â rspÌâcenentwhich i! r€cogüizâbl€,of couÌs€,only ir the foÌlolfilg r.oìeeÌ wouÌd othdis. not havê high tone itlelï. The UrhoboprttdN àre iÌlu.tÌâtêd by the foÌlowin& in which the columnsaE nou4 sdtence without €lÈion, 3entencêwith elisioo,aíd LEndrüoooÍ the rêntetrc( úkó
Õ dè rjü.ó
úkó
ò dé úkó ò dé ágà
ÀsÀ ó dè àgÀ
Õ dúkó õ dàgà ò dúkó Ò drgà
he's buying a cüp 'he's buying a châir' 'hê bought ! cup' 'he boüght a chaiÌ !
2.2O, In ÂI of the caseÊof voweleÌisiondiscu$edüp to this poiút, eltion ig eithd coúir€d to a few comrnonmorphene4or b lârgely if not €ntircly phonologicallypredictlblê. ln Yoruba,on thè other hând,the lituâtion is comidèrâbly ÌhoÍ€ c.mpücat€d. Ther€ar€ patteÌnsof vow€Ìassimilãtiod,iD which th€ qüality but not durâtion ol ã vowelaÈ úÍèct€d; snd the.e âÌe alsocas€sol total eltuion or 16! oÍ a vow€I, In the latt r, phonoÌogicrul€.!msy be set up to accountíor â laÌgê Dajority of tüe €s, but ã numbêrof d@ptions Ìmain which @r only be laid to be l*i@lly d.tmined (s Bamgboçê1965). A$imiÌâtion involving .übject proúoünsin Yoruba is fâiÌly stÌaightío.ward, ând hasb€enadequÂtelyd€scÌibedby Baingbor€and others;in generâÌ,the íinaÌ vowÌ of eny of s€venl mo.phr.meswhich may pEc€dèÀ subjectpmDounis a$ simiÌatedto the loÌreÌ of the pronounin quarity, tìough additional stâtêmênt! dé n@3ãry ío! a feç cs!ê3of füÌl eliãion. EÌision involving thê tbhd pêMn .inguÌai object pronoüni! perhapsbe6tt'€âted in connectionúth elisioniD verbnoun leqüencr€. Fuúher commentis eppÍopiate, hovever, on the stdking differ€ncebetwen the actu!Ìiuüon oI vowelsequúcê! in noun-nounphrast! and in terh{bject i€qu€nc4s.ID roün-nounphEses,initial iil in the secordnoun i! Â$imilâted ir qüality to the precêdiÍgvoq,el,but there is no fuÌl €lisionás is the caséiD verb-objêctsequencei.Therek goodt*on for suú a diffeÌence. Nouüs in noün-nour phÌâs$ âÌ€ grâmâticâlÌy linked by ân "a$ocrativ€" moÍpheme which, in somephonologicâlenvimnrnents,app€ãÌsas s mid tonèi the mid tone r For lu'tn r d.rdk, úal . dh.wlon ol tìê gr.nnrücrt ubd .y.tm, !É W.ln.E 1069,
turciton ot ton. h ih. Urhobo
E l nrl nL
.L
d.L
dnLLl Lr
44
AFtsrc^N LÁNc!^cE SÌRUcÍuÀEs
Iohs the end of e glide Írom â precedinghigh ton€, and repÌâcesâ preceding low tone.ô It is mârlied in the Iollowing by a macron bêtween úe woÌdsl 't$enty (a score ôI) cows'
ilé-DúkÉ ònâ Ekó àkpo èkpà
'the bad to Lãgos' (ônà '.oad')
'a bagof peanuts'(àkpò 'bag')
In someoiher phonoÌogicaÌ enlironmenh, howeve.,it would ãppeârthat suchan âssôciâtiveconstÌuctionis not overtly mârked; seqrencessuch as that oí /iÌé/ 'house,ìuiÌding ând /Õjà/ 'market, merchandise'aÌe simply of the type /iÌé qjà/ 'stoÌe, shot'. The appar€ntsinplicity. howeler, is grammatiqlÌy cruciâì; it is precis€ìythe âbsencêof vôweÌ eÌisiontìat indicatesthe presên@oÍ the âç WheÌe th€ aso.iative úorphemeis nôt pres€nt,as in a sequence oÍ a veÌb with â noDdobject,elisionistypicalin normalspeech.The ruÌesfor the resuÌtant tone are simplej statements as to whicì oI the tvo vôNels is elided, á!âÌt from tone, are more com!Ìex and not sìthoÌt exceptions. In general,the vowels/i/ ând /u/ âre lhe mÕstreâdiìy elided.thougl there are somecommoneÌ@ptione: /bi/ sive birth to'ând /amq/ 'clild'conbiúe as /bimq/, and /5e/ 'do'ând /ise/ work combineas /íiiç/. Othe. ruleswith at leastsone phonologi@Ì rãtionality a.e morc compÌjcated,and â residueoÍ Ìexicâlly determinedconbinationsnüst aÌwaysbe recognìzedia 6t.iking damlle is tlìat the ene verb /f9/ 'wash @nbinessiur /ai9/ 'cÌothes as /ta59/but sith /akpç/ pot'as /Iâkpç/. 2.ã. The io.egoingdiscussions of vosd eÌisionând nÌrted lhenomenâhave beencon@rnedwith â nümberôl lànguâges shos€morphemeshucturenles âÌe such that vowel sequences at mor?hemebouidari€s âre qceedinSly cotmon. Even in Ìânguâges in which this is not the ese, it is oí cou.seto be eÍpectedthat at Ìeâsta Íew suchs€qnences cãn be Íound, ând üât conpâmbÌ€types of a$imilâtio! or elisionmay welÌ occur. AmoogtÌte Bantu languages, râther moÍe than (LoMongo) the usual.nount oI elisionis tound in LoNkundo Ge. HuÌstaert1$4, pp. 1113). A numberol words beginwÌth vowels,which âre noun-classor concord prefixcs, âdd *hich frequentÌy occur after the linaÌ vowel oI another *ord. ln thê rcsrìtâdt vowelsêquences, €lisionis not p€Ìmitt€donly iI th€ secoDd vowel is /i/ (with risingtone). In âddilion, initial /b/ iÊnomauy lostaneÌ the linaÌ vowel oi a prec€dingword. In thê vovel sequences thât Ìesult irom tlis loss,elisron is not pe.mittedif the secondvowel ìs /i/ (with any tone),or â voseÌ other than ÍinaÌ /i/ in the li.sr word lecomes /â/ with rising tone. In .emainingseqüences, (in iìnâl becomes both cases with ceúain other norphophonmic al/y/, /u/ /w/ ternÀrionsâppliedlroú ruleswhich must be sbted earli€r),and alt otho vowels (/e. E, ã, õ, o/) â.e totally elided. In general,the tonesot both the elidedvoweb ând thè remâining vow€Ìs âre retâin€d, but àppaÌeltly (altloügh Hulstaerl\ 3 EdÍârd ÀÍ. Firsco (rrlvare úmúünhdio.) rpotuthâtheh in which rhis ssmiativÈ mo.pbene h6 s lurÌ irsúêntâr rôrn /i/. asocialivc construcrions,seewelmen ls63r.
Fo. s r,'r'er dr$dslon
or
descÌiptiondoesnot make it explicit) there is no additionâÌleneth left oveÍ lrom SimiÌar voweÌ elisionin the presenceoÍ vocaÌicnoun clas a.d conco.dp.elixes in Bantu languagesis by no ÌneânsuDiversâÌ,and âpparenllynot evenvery videspÌeâd. Undouòtedly the connoneú llenomenon of this ty?e is the appeãÌânceor /y/ âs an alternalt ot iìl. and /w/ as aD alternalt ol iul, in prelixes befoÌe voweÌ-initial stelns. in nany Bantu la.guag€s A rather comon examtle oÍ vowel coalescence In Swâhiì', lôr *âDple, the sto ôt the the is /e/ resuÌtingÍrom sequence/â-i/. 'tootÌr' word fôr is lino/. With its atpropnãte sineular!Ìefix /j-l, a tooth is jts âpp.ôpriatepluraÌ !.efix js /neno/. simiÌâ.ly, /jino/; but viih /hâ /, te.th a set of IrÌonominalloms is pre.ededby lìe âsóciàlive noryheDe /â/ 1ÕlorÌn possessives. The fiÌst and secondp€rsonâlplu.âl prononinâÌlorÌns Ìnuú be analyzed âs /-itu/ ãnd i-inu/, res?ectiv€Ìy,in the lollowing set:
-angu
'Ìny 'your(ss.)' 'his.her,its'
-etu oDr' -enu 'youÌ (pÌ.)' their' -ao
In somêlangDãges, a cÕÌnpâraòle coãlesceicêis /o/ resuìtingl.om the seqüênce 2.22. It is perfectly oìvious, oi coürse,that ãll of the Io.egoingdoesnot beginto exhâustthedetailsolthe ãnalysisolloyeì syst€msjn African Ìanguag€s. Exlerience ìas amtÌy d€monstrâted,however,that desoiptionsaDd 'llustÌâtire covered,provide insiglts obseNâtionssúcì as these, on the pârticular topics that fÌequ€ntly facilitÀte the soÌxtion oÍ problemsin lângüâg€snot prevjoudy ãnalyzed,and Ìeveal a.€asÍor inv€stigationtlat might olheNise go lnnoüced. In larticular, it shouldbe €n}Ì'ãsizedthat ãppa.entiüegularjties,or ev€r appaEnt instancesof utter confusion,in phonologicsyst€ns, arc t.equenily tÌ'e r€suh of norphóphonemicãlternations,whìch may well diÍIer jn dilf€rent morphoIogiccontexts. Therulesnay b€ coÌnlÌex,but in many casesthey ?re surprisingÌy simple, Ás will be seenin the follóving chàpters,this sameprincifle naturâlly appliesto othe. âspectsot phonolÕgyâs scll.
Consonant Syst€ms 3r. A lw t'"et oI @rÊonaDtsoun& !D Íound in r nììnÌberoí Âfticar h[Susg€.but ÌâÌêÌy or nwE in ìÂrãuagBoÍ oth€r p!Ìts ot thc woÌld. Thnê typ.t âÌe doübÌy ÂrticuÌ&t€d!top!, implGiv€!, !trd clict!. Doubty articulated stop8 âÌe pÌoducedlsith simuÌtan€ou!articulÂtior--limìiltrneou! cÌosuÌeí they occuÌ alt€r vowclr, ald simuÌtrmru! rcl€{lc b€foE  Iolowing vowel-in two pocitio , üluâlÌy bilâbirl ald veÌrr. Th€ voicelê.seld voicedtype! ,rÊ oÌdinaÌily trâDsctüedfp and íà, büt the vêlaÌ compo[ert doc! not ir aDywãy pr€c€dêthe bilâlisl componentir pmÌruúciÂtion,and tìe!ê doubÌs stop8âpp€aralway3to function a! unit phonelner,mt â! coúlonâú cÌü!t€Ì!. The doúlê clo6üÌeÌquir€d to pÌoduc€th€lc coDlomntr rclultc obviouü, in a rpacebetw€etrthê two closurs. Thb spac€csDbe ohaÌrcteriz.d duÌiDgthc doubl. cloiurEby suctio4 so thât aiÌ goesiúto thè boüth *her thê coüôÍ.nt i! rêÌ€â!ed;or it cân h€ châracrrdt€dby pr€s3uF.{ith a r€sulbrt locd (mt lulg Âil-3trcrn) a8piratio!; or it rìay be n€utlal. In addition, ot coru!ê,tìe bilrbial ând v€lâÌ aÌticul|tions nay b! quit€ indep€ndenta3íâÌ g3th. degÍ€Êoí fortim€.! È cordr€d, Th. rcsun is ttìat therê aÌê just aboüt âr mâry rp round! a! tì.rr arê lâ.guâgB which h.vc ore, ald a lim ar vlriêty ot votc.d coúi.rp!Ìtd t! l,omã, there is a gÌêat deaÌ oí suction düÌing thê cÌolur€, !o thât tìê ípop" ât ̀̀sÊêis very cla .rd coDlpicüoa; in Kpelt , sn adiac€lt larguãgc,tnc luotior i! ìoücêebÌy Ìe.s, ard it b much es8ierto coúuôethe Kp€lle [kp] *iih ân rDa!pi.arid lpl and the tgbl with [b]. In BaÌiba, the vêlâÌ closuÈapp€aÌ!to bêmuch moÌe lorti! thân the biìchiãI, .rd rüeÌe ì! ìo dilcerDrblesuctior; at tirlt heáÌirg, th€ Bdib. lkpì cân r€âdily be co ulcd idú IÌ.i u €.. onc n búiDS !t thG speakeÌ'sÌips. In the Ekpei dioleatof Et eko, therc i! â phoneroicc.ntÌalt b€, twêenvoiceÌersaId roicêd doubly eúcületed stopspmducêdÍ{h .trd without suctioÍ---{ pheÌomênoÍ not ÍecoÍdêdfor âny othêr lâIgugE h ths loüostng, the stopswith suctionaÌe traDlcrü€d lkpÌ ard lgbì, whilê tho€eríitì m ,uctlor aÌe úânscribedÍkphl âDdÍgbhl; tüi! ü not iütênd€dto süggortthai ths Ìâtt Ì psi! aÌe aspint€d in any alay, but Ìn€Ì!Ìy thãt th€Ìe i! no irç!Ìd movclnelt of aiÌ at the tin€ oí r€l€Á!€rr r TÀ.* @ 16r! ec liÈt etì òy r anitu.ié .tud.!t, Mr Becì Eün L..h, tr tü. spdÍgôÍ1971, H. dld rot, ìoç.er..eg n tà. pÌrdr. !ìtlolrtdy iloft s, th. pM@ uit .b@e oI dl $ctloD tn thc tro typé rú @llÌE.il by iì. Eúv.rdt .lêdbrt hardrü tn rh. Drronx6 r.òmtory dlrét d bJ Plole! P.i4 LÍì.logüt, I! doràd cmtdt, Pbi.ed ìmlÍú G. Moullor or@ cract nrsd r üngubt {ho ü@ôlly .trUdp.t r tì. lhdlng! ol bndâtory .qutDh.trt d ! màlm d D.o. 46
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CoNsoNÁNrSYsrExs
ákpá
'cup'
ú'kpháÍtn
(prcp€ÌnaÌne)
úkpikò
'blead'
ègbéè
'm$ked
àgbÀÍì
ïic.'
àLphÉmhì {bhê lgbhàsà
'ì,e tÌÌaúk' 'hou*' 'rhelÍ'
dan6'
In sonê lângüâgB,the bilabiâl Ì€lèâs or tkpl and [gb] tu somewhât8lo]rer and morc rclaxed rì{[ the vel$ r€lca!ê, giviog the €ffe4tot a (noFphonemio M oÍkÌid€. Srrârge& sône inv€stigâto$ Ê€ento hêâÌ such ân ofi-güde faÌ moÌEthan othen do; peopleÌrith appârêndygood€sÌ3 but with little lrnoxdedge of phoneÌnicúcory haveloÌnetiÍneãinsistedon {riting lpo and gàrrwherEI, for oDe,havêb@nuDãblèto detèctâny slN bil.bial ̀̀e which I might betmpted r, tÍanidibê ai lwl €venin closephonetictrâúlsription. Phooenic cÌultds of ikp*/ and /gbw/--or, loÌ thât nattú, or ,tkpi and igbl with sry oth€r phoÍerne thât e!€r dtêB irto cìustdHE *c€€dingly rare. One€xampÌêi! dkaüssedin In Nzena, it is Ì€port€d (Wflt€Imanr aDdBryân 1952,p. 90) that [kp, gb] occuronÌy beÍor€bac,l(vowêk,while stopswith Bimultãn€ou!bilÂbiâland alveolrr clo3ürÊând ÍelêÁ8e,[tp, dbl, occurbêforcfront voÍ,€ls. Obüously ody two phon€m$ aÌe involved,rhich oDewotrldpsüÍÌably choos to iÍbÍpÌ€t â3/kp/ and /sb/ ÌrNpêctivèÌy. A fèç Ì.Dguagesako hãvea doubÌyarticuÌat d Dâsd,hmÌ. h ì'tano,a sound oÍ thi! soú hasbeentraNcribed by solneÌni$iotrâÌiesÌ,,hodid eârÌyçork on th€ languageibut it n ckãú ar anophoneof /eb/ b€forÊnalalizedvowels,âid Ât lêÁ3tthe iúornâÌts I havèhêsld b€ginit omÌy. A contrâstof Í{Inì and [8bì in langutgf! which do rot hâve phonenicÁtlynâsaÌizedÌ'olfêls, or sucha contÌa8t befor€ nâsâÌjred\.owêlÂ,hâÁhe€r Íound in somê Nigqian languâg€.,but it is not coÌnJnor, synÃbiclunl bcroÌeApi or iebl occursin a Nmber oÍ languúger in which lylabic n$âb har€  ophon€€hoÌnorgãnicwith íolÌowitrgcoNonârtt Suchl[ allophorchasg€neIallybeenint€rpÌ€t€das /m/, peüapsbecaus€ the biÌabial closuÌr ir vbible. I havealway! interpÌetedit â3h/ iÍ therc is ãv€lãlmsâÌ phonuê €ÌsêwheÍeitr the Ìsnguage. ThêÍe is no momêntou!theoÌ€tic€l i33ue here. The imêdiatè uÉ of by own ânaÌys ha. $ualÌy b@r by speâkersof Enelilh ÌeÌning ÀJricânìânguag€s;I havêfelt it morc u.€fuÌ to remindthe lermer of thê invisiblê vdâÌ cÌosuE. For somèüDlnom Ìsson, ir the üÊuâloÌthographyof Efik, nlp i! qrdtter in soÌnewords,but slç in othêr!. In a few c!sr, thiâ ortüogrâphicdirtinction mây hâveorigilated â3a deüceto distingubhword. which difieÌ in tone-rnother devioüsêxcusefor avoidiÍg ân indication of tone as such. But th€E is ro crNistency in ü5i!g th€ otr€speniq íoÍ onètone ând the other for another; the orthogÌaphic distinctioü seelnsto t'€ aìÌnosttorsly sÌbitrsÌy. Th.Ì€ i! sD intffitirg g€ogÌaphicãrdiBtributiotrol doubÌy aúcuìabd .topt h Aftica. Thêy occu.primarily in laDgurgt! grcupedir ! strip Irom the ÀtÌantic iúto t-ÌÌeC€rbal AJÍicÂnRepüblic,acmis th€ West AJricâubutgeand Bonwhst
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48
AFqrcd
L^NcoÀcE SrÂuceÂEs
fÀrther €ast. A nunbêr of the côâstaÌìanguages do not hâve doublestoF, and to the noÌth tley dtend only iÌregulârly beyond the forest into the grassland. Thus troúhern BambaÍã doesnot hãve eitìer /kp/ o. /gb/, büt southêrn BambâÌa ând Mâninka hâve /sb/. Senâri (a southern senufo Ìângüâge)has both, bút S!ptire (â very closeÌy related lâDguageto the north) has neithe.r Senãri /kp/ coÌÌesponds to /b/ or /bì/ in Suppire, while Senâri /gb/ is of secÕndârJorigin. No lânguageseêmsto hâle doubly aúicqlâtedstopsin syÌlable-íinal losition, although someÌanguagesdo have final /p, t, k/. In Eíik, lkpl appeaN in syÌlãbleinitiâl position,but lpi doe nôt; [p] appers in sylÌâble-finâlposition.but lkpl do€snot; in this case,thoqh tìis is not comon amongoth€r langüages,[kpl and [pÌ âre âÌlophones of one phoneme.oth€r .estrictions,suchas the existence of onÌy Õnedouble stop, nây be pârt ol â more genenl pattern of phonôlôgy in individual languages.For exmple, Mâninka hâs only /gb/, but it ãlso h6 /b/ without â voiceles counterpart. Yorubâ has both /kp/ ând /sb/, but /b/ without a voiceles counteÌpârt (aDd /kp/ ts written p iÍ Yoruba oÍthogÌaphy); but this seeÍnsrather to pamlleÌ the ãbsenceof a fu/ from the consonant inventor/ of a nunber of languages. 3.2. ImpÌosiresâre voicedstols 3op.oducedthat the ai. comingÌ,etseetrthe vocâÌcordsfróm the lungsio producethê voicingis norê thân oÍhèt by â simultâÍeoüs ênlaÍgementof the oral cavity to prcdú@ a Íet süction;thus, {hên the stopis Íeìeased,âir movesinto the oral €vity with â sìight"pop." ImpÌosiva ãs envisionedheÌe do not involve compÌete glottal cÌosure. A simila. raÌefaction in the o.al cavity, with ai. moving inward at the noment of a stop reÌ€âse,is óí couNepossiblewith conplete SlottâÌ closu.e,but sucheurds wouÌd mo.e âccurateÌy be termed "implosive gÌottalized úops." \Yithout glottal closürè, â bilabiál inplosiv€,[6], seemsto be the commonest;it is found in a Dumberof Mânde Ìanguages,and in a vanety or other Ìânguag€sthroughoüt Africâ, v€ry often in contrast with â nonimplosive [b]. Judging lron ?Ìonunciations oI Swahili by several speâkeNÍor whom it is a 6ecoÍdlânguage,an inpìosive [6] Ínãy bè found in sevemÌEast ÀLicân Ìanguages, though !Ìobably not in cortÍãst *ith ã nonimplosive counterTaÌt. À Íutnber ol languagêsãlso hâvê aÌ âÌveolar impÌosive, Idl, but othe. implosivesareÌare. ID Kpelle,implosive16lcontastswith strongly p.evoicedÍbland [gbl. In somediaÌectsor Kpelle,[d]occu6, büt isâ coauophon€ with []. occu..ing only in woÌd-initial lo8ition; [6] occuÉ alnost êxclusìveÌyin wo.d-initial positionin any case,but in its occasionalinteNocâìicôccurencesit has the alloplone [D] in râtid Êpeech.Ií the totâl phonôÌogicsystemof KpeÌe, /6/ and /l/ belong in a set oI consonântswith /y/, which is â Ìesonant mther th8n a f.icative; the joking súggesiion to two inÍoÌmânts thât se nigÌrt find a remote dialect in which initiaÌ /y/ jÊ a veÌâr inplosive *as gÍeêted with delighted ÌaughteÌ -the phonetic anáÌogy wâs imediátely obvious to thm. Doubly a.ticulatêd Btops,ordiDarystops,and implosivesâìl occü in @ntÌâst in a Dumbe.of lânIn lgbo, thê.e is à cl@Ì /kp/, ã!d a contrasting phonelnegenerâìly int€.pÌeted as /gb/. In the latter, howeve., the vela. closu.e is treveÌ very loÌtis, ând for some
49 spekeN the phonemeãppmÌs to be !ìonêticãlly an irnplosive16l rather thân a doubly-âÌticuÌatedlsbl. The many speâk€ÌsoÍ Iebo witÌr qhom I hâve check€d, however,lind a [gbÌ suchâs I hâve usedin Yorubâ far more âcceptâblelhán my KpeÌÌe [6]. I ãm paúictrÌa.ly dubioDsabout ân implosiveârticuÌation in lg]o aíter a syÌlabic Ì'omorganic nasaÌ. 3.3. To the beginner,thê distinctionsbetseen[pÌ, Íbl, implosive[6J,a.d the doubÌy-a.ticuÌatedstops[kp] ând [gb] a.e frequently ditficuìt. The dislinctions cãn be ìnstÌumentalÌyobseNedwithout expensiv€laòorâtorylacilities,if one cân borow â doctofs stethoscoF. ln syilableslike Íbal and [gba],if the stet]oscope is hêÌd ãgâinstthe speâkertÌârynx, tle ruhhle of rôicing $ill b€ hea.dthÌoughout, though no appreciabìediflerencebetweenure two syllabìesvill be notic€d. In synãbleslike [pa] and [kpâ], the rumble oí voicingb€ginsonly ât the rel€ase of the consonant.In a syÌlablelike [6a],ho\'êv€r,an explosiv€soundwill be heaÌd ât the lâ.ynx which is somewhatlesseârth-sìãkingthan, but nearlyasimtÌe$ive as, a sonicboom. If the stethoscope is held againstthe speakeÌt cheekopposite the veÌum,â simiìa. explosionwiìl be heârdin lkpaÌ ând lgba]. In ÌearninÉto p.oducesoundsoÍ th€setypes, [kp] can be aptroxinútcd by pronouncingthe Englishphrâse'backlocket', artiliciâlÌypÍolongingthefiÌstvowel, ând then rushingprecipitouslythroughlhe resÌ of the phrase. lìr úât màtter, mâny speakersoI Englisnháve lreqúently imitâted â hen's câckleas lkprkplkp.-kpr-kpâ1, with simultaneous biÌabialand veÌar aúiculation at tÌ'e b€ginning of eâchsyÌlâblê. A [gb] cân siniÌâÌly be âpprôxiÍnat€dby pronoúncingthe Englishphrase'big bâg', âÌtiticiâlly pÌÕlongingthê tirsl voseì, ând then rushing through the Ìest. An implosive[6] is a lairly commontree variãnt út Anericân Engnsh/b/, especiâllyiú exaggeratedexdâÍDationsìike 'Oh, Boyl'. Frequ€ntly, begiÍneN needmoÌe help with a [b] contEsting sjth 16l; exagg€rãted conscious Ìelaxâtionof tle lips aDdcheeksroÍ [bÌ wiu help the ]ea.neÌto becomeawareoI the muscularâctivity requiredto p.oducethe suctioDin the oral cãlity tor implosivelô1. By closiDgthe glottÈ, creatinga bit of suctionin the oraÌ caüty, and opening ard shuttingtbe lips repeatedly,one càn produceà soündsomethinglik€ thâl Òl a coÌk beirg Ìmoved fÌom a bottle. By cìosingthe velar a.ea and doing the sane thing with the oral cavity àúd lips, one can pÌoducea soundimitâti\e ol â liqúid being pôuÍedout oI a tull bottl€. The resonàúces oI thesetço typcs ot popping souÍds a.e exactÌy an octãve apart. The lower one, with the glottis cÌosed,is the resonânce for [6]; tÌre highe.one,with velâr cÌosur€,is the resonence oÌ lkpl and Ígb]. Listeningto thesepoppingnoisesìy thens€lvesis sometimes helpfuÌ in ìeaÌningto heâr the dilter€ncesbetscenthe consonânts in Ìeal speech. 3.4. Among non-NigeFcongolanguages,Âfro-Asiatic langlagescômmoíìy hâve â gÌottaÌ stop ând â úDnber of consonantswhich âre cith.r glottalized. phâryíCeâlized,or othesise similâr to eâchother in soDe speciâÌsay. In the Semiticlinguistic tradition, such consônantsare wideÌy known as "empbàtics"i the comonest oÍes aÌe /t, d, Ê,k,/; /p/ and /c/ ãlsoãppearin southernSeDitic. Many consonantsof comparauetypes appearalso in Berber ând Cushitìclan-
í)
AFRrcaN LaNour,aB SrRUcrúRlg
gu.gê. h Sâho,strorgly ei€ctiveglottáÌizcd/t, c', t', s'/ hâvê bê€nÍ€côdcd. Or thee, how€ve.,/c'i wã! Ìccodêd only in oD€or tro words|üipecr.d oÍ bciDg ad ìoc citrtion! (Ìather tìrn geneÌrlly uled raloptedwods) hün a reigtüoÌing sênitic LDgu!g., aDd itl sìd /.'/ oclu i! words Í'o!t ot wNch aÌ! prohar y adoptcd. In additior to A'l, ìrhich appeâEtô belongiD the nâiüh€âm oÍ Slho photrologichiltory, rhcrÊn a rltÌofl(tr /d/ rhich mây rêtlestr prÌâÌlel to úê S.miÈ ic ".mphrtic" !€ries. GÌottetizêdcomonÃtrt!or othcÌ types coÍípaÌableto tho âbwè âÍ€ ôko typ icd in the Châdicrângüagel.Hrü!â hr. glott li4d /'b, 'd, t', .'/, a[d aLo ! rrÌÊ /'yl whichi! ceúriúly of intêrnãÌ!êcrndaÌy oÌigin. Hru!â /'b, 'd/ hâve!ôneÉnc. ben d€€$üed a! "inpl$ive," but th€y ar€ aÌticulât Ìi1y and acourticrny lrr dífcrÊut fmÌÌr úc nonglottaliradilnpÌo€ive3d$cribed âbov€. Thê voicêd eÌti6ulâtion is pr€cedêdby cdplet! gbn!Ì cl6üÌ€, wìüch pFrluds voiciDgduriDg its very bneí duntion. FoÌ a ÌayrnanÌrith Do knowlcdg! or phonÊticlynboh, I roüld not h€litltê to ÌêpÌ€letìt thê Âpproxinat€.ôüDdol Hrula /hú'dú/ ïoüÌ' ÂslÌooHo; I woüld nèvq dtãlÌt ot repÌl|dting tìê inplolive tdÌ ot lorc Kp€Ic dial€lts by ld-in a phra!ê likê [ú dl] 'I wcnt', thGreb tulÌ voicingthroroouL Thè Hels A'l is sinuÌtdêou!Ìy dottrliad, úth fâi.Ìt Ìight êi.ctivê Í.la!ê Do.t pÍ@itrdt b.Íorè fmDt vowelir /.'/ (orthogrsphicaÌly,r) i! g€neÌãÌlya fricstir.! vith a quick gìottrl cl$úr€ duriüg paÍ of it! âÌticüÌation, fo. sEê speâtêÌr it nay be a SlottsÌized!ífÌic.ate [tr ], and an aíf.icatê [tr] rith no apprcciôÌe SIot tãÌiration i! lc.êptêd trom noÍnatiw !pe*êÍs. Hâuiâ .r.o h6 â glôtt!ì !t!p, colmon in initial politioD (though not uiitrtr; tro woÌd b.gitr! Tith s vowel !ound). IntervocaÌicglottal stop i! ÌaÌ€, ând conrired tn woÌd! rdopt d lÌon For T€Ìa, Pãul Newnan (1070,p. 3) ÌEport! a scri€! of voicrd "glott liziì" crnsomnts in Íive politioD6:bilrbiâr, paratrlirêd b di.ì, alv@lrÌ, pelrtrl .nd vêlaÌ. H€ áko .tât€Áthrt th4 glotulir€d consonatrt!aÌc inplo6rv... Hê .ppârênüymans thrt conplet. gÌott r cb6@ b irvolvcd. In solÌlêdi.lect! of Irigt, ã soundìvhichhasbld d.lcÌlhêd a3â "vêhÌ iDplolive" i. EpoÍted, hüt Ch!ÌL. KEÍt ha! producedit for mêÍiü cÌ€árglott Ì clolur€- It wouldâpp€âÌthst glothlized, not nêEÌy iEplo€ivê,con!ô Íü âÌ! typicd in Chrdic. The !oünd. thrt do occürÍoÌm ât leâlt r ltlikiDg EpologicrÌ páÉllêl with othlr A.hc&úüc lr& gusgq aDdcorÌ€.pondence! for rìost ü mt aü oÍ th€m qr! to belouDdin ip.cilic ìúostÁfro-Aliaüc lânguage3 in oth.I thrD thc Chadicblaúchaìlo hrw s p.ir or phâÌyngsl fti@tivè+ voictl€.! À/ â!d voic"n i ç/, gênêraììyin cortÌalt with v.Ìar fricariv$ A/ rnd /y/, 3.5. AmongNigêÌ4ongo lrDguag€ôclict! occuronÌyjn r fcw of th€ SouthêE Bântu langu.g6, *heÌ? theiÌ oÍigin s{rmÂc.rtrinry to h€ thmu€h woÌd! rdopr.d Ibm th€ Khoiran lângüagc!,i! .omc ol which mGt 3t€rì! ir nrjor fom cÌr!!.! hâveinitiâl cücks;in smé .r!êr. hovweÍ, clicki havebeenlubltitüted toÍ otì.Í @MnlDts in çord! wholc g@etic history is clc{Ü Brtrtü. OthêNi!€, cüdkr coDstitut4a strikiÍg dtutinctiv€ clÌrrâct€rtuticoÍ th! Kloisan hngucgp IslÌiÌy.
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CoÌ{soNrNrSYsrEr,ts click âr€ onen tÌsrsibed I [c1 (d€nt{Ì or alvcolâÌ),Iq] (paÌâtâÌ or Ìetronex), and txl oateral). A cnlnmon !ìtêmâtivê tENcliption i! Ul, Í lÌ, end t//l lor ihe .âmc three postüo6. À bilabial click has abo b€en recorded in a Bu!Ìunan ÌÂnguage, and i! t!âDÊcribèd[ol. Cücks qE produc€d by cÌolur€ in one of the po3itiom indicâtad, Ìíith rinüÌtâneoü! velâ! closuE and local luction. They nay bè voicêl€sr, voiccd, or nasaÌ (ând voiced), and Ìnây have unaapimted, âspiÌated! ot dott!Ìized rèlêse. Tha modiíi@tions aE $uâlly indi@ted by an rddiüon.Ì coilonant rymbol-no indiqtion tor voi@l*r and unaspirsted,but lg-l Íor voi@d, r€[&l íor nÂ$1, l-hl ror alpirated, and Ì-'j ror elottalized. Th€ oblisâtôry '€lâr lêa!€ tu som€tim$ Í€pÌt!€ntêd by Í-kl fof unâspirâtrd ând t-kìl foÌ sspimttd. Th€ pÌoduction of cìick! âs aüchi! no gÍ€ât prcbÌeÌn. To â speakÈ of Engltuh, á bilâbial click i3 a noily ki$, elpeciauy *ithoüt qüadrilabiât contâct. A dêútâl or alv€oÌar cÌick, $uaÌy rÊdupücat4d o! rcpeâted several tim$, indicâter (or us€d to a generation oÍ tìso sgo) disippÌoval oÌ disâppointmert; it isusually ÌcpIelertêd by tr* lsl. A lâtsrâÌ cliú, aÌlo Ìeduplicáted, spur8 on  hone, or somewh.t ouìngeowly (at Ìeâst in rne 1920's) caÌls âtt€ntior to â pÍetty girl or some other un*pect d opportunity. A ÌÊtroA€x or parataÌ click h.s m spccial iigriÍicance in oüÌ paElinguistic mmmünication, but is sometim€! h@Ìd in imitâtion of the pop of â champagnebottÌe cork. By theÍrselv€s, then, clicks âre €Asy eroü8h. The EaÌ tÌick is to pbduce a click with ! vovel im€dietely altêr it, which i! Íot pâÌt oI ouÌ pâttsft of sound symboÌi.n PeÌhaF the e$i€st stârtiÍE point is ar $pirated cìick voiced and nasl cÌicks are pbbably ndt 4iesl Alter tàê liBt f€w succeisfül-if p€Ihap3 a@id€ntãÌ-att€mpts, it is surpÌising how €âsily most Enghh{pesking l€âÍnerÊcân imitste alrnost any oÍ â remaÌkabÌê vaÌiety of tle.Ìn. OccasioDâIy clusteE oÍ cÌicks are íound, âs in th€ rãm€ of rhe neâú (?) extiDct Büshl[ân diaì@t /h lke, with a nÀsal Ìatenl click foÌlowed by r paÌat l cìick (with unaspiÌated veÌaÌ ÌeÌolsê indicated in the speling oÍ the ntmê), âlÌ foÌlowed by a peú€qtty pruaic vowel. It i! of int€Ì$t, but pÌobrbÌy of no .i€nüicance, thât the ne.Et Bartu neigtòoÌÊ of the ÌaÌrgüagesthat hrve click phonernes(e,9., Shona,ShiTlva) have sounds sucì as letsal fÌicatives ard latqally Ì€leâsed âtfricster with extrsmely sinilaf locãÌ nois€€ffects, though not with the lame diEction ol aiNtÌem motion. ThÌoughout moÊt ol Afticâ, a dèÍt t cÌick or other noisc produced in th€ s,me aÌ€a, luch a. the noisê of suckrngthÌough the téeth oÌ lips, ir uséd B aD offèúlive iosult or obscênity; thè expèrinenüÍg fieÌd tfoÌke! must Ì€âIn to control hk unconsciou. noisrr, or possibly risk â lawsuit. Fo. anothd type of .ound irvolved in an inluÌt, an urguiìentll snâp, s€€15.4. À few phonetic virtuo.o! aÌe ãble to pÌoduc€ irupiratrd tÌiÌled clicks, \,hich may be w€ÍuÌ unds ân extÌernely Dtzarre 3€t oÍ .imstsn@B. High h€eÌ! aDd camem shuttcrs, incidentâlly, do not pú düce clickr they Foduce clacks. Evú tbe begiüneÌ lhoutd r€sÍn to diltingubh betw€en air-8tÌeân mechanisús and percu3iive n€chmisms. 3.8. ConsonÂnt systeÌru, Ìike vol,€Ì iyst€rn6, t nd towdd sme de{tèe oÍ syÍímetly; but ú@ is obviously moÍ€ óom íoÌ sk€ydng. A numb€r oÍ NigsCongo hnguagei do, how€vcr, lhow a sFteÌnàti. absnc€ oí voic€d fticative pho-
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52
ÀFÂlcÁN LÀNcuÁcE SrÌucruÃB
neÌÌÌ€!. À EpicâÌ We.t ÀJÌicanconsoúaútsystm (with Dopaúiorar h!€urge in nidd) night welÌ b€: p! bdg fsh
K
kp gb
To cite â specificlaúguageexãnpÌe, Badba lâcü! /{/ in the abo\.ech8rt; h.s iV Íâthq than /Í/, but alÊoân h/ which, *cept for â lry sdopt€dwdd.t woüld be aú anophoneof /d/; ând hâsâ very râÌe /z/, phoüeticÁtÌylrl, pEbâbly @Dfinèdto âdoptedwoÍds. Fânte üâs no Api or igbl, but dG h.vè Aq gw, hw/, âdd Ìacl{! h/, In thêseaDdmany other lânsuag€€,velâÌ /k s, [/, palâtar iyl, ând glott!Ì /h/ mây vÊll coústitut6a let of consrârt! which csr togèthd be chaÌâcterizeda3poctâlveoÌâr.TheÌeaÌe, to be süÌe,other laDgüag€.with voic4d fÌicâtiv$, and other typ€s of consonânt!aÌe by no meáúsuÂcôÍínon. üstitrS àll th€ pqsüilitis woüld be üiviãt; but it i! stÌiking hN @lmonly on! mÉt! systemsvery nuch ìik€ the abovê. Dbtributiomly, r€lonantsand nalals trnd to be noÌe ír€ê than ltops ard íricâtives io Nig€Ì{ongo languãg€s,lilany lãnguag€.do Dot permit word-Íinal consonante;in tho* thât do, nasâbsêênÌto be the most cúmo4 thoügh sone lângúãg$ pêmit ÍidâÌ resonantsor fiEl stopF8ulUy onÌy voicd4, though perhâpsÍitì voicedallophoncs(or norphophonemicalt Ìnânt8) bclore r vovcÌ bêginningth€ nqt wold. ReD&rt3 andDasãbaE allo noÍê ÍEqü€nt üâ! stopN or fricstive! in inteNocalicpositioniD std3. CoNomnt cl$t6i sÈ d@dirgly t@ with the 6ception oI the two specialt}?eNnot€dbelow. As s smple of a molt un$uàl @Norant sy3td Moúg the Nilo-Sâhrrâú labguaees, úat of l,turÌemay bê cited; it app€lB io be $ foüow:!
p 0 tck bèd m.
n
j
g
õ
!
The aúc"latory position. are bilúiâL iüt€rdertáI, aÌv€olaÌ,paÌatal, lnd rÈìff; thè types âÍe voicele,lsst ps, voiced stop€,Ìtsomlts, and na!âb. TheÌ€aÌe no phonemicf.icati\"e!. /0/ ard idl, ed aìlo icl Ând/ii, aÌê oDlyv€ry lightly slÍÍioat€d, âüdevencâlÌiÍg their Ìeleâ3êaffri@têd!t aÌl my reflestthe biÂ8ol a mtiv. speakq of Eúglish. l/ i! r€portedto be Dot úúry intlldentât, but âpp€{Ì! to pâttcrD ir rìi! position ai oppocd to Ê/. TheÌe are ninimd paiB ro! /*/ rld /n/, though I ws üúâbÌeto h€qr the diffeÈnceon â rlpê ÉcordiÍg o! in Holt tteÌ's pmNnciatior wh€r he cÌained to be pmducingdiíÍ€r€nt soutrds.ln e$ggerâtld pmnünciation,however,hh /e/ wasvisibly irtêrdentsr. I R.pdt.d t nê by thê Rèv, Prul Iú5t tìd, { nlr.tor.ly ittà m ülgurltrc tnbbg úd mcttdÌoN rorL h.lrlt!, úd mü'lnt al by . t p. Ecddtrg ol a lLt ot Í.r& úd pnM.
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CoNsoNNÌ SYsÌEÍs
53
Dho-LÌo hasa consonantsystm alnost id€nticálwith that oI Murle, lâcking only /y/ ârd /r/; ftcátiwe á!pea. in ! lew woÌds ldopted trom Sváhili or othet Bantu Ìanguages.Tucke. and Bryan (1966,p. 405) giv€ this âs "â chãmcte.iúìc bâsicconsonantsystem"for the Nilotic lânguages.Fof the Didingâ-MurÌegroup, though they do not specifywhetìer all oI this js süpposedto bê vâlid lor MuÍle in paúicuÌar,they cite a sinilar system(1966,p. 37t), but *ith a rew ìmplosives Glottalized o. not?) ând f.icãtives added. ln NilosahaÌan as wetÌ as in Niger-Congo,consonaDtclusteNa.e gene.auy Ere. In Alro-Asiatic,thoDghlessconsp'cuously in Cìadic than the oth€r b.ânches,consonantchsteÍs and doubleconsonantsare coÌmon. 3t. In 1957,the Presideot'sâddressât the anDualmeetingof the Linguistic socieiy or AÌnerica, by w. FreemanTvaddelì, was entitled "[ò]?"-ând lvâs o.alÌy inhoducedâs it hâd be€ntrânsÍninedto the Secrelâryby teÌegraph: Quote, brâcket,C, wedse,bmcket. questionmaÌÌ, quote." This sectionmight w€ll have the sâmeo. a simila. tiue. The interpÌetãtion of cónsonants*ith pâìatâÌâúiculâtion or pâlãtâl r€ìeâse -and similarly with bilâbial Íelease might have ôccasionede!€n more arguments than it has amongbegin.ingaDalystsexceptthat somehave not evên nóticed a prcblem whe.e th€Ìe actuauy is one. As it is, argunents as to whethe. to wite Ci or C, in someAírican languageprobâblyrânk next to dhputesabort the relative me.it of va.ious antinalariâl drugs tor gene.ating heat sitìôut Ìight. The tact is that considerations of the phonoÌogicpatte.ns of individualÌenguages can usuãlÌyprovidea simpleâns{er. The results,hosever,will be di6appoirting to thôsê who woüld like to iúsist on a consistentinteÍlingual orthography,in which tìe "same" soundsâ.e written in the sâmewây in âll ìânguâges.Unlortunately, "same"or similar soundshave a peNeÌsetendencyto fit into ditferent cubbyhoÌesin ditferênt phonologicsystens. First, a sampìingoi the lariety of justifiabÌelhonemic interlretations ol soundsho.. or lesslike thô [õ, J, i] ol Erglisì "cleap, jeep,sheep": ln Goumã. the.€ a.e u.ii phoÍmes /c, j, S/,forming â !âÌãtaÌ seÌiesparalÌel to a òilâbiaÌ,aÌveolar,and veÌar sê.iêsof consonants./c, j/ are stopsrâther than affricates, quite difieÌent f.om tÌre moÌe slosly .eleãsed Engtish consonânts. No consonant in Gourmâ clusters with /y/. In Kp€lÌe, a soú ol [À], considerablyfartheÍ torward than the English /s/, apteâN in most soutÌNestemdiaÌects,ãnd is ân âllothoneol /s/r it occu.sbelore shoÌt voweÌs,and bdore doubìêbâck vÕ*eìs. In â súâller southveúe.n ârea, /s/ is [s] i! ãll positions. In no.tìeasteÌ. dialects,A/ Ì,as the allophones[h] and lhvì distributed like southwestern tsl and I5l. ID Àkan, [õ, j, s], v€Ìy much like the English soDndsusd Íor comparison, @úaisÌy once were, Ànd peÌhâpsstilÌ are (dependingon the interpÌetation oI certain mo.phophonemic aÌternationsin adjacentvowels)ãuophonesoI /k, g. h/ beíore /i, r, e/, with cêrtâin restrictions in detâil. The develôpment ol Ísl from lhl by a pÌo@ssol pálatâÌizationmay seemstÌânge ând unlikely, but theÌe is nothing unüsualabotrt[ë, j] as develophenlsfrom [k, s] by palâtâlizaüon,and in
54
Àrnro^ì
LaNou cE SrRUcnrREd
Akrn È/ cl.rú P3tturl w ü thè vêls con.oúDr!, In thé FsDt! dirÌ€ct, thc consonântlyitem ar ê wholê.how! inmlv€úÌert o, the bladcof the t ngueh€loÌc high lÌort voxnb (!ê. W€ÌneI! 19{6, pp, 1Í}12). The moryhophonemicaltarnstio$ ÌelêÌr€n t abov! aÌ! luch úat it rÌay 3€€mpÌEfêrrhleto coDlid.r Akrn Íõ, l, 5l a! beiDgir codr.st with [t, g, hj; i[ tàat c!3€.th! pâlâtrtr úouÌd b€ i[taÌpÌe&d Â3/ky, S/, hy/-wNch i! th€ wãy they aÌÊ ÌepÈ!êntld in úc !tr!d!Ìd oÍthogrâphy. In Jukun aDda Nmlcr oÍ othd larguadlJ, lõ, L rl (atrdlrl if suchs sourd @curÊ)d€ béBtitrttrpÌ€trd s! /ty, dy, 8yi (ed ityl). Jukui h6 obüou. clultêÍ! of lâbial8and veÌa$ with /y/, cortra8tirg with thc coDlonant!alorc:
pè bê fe
'rclr up' 'ÌnârÌiâgr' 'Íry'
tò dì
'bolf'(WÀpã) 'body'
sê
'untiÌ'
pyè 'froDt' byé 'Ìip€r' fy. 'püü out' võ 'hand' vyô 'coÍrpalior' 'ariv€'(mbal) n)'â 'nsl(e'(nh}'!l) Ìçdnà 'Ìneìicino' ge gye (in a glt,ting) cut' hy€ hà 'thmw a*ây' (WÀpí) 'nüshmoE' (WÀpA) 'ür' (ual) !â [yâÌâ 'hâwk'(t{s'ldl) CI]lè intary€t tion ot lmb, Dd, lgl i! dilcu$êd in anotheÌ coDr€ctionbctor.) Beridesthe âbovc,therÊÌcmril crntralt8 of Ídl rith Í[ rnd bl witb Fl, ã! w€Xsi ltl with Íõl in wòpã (DorrhêÌn)but oot io Dì!Í (!ouüêm). Both ÍoÌn! oí JuÌ.un hâve lzì, but lrl Far rec'Id€d itr otrly orê ToÍ1, ald iD thrt woÌaìother irÍormânt3 aÌ€ ÌêpoÌt d to u@ [Il. Thê iDterpEtstiotr of Iõ, L lì r. /ty, dy, !y/ IiÌb oüt the /Cy/ psttarn ÂÌÍlolt peú€ctly. Th€rc i! aho r palatd nslal rhich oneÍnight b€ t€Ìnptrd to int ÌpÌ€t a! iDyl, but foÌ otheÌ rcâ3on!it i! bett Ì irt€F prctud e! /y/ beIoE !â!ârirpd voìrsb. The Í€Dâinitrg contlâlt8 ol cor.loDaút! alonewiü consomnt! beforElyl arc, tl€n:
tyò dyi ryè
'rcad'(wàÉ) 'eât'
In four difier€rt lar{urgai, ràd, sornethitrglikê [i] i! iÀtsprÊt d, for p€F Íestly good iútêmâl r€â!o!! in eachc$c, vrÌio$Ìy s3 A/ coütraltiDg witì /./, a! atr aüophoDeof F/, a! sn .nophoneor /h/ or peÌhap! a contnsting /hy/, rnd as /sy/. It might b€ addld tìat ì'landadr Chitr$! hg3two luch aÍÍÌ1cate-fticatve s€ú$, on€moE palâtâl ed orc moÌè Í€troÍler
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CoN3o! {Ì
SlsrEüs
peÌhÂp with ân indicatioo that the palât l sêgnenti! ÌâtüeÍ úort. Shoüldthis bê Plmpüy intqprerèd .. /bia/ wfthout furthd ado,o. i. thq€ a pouibüty thât it night b€ttêÌ be int Ìpretìì e! /bys/? CoBid€rationsol ltrpeúicialÌy appaÌent sylã]icity nay lorÌetin6 provided immedi.r€answer in FaDt , the difference is apparÊntin [àbvén]'hoÌn'ând [übìá] 'plâca!'; betw€€ntwo suchtyp€soÍ s€quenc€ palatrÌ the Ìèler!ê iI the liÌrt cs!€ is muih Lst€I md more clos€Iyassociat€d Ìvith the corsoúrt, while in üe secoÌdcaseth€re app€âIinmêdiatrly to be tr.,o cylÌabl$ Ãfttr thc coDlonart-th€ phonemicint€rpr€tÁtionb /àbdni ând /òbìái relp€ctiveÌy,çith /b/ haüng â patâtâuyEÌqed âÌlophonebêrorc/€/. I! many languag$,however,there aE no suchconvenientcontra.ting foÌmg to nâke the interpEtâtior so obvioüs. Con6ideÍaüoÍsoÍ tonè, howevd,-and thc lãnguage witü whi.h we aÌe coÀcenêdeE íor ihe most P8rt ionaÌ-wiÌl oftd ploüde â solution. rn sucha â.qüen@â3 [biã], do6 the pâlât Ì st4nEt Iil nâw contrãstivêtdê in it5 wn dgìt? OÍ b it! pitch condiüonêdby üê tone of the íoloving vowel or peÌhspsby the toné of lomethineprecediúg?Thât id a]t tlr€I€ contralts suú as [blÁ] q'ith lblál or lblàl? Ií th€IÊ âIe, than the Íil shorld b€ intèÌpEted âs a vowêÌ,/i/; tt i not ükery that a pervasivèoccürr€nc€ of contÍâ36v€tone Mth Ì€!ônani8like /y/ or /Ír/ r,in b€ Íound. Suchtonal contra3ts neèdrct, of coule, be liDited to mininâl paiN; a coDtÌ.st sucháB[bìáì with fglél would nornany b€ adequateto €.tabü3hthe vocali. charact$ of the ü this irt€rpr€tstior csnbe úÌiorced by thê occuÌÌencèof rvâriety oÍ vowd s€quèrcê!.uch â5 /er, or, 6ôl, thê câsêi! dêlinitdy stMgthenèd. But €vên .paú fron luch co iÌrìation, tonal comideration!aÌe usualy ênough;it h not ünc'nmon to find dëcendiúg (higherto Ìower to4ue p6iüon) diphthoúgsh€siúnins oÌúy lfith iil or /u/. or th€ typ6 lblàl ard Ìbííl Supposeon the oth€Í hand that oDly s€quen@s oc.üÌ, ilt ìrhid rhe [ìl slÌ'âys hâ3a pitch identicáÌwith that of úe folÌoúng vovel. Thb iÌÌrnediately !ugg€8t'thât ü€ pitch oÍ [i] @n be @úiderêd cotrditione4and Ìeit€s th€ porsibility oÍ irt€Ìprêtin8 suchÍormsss /byÀ/ snd /byá/. Thm amtheÌ questioDcaDbe slked. Sô Íar we hÂvebeancomideÌingonÌy voicedconÊônantN before a pqlâtâl releasê.AÌe th€rc pãranel s.4ueDc6 b.{irning nith voic€lcas collonants? ÁJté. voicêd@BonâÍt! like [bl, it iÂt be expêctedthãt a pâlâtd sogmèntÍil, evenü inttÍpÍettd â3 M, lfilÌ be voiced. But after voiceleásconsoDãrtr, it tu qüitê Ìik€ly tìât a voicedpalàteÌ!.gm€nt woürdbe intelpret€d as /i/, but ! voiccÌës iêsÌeni es /yi. Ir 6êqüênq such as lpyâì o.cur, in which the phoDêtictraDlcription [y] was choienbèeüs th€ s{nent wâÊvoicèles, ãrd ü thêÌ€ i! no [piâ] {ith a voic€d paìâtrl sê{nent, then the intarpÌetltion /byÂi is coDlimed by a$logy with /pya/. It is @r@ivâblethat lpiâ], with voi@d [i], might b€lt be irt rp!Êt d ss /pyr/ in 3ornel&guage; but it i! hâÌiUy ükely that [pyá1,with voi@Ìe8sM, would le€d to be intêÌpréted $ /pia/. 3.9. On thê b$i! of jüst thi! nu.h anüsi!, aüd âpaÌt írcm thè êvid@ce given lp€ciíicÀlÌyfoÌ the Fantedial€ctabov€,Ak'n lbláÉl 'dy' cátr.rnüncingÌy
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AFRrcd
LNGúÁGE
SahucauREs
be iDte.preted âs /biárá/. The palatâl s€gmenthâs contÌâstive toDe, as shown by lbiòl, /biò/ 'âsain'
[èbièn],/èbièn/ 'two'
And this interpretâtion is conÍirned by occunences of voi@d, vo@Ìic segments aÍter voiceìess consonantsl
In Jukun, on the other hand, closeÌy similar sequencq âre best interpÌeted difierently. The palatal s€gment in [biê] 'riped' iã not appreciably difÍeÌent trom compaÌâblesegmentsin Akân; but in Jükun, unÌikeAkan, the pitch ol sÌrchsr€ments is aÌwâys ideDtical with thât oI the folÌowing vôwel. Their litch, in ôther woÌds,is conditionedas one*ôuld expecttÀe pitch of a voicedconsonaítto bê, not contrâstive âs onê would dpect the litch of a vowel to be. Further, the pãÌâÌlelswith voicdessconsonants palatalrel€âse.Thus,foÍ JukuÍl hâvevoiceless
[pYa],/pyè/'íront' lfyeÌ,[ye/ 'püÌ]oú'
lbìÈJ, /byè/'.ipen' lsiel, /se/ (i! a sÍeetins)
For r€4sons suegestedin the preceding châpter ând to be reviewed Ìâter, Jukun Imbl is interpreted as /h/ before oml vowêls. Thus the Íouowing lo.ms in Jukun and Akan aÌe rúarkably similarphoneticâlly(thoughdiffeÌingin melody), but r€maÌkâbly diilerent in phonenic interprêtâtion; yet each iüterpretâtion is justilied on inteÌnâÌ gÌoundsl 'make lmbial: /nyâ/ In'bìál: /nÌbìà/'pÌaces The conlirming evidence is not alwâys as complete as in the two languages cìted so faÌ. In Tigong,r voiced palatal segmentsoccur âft€r both voiced aDd voicelss cotrsolants;on the basisof that aTect oI the dâta, thereis DoaÌgunent lo. ãnaÌyzing such segmentsas /y/. But their pitch is sÌwãys conditioned, and the totâl pattern of the lãnguage does not typically incÌude voìr,eÌ sequen@s;on theseCÌounds,/CyV/ is the obljous inter?retâtion. 3.10. It wo!Ìd sefl lik€Ìy, and le.haps âlnost inevitable, that bilabial s€gments between a consonant and â voweÌ in â given ìanguagewouÌd latteÍn like, and be su3cepüble to the same kind oI interpretation as, the !âlâtal segments discused âbove. This is by no meâns necssarily th. câse,howeveÌ. In Akan, there is indeed a /u/ occünins in /CuV/ sequencesclosely pdâlÌeÌins the occuF Ìen@soí /i/ in /civ/. In âddition,howeveÌ,tìe.e are thÌee contRstingsequenceÉ vhich are best interyretedas unit phonenes:/kw, ew, hw/. There are no @lnÈ "TIgün, *ht.À probably rênrctse Jrkunpronunciâtion ol tìe nah.. MÈ.wèlnêr 8úâge t ânscrtbedths inlornantt oÍn nsne ol thc ,aneüage,prob,bly or lhc lirer day oÍ vorÌ, ü InénbéÌ; thls nay be â lcs-thân-accuratetÌân..rlptldn tor sh. Thê latter nâh. t5 aaolded b.ca$! ol po*lbl. coní!.ton vith ânoth.Ì Mbehbê to thê $uth-
parable*/Cy/ unit phonemesor cÌü!têÌÊ. In Jutun, /y/ occN, ãnd làirly rrÈ qudtly, .lter âlm@t êrêry coNoúnt. Büt /4 i. f$ Eore Brdctéd, ard ruy üÂves {tiÍÍercnt stâtus, ID Diyi r&n/ and ihw/ occuÌ,and could be inter!Ìeted êith€rq3cônpÂrableclult€n rith /Í,/ oÌ-ând peüâpsbettq-ss unit phoì€rn€li /bq occm in onèword, /bwà/ 'thing, èvént', but this i! almo3tcert iúly deÌived from /bu À/, snd for sorneinfoÌmantsthe fonn is /bà/. In rüàpã,therc ar€ severll o.lI'!H@ of iÌq hv/, dd âlsoof it!w, ddi @iyi doesnot hâve/ts, dzl to begin with), Ìrhich âgâiDcould be int€rpretedas unit phonm$j /pv, bw, M/ aE Ì€(ôÌd€d in ore word ê2ch. Thê sueg$tionÊfoÍ ânaÌyÊisoutÌiÍed iú the pÌecedingst4tiom yield l$B compÌetely conúncing reiuìt! for lgbo, snd the lack or parâI€lismbetw€ÊrpalâtâÌ and bilabial 3taÍÌent! pÌovidesno heÌp. ÌnÊt€ÌN, thê otrly sequúc€súth I biÌabiar 3eADent@ /kq gw, {q, th€ la.t of which might well be better interpreted as /Í9iI iD i kw/, the /q,i is voicel€ls. Thi! Ìestriction süggsts that th6e had best h€ interpÌeted$ unit phond6. In stm plü súíü, the s€querce8/ur. ua, uo, Ìr9/ occüÌ alt€Ì aìmostary coD.orant;thes€ÂrÊin cl€âr eoÌtÌâst with /kw, gi,/ beíorea vNel, ând are ohúously voqel sequeoces. In tìè $ne t'"e or stempÌus suílix conbination, the Êe4uencx! /ie, ial ocú aft€Ì aÌnolt any coÍrlorant, and agsiÍ aie r€âdiÌy iÍterpÌ€trd 6 vowel É qu€nc43.Within steÍÌs, tÌreÌe âÌ€ limilsÌ sêquenc$-üe quertion as r, wheth€Ì rÀey arê identic€l will be hèld in abeyâncêlor â moment /p, b, r, c, h, ./. 'n4Ì Alt€. voicelèrsconionarts,th€ pâlatálse8Ìnentb voiced,âúd phoÍeticrlÌy loloÌrs the rül$ fo! voweìhaÌmoüy. Thur:
ti'bíál'come' táhíÁl'naÌket'
IúÌÍél treeGp.)' tôdèl(daynâne)
The somewhatíÌeer dilhibution of â pâlâtal tüân s biÌabisl s€gmèntb€fore voÌreb in ste!Ì!, and its voiced qusÌity aÍteÌ voicelqs @6onút3, ru16 out interyretiÍg thelè sequenc$as unit phorêEr€scompanìle to /kw, gÌ/. Judgirg ÍÍom the âboveexâmpìeqholfêvêr, the toae oI thè pllrtáÌ segmert âppeâÌrto be ctaditionedi moÍ€ importântÌy, there âE no othd vowel sequenc$q,ithitr stús. This stloDglysuppo s the inrêrpretâtiotrof theie sequ€nces a! /Cy/ cluâtd Ioüowedby vowêls;thê âbovewoüld be /i,bÉ, árryá,úhyé, óryè/. For two Íorms,a quêtior my be Ei*d ãsto whethêÌthê ton€ of thé palatãl !€gn€nt is actually conditioned.Ore of th€seis the inp€Ìative fom phoneticãlty transc|ibed!s lbiál 'Comel'. Now, the tone of an irÌperâtiv€ is normaüyìowhìgh-wüdry rith a vovel $dfiÌ which do€snot appearin tli! fomL Âìthough the low-highs€querc€is h€rephoneticalÌyspÌ€adoveÌ the s€quencê [iaì, there i! ro Ì€âsonìÍlty it could not be a8lignedphoneDicrÌÌyto the voirel Iâl aloDe,and the torn aralyz€dasibyàl. AlteÌnatively, the stan rhich is nomâüy /byá/ codd bè saidto hav€ar alÌomor?h/bi/ u!êd i[ the impeÌâüve,ândthè inperative with it! norlnaÌ voÍeÌ suffix lfoüÌd b€ /biá/; that this is not meE hocuspocusis sügg€gtedby the fact tüat anotüB vsb, m€aning'@úe', hasdiãlêct alt€narts iípyá/
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ArRrcÀN LÀNcuÁcE SÍsucluir3
and /í,pi/. In eith€! ca!€,thê Ândysi! or certsin other s€quêtrc€â .s /Cyi clült€I! Thê other forÌn witü À qu€ltion a! to ton€ ça! liIlt ÌecordedÂ3Íóclèl cnd rmryred â! iósJ'èl 'old, foÌncr'. For loÍnc ape€keft,howvèÍ, the pdâtâl !€gm*t âpp€8 to h&vêhigh toDê,çhich vould !éemto d.m$d tüe andyú /ódè/ (oÌ jult po€libly /ôctyè/,thougüüir s€ãnrl€.s attrÂcti\€). Theçord in question ú oneoí a lmall cÌa$ of sdj.ctivelj SomeoÍ the other adiestiÌ,$ havo.ülire., ttroughin th€ otàercasestàe súfx i! iderticsl with the 3t€mvowêÌandhãr dofn. stephigb t nê. li i! entiÍeIy po8oibleti.t thi| lolm .Ìbüld be .r.lyr€d .3 lttm plu! súrix, permitting /óciè/ 1irnoEt y€t Ìülilg out úc p{€sibüE ol /Cy/ cÌu!t€r! in st€mswhde the pitch of the /y/ i. identicalwith tìat ot thê folÌowiÍg voçeÌ The qügtion may now be Ìailed a! to ìÍhetheÌ the .êq|lence3analyrcd a! /cy/ âÌe actüâÌy phoneticÂ[ydÍler€ít hoÌn !€quèícaâonâryzedâ! /CV ard /Ci/ (in st ms beforea Ì"ow€lsúíix). FoÌ a!âly8t! rho wouÌd peÌmit, in úe overatl phonologicdecliptior, dilÍ@nt âr.ly3!! of the 8emèphorctic dlrr in dilÍeÌent morphologicàldvironmcnt!, thh qu6rion i!, ot cour!ê,not cruciâI. The Ìê.â!on it lías mt !si!êd at th€ b€gi!triDgof üi5 di!cü!.io! i! thât it csúúot be €â8iÌy sú!s.rêd; othd èvidd@ ru tllèÌêfoE @n.idèrdlh!t. Unlortuúltely, lheÍ€ rÍ. m ÍoinirnaÌ pÂi.s such that a nâü\€ spcâkeÌcruld bê alken $hether a úo (cyv/?) atrd a 6t!tn plB surlix (/civ/ or /civ/?) at€ the lo[Ie oÌ diIíeÌ€nt In üe u3ual oúhographyof lgbo, the two noÍ?hologicstÌy diflcrüt tp.r of !€querc€ôâÌe wÌitten in thê.ame lray, ìrith i orii inÍoÌÍÌìant! lit€râte in lgbo pÍ€lume tàat they rr€ phoDeticallythe 3sme, Ar €ducatd and loneshrt lingui.ti..âlv lophisticstedtufoÌmant oot preúoudy üteÍaè in Igbo Âcaépb/Cy/ i! st4Ìnr ìrithout objcction, but peüap! iú Ì€cognidonoÍ the noÌphorogicEtìs than ey phoDeticdüÍeu@. It iBmy pdoD.l impBioD-thoügh I woüld lot want to stâLêmy reputation ã3 a phoneticiânon it-tÌnt ihe paÌÀtâl s€gEent i! .ttm plu3 ÊülÍix (intlrpÍ€ttd â! iil or iiD h vêÍy slightly noE prorìinert tìrr tho palãtál lt{n€nt ir s&n! (ht€rpÌ€t d as /y/), thowh thê latt€l ir voicedaftsr voicêle!! comônÂnt!,. A find dd impolt rt aÌgumdt foÌ thê iltêrprctstio! of 3uchs pdatâl n{phra!ê n€nt a! /y/ iD 3t€üÌsb ba8€don g dèbil of toDslbêhavior. lÍ a DouD-noun (and in cêrlâinother eNiroDn€nt5),a Íiül noul who!€trr$ aI! oüterwb€highhth húl an âlt€rnânt Íeith dorúltep t€Íor€ tà6 Êécond3ynabrè Tbu! a phru colnbiÍins /ánÉ/ 'net'with /ébt/ 'cr*' i! iánú ébli 'b.d', I! tìe 3amêconteJ.t!, s linel roun çith thftr syìÌâbl€!and the tone! high-hth-high hÂ3no âÌtêmârt (exceptin th€ mÌgi!.r A$br di.lesl). ThB a phEe @mbiDiDg/úlèi 'huildilg' . ThGúdyrL
olclÉl tonr ud !o othd ú rqF'trw
|.Jutiiô.d i! WGI@ üit W.lm.E
t Ou.dnttted oütit r.üoú ol boÌphorogrcar.ddenc. l.it u tnto @. ELbt .pEt tiú. TàGlm Í. rnt Ìpst d ú /Ea.rÁl lr . ydb l@ ôon . ltlyllr}|c lciè TÀ. 16 in q!últon qor|lilt Í ih. b.& L moroylr Ìoúsâr 6d @d. tn // ú /ú/.
[email protected], ho. r@.Ì.ülír lolgdhud rttà othdí!.lvdcü do lot t*c. &lír. It d.rclop.d htú, Lorevd,lÈttü.E Th. búâ lr /b..!/, úd tì.lon.ho.ld h. bt È N r Í.ç d.€Ddor, ú.1ülr t. m ol rìú,
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59 with /ákwúkwó/ 'l€ãÍ,papeÌ,book,educâtion'is /úlò ákwúkwó/ 'scnÕôÌ building'. Forms such âs those phoneticâltytrânscribedláhiál 'market, merchándisê'ìehâve in t}le sâme contextu like two-sylÌabÌe Ìathe. than three-syllable nouns; the sâúe /úÌò/ combineswith thi, word as túlò â'hiál tto.e, shop'. This is âs clos€ âs one cân comeât presentto hâkidg ân âirtight câseior the interpretation/úÌò áhyá/. and for the recognitionoI comparabÌesequences within other stms âs 3.11. At pr€sent,the data t.om Dho-Luo and apparentlymutuaÌly intelligible diâlectsâp quite inconclusive.TheÌea.e both pâlatalând biìâbiâlsegnents bêtweenconsônântsând vowels,which wilÌ .Ìeârly lend th€mselvesto pãralleÌ interpÌetations. In Dho-Lüo orthogrâphy,theseare written as i lnd u. except foÌ the seqnence Àu as in kuar- tftal'. Inothe.diaÌects(inclúdingsomethe nânes of which are spelledLüo), they ârewritten âs J and ú. ln Dho-Luothey aÌe inpressionistically syìlabic,and â.e voied âlrer voicelessconsooants; in other dialects,presbâbly, the imtresion ofsyllâbicity is nol âs strong,and they may be voicelessalter voiceÌes @nsonânis, In the lâtter câse,th€ interpfttâtion of süch legmen$ as /y/ aid /w/ is verr Ìikely valid. OnewoDìdexpectthat the 6ameinterpÍetaúon would be âpplicablein Dho-LDô,but â dêliniìe úatement to tìat elfect must await a more detaiÌedanaÌysisor the tonal data. In many fo.ms, pârticulâú but trot exclusiveÌy Íoms cited in isolation, the litch of the paÌatâÌ or bilabiaìs€gmentdifleN lrom thât of the followingvowel; e.g.,with sequences DhoneücâÌÌv midìow:
lgúòkl'doe'
ldrÈll goât'
IÍ somecontexts,ìowever, the sâmewords have}ttoneticallylow tone throughout. lt mãy be thãt difle.etrcessuch as t}ese can eventuaÌtyòe accountedfor by allotonicstatements,oÌ tìât the Íonlevel sequences can be assignedphonemically to the vovel follo*ing the palâtalor bilabiâlsegment:thereis someevidence íor the lâtter posibility, in tÌìât â nidlow gÌide is somctimesheã.d âlso in íorms with obliousìy onÌyonevÕwêI,thoughnotin formscitedin isolâtion. ]'he vaÌiety of pitch sequencesfound in lorDs of thcse types is sulliciently reshicted as to suggestthat they âre probablynot sequences ot tonemeswhich mlst be asigned voweh. lt appeâBãs il either interpretationnây be theoreticâìly to successive possibleÍo. Dho-Luoi if so, both on intemal groundsand especiallyin the lìght oÍ mutüâÌìy inteÌligibÌe diaÌêcts, the inte.pretation oI such laÌâtal and bilâbial segnentsas /y/ and /w/ seeúslreferâhle. It is certâinlytru€. ãsin otherlansuâsês, tìât the âcouúic impÌesion of syllâbicityis not in itsell deteminative. 3.r2. In Elik, rhere aÌe âlso palataÌ and bilabiaÌ segmentsbetw€enconsÈ nants aDd vowels,which âÌsócl€ârly lend thems€lls lo pârâlÌeÌinterpretations, They âÌe voicedaÍter voìceless consonants, ândin tìe orlhogrâphyâre repÌesented by i and ü. In this câs, however,there is evid€nceof a tyte dillerent from any cited lor other Ìãnguagesso fâr which delinitely requires that they be interp.eted as /y/ and iwl. The toúâl evidence is inconclusive. The sequencesnÀy behigh throughoul,Ìow throughout,low-high, o. highìov; but the sametoDe
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AFNCÁN LÁNGUÀdE SaRUcauREs
sequeí@soccürwith singleshort vowelsas well, so that the pitch oÍ the pâletal ô. bilâbiaÌsegmentneednot be coísideredcontrastive. E.g.'
ldiál ldüòll ldüól [ìdià]
eat 't€n 'râI' 'let\ eat'
tdál tdòkl tkãl Iikál
standüp' 'wêâve' rso' let Bgo'
Th€re is, hô{eveÍ, óthe. evidencethat is aleteminative, In the p.eceding châpte. (2.6), â negâtive no.pheme wãs cited which hâs ân aÌlomo.ph /ké/ ãlteÌ a verb stem ending sith â 6Ísónànt, ãnd áfter any trnambiguousÌy bisyllabic úem, but an âUômôiph consistiDgof /g/ Íollowed by a voweÌ detemiDed by the vowel ot the stem aneÌ unambiguously monosyllâbicv€ròsendingwith â vowel. The distribútionof theseâllômôrphswâs thêre usedto demonstÍatethat oúhoSraphicCfv shouldbe interpretedâs /CirV/; verbssith that structuÌetãkè th€ allomorph /ké/. ConveNeÌy, the distribution of these aÌÌomoÌphs demonst.at€s that oúhoeÌapìic CiV and Cuv shouÌdbê interpr€têdâs /CyV/ and /CsV/; verbs wilh theseshucturestake the âllomoÍpì which occuÌswith monosyÌlabicvos,eÌ-
lídiágál: /ídyáeá/ lridüágól:/ídwãgó/ 'I m trot falÌitrg' By analogy,all casesof palataÌand biìabialsegmentÊ beÍorevowels,ând they âre exceediÍglycomnon in Efik, sÌtouldbe inteÌpret€das /y/ and /w/; the lour Ío.ms ìrânsdibêdphôÍeticâlly âbóveâre: /dyá, dwòp,dsà, ìdyâ/One oI the applicationsoI tlÌis anâìysisis the interpretâiiônoÍ a veÌb stem lniitl becometâll , o.thogÌaphicallynirr, as /nyótt/. In contEst with the /ny/ sequencehere,there is âlso a pâlâtâl nâsaÌphonme, rep.esnted in the orthG graphyby ny. as iD n9ã, ìeturn hoDe'. The iDit al paÌatalúâsalin this and other words is ioterpÌeted as /Í/, pârâÌleüng /*/ for ortìoeraphic ,D; the ve.b retuÌn home' is /yJ!/. In contÌast with ìoth /ny/ and /y/ aÍe forDs b€ginningwith a oÍ a sylÌâbic/n/ syìlabicnasâìlollowedby /ny/, /t/, and also/y/. The sequênce and /y/ has an oral releaseoi the /n/; the seqtrence or syllâbic /n/ ãnd /y/ does not hâve ân oral reÌea8e.The relerani contÌasts,in phonemict.ânsc.iptionand Eíik orihogÌâphy (plus phonetic tanscription iD one case)aÌe: /nyó!/ /tò'J/ /ínyJ!/ /ílà!/ /úyòm/
(trirr) (nvâe) (nnir?) (nng'r) (nsom,lúdyònl)
'becometâll' 'retún home' I m getting tâI 't'm .etu.Dinghome' 'I qant'
3.13. To sum up the pneding sections(beginningwith 3.7), â numb€Ì of Ìanguageshave/Cy/ cÌusters. In a few inúances, th€re my ìe contÉst! bets,een the sequences/cyv/ and /Civ/ o. evên /Ciyv/ or both. WheÌê such contmsts ap-
ô1
CoNsoN^Nr SrsrEMs
pear, they are usualÌy ÍairÌy obvious phonetically. Bút il there are no obvious contÌãsts,the choicebetwe€n/Cyvi ând /Civ/ (oÌ evên /ciyv/) can usuauybe detenined beyondÌeasonabledoubt ìy considerâtjons oí the lânelage'soveÌaÌl sylÌâbleshucture pâ1terns,pâralÌelsbetweenvoiced and voiôelessbeginningsof such sequences, and tone. PalaÌl€lsbetweeÌ laÌatal and bilâbial sêgmentsin such sequences are often found, but in sone laÍgìâgesthe úatus of the two is ln addition to /y/ ând /w/ intêrpÌetedas such by the abovecriteria. Kute? ãÌso has a post{onsonântaÌ velâ. sgmênt belore vow€ls, Ì'e.e inter?reted as /x/. 8.g.,
I n b à p x ú l/rn : b à p xú /'d Õs' I ltxíl dip' lttxil rÕâst' llxãpl : /txãp/ [àdsòp] : /ndxôp/ tsxàmt rhxàn/ In the Ee.weediâlectoÍBokyi, thereaÌe a nümbeÍof unusnalvowelsegmcnts, incÌudiDgsômecentrâÌized vosels with âpparentlysone sortol tensearticulation, ând â syllâbic triÌì, [r]. Th€seaÌe not exceedinglycoÍnmon,and occur alter a somêwhair€shicted nuDber ol.onsonânts. Àfter considerâbìe dillicuìty in imitating someol theseto ân infomant's satisfaciion.it occured to me that they âlì had somethingin cornrnonphonemically;accepubÌeimitâtion soon became parâÌleÌling eâsy. The seements in questionâreinterpretedâsâ cônsonântrel€âse, /y/ âDd /V, roÌlowed by voveÌ phonemeswhich occur with otheÌ auopìones where this releaseis not preseDt.The releasenay be relresent€dby /a/.. Shonâhas a phon€ticallyveìâr Ìeìeâseâfter soÍneconsonantst e.e.,Í!àpxéréj pâ.t gÌoup 'clildren'. This, húwever,is ol a cornplex of loúconsonântal segments i. complenenta.ydistnbutio!. The lollowing types or Phonêticclusters
IpÍl [by] tfxl Í"yl Ím!,1
F"wì tdr"l hx{l t,y-l Ín'r"l
[k*l Ic"ì I'J*j
tskwl Íor lsxwl is cÕÍiÌion as a diâlectãlor lree slte.naDt;Ím'lj without bilâbiâl ÌeÌeaseis commonin sloa spe€ch;Iwl is voiceÌêssin aÌì casesalter voicelessconsonânts. The geneÌalpatte.n is üãt what iolloss thê initial consonantadds a velar comtonentiÍ the initial consonantis not veÌâr,and a biÌabiâlcomponentif thê initiâÌ cônsonântjsnot bilãbial;both !eia.aDd bilabialcompoDentsãiê added iÍ the initiâl consonântis neitheÌ. This syst€mâticpâttern is rellectedin Shona e Posesiôn oÍ thc Rcv. Pãnl B bnc{ìy on the rield in 1966.
62
AFRrcÀN L^Ncü^cE SÍRUcÌuREs
orlhôgrâphy (which wâs the product more ot comDon sens thÀn of sophisti@ted lnguisticânâlysisor hocu$pocuo,wÌ'icÌ' sÌites the abNe as pu, tD, ku, tD, dú, uq, ta, su, mu, nu, n'D. Phoneticaìly,of course,[w]has both velâÌ ând "u,,u, biÌiabiãI articulatìon. The ecoDomyot tle Sìonâ âllophonicpattern consistsìn âdding onÌy what is rÌüssingin the initial consoünt. The decisionto represent this ss D in the oúhogÌaphywâs ündoubtedlymade in the light of the lact that theseactual alÌotìones oÍ a lhoneme /w/ occurno8t commonlyas a morph€me indi@ling pâsive. wÌrich appeâN âs /{/ in nost Bântu lânguages. The lhonemic interpretation ol these allophones âs /s/ violâtes, of couÌse, the moÊt Ìigid form oí tlxonofric phonemicp.inciples thê r'onceã phonene, aÌwaysâ lhonene" concept. FoÍ speak€Bwho pronoünce as lskwÌ, taxonômistsmây cÌaimthat follôws here is the same as initial what [s] ^w/[kwl, ãnd nDú thereíorc be interpreted in the sameway phonenicaÌly. It is ìardly â seúousviolation of taxonomic theory, howeve., to view sonething t.atrsc.ibed as lkwl aÍter [sl as being by dÈ finition difÍereÍt f.om [kw] alone. On the other hand, it nay b€ notedthat this pârticula. phonetic patteÌD does not lend it$Ìf to a convenient tÌeatment in tems ol cont€npomry tleories oI distinctivefeâtnres. s€gmentthat js lairÌy coÌnmonamong 3.14. Aúother type of postconsonântâl NigeFcongolanguagesis aspÍãtion. ContÌastsbetweenunâspi.ated.nd aspirated stopsoccürin â numher oI Bântu lângúãgesand in somewèst AJricanlaF guages. In Igbo, sofre dialectshave phonênic âspintiÕn vhiÌe otheÌs do not. Bantu languages(e.9.,Shona, ShiTswã),nasalizedpreae In somesoutheàstern pirãtion occu.s aÌsovitì nasals. Aspi.ation may usuâlÌy be inte.preted phoÌmicauy ãs /h/, ând /h/ usuâlly occuÌsas â phÕnênêby itsell in the sme lãnguâgês. InteÍpretâtionsof aspirâtedconsonantsas Dnit phonemes mãy be p.eíeÌabÌein ã Ieç instlncês. In âny câse,the interprètâtion of âspirâtion mrely il êver pÌesênts probÌemscomparableto the interpretationol poúcon6onantâlpãlâtaÌ and velâr segments.ln someBântu Ìânguages, aspirationis part of â mo.pìophonenicpattern which also involvesprecedingnasls; cass of this phenomenonüÌì be di$ cu$ed in a lâter sectìo!. A üniqueproblen involving consonantreleâsês is lÕtrndin SuppiÌe. /p/ and but no other .onsonânts, in â lev lórms vith strong pâlatal r€leãse occÌr /b/, ìero.e /i/, but with rricative releaseberoÌeiui G@ welm€Ís t950b).' Thesearê in contrâstwìth /p/ and &/ without suchreÌeas€s.E.g.,
tpYil lb"ìiì ÍÀprüül lb'úúl
'do drink (pns.) 'ìilÌ' 'hit (pÍeÊ.)'
lpil tbììl tnluul tbqnl
sonen' stick spido' 'kill (pres.)'
Palatally ÌeleâsedcônsonântsinterpÌetedâs /Cy/ âlsooccDr,and /py, by/ do not otherwiseoccuÌ belorê /i/. However,tÌ'ê strone.el€âsein the liNt two exFoned rhar lp! )ìâs sincÈ becn npübd
ars beíüe /o/.
63 ampÌesabove seemsquite different from the releaseinterpretedãs /y/ in any ôther environment,aDd tÌrere is ceúainìy no comparaòÌeconvcni€ntinterprctâtion avâitâble lo. hiì ând [bÌ. The releasesiÌlusbâted aboÌe â.e also in complementarydistributionwith eachother, of couNe,and are phoDeticallysimiìâr in theiÌ foúisnes. They have beeninter!.eted as a singÌephonemeìthe symbol to avaid specilyingãny aÌticulãtory l'osition. Th€ clust€rsare thus / /was choseD /p'/ and /b'/. In the o.thog.aphyÌater €stãblisìed,thesea.e written (perhâps ãspp, òò;thê first occu6 in the nâmeol thê lãnarbitraÍily, but âlsoingeniousìy)
suâce. 3.t5. PaÌâtâÌand?alatalìyÌeÌeased consonants in Tiv presenta problemsomewhat difÍerentfron any discussed up to this loint, and no linal solutionis given here. Suchconsonânts apleâr as âÌternântsoI simpÌeconsonânts âfter the vowel /i/ (ai enviÍonmentunpârâlleledin ôther exanplesgiÍen âbo!e). 8.g., [átsúl] ldzéndél [áséná] [húúy]
'foreheãds' a jou.ney 'hearts' 'a tree Gp.)'
'a forehead' [ìõúl] joürneys ndél tijd 'a heaÌt' [ìsiná] lihyúrúvl't.ees(s!.)'
Thh pâitern is so prevâÌe.t that oie is tempted to considerit auophonic. How€ver,ttìe existenceoÍ pâlataÌ or paÌâtâlly .eleasedconsonÀnts in â few instancesafte. voweÌsother than /i/ indicâtesthat, in the strict traditionalsenseoI the \rord, the pâttern is nor?hopÌÌonemicrather thân âìlophoniqe.g.,
láóéÌ
'eyes
là'jil
For tÌtGe who have no objectionsto suchan inte.p.etâtion,it would be toÍ sihlêtô treatúe palatal and paÌatãllyreleãsedconsonants as aÌlophonesoI other consonantsafte. /i/, but as phonemicÀÌlydistinct in other environnents. In any case,the interpretationoI [õ, i, i] as /tsy, dzy,sy/ âppearsto be a distinct possibiìity. 3.16. The onÌy caseknown to Ìne oÍ doubìy ârticulât€dstops ikp. gb/ followedby â palãtâl Õrbiìâbiâìsegnent(or, fo. that mâtter, âny cofrparâbletype oÍ segment)and then a vowel is in Nupei and eventheseÌrâvea peculiarstatus. FoÌto*ing the usual p.inciplesor phondic inãlysis, Nupe has ã rivÈvos€l systen, /i, e, a, o, u/. The usuaÌc.iteÌia estabÌishthe post-consonantsl segmentsin qúestionas/y, w/ ratÌ'erthan vowels.A miniÌnâlcÕnirastis loudd betwe€n/kp{à/ are ãlsoatleslcd; 'be ch@p' and /k!à/'slight, little'. Other /cy, cw/ sequences it is oI the utmost signilicancethat suchsequences occuronly belore/a/. Some
kyàkyá etswâ
'bicycÌe moon, month
egbyá kpvà
'thong' 'b€ cheâp'
64
À.RrcÀN LÀNcu^cE SnucruÂEs
By intèrnâl Ìeconst.uction,tülÌy conlúned by conpârativeêvidencein thê form ol cógnâts with and/ô. âdopted words fmn Yotuba, all /Cyâ/ seqüences
cânbeshorrnto comerromân orieinal+/cê/,andalì icwâ/sequeiÌces rroÌnan
originaÌ*/cô/. A seven-vov€lsystemìike that or YorubÀ,/i, e, e, ã, ô, o, D/, nust be recoÍstÌucted for an @ÌÌie. stage of Nupe. Evetr synchronicaÌly, it wouÌd be possibleto anaryzeroúcoNonantar [ya] a5 /Ê/ ard twal a5 /,/. such an analysis wouÌd leâveNupe with no /cyv/ o. /cwv/ sequences ât âll, ând the recoÌd ol /kp, gb/ not enteringinto clusterswould Ìemâinintrct.s 3.i7. The SouthweúêrnM.nde Ìânguãges(primarily Kpêlle, Loma, ând Mende) have no sequetrcesof the /Cy/ type. So significent is this Ìestriction, in fact, that in Kpelle, rhich doesìave one /Cw/ clu6ter,ikw/, a /CY/ sequence occurs whe.e /CyV/ wouÌd be expected by morphophoremic analo$/. The subject pronounsrôr 'wer and 'they'in their basicforms âre /kú/ and /'ü/ respectively. ConeslondingindependentpÌonounfoms havean addedvoweÌ:/kúã, 'üã/. But the seqrenceol the subjectpronounsand a verbal consttuctionmârker /a/ yieÌds */'tya/, lor 'thêy'; the sâmèrulesappìywith verbaÌ /kwâ/ lor 'w€', òut /'tâ/, not constÌuction maÌke.s /à/ and /aâ/. On the othe. hand, the.e is no obstacÌe to /y/ as a morpholhonmic âlternant oI /i/ in initiaÌ position:the subjectlronoun íor 'you G.g)'is /i/, ând it conbineswith tìre constructionmarkeÌ /â/ as iyal. A reconstructiÕn ôÍ the protGSWM consonântsystem,however,reveaÌsa number oÍ conespondencesthat do not lit into the bãsic system ol simple consonants.ìut ehich eúâblish â seriesof /Cy/ sequencês for the pârent laneúãgea hypóthesistust proposedin the eârly 1950s by a g.âduatestudentwho knew nothing of any othe. Af.i@n Ìânguages. NorÌhwesteÌn NÍãnd€ (e.9. BambaÌâ) doe, have /cy/ cÌurters. Adding such elidence to the widespreâdand vâried dâtâ discussed in preceding sections reinforces the observâtion thât â nâjor type ol cltrst€r in NigerCongolanguages consistsoI consonants ând their pleâses:pâlaÌâI,ìilâbiâI, velaÌ, âspirated,and othe. miscêìlany. 3.18. À sêcondÌnãjor typê of cluster consists of sequencesthat òegin with naeÌ aÌticulationand end with o.al or in sone cass âÌsonâsalarticulation. In one fom or another, these are very neãrÌy univeNal in Nige.-Congo, but again their interpretations vâry depending on the phonologic ?âttems of individuaÌ languages. The combinations themselvesmãy be Ìest.icted in some laÍgDâges to nasaÌplus voiced stop; iÍ otheÌ languages,nasaÌsmay occur befoÍe almost aI consonânts, inclDdingthemselves.Homorgânicsequences-[úp,nb, nd, !g] etc. have frequent occurrences or -are lerhaps the commonest,but someÌanguag€s heteÌorgânicsequences, especiaÌlybeginrinewith lmÌr Ind, mk] etc. which nây be trânsoibcd [ny] and hsl Àrèan]ieuous Soundsor sequences in tÌreir phonetic structure; tley mây òeÌong to the mnsonant plüs Ìeleâse typ* discus8edabove, or to the nasal pÌus consolant type. Perhâls even mor€ com! Tha Nupc dãl{ and this andi$rs dc trâÌed Írôm thê vlêvpôlnt ôí phonorogrcâl th.ory (1970), Mr. Hyhân w6 â studenrin âcol$cin Ficld Methods,in which theseclu* Hynâ. by
monly, however, [nyì and [Tw] aÌe best inteÌpr€ted. in lânguag€swhich have phonenicâÌly nasâlizedvoweb, se alÌophon€sof /y/ â.d /w/ belo.e nasalizedvosels -or, in Ìanguageswlich do not ìave phon€mically.aselizealvoweÌÊ,ae unit phonmes /y/ and i n/. The li6t ol theseis aptlicablein Jukun ard Yoru)s, roÌ exam!Ìê,ând ihê s€condin Eíik and Igbo. In a Ìanguâgewhich hâs[ny]but not hwì, [ny] is frequentlyâ unit phoneme,â palãtal nasâÌin a se.iessuchâs /m, n,
n, !l
Homorganicityis ambiguousin th€ câseof nasâlplus [wÌ, sjnce[w] has both biÌãbialand velâr ãrticulation. Thus Inwl ìn soÌnelânguages, and Í,lwl in otle.s, mây €quâllyrepÍesenlhonoÌgâniccÌusteB. Fânte elen has lnwii Íor Fante,the patteÌn of nasal?Ìus consonantmay ìe stated as invohing homo.ganicityçith the predominantârticülation arJ, oÍ otherwiseÍnl. '/ Honorgânicitynay also iDvoÌveboth phonemicand subphonmic diff€rencês in ttìê nâsâÌs. If a ÌângÌagêh8s /m, n/ as its completephonemiclasaì system, homorganicclusteBwilÌ include suchas /hb, rd/; but there is âÌsoÌikely to be Itel, in which lll can be interpretedas an allophoneot /n/ b€Iorevelars,so that th€ cÌusterin qu€stiônis phonemicauy/ng/. Of couse, if a lânguâgehas /m, n, !/ âs sepâÌâtephon€nes(áttesì€dbefoÌevôwêls,Ior example),then lnb, nd, Ìlgl can be inteÌp.eted as /nb, nd, !g/. For maDy suchÌanguâges, the oúho8Ìaphic r€pÌesntãtion of hg/ js ng. and sinilarly n befoÌeÀ if süch r seqúenceóccurs; this is ol courueunânbigüôus. Ànother cohmon súbphonoic honorganicityG wìth labio-dentãls:Iqf, ÌÌlvl, with ã labiedental nasal. In frost casês,ün$itical ânalyseshav€ âssum€dthat /f, v/ âÌe to be g.oupedwith tÌrê biÌâbiaÌs,ãnd the clústeÍsãÌe accoÌdinglyanâlyzedas /mr, nv/. This is indeedadequatein Dost cases,thorgh in Fante â câ6ecan be nade lor the inte.p.etation/nt/ by ãnalogy with lnw, nhl; the part€ÍDcân be stâted as homorganicnasâlsbelore stots (includiDgnasah).but /n/ ìefore lricatives and resonants. In Lucanda, the hoãreÌep.€sentedby ÌÍ ând n, in the oúhogÌâphy; noÌgânic lâbiGdentâlseqDenc€s ro Ìeãsonis kno*n for tlis átypical re?Ìesentation. BefoÌe doubly articulatedstops,nãsalsalso hâve doubl€ a.ticüÌation.Im!]. Such sequences certainìydo not have to ìe inter!Ìeted âs /n{kp, m!gb/ onles is independentÌy ã nâsalphoneme.and perhals not evenin sucì cases.The /n!/ choicebetween/Íüp, ngb/ and /Ìlkp, Ìlgb/ (or /nkp, igb/ ir therejs no independent phoneme/tJ/) Iì]ây be aÌbitrary. I hâve peBonâÌlyprelerêd hkp, !sb/ in the cN6 I have met (cf. 3.1 alove), but âgâin no gr€at tìeôretical issúeis ât stâke. In âny câse,of coxÌse,if tÌìeÌe is a lâttern of hono.ganìcnasâÌsbeloreconsonants,contrsstsb€tweenlasâts that âre phonemic befoE voveìs or jn linal positionâre netrtnlizedòefo.econsonants.The conceptof an arcÌriphoneme, say 'N', is appÌjcableith€ Ìecognjtionol this possibiÌjlyis implicit in Ìnâny úâtements that have been mâde aìoDt the noÌphophonmics ot va.ioÌs Ìangu8ses,bÌt it has neve. been íìlÌy incorlo.ated into an ânalysis,nor ren€cftd in a prãciicâl 3.19. There stiìl renains â vâÌiety ol losibÌe iDter!ÌetationsoI tìese nâsâlpÌus-consonânt sequences l.on anotherpoint oI vi€w. Aie they to be ták€n as
66
AFRrcÀN LÀNGs^cE SrRUcruREs
unit phonemesor as clusteÌs? And if they âre cÌusteB,ã.€ the nasalcomponents nonsyllâbicor syÌlâbic? All possibiÌiiiesand somecombinationsof possibilities the nâsâìis âlwâyssyÌÌâbic,and sDchclusteÌsmãy ococcur. ln somelangüages, cuÌ only in initiaÌ position. In other langüages,the €ntire sequencebêlorgsto onesylÌâblewith the tollowingvowel. And in at leastonecas€,th€y are not phonetnicâltJseqüences ol any kind. In Àkan, ror *âDple, initiâl nâsâlsbeforeconsonantsâre syuabic;this is slown by their contÌâ6tive tonê, âs selÌ as by the oveÌãÌl impresion oí theiÌ sytlabicity. Suchnâsalsare actìrâllysepamt€morphemesin every câse,and sme oÍ the morphemesarê not âìçâys initiâÌ. E.8. (from Fante), úpüà
banana6'
ngú
oil
niúbál òÀdá yèìkó
'I didn't come 'he do€snt sÌ€ep' 'we don t go'
wiúbá óídá yÉúká
they should come 'he shooldsleep' 'Ìet\ go'
'lhe.e aÌe also nonsyllabiciinal nasãlsin Àkân, çhich set the pâtteÌn loÌ nonsyllabicsyllâblejinâlnasaìsbeforeconsonantsin medialposition,coÍtrastiíg Nith the syllabic naseÌsillustrat€d above;thesê âre, ho{ev6, ãlso homo.ganic with the louowingconsônânt.E.g.. àkànlu
Akân people
Àt the otìer extr€me, as hâs been noted in connection vith ÍasaÌized vowels (2.9),Jukun has phoneticnasâÌ-pluçstÕp sequences [nb. nd, tJg]which aÌe intern, preted as âllÕphon€s of the nasalcoDsonants /D, !/ beloreorâl vowels. Two detemine this inte.pretátion:(1) the pitcì ot the naÊal impoÌtant coDsid€râtions is conditionedby (identicalwith) that of ihe following voweÌ, and (2) the $quencesoccur only beforeoral Ìowels, ;n complementarydishibutiôn with thó sinpìe nasaÌsIn, n, Ìll vhich occuronÌy b€lorenâsâlizedvos€Ìs. E.9.,
Iübül: /mü/ white làdèl: /nè/ 'noise' Itsã1, /rJa/ 'try'
tmêì: iméi Inêl; /nè/ hãl: /Ìlã/
'see' 'hoê' hâte'
With palâtâl releâse,the sequences {mby, !S/l âlsooccur,and âre intery.etedas Ìly/ vopels; the lattô. is one of the .are instlncesor a sequence berore orâl /ny, worked. HoNever,thoe is no pâ.alleÌ[nil, in lânguâgês with Nhich I have hy/ which wouÌd be intdp.eted ãs /ny/ nelore oral vovels. The phonemicsequence /ny/ sinply doesnot occúr; â pâlãial nâsalwhich onemight at firú úãnscribeas lnyl occu.sonly beÍorenasalizedvolvels,âs an âìlophoneôr /y/. Similãü,lÌlwÌ is âD allolhone of /s/ bêforenasalizedvoweÌs. Ât first, tlìis {às recoÌdedonly befôre/i, è, ã/, ând the nâsaìltl was reco.d€donly before/â, ô, ú/; they contrast onìy b€ioÌe /ã/. However,the ap!ârent hl beÍore/õ, ú/ is pronoüncedçith iust
ô7 as much lip-roundingthroughoutas [0ç]. It âlsôis theNloreinterpretedas /w/, leãvingthê nâsaÌhl with â highly Ìeshicted distribution
'I came' 'I went'
ú bi ú ya
'I'd bette. conìe' 'I'd better go'
In Igbo, nasalsbefore consonantsare âlwâyssyUabic.Thosewhich occur only belorecónsonâdts are homorgadicaúd are noun prefixes. (Vo{eh âlso ocp.eiixes.) cuÌ as noun E.s.,
ngbá 'wresuing There is alsoa syllabic/m/, againalirst peNonsineuÌarpronoud,whichaÌso occursin other positions;ãnd theÌe are â rew cãs€sor wordjinaÌ syllâbic/mi.
kà ú hú 'ya á byàràrn
'let me seeit I came
á ìÈrü Ìh Ìhmánú I saw oil'
Òdüú 'lion' gbáógbáú 'sh€ctn€taì'
3.20. Syllabicnâsah âs prononinal morphemes a.e exceedinglycomúon in p.onoun Nig€Ì-Congo.The is most f.equ€ntly À lÍst pcBon singuìa.Iorm, but sometimesthird leBon singuìãr,ând in ã lew cãsessecondpersônpìurâl. In KpelÌe,homorganicnasalswithhigh tone occurbeforestopsand hicatives âsíi.st perso. sirgDlãrpossesivepronounsbelorerelatiÕnâl(roughÌy,inalienably poss€ssed) noüns,ând as fiÌst personsineulâ.objcct !ÌÕnounsbefo.everbs. th. stÒpor fricâtive,interp.etedphon€micâllyàs /p, t, k, kp, l, s/, hâsa voicedâllophonelb, d, g, gb, v, Jl in all oI the followingiuustrativelormsj the preponderance of Íollowingh'gb ronê,is ân ìrFlÊvânl.u,n.rdFn.p:
úkpit
úkpÉ útili
KpelÌe âlsohas syllaìic nasìs. with contrâstive toíe, imnediÀtely beio.e Ìowels; theseare mo.phophoDemicalÌy derivedÍrom â nâsaìwith high tone, or
68
ÀÉRrcd LÁNcu^cE SrkucÌuREs
lrom a prelir€d lo{ lÕre, plusa coDsonantotherthan â voi.€ìessstop or hicaüve. In this case,the sameÍi6t pe.sÕnpronounsas âbovehave high tone; the corÌespondingthird penoú sinSularpronouns,which beloreúops aúd lricetiv€ âÌe not nâsaÌ, hâve low tone; the Ìâtter is â norph€oe witn the mo.e generâl m@ning ol 'p.evious.efeÌence'./ny. 0w/ âre intêrpretedas unit phonemôs,not clusters. Contrastinsfo.ns âre:
óáâ
'my name'
twili Íyée
'Dy lriênd' my hand'
ìára
'dÍag it
ìwéli
In Swahili,a syllabic /m/ is a third peBon singulâr(peBoÍâ1,for noünsof class1) object p.onoun occuuing imnediâtely betoreâ verb stem; it is also,as ã prefix but usüâlly reqDiringân âccompânyingsullix, a secondpe$on !Ìuml subject ?ronoun. 8.g.,
'you (pl.) lookedior them' ln EIik, ã homo.gânicsyllâbicnàsâìwith ìigh tone occuÌsãs tle fir6t pe6on singuÌarsubjectpronoun. As in lgbo,syilabicnasaÌ6alsooccu.,âÌongwith voweÌs, as nouÍ prefixes; this is true ot a number oÍ other Ìanguageã as well. In some other ìanguâges-.9., Yo.uba, U.hobronly vow€Ìsare usedâs roDn prdixes. A moÌe extensive inv€ntory of lãnguâges using syÌlabic nasals as prctroun lorms would hardìy be instructile; sülficêit io say tìat suchfoms are colmon. 3.21. The nãsalcôDponeítôf nâsâì-plus-cÒnsonânt is, hoìeeveÍ,by seqtrences !o meansãlwâyssyìlâbic, À shiking demoístrationol this lact is pÍovided by â llÌ'ent speake.of Ssahili telling how he leâÍnedto Ìeâd and to pronÕunce Swin eloentary school. From th€ ea.ly instruction he .€c€ived itr phonics, h€ hili recitedthree setsoÍ srllablesin Epid succesionithe timing of tle third set sag precisely the same âs the timing ol the íiÌst two, like the ticking ol a wãtch: /ta, te, ti, to, tui la, le, li, lo, lu; mba, mlq mli, mbo, mbu/. Swâhilihâsihe followiDgsuchsequeDces: /m), nd, nj, ns, nv, nzl, ÀÌl eDding with hicatives. ThDs stôpsor S*âhilirdi:i 'banãnâ'and pangd'mâchete' 'oiced are two{yllabÌe wo.ds. Indi-zi. pã-!8a1,and the name Tânganyikâ should be syìlâbilied[tâ-Ì]gà-nyi-liaì.PhÕnetically,suchsêquences tÌìus hâvea stât8 @mparaìÌe to that of/Cy, Cw/ and thelikei with a lolloringvowel, they iorm a single syìlâbÌe. Suchnâsal-plusconsonânt sequences mây be ÌabelÌed"!Ìenasalizedconr'nasal It sonants' or onset consonânts". doesnot necessarilyíollow, however, that they are automâticâÌÌyto be interpretedâs uÍit phonefres.Sucha! intêrp.etátion is ãtt.âctive in view of the fâct thât they occur sithìn stems in Swqìili (as ia many otÌrerlanguage6).They alsooccu. iniüâlly in Svâhili, how€vs, ând in thât position the nasÌ component is â sepaEte moÌphúe, a loun or
CoNsoNÀÌ\'rSrsrEMs
69
concoÌdprefia, whichmây makeit sèemmôre âttrâctiv€ to jnterpretthe seqüences âs phoDêmiccÌDsteÌs.Perhápsthe qÌestior is not reaìly .elcvânt, Nhat is sigÍi! icant is that theseseque Í cesfunctionjust like simple consonântphon€mes within stems,hut includea mo.lhme òoundaryin initiâl positioni yet they are phoneticaÌlythe sme. The Fi8njlicanceof this distinctionjn lunction will become cl€aÌerin lânguages in whicÌtthe invento.iesoi sequences vjtì thesetwo tunctions In Swâhili,the nôun classâÌd concordp.elix in queslionnâs â nuDb€r oI morphophonúic alternants:/nJ/ beÍorevowels,z€ro befoÌeloicel€s stots and rricatìvesand b€Iorenâsals.and a lromorganicnasalÒelore/b, d, j, g, v, z/, the voiced stops and lricatives. Belore stemsoI nore tìan one syììâble,the last ol theseaÌternantsresultsin tìÌe pre-nâsalized consonanlsuDdeÌ discusion. If the steÌn is nonosyllabic,howev€r.then th€ nasaljs syllabicand stÌessed.The Ire sition of úres is conditionedin S{âhiÌi, büt is markedin the folìo*ing exanples to point out tÌ'e syllabìcity of nasah b.fore monos)lÌabic stms. Thes€âre aÌl noDnsol the sme noun .ìâs:
ln âddition to úe syllâbic/m/ morphemêsnentionêd jn 3.20 âbovelo. s$aìili, theÌe is anothersyllabic/m/, whicì Íunctionsas a noun ard concoÌdprefìx difierêni froh tìê âbo!e. MorphoÌogically,this prelix occursìelore all consonânts. Except befoÌe/b/ and /v/, its syllabicchâract.r is cleârÌyâudible. Apârl Ircm the questìonof syìlâbicity,th€ s€quences /nb/ and /n!/ Inay bc cith.r ihc nasâÌpr€lix jllustrated above plus /b, v/, or tlis otherrise clearly syllaìic /mi belore /b, v/. Sohe ânâlystsinsist thâr úer. is â .onhasr lr.r$een the tNo. Ì havê heáÌd the contrastonly i! artjÍicially slow, careful speech;but it may be nomal in somediâlects. ln th€ foìlÒwingerâúples, {his syìlãb'c(or probÌ€maticaìly syÌlãbicbeíore/b, v/) nasaÌis written ri excerrtwhenstressed berorea mono-
òbúni
originator
Ììgéni úji
'strâng€r' 'viuage
PâlternssômewhâtsjDilâr to that oI Ssahili are extrenely coDmoninBantu Ìanguâges.There âre frequently comllicationsin norplophonebi.s thât dÕ not irvolve nãsaÌsin lbe suúâcephonoìogy,but which Ìesult Írom tÌìe presence of a morphemewhos unde.Ìyin8 lom must be ânalyzedâs â nâsâl. EvcD in
70
AFÂrcN Ldcu^GE
SÍRUcÌuÃEs
som€ SwahiÌi diâlects, â *ries ôf âspirãtêd stops is reported i! contÌast with unâspirât€dstÕps:/pi, t!, òh,kb/ cotrtrãsiingwith /p, t, è, k/. Morphophonemicâlly, the âslirâted stops âre the pÍoduct of the hornorganic nâsal prefú d€scíbed âbove,plus the corresponding unaspiratedstopsas st€n iüitiaÌs. The âspirated sropsdo not occur indetend€trtlyof this mo.!Ì'ologi@l cohbination. ÀppaÌently this coltrãst is not nâintâined by mâny sp€âÌeBot Swâhiìitodây. 3.2. The reâl'zationof moÌphologicalìyundeÌlyingDâsâÌ'plrHorsoDântsequencesiú the su.fâcephonologiesof Bantu lalguagesdiâplaysa considerabÌe variety. For any one lânguage, the probleÌn can best be approached ÍÍorn th€ no.pholôgical vi€wpoiít, by naking a study oI the phonologic patteÌns correspondiÍgto â few noun clÀ6s$ãnd a few p.onouns. For someBántu languag$, this problemis teated Íather adequatelyin the avaiÌâbleliterâtüÍe. À particuÌarly interestingexampÌe,however,is providedby KiKongo, ând this is not fulty desoibed in existitrgplblicatioDs,though the !Ìinciple has ìeen .ecognizedand a lew details sketchedout, Th€ sinple cÕnsonants Õf KiKongo, which occuÌ in iDitial and int€Ívocãlic Dosition.are as foìloFs;
pt bd fs
In addition, the foÌlowing p.eia3âlizedconsonantsoccurintervo@Ìi@llyin steÌns,ând thus seemto be paÌt ol the bãsicconsonãntinventoÌy oí thè lãnguage: mb
nd
ng
There is nó /g/ to mtch the pr.nasâlized/nsl, whi.h is phoneticâÌlyfugl. aÌthoush/y/ s€ensin some.espectB to !atte.! úth the velar/k/, /ns/ ennot be interpÌeted âs â cÌuster or /D/ ând /y/, Íor .esons which vill become cl€âr below. The absenceol /g/ pãraueling/ng/,âlongvith the fâct tÌrãt this seriesis Ìdtricted to voiced pÌenasaÌiz€d coÌsonatrts, Mkes the inteÌpÌetãtion of then as a seÌies ôl unit phonmes most attÌactive. The anâlysis is conplicated, however, by the occuÌrenceoí oüer sequen.eswhich includenoÌ!ìerÍÌe boDndâries. In iDitiaÌ position.as combinâtioDsoltwo difierent noun class!Ìerixes (one of thêIn â prelix idêntical in rvô cÌâses, I and 3) with thô simple consonânts in contÌâst. ln veÌbãÌ Íons, the sme above,therê arê tso kinds oÍ seqüences contrasts, not necessÀÌily in initiâl lositio!, Ìellect the fiÌst and third peÌson in thê sêsinguÌârobj€ct pronouDs.Th€Ìe is somemo.phophoÍmic coalescen@ quencesinvolvine nouns ol .lâss I or tìe liÌst peÌsonsinguÌârobject p.oÍoun. The followiDg cìâ.t Ìistr the phonemically .ontrâsring !aih, in â photr€tic transoiption, buì in â môÌphophon€micarângement. What is mâÌked here as âs
77
CoNsoì{ÁM SYsrErís
pirâtion with voic€dÊt p6do€snot Ìeprgènt â Ê€pantes€gnent5taspiBtion, but D.Í.ly
! 8.rdd
r.Ìlxaüot
ol thè lipô and chê.kt, *ith
obviou! out*ard
aiÌ Dov-
ementât rcl€ase;ihe corr€spoldingsouDdsvritten wìthout thi! indication ÂÌe r€utral rrt-he. th|n inplGive. The two typ€s oI seque e3ãÌe:
I-Èl
ÍInpl Í Ímbl
Í.b"1 'l l-"r1
t tÍnm1
Ínvl
Ir"wl
I"ríl
Í4vl tnwl
tatal
tnrt I Índl
Ilkhl
tlkl
l[.vÌ
[iv]
hd't lúÌi tl'"1
tnlâl Indzl
I"d tnzl
Phon€üc5ìly, it ney be loted thât the íiBt st of sequenceHn the lelt in elch double coÌDtFis chmctâiad by aspiÌation, outúâId aiHtrem rcl€a!€, aÍfricstioq or 3tôppãgr (by tgl in the câsê oí both lwl atrd [yl, ard by â bilabiâl Étìq tàd labicdêntâl naral in the ca& oI [v]j in the lâtt€r, I h€ar no conpletc olal .top), The lecond s€t of .€queres coNists of nasah ÍoIow€d by the unEodified sinple coÍso!âÍt!; u, Í,hi.h conmoÍÌy ündeÌgoes morphophon€mic altêmation aftrr a nar€l in oth€r lÂngüages,nmains iútact; M is pÌeced€d by [D], ìíitü Èeithèr hilâbiâl mr v€lâÌ dlos@; and the !ú3aÌ is labiodat r beloE iÍ, vl -in €very cÂse, th€ sÉicrìlstion ol úe con3orant afttI thê nÂ3aÌ s€eú! to be h tÌrc íolÌowiDg €xampl€8, the pr€DasalEed consoí8trtu vhich occüÌ within stens ÂÌ€ rÌitt€n [nb, ndl €tc.; th tu not intdded to imply that tì@ tu no conc€ivablc phonetic diffêr€nce betwe€n these Ând the F€nalalized .onsonants rÌitteD the same way q,h€re moryh€Íne bounduis aÈ pÌesnt. The dâru! oÍ the ste.m-iÌtemâl pÌÈnâsâb rill be coÍsidercd âgâin lâter; the exampl€shere âE int€ld€d onÌy to illusbât! th€ coDtÌã8t! listed abov€ in Ìtál íorms:
lnÈúüul lntiÁÂ{guÌ hkbálal
'time' 'crâb'
I'nrÈ"1 lnhúkal [m'fúmu] lndroo{sÂl lnhlséenol
lmpáatgil Írtil hkÁatsul
'bÌotheÌ' 'tree' 'crowd'
IÍúü] 'chief' 'cÌowd' 'fttoÈ'
[ú!úuka]
'no.oins'
tÍlváalul tnláânbil
'hoÌÊê' 'cook'
llMônil (Note: the lâ3i of thes @ ÍÌom thc san€ mot, iÍith initiâÌ /Ìn/.)
Ibanttú$ila ndzol 'they built me a howè' tb8lkiébal 'th€y too} eâÌeof me' lbanvátsila kiMuÌ
'onê rho 3a'
lbântúmiÌâ ndzol 'they built him a house Iba{Lébâ] 'they took cÀE oI him' [ba'!vá{siÌâ kiMuì
E l nrl nL
.L
d.L
dnLLl Lr
ì2
ArRrceì LÀìcuÀcE SrnucruÀEs 'they madeâ pÕttoÌ me' 'they got ne a pot'
'theynade a pot Íor hin' lbmbákiÌâkinzuì 'theygot him â pot'
The question nay now be raìsed shethe. the stú-internâl nâsâls /nb, nd, !8, nv, nzl, inespectiveot shethe. they âÌe inteÌpretedas únit phonemesor clusters, cân be assjenedto either ot tìe two senes ìllustrated âbove, atrd, il so, to which. This iÊ a diíÍicult questionto ânswermereÌyon the grcündsoÍ impre$ sions oÍ phonêtic sinila.ity; becaDsêof the nâtüre ol word structuÌe in KiKongo, incÌuding tone. it happensthat the stm-internãÌ !Ìe-nâsals occur onÌy belore the l€ast prominent low€l in the vord, wnib the seriesilÌ!ÊtÈted above occuÌ ìelore the most prominent vow€I. In terms ol outwàrd âir ÍDovement, stoppâge, or âllrication, the st@-intemál pre-nasals se€m neutral not stÌikingÌy nore similâÌ to êither oÍ the aboveseÌies. Il anything, they âppearto be phoneticallya Ìittle more like the [Dbb...] Êeries. Another question,hosevê., is vhether the nâsal in any oÍ âlÌ oÍ the sequênc€sin questionis syllabic. In initial position,in the sequences *hich include s horph€me bôDndary,tìê syuâbicity ol the nasâl i. qudtiônâbÌê. CoGìdeF ãtionsoltoneaÍe not determiíâtive;the nasalsdonot havecont.astivetone. Yet, oI coDBe,it do€st3ke a Ìittle time to p.onouncethe nâsãI,ãnd thât time might or night not be a syÌlâbÌ€.But in exaÍnpìes like the lâst four tâüs above,where the prenasaÌized consonants occur inteNo@ÌicaÌly, tàoDgh not stem-internaÌly, the nasâl app€ãrs to be more proninent, nore Ìikely syllalic, thân in the simiÌar p.€-nâsaÌs within stems. It alpeâN ÌikeÌy that the úem-ìntêrnaÌ combiúâüons can indeedbe inte.treted as unit phonmes /mb, !d, ng, mv, nzl distinct f.om the othe. two seÌies, and the latte. can ìe inter!Ìeted as clusters. If thêy âre clusters,the questionol the syllâbicityol the nasalÊhardly needsto be aÍswered; tÌrey âre not syÌìâbic in thê sêns of beâring contÌâstive toíe. This stiu leàves importãnt phonetic mâte.ial in the conüâsts ol the lntbl seri€s ând the lmpl *ri$ to ìe interyret€d lhonmicâlly. Ìr either or botlt se.ieg wereto be interpÌetedas unit phoneDes,there would be an extensiveâet of prenâsâlizedconsÕnânts aÌongsidethê sifrple consonânts in thê phonmic inventory, and theseunit phonemeswoDìdincÌudemorphelÌìeiroundaries.Even if both sÈ Ìies ârê interpÌetedas cluste$, which sems moÌe d€siràbleon other 8lorn&, we wÕrld seemto bê facêdsith â scond set of thonem€s,/pb, is/ etc., which would occur o.ly in clusteN after násls, but in cont.ãst with the simpÌe consonânt phon€m€slisted at the beginni.g of this discusion. Another solution seemsto be the best of âìì. Thât is to intê.pret both the lnphÌ ând the [npÌ seriesas clust€Ìs, but as difle.ent types of clusters. That is, the clusters do not contmst âs enúetiês, nor by liÌtue of haling diffeÌent cotrsG nantsâfter the nâsal,but rather by virtue ol an additionaÌphonoic âbstâctiôn. The contrastsare assÈnednot to the cônsonántstoÌlowing the nasls, but to something eÀ.lier in the cluster. Either there aÌe two dilferent !âirs of nâsal phon€mesinvÕlvêd,or th€Ìê is onê pair of nâsâÌsând an âddedphotrme which
73 diÍÍerentiâtês the one set oí clusteN lrom the other. The latte. se€msthe bette. alternâtiv€,sincethere is clearly a closerIjnÌage b€tweenthe nasâland tle lolthân in the [np]series;it wãssügeeúedâbovc Ìowingconsonantinìhe [mpü]seÌìes thât the articulation oÍ the coúsônântin the secondseriesis "orótected." The suggested inteÌpretationor the Ínlhl s€Íiesjs /np, - . ./, ând of the InPl seriesis PhoDúically, this interpretâtionis unusúâI,but eítirely delensible.IÍorphologicâlly,it is happiÌy reinrorcedby comparativeevidence. Preciselythe pÌefix ând pronounnow represented by a nasâlaloneappearin nany othe.BaDtu languagesâs a nâsaÌbefoÌeâ consonânt
74
ÀÉRrc^NLNcuÀcE SriucruREs
c
Cy NCy CCy
NC
cc
C* NCw Ccw
Not ãll possiblecombinationsâ.e .ecoÌded,to be suÌe. ln somecases,!Ìima.ily wheÌe resonântsaÌe invoÌved, the.e â.e noÌphophonemic alte.nations which prevent certâincombinatiors. Apârt from thesecâs€s,the nonoccurrence of sevenÌ plÀusiblecombinatio.sseensto be sinpÌy â statistiqÌ Ìimitation, rath.. thân ã structuraÌlyimposedrestriction. 3.24. Reserved loÌ the conclusion ol tÌtìs chapter on consonãnt systms is ! probÌemor ânâlysisin Efik phich I hâve not seenpâÌâll€ledin âny other Ìânguàge.roThê phoretic inventory oÍ consonÀnts diffem in thÌee dilferetrtenvircÍnents. Ând the Droòìemis how-or evenwhetìer-these thrêe inventori€scan be comìined into one inventory oÍ consonantthonmes. lü word-initial tosition, oÌ in syllabl€-initiaìlositiotr medially il p.ec€dedby a nasãlor by a !oÌ\'el âÌlophoneshich doesnot occu. clos€dsyllabls. tÌ'e follo*ing colsonant (sou!ds) 'n
t
Ìn â iew words,[t] âlso ôccu$ i! syllable-initjâlpositionn€diâlÌy, but n.veÌ i! word-initial position;this ãpp€âs to be a Êecondâry delelopmênt,sincethe same woÌds ìâve Ídl in sone dialects. The follôwing exmple6 illustÌâte tlese consonântsin n€diâl positioni[.plis put intô theìâbial coÌuhn here,PhicÌt is obliously a lesitimâteali€rnâüve:
èkpàt
bag
ìkó
(árÀn
'pâÌmoil )
iyãk
'lish
Secondly,in syllablÈlinâìposition,the Íollowingconsônãntsound6occuri P
k Ìl
senttaÌJ thãt p.aenred in w€ or èxpìiciììY staled ln lull The s,ne anâlysis, *ith lery ntinor difíerc.ces ìh detail, b p.esenìed sone{har noR luìlv bv Tbonìs
75
CoNsoNÁNÍ SYsÍEMs
k!ók FÌom this much data it is cÌeârthat [kp] ând [p] are i! c.nplemeDtarydist ibution and cÀnbe interpÌetedas a phonene/p/ itsell a most unusuaÌint€rpretationfoÍ a phoneticallydoubly ârticulãtedstop. ln addition,Itl and Í91âre in compÌmentaÌy distribution. though inte.preting then as a single phonúe is not as âttrâctivein termsof pâtterncongrDity.Àlternâtively,I{l cóDìdsiinpìybe addedto the íist cìâú of consonants, ând it would âppeârthât â lâirÌy typical châ.t of coísonantphoneDesis the resült. There is a thiÌd €nvi.onm€trt,howeve.,in which a third jnventory ol consonãnt soundsoccuh. This is .lteÌ vowelâìlophones lhich âre eìsesherechârâcteF istic of cÌosedsyÌÌâbl€s,but wiih a voreì lollowing the .onsonantâs weÌl thaÌ is, intervocâÌicâÌly,but precededby voyel soundsdifle.ent l.om thosewhich or cur beloresyllable-injtiâlcônsonânrs âs desdibedâbove. The consonsntsounds thât occurin tlis envüonme.t are â biÌabiâÌilãp, an âlv€oÌârflâp, a uvule. flap. and the three nasâlswhich occuralso in sylÌabÌe-finalposition: big
Thêseare illustÍâted in the fóllowiÍg, in which hl is chã.acte.isticof .ìosedsyÌlables,paÈllelinglilin opensyllable6;the ÍinaÌ vow€lin thesefoms is lhoneti.ajly IEl, but that ìs ineleÌant to the anaÌysisât this point: stbé ntné
'cut down' 'put out'
tiÌé bìné
stop' 'go to'
ídigé nité
'I'n nolconing' 'sweet'
Theseintervocalicconsonants a.e clêârlyiÍ complementarydistrjbütionwith position. Indeed,in sometypes of which in syììablejinal thê consonants occuÌ phmsesthe sylÌableLinâlstopsmay be heâÌd in faÍÌy slow speecì,but the ilãps vowelsounds, in morerapid speech.In the Íollowingexamples,the closed-syllable shorterthan thosein opensyllábles.are not indicat€dbj a sp€ciâlLrânsüiption:
dwòpè bà: èfit è nàÌJ: úIòkibâ:
dwòbèbà èIitènàt úlògibà
'twelvê (ted plus two)' 'nineteen(firteenplls iou.)'
Ol the threê inventoriesof codsonadtsoundsdesoibedhe.e.therefoÌe.theÌe is complementarydistributionbetweenthe Íirst and the second,and betweenthe secoddândthe thid. Ho{ever. th€re ân cleârÌacontrastsb€tweenthe iiNt and the thiÌd within the stâtementsup to this poi.t, Vo*el soundscharacte.isticoI closd syÌlâbÌesfoìlowedby flãps ârein.ontrãst with otheÌ voweÌsoundstolÌowed by sylÌable-initialstops. In thê caseoÍ the nâsals,tÌìe cont.ãstswouldâppã.ently háve to be assignedto the precedingvoìÃ'eÌ;the sâmeinterprêtationis possible, or coü.se,to explãinthe stop{lap difierence. lt sDply ofiendsthe sensibiliti€s,
76
AFRrc^N L^Ncu^cE SeuduREs
howeveÌ, to Ìesorl to this intêrpretâtion with its necesãry doubling of the voweÌ iÍventoryi it would seemthat theÌe must be a simpÌeÌ and moÌe natuÌãl solution. The solution suggestedis to posit, in tìe phoúotúgic systern of Elik, a unit thât marks syllable division. The flaps described above, as welÌ as inteNocaÌic nasâlsvhenprecededby vowelschârâcter'sticol closedsyllables,may be desclibed âs "ambisyÌlâbic" (a teÌm also admiEbly suited to desdibe intetuôcâÌic coúsônânts beÍo.e weâk-stÌesed vowels in EngliÊh, âs in ciig, thotrgh thê stnctüÌâl significance ol the lhenomenon is not the sme). An mbisyllabic con$nânt lunctionsas the tinâl conâonâútôI one syllable!ând sinultaneôuslyas the initiaÌ consonantof the lext syuable. In EIik, then, â vôwel nây !e lollow€dby a syÌlâbìeJinal (includingambisyllabic)consonânt,ôr by phoíenic sylÌâhledivision vhich in türn mây be fôÌìowêdby a syllãble-initiaÌconsonant,üorgh álsoby anôther voweì, a syllâbic trâsal, oÌ nothiDg. VoweÌs in tÌ,ese two positions hâve different âìlophones.The llâps cân then be interpÌetedas /p, t, k/ without pÍÈ cedingsyÌlabledivision, ând the lúll inleÍtôry ôÍ Elik consonantphotrmes,to vhich a p')oneneÕÍ sylÌâblêdevisionmust ìe added,is:
pt
v rl
v about1964,I havebeenfuÌoI Efik phúnology Siícetirst tâcingthe problems ly a{are that â tÌeatm€nt in the fÍâmeworkor eenê.aúvephonology shich I havê hâd neither suliicient nractice, suliicient time, nor sulficient inclination to handle to my own satisÍaction, let âÌone the sâtisfâction ol othe6 vould hâve certain distinct advantâges. I b€Ìieve and hole thât the datâ ouiÌined ãbove oÍ ãvailablehom oth€r souÌcesare suchthat a conversionto ã qenerâtivetr eâtm€nt {ould Dresentno insuD€rabledilliculties.
Tonal Sysiems 4.1. A misìonary candidâteand his wiie onceadmitted that, vhen they learned thât the Ìanguageol theiÌ Afrlcan fieìd was â tone lânguâge, ihey seriÕuslyques tioned whêtherthe Lord had âctuaÌy cãlledthem to missionâ.yservice. Writers of grâmmãNhave commonlyne8l€ctedto desc.ib€and w.ite distinctionsin tone, on the theory that "toDe can be learnedonly by observationaÍd practice." LeoDa.d Bloomfieldâptìy cônnented on this (1942),"Such ã stâteúeÍl is nothing les than a dowÍright swindle,for ol cÒurseobsertâtiônând prâcticeâre thè onìy way ãnythìng cãn be leamed. Othersdismissthe entire topic oI tone with orly a bÌief statementof this sóú: Toneis impÕrtant,as will be seenf.Òm the Íoìlowing exânples[two or three êxampleslollosì; however,tone wiÌÌ not be marked in this grammar." Onegrammar doesdjscusstone fairly tuuy, but relegâtesit tÒ ân appeDdixe*plicitly âdded iôr the ben€fit ol those whô are pârticulârìy inteBted ând who considerthemselvesespeciauygifted. Mâny more graDmarF more thân haü ol Õverâ hundredgrâmmas ol Àfricân tonê languagesexânined -omit aÌ mention oÍ tone; somego so Iar as to asserithat tle languagebeing treated is deriniteÌy not a tone Ìanguage,though â little investigâtionreadily provesthat it is. À shockingnumberof peopleconcernedaith AlricaDÌanguages still s€ú to think ôt ton€ as â speciesoi €soteric,insdutâble, ând trtterÌy unlortunate accretioncharacterisücof u.derp.iviìegedÌanguages a sort of cancerousmaÌignancyâtnicfingan othetuhe nornâl lingüiúic organism. Sincethere is thought to be no cuÌHr evenreÌiablediagnosis foÌ this regrettablemaÌady, the usuâl trêâtmenìis lo ignore it, in hope that it sill go awây ôl itseÌi. With â moÌe optimisticdete.minâtion,one group of lângDâgeÌ€arneFin AÍrica asked a tÌained linguist to come and try to "get .id oI tonê" in the local language. Nos, thêre is Dndeniablyâ dânger ol ovdsimpljlying tìe complexitiêsol tonat st.uctu.ô in Ìarguage;the sophisÌicateis t€mpted tÕ be blâsé. But ât the sametime, the presence of tone neednot caus us to tremblein ouÌ scientiÍicboots, or to hury Õurheãdsin the sândsÕl "insulticientdâtâ." ln principle,the vârieÌies and functionsoÍ tonal contasts in lânguageare ot the sâmeoÌder as the vÀrieties and functionsof âny Õthercontrasts;the p.oblemsof tonal analysisâre simply typicâì prohlehs ol linguisiic analysis. Thêr€ have, ol coDrse,been someíorlunate exceltions to the geíeral di$ ÌegardoÍtone. J. G. ChÌistalleÌ(18?5),Idâ Wârd (1933,1936)andR. C. Àbraham (1940h,1941)in!ârticuÌâr nade sêrionselfortstÒ includefull desojptionsoÍtonaì lhenomenain their tÌeatmentsoI seÌeral West Alrican langüages.In âddition, lexi@Ì tone is mârk€d in â hândluÌ oI Àlrican lânguâgedictionâries. Even in most of thesecases,however,tone is t.€âted onÌy at the phoneticlevel,which is
78
ÀnrcÀN
L^NGU^GE SrÃúcruREs
of couÌse to be expected in eà.lier witings. Pitches âre usüally indicated by dots o. ünB Ìep.eseÍt'ng .elative pitches, Às I .l oÌ [- -1, sithôut specifying o. Íuuy discusing the lumber ând nâture oÍ tonâÌ contrãstsas structural units in the lânguage. Adequate descdpüons oI toÍal systens are aìmost entirely codined to receDtwoÍks reflecting a high d€greeol sophistication in desoipiiv€ linguistics. 4.2. With vêry few exceptions, the Ìânguagesol Àlrica south of the SãìaF are tone languages.Within the ÂfrcÂsiatic lamily, all of the Châdiclangqâges foÌ which there is iniormatioh âre tonâI. The Cushiücìangtrages in genemÌare trot tonal, although theÍe is at least ôre demonstÌâted exception, Moèâ ol southwestern Ethio?iâ (seeLesÌâu, 1958). In Saho, pitch distincnons have b€en shown to be conditionedby tàe presenceo. ãbsenceoI phonemicstress(seelüelmeN, 1952b). Somali,one of the largestoI the CushiticÌanguages, hãs bêencãUeda ione laÍgüâgêGeêÀrfrúrong 1934,Andrzejewski1964);amther tnv$tigatoÌ (Piã 1963),however,is sâtisfiedthat litch distincüoDsaÌe, âs in Saho,pÌedictableiÌr tems ol stress. ln the NiÌô-SahãÌânând KhoÈân lamilie, tone is pÌesent in êvery Ìânguagewhich has been adequately invatigated, ãnd there is no evidence that any laÍguagein thse familiesiâ not â tone lânguage. In the NigetsKordoÍanianÍanily, the major northernÌanguagqol the Wet Àtlantic bÍâúchoÍ Nig€rCongo Wolof, Sere.e,Fula are not tone Ìanguag$. Neither is S*âhü, ât ìea.t i! its tnore or les st{ndard ÍÕrmsalong the €ast coastol ÀfÍica. Similady, ar inter-tribâÌ or tmde languâgebâsedon KiKongo (KiTubâ, Kikongo vehiculaire ând othe. Dames)has Ìost the tonal contÌãsts typiqì oi KiKonSo it$|I, and eme other paúiâlly pidginizd lãnguâgesmay simiÌarly ìãvê becomenon-toDelanguagesas a Ìecent and secoDdary development. OtheNise, it had bettd be as sumedthàt any sub{ahâÌan languageis totraÌunle$ the oppositecan be demonMâny Õt tÌìê yÕungergenemtiÕnôt lânguageinvestigatorshave beeÍ wilÌing to Iace this Iact, but even âmong theD tìe attitude is aÌl too common that they would p.efer Íirst to masteÌ the consonântsand voweÌs,nost oÍ the gÌammd! ând â g.eat d€al oI vo@bulary, ând then they will tackle the supposedÌyknotty pÌoblem of toDe. Àpaú trom *eightier considerations of the possibÌeíunctionsoÍ tone in â ìânguage,there is one intenselyprÀcti@Ìreasonshy this procedureis viÌtDally dôomedtô taiÌuÍe. By thê time the invêsügetÕrdecidesto settledom and Ì€a.n somethingabout tone, the peoplerrom whom he hasbeenleaÌningthe laÍguage sill âìreâdy hâve decided ìong since thâÌ he wiìl never prcíôúnce their languâ8e accurately. They wiÌl have given up @Ìrecting him, and they will uttdly Íail to comprehendwhât he js ãfl€r now. To the nâtive speâkerôÍ a tone languâge,tone is just as bâsica pâú of hb speechâs consonântsând vowels;if nô pÌogressis madeitr thât aspectôÍ pronunciatiônat fi.st, theÌe is !o reasln to expect ìhat ãny impmvenênt will be made lat€r. On the other hând, if speakesol an AÍricân Iângüagehâve hâd someexperiencewith the pitifuÌ êffortsthat non-Atricanshâvemâdêto leam theiÌ latrguage in the past,ând vith the ottenuninteuiSiblegibberish that Ìesults,th€Í the leaúe. who is pr€pâ.ed to try for accuÈcy jn every detail rrom the beginnirg is at a
79 tremendousâdvantage. He is considereda promisingÌeâ.ne.,pêrhapsthe íirst who ever reaììy imitáted what he heErd;and such â lèarner *iU eârn pãtient, thorough heÌp Í.oÌn thos€ with vhom he hop€s to conmunicãte. The !Ìoblems of tone in Africân ìânguages,therefore, aÍe â most apprcp.iate stãúng point for the analyst or Ì€ãÍDer. NoÍ ãre they by any mens as fo.bidding âs has beenúdely âsumed. Slecial musiel ability has Ìittle or nothing to do with ahility to hear and rep.oducetorc in lânguage.Conve$ely,the claim that one is "tone deâi" is no dcuse. Studentswho literaììy cânnotchângethe pìtch ol their voi@ ií singing,ând who distinguishdiÍÍerent m€lodiesby their rhythm Ìather thân thêir pitch châng€s,have mãsteÌedtonê ìânguâges.Aúd advanced students of music, *ith perfect pitch, vho could hear the minutest pitch distinctions in shoú utterancesiÌom tÌtei. laDguageinformants,have ben known to conpl€telyignoretone when Àttemlting to speâkthe ìanguâge.For reâsonsnôt at all clear as yet, somebeeinnershave more dilticulty rrith tone than otÌre6. But no on€ is qualilied to predict in advãncethât hê wiÌì lind tone hopelessly dííicult, and mâny siìl be surprisd et how simpleit âctuallyis. fon€ hâs to dô sith disünctions of pitch in the Ilow oI speech;and every speãke. ot English notie and pÌoduc€sdist,nctionsin pitch il he can tell the dillereDcebetweenthe qúestion"This is living?" ând the úãtement "This is ìiving." 4.3. Why, then, is EngÌish not called a tone language,and just what is a tone languãge?In English,distinctionsin pitch apply to phrasessepârâtedirÒn eãch otheÌ by sÌight paus.s, oÌ at leâú mâÌked by a slight lrolongation at the end ofeachlhrase. A singlephÍâsemay consistof â singìeso.d-e-g., "Yes?", "No l" -or of a numberol woÍds suchââ "Wìen I vent to seehiú, . . ." The kind oÍ mêÌody that ásks a qDestion in Engìsh may be applied to â single syllabÌe, ôr stretchedout over a fairly Ìong sequenceoÍ words; but it is basicallythe same melody, with tl'e same meaning. In Englilh, cìanging tÌ,e pitch oI one stem, or pÌeíix, or surrix, does not produceâ new morphemein the sâme clâss. Such EnSlishmorpìÌemesconsistof consonãnts, vowels,and in sone casesúressin one phrasesàre intonâtionâlmelodies, posiüon. on entire or another SupsimPosed which themsèÌvesare moÌphemeswith meânings,but which in themseÌvescontãin no @nsonantso. vowels. That ìs, the mo.phemesoI Engüsh inclüde two typs: tàosê which hâve nothing to do with pitch (stems ând affìxeo, and those which consist of nothing but pitch (intonational melodies o. contouÌs). In a tone ìâüguâge,the stltus oÍ pitch distinctionsis qüite different. Pike (1948,p. €) hasdelinedâ tonelânguageasrralanguâgehavingÌexi@UysignìIicant, @ntrastiv€,hut reÌâtive pitch on eãchsyllabl€.' This d€linition reâlly sâystoo much, !ãúiculãrly in âsociating @ntrãstive pitch with every syllabÌe. Even in Chince (MandariÍ), the languageperhapsmost wideÌy known as tonal, and in which tone is unquetionâbìy âsociatedwith syìâbles,many syllablesmust be anâly2edâs "tôneless;"the pitch of suchsyìlâblesis côndinonedby the pre@ding tone. In &De Àr.ican Ìanguages,a singìe tone may be ass,gnedto a scopeor i{o or Bore syllables;conversely,sequeÍcesof two or úore tonesmây be assignedto â singÌe syüâble. Further, tone is not âlsâys Ìexicauy s'gliricant. An aíix may
&)
AFRTCNLNcuÀaE SrRUcruÂEs
have a phônemictone, but its toÍe may be conditiotredby thê tone of the stem with which the âltix o@uÌs There are aÌso ton€s vhich Íunction oDly to distinguish different gramDaticaÌ construcüons; theseare not generaÌy câ[ed "lexicaÌ." And the ph.ase ".elative pitch 'is too imp.ecise. Pitch can be "ÌeÌâtive" in seveÌal wayFrelative to the individual speake.ì voice (â soprâno or â bass),to the emoüônâì cÕnleÍ1.ro rhe physiÍâl surôundingc(e.g.,murmurine in privscy as opposedto shoutingin a Doisymarket), o. to neighboringpitches. lt is, of coüÌ!ê, úe litch of â giveí seghent relâtive to the pitch oI Deighbo.ing segmentsthat is linguisti@ìÌy siSniti@nt, but mo.e than mere?itch .elationship is trsuâlly involved. Given the samephysicÂlsnnouddings,the samecondiüonsof speech,ând the sane !trrpose,Ìepeatedrecordingshave shownthat a given speâkerwiÌl hit ârmost pÌeciselythe samepitch lor a given tone at intervals of hoüB and ev€n days; on the oth€r hand. io bê sDrê,ü ã üred iníornant is gilen aü opportunity to rest,his entirepitch rângeit Ìikely to go up, and hìs pitch inte.vaÌsto increâse. That more úân mere relâtive pitch is invoìved, howeveÌ, is cleâr frcm the fact thaì, nore otten thân not, ân islâted monosyÌâbic utteÌânce cân be ideDtified ãs low or other than low; in most languages,low tone, especiÀÌÌyin isolâtion o. in linal posiúon, is characterted by relaxation, olten a prcgressive relaxation ,ccom!ânied by ã slight downwâ.d gÌide oI pitch. A detinitionoÍ â tone Ìadgqâgeproposedas more adequâteis this: "À toÍê languagê is â ìânguâge in vhich both pitch phóneúes and âegÌnentalphoneú€s enter into the compositionoÍ at least somemorphemB" (WelmeF 1959). Like Pike6 definiüÕn,this e*cìü.lesintonationaìlanguage like English. Such languageshave nÀny morphemescomposedof s mêntâl phonemes(and pe.haps st e$) without pitch phonemes,and some irtonational morphenes compoeed of pitch phoÍenes without segmental phonemes; but thèy have no morthem.s that include boti types ôf phóneúès. À tône laÍguage may conceivablyhave soúe morphêúêsthât coútâin nÕpitch phonehês,ând certâinlymâny tône lânSuageshave some morphemo comlosed exclusively of pitch phonenes. But the distincüve cha.âcte.iúic oÍ à tone languâge is tìat some of its mo.phemes-usually nea.ly all oÍ then-contain both segmental lhonemes Ànd pitch !honem$. Thereseemsto be no known lânguâgein which pitch is signüicântonÌy for units lârgerthân â norphene (suchas woÌds),but smallerthaú a phrase. 4.4. Th€ kinds oI pitch phenomenâtÌrat ente. into phonêmiccontrastsin tone languag$ are vaned; and the Ìecurence or similaÌ contrasts in EtÍìcted â.eas, such as SoutheâstAsiâ or Weú Africa, suggeststhât a typologimÌ cÌâsifiwith câtion of tone languagesmay be useful. Pike clasilied the tone lânguagee vhich he sâs âcquâintêdin 19la as having either "Ìegister syúêms" (deÍinable in teús oÍ lêvelsoI pitch) or "contour systems"(detinâbÌein tems oÍ direction of pitch chânge),and âddedthat sone langtrâges are ìasicaÌÌy oÍ one type with overlay of the oth€Ì type. Àctuauy, such combinato.y typeí'âppear to be an lar more common thân unadulterât€d 'legisteC' or "contouÌ" types; â striking examplei6 Cantoles€,with io!. ÌeveÌtone and fou. glid4. Pike wasunqu6üonãbly corect in recognizing atr impoftânt diÍferetrce between the tonal systems of
81 a great many Asiaú langDãg€s ând thoseof nâny Amerindianand Africân lânguagesrhis delinitions,hÕweveÌ,cân proÍitably be r€fined. The tem "contoür" may be retain€d,but I would deline a contoür tone ÌanguâgemÕrespecificâlly asoneinwhich at leastoneunit tonememust be d€scribedin tems of two distinct components:the direction of pitch chânge,and ahô the position of tle entire glide sithin tÌre pitch range or the elvironment. FoÌ exâmple,Vietnamesehas lnit toÍemesthat must be desc.ibedas "hjgh rising" ând "low rising"i Cântonese has "higì rising", "low Ìising", "high fâlling", and "jow lâlling" (in âdditìon to the íour level toneti Mandarin has "high .isiÍg" and "conplete Íalling". As d€scÌibedto me, Thai, on the other ìând. is not a contourbnguage;it ìâs one "ísiDg" and ole "falling" toDe,alongwith thÌee leveÌtones.but thê positionof the glid€s withìn the environnentaìpitch rânge is appârenrly not signilicânt. Witlin â Íew minutesafter I Íirú leernedthal, Ì hrppenedto hearThai spoken, just loudly enougì for m€ to be âbleto hear the tones,but not Ìoudly enoughso thât I couìddistinguishconsonants snd vowelsto any ext€nt; to my grâtilicâtion, it soundedlâr more like ân AÍrican languâgethân ìike Chtìeseor Vietnanes€. Bythe samedefinition,Ío trnownìanguâgeof AiÌica is a contou.languag€, though ÌnitâÌy Ìisiúg ând lâlling tônem€sfrây sometimesbe lound, {ithout contraslive losiüons in the pitch rãnge. Many lâDguâges ofWestand CentralÂlrica, asrellas the lew Americantone Ìanguagesot whicì I have âny knowÌedge,can be .ather simply describedas hâving two, three,or fôur ìevel tones,ând perhâpsâlsoa ünit rising tÕneând/oÍ a uDit ralling tone. In Dany 6uch languages, eachlevel tone is r€st.ictedto ã relatively Íânow Íânge ôt absoìütepjtch (absôlutelór a given speâkerrndêr given environmentâÌconditions)within â phÌase,ând thesetoneúic rângesâre disdeìe -nôv€r ôvêrÌapping,ând sepârâtèdby pitch rangesshich âre not Dsed-throughout the ÌrlEs€, tìough they may all tilt .lown$ard at tìe very end ôl the lnrâsê ir a brier linal contoui Thus, in a threeìevelsystem,Ììigh tone near the end of úe lhmse hâs liÌtuâlly the saúe âbsôìutepitch as a high tone at the beginning oÍ the phÊ*, ând is higher thân any mid tone in the ph.ase, UsualÌythere are fev rest.icüonsin tone sequences.These!ìenonena may be illustratedby the íollowingsentence in Jukun (Diyi): ákú pèrè nl 2è ìüdyi à syi ni bi kéré.
t-_-
-
I
'Thât personbrought rhis food here.
Th€ ton€s occuB in this sentence. Every pôssibÌesequenceof tso successive thÌeê leveÌs âre discÌetê throtrghout the sntence, and so precisely ìifrited thât plâying them on three noteson a piano (a major triad doesvery well) doesnot alpreciably distoú tòe pitches of nomãl speech. Such a tonal systemmay be called"discreteÌevel." Detâils concerningthe of somediscreteÌevelÌanguages will be outlinedãÍter analysisãnd chârãctedstics defining ânotÌte. ty?e of tonal system.
82
ÀFRrc^N LaNG!^cE SÌRUcruÂEs
4.5. Quite a ditterenl type of pitch relâtionshipwithin a ph.a* is Íound in nunber ol Bantu languâgesând in sohe west Afri@n languageFãmorg a them Tiv, Eíik, Igbo. Gã. and Akan. In theselangDages, sentences can readìÌy be found Nith seven,eight, or evên nore perceptiblydifferent Ìev€lsoÍ pitch. Recuneni low pitchesin a phÌa6ecan be .ather eâsilyidentiÍied.ând cân safely be inteÍpretedas r€presentiígâ tonde rrlo*". But to identify qch of eight or more nonìow pitches as a separate toneme would require positing a highly ünÌikely nunher of tonem6. In addition,the mor?hophonemìc statementrreqDired by such an arâlysis would be incredibÌycomplex;jDst as an exampÌe,a given moÍosyllabicmorphemewith a nonìov pitch might occuÌwith as many as ejght or úôre diltêrent tonemesin different sê
[email protected] restricüols in pitch se, quences,ìowever, sugg$t a diiÍerent analysis. After a low tone ât âny point in a phmse,there âre only two possibilities:the next syÌlâblemay havethe same pitch and ihus alsohâvê low tone, Õr it máy ìave a nonlow pitch; if theÌe was a Donlow pitch €aÌlier in the pìrãse, this one *ill be ã little lowe., (An excepüon i! ShìTswâ,importãnt to the history ól tle analysisoÍ languagesoÍ this type, úill be discusedìâte..) AÍter a nonlowpitch at âny point in â phmse,there âre thê nêxt syllãblemay ìe low, oÌ it mây hâve the sâmenonlow threê possibiliti€s: pitch, or it may have ã slightly lower nonlow pitch. What is significant i! not the âbslute pitch (foÍ â giveí speakeründereiÌen conditions)of â sylÌâblein â phÍâse, languâge,but the pitcles of noílos syllablesÌelâtive ìo as iÍ â discrête-Ìevel pÍecedingnonlov syÌìables. It louops from tle ãbove statementstlat, in a phÈse in such a language, the lirst noúlow pitch is the hjghest. AÍter thâl, tìere may be süccessiveÌylower nonlô{ pitch€s, but never â retuÌn Írom a lower pitch lo the sâne level âs â pÌeceding nonlow. The seqüenceof bonlow pitchesin a phÌâsemay be Ìkened to a seriesof temce or a set of steps,with Ìow ton.s intê.vening here and there like Éapsbetweenthe stepsvhere the llôor is visibleit oneÌooksdowÍ. ln the Íollowing ilÌustrâtiÌ€ senten@rrom Igbo, the succe$ivelylower nonìow litch€s are representedunder the line by the lette.s o, ü, ..., and lov ton€ by z:r !wâ nne m na onye rJkuziya byârã ulo anyi. g g zc cccc d zzef ââbb 'My bÌotherândhisteqcher.ameto ourhonse.' Süchâ tonâl sysíemmay be called t€naced level". In Âuchâ syúem, thde âre two contÌâsts âÍter low: low ã!d nonloe, with tlte aciuâÌ pitch oI the nonlow determinedby th€ pre@dingnonlow if there is one. TheÊ aft three contÌâ8ts ãfteÌ any nonlor: the saDe pitch, â sÌightly ìover pitch, and low. Àrbitrârily, the tiNì nonlow couÌd be identiÍied sith eitheÌ a sãne oÍ a Ìower pitch âlteÌ nonI Thls nolârlôml dêlicê var âppare.lly liÌí
nsed by Pdul Schachtêr(1961, rls nse ts nben.g tonc Lv.k (rì drscÌetê ì.v.r syst€ht rron rop ro boton; nnnbenng írcm bottom to top, by anrÌogy úth 1ìr. stodcs oí a büildtnS oÌ the lettds ol â nus,al saìe, seemsnôn âú.ptahlc.
83 Ìt lóüowsthât the two id€nt'câl pitchesmárkedô in the àbovehave ã dilferent phónomi.stâtns,âs do the two nÌa.ked?. Conw€.seÌy, the lìrsl ò and rhe first I Ìravethe saÍnephonemicstâtus,aÌongwith the d and /ì Simila.ly, the s€cond a, the second,, every c âlter the tist, and the seconds âÌl have the same phonemicstatus. The statusoÍ nonlowsinitially and aÍter lov will be coDsid€red later; Íor the moment,it is enonghto note that attributing â diÍfe.entphonenic stãtus to phoneticallyidentical pitches(and perhapsâlso âltÌjbuling the ssme phonenic siatus to diÍÍerent pitcheo mây âppêârto ìe â grossdeparlureirom the tradit onâl coDceptor the phoneme.Yet it is nece$aÌysith thìs kind oi dâta to attibüte contraús-phonemic stâluFto pitch relâtionshipsrather thân to 4.6. The ÌecognitionoI phonemiccontrastsoi this type is Ìelâti!€ìy recentlÍ Dany cases,anâlystsseeDto have consìdeÌed totre if at all onìy at the lexicâl level,in individuâl wordscìled in hôlâtion. In the very €.rly stâgesof ânâlyzing a languâgeôl this type, ône'sattentionis likely to be loctrsedon very short utterances sequences oI two or threesyllables.It may well be Dotic€dthattì.e. pitchesoeúr in such fÕrús, ând perhâpsã reshiction in their distribution will Dot be thought strangeso early in tÌ'e wo.k. Two{yllable loms would showiive
t ltl
I]
I]
Iì
ln Etik, ior exãmple,juú theseând only Ìhesesequences are Íound in typicâl
iyak I rtôk I
l l
'iish'
iwa I_ l so tl
õboÌl I- l
With no moreevidencethânthis, onemight very possibÌyconclüdethatthese sequences cân be ìâbell€d,respectively,high high, highìo{, lov-high, los-low. ând high-mid. Seqüences of threê syìlabÌeswouìd rery likeÌy stÌcngth€nthk impressionat firúi one might note only the rest.icteddistribuüon oI the appâ.cnt mid tone. A descending sequence of threetones.with elen the last one not being low, shoúldcertãinly be distu.bing,but it migìt w€ll nor occúr in â substâúliâl lftoíe is consideÍed only át the ìexicâìleveÌ-âshâslrequentlybeenthe câse, apparcntlyon the âssumptionthât ìexicaÌcontrâstswill exhausttìe tonàl system the validily ol the labels"hi8h", "mid", and "low" may nevercomeintô qúestion. Somewlo hãve consideredcontrãstsin longeÌ ütteÌanceshave att.ibuted patternôfnonlow toúestôâ desceúding inton.tionaìcontour, all Õtthe descending without .e@gnizingtlat the point at wÌrich the pitch level È loweredis by no Íneanspredictsbìein evert câse- Suôhaú ânâlysisvôüìd âccountlor most oÍ the datâ in someÌanguages, sDchãs Tiv, in which three succ€sivenonÌowìevelsa.e râre. But occasionâloccurrences ol such sequences invâlidâtethis ânâlysis. For Tiv, R. C. Ab.ahâm (1940b)noted such occurences!but treated them âs er-
84
ÀFRrcÀN L^NcuÀc!
SÌRucruÂls
c.ptions in illich Ìhe firú tone is high, thc secondnid, and ihe thÍd âÌsomid but speciâÌlynotedas beinglower than the p.ecedingnid. For Ìgbo, he (1967) attempted a more ri8idly phonetictr€atment and recognizedseventone levels, though sucha treatmentvould require eren nore. My own eâ.ly failure to recognizethc Úuciâl conÌ.aús in Fânte(NcÌners 1946)isattributãbleto my reliaúce ón overly slo{, câreftrIspeech;t I distinctly rec.ll eliciting phrãseswhich in noÌwould have pitch Dal speech the seqDence an{, but they were pronouncedas it the tsÕ words$ere beingcited sepârâtêly,so thãt the €fÍectsâs d-c,t, which I intc.pretcdas Ì)jgh-mid-hi8h. 47. Thôsevho hâve clearlyrecognized three contrâstsin theseladgüâges as d€scribedin 4.5 aboÌe have tr€ated them tonemically in three dillerent ways. PerIâps f.oD â reluctânceio depaú hom ihe ÌabelsÍiFt asjgned in veÌy short utterances,oÍ rrom the ÌabelstraditionaÌÌy used in descÌibingother (discrete leveì) Ìanguages,soÌnehave persistedin labelliúg the three coútrastingphene henâ "high", "nid", ând "loN." This is done by (anong olhers)M. N. GÍeen (1s63)and Lloyd S*ift (19ô2)fo. Igbo, Jâck BeÍy (1969)fôr Gã, and Bertha Siertsemã(1963)in discussingfry ôwn treàthent of tenâc€dlevel languages, This .equir€sa Ìedefinitionoi "hi8h" and "mid" in t€Ìms of pitch Ìelationships rather than litch levels,which seemsünnecessarily tóúuous. Greetrprovidesthe nosi cxplicit and lucid suchreddinition. In handlingthe data in this lrãmework, an initiãl nônló* is jnterpr€tedâs "high". A noúlos âttêr low is âlsointerpreted as "high," vith a stateDenttlÌat it is automaticallylowerthan the last !Ìeceding nonlôNit theresâs one- A nonlowwhichis the sâne ãs an imnediately preceding nonìowis aho caìì€d"high." Only a no!ìov Ìowerthan ao immediatelypre@ding nonlov is câlled "mìd." fhe Ìgbo sent€ncecited abore is then sritten, sith "hiah unmarked,as lollô$s: !\'a nné n nà onye Ìlkuzi f,â byàÌà âabb zc .ccc d zz e f g s Thìs treatmentis ünambigüous, to be sure. My only objectioDto it is the use oI the terms "high" and "nid" to desoibethe pitch r€lâtionshitsinvolved. Allhough Greenis p€rtectly cleâ. in desc.ibingthe sequences high-húh ând midìigh as lelel, but high-Did ând Ínid-Did âs descending,this lahellingjars the semanlicsensibilitiesoI an old discretelev€Ìhand. I prelerto Ìese.vethe tems "high" ãnd "mid" lor the recurent ìevelsof discretêÌevel ÌânguâgeFin which lny mid is ìowerthan any high, any high is higherthân âny mid, and two mids a.e the sâme-râther thân subjectthe terms tô quiie diff€Ìent d€finitionsfor difIerent types of lãnguâges. 4.a. A secoDd say or handlingsüchdatâ is thât suggêsted by nyself (WelmeÍs 1S59)in whât âppeâs tÕ bè the earliesttreatment .ecogniziÍgthat there aÌe a t r. L src{â Oc65)bore!Àn n,ke lìh rypc ot ronal systen whal ll ls. clven rt tnrxp€ ence .nd the prtnctDksoi lìneltstics *hên Ì sorkêd on Fant (re{2 a3), ir Ì had hmrd coRcrìy I nìi8ht havê siv.n üp in dospdr, oÌ just posib\ ,n anszins
85 numberol ìânguagesof this iype. Ìhis interpretationaâs lhsl aüived at $hile sorking with tâp€Ì€cordêdmâtêriaÌ in ShiTssa in 1953. I also recognizedthe three contrâstsâs thÌee tonenes,but gâve thcm difterentÌabch and tÌeated thc nonlowpitchesin a dilÍerent aat. My originâllabelsfor the thÌce tonemeswere "sâmê," "dÌop," a.d "low." Àn initial nonlow would arìit.ârily ìe id€ntiÍied wìth eìther'tame" or "dro!;" thc terms themsclves aÌe boih rclâtional,ând imply a ?recedingnonlo{ point oI ref€rence.A conveni€ntrelab€Ìingavoids thìs arbit.ary choice. In terminologydevelopedìater, òy a.alogy with a staircase,the first Donlowâúd elery subseqì,ent "drop" is labeled'1tep,"and the threecÒntrasting units âre then "sâne," '\tep," ând "low." "St€p" then reteN to the highest level in â s€riesot tenâcesiând tô anX lov€r nodlowlevcl lhercâIter, lhet js, initiâl nonÌow,nonlov âlterìo*, and noúlos lowerthan âtriftúediâtely preceding nonlov â.e all'\tep". "Sâme" is âpplied,oi coüse, only lo thosepitcheswlich aÌe the sameas a p.ecedingnonìow. In the lollos'ng traDsoiptionoI the same Igbo sentence,'\ame"is lnÍnarked: ânI low alter the lirst in a seriesis aìsounmarked;"step" is indica&d by an acute accent: !wá nnó m nâ ónyc lkuzi yá byàra úló únyi. zc cc.c g aabb d zzetE This tÌânscriptionlends itself to the conlenient characterization thâr, aller th. first syÌlâbÌe.e!e.y mark indicatesâ change,and cvcÌy changcb marked. This int€rpretationoI the contrastsinvolv€dhas provenhigìrly practicalin teachjng lgbo (seeWelmers.nd W€ìners 1968b). It has beenc.iticizedon the groDnd that it mâkesthe mo.photon€mics oI Igbo unnecessarily complicated.Tììe iact of Igbo are conplicated to begin with, is, hosever, thât the mÒrphôtÒn€Dics ând no otler intery.elationor t.anscripÌionwould mâke th.m appcarsignìiicant4.9. A third inlerpretationoi suchdatâ ças iìrú foreshado{cdb} a nameÌe$ author (r€ry likely lda C. lÀrard)in a ve.y briel note on lgbo in l94C (seelit.fnationalPhoneticsAsocjãtion 1949,I. 45), apparenUythe eârÌiestraìid anâlysis or ã tonal systen ol this tJpe. The "€ssentialtones" ãre describedâs high. low, ánd "à loweredhigh tone shosn by v precedingthe stllâble." Alrhough the to miÍology suggeststhre€ tonemes,tlìe t.anscriplionsuggcsisthat tìre Ìosering itself has a phonemicstatüs; somesyllableshare lo{€ring plüs a high tone. llis was âpparentlylirú incorporaledinto an explicit phonemicanaìysisby Ir. D. D. Winston (1960). \Ìinslon Ìecognizes "â unit óf 'do*nstep , Nhi.h nây bc slnboÌiz.d by a sup.rior exclamâtionnãrìr, contrâslingsith ils âhsence.""Do$nste?" âccounisfo. âny nonÌow ton€ (which nây nôw safell LÌecalled "high ) bêingslightly loNerthân ân ifrnediâtely p.ecedingnónlow. The loçering oI nonìow tonesâtter ìôv is cônsidered âútoft.tic. Thus the sámelgbo senr€nce {ould be tÍânscribed,with high tone unmarkedand a Ìcúical strokc indicãting do{nr j$a n np m n à o n y p Íj tu z i )! b )i rl u l u dny, g g aa b b zc cccc d zzcl
E6
ÁFÂrc^N Idôü^cE
SruoúÊEs
This tÌânscriptionis iístantly conveúibleto or from the transoiption us€d by those who speakof high, mid, ând low tonesi the mârk which they use fo. "mid" is simply redeÍinedâs "downstepfolÌoved by hi8h." Thde is  signiíicânt diffeÌeDce, however, in the nâture ol rhe ünguistic desúiptiôn. In both the Ìè detined "high-midlow" interpretatiotr and in my 'tame+teplow" inte.pretation, threetonemesare envisionedwith coo.dinatestâtus, In Winston'siíterpfttãüo!, there âre tpo torcDes, high and low, and a phoÍeDe "downstep"which is not a toneme; it is râther soÍnething that coÌrditions the actuâÌ pitch oÍ the íollowing l'rom the viewpoint or ìiDÉuistic theory, Winston s iÍterpretaüon mây cêrtainly bejudgedthefrÒst elegânt-lt âttrihutesthc âctuâlpitches*ithin a phÌase tó ton€mes.but the signifiqnt .elationshipsbetw@nnonìos pitchesto the preseDceor ábsenceol â phonene beÌÕngingto â diffeÌent clâ$. Winston'Êinterpretaüonhas sincebeenappliedby other scholaFto other teraced levei lânguages. (e.g.,M€€üsenr9ô4, p. 3)- Il underliesny nore recenttreâtfrent ol Efik (Welme.s l96E), thougÌ' lo. prâctical pedagogicalpurposes(not just to be peÌveNe) I abbreviatethe awk*a.d thrase "downstep llus hi8h" to my lâmiliâr "step," and transcribeit with an acuteaccentin othêrthan voÌd-iúiüÀl posiüo!. I! geneÌal,a tÌánscriltion recôgnizingdownstepâs ãn independentpÌóneúe will bê us€diD the renainderol tìis work in citing tormsÍrom tenacedlevellanguages. At the sâfretime, of coure, thde is no reasonvhy onêshouÌdnot us€the'tamestepìow ' frâme*ork in such ?.actical situations as the Ìanguage clasÌoon iÍ 4.10. J. M. Stewa.t (1965)has suggested that too müch ol ãn issuehas bêên nade oÍ distiDguishingdiscÌete level aÍd tenaced leÌel languagesâs diïeÌelt types.' He maintaìnsthat tÌ'e latter a.esimtly straighüoNardexampl€soÍ Pike's with the addition oI a phonemicdownstep.But tÌtat is pre"registci' languages oI Pìke's ciselywhat is so momentous.It wâs ov.r â de@deâItê. the appearance Tone Lanltüages ã masteíul work foÌ its dãy and stiu indispensabÌe to the beginninganaÌyst oí a tone language-beforeschola.sbeganto be awâre that in which pitch levelsare lot (to oveEinplify the matter just there a.e laDguages â to five-nôtê scâleon which onecãnplay a wìdevariety oÍ meÌodies, â bit) like twoìút in shich the.e may ìe many more than five lev€lsin â phÌâse,witlÌ rigid Ìeúricüonsin the sequences of Ievels.yet all analyzabÌein termsorthreephonologically distinctiveunits. As noted above, tÌre "same-stepìow" inteÌpretatio! ol a teÍrac€d level ÌaíguàgeidenÌii'esa losered nonlowaner low vitì a love.ed nonlowaneÌ ronlow. That js, th€ seqüenced-:-ô, üsing the tmnsüiptionãl deviceintrcducedâbov€, is câlÌ€d'3tep Ìowitep", and d ò is 'ttep{tep". Stewart lays considerableemphasison the âutomaticnature oÍ lowe.ing aft€r low. To be suÍe, in Ts,i-and i! Gã, Igbo, Efik, '1i!, ând nany oth€r languageFtwo cont.astingnonlowÌev€b 1935 an.ol vordcd as gÌaciously ôr as cohchdy s I would bav. d.sir.d; â dcìâ, ln the ha,ls, not thè lâult ol a'yo'c co.ceÌncd, compeìlednc to vritc r âíieÌ .Êccivingsl.yârlt nâíusc.lpr.
87 do not occur aÍter low. But it shouldbe noted that the lirst conscioúsanalysis ol â terâ@d Ìevel systemwás mad€ for ShiTsva,and in that languâge ús;ng onìy a Ìath€r Iimited amount oÍ tâpe-recorded mâteriâl,to be süre-a clear contrast wâs reco.ded,âtterÌow, bctweenâ nonlowat the sameleveÌasthe p.eceding nonlow and a Donlowât a stightly Ìower levcl. lt was Ìâter discove.edthat the sameolerâìì aúalysiscouldbe appliedto many otìer Ìanguâges, eventhoughthis paÌticulaÌ coDtrâstdid not occur. Morê recenlly thân âny oI thc discu$ionsof this subjectin trint, â moresoplisticatedtrealm€ntorthe ShiTswâdâtâ hàssuggeúed itself,which will be ouuinedin anotler connectionbeìow. It reúâins true that, in generâI,thê typologicãldistinction betweendiscretêl€vel ând terrâccd level tonal systemsmâkcsit posible to chàrâcterjze in a tew words a very large numberot the tone Iânguages of Africa. Detailsreìevantto individuâllânguâgês must, ol course,be separateÌydescribed;severalare discussedin ìhe remâinder The sbtus of doçnstepin tenâcedlevel lânguâges has âlsorec€iveda good deâìol attentioÍ hom anotherpoint oi view. It ìas beennotedlor someindividuâl lânguâges,ând I hâve heard it suggestedas a possibilityfo. àlì tenâced lerel languages, thât downstepnây be histôricâlly,or hÕrphophoncúicâlly,the result of a low tone betweentvo high toneswnich has beenlôst or âssinilâtcd, Since tìe loweringoI â hi8h tone âÍter dÕwnstepis jüst like the loweringol a high tone after Ìow, it is âttractiveto a$ociatethe two in someway. In somelangüages this is unqueúionâblyvaüd. In at ìeastthe Bandi diâlectof Mende(the only diaÌ€ctI have ìeard at au extensively),a sequencêlike [H H H] (d ò ó) occü.sonÌy in npid speechas an alte.nateof[H L H] (a z ó); tÌ'e latte.is alsocommonlyheârd. The asimilation in rapid speechtaLesplâceônly sith â singlesyllâblewhich is otherwiselo*, neverDore than onesyìlable. In its Ir.esentlorm in Bandi, I {ould simply itrterprettlis as /H L H/ and describethe ôptionâÌâssinilâiion. A terrâcedlevel syst€n mây well be in the p.Õcess ôf deleloping. AssociatingdowDstepsith Ìow túne âÌsoÌeadily âccountsfoÌ by tar the nost paÌtoI tlìe data in Akan (includinSFantc.Twi, ÀsânleiseeSchachterand Fromkin 1968),fhoúgì it doe6s€emar]jtrary to posit ân untraceable low ione betwecnlhe two sylÌãbÌ€soI a mther snaìl núfrber ôt nounsin which dosnstepprecedesthe secondsyÌlabÌe. Ìn tÌrraseslike /hén 'dán/ 'their house',the downstepreflects the low tone ol ân êlided syìÌableiby itseÌi, 'hoüse' h iìdán/. ln lh.âses like /hán á'dáD/ 'their houses',the downsteprelìectsâ low ionc wlich has been âs simiìatedto the Ìevel of the precedilg high; by its€lf, 'houses'is /àdán/. In óther larguages lgbo, for example thereseemstD be no motivation for such â recônstruction,histoÌicalÌyor ât sonè subsurtâceÌevel oi the tlronoÌogy. ln lâct, there È goÕdevidencethat a downstepin someenviro.mentsfrây hâve developedl.om a high tone,rather than a low tone,thât is no longe.present-CodsideÌ, lor elample, the foÌlowing: úìò úÌò
'house'; 'housê';
àtó 'th@': ànyi (1 pl.):
'thÌeehouses' úlò àtó 'ou. house' ú Ìó'ányi
88
,LFRrcÀNL^NcuÀcE SÌÂucúÀEs
The tonesof the secondlhrâse can be accountedlor becauseof theiÌ contÌâst with lhetonesÒllhefirú, on)yby recognizingadillerentg.ammâticaÌrelâtionship belweennoun ând numerâlÕn the one hând, and noun and po$essoÌ(actually noun and nonn) on the othe.. In the latter, ân additionâl úorpÀehe b€twee! the nÕünsmusl be positêd,which presuDably{as oncea syllabÌewith a tone. Thc most.easonâble hypothesisis that thât tone wâs high. Then */H L H L H/ (a-.-Â:{) ünderwenttwo âssimilatioÍsyielding a secondstãge+/H ,H H'H H/ (d-ú-Õ-c-c)ieacÌ' Ìow syÌlable {as asimilated to the Ìevel of the lÕìlowing high. Fìnaìly, the middÌe syllable was ìost, leaving the present tones /H H'H H/ Thus, hhtorically or morphophonemically, downstepmay have diffe.ent ultimate expìâdâtionsin dilleredt languages,or even in diflerent envircnmentsin tlìe samelanguage. The ract remainsthât, at the Ìevel oI suúace phonoÌogy, there are ã Ìot oi sirikingly similar tenacedÌcvel Ìanguâgesin Àfricâ. 4.11. 'fhose {ho hâve hãd considerabìe experiencein this lield may undeÈ úandably ìe inpatient or oilicaÌ that certâintypesof datâ havebeenignoredup to this point. The.e is admittedly much nore to be sâid, ând a greãt deal of it will be sãid,but bêIoregoingfâ.the. it s@ns spprop.iateto mêntionsomepÌobÌemsthat relâtive beginnersare likely to hãv.. As the nature of ã terrâcedìevel languagebecomesclear,úDd€ntshâve lrequentlyâskedwhether.in such a lânguage,all Ìow toDesa.e on the sameÌevel.or is therea downwaÌdslopewith 6ue ce$ive Ìow tones? B€lÕreá paüsein speech,â tidâl low or seriesof Ìôws mãy shos somethingof À downwardtendencyin piich, retlectinga lhrãsejinal Ìelaxaüôn. Bur eârlierin â phrâse,in most langúâgesviú {hich I have hâd exp€rienc€,thc low tôncs âre remarkablyclos€to the sameâbsolutelêvel; there is certainly no striking drop in pitcÌr. No. is it dillicult to dtutinguisha low tone fron a loseÌed high tÕne. InotÌ'e. questionfrequentìyaskedconce.nsthe actüalpitch intervalsòetween srccessivelylowe. manilestationsof ìigh tone. It â singlesequence can include ànyNherèfrom tao to cighLor mon distinct levelsof pit.h, do€snt a speaker hâvelo pÌân âheadto dctonine.ither the âbsolutepitch Ìevelat which he should just the begin,oÌ the sizeoI the inte.vals he shoulduse,o. both, to accomodâte numb€r oI l.vels hc {ill need? The ànswd is siúple: ol cours he do@. Iü nay not be a comDonlystatedfact, büt it shouldbe obvionsthãt â nâtive s?eâkerol ã{âre of whât he is going to any laneuageis (perhapsnot entirely consciously) say,ând doestÌãn ah€âd. A vivid and anusing illustration of this is !Ìovided by â ci.cumstâncein shich ìhe normaÌ conditionsot extemporâneous speechwere Dot present. 1ncÌudedin th€ tape recordingoI ShiTs*a Nith *hich I hâve sorked is a $ction in which the speâk€Ìis reâdinga lolk story l.om ã booÌ. Just belorehe turns â page (the rustÌe oi paper is clearly aüdible), he has rcÀd â sizãble portion or a is süch sentcncc,inclüding severalleÌeÌs oI pitch. The structD.eoI tìe 6entence tìat he appâÍently expectedit to end úithin â lew wôrds ôvêr the page. It develops,however,thatthe writer addednore tìan wâsexpected,*ithoüt â @n-
89 venient!ÌâcefoÌ â phrasebreak. Without a pâúseor hesilâlion,the readerìôwerlower ed th€ overalll€vêlôI his low tones,ând conrinu.d tLe scriesof sücc€ssively high tones ìut to the point wherehe wâs cÌearlypusàingthe piich of his voice to a considembÌyÌower leveÌthan vâs codtortablc io. him. 4.12. It has soDeümesbeenreportedto me oÌally that a plÌenomenonapleâs in one oÌ âno$er languagewhich Iunctionsas the conve$eol "dÕwnsrep," and which may th€.eÍore)c tcrDed "Dpstet. For the most part, such rcpórts óI Nhat have turned out to retlect nothingmo.e tììa! a gravemisunderstanding constitutesa stateDent of tonemic struclüre, ând a seriousconiüsionbct{ccn tonemic structure and mórphotônefricâliernâtions, The cvidencepresnted to m€ hâsbeenp.eciselyanalagoüsto ãn lgbo plrasc ciÌed âbovc,irÌ which the word ío.'hoús'ends with â hìgh.r pitch (downstep!Ìus high) than in isolalion(where the finâl tone is low): ú ló 'ányi
'ou.lrousc'
The anaìystsin qucstionworld suggeúllat the higl.r pilcl) (ând tonr) ôI the syllâble/lq/ in the ph.asethan jn the $ord by itseÌl (ând simila.lr oI tlÌe syÌlâblc /âi) represcntsãn "u!step." Büt t{o dil{er€nt utteranccsârc inrolred, ârd thÈ is simlly an instânceof ftÕrphotodernic.lternâtìon. "Do*nstep" is delinedas a phonemeconditioningâ lowcringof the pitch ol high tone; it alpììes tô a sequenceof sylÌauesin one utterance. Sinilã.Iy, "upstep" shouldbe tosited oDly il thereis a sequence oI a nonÌowpitclì follo*ed by a slightly high€rnonlowpitch in the sne phrâse ând in a Ìânguagcwhich canDotbc d€scribedas having â discr.te level system,in whicìr such a sequenceNouÌd be somethinglike mid high. "Dôçnstep" ànd "üpslep" shouìdìol be usedto dcscribethe r€lationship oI the pìtchesoI a giÌ€n lom in two dìilerent utteranccs. The ierm "upstep" has also been suggestedror a somewìrâidificrcnl pheoÍ descending nonìowleveh cha.DonenÕn(StèNâú 1965,p. 3). thc succcssion acteristicor a tenacedlerel systeD can hârdl), ol cou6e, go on indelinitely. lt cìauses,or ph.qsesthe terminal points of is speciticallyÌeúritted to sentences, which mãI be id.ntilied âs the Ìoci oI teminâl phoncmcs;lhe useol a periodor commain transcriptionmay be an ingenuous,but is alsoan ingenious,rcllcction ol descending lerels of suchân ãnâìysis.Aft.r süchâ le.miÌÌal, â new succession beginsiits onsetis usualÌydistinctlyhìgherthan the last nonlowLÌefoÌethe teminal. Sucha phenomenonneednot b€ called upstep ; it is simlly the beginning ot I nrs lonalrqucncerfler a phorpmicl,rmina. thouglÌ it Act{ally, âs sill be seen,"upst€p" is ait€stedin a les ìanguages, is c€rtâiíÌy àn unüsuâlph€nonenon. But lhe terfrs "dôNnst€p'rãnd iiupstepi' shouldbe reservedlor contrastivechangesin nonlowpitcÌl levels*ithin a single 4-13. Once"do$nstep" in à terra.edlevel systemis recognized as a phonene with à stâtusdilterent from thàt óf the high ând low ton€mes,ther€ is reâsonto wond€Ìwheurerit may be round operatingon a tonemicsystemvhiclÌ has more thân two conlrâsts. 'Ìhree contrãsts ápàrt irorn the posibility of do{nste!
90
AERrc^N L^NGU^GE SÍRucrusls
can be demonsiratedir a ìânsüâsehâs cÕntrâstinsseqüences suchs t- _1,t- L woDld be anâlyzedas Ìowìow, lov-mid, and low-high. ând [, ]; the sequences In addilion to thesecontÍâsts,is it Íìot possiblethât, in ìoÍger ând moÍe conpld sequences, a pÌ'onemicloweringcould occü. with high or nid o. both? In such a system,the pitch of downí.p pÌus high wouìd be high€rthân the pitch ol imd, but it sould still be possibleto have a eqüence mid-nigh. Considenngsuch a syst€n as an abstrâctlosibility, the compìexitiesmay se€mfoÍhidding. Theo.€ticalìy,òowever,theÌe is no r@sonwhy such a system coüld not âppeârin somelânguãge-à pôsibility shìch I had nôted, in ar unpuhlishedmanuscript,three days betore I r€ceivedinÍomation that a Ìanguage {ith just such â systcm had be.n discoveRd. Pik€ (1966,pp. 137-39)notês a system apparently ól this type in Bette, bnt finds that the downstepis nonphonemic,atpeâring âutomâticaììyaft€r a í.esed ìigh tone. He suggeststhat this might easilydevelopìnto a systemvith threetonemesand a phoremicdownst€p. A few months aÍter this repoú oI Pike s appeaÌed,Rob€rt G. ÀÌmst.ong (1968)reported a confimed caseof dosnstep in ã Ìhre&tonehê systm in the Ikom dialect oI Yala. Thrêedialêctãreasâre distinguished for Yalâ: Ogoja,Obubra,and Ikon. On the basisof lìis own compaÌisons,Amstrong stat6 that the dial€ctsof Ogojâ and ObubrâhâÍe slrâightÍoNard discretelevel syúems;lor OSojâ,this is ampÌy contimed by the anâlysisof ËügeneBunkoNske(not y€t pDblished),shich I in turn ìâve chcckedwith his informants. But in lkom, theÌe is an automãtic ìowe.ingot high tone âtte.Inid o. ìow, and ol mid âflerlow; and in addition,there is a phon€tìcallydistinct and contrastivelo{€ring oI hig} áfter high, and alsooÍ mìd aiter mid, Thât is, phonemicdownstepóccurswith both high ând mid. A pÌ'onetic sequencehi8hlow is analyzedas high-downstepìow;witìout downstep, the phonetic.ealizationoi low âfìer ìigh is a falling gÌide. Mo.pÌ'ophc n€mically,lhc pres€nce oi downstepalpears to be the r€sult ol the deletionol a syllãblewith ÌoN or mid tône- ÀrmstÌÕng'sdesdiplion oi this systen is so ex?licit and Íully docum€ntedas to be completelyconvincing- ln addiüôn, it lúrther srrengthensthe câselor.onsidering dosnstepto ìe a phonem€ope.atingon a tonemicinv€ntory,rather than for attemtting to incorporãteall pitch pheÍoúena sitìin a tonemic inventory, 4.14- À phonefricüpst€pâppeãFto bc the only reasonable int€rpretâtionol and the raisingor a ìigh tone in Yofrbe, âs repoúedby A- E. Me.ussen(M€eussen Ndembe, I 964). Such an upstep appeâ.sin only . few constructions,and it is conceirâbleon the hâsisof the Ìimited evidencecited that it sìould b€ attributed to an intonationalpattern haÌing a stâtusdiilerent from that oI dowÍstep,which occuN nore conmonÌy in th. lânguâge.The latter alternative,hÕwêveÌ,*ems quite unlikely in thê light ol sone detailsof the âvâilâbledata, ând in the üght oi Meeusen\ entirely soplisticatedreactionto the dâta. AfteÌ ân upstep,Íollowinghigls continueon tle sanelevelDnüÌa ìos ordownstep;the upstepsimply ol tenâcesback uD one ìevel. slilts the entire seqnence
91 There âre âlso instâncesol â rise in pitch within â phrãse*hich are Donphonemic. In Xhosâ,in a s€quence of hiAh toDeslolloNedby low, the.e is â genpitcì, eml ascending oÍ and the last high in particularis noticeâìrl]lììgher lattern than thosepreceding.Thjs h, hovev€r,cleàrlycónditionedr.the. than contÌastA sÕmewhâtsimjlâr phenoneíôn is hêardjn somediâl€ctsol Ítwe. lÌyc is one oÍ a smâll numher of known Ìânguâgesin vhicì soDe nutuâllv ìdielligibìe diâlectshâve â disoete level todâl syslem,but Òthe.dìalectshare a do{nstep. I! the tenacedÌeveldialects,for at ÌeastsomespeâkeN,ihe Ìaú high ionc betore a dosnstep ând anotherìigh is consideratìlyrâised. lt is easilt demonú.âble, hÕwever,thât it is the do{nstep that is thonemic,and that the .aisiìrgot a ligh ton€ b€iorêit is condiiioned. A simiÌa.analys'smay well be aÌrplicableto the dâta dcscÌibcdìrI Pikd (1$66, pp. 133'35)íÒr D€eemâând Engenni,closelyrelatedlanguages(o. dialrcts?) oi the Edo (Bini) groupin Nig€riâ. In oneoI its occur.ences in both lunguàges,*hat Pike calÌs"êxtÌa high tone" is cìãracteristicol a negâtire verl]âl p.eiìx, I! ân oth€Í occuüenc€in Engen.i oDly. the sâme"exira high ionC' app.â6 çith â syllablepre.edinga deìetedpronoünthe normaÌtone of shich is high. That tìris is not a câseoI upstep is verilied bJ tìe iact that lollosing high tonesdo not continueon the sâm€le\€l-in lâcl, Pike expÌicitly poidtsoúl tlal loÌlo{ing high tores are lowerthan they would nomauy be. The interpretationpositedÍor Eç. is apparently applicableìcr. as welì thúe is âctuâllJ . phónemicdosnstep, vhich is autoDaticalÌ! prec€dedby â raiscdhigh Ìonc. In the history ot the recognitionand anaÌysisolteraced lelel tonâl syúerr, it was âccidentalìrut pecuìiàrthât the fi.st lângüâgefo. *hich such a systeìÌ {âs clearly stated, ShiTswa.doesDot Iãve a compÌctelyâulomâtìcÌow€rì.g of hjgh tones âtter low. My interpretâtionof certain pit.h phenonenaas 'same" and 'ttep" incÌndeda recognitionlhal there ìs sDcha cônlrâstalter ìow tone as weu as âitêr nonÌo*. â cont.astnot to my Ìnowledgeattestedior any othe. terracedièveììanguâge.The sequ€nce of succesilelv lower non Ìow toncswitL injs terveninglow tones,typicâl and invariablein other teraced lerel Ìanguages. conmon enough,to be sure; tor example:
In the folìowingphrase,however,th. syììâbìe/{â/, unmãrked,hãsthe samepìtch âs the nonlowbetorethe precedinglow:
Thisis not, âs SÌcwâú (1965,pp.910) considered posible, an attempton DJ paÌt ât â ftorphophonemicrep.esentation, caÌÌingthe s)llabÌc iwâ/ "sâm." b€câuseil wouìd be on the samepitch leleÌ as aÌ irnncdìatcÌy precedingnonlos. Nor is it ã caseot â ne{ phrasebeginningwith /*a/, suchthat beginningagâin al lle highestlevel of pitch is p€nìissibh. Contrâry to Slewàrts lirsl âssunption, I
92
A FFrci N L\N c!Á cE S ÌR U cruuE s
{ouÌd indeeddislingúishtwo contraúing nonìÒwìevelsalte.low onethe sâme as the lâst prccedìngnonÌow.and onc â litde lower. ÀÌthoughbâsedexclusively on tape-recorded mâteriâls,the dâta is suiiìcìedt,ând the pronunciationso cleâr, that sucha conclusions€€msinescapable.A r.interpretãtionof this lhenomenon seemspossibl€,however,and highly desirãòÌe. It hasoccü.redlo m. Íecentlythãt, to the bcstol my linowlêdge,thê "samè" Ìevel alter a lov tone occumwith only one mo.phemein the ìângìrâge-theâs$ociatìvepórphene/á/, shicì occursin a lumber oI syllabÌesprecededby a consonaDtrepresent'Dg a concôrdìalprefix. (lf thêre âre otìer occnr.ences, they âre probablr tew, and veÌy posibly Òf a simìla. moÌphologi.aìtypê.) The â$ sociativemorphemehâs a high hequ.ncy of occuÌreDce,peÌhapsespeciallyin the type of data selctedIo. recording,ìut it is stiÌl only one morpheme.Àpâú f.otr it, ShiTsNaseemslo displaythe usualautomâticlo*ering ót high afteÌ low. It is ihis a$ociâtire úo.pheme,then, wÌrich is unusuatif not unique. This sug, geststhat the lo*ering of high âlter low could be consid€rednormâl aDd nonphonefric, {s in othêr terrâced Ìeveì lânguâges,whil€ the nonÌowenngof the tone ot the asociative morpÌremecould be consideredthe unusual ese and selecÌedfor phonenic mârking. (For a theo.eücaìlvsimilârsÕlutionto a problem in the EÍik voNel system,sec2.2.) Siúcethe pitch ìn questionis higherthan thê nÒrmal,erpected,noncónt.astive ìoweredhigh,it cânìe interpretedas a high tone precededby â phonemicupstep. (This spp€aa onÌy ãtter lÕw; alter higÌì, the samenorphemehas a nomal ìigh tone-) ld the lóìlowingexample,aìì ìigh and lo{ tonesâre mârked.dovnstep is nârked /v/, ãnd the pôúted upstepis marked vámürvóná müfánà Àwávhósi. à z hb zcz c dd
'They s€ethe chiefs child.'
'this not like the phenomenondes.ribedabove lÕr Ewe, D€genâ, ând Engenni 's a râisedhigh beforea downstep.The samcmorphemeshossthe same pitch .elationshipir a Ìon tonc folÌows,contrâstingvith the usuâltosered hi8h. E.9., nülánà "wá nübìkì
the cook'schild
Pending a more thorough anâlysisoI the SÌtiTsva tonãl system,with iíformants arailable in p€rson.the contrâstsas describedìere seeminescapabÌe. Posiling â phon€micupstep tor onê uúique (or perhâpsonly nêâÌ-unique)case appearsat presentto be the best solutìon. Apart l.om tìis, ShiTswadispÌays very much thc sane kind oi tonaÌ system ãs other ftÌrâced level languages. The tnrce tonenes of the Yâla oi lkom, and the presenceof a phonemicupstep in YÕnbe and Shj1swait the aboveaúâÌJresare cor.ect(and they ceúainly aÌe not unreasonabÌ€), â.e ÌeÌâtively minor âdditionsto the Ìery ridespread ünderÌying themeoI tenacedlev€ìÌângüâges: two tonemesând â phonenic downstep.
93 in tenscedÌcvel lsnguâges,the 415. À numberoI analystshave recognizcd, dilf€rent status of a lhonemic loweringoI lrigL Loneòy do{nstep ând the nonphônenic loweringoI hi€h ton€ aftÊr lo\', ând have used the term "dówndriit' to d€soibe the latt€r. Dosnstep does not seemto occu. in a languageunÌe$ downdrift alsooccurs-a íacl which mây hâlc led someto thc undouìtedìy premature conclusionthat downste! alwaysrellectsthe d€letionor asimilation of a sytlabÌewith low tone. sothat downstepis the phonemicproductor a oncenonvith two phonenic downdrilt. It ìs t.ue, on the otìer hand, thãt someIanguages toDemeshave downdriit the nonphonemicloNenngof hjgh aiter low wìthout havine downstep. This is 1rüe,lor cxâmple,oI Bandi, which âlso hâs ân atìophonicãssìmilationyi€Ìdinga Donphonemic downsletin rapid speech.The diaÌcct contou.with oI KiKongo spokenin Ngombehastso tonesând sucha descending (1936) scemsto be â cìâsi. high tones,aÌthoughthe dialect recordedby Laman exãmpleot a tenaced level Ìanguage,with ân aplarently thon€nic downst.!. Judgine from â va.i€ty oÍ descrjptiorsI âh nol prcpâr.d ro âcfupt âs conplete! it woüÌd âppeãrthãt dÕwndriitis tylicâl ol a nunber oIBânlu lângrâges;in softe câses,tle ìvriteN may ìa!ê indud€d dosníep vithÕDt .ecognizingjts plonemic status. It wouÌd appear,the.elor€,that mâny two tone syí.ms shÕuld,on the basisof the generãll,atterningot piich levels,be clássedwith ter.acedlevel ìângúages.Th€ tem "temced lc!eÌ", lhen. wouÌd not be restÌìclcdto thosesysleús whìch jnclude a phon€mic,contrâstiÌe lorxeringof nonlow tone (downstcp),but would be extendedto includeall systemschsrâcterized by succ€sivelylower nonlow levels.or do*ndriIt. Àltlougì downdriti se€Dsto be typicaÌormany laDgüag€swithlwo tonemes, it is certainly not sareto assumethat it is uni!e6aÌ. TlÌe lit€.atuÌe is oI ìittle heÌp he.ei an anaÌystwith exFrience in only one langusgemight ponú out the tresenceof â descendingcontour tlroúghout a phrase,but he would hardly be ükely to point oul jls âbsenc€.IIy osn experience{ith t\roìone systemsis resìrictedto â lery lew lânguâges,hÕst ol thefr heârd belore this was recog nized âs â po$ible probìen. In rhe câseol Lomâ, however,I do nót recall any temptation to transc.ibea ìigheFloseFhighersequence as t€ntatively "highìowprobâbÌy mid", which I wouÌd hâv. doncii theres.re ãn appreciâbleloweringol high aftc. low. ThÌoughout ân utterancc.Loma (which is âdjâcenlÌo and fâirly closelyrelatedtoBandi) seemsto sÌrowlittl€ if any suchloxeÌing, exceptperhaps in phÌaselinalposiüon. In UppeÌ Voltâ, I once overlìeardatr animâledconversetionin â languâgêunÌno$n to me, $lìich r'âs characte.ized by dearly marked, âlmoú stâccato,syllabiÍicatjon;I observedio anotherAfrericàn presenlthat iL soundedas il the tones ol a singlesp€akercould be playcd accurâtclyon t*o notes,with the interval ol a minor litth. In ure ìnter€stsot moÌe accuratede sdiptions,jt seensusetúlto djstinguhhallóphônicterracing,in the lom of dosndÌjIt, I.om recunent discretelevelsevenfof two-toDesystens, Even wherc oler aU teúacing is not present,however,a pe.ceptiblelowerjngin iinal positionappeaB to be exceedinglycommonin disoete level syúems.
94
AFRrc^N L^NGUÀGE SrRUcúREs
416. Hausaiuustrat€sa clearlymarkedtypc oI teracing with two phonemic tones-{ tsôth high ând lo{ tonesare involved. In declarativeutteÌances,five levclsoÍ pilch mây òe Rcognized-An initiâl low tone is rôrúâily at the nexttolow€st levelj a finâl Ìow tone is âÌrvaysat the low€stlevel. UniDtenuptedsequencesoi either high or low are leÌel. Apert trcm iniriâÌ and fiDáÌ lôw. âlternâting high ând low tonesìegin âL ihe highestievel,go dowDtwo levelsand up one. dovn two and up oDe,so that a maximally long sequ€nce has its last high lÕneon the next tolowest ìevel. Poienriâlly Ìongerseqúences must be broken up into t*o orfrórêi in êâchnew sequence, the rirst high returrs to the highestof the fìve ìevels. SuchbreâksnormâììyÕccuÍat certãintypes ot syntacticboündaries- Thüs the t*o tones oI Hausâ njght be diagrâmmedon two downwã.dslanting lines; â lóv tóne is always lower than both tle pre@dingâ!d the follo$ing ìigh tone, but the lourtÌ' high tonô Ìevelis low€r than the fi.st noninitial low tone level,and the sameãs the second,in a seriesof alternatingtores. Using the letters(throúgh e tÕrepresentthe five posible pitchs, from highesttôlovest, is jÌÌústrâtedin the folloving Hausasentence: a úarjnufr sequence iyà tá dáÍà dànkáli dà nÁmà. âc b bd d ce e d ê 'Mothercookedswêetpotâtóesând m€at.' Ân inte.rcgatìveintonatìon.superìmpos€d on such a sequence, is châracteÌized by two discretelevelslor high and low, plus an additionaÌÌâisingot the last rlaus!ìis oneol the feÌ languages I hâveheârdin whichâ high tonerelativeÌy ìn be late a sentence may on a lower absoìutepitch than a ìov tone earlierin the senl€nce.F€w ìânguâges, il world seem,hâve ìo* tonesiú suôhcleârìyâudible desondingreÌatìonships, though in othe. languâgês Ìow tonesâre not necesa.ily on the sameabsoìutepikh; commonÌy,hovev€Ì, low tone gives the effect or â drone bassâccompânyingshatever is happeningup Òn the steps. Pike (1966, pp. 139-41)cites other casesof âssimilativeintersectionoI the absolütepitch ìevclsoÍ diÍÍc.ent tonemes.Wh.rher they cân be des.ribedas rctÌectinga foÌm oI downd.in is noi enti.ely clea.. In any case.oi couNe,the detaiÌsmust be desüibed indetendcntly for câchlanguage. 4,17, P.ior tô 1959,I hsd sorkcd on Shónâlor no hôre thaí â Iew hours one âlternoon. That was cnoughtime to notice a phonetic dovnstep bêtwen successilehightoles,which I presuDedto be phonemic;I accô.diÍglycitedShona as âr exanÌpleol â tenâc€dìevellânguâgewithout lurlher comment. It hãs since comcto my âttenlion that this apparentdownstepis conditionedby the identity of the consonantor consonantciuster beginning the syllable.6Âctüally, both high and low tonc 3.c aiÍcct.d by such consonântsrâ high tone is Ìealizedas a rising glide bcgintrÍÌgat â pitch lower thân lhe precedinghigh, and a Ìow tone is ! rììis slsroÌ {as liÌí
ds.rib€d by Hodsc and HâüÍ (le{a). s]-ídÌ n d*oibcd, rho'8ì no! ,n conpNhcntlvt det il, bJ
c5 simply lo{er than it sould ôtheraiscbc. lhc consonantsand clustersthat condition this lo$cring ìâ\'e beeniermed !'dep.eso. onseis"iâ coÌnpìctclist is pÍ0vided ìry Derck Firaz (1969). The depressoronsclsd0 not scemto consiilutc a ând clusi.rs; lhe] incÌudesomebut not very neatly delinableclassol phoneÌnÈs all oÍ the loiced stopsand lricalires of rhc phoneDicinrentory. most ìrut not all conbirâtions. ând atparenl\' alÌ duúe6 or loiced conol the voicednasal-ônset voicedin shonâ). Shonââlsohâs rh. Phenonìcnon sonântswiÌh iw, y, h/ (iI/ 's desoibed above as downdritt, a nonphonen)icloqernÌg oI lìigìr ionc afÌcr loN. It is thus a terracedleyel lãnguâgeir the broader rDse. wlth a DonplÌonenric conditioniDgoi ton.s that makesit soundmtrch like ã languàgeNirh phôneÌnic onsets À very simiìâr condiiioniDgoI both high and Io{ tonesby d€Fressor is found in Xhosa (seeLanham 1963),zuìu, ànd po$ibìy olhcr Souü Ahìcân BâÍtr lânguâges.In Xhosâ, theÌe is ãlso a doNnst€pr€ilectingrh€ deletionot a lolvel vith loN ton.. The one nalile speakeroi Xhosa {ilh {hom I ha\e worked readily resto.edthe elidedvoseÌ iD sìoq spe.ch;$hetÌrer lhis h typical, as phonemicàlìyp.esÈnt(asìdBandi) âdd whetìer thc low tone can be recognized is uncertajnto me at present. 4.18. 'Ìhe three-tonêdisdete lcÌcÌ slstcìì of Jükun (DìXi) {as aert brielÌI desc.ibedin 4.4 abor€,in orde. to prolide a poini ot depâúurcfor the disd6sion of the qüite diÍÍerent syúems cìâ.acieÌizedas tetracedlerel. lhcexlentôlthe ensuingdiscusionmust not be interpretedas implying lhât dìscrclclercl syúens clearlt hare dis aÌe ât aU uncomDon. CôuntÌessNjgeFKordolâniânlângtrâges c.etelereÌ systems$ ith two to lour tones. At ìeâstsom. Chadicand Nilo Saharan ìanguagesahÒhâve, ând a Bushnan (Khoisân)Ìanguage{ith suchà systemhas ìreend€sc.ibedto my satislactionin p.i!âte conlersâtìonLÌy l)csmond T. Col.. The actuâÌ tonemic contrastsare trsuâllvrather easy to ideDtilI. lhongh tììere úày be cotìplicationsat the level oI morphotônemicâltcrdalions, À convenientprocedurêlor begiDningtonal anaÌysisis to eliciì the 0quiyalents of severalEnglislÌ nouns,pãrliculârly nouns refeÌrìngto countableitems, suclÌ that onecansoonalteh-ardselicit phrâsêsin which thc sâmenounsare lsed siih âtrd âs oDjcclsof !.rbs the equivâlentsof numcrals.demonstratiles,possessires, such ãs 'want, see,buy' and so ôn. In somcìsnguages.a simplecomtarisonoi the nouns{ith eachothef is süIficicntto revealthe contrastìngtones. Such is ihe cas. in Jukun (Wàpã) (see\relne.s 1908a). Ol ih. fi.sl l{enll o. so notrns recorded,a very tes wonld hâlc ihc segDÌentalstruciure CVCV. setting these asideror the môment,the remâiniÌBnounsarc âll simiìarjn segmentalstruclure, and lend th€msehesro direct compârisonfo. ton€. \\'ithin lilteen miDnl{s or Ìes, onc nighi well ìrâle recordedliltee! nouns like lhôselisted bclo$, ând b. iâi.ly certainthat tone hasbeenaccu.atelyreco.ded.Mânv iÌüormâÌts loìunieer additionaìnounsshowingninimaÌ contraúsin tone. Ìo âssurera.doÌì order,lhc Iollowing nouns ârc list.d in rhc âlphâDcticordcr oI tlÌeir Dnglishe{ìuivalents; mìd tone is ünnârked:
96
AFRrcÁN L^NcuÀcE SmucmREs
âbyi
'soâl'
àkwì
'eou.d'
âbyü 'oil'
ãvi âti ak{i âkwì
ho.se house knüe' 'millstonè'
apà àdü atswÍ âsi
These nouns may now be reg.ouped accoÌding to tone foÌ bett€Ì-contrcIed compârison.Having the inlormant .ep€at aU the nounsin eachgroup, or prG nounci.g th€n Íor his apprcral o. disâpprovâI,reveaìstbatall the nounsin eâch groüp are indeedindenticalin tone. Contaring the lirst noun in each8Ìoup reveâÌs that there âre inde€d lour cÕntrâstingtone sequences, ând three ìeveìs:
ekvi âwi avi ari
millstone ânimaì 'horse' 'house'
abá
'dog'
àk'{ì àdü
'gourd' th@!'
4.19. Checkingtheabovecontrâstsinshort pìrâsessoônprovidesdata which ?.esenta signilicantp.oblem inthe scopeoi tone the asignment of tonenes to segmentâìunits. The nuderals through ten, in the form usedin countiDg,arer
átsütsã
€ight'
Nuneráls âre usedailer nouns. II the tinal tode ol thê nouí is hjgh, the initiâÌ vowelof the numerâlis elided,and th€reis no pe.ceptiblel€ngtheningof the linal voNel oI lhe nouD. One {ould ìave no hesitationin transc.ibingcombinations âbátsarâ 'three dogs'
abiÍ tsara 'th.eeeoats'
II the fi.al tone oI the noun is mid ór lôw, however,the tone oÍ the initiâl lowel ól the nuheràl remâins;therc is â quick glidc fron the rinal mid or low tone of the noun to high. but againthere is no peÌcepnbleìengthenidgoi the linâl vowel mid-high ând low-highãc@mpanythe of the noün- Phoneticaìly,rhe sequenc€s ÍinaÌ shoú Ìowel oI tÌ'e noun, as suggestedby the loUowingüânsc.iptions: â*i'tsâra
'thr.e aninaÌs
âkwi'tsara 'three chickens'
FolÌowingPike s definition of a tóne language,which suggeís â rule óÍ one toDeper syÌìãbÌeand one sylÌâblepeÌ tone, a number oI lingDistshave assDmed
97 that an additionalvoweìmust be positedto accommodatethe extÌâ lone ìn phÌâses süch ss the sbove; th.y would ânâlyze[hesc âs /âwii tsâÍâi ând iak{ii tsarâ/. Partlculârly in li8ht oÍ the ?hFses with nounshâving iinãl high ton€, th€re is absolutelyno ?honeüc jusüIicaüon fo. such an analysis. For phrasesot this particulartype, it may be theo.eticâllyposibìc to pos süchan iier0pty" lowel, which hãs no duÍâtion; büt füúher analysis(undoubtedlymuch late. than the IiFt hou., to be sue) reveãlscontrâstswhichmâkesuchân interpretàtionhopelessThirteen ot thê filteen nouns cited iú the precedingsectioí begin with /a/, with hid ton€. Il ânything precedesa noun in an utterance,this vowel is completeìy lost; the lollôwing sentenc€s illust.âte this, and also consütutethe iirst six ol â reDarkably la.ge set oI utterancesminimally diÍterentìn ton.:
ku hwë kwi
'he bÕughtâ milhtone 'he òought â chicken' 'he countedthe kDives' 'he coüntedtàe nilhtÒnes' 'he countedthe chickens'
The Ìemainingtwo nounsbeginwith /à/. with low ton€. In similar environments, this lowel is côhpletely lost âfter lôw tone, but its tone is retàinedâfter nid or high, with no lengtheningof the precedingvowel. This adds onemo.e to ihe six contÌastsaboveithe secondoltheiouowing sentences is completelyhomophonous with the lâst Õl the âbove: ku hçë' kvì kü hwé kwi
'he bought a gourd he coúnted the gourds'
There is a morpheDeindicâtingidentilication,üsedbefore nouns,Nhich iÌr utterânce-initiâÌposition hâs the lorln /á/, siiì ìigh rone- E.g., á kwi
'it's a chick€n'
á' kwì
it\ a gourd'
BefoÌe ãn objêct noun. ãnd afte. nid oÌ low tone, the voseÌ quality and durâtion are Ìost, but the high tone is retainedâs paú ol â glid€. This ÌesuÌtstu sequ€nces of two and eventhreetoles wlthout aoy ìengtheningÕfthe tinal vowelof the verb, âdding eight nore contrâststÕ the sevcnabove:
'ith â knitehe boughr' 'it's a Dillstone he bought' 'it's â chickenhc bought 'it's â gouÍd he boüght' 'itì knives he counted 'it's millstoneshe counted' 'itÌ chickenshe counted' 'it's gourdshe count€d'
98
ÀFRrcÀN L^Ncu^cE
SÌRUC&RES
A l€ú hasbeenmade,hâvingân inlorhânì sâyâbout live oI the* sentences, rândomly including exânpìesvith ore, tso, and thrêe tonesaccompanyingthe vowel oÍ the verb, one âIter anothe.. All the sentences were identical!n tining. Nith á pãuseequivãlentto the ìengthôI onesyllableafter €achsentence, the list sound€dlik€ countin8cãde.ce. The concÌusion is sinply thãt, in sÕmeìanguages, the scopeoi tone neednot be an entire syllable;s€quen@s of tso or more tônes nây âcconpâny â singlesyllableIncidentãlly,filteen nore DinimâUy coDtrastingsentences can be add€d to the âbo!€. Ii the initiãl syllableis /kú/, with high tone inúêâd of mid, Ìhe seít€ncesmean he shouÌdbuy aknile Ìather tìan he boughta knife , etc. . . FUF lher, âìl thiúy contmstingsentenc€s can be trânslormedinto questionsby lengthening the IinaÌ vowel, with a slight downvaril glide after higì or mid tone. In spiteof suchan unusualvariety oÍ tonal contrasts.I havefound Wàpã, of all the lánguâ8esI haÌe workedwith, to b€ oneof th€ eãsiestto lêãrn. 4.20. In Diyi, squenc€soI two toneswith ã singlesho.t vowel app€ãrundeÌ quite diflerenl circumstânces.]-here are the sme sequences in noun-numerâÌ phrases.bul nounshâv€no initiâl lowel, ind the identifi.ationconstructionlound in Wàpã was not recorded, In Wàpã, nounstypicaììy consistoI an initial vowel pìus â sirgle syl!âble. In Dìyì, nàny nounsconúú of two sytlâbìes,the fi6t of wÌ'ich is clearÌycognatewith the singlesyÌÌablein Wàpã. In most such nouns, the rinal sylÌableis irà/ arterân orâl vowel,and /nã/ âner a nasalizêdvowel. E.9., kúnã bàrà
knife'
'bag'
The tinal syUablein süch nouns-ând only nouns have such a st.uctu.e can Ìeadily be analyzedas a sullix, even tloúgh it hâs no grânmãticãÌ ftrncüon. seÌ€ral oth€r nounsconsistoÍ one syìlâble,with a tone leuing rÌom ìi8h oÌ nid to Ìow, or with low toDealone. Ih€ high-ìos ând midlow glidesarc inte.preted as sequ€nces ol rone accomPaDying a singlevoveÌ. E.9., bé' dyi'
dog 'dirt'
za'\ d tr
rguineâcorni bè J e âr
ând with the No words other than nouls Ìrave highlow or mìdlo* sequences, exc€ptionoI a very l€w kidship te.hs no onesyllable nouls have higÀ or mid tone withoút â foìlowinglow. Th€ low tone can thüs be interpretedãs a second noun sufiix. By analogy,it nay be âssü6edthãt âlmostaÌì monosyllâbicnouns with low tone (exceptjngposibly â lew kinshp te.tns) ârê derivedlrom nouns witÌr tìe saDe suIlix. The t*o â)ove wouÌd be */bè'i and r/íè'/. The suÍIix. howev.r,hasno vocaliccontentôl its o$n; it is only âtoneioÌlo*ing the prcceding lonê ând a.iomtân)ing the samÊ\osel. The noun nè hoe ii homophonous wìtlÌ a ve.b /nèi 'boil', which cânnot hale a sullix in its undeÜirg structuÌ!. with 6ingìevosels. involving a noun suffix Ewe has sinilàr tone sequ€nces Efik hâ3a laniíg sÌrich consistsor higì tone. Ànong terac€d Ìevel languages,
99 glide and a rising gÌidesith singlevoweìs.which cãú with qo seemingditficuttJ be interpretedeithe. às trnit tonemeso. as high low ãnd low'high seqtenccsl srSument\for the lalter âre lìprhapsslighll) better. 4.21. In Mano, very much as in Wàpã, the eârliestúeps in anâlysitsthe elicitationof a nrnber oI nóunsin isôlâtionâdd then with à tew númerâls âgâitt quickly reveaÌedthree contrâúing levelsoÍ pitch. Monosyllabicnouns{itÌ' eacÌt of the thÍee toneswe.e found within the lirst leÍ úinütes ol elicitâtion;heãring then .epeatedin vaÌiouso.deF vas like lìearìngsomeoneplay aroundwith the three notesoi a mâjor triâd; an .xânple of eachis Eò
goat
Disyllabicnouns with dôublevoweìs.voveì sequenc€s, or a secondsyuablebeginningwith a consonant, possible though wereÍoundto illustrateeve.y sequence, somesequences âre Ínuch Ínore commonthân otbers. E.g., Jili íálõ gbÍJè
t.ee 'hoe' 'machete
6ij gbiÌi
bag
'hamper'
Compa.isons oI tlese loneswith lhe initial tone oI a rollosing numerãlprovided reâdy mntirmâtion ol ihe prelifrinâry id€ntiticaÌions. Conlenient nunerâls aÌe tlte lirú Ii!ê: Initial high: In'tial nid: InitiaÌ lov:
sóili 'five' doô one pèèl€ 'two'. yììso
VaÌiouscoDbinâtionsmake the sameness of ihc Íinal tone oI a noun and the inìtiâì tone ot a numeraìconspicuous, or provideclea.ly distinct examplesol every possibleint€rval. In shôrt, everythingseemedamazinglysimplei apart from â f€w cas€sot a laìÌing elid. which wúe simpìy sel asidefor the momeni,and later proved to be best int€rpretedas a unit tonem€,the ton€mic inrentory of Mano seemedto be comprehensilelyillustrated, When the anâlysisprogresedfrom phrasesor the noun-nume.alt]'pe to shorl verbal sentences, hosever, ev€rythins seemedto lâll âpâú; iú simple subjecr obj€crverb sequences, the tinâl v€rb did not iit jntô the tonâl frânework âÌready estlblished. Thereappearedto be no iinal high tone at all; and alter someinitiâl conlusionâbout finãl low tone, a coÍt.ast was recognizedbetqeena los ìevel pitcÌ' ând â low tâlling glide- Ultimât€ìy, it becànè cleârthât two intonational pãtteÌnswere inlohed. Citationsin isolâtionreguÌâdy-and unusuâllyas languâgesgo showthe sâmecharâcteristics as completeutterancesrlich âre questions: three t.uly disc.ete,invariable pitch leveÌs. ln declarativeutteranc€s, however,the lâst tone, or the lãst sequenceol ideíticâl tÒnesâlter â phonemic junctur€, is lower than the $me tone at any eaÌÌierpoint in the sentence.Final high is at about the level of an earlie.midi finaÌ mid js at âbout the leveÌ ot an eaÌÌierlow, level and st€adyin intensity;final lo{ }egins at the Ìevelol an eârlieÌ
100
{FRrcÀN LÀNcu^cE SrÃucroREs
ÌÒw,but fâlls slightly lower and diesout in intedsity. The discretelevelsof the earlierpart ol the sentencetip down, âs it were,at the very end. This is quite a ditferent phenomenon, however.from a pqttern of descentdistributedlnoÍe or lessevenly over ân entire utterance. lt is simpÌy a phenomenonwhich must be speciâlìydesdibed for Ntâno ând sofre other languâg€s,supenmpowdon ãn otherçisesimpledissete level systeh. BeroreIull t.eatnêúts ol tode languag€rwere conmon, some lingüistsbe ìievedthãt it vas imposibÌe lor intonaüotrâìcontmststo be supê.imposêd on â Irom Manoand Hausa(4.16alove) amply cont.adicts tonal systeD. The evideDce thât â$uDplion, lntonâtionalcontrâsts,however,usuâllys€m to be restricted yes-noquestions,and nonfinslclauser.On the otheÌ to intonâtionsfor staÌements, hand, mâny tone Ìânguagcsdo not hâve intonaüonâl@ntrâús: ând it is by ro meanstrue that qú€stiÒnsin all languages,even those with intonâtion,involve "rãising the Ìoice" at som€loint in a qtrestion. P€Ìhãpsthe commonst lãult ãmong be€inning learneN ol tone lânguâgesis to attempt to imitate what was sãid,but làrgeìyignÕringthê tones and sulerinposing oú the utterâncean Enlish questionintonation,as il to ask,"Am I syìng it right?" 4.22, Both ! problemin the scop€ol tone, âúd intonationeupeÌimp@ed on tone,arê loünd in Kpelle GeeWeÌmes 1962,pp. 82-92). Threecontrâstinglev€Ìs ãre reâdiÌy eúabÌisÌted,and a lâlling Slide (high to Ìow) also occuN with monoká 'kè ka 'kè kà'kè kpò!
'you (!1.) did it' 'you (pl.) do it (customariÌy)' 'wheo yo! (pl.) do it' dooÌ
In Dorpheúesof morê thân Õnesylìâble(disylÌâbicmorphemesare !Ìedomiúâni, with doublevowels.vowel sequences, or a secoúdsyììâblêb€ginningwith a consonant),tive pitch sequences are found. For reasonswhich wiu be stated is inteÍpretedas the nãìizaafter iììüúmüons are given.eachof thes sequences tion oÍ a singletoneme,whosescopeis the entire form. Obviously,the diacÌitics üsêdto indicâte th€scton€mesare hereusedrather difieÌently than in tÌânscnparel tÌonc oÍ Õrherlânguáeps.Ìhe five sequences High throughout:
'town târ First syllâb!êhigh, low thereafter: pygny antelope' tôâ FiÌú syllable mid, hiShlow tlereâner: têê 'blâck düiker' kpòo
'padlock'
káli
hoe
l0t A phonemeof oteü tÌansitionnuú be recognized.Therejs a contrâstbetween âre id€ntical,but in /kâÌi/ 'hoe'and /ká li/ 'you (pl.) $'€nt'; th€ pitch sequênces the latter tle secondsyllableis sìightly more pÌominent. lvhen loms such as thôsecited âbôveâre usedin long€rutte.ânc€s,eâchtonenè is âsigned to â segment betweentwo olen tÌansitions. Tìe tones ot monosyuabÌes betweenopen transitionsâre identified with th€ lirst thÍee ând the lâst of the five sequences 'Wh€nmidis loìÌowedby mid or by pr€consonantâl Ìow âft€Ì opentransition, its allotoneis a sììght rise spreadoveÌ the enti.e scopeof mid. (This statoent requúesslight noditication lor diâlecls olher than the one used h€re, but ihe implicationsor the aÌlotonicsare the sâme.) Sucì a rise âccompanies tìe tirst word in eachoI the tolÌowins: ka kpo0 ná. a 'kè.
HeÌ! me (pl.). 'He doesit.'
Now, wÌ'en this rising allotoneot nid is spreâdover tso or morc syÌìâbl€s,as in the torms on th€ right, it is r€âlizedas a slightly ìighe. pitch with uìe last voweÌ than with the first. Il tones vere âssignedto individuâl syllables,there would seen to be no aÌternativeto idcntiÍying rhis higher pitch as a high tone. By ânalogy,úe short risiíg pitch Õl â úônosytlâblein the sâhe envjronftentshÕuld then âìsobe ânâlyzedãs a sequence of mid-high. Recognizingseghentsbetweet opentransitionsas posibÌe scopesfor singletoncmcsobviâtcsthis dilÍicully and simplifiesthe anaÌysh. In uttemncÈfinâì position,high ând ftid, âs weìÌ as the beginnìngol highlo1!, hale slightly loweredâÌlotonesaft€r lo{; the lo$ nay be preconsonãntal, ormày beìongtÒ the precedingvord. Again, this phenonenonappliesthroughoút the sco?eassign€dto high or hid, vhich mây be more lhan a singl€syllahìe- ln the examplesìelow, the lo{eÌ allotonesof hjgh and nid aÌe Ìreardin th€ lhmses pili.
'pili.
Questionintonãüon is superihpos€don the lâst ton€ne otìer thân Io* in a sentence,unlessaU tonemesin tÌ'e sentenceare ìow. High tonc, inclüding the beginDingof highìow, is extrem€lyhigh and tense,oft€n talseltÒ. Mid tone is a shÀrpÌise to a siúiÌâr level. (English speakinglearne.sor Kpelle usually üse a raisedIeveltar too Ìow; in terms oI En8Ìjshintonations,Kpellc qucúionssoünd astonishedor rude.) Á.y low áft€Ì thìs ÌealizãtionoI quesüonjntonation is just âs low as in stãtementintonation. A questionshich containsonÌy low toncs is pÌonouncedon â lery leleì pitch, *jth sustainedintensitt; in a statementwith only low tones,ther€ is ã slight lãll in pitch, and diniDishcdjntens'ty toward the end. Questionsprovide more examplesol the unity oI ã segmentìets€en two
102
AFRrcÀN L^NGU^GE SrÂucÍuREs
opên transitions;in the foÌlowing,quesüonintonâtionis rêâlizedwjth the singÌe tonemesol such segments(underlined),spreadover mo.e thaÍ oDesyllâble: ô pà à tÉ€Ìâlu?
'Did he bring livê chickens?'
'káa'p{6imü? i ìeêèÌà?
'Did youÌ hother cone?'
À disyllâbicor lÕngersêgmentbêtweeútwo open tÍansitionr may thus b€ the doDain oI a sinSÌetonem€. Suchs€gmentsnây. howevêr,contâinmoÌe than onê toneú€. Initial p.econsonantlllov tone, or initial higì tone with â nasal, Day IrrecedeaDy tonene in the rest ot the segment;e.g-. 'tôli,
'CaÌlhim.
r óli.
'Cãll me.
Highlow and Ìow may be loUowedby mid with the iinâl lhon€me oi the segm€nt (âlsâys /i or hD. ln this case,the drcp in highlow goesdown only to mid, and continu€sat hìd through rhe tinal phon€ne,to shich the nid tonemeis actuâlÌy as.ìgneí1.FinaÌ m'd is indiratêd ìy / / in iÌ'ê toÌowing:
'thechisel' 'tôlo! High with a scopeol no.e than one syllablemay be lollowedby low with â finâl a Pilii
'lre is jumping
h€ is lying'
Ànd linâìly, verb phráseslike tìe abovemãy be iollosed by /i/; the secondof the follosing examtles iiìuúrates the maximrm sequenceof ton€meshetweentwo open transitions,and one of tlem stiu has a scopeof Dore tlan one syllable: 'krnii â'piliti
'the boy vhÕ is jumping' 'the stoneshich he is Ìhrowing'
A tonemeaÌwaysbeginsalte. the li.st consonantlollowing open tEnsition. Its scopeis up to the next tonemeor the next opentransitioÍ, whicheve.is íiÌst. 4.23. The charâcteÌistics oI somediscfttelêlel systemswith threecontÌasting l€vêlshaveb€endescribed.Syst€Dswith fôur contrasünelevelsareprcbably les conmoD,but aÌe clearìyestabÌished io. severalÌãnguâgês.Bariba is one ol these (seewelmers 1952â),thougì the Kandi djâlecthasonly threeleveÌtonm6, witÌt an âllotonic ioürth le!€i; íour contrâúing ìevelsáre estâìÌishedior the Nikki and ParaÌ(oudialectsby a variety or mininal and subninimaÌ pajÌs. The fou. leveìsìâve b€enlâbeÌed,staúing trch Ìh. loscú. los, hid, higì, ând top. Thde is àlsô ã rjse (fróm mid to top, ôr perhãpssìightly lower in ralid speech)â!d â IaÌÌ (Irom mid to Ìow alter mid, otheNise high to low). The .ise ând ÍÀÌl accompânl shôú vowels,including one oÍ ã sequenceol identicâl vôwels. They aÍe perhâpsbest tr€âted âs ã unit .isiDgtoneme and ã unit talling toneme,though thè riseis âlways,and the tâll sonetines, norphologicaìlycompl€x;onÌy the lâll
103 occuÍsas paú oÍ â stêm- In íorms sith doubÌevow.ls âlonc,a vaÌiety of sequeDcesilhstnte the contnsls; in thc Íoìlowing,the unmarkêdtone is high, and top 'goai'
yâ wãà 'is it good?'
dãã
in tòe sentence AÌÌ four lêveÌtonenêso.cDrin â dscêndings€qüen@ /nÉna nã kà/ 'I ân the onewho câme'. Preconsonantâlnasâlsâre always syllâbic ând carry â tone. Syllabic /m/ with â tone occu.s postÌocâlicaìlyin finâl losition, vith the morpÌ'ophoDenic alte.nant /n/ in utterancemedialpositionbeio.econsonants other than /p, b, m/. Therêãn no nonsyÌâbiclinâlconsonânts; in tle loììoving €xânples,an unmârked preconsonantal or tinal nasalhas h'gh tone:
tìÌn
'l'm going to eât' 'medìcine 'waìer' 'I d.ew weter'
nÉú boo nÉí duma séúbü tendu
'Iny goat' my hoNe' 'comb' 'bow'
Thereis no auothoniclowe.ingoi tonesin linaì losition. Morphophonenically, hosever, â sêriesol one ôr more high tones (âttêstedin ütterance-medial position) has the âlternãnt mid in linâl position atter low. 424, Whât mây have beenâ lour d. tor.e in tÕnâlanalysistook placeon a rcadside!e.ha!s fifty milessoutheastoIBâmenda,Camercon, aboüt nid-Jânúâry, 1950. The Ìanguageis unidentiÍied. We hâd stoppedloÌ lunch out ot sight oI ãny hãbitâtion, and weÌe úãnding aÌound the tailgârÈcunlunch-tâble of our pickup t.uck, vhen a womân and a child ot perhapseight câne pâst ôn foôt. Wìth undeNtândãblecuriosity at this djsplay of loreign culture, the child kept tüming to Ìook at us, ând ÍeÌl perhapsÍiÍty Íeet b€hìndhis mother. His mother turned and said somethingwhich consistedol four syÌlâbles.The first syÌÌãble had the lô{est pitch; th€ secóndwâs high€r;the third was higherthan tÌre tiFt ìut Ìower thân the second;the fotrúh wâs thè highestot âll-iú Bâriba, the sequetrcewould be low-high-mid-top. I immediâtely$id to my wúq "Behold â ìanguâgewith íour tonesl" I hâd reâsonedthât the ci.cufrstanceand the clild's lâck of verbalr€sponse madeit highly unlikely thât the utt€rânc€wâsâ questioD; had it been,the posibility of a rising intonation wouÌd ìtâvê to be considered. More likeÌy the ütte.âncevas an imperativei posibly it was a statement. In' tonâtionãl or âlÌothonic conditioningto âccount fÕr a pitch sequenceof this type seemshighly únlikely. It jüst shows-in ãll likelihood-ìow simlle tonemic âoâlysiscan somêtinesbe. Júst a les weeksearìier,ünde. more seriousaDd scienüriccircumstances, NdoÌo had p.ov€n to have a disc.€televel sysiemwith lour tones. First several
104
AFÂrc^N LÀNcuÀcÍ SmúcNRÉs
nounss€re eÌicitedin isoÌarion,with someshâtinconcÌusiveresults;three tone Ìevelswere obvious.but foür w€re Dossible.Then the infôrmant was âskedto count lrom one through Iive. Four secondsând five shoú sords lateÌ, it wãs the nexrblâú Ìevelwasreminiscent obviousthai tour toneshãdto be recognized; oÍ a beginne. on the trump€t accidentaÌ\ playing a note two steps high€Ì than
- lLáãr;l- LnyèãJ -Lsóónrl b*ril - thàalal
L-Ì
t
l
t-
l
I]
l-r
Hearingthe sries sâid twice in succesionconlirned that the pitch ât the end of 'five' was p.eciseìythe sameas that at the beginningof 'one'. Fuúhe. compaÌisonsof the tonesof nounssith rhoseÕÍ nunerâls,and of ton6 in â vârìety oÍ utterances, ÌeadiÌy confnmed this anâlysis. UnfortünateÌy, the few houÌe available with a sp€âke. of Ndo.o did not pêmit â lüll ãnalysis oI the segmental lhonemes, but confirmed tonal contrasts aÌe illustrated ìn the IolÌowìn8, the tÌanscÌiption of which is otheNise tentrtive; again tle next-to-highest tone is un-
télã
3iÈ
'dog'
ror testing is iuustÌatedby the rollowingseriesoI phrasesand  prÒcedure sim sóóu òa. sóólr õa. tããÌã õèl tããrã iÒr &iãrã
'five âdzcs' 'five axes 'three axes 'three siones' three chickens
(to! sane ãs top) (high loser thân top) (high high€ÌtÌ'a! mid) (mid sâmeas nid) (low lowerthan mid)
The four contrastinglevelsâre eqüâllycÌeâÍin riÍâlposition alter the s€quen-
mã ti ÒEÌã Tsenty+ix verbs vere Ìecorded in monosyÌlâbic loms which âppeaÌ to be alloDorphsoÍ stems,in somecaseswitìoút â stemjinâl consonântwhich ãppeâs beÍore a toweì sufiix. Of the twenty{ix monosylÌaues, ten seÌe recorded with Ìow ton€, thÌee with Did, thirteen with high, ând nonê sith tôp. A restric[ion in Dorethan onebmncì or the NiSsoÍ this type h attestedin sev.ral laDguâges
ToN L SYsÍlMs
105
CongosubjÀmily. Jukun (both Wàpã ãnd Diyt has tÌr.eelevel iones.but verb stemshâve only Ìow 0r mid tone. Another caseis notedìelow. 4,25. Ànoth€r íour-toÍe sysiem is lound in Tigong,. ln thjs case,thê lour when singularand pìnrâl forms ol nounsserè levelsquickly becameconspicuous cohpâred. MostpluraÌshâveâ prelix /e-/,with the next-iolÌ'ghesttone,lroviding â @nvenientl.ame lor recognizingthe rolìosing tone as higher,same,ôr lowe.; other tests {ere loüúd for distingúishingthe (loset nid trom low, though the contrastìÌas not hard to hear ìn any câse. In addirion, mâny noun stemsìâ!e â tone onestep higherin th€ pluúÌ than in the singulâr.while otheÉ havea tone one step Ìoqer in the pluraÌ than in the singular;somesteDs show no tonal alternation,ând there is lrequenily â vo{eì âlìe.nâtionâs well. A cornpârhonol siígülar ând !Ìürâl forús spokenin imnediâìe súcesion thus prÕvidesa wide va.iety oI sub-ninimal pairsilìüstEting the lour contrastinglevels. Plural lórfrs pâirs illustratiúgthe tonesare âs íÕllo{s; agãin,lhè anâlysìs and singulâr-pÌtrrâl of the segmentâlphonemesis tentâtive in somedetajÌs:
eki kpi, ekpi
'tree(s)'
venyi..rényi'el€phant(s)' bwã,.bwâ ch'mpanzee(s)' kwè,ekvë'froüniain(s)' 'nrillstoneG) yu, eyi nonsc{r, to. clc
The fact that the vowelsoI pÌu.alsare recordedin somecasesas the sameas the vowelsol the singulan in tone, in somecaseshigher,and in sónlecãstsloser, may Ìead to the suspicionthât the recordingwas not entjrely accurate,rath€r than thât the ÌânguageâciuaÌly has such complications.Apàrt lrofr ân âssurãncethat the investigãtols hearing,trans.ripìion, ànd reproductionot tone arc unusuâllyÌeliabÌe, it is Íortunate that almost e!e.y singulâr-plurâlpair (over Iifty) was recoÌdedindependentìyon twÕ ditlerent occâsions,probâbly Íor the most pârt on difierent dâys: the i.detendent transcriplionsareidenlicâìin ever) casebut one. In addition, I ìad the oppoúunity tÕ checka numbeÌoI the $uciâl like lhât hcârd 4.26. In Kuiep, fou.-syÌlâblesent€nces with a tone sequence in the unidentiÍìedCameroonlanguagehave be€nrecÕrded(s€c\Yelm€rs1956).
Foür conirâúing ÌeveÌsâre aDply attestedfrom othêr dâ14âs well, 'Ihe distri butio! ôI toneswith stems,how€Ìer, is pecuÌia.. Most noúúsconsistof a prclix ãnd a monosylÌabicstem. For most nouns,tlìe Ìrrefix has low tone iD initial posiüon oÌ âlter ìow, but mid alter othe. tones. A iew nóunshâae a pNiix with high tone. Noun stemshave Ìow, mid, or top tone-neaer high. Ân cxampleoI eâchposibility, with a senterceshowinghov the tonesÍ€re testcd!is: . Data 8atìend
L Deúmber, 19,19,Dy Beatrice F. welnms.
106
AFFrc^N LÀNcuacE SrRUcruREs
üswàm ìyãk
'baboon': 'buffalo':
n nu! üswàm 'he sâwa baboon' 'he saw a butlâÌo ú nuÌl iyãk 'he sawâ fish' n nut iwák
Ve.b stems,on the othe. hând, have ìow, mid. or high tone, hüt not toD. An ú ku yè üyin ú ku Ìú ú ko bâ
'he is crosing the.ìve.' 'h€ is going' 'he is coming'
Taking eitherverbsor nounsby themslves,therefo.e,orc would soonjüdge thât Kntep hâs thr€e tone levels. But the levelsin nounsând in verbs âre not the same;when tones a.e compã.edeven in shoú Dttêrâícescontainingboth verbsând notrns,Ioürtonesmúst be recognized. Somey€a6 aft€. wo.king oui rhis anâlysisof Kütep. I beganto questionits vaÌidity in the light of .e{er discoveÌj€sâbout the laÍjety of totrâl systemsin AÍrican languâges.In the eârly 1960\, ìowereÌ, I had the oppoúunity to check on the analysiswitì a missionarywho hâd ìeàÍnedsomeìhingaboút linguistics and an inlormant who wasìimsêlf Ìenârkably sophisticated.They had !o doubt, and lcÍt ne with nonc,thât the ãnâlysisand the statementson the tonesof noun and verb sleDs are competelyvaÌid. 4.27. The tonãl systeh Õl Yóruba wanants specialatteltion. In most dia, lecls,thêreis â ph€nomenôn which might be inte.pret€das À phonemicdownstep, but shich is more convenientlytreattd as â lusion oÍ low ând mid (in ã threelelel sysl€n). ln âddition, â rising glide is inte.pretedas an auotoneof high if los precedes, but âs a sequence o. fusionof ìow ànd ìigh in othe. envircÍnents. In the simplest two$yllable utterânces,nine tonâl lequencesare .eâdily lound. Sèvcnol theseare sequences oÍ level pitch€sshowingclea. cont.astsoÍ high, mid, and low. Tvo of the njnê pôsible sequences ot Ìeveìsdo not occur: *ìow-highâúd *hiehlow. Thereis, however,a s€quence oI low and a Ìising glide, and a sequ€nce of high and ã lãlling gìide. 'l hesesequences may be interpreted tonemicallyas low-highatrdhigh low rêspectively.Thus â dsing glide is th€ âllotone of high afaerlow, and a falling gìide is the âlloton€ol lov ãfter high. The racts!p to this point are summãriz€din the chârt beloN. Mid ton€ is unnaÌked. WoÌd diÌision doesnot Ìepresentanything phoDemic.Glosesare given in a separâteand parallelchart in orderto preservethegrâphicvaÌtreot tbe Yoruìâ loms ând representâtions ol iheir tones. MI-
L:
ów á I I óÌe I l ów à I \l 'heis (thero
.já Í- I çja tl iyÒ t _l
ìsé Í_/l âcãtl ilü I_ _l
107 This much ânalysisis adequâteto accountior aìì of the tonaÌ contrastsoI Yorubâ ãt the ldicâl l€vêI. It is âho âÌl thet wãs .€norted âbout Yoruba tone until Ìelatively recentty;as with other languages,a comnon practicehas been to overÌooktone totally in contexts larger tìãn singÌesords-it, indeed,it is noted even ther€. Yorubâ is one ol the râre African Ìanguageslor which tone mârking has beenlearnedby a substantialnuDber oÍ nrtive speâkers, but âgain only lexicaltone. as summarizedãbov€,is taught ând leârned. One detnil was omitted hom the desqiption abore, Nhich js relât€dto the anaÌysisof tone in Ìongersequenc€s.IÍid tone âÍter lôw is sìightly Ìowerthan in other enaircnheÍts. This s€emsnaturaìenough,and at ihe lexicaÌlevcl is hârdly woúh mentioning. In Ìônger sequences, such a lower ãllotoneol mid is mosi noliceâblein finâl position. For examtìe,in the followingtwo sentences the second tone mid in both, but ãlter ìigh in the IiFt and alt.r low the secoDd is 'D but ihe finaÌ commônlyprcnóunced,and is alwaysacceptable, et the sâmepitchi Inid tone is elwaysloae! than the mid of the secondsyllable: 'he didn't buy à châir' Thus the aÌlotonicÌovering oI mid a{ter low is not enti.ely parallelto "automatic downstep"ór "dó*ndrilt" in terâ.ed level languages.It is not confinedto iinal position,âs might be suggested by the âboveillustrations,but neitheris it obìigâtory in everyoccurenceof the sequence low-mid. Towardthe beginningof lâirly long uìt€rânces,the ìoweringol úid âlter Ìôv js optional,or at leastrery slight. Àt the sam€time, the lotential Íor sucha Ìoweringprovesto be most impoúânt for the ânâlysisol ânotherphenoneúonin the Yoruba tonal systefr. Th€ numeral one , in a iorm used nominalÌy,is /òkân/. When usedattribtrtireìy alter a noun, the initial vowel ôl this lo.m doesnot appea.. Ho*erer, the tone of tìe iinal syUableis the lower Did Ìevelwhich is elsewhere conditioned presence prec€ding preceding by the of a low. Ii thc nounendswilh low, the lower mid level ol /kan/ can be explainedas the usualconditionedlowering. But il the precedingnounendswith mid or high.the toneot the nuneral cont.astswitl what has âlreadybeenestâblishedas Did. ln all three of the Íollowingexamples,the Íinal tone is slightly Ìowerthan the initiaì tone; in the lirst exâhple. this is interpretedâs cônditionedby the prec€dinglóv, but in tìe secondand third it is contrâstive. a.d ne.e indicatedbv a macronl
Atter mid or high, th€ tone ol the nunerâl cân be inierpretedas a lusioDoi lo$ and mid; that is, both the low and Did tonemesare present,sihultâneously. MorphophonemicaÌly, this ìs obviousÌyattractive: the lov tone vhicÌ' in other contextsprecedes tle nümeÍaìstem is translered to the stem iiseÌI; its presence is appãrentinits condiüoningeff€ct,tÌroughits own pitch combineswiththe usuâÌ
108
A É urc\N LaN GU ^cE S ÌR U cÌuR E s
pitch of mid to result in a compromisebetveenth€m. Phonemically,this interpretâlion is strengthened by t{o Íurther cónside.ations. Fi.st, th€re is â closepâraÌlelinvolving the seqtrence lo*-high. The demonstrâtivè 'Ìhis hâs â nominâl ro.m /èyi/. in vhich th€ scÕnd tone hasthe noÌmal rising âllotÕneof high alter low. When us€daitributively afteÍ a noun.the initial voael oI this torm doesnot àppear. The tone of thê finãÌ synâbleÍemâins a rise, starting at the level of low. If rhe pÍecediÍg nouÍ erds with low, this rise can be cxplainedas rhe usuaÌalÌotoneof high. Btrt iÍ the precedingnoun endswith mid or high, the Ìisê is contrâúive. I! all three oI the followingdânpÌes. the tone oÍ the lâst syllableis risingi in the first, thh is interpretedas conditionedbr the precedinglow, but in Ìhe secoddând third it is contEstive, and h€reiDdicatedby a wedge:
etüyi çja yÌ ajá yl AÍter mid or high, the tone oI the demonúrâÌiveis interpretedas a seqüenc€ oÍ present. Iusionof Iow and highi that is. both th€ loÍ ãnd high tonemesare Secônd,a comparisonof oth€r dialects.einfoÌcesthis int€Ìpretation. Othe. numeÌah providea convenìentiììushâtion, Oíe lôrm of 'th.ee' trsedin côuntiíg is /èta/;the corcspÕnding form Õl 1en'is /èsá/. Áttributive Io.msoI tìese numerâìs âdd a pretix vhich nây be syfrbôlizedas /m'-/. The resultart foms iD the dialectsconside.edup to nos a.e /Dítã/ and /mdsà/. In someother dialects, howeter, the low tone attested in tlte coDnting Iom is Dot tÌansfened to the úuderâl steú, but is simpìyÌetâined;the resultantÍoms are/néèta/ ald /Ddèrái.  simiìar situation is found in the negãtiveinperaiive of verbs. For th€ verbs /lqi 'eo ând /wá/ cone', the negâüveimperâtivesinìhe dialect undeÌ considerâtion are /ná ìó/ and /má wà/; but in ôther dialectsthe foms aÌe /fráà l9/ ând This is, ot couse, a clâsic lroblem ot neutralizâtionand phonemicinter' s€ction. 'lso leÌeìs b€tweenhigh ând low contmst alt€r high or mid, but not .fter lovi high and rise contrãstâIter high or mid. but not âfter low, The âbovê interpretationis pr€sentedas a legitimateand deÍeosibÌe one,but not Íecessarily âs thc only posible Õne. Án ãlternãtivêdesoipüon would state that high and mid 6imply do not occurafter Ìow, but thât rìseand lo*eÍ mid (treatedas unit tonem€srathe. thân sequ€nces or fusionsin this inteÌp.etation)do. Apaú frcm one'stheo.eticalprelerenceo. bias,ìt is cleartìât this inte.pretâtionwould âÌso simplify the desoiptiÒnof the linited numberol exãmpÌescitedabove. It wouÌd, however, introduce an incompa.ably É.eateÌ complexity tìÌoughoüt the mo.phôtonemicsof the .est oI the lan8üage-Át the puÌely pÉgmâtic level,it mây be addedthet both jnte.pretâtionshâve beentestedj both naüve speãkeFând EngÌishipeâkinglearreB find the inte.pretationoutlinedin the pÍecediÍg ?âÌagrãphs faÌ easier to work sith.
109 The lowe. leveÌ of nid âfte. Ìow in Yorubâ resehbìes the dôvnstep of a te!raced level Ìangüagein that at l€âst in r€lâtively short utte.ances-it becomes the point of Ìeferencefor louowìngtotres. YoDba is not characterized âs â teÌÌaced leveÌ language, howev.r, becaüseit cân be descÌìbedin terns ol three nonoverÌappiúgÌevelsand certain cluste.sof these;the bâsicallyÌelationalterminoÌogy required íor a tenaced level system is inap?Ìopriate. In isoÌâtionand in linâÌ position,ìow tonesin Yorubâ âre short lalling glides, giving the inpressionthat the pitch is "pushed" to Ìow. Low tone is âlso vert' commonlyâsociâtedsitn ã üeãky voicequality somuchsothat nativespeakeN of Yorula have sometimesinte.preteda habituaÌÌyueâky voicein aú American leaÌneras signaììinglo$, tone even when the pitch relatiorshipsrepresentedan âdequateimitâtiÕn ol ftid and high. 4-28. As hasbeennoted ãbote (4.14),sone diâlectsól Es€ nave a phonemic downstep,whiìe otheN do not. Àpart lrom this downúep,three pitch leveìsare clear\ distinguishable, phoneticauy,in both types oÍ diâlects. The distributiôn ol the mid ând Ìow Ìevels,hÕwever,is süchthatthe reality of a phonemicconiraú betweenÍnid and low may be quesüon.d. In noun stems,mid ãíd loÍ are cÌearly in complementaÌydistributionin terms of stem-initialconsonants.In verb stems and ãt least the vast majo.ity of other morphemes,mid and Ìow are in complementârydistribqtion in tems of adjaccnttones. The diferêncebetveenthe conditioDingfactorsÍÕr noün stemsand otheÌ morlrhemes suggeústhat it should ie po$iblê to find somesyllabìeseqúences, with difierent morphemiccomlosition, in which mid and low contÌâst. In fact, however,rhe cônditionsinterlock in such a way that contrâstsare Ìa.e, and le.hats neve. minimaÌ. Th.ee cla$es of consonantsnay ìe disnnguishedin Ewq dilfeÌing in tle wây in shich they conditiontone in noun st€msand a noun prefix: À.
Vôiced stops an.l fÌicatives: b gb d d dzg zí B. voic€les stots ând fricâtives: ttskkP JI C. Resonantsând nasâls:
vf nv ! The thr€e recognizâble pitch levêlswiiì tentqtively be calledtones. In utteiance linal posiiion or beiorelow tone, onìy high ând low tone occur. Before Inid or high tone, hos€ver. aU thÌee leÌels occuri the lones of noun stemsáre identifi€din this envircnment.All noúnslemsthât haveÌow tone beginvitì consonantsol clâssA, ãnd conversclyall noun úens thât b€gin wiih cónso.ântsol cÌassA haveÌow tone. Noun st.ms with nid oÌ ìigh tone beginvith consonants ôlclâssB o. C; atthis poirt. classB ând C are not yet distinguished by their tonaÌ
110
AFÂ'C^NLÀNcu^cE SÌRUcruÂEs
condiüoDin8. ExampÌesol monosyllabicnouns,as they appear belore mid o.
Mâny hâve a vowel prelix; âpaú rrom tone, the vowel is always/a/. 'ìous with lo* tone, the tone oÍ the pÌetix is aìways low. Belore stemswith Before Etems nid ôr high tone, the tone of the prelix is, in oDediâÌect with which I hav€ done somework, âlwâysnidi in anotherdialect,hoÌieveÍ,it is low beforecoísonântsof clâssB, ând mid beíoÌêconsonantsol cìâs C. Exampìesfrom the lãtteÌ diâlêct àgà àgbà
'cliff' 'load'
In ve.b st€ms, hi8h coÍtrãsts with non-high irrespectiv€ of stem-iniüaì consonants. Ìn final positionard b€forêlow tone,only high and low occuÌ;ê$mlles
yó
'câll'
dzè
Split
iò vt
'fry' go
Belo.e mid or high tonê, nonhightonê with verb stens is Ìow o! mid fouowing the sane rule âs lor the noun prefix dêsoibedabove, and mid beÍore â noÌrn prefix çith mid. B€Jorôthe verb, â subjôct p.omDn with non-high tone hãs the same ione âs thè vêrb stem. Thús, in â typicâl súbject-verb-object equetrce (and aìsoin noÌe conpìex sequences by Iurther applicationsoI the same.ule), thereis a châin of condiüonslor the choiceoI mid or low Ât âny point, âs loíg âs the disti.ction hetweennoun stehs ând ôthe. môrpheDesis recognized. The samerulesrequi.e,hovever,that theÌe must be â cont âst betweenlowhigh end mid-high,with consoDâltsin eachpositioDb.Ìongineto th€ samêcla$, in combinatiônslike the Íollowins:
àgàlí
'the cüIt' 'you pickedDp a machete
PÌesumablythe abovenight be completeutteEncesunderunusuâlcÍcumstãnG, and minimaì pairsmight po$ibìy bê fôund, hut in ordiÍary speechsuchcoltrasts aÌe in the nature oÍ the caseextÌemely Ìa.e iÍ compaÌed utt€Ìânces. Other norphologicalconditionirg oi tonaÌ alter.ations prcvid€sEomeothe. contrasts between lôw and tuid. Fôr all verb Êtems,the itupemnve is low no matte. shat tollows;â monosyÌÌâbicnoun beginningwith a coNonânt of clas B or C may have Did tone befo.emid or high. Tìus the Iollowing contÍast:
lll
tsòyi tsi lá In â diâlectwhich doesnôt have downstep,mid tône is recordedin final position, ând beíoÌelow, in two demonst.aüvestems. With whât apleaN to be â prèlix which does not âppêaÌ when th€se are attributiveìy after a nouú, 'rsed they are /ésia/ 'this' and /émai 'that'. In â diaÌectsìich doeshâve downstep, the stem ol the first of th€se can be idterpreted as beginning with a downstep ãnd hâving high tonê; this ìev€ljs id€nticâlwith a lreceding úid. In the sam€ dialect,the secondof thesedemonstativesis siDply high-hìgh. In the dialect with downstep,a minimaÌ contrâstis .eco.dedbetweeDth€
'you didn't try bânânâs' IÍ the dialectvithoút dovnstep,howev€.,the scond oI theseis r.cordedwith â ris€f.om low to high accompanying the íirst syÌÌable;this may be interpretedas Not âÌl of the detâilsof thê Ewe tonaÌ systemhave beenexhâusiedby rhe foregoingdesoiptioD-and, indeed,my own experiencewith the languagehas been too Ìimited to mâkê compìetestatements. 11is clear, hÒwêver,thát any tãxonomic or neotâÍonotnic treatment must recognize three tonemes. On the other hând,aÌmostallchoicesbetweenmid ând low âre determinedifgÌâmmatical as well ãs phonologicãlconditionsare tãken into accôunt. lt woüìd âpp€ârthât a geneÌativetreatmentol the Ese tonal system or rather, systems would mo.e eÌêgantly Ìeflect the structure of the Ìânguage.? 4.29. Some other Ìanguages cleaú show dialect differences in thêir tonal syst€ms. Aìthough thê evidence is not enürely cleâr, Edo (Bini) nay be one of them. ErnestF. Dunn (1968)hasdesoibedthe tonãl syúêm ãshâving two tones end a lowe.ing of hiSh tone afteÌ low (downd.ift); his desc.iption suggeststÌrat he ha3lbtenedcaÌeÍuuyíor otheÌ alterDatives, and it may be valid ror the diâlect with which heworked. I had previousÌywork€don Edo on two ditferentoccasions. with treo díÍerent infoÍmants;unlortunately,I had Ìittle nore than a few houre with each,and wâs unâble tÕ work out a sâtisfâctoryd€sdiption of thê tônâl system, but I wâs Ìeàsonâbly c€.|âin ihãt thêre was norê to the system than two tones and dosndrift. More recentìy,with a third infÒrÌnant,I havê been âble to reãchmôrè definitêconcÌusions.I repoú thât Edo, ât ìeâstâs I haveheãrdit, has â tdrãcedlêveÌ tonâl syúem, but with a nost unusüãl leâtuÌe. Throughout rising most of an ltteraüce, the usúâl high and Ìow tones,as well as occasional and lãlÌing tones,and a cÌearphonemicdownstepcânbe identitied. Uith a cìauseÍinàl (prepãusÌ) syÌÌâble afte. high, howeve., there are two cont.asting downsteppedÌevels,ãs weli as high without do$,nstepând Ìos. The nÒre colnmonof dbcusôd her.. k lound h St.hlkè (19?11.
tt2
AFÂrc^NL^Ncu^úE SÍRUcruREs
thes, the derivâtionol Nhichis usuallyeâsytó explain,isunqsuallylow,and Ìnây vell be mistakenIor a low toÍe at li.st: it is, howeve.,noti@bly mo.eten* than low, ând levêìin pitch râther thân bâving the süght dowí-gìideand p.ógÌesive relaxationoI â final low tone. This ìarge-inturvaldovnstep is marked/'/ in the èvé
goat':
i dé wé
The sDall-inte.valdownstep,which is much more ÌiÌe tìe downstepor most other teÌracedìevel systems, is reco.ded p.ima.ily in â Ìimited nunber or gÌâmmatical constructions. but the conditionsIor its appea.ancehave not beeníDlly defiíed. Ìt is nârked /v/ in the ÍÒììowing: ! iú
' w h e n h e c a me ' :
i na' re
' i Í he cohes
The lwo downsleps aÍp in clearronlmsl in lhp loììowing:
In otheÌ than clãusejirâl position, a downstepis very much like in other languages.Onedetãil not attestedjn other langua8es is the occurrence or â glide from high to downstephigh acconpânyinga singleshortvoweÌ. In the roÌloring, the lirst downstepis a v€ry small inteNal, tle secondmuch larger: 'he was alreadythere' A singlelov tôre, jnitially or betweentwo high tones,is üsuallyhigherthan â clàusejinâlìârge-intervâldÕenstêp-high. A sequence ol tNo or morelow toDes, however.is lose. thân ânythìng elsein ihe clâuse. In any ca$, â low toÍe can âlwâysbe identitiedas low by the lact that â higherpitch occurslâterin the sãme clause,or, in tinal position,by the slight dôwnsa.d gÌide ând dying out of the A ÌemãrkabÌeparaüelto the tso contÌâúing downúêpswith claus€Jinalsyllablesin Edo is found in anotherIanguageiD the sameeroup, Urhobo (WdmeB 1969a).Throughoutnost ol an utte.ancê,tones@n readilybe identifiedas high, Ìo{, rising,and lâUing. Thereis no appreciabÌedosídrift, and the systemwould seemto be a lai.ly simplediscretÈleveÌsystemwith two tonesãnd probâblyt{o cìust€rsoÍ lones. ln cìaúsejinâlposiüon,howeler, ãnd only aÍteÌ Ìrigh,there are three coútrasting levels: hìgh, low, ald an intermediate level which cân vâÌidÌy be câìÌednid in this syúen. In disyllâbi. nounsin isolation,the sequeÍcehighmid is conside.ably more commo! tlan high-high oÍ highlôw, though low-high which are is aboüt as commoÍ, and lo ow evenfrore so. Thes€live sequences, oI the system Íound usually characteristic of terÉcedìevel systeDs rather than in the rest of Urhobo utterânces,âre illustÍâtedby the folìowing: úkó ébò
'cup' 'b"g' Íwè
òzê àCà 'thom
'bâsin' 'châir'
11J Ií a Íoun with ìigh-mid in isólationis usedjn other than cÌausejinalposition iB. it has tìe tones highìow in âÌÌ recordedcâses. It soìnd obviouslybe inter€stingto study the tonal systemsof other Urhobo dialects,and otìer ìanguages in tìe Edo group. 4.$. The occuneÍceof both intonâtion and tore jn a singlelanguâgehas âÌreadybeeí Íoted. The qúestionshouldalsobe .âisedas to vhether ã tone languagemây alsohâve phonenicstres. Às far as AÍrica is conc.rned,no laneüâge has beenreliabÌyrepoúed to have both tone and stressin the p}onemicsystem. SyllabÌeproDinen@or phoneticúre$ mây be condìtionedby lonc. In Kpelle, the tonemeshigh throughout, Iirst syuableìigh and Ìow ther€aIter.and lo{ thrcüghouthive initiâl stress. First syllablemid and highlow the.eâlte.is stressêdât the high point. Ìn mid thrôüghont,no slllâble is appreciabl_! nor€ promin€nt thân àúy ôther. In Jukun, in somesiDilar short s.ntences{iih onìy mid tones. I recorded within s fes minutesIrom the sanÌespeaker; diffeÌert apparert stres sequences e.9..[kü ri,sa bú,sô]ãnd [,kuri sa,buso],Iroth glosed âs he is Norking, I Ìeprcdtrced@ch and askedir theresas âDydifierencein meaning.The inlormaDt assuredme that there was no diÍlerenccíto him) eÌ€n iD soünd. 4.31. Sinceso little hãs beenreportedeven on lexicâl tone jn moú Atrìcan Ìanguages, itis naturaithat hardly anythinghasbeensaidabouttonein comparative liÌtguisticstudies. Tonesarc phonem€sjust ãs consonântsand voweh are. in and where data is ãvailablejt is possibÌeto establishreguÌarcorrespondenc€s ror tole as weÌl as in other lhonemes. ln three Southweste.nlÍande ìanguages, exâmple.rwo reâdìlyâllelredcorespondpn(es ar *high-high:
high...
high-high high-high
high-high lôw-high
A few representativeexãmpìes(oüt of scoresreco.dcdio. eachconespondcnce) pé.É
pÉlÉ
yti
gili
háIé !gili
yhi
gili
Ìlgìli
Unlortunately,in coDparativeas well ãs desdiptivestüdies,lone hâs sometimes b@n treated as if it hâs sone slrecialstatusin its own right. ln an article that hasevenbeencitedas a prcmisingbeginningin the useoI toDein comparative studies,M. M. Green(1949)nakes â cohpletety typÕlogi.âlcofrpârisonol tone in YoÌDba, Igbo, and Efik. Hêr conclusion(which ìãppensto be corect, but for totaÌÌy diíterent reasons)is that lgbo and Etik âre more closelyrelãtedto eâch othe. than eithe. is to Yo.ula. To estâblishsuch a classification,she suggests
t!4
ÀrRLcd
L^NcuacE SrRlcroÃEs
thât we needtoknow(d) the numberof esential tonel€velsinany Õnelanguage; (ú) whethersemaúticÕr leaicâÌtone exists;(c) whethervhat might be cãllêddynâDic or reÌationaltone exists.ând if so whêthd or not this tone systemis grammatical." In more tâúiliâr leÍúinology, "dynâmic or relationaìtoÍe" ÌeIeB to norphotonemic âtternâtionsand/ôr mo.phenes whose only phonolosicâlreaìizâtion is tonâl; such phenomenaare 'g.âmmaticâI"if tonaììy reâlizedmorphenes are included. Ìt .equireslittÌe refÌectionto .€aÌizethãt none oi tìese criteria is relelant in a compârâtivestudy. The number ol "esential tone levels" (tonúes) msy ditter in frutüany intelììgibledialectsoi the sâmeÌÀnguâge (e.g.,Baribâ),or mây be the saDe in completelyunrêlãtedlângrâges(e-g.,Lona ând Hausa). ÂÍe we to set up three langüâge"families" in AIrica dependingon whether â lânguâge has two, three, or Iour tonemes? There is, oi couBe.no nore reâsonÍor basing clâssilicatoryhypotheses or th. numberottonêftesin the languâges beiry úudied than on the numbe. ol consodantor vovel phonemesthey have. Nor doesthe presenceor âbsênceof â phónemicdow.step tell us ânytìing concÌusiveabout languâger€Ìâtionships.OnediãlectoI Yala hasa downstep,shile other mutually intelli8ibìediâlectsdo noti rhe sâfte is true for Ewe and DyiDini. But in either type oi dìâlectthesethree languagesa.e by .o meãnscloselyr€Ìâted. 'Ihe existenceor lexicaltone as a ciasiÍicatory critêrionis êvênmore eâsily dismissedrit is highly dubiousthat there is any tone languagein AI.i@ which doesnot hâvê lexicâÌtone-tonê âs â constitüentpaú oÍ morphemeswhich âlso conlâinconsonants and vowels,especiaÌìy in mâjo.lorm clãses. VoÌphotonemicâlternàtions,whetherphonologically o. morphologicallyconditioned,an aho very neârìyuniveNâl in Âlrican tone languâges;I cânúot cite any Ío. Jukun, but they âre cômmonplace in most Ìanguag6. Furtìer the compÌexity of no.phôtoúemicalte.nâtionsmay vary widely in closeÌyrelated languâges;Suppire has an unusuálly@mplêx set in üec|-v€rb sequênces. while Senari,bârely beyodd the bounds ol Dutual intelligibility, has nothing of the sâÌnetype. Ágâin, or couÌse,there is no moe $gDiÍi@ncelor compârâtivepu.posesin the meÌe existenceol morphotonenicâlternatioís thân th€re is in consonantaÌor vocâlic âìtdnâtions. The occuÌrenceof the sameâÌte.nationunder thè sâmeconditionsin two ÌaDguages may, oí couF€,b€ impoÌtant, sinceit may reflectã shâreddevelopmentThe treserceoI mo.pheneswhoseonÌy reãlizâüonis tonâl whetherby preIixation, strÍtixation,or repìâceúèntol a lê cât tone-is âlsoettestedin virtuauy every Alrican tone language. In somelanguâ8€s(e.8.,Jukun and Yorubâ) there are.elatively few such norphenês; in otheN (e.g-,Elik) there âre mãny more. In Kp€Ìl€, tonal norphemesâre an important paú of the gmmÌnâticaÌsysteni in Loma. quite cìoselyrelâted,the sâne grâmnâticâÌ distinctiônsâre made by suffjxeswhich âre not dclusively tonal. The !Ìesenceor âbsene Õl tonâÌ noÌphemesis!o moresignilicantfor compâmtiv€studiesthanthe pr@nce or aìsene or o.dinâN Drefixes or sufii!6.
115 GÌeenis critiel of "the tendency,in much lãnguageclâsiÍication,to ú.ess questiônsôI vÕcebuláÌyÍâthê. than of g.ãnmâr-" Yet no compãmtivisthâs ig noredaltix€s,whichhâvea "grâmmatical"function.and concentrated excÌusively on stems.which are Ìexical," given alailable dâtã. The jnsistencehâs simply bèênôtr compãringspeciricmorpìeDesinternsofboth Iom and meaning.whe.e Greens ãrgumentis strongêst,shedo€spr€ciselythat, Igbo and EIik hav€som€whât similà. tônâl úânilestationsof an "associative"morpheDe. Actualìy, as GreendoesÌot note, an associâtivemo.phemein Yo.üba is âlsoreâlizcdtonaÌly. btrt âdmittedly in â somewhatdillerent{ay. This may well be laÌid evidenceIo. â cìÕserrelatiônshipbet*een Igbo and Efik thân betweeneither oi theD ând Yórubã,but Greendoesnot recognize theelid€nceforwhat it is; sheratìertreats it as typologicâldata, which is ol littìe üsein comparativeìinguhtics. It hasbeenthe purposeor tÌris chapte.to outÌinethe types oI tonaÌ systems ãnd tonãl phenomena that aretoundin Âhicaí lângüages, inespectileoflaígüage .elationships,Ìargelyon the phonoÌogìcaì ìevel. Ìt hâs beenconvenientând perhaps nece$ary to mention inslâncesol reskicted ronâl distribution,morphoton€micâlternations,and mo.phemesactuâlizedonÌy âs tone,butthis hâsbeenonìy incidentalto thê d€sÚjptionof tonemicsystemsas sucl. A moredetãileddiscus sion of th€setopicsis pres€ntediú the tollowingchapter. lhe duciâì â$umption underlyingaÌl ihât hâsbeenând will be sâidis lhât torâl systens,like conso.ânt anÍl vopel systems,ârê sinply lart oI phonologicâlsystems.-Ihis is as true for compârâtivestudiesas it is ior desüiptive stüdies. Tonenres€nter into regular correpondences, as iÌluúrated lor Southwestern llande above,just as other phonemesdo. Compa.atile linguistìcsand laDguagecÌassification will be serled by inveúigatingsuchconespÕndeí.es in specilicmorphemesin reìâtedlanguages.
Functions of Tone 5,1. lr is iíherent in every propo*d definition ol â tone lânguagethat ât leaúone olthefúnctiÕnsol tone is to participateindistinguishing diffeÍentlexical items in â languagelrom eâchother. ComnÕnly,there are somepaüs oÌ setsof wordsin which toneis úiíimâUy cort.astive thât is, the consonânts ând vowels in süchwo.ds a.e identical.and the wordsdiller f.om eachother only in tone. In Jukun, ló. example,Dinimal pairs are âbundânt,aúd setsof thÍee or evenfouÌ words showingminimal contÌastsin tone âre recôrded;e.9.,in Wàpã: âliwi
'nillstone'
akwi àkwi
'chicken' 'eourd'
ln lgâlâ, â six-wây minimâl contrâsi is reported (by Raymond O. Silventein, private communicatio!)l àwo ásò
â combÌ
'hole (in â tree)
ln nont€cìnicaÌreferences to tone languâ8e,oneis hequeniÌytoÌd úat theÍe are som€words which can be pronouncedwith two or tbree dilfe.ent tones or to give theo diffeÌent meanings. In thè written loms of môú tone oequences Àfricân languages. tone is not indicâted,ând it is ãsumed thât â "word" is a EÈ qüenceor consonants and vowels. Thus setsoÍ formsìike tle abovêâreconsidered to be one"woÌd" eâch;in speech,thosemyúeriousthings cauedtonesare supe.imposedon one suchwôrd, and it comesout with foúr or si1 diffeÌent n€ânings. Even in somedictiona.iesin which tone is mârked,*ts Ìike ihe âboveâre üúed a6 nufrberedsubent.iesünder a sioglemain entry, which consistsoI con$nânts ând vowelsonly (e.9.,Bârgery 1934,Abrahan 1940a).Aìl of this nissesthe elementary p.i.ciple tlat wo.ds in a ìanguageare úot letteF on a page,ând thât jusl âs consonânts tonesare phon€mes rnd loweìs âre. Lexicâì itms that differ just only in tÕne are âs much dilterêít wôrds âs itens thât difier in âny otheÌ 5.2. Àlthóugh tuinimal contrast6in tone can usuallybe found in a tonê laÍguage,and aÌe a coDvenientand conüncingway to illustrâtetonemic contEst3, they arê not esseútialto jdentirying â laDgüageâs toDaÌ. NoÍ should it be as süúed, ir minitualcont.astsare notiound in a givenÌanguage,thât thât languâ8ê is not tonâI. If words*ith the sãúe nuúber of svllâblescân be divided into two o. more sets,sDchtlìat eacÌrset, in â givcn enviÌonment(citatio! in isolaüonincìuded), is chârâcterted by a paúcular pitch ôr seqüenceoÍ pitchês diltêrent lrcm 116
tt7 tìat ofthe otheÌ sets.ând it therêare no reasÕnãbly definâbleconditiôninglâctors tbat csn bê ssid to detemine lhc dillerencesjn pitch, thcn rhde are ronemiccont.asts. Data like the lollowinghom Igbo are suilicient tÒ estâblishtóneftic contrâsts eventhough no minimal pairs are includedl ìkó ézt
'cup'
pig 'pot'
é g6
'b"c'
ó'ji
There are !o syúematicrestrictionson the co-occurenceof any pitch s€quence rith paúicuìarvoqeh oÌ paúicula. typesof consonants.Tonemust be r€cognized âs an €ssentialingr€dientof €achword. Apaú from minimal pai6, changingthe tonesthât accompâDyâ given sesm€ntâlsequ€nc.doesnor produceâ ditlercnt recognizâbÌe *o.d; it sinpÌy producesno word at âll. ln tcrfts ol the delinitiod of â tone lângúâgeproposedin the precedingchapter,tonesas well as consonants and vowelsente. into the compositionof theseforns. Perhapsthere js Do tone Ìãnguagewhich is completelydevoid or minimal contmstsin ton€ât the ìexicâllev€I. Thereâre,hô*ever,frâny lâryuâgesin which suchminimâl contrastsâ.e Iâ.Irom numerous.!Íinimâl pâirs arc uDcommonin many Bantu Ìangüages, ir Akan, and in l{ausa. In Baule,hundredsof wordswere t.ânscribedbeíÕrethe lirst úininal cont.astin tone wasfound, althoughtoneúic contrãstshad beenestâbÌished ìongbefore. In someother languages-Yorubâând Jukun ere good exampleFmininaÌ contrâsÌsin ton. ârê ercccdinglycommon. Âs sill be seen,hosever, tone contrastsmay be other than "Ìexical" in the nâ.row sense,ând minimâl coÍtrasts betweenutteranc€sfray be commónând c.uciâl eventhoughsuchcont.astsb€tw.en lcxemesinidenlicaÌenvironmcntsnaybe.are. Beginnersiú tone languageshequently ask {h€t}er a syst€maticcoÚ€lâtion betweentonê ând semânticcâtegori€s is e'eÍ found. 'lhat is, in â given ìâneuâg., do nounsthat sharea connon semânti.teãture,súchàs pe.hâpstermstor aninals or Ìargeobjects,tend to have the sãmetones? The answeris simpÌy no. A fe{ ninjmâìly contrâstìvepai.sin Jukun showsomesemantic similarity,âs /tè/ 'push 'pÌess', ând /t€i bua â conpârisônÒl âll su.h pâi6 shoÍs no comrron semântic distinction(suchas 'moreintensi!ê action' lor Ìow ione) that coÌrelâicswith the tonal disünction. Thereare so mâny niniftâl pánsjn Jukun thãlâ f€w süchcoincidencescân be expected.Th€reis no .easonto exÍ'ectâ correlãtionof this typei we dô not look lor semanticconelateswith part'cular initial consonaDts and the like. Oncehore, tonesare phon€meslike consonantsand vo$eÌs. (À speciâìcâse oI pâúiaì sound-neâningcorrelatiôninvôlveswhât hâs leen câlled"phonacsthenes," e.g.the irequencyol ìnitiaÌ hn/ in Engìishwords âlluding in somewar to ìhe nose:stroui,rtror/,rÌiff, snoó(with ut,tü.ned nosê),€tc- Thê.€,ìãy Ìery srll be a comparâblecorêlâüon of tÕneând meâningâì this leÌcl in somelanguages, paúiculãrly in words known âs "ideophones".See15.4.)
118
AFÂrc^N L^Ncu^cE SrÂucruÂEs
It has beenân exceedinglycommonpracticein w.iting African languâg€s to l€ave tone unma.ked unl€ssa minìmal cont.ast is involved so that lhe reâder would have to guesswhich oI t{o po$ibÌe alternâtivesis inteÍded. This mây be acceptallewìen writing only lor reâdeÌswho arê nativesleâkeh orthe language; it is gêneÌâllycomtarableto leaving stres uDmarkedi! w.itten English. This procedure, ìowever,â$umesihat the writeÌ is âwareot èverypossibleminimal contrâst in the Ìânguage,and evên theD tìe witing systemis fuìl ot speciâìrüles; in practice,this hasÍarely if eveÌbeendonewith âny consistency.FoÌ the ânâlyst and langüageleâ.n€.,of cou.se,Iulland consistentDarking oÍ all ton€sis essentiâÌ and virtually every written Alrican languageÊooneror late. receivesthe attention ot ânalystsand ìearners. It has?ìôven faÌ too easyto underestjmâte the impoúãnceol indicating tone. In recordilg a Basu (oI Liberia) reading ol â portìon ól theBible iÕr broâdcâstpurposes,it wàs nÕtedthât, no matter who tle readerw8, he couldrecordonÌy onesentenceat a timet Io. eachsentence, he hâd with various before to experiment corDbinãtions of tone settling on a combination that s€ened the most .êasonablê.(In Ìanguag€swith Ìe.y Ìlttle {ritten mâtênal aÌailabl€,àppârentreadingout loüd mày be dec€ptive:many p€oplêâre known to ha'e henorized everythingthat has beenpriíted.) 5-3. ln ã given Ìanguage.the luncüon oI toDein making lexi@l distinctions may differ for diff€Ìent clases of morphene' In KpeUe,for example,th€re aÌe nuúerôusninjhâì conbâstsin tone ahong nouns.ând betweennounsand v€Ìb stems:ìüt no two verb stemsdilfer lrom eâchother only in tone, exceptthat in dialectsshich hav€/l/ but no /ri the verbs/yili/ 'cook' and /yiri/ 'tie' contrastin tone only. Às hasalreadybeennoted,the distributionoftonesin nouneard veÌbs dilieB in severallanguages.In Baule, the.e are tonal coltrasts (.arely nininâl) b€tweennouns,but, as reportedto m€, aUverbs *ith the samesyuablestructüre hâve the samêtone or tones. In Akan,.ath€. cÌoselyrelâtedtoBauÌe,a somewhatsimilarsituationobtâins. In Fant€,a disünctionb€tweenÌow and hiSh in úono.ylÌâbicverbsappeaÉonly in sone verbal consbuctions;e.8., /yè/ in /òbÉyè.. ./ 'it's goitrgto be. . .', but au úonosyllabicve.b8 /bá/i. /òbíbá/ hetgoing to come. Ìn óther const.uctions, have eitler high or lov toDe, Disyllabicv€rì stemsãrê of two types; their toÍes aÌe conditionedby th€ syìlãblêstructüre. lÍ thê first voseì ÕÍ the úêú is a high rowel (/i, Ì, u, rJ/),and ifthe secondvovel followsjÍnmêdiâtêlyor âfter a Ìesonânt or nasâI,the tonesof the sten are low-high. II either ol iheseconditionsis not met, tle tonesof the steD âÌe highlo*. E.g., bÈá
'help'
piÌá 'hurt' kyìEw'write' Íarná 'üÌe'
páà
split'
In sómeconstuctions,eâchoÍ thesetyles oI stemshâsolher tohes,but toneis lot lexicallysignilicantÍor disyuabicverb
119 In ChiNyâ.ja ãlso,alÌ ve.b loÌms with the samenumbeÌ ol syìlableshave the sâDetonesin âny givenrônst.uctionGêêHârding 1966),butthere is evidence of consideÌâble dialectvariationin the ruleslor verb ton€s.1Urhobo alsoìâs no ÌexicaÌtone in !eÌbs, and tìis nay be true of many moreNigeÈCongolanguages. In sum, tone hás â Iexicâllünction iú eve.y kno$n Ìone languag€,but the detailsof this luncüon vâry considerâblytrom languâgeto language. 5.4. Like consonânts and voweÌs,tonesalsopaúicipatein morphophonemic alternaüons,shich in tle cãseÕttone nãy òe câll€dmo.photonemic.Begin.ing leaÌnersare sometimesdiscôDraged when they discoverthat a given {ord do€s nôt always have the sametones,and indeedthe norphotonemicrules in some Ìãnguagesâ.e râther compìex. BDt they are none the les rules. The restricted vâriâtionsthat lesült fron mo.phôtÒnemic âlte.nâtionsdo not pÌovidean excuse fo. usiDgjust any tonei ii doesnot follow iron the fact that va.iatiôn existsthat thê wrong variânt in a given eDli.oDmentis ünimpoúant lor comt.eh€nsion. in fairÌy simMorphotolemicalternãtionmay ìe Ir}onologicallycondinÕned ple wâys, In Bâribâ,th€reare iive suchalternâtions;the first th.ee are instances while the lãst two are instânes of assinilatton(tor the system of djsÊimiÌâtion. or tone marking.s€e4.23): (1) High has the âlterlant top belo.elow: 'I plântedyâms' nâ iasu dúürã na tasú düürè I plant yams' (2) ln the seqtrence low-mid (attestedin phÌâse-finaÌposition),mid has the âÌte.nantlow befoÌeânv tonê othe. than lowl 'I licked trp ã slone na kpèÌú súã (3) In the samôsequencelow-mid. mid Ìras the alternant high bèlore low: 'a güineâtowl gòúâ gònayènl 'that guineaIo{Ì' (4) In the sequence high-mid.high hasthe âlternanttop âIier top: nãâ úy có* néúnáã (5) À s€quence ôl ode or Dore high toneshas the elteÌnant mid aÍter Ìôç in phrasefinâl position:
In âlte.nâtionsof this sort, it is not alwâysimmediat€lyapparentwhich alternant is to be consideredthe under\ing or basicfornr, and which the pÍoduct of morphotonemìcaÌternaüon. In the Iirst lour ol the above âlfe.nâtions,the Iorm cÕnsidered bâsicis the lorn which occuF in isolatedc'tation; this È by lar the coftmonestsituãtio., büt it is by no meansinvâriabìe.In tlìe Ìastoi the above, thê forn consid€redbasìcoccu$ only if somethìngelsefollows. This âúalysisis madeon the principleof marihDm variâtion. In isoìationo. in phrasejinal posi-
120
AFÂrc^N LÀNcü^cE SÌÂucúÂÈs
tion, /kpèrú/ (2), gòna (3), and /bòú/ (5) have the sâmetones. They âlsohâvè the sâm€ronesbeíorelow (3 ând 5). B€foreâ tone otheÍ thâd lów, however,the.e h â contrast;the rorms ar€, .espectiveÌy,/kpèrü/, /gÒnà/,but /bòrâi. Thus, for eitÌrerthe lirsl two or the third, or pe.hâls fôr both, the iôrm which occu6 betore â tone othe. thaÌ low must be conside.edbâsic. However.the lowlow oí the lirst two in this posiüon cannot be taken as brsic fo. ãnotheÌ reasn. In phrasejinalpositionorin isoÌation,th€setons hâvêÌÕw-nid!but thereaÌe otheÌ Ioms which, in cont âst, have lovlow; /kpèÌn/ and /eònâi cÕntrâstwith foms low-Ínidâs the bâsictonesoÍ like /yàrìi 'th.ow away (hâbitual)'. This estâbtishes the* t*o noüns- (Lowlow is recôfdedin orly onenoun in isolation;this may be ân enôr in trânsc.iption. The.e a.e, however, sonê thr€€-syÌÌâblê nou8 with lowlowìow in isolation,contrasting*ith lowìow-mid,) To wo.d thÈ a.gumentdifierently,if it is assumedthat the isolaüonlorús /kpèrú, gònã, bòrã/ aÌe all basic,then the diffeÌe.ce in tone betw@nthe riNt two and the thinl before a tone othe. tìân ìow can be explained ody on the basis of lqical .ather than phonoìogicalconditioning. But il the ìowìow of the flrst twó in this pÒsition is considered bâsic, then the contrâsting tÕne ol some verb forms in Iinal positiÕnmüst involvêlexicãlor at leastno.phologiml conditioning (e.g., low-mid if the lo.m is a noun). By takinÉ the isolâtioniorms of the fiÌú two nouns,but the nonlinâl lorn of the third, âs basic,âÌ ÕI thesemorphote nemicaÌternationscan be statediD terDs ol phonoÌogicâl conditioning. IÍ there a.e aìteÌnativeposibiÌìties,phÕnologicsl coÍditioning is the íirst choice. 5.5. Ànothe. inúânce of phonologicaÌycondiüonedalte.natioDiÊ found in Kpelle, in sbich low (throughout)hâs the âìternânthighìow (first syÌabÌe high, low therealter)aft€r mid. (For the systemot tone marking, see4,23.) E,9., pÉ.€tòDõ konÀt5nt 'onehouse' ónehoe tòlo! tònt kâli tònô but: kôni tinô 'onestóne' To establishthis às â phonologicâUy conditionedalte.nation,of couÉ, it must be vc.ified tlat aU forns which have ìô* tode after tonesother Lhanmid bave highlow ãtter hid, irrespectiveoÍ the moÌphemeitr which the mid âpp€ârs. ExâDplesãreindefinitelynumerou$-the secondíoun in â noun-nouncompound, and a nlmber of ôthe. sìêms{ho* tone is any verb stemjn someconstructìons. low, alter any úorphemeNith mjd. An exâmpÌeoI eachtype is: 'chickenhouse 'he sa* â chicken' 'in the mârket
6oli-pêre è kôni kâa ììââisú
Conve6elJ,lówever, it must not be true that all lorms which hâve hi8h-ìow âfìer mid havc los elsewheÌe.If that werê tÌDe, Ìow and hiqhìoe sorld be in compÌetecónpÌ€nentary dist.ibution Ìather than in phonemiccoÍtÌast. Alter tonesotÌrerthan mid,low and highlow do contâú; ê.9., kú pèlaÌì
rw e g o t d o s n r
kü peÌerl
t2l The neutralizationôl this contrâstâfter mid is strikingly iìlüst.atedìI an object ênding {itì mid tone k inse.têdb€Iôrethe v€Íb in eâchót tha sbole sentênccs. The equivalentsof 'se got the stonedoNn aúd let\ get the stone down are homothonous:/kú 'kônii pêlâ!/. It is intêrestingto comparethe morphotoncmicâlternâtionofloFthroughout to hi8hlo* alter mid with tìe âllotonicvariaüonscha.acteristicoI the sequence mid-nid. Considera phÌasesuch âs /taa puu/ 'ten towns', in which each*ord hâs nid tone thÌoughout.ãnd the wo.ds âre separâtedby a phonemicopentrânsition. In all dialects,sucha phraseb€ginsand endson the samephoneticpitch. In the dialectprimâ.ily unde. conside.ation,the mid toÌe oi the Íirsi word ends sÌightlyhigher,but tle mid tone oÍ the secondword is lereÌ. ln someothcr diâÌects.ìhe nid tone ol the first word is hvel. but the mid tone ol the secondNÕrd starts sligltly ìigher aDdqüickly talls to the precedingìev€Ì. In stiÌÌ other diaÌects,the rid tone oi the fi.st Nord endsslightiy higher,ând th€ hid tone ol th€ secondword b€ginsât thât leveì ând qujckly falÌs to the precedinglerel. In all thÍee .âses,the s€quence mid-nid inrolvesân upwârdprcssurc:at thc end of the li.stnid,âtthebeginnjngollhesecond,orborh.'lhemorpholonenicãlternation of low to higllow.€flects the samelpward pressur€of mid. In one small area, this alternationis restrictedto the point wherequestionintonationÌaisesa high tonei elseslere,lowlow occursatter nid, but the precedinghid endshigherthan it b€gins. Àn anusing denonsirâtionot the sigdficânceol tone, and â úriling contradicüon oI tlte wìd€spread assumptiontÌ'at native speakerscan readily gues what the foÌeignlea.neÌ intendedto say "Írcm context." is providedby a bargaiDing exchangeoverheâ.dnany y€aÉ âgo. in which this morphotonemicalternâiion llays â Ìrujor rcl€. À man âpproachedân Americânwomânsitting on the po.ch oÍ he. home,witÌ' a rew eggsin a smaìÌbasket. The Ânerican soDan asked,in accurateKpeue,how much they were. He Ìeplied./kâpa Ieere.kàpa leere/ two centseâch'(/kâpâ/ 'â penny'). Followingthe proper lrâditionsol bârsaining,the Àmericânwoman atteDpted to olfeÌ one cent each;she shouÌdhave said /kâpa tònr/, But shestrpe.ioposed on üÈ ph.asean Englbh intonationwith contrastive stles âc.ompanyingthe nunerâI, which coüld only )e interpretedas nid tonc with the iüst wo.d and highìo* the ãppropriatealternânt of low aÍter mid with the second:*ikâps lónôi. In spite ot the almost trnmìstâkable context,the man lookedconpÌetelynyúitied, ând lookedaroundto seeii sle had seensome thing he wâsn't awâre of. He wâs plainly wondering."Whât in the world is a /kapa/?' There is no such sord. I don't recaÌlwhat happenedto the eggs. 5-6. MoÌphoÌogicâlor l€xicâl cÕnditioningmây âho be involved in morpho tonemicaÌte.nations,An aÌternationjn Sela.i noun stemsis oI tlis type. Finâl low tone in a noun úen hâs the âÌternânthid belorecerÌain sütfixes,in.luding the singuÌarand pìrral defi.itê sulÍix€s. Thesesullixes âlvays have low tone. The ãltemâtionis nÕtphÕnologicãlly conditioned,ìowever, sinceihe singulârind€finitesuffix alsohas low tone afte. most stemsendins with lo$- 'Ihus:
t22
ÀtsR,c^N L^Nc,.rac!
SÌRIGEREs
tè-gè gbènè
'light
gbe-mi
'the light'
'fhat the alternâtionis lrom lov to mid and nôt the reverseis obviousfroD the Iact tÌrat thereare aÌsostemswith Íinal Did tone (aner which the inderinitesufíix alsohas mid in all but a few word9; e.8., kpâ-ta
'a house'
Ìpâ'gi
'the hous.'
The contrastoi Ìow and mid in stem-rinaÌpositionis alsoattestedin an identicaì
The abore alternationis an instaDceol a small number of norphemesin a r€stÌictedcla$ (sufiixesin this case)conditioningã no.phoronemicâìternaüon in â lârgenumberoÍ stems. Tìe conveBeis alsofoundr a la.ge nümberoI stens conditioninga morphotonenicâlt.rnâtion in â smâll numbe. ol mo.phemesin a reúricted clâ$. In general,the indetinitc suÍÍixesoi Sena.ihave low toÍe alter Ìow and nid after mid. Thereare a few exceptions,however,shich can only be desoibedas l€xjcâlly conditioned-AIte. hlSh tone, the indefinitesutlixeshave high aiter a Iew stems,ând mid or low atte. âboút equâl numbemol the rest, againonly by l€xicâl condit'oning. Thus: lipâna-?à
sisya-3
'â lly'
súgéìè
millet
57. Ìtr Lomâ. there is a pervasivepatt€rn oI lexicaÌÌycoúditionedmorphotoúehic âlternâtiônGee Sâdler1951). All stemsa.e divided into tvo norphoof stemsboth tonemiccÌases,whìchmay be relerredto as À andB. In â s€quence ót which belôngto clâs À, high tonesin the secondhave the altetnant low. Il eilher stem belongsto cla$ B, theÌe is no alternation. The foìlowingilìustrâte the presenccând absenceof this âlternationjthere ìs âìsosomeconsonântalteÌnâtion inrolved. but it is irrelelant to the tonal alternation: gúlú
AB:
8úlú gáìú
B-ts:
gálú
'stick , gúìú ìèvè ttjck', gúlú viìi rÌope , gálú léÌé 'rope, gálú vili
tévé cut it : 'cut a stick' pili 'thrclYjt': 'thÌov a stick' tévé cut it cüt â rope pili thrcw it': 'thÌow a rope'
Sultixes appârenuyfaÌl into the same two clâsses.A numbe. of sulrixes ìave low tone âlter â stem of cÌâs A, but high arter a stem ol clãs Bi such suftix€swould b€longto clas A. At leastÒnesuflix râkesÌhe tone or the Preceding vowel,inclüdinghigh âÍter â siem of cÌassB; this süllix $ôüld òelongto clas B.
123 of three norphemes. ln This sullix creâtesá sljght conplication in sequences tÌre âlternatiônillüslratêdâbôvê,bôrh syllàblêsol â sre'ì ol clâssA lìav€ the aìternart Ìow afte. ã stem of classA. In tÌ'e lollowing, a st€D oI cÌassA, /pÉlé/ 'house. o.curs âlter a Dronounot cìâs A but betorethis sufijx ot cla$ B; jn this case,only the Iirst syllâbleoI tìre stemhasthe alternantlow: /nà pÈl!í/ my house. For comparâtivepurposesit is si8nÌficãntthat, on the basisol a treliminary ch€ck,the mo.photonenicclases oÍ Loma stcmsãppcarto co..espondto st€ms with dilr€Íent tones in Kpelle ãnd Mende. High-high in classÀ cô.respondsto high th.oughoutin Kpelleandhigh-highin Mende;high-highin classB cor.esponds to mid throughoutin Kpelle ând low high in M€nd€. Oneexception,ìnch'dedin the aboveillustrations,is of stecial int€rest;Loma /pili/, in cla$ B, has cognãies aiìh high thrÕughoutid Kpelìeand high high in M€nde,lihe â clâs A íem; ho$ever,in Mendethis laúicuÌar stcD is in a specialDorphotoneniccla$. 5.4. À pârticDlâdycoÍnplexsel ol lexically conditionedno.phÕtonemicâìteÌnationsis Iound in Suppire(see\€Ìmers 1950b). Nouns{ith anJ linâl tone (theÌe are thÍee levels)ialÌ into tso morplotonemiccìasses. one taÌ Ìa.geÌ than the oth€.. Alternâtionsarc co.ditionedbv botì thc actuãllinal tone of tlìe noun and by its norphoton€DiccÌass, Further, dille.ent alternationssJpearsith th€ Nord âlter â nôunin sone câses,dependingon nhether thât $ord is an identiiier, the st€D oI ã ve.b, or thc p.esDt bâseoI a lerb (and p€rhapsother unÌ€corded possibiliti€t. Pronounstâll inlo three morphotonenicclâses. An object pro noun in the thìrd clâsscônditionsstiìl dilf€r€nt âllernâtiônsin à toìlosing verb. Objectand po$e$iÌe lronouns jn themsÌvesÌ'ave id€ntjcaliorms,but they condition dillerent alternationsin a lollosing rerb and in a following noun. lhe constructionoi possessileplus noun may involve ân associative morpheme;uniortunâtely,nôün-nounphrases*er€ not recôrded,sincemuch ol the fónr wecks spent on the lâDguagcsas devotcd to sorting out thc allernationsso faÌ nìentioncd, büÌ an asociative constructioncan be expectedin such phrâses,lery possiblywith still different norphotonemicrltcrnâtioís. Somc oI lhc reco.ded alternationsâre oullined beloN; nounsin rhe sfrâller Ìnorphotonemicclâssa.e indicated by an ast€Ìisk; pronoünsin th€ thìrd morthotonemicclas can be identiriedwithout indicâtion becauseth.y âre the conpÌetesct of third pe6on pronouns(includingconcordsfor a number ol noun claset. IdentitieF (onefoÌ eãchnoun dâs) hare mid tÕre; aft€r nouns*(i.e.,Douns ot th€ snaìÌer cìass),th€ir lone is lhe sameas ihe prec€ding. Obviously,lhh providesno bâsislÕr distinguishinenid and hidr. Ân exâftpìe with eâchfinâl tole and eachmorphoton.miccìassis: bili si b.ga ki yâgã* ki fà!à {i
\u
AFkrc^N LÁNcuÀcE SrBUcruÂEs
The two cla$esolmid âre distinguishedby dillerent alterÍants of the nouÍs (in a delinitelom) ane. a lossessilepronoun: themseÌves ni bâ84 ni yáger
'my hoüsê' 'fry thing'
Threecont.astingtonesa.€ r€cordedjn vê.b stemsonìy âtter pronÕuns ofthe third môrphoton€micclass;e.9., 'I hit it Arter other pronÒünsand alter any loun object,stemshereeúablishedas haüng mid ând ìigh Ìone hâve identicâÌnorphotonenic aìternants. (In a neârby diaÌ€ct, mid ând high âre not disünguishedevedin the âbôve;ìhêre are only tÍo The p.esentbasesoÍ v€.bs âÍter the sâm€pmnoünsol the thi.d morphotonemicclasshaveâ ditferentset ot alterDants;Ío. the samethÌee veÌbs:
'I am looking at it' The allernationsin noun-verbsequences aÌe so rândom that a chârt oÍ aÌl posible combinationsis mo.e usefuìthÀn À ìú ol stÀtements.À ve.b stem the with lov toDehasalte.nantsvith eachtone level. So doesa verb 6temúth mid or high tone. Bnt alter any particDla.noun, low tone stemsâre âlwaysdistinct hÕn mid or higÌ' tone stems;mid a.d high tone úems are identical. The following cìart showsthe aìternâtiónsfor verb úems. Àdfrittedly someôÍ the s€ntences,the trânsÌãtionsol wÌrich can be compÌetedby consultingthe glossesof the nounsas given above,are semanticallyratheÌ un.ealistic,but this seemsthe b€stvày to presedtthe dâtâ; Íor thc threecotuDns.the meaningsare rI saw. . . , oÍ the 'I hit..., ând Ì loôkedat,..; onthe l€it is thè tinâl morphotoneme
H
mi á bili nyá
bbã mi á bilÍ bbüâ
UII mi á bÍlÍ wii
ni á yagabbúá Íni á ràÌlà bbià mi á dübà bbüã
ni á fà!à wtì
Ha
}I M* L Lr
For veÌb stemswith mid or high tone, tÌre present bas6 have noÌphotoneúic âÌternântsâtter nÕunsidenticaÌwith tìose ot the stemsâsgivenabove. Subúitute /ná/ roÌ /á/, and in the secondcolumn the s€gmentals/bbúú/ lor /bbúâ/, leavé aÌ tonesthe sâme,ând eãchof the sentences in the s@nd and third coÌumnwill
r2í
FNcaÌoNs o! ToNE
be presentin meaning. For ve.b steús sith Ìôw tone, howeler,the Fesent bãse has â diilerent s€t of mor!ìotonêmic alt€rnanb, as giren in tle roÌlowing:
H H* M M* L
Í)i ná yaganyáà
L*
In â seqDence oI posesive pronoun plus noún, ihe tìree moÌphotonemic clases of pronounscondiiion díÍerent alteÌnants,in combinationìvith dilferent initiâl toneãin úe noun tom. Using the delinite iorms ol the satuenÕuns,thê âre: conbinations foÌ 'my . . .', ryou.-..,ãnd'hjs,,, Ínì bÍli!i
mi fàli mÍ dübàli
mu biliti
u biliti u búrúÌji ! yáge ú làlj ú dúbàli
oi dilferent Thereare other detâilsinvolving nounsand verbswith seqüences tones,but the âbovêis a sütficientoutline of the basictypes ol moÌphotonemic áÌternâtionsÌecorded for Sulrti.e. Ât the tim€ th€sedâta weregatheredând àrályzed, the whol€ pictuÌe s€emedso compl€xand unsystemâticthat the prôspect oI leaÌningto sleak the languagelluently âppeâredexkenely diUicuÌt. It wâs nostÍewârding, somesix Ìnonihslater, to.eceile â letter fron the first Ane.icân tô leârn Suppire,sho had toÌÌowedme through the ìnitial work, sayingâpproximately, "Àt ti$t it se€nedholelesly conplicâted,bDt nôw it\ getting so thât, when I nake a mistakein tone, it just soundswrongl" The ânaÌyticproceduÌe, oÍ couNe,wãs tÕ elicit â faÌ Ìâ.ge. nunber ol nounsand verbs than thosecited above,in â vâriety of iairly simpleenvi.onmc.tsjthen the vâ.ioustone sequenc€s vere groupedtogethe.,until eventuâllysetsof nounsãnd verbs were identified vhich displâyedthe sametonâl beìâlior. Finaììy,wÌrendiagnosticenvironm€nts weÌe found for eâchtone and eachmorphotoneniccla$, additional vocabuÌâry couÌd be quickly tested. lt wâs an unüsúâÌlour weeksof eÌicitation,ânalysis. and writing, during whicì we also enjoyedNest ArÌica\ Iinest sulply or rr€sì filet mignon ât 8 .€n[s p€r Ì]ound. vegetabl€s,and governnent-jnsp€cted 5.9. In Kteue, there is one morphotonemicâìternâtionwhich nust be úated in tems ol a conbinâtionot phonologìcâI, morphoìogical, and lexicalcolditioning. The alternaton occüN only ãfter nid or high ton., onìy in sone leÌbal constructions,ând onÌy in someveròswhosestem tone is nid. one âbout Verbs with Did stem tone lsU into two morphoionemiccìàsses. twice as largeas the other- Unds the âpprÕpriateconditions,veÌbs in the Ìarger cÌas hâvc âlternantswith hioh tone. Ve.bal const.uctionsin shich the stemtone
126
ÀqrcaN
LaNclacE
SÌRWÍ!nEs
oÍ verbsis used,and in shich there is no súftix, incÌudethe ihperative, hortãtive, completive,experientiâI,ând past negâtive. The alteÌnâtion in questiontikes pìâcein âll oI theseexceptthe past negâtiv€,aft€r mid oÌ hi8h tone. The aÌternation is ilÌustratedlor tìê steh /küla/ 'eit, remove'in the foìlo{ing: 'ìe hâs gotten the stoneout' But thê alternâüonis noÌ iound âlter low tone, in the pâú n€gative.or with â stem f.on tÌ'e other morphotoneDicclas:
'let\ íix the bridge 5.10. ln Kikuyü, tor which I nüst rely on reports Írom óther Ìesponsible Ìingujsts.there are morphotoDemic alteÌDationswhich in somecas€sare not realjzed until two or mo.e sylâbìesâlter the conditiôningsyuableor wo.d, Sucà a deÌâyedreactionis ha.dly commo!. but is obviouslyanothe.of the vãri€d types oI rlteríarion under s veriety of condiüons, Ìn Sâliny, â v€rb lórm may include a Ìârge Dumbe. oI morphemesin sequence.The DorphotonemicaÌt€Ìnations conditionedby vâriou, cornbinâtionsof morphemesin vârious lositiotrs in the forns arê so ebuìlientlycompìexthar lüìl stâtemetrrs Àâvêtut as yet òeenmade, ând will probâblynot r€duceto anything like a co.cis€set;ã suggeúioDhâsbeêD made thai the pÌoblêm be compute.Iiled for mÌltiple soúing. But whether the morphotonemicalternaüonsor a languagecan be coveredby a few simpleÌul€s oÌ ÌequiÌe the sepâratemehorizationoi scóresof dilferent coDbinations,the fact rehàins thâl fiv&yeaÌ-old native speâkes ol such lânguâgeshave the noÌphotonemic systemspretty well mâstered. A pâtient ânalyst can aho discoveÌand d€süibesuchsyúemsin due time. 5.11. Lelical tone and norphúton€micâlternationsconditionedin thê wâys outÌinedabole do not, however,exhausttle descriptionof tone. In most AI.i@n tone langüageFpo$ibìy all-there âre àìsÒfrórphenes vhosê on\ reâlization js tonal, or mo.phemeswhich have allomorphswhoseonly realizationis tonâÌ. Such morphemesmay be afijxes, laúicìes, o. prcnoDns.The.e are aho affixes which incìudesegm€ntalphonemes, but rhich iD addition havea tonal Miization âccompânying the stemwith which the atfix is used;this might be coveredunder morpÌrotonenicaltemâtÌons,but it sê€hs more convenientto tÌeat it a little difieredtll. And finaìly, there aÌe etÍix€swhich coDsistof â tone which occuB with the cônsónântsând vow€ìsot a st€m,insteâdol lhe lexi@ì úen tone, of tones to single In conneôtionwith the discussioúof âssigningsequences short vÕseìs(4.19,20), a noun suttix consistiDgof low tone only has beenidentifi€d in Jukun (Dìyi). It }as âlso beenshÕwnthat there is â nÕunprefix /à/ in .tuÌun (wàpã) rhich has ân alÌonoÌph consistingor low tone only âlter úid or higì (aìd a ze.o allomorph àlter lo*)- A pârticÌe /á/ hâs âlso ben descdbed which hâs ân aÌÌomorphconsistingol high tone alône.  noun suüix coúsiúing
127 or hightonealone âppears in Ewe. Not manysucì suffixes andparticles. r€ãlized as âú âudiblêton€ without ãn âddedvowêì,harc bccn recorded,but in all likeÌihoodthey mây be lound in someother Ìânguages âs well. Ìn YÕruba,the thüd pe6on sineulã.object pronoun,in Íâirly deliberateol fôrmaì sp€ech,is reelizedas a slight prÕlongâtiónóf the vo$êl oI tìe lcrb stem, with mid tonc after high büt hign tonealter mid or lo{ . ln rapid coÌloqüiâlspee.h, the sequence high-nid is realizedas mid tone accompanying the hi8h-toneú.m, and tìe seqÌencemid'high is realizedas hjgh tone accompanyinglhe frid-tone stem,aithout ?.olongâtion.Anticipâtinglüúher analysis,the longe.forns in thc followingilluúrâtions âre treátedâs il the pronounconsistsof tone alone: 'I sawhim (h€r, ìt)' 'l boughtjt' The ìongerlorms have cúnmonÌy beentreâted as jl the tronoun is a iull losel with the áppropriatetone; the vowel of the pronounis then idcnticãl *ith the vowel oÍ the precedingverb stem. Thereâre,howe!e., goodrcâsonslor qDestioning this aDalysis.A secondpersonsingulârôbject p.onoun is segmentally/o/ in somedial€ctsând /e/ in ôthe.sj jt followsthe samelone rulesâs Ìhe third persôn object pronoun in th€ longerlorms above. Taking a verb /vè/ bâlhc' ând the secondpehon óbjectfó.m /e/, the ve.b vità iheihúdandsith th€ se.ondpeÉon object shouldbe honophonousit the lhhd peBónforn is a lull rorvel. They aÌe Ìút, however. the contrastis clearestii a ìigh tone precedesthe verb stem, as
Ordinarily,low tone hâsâ fâÌìingãllotôneafter high. This is audiblein the s€cond otthe aboveexampl€s;the tone ofthe uninteouptedsequence of verb stemvovei and object pronôünis a quick raÌl iouowedby a Ìise. In the first ot the âbÕre, however,lhe s.qüen.c of verb stem vow€l and object pronounbeginsat the los lèvel,and is simply a rise. This Day be siatedin â .ule thãi rhc lalling âlloloneol Iow ãIter higÌrdoesnotappeârit lhe syllâbìêsith ìÒvtône is immediat€Ìyiouoved ìy ânothe.tone,without a roweÌ. A parâllelsituâlionis lound in shich the usual rising alÌotoneof high âÍier low do€snot âppcarii the syllâblewiih high tone is jmmediateÌylollos êd by ânotheÌ tone, \'ithout a vowel. In the ÍollowiDg,ih. sequence oI ve.b sten Ìowel ând objectpÌonouí beeinsat the high lereì and talls to mid; tle usuâl fisc afler Ìow is not pr€seDt: kô ri
'he didn'r seeit
Thê conclusionis that, in deliberatespeech,the ihird pe.sonsingülârobjecl pronoun consistsoÍ â tone aÌonc.pilhout â vowel,eventhough the vÒ*eì of the precedingverb stem is slightly p.olo.ged. The third personsubject prónoun in Yoruba aho has an alloDoryì whicìì consistsot tone o.ly. Ii ther€ is no noun subject,the pronÕunforft js /ó/. Âlter
128
ÀFRrcN L^NGlacE SBlcruREs
â noun d noun phrasesubjectwhich endswith mid o. low tone, atrd when not tollowèdby the mÕrphefre/ú/ jndi.âtiúg presentcontinuouÊaction,the prctroun is reâlizedas high tone âppendedto the linâl tone oí the suàjêcti e.g.,
ÂyÒ'rlIi the !óun or nóun phrasesubjectendswith high tone, that high tone mây be interp.etedas simuÌtaneoüsly.epresentingthe high tone of the lronoun. The sâmeinteÌpretaüonDay be applied to the Ìtigh tone ot the presentmorphenè /ú/. The.e is no tonal realizationof the pronounin negâÌile @nstrucüonseithêr, lutthat siúply paÌaÌlelsthefactthat, ifthereis !o nounsubject,the thiÌd leNon singulârprcnounÌtâs â zerô auÕnorphin negativecÕnstrüctions. Ii the noün subjectin sentences Ìike the aboveendswith the sequence highloç, low tone doesnot have ìts usualialling âllotone,loÌlowingthe samerule as stâtedabovein contrectionaith the thi.d leÌson singulã.object p.onoun. The usuallailure to be conce.nedwith anything but l€xicaÌtone is Ìeflected iÍ written Yoruba. The third personobject pronouúis indicâtedby a tilde oveÍ the voveì oÍ the verb sren, suggeúingthe prolongâtionbuì not sp€cúyingthe ton€. Other tonâUy.ealizedmo.ph€mesa.e not indicatedin any *ay. 5.t2. A similar tonal .eaüzãtionof a mo.phemeis found in the âssociative norpleDe in Yoruba,which has beendiscu$edin 2.20in coúíectionsith vowel predictable, elision. One of its aÌìomorphs,the choiceof shich is phonoìôgicãlly is a mid tone betveen t*o noüns. Á secondailonorph is Íeâlüed âs â morphG tonemicalternation,and a thiÌd as a morpìophonemicaÌly sìgnificaDtabsenceof One of the üsesof the associativeconstruction-prôbâblyby lâr the comol moneú, but by Do meansthe only on+is to expÌes poss€ssiôn.ln sequencès noun pÌus pÕsesive prÕnounin Yôruba, there is âlsoâ tone shich doesnot accoÌnpanya sepa.atevoweÌ. This may well be anothermanifestâtionoÍ the âssosingülaÌ ciativemorpheme,althoughthetoneis low ror the rirst and secoúdper6Õn jtself- Füúhd, pÌonoun â chà.âct€ristic which seems to belong to the ?ronouns, in th€ secondpê6on plüral pÌonoun,tÌre p.€cedingnid tone is fourd evenvhere prÕnounsôf Yothe associativeconstructioncan.ot be present. The possessive rubâ âre ilÌustÉt€d in the followin4:
ilé .è ln the second pe.son
ilèaâ ilé-yin ilé_v9n
our house you. (pl.) hôusê 'th€iÌ house'
is loünd .ven in the object prcÍoun
5.ï1. PreÍixesconsistjngoi tone alonehàv€ not, to my knowÌedge,beenreco.ded in any languageexcept Kpellê, but they are cleaÜ preent the.e. A portion oi ihe relevantdata hâsbêendis.u$ed in3.20 in conneciionwithsyllabic
129 The fiNt peNonsingular possesivepronoün Nith r€litionâl noúds,ând ôbject lronoun vith v€rbs,is â nãsalqith higì tone, not merely a !onc. This is obviousbeforestemswith initiaÌ Ìoiceles úops and fricâtiles. Wìth úems having otherinitiâl consoíants,it js les obviousbut equallytÌue. By analogywith foÌms like /úpôlu/ 'my bâck' (in shich /p/has a voicedallophonelbl), the interpretâtion of a loÍn like /íáa/ 'my name' is that the initiai /ú/ is simultaneously the nasâlplushigh-tonepronounând â norphophôneúicaÌlernantol the iniliâì consonânt or the úem-which happensto be /l/, as attestedin /i Ìáa/ 'your (sg.)name'. lÍ the stem ìas an initial nasal,as in /i nâÌl/ youÌ Iather', the initial /ú/ oÍ /riâ!/ 'my lâther'is interpretedâs being simultâneousl,a th€ pronôuú ând the ìnitiãl consoDântof the stem without alternaüonThe côúespondingthird peNoDsingulaÌpronoun.however,is inteÌpretedas consisüngof low ton€ alone. In /náa/ his name',only íhe low tone ol the initiâl /lì/ is considereda manifestationoi the pronoünithe nasalis a mo.phophonemic aÌte.nant of /li in the presenceof this low tone. In /nâÌl/ 'ny tather', onìy the Iow tone is the pronouni the nasâÌis the stem-initialcodsonânlwithout alternation. The morphophonemic are aìte.nantsol stem-initialnon-nasalconsonants as foÌlows,with.elevãnt iÌlDstratìÕns tor each:
'ti Ailo
6 I
v
rl
'ti yálâ 'í wÉti
òálâ ilwÉÌi
drag it' 'his Íriend
v The fact that the úem-initial consonântsin questionhave no.phophonenic alternants which ha!?en to be nasalhas nothing to do with the underÌting pho neúic @úpositjôn oI the pÍonoun. In ã small ext.emeNesle.ndiãl.ct à..a, rhe third !e6oD !.onotrn plus /6/ is .€aÌìzedâs lo{ tone acconpanying/ô/. without nasality; similarìy, the pronoun !ìus /y/ n reâÌizedas Ìo$ tone âcconrpânyine /y/; /l/, however,hâs â nâsalâìternant,and jf nemoD servesÍne corectly /w/ ând /y/ do also. In other dial€cts,one cân only sâI thât the phonotâcticsdo not permit lo* tonc to âccohpãny these cónsonânts,but it nâ) âccompanytheir The ânâìysisot the third pèrsônprónoun as low tône âlÒne,búl the lirsl person?.onoun âs nâsalplus higÌr tone. whcn lhc forms cited thus far diller only in toúe, is justified by anaÌogywith the prcnoun lonns accompanyingstems whoseinitiâl consonânisâre voìcel€s slops ând fricâliv€s. 1he anâlogl has already ìeen cited lo. the IiNt peNon?ronoun. For the third peNon,the r€aìizations âre int€rp.etêdas "prefixedlow tone", For eachsteD-initiâlvojceìess stop ald frìcative,the loÌm with the third pcBon pronounbeginsinsteadwìth a voiced consÕnant, ao aììophoneof the loiceÌes counterpaú,aDdthis voicedconsonâdi beginson â low pitchi ii h this Ìov pitch, interpretedâs ìôw tóne, \'hicì signâls the presence ol the p.onoun. (Inte.locâlicalÌyjn stems,the.e are occasionalcôntmsts ot /p/ and /b/, itl and /d/, etc., bút the intervocalicvojcedconsÕnânts do
130
ÁFRrcÁN L^Ncú^dE SrRUcreaEs
not beginwith lo* pitch. Initiâlly, Íb, d, g, gb, v, Jl do not occurpithout low pitch, and may thus be inte.pretedãs âllophonesot /p, t, k, kp, I, s/ conditionedby the presenceoI los tone.) In the phonetictranscriptionof the tollo{ing forms, th€ lov tone must be .ead as âccompânying the fi.s[ pârt of the stronglyvojce.lcoÍ'pôlu 'tia 'kóô
I'bôlul l'dial I'cóôì
'his back' 'his taboo' 'his foot'
'kpi! 'Iéla \n'J
l'sblÌìl ['Ìélâ] l'jo.ll
hims€ü his wâges' 'catchhim'
This is. oI couÈ€,the Kpelle foÌm of the "initiâl consonantâÌternaiion"in Soüthw€stern Mândewhichhasatt.actedthe attentionoi nany wrirers(Welmêh 1971b.pp. 13236). I mnnot seethat it hâs ânt conceivâbleconnectionwith an originâl nâsal.as Manessy(19ô4)assumes, foÌowed by Bird (1971). As noted above.a nasâlâppeaa belore(vôicedallophonesof voiceless stopsand fÌicatives peson pronoun. in thc lirú ln €nvi.onmentsidenticalexceptIor tone, no nasaÌ appeaFin the thi.d p.rson pronoun. lt seems€xtrêmelyunlikely that the diffeÌencein ton€ $1,uldb€ strUicientto accountfor the reientionofa nâsaÌin onecase â.d its lossiD ânother.ând there is no ôther â!ãilâbìeor süggested êxplânation tor whât soDld be a cìear violation of regular phoneticchange. In Loma ând rÍeíde. lhere is ;Ì r€al consonantaÌternation,{hicn cannotbe reinterpretedìn a comparabìe*ay in the lânguagesas they now are. Morphologicâlly,compâring ihe bâsic consónânts$ith their alternants,the I.oma and MeDdeallernâtionsfunctionjna wây almostpreciseìythe reveBeol the sitúâtionin Kpellê. Apâú Irom a iew irrelevantgrammaticâldiÍfer€ncesamong the lânguages,p.efixed lo{ tone úì Kpelìe coreponds to the âbsenccol consonântâltêrnâtionin Loma and Mende,and tÌ'e basicconsonânisin KpeÌÌeconespondto the morphophonenic âlrernântsin LonE and Mende. ln Loma, /l/ È the alternâút oI both /ti and /di, and in Mende/l/ is the alteÌnant or both /t/ ând /nd/, which denonstratesthat /t/ ând idl or ind/ âre indeedthe underlr-jngconsonãnts;the r€vem€ g.ammaticalsituatìon in Kpcììc rnd theselãnguagesis shownin thc following. Kpelìe:
'go up, climb , té lift it' 'lifr it. lÉ go up, clinb
ln Kpelh, prelir€d low tone jn the forms in questioncan readiÌy be interp.eted as a morpheme. In Loma and Nlende,siem loms suchas jtÉl 'lift it'can more cleârlyin Lonâ be inlerpreiedâs includingân âdditionalmo.phemein the urderlying st.uctu.e. In ôther branchesof Mande,the correspondingúorpheme appeâ6 as /âi, so that */à/ appea.sto be the ìogical reconstrucüonot Kpell€ prcIixed lo* tone. and oi th€ abs€nceof consônãntâìternâtionin Lomâ and Mend€. (Other Soüthw€úe.nMandc third perconpronoünlorms contain nâsâÌs, to be süre:e.g.Kpelle /Ìlò/,pôssessive fôr lree but nôt reìâtionalnôuns,and Mende possessive rorms, io. aÌì nouns. These Ì,oweÌer,are grámmàticâìlydifierent /,lgì/, lrDn. ând ìü€lerânt to, the problemol prctixedlos tone in Kpelle conespônding to the absenceol consonantalte.nation in Lona .nd Mende.) ìVithout going
l3l into all oI the minute details(wlich can,to be sDre.be accountedfor), my hypotìesis is thât the presenceoI this Õriginâl*/à/ár perhâpsúorê âccurâtelydevelopm€ntsin its phonologicalreâlizationwhich ültimat€Ìy led to its Ìos as â separatesegmentalentity resulted,ìn alÌ three Southwestern Mandelânguages, (ioúition, vts.nd{t'ng) lollo{ing in a strengtlening of the consonant.InKpelle, this took the forn of slrong voicing, with lhe ìow tone ol th€ */à/ renâining; thát strengtheningis invoÌved in this loicing (rather than the lenition usualìy associâtedwith voicing)is âitested aÌsoby the âtlricàt€ [t'] as a counterparlol lsl (tÌ'e lomer is palataÌin aÌÌ environments,the Ìatte. in some). In I-oma and Mende,sirentheningnây hâve taken thc Íorm ol a nor. rortìs articuÌetionoI all sten-initial consonants, as suggesftdby the fact thât the Loma /kp/ ìsproduced with considerablymore oral suctionthân th. Kpelle /kp/, and by the tâci thâi Mend€has ìnitial /nj/, and Loma initial /z/. conespondingto Kpelle /y/; in an] câse,vôiceìess consonânts.emàin€droiceles ãlter */à/, and r€construcl€dinitiâì Ìojced stops are .eflectedâs stops in Loma and prenasâlizedstops in ì{ende. \vher€ +/à/ r'ãs not present,stem-initialconsonantsundement lenition. These consonants,the pÌesent morphophonemicaìternants,are not strongly loiced, ând Io. the most part âre resonantsrather ihan voic€dsiops or lricâiir€s; e.9., as noted abov€,the alternant oi both /t/ and id/ in Loma, and oI both /ti and i nd/ in Mende.is /l/. Àfi€r theseprocesesoÍ lortition âIter r/à/ and ÌenitionelsÈ wherehâd ìntrcdúceda distinctiônbet*een t$o setsol consonrnts.*Jà/loú both its vowei and its tonei it is now Ìealüed only by the pÌesenceoI the stem-initial consonantrathe. thân the weâkenedalternâni. The morphèúe in question,realizedas prelixed los rÕnein Kpdle. is Íâr môre than a third personpronoun. It has a more gene.almeaningor "preÌious reie.ence". It cân bè usedwith a lrc€ noun stèn âs in Kpelle i pÉre]'a houseIoÌ it (heârd in a corveBatioÍ about a goat lor *hom w€ wánted â sh.lto built). It is alwaysused,alongwith a sulIir. in tIe "specilic"ro.n oI a r.eenotrn:/'pÉ.€i/ 'the ìouse ; in Lonã and Mend€,therc is no consonântalternãiionin iree nouns in citation or jn phrâseinitiâl position, paraìlclinglhe irequent occurrenceol the speciticforn jn Kp€lle lôr púrposesol citàlion. It ìs usedwith numerah in Io.ms like /'t€€re/ 'two of them'. ln countinga numbcr ot iteús, i[ is trscdwith thenum€râlstNoth.oúghnide,bul notwith ten unÌes thcreareexactlyten ìtems. Above ten, countingúârts over sith one.ând âgâinprefixedlow tone is not used wilh tên. Ihe lorm is /puu/ 'a ten'. but then the personcountingpâusesând adds, procedtrreis lollosed i'puu feeÌÊ/'twen|]r (tNo tens)of then'. The cÕmpãrablc for €very multiple of ten. Prelixedlow tone is alsotrs€dto expressthe LoDicor a predicativeadjectiva| / kÉt€i/'it is big. Not eve.y instanceof word-ìnitial Ìow tone n, hôNere., â mânileststionoÍ tlis morphemq Somc trc. noüns hâve initial low tone as part oI their srensi e.g-./'kêli/ 'Dìanamonkey',/'pôki/ 'bucket'. [tãny su.h noüns àre clearlyadaptãtions frÕm neighbÒringlãngúâgesor iiom English, ând it is only reasônâblc to asume that âll oI them are (seeWeìmers1961). With suchstems,the DoÈ phemedescribedâs prelixcd los lonc has a zero aÌÌoìÌo.ph,or it could b. said
t32
ÀFRrc^N LÀNGUAGE SmucrúREs
pâú ol the steÌnand prefixedlow tone: that the initiâl low toneis simultaneously /'kêlii/ 'the Dianâ nonkev'. 5.14. Anotlìe.type oi tonalìy reâli2edmorphemeìs"replacives"(Seecl€áson 1!ô1, Ì. 74). That is, the inherentôr siem tone ol â mo.phemedoesnÕtappeâr; in iis llâce is anothe.tône shich hasDorphenic statusin its own right. A simpìe exampÌemay be cited irom Jukun. In môst ve.baÌ constÌuctions,the fiÌst and secondpersonsingula. subject pronounshâve lo\{ tone; aU otheÌ subjecLpÌonounshâvemid tore. In the hoÌtãtivè constructiÕn, however,ãll subjectprcúoüns have the sâmeconsorântsând vôwelsa6 i! other const uctions,but have high tone, tsecâuse ol their áppeaEncein most veÌbâl construclions, ând úôrê €speci âlly on the basjsof th€ p.incipìe of malimüú differentiâtion,the pDnoüns in the phms€son the Ìett belowârê tãken to be the basicoÌ stemtorns ol the pronouns. The tirsi sylláblein eacì phÌaseon the Ìight is taken to be ìhe pÍonoun plus â morpheDedefinedâs "high replâcingúên tone" and having the m€ning ''hoÌtative. The past constructionis simply lronoun plus veÌb stem.with tro âdditionalmorphenehâving "paú" signil'cance.Thus: 'I went 'you (sg.) vent 'he went' 'we went 'you (pl.) went' 'thêy sent'
Ìí yâ? ú ya kú ya i ya nl yâ bé ya
'ShouldI gô?' 'Go (sgì.' 'lett go' 'Go(pl.).'
!'or thosewho dìsÌikethe conceptof "replacives",perhapsbecause it smâcks too mucl of "proce$" des.ription,tlere is anothertechniqueavailableto account lor suchdâtâ- Eâch ptunoun could be describedas ìaving two aÌlomorphs:one wilh lo{ Õr mid tone as the casemay be, and anotherwith no tone. The ãllomo.ph with no tone occuN in tÌtc environnent ol ãn âcconpânyingmo.phene which consistsof tone only. The result È obviouslythe same. WitÌ the lãtte. anãlysis,ìoqev€r, it would bê necessâryin â rigidly fomâì ìexicontô list tleo aÌlomorphsfor a nunber oÍ norphemes-olly six in Jükun, but virtuâüy every morphene in the lexiconin sone other Ìanguâ8es.The importanceol this câvì mây be minihâI, bnt I pe.sonãllyfind it more elegantto incoÌpo.atemore in the delinition oI ã .eplacive,which occuÈ with (or operateson) whole clases of Á replacivenây be saidto be presentêvenshen it hasreplãcêda tone identical with itseìt. ln Kpelle, fìve ot the six subject pronounshave high tone ìn whàtis ânàlyzedasthei. stemforms;the other ìas Ìow. The subjectpÌonounsare: ls 2s 3s
Ìlá i è
tpl kú 2pÌ kâ 3pI 'ti
'l hesesúbjectpronounsare usedwithout modilicaüononly in the past construcÌion. In the hoúâtive, âs in JDkun, thêy hâve high tonê replãcingúêm tone. This producesâ dirlerenttoneonÌy in the tlird pemonsingular,ìut the diíIe.ence
r33
FuNcrroNs or ToNE
betwe€n the past and the hortâtive is markedalsoby a diffeÌencein tone in the vúb stem. E.9., é pili he shouÌdjunp' è pìli 'he jump€d' jumpcd' Lú pili let\ juDp kú pili 'se To say that high tone rellacesstem tone in subj€ctpronounsmâkesÍor â neât grammaticaÌstâteÌnent,eve! though in five caseshigh simply replaceshigh. Àn anâìogyin ihe physicâlworld is â fenccmâde ot veúicaÌ boards,in shich aÌÌ the boârdsare greenexceptone thar is white. If the entjre tenceis coveredwith â coat oÍ greenpaint, only the shite bôârd chângescoìor-büt the entire tence has neverthelesbeenpainted. 5.15. Às suggeúedby the lâú examplesâbo!e, Kpelle âlsohâs a replâcive with verb úems. Às shownin 4.22,Iive tones,w h a scopefrom one opentÌânsition to the next. occu. with úems; they are high, mid, hìglììow, midjãll, and low- Of thesetônes,lów óccuB âlhost exclúsilely sith lree noun sreús, all ól (see\{eÌme.s 1961).The which areundoubtedlyadaptâtionsIrom otÌterlãnguages otheÌ occurencesofÌow âsâ stemtone âr€ with onepronÕünând with sone jdeÕphones,which aÌe atypicaÌin any cãse. Low doesnot occur âs a stem tone vith verbs. Fuúher, as noted in 5.3 âbove,no two verb stemsconiraú minimâlly in tonê. The fou. posibiliües âre iuustrâtedin thc lollowing: pili
A morlheme definedas "lo{ repiâcingstem tone'i aplears, hosever. in ã ÍumbeÌ of v€rbal constructions with all verb stems. Theconstructions in questjon are alsodifte.entiatedby ditte.entmorphemesappendedto the subject?.onouns. Sincethe cônshuctionsusing the lov tÕnereplâci'e shàr€ tic f@ture, one might t.efer to say thát thüc arc severaÌhonophonousnorphenes invohed; nothing is gained by such an interprctation,however,sincc there are other norphenes presentlo which lhe senântic d'Íterencescàn be ãttribDted. In the iollowing. the stem tone oI !€rbs appeaNin the compì€tile consfuction,vhile low r€placingsÌem lone appea$ in the past: aâ pili è pìli 'he hâs gotten dóvn' è pèlâ! 'he ìâs nÕved over' è rüâ! Other const.uct'onsin which lov Ìeplaci.g stem tone âppeaB are th€ foÌ' ìósing, which also include examplesof highlov as a mo.photon€micaìternant of low after mid (5.5 ãbove): à pìli '{hen/if he jumps' â kúlâ 'he goesout' Cust.Neg.: 'he docsni go out 'Íâ külâ 'if onìy he d get do$n' èi pèlâ! 'if only he wouldn't gel down Desid-N€g.: 'fêi pèlâÌl 'h€ slouldn't move oÌer' HoÌtative Neg.: 'ié tüa!
134
ÀÉRrcaN LÀNc!^cE SrRUcruÂes
ln eãchof th€seconú.uctiôns,of couBe,an âlternativeânalysiris poâsible; it coüld be sâid that eacÌrconstructioncontainsa mo.phemecomposedoI whateler (incÌüdingzero)is appendedto the p.oÍoun or negatìvenârke. plus the replacementoi verb stcm tone by ÌÕw. Such positednorphdes {ouÌd, however, be discontinuous in all senten@s containinga ve.bâlobject,siÍce the object(which may be a lhrase oI consideÌable leneth)coDesbetqeenthe pÌonounwith its afIn phrasesor compoundscons'stingof two or more nouns,an identi@Ì(but t.esumâbly not the same)morphemeot low repìacingsten tone âppeâÌswith eâchnoun stemalter the first- The folÌowingexampÌesshowa va.iety of combinations in terds ol the independentstem tones ot the Dounsiagain low has the mÕrphotÕnefric alt€rnant highlow after nìid:, tóu krl, kélel l<ãli yâla kpa!Ò taa pala -kpó Alh palâ
rúb 'palú nut', 'oil' : tou-wüb 'pálú ôil' 'leal 'page book, pâpe., Ìáa r krb-lâa pere '!ehicle'. 'path' : kéÌerpè.e 'road' paÌa tnake', : kâli-!âla tnãk€-bite' 'God , 'town' taa : yâÌa-tàa heaven 'youngbush', kwaÌa 'nonkey' : kp.!ô-kwàla 'nonkey Gp.)' 'rown', kàloÌ.ì 'chiel' : tâa-kâlôrl 'town chi€f so.e, kpôlô! 'scar' : pala-kpãbÌJ scaÌ Õf a sôre 'excrement', pÉre 'house' : kpó-pÈr. 'outhóuse' theep', skin' : shêepskin' Ëálâ-kàlâ -kolô 'sore', (/felai krl-íêlâ tickness' : is nôt attested independentlyi its stem tone is unknown): pala-k5b-fèla ticknes causedor characte.izedby sú.es'
A peNonâlrelâtionaìúoun may be cofrbìnedsith the nôun /núü/ 'peÌson', with lo{ replâcingstem tonc (@úâinly a difter€nt though homophonousmots pheDe in this case)ãccompanying the first âs w€ll as the secÕndcomponent,to producea noun with the m€aningoI the relationãlnoun, lut for whi.h no possesor needbe exP.e$ed;e.9., núu
lerson
:
naÍì-nru
Ìn Àkân. thereâÌe son€whâtsimilâ. noun-nounphÌasesor compounds,with a replacile ac.ônpânying rhe lirú mthe. than the scond component.Throughout thè liNl noun, low tones replâcetle tones of the noun in its indelendent torm. E.o.. hom Fantel nkàti 'peanüts nkwán rsoup' : nkàtl-hkwáí peânutsoupr
, dÉn'kIémcrocodile, òbú
'stone'
:
dÈnkyÈm-bú diamond
and vosels oÍ a nuÌn5-16. Nhcn difi€Ìent tonesaccompanythe consônânts it is not ãlways of úorphenes in â ìânguage undeÌ diffe.ent circumstqnces, ber iúmediâtely appa.ent slethe. it is rorphÕtonmic âltôrnationunder definãble , For Iu h.r detâlls an{ì âddilional exanol6. sce weln.É
1969b.
135 conditions,or the presence Õl â tónally realizedmorphcDe.thât is .esponsiblcfor the wariãtion, In somecases,both mÊy hê prês.nt. IgbÒpróvidcssomc int.r esüngconplicarionsin the identificationand interlockinglun.nons oI morphotonemic alternationsand tonaÌly reaÌizedmo.ph€mes;a lew d€lâiìs .estrictèd to ÌelaüveÌyuncommonconstruclionsor to individuâlwôrds*ith a üniquest.uctüre âre ofritted in tìis treatment,but all ot the .clevant pritrcipìesot ânalysis ând interpretâtionãre ampìy illustÌated-s It ìs Ìecognizcdt}ât ih.rc arc diaiect dilterencesjn somedetails,but tle staiemeDtsmadehererepresenlpâllerns thât are known to ìe widespread.For other dialects,an occasionalstâtementsould have to bê onitted. âdded.or modiiied.o. the order in vhich somestatements are made would hâve to be charged. Â few conspicuous dialect dillerencesare This sectìonìs conrinedto a lev detailsoi tonâì identificâtiÕnànd behâvior which can tìen be asumed in the remâinderof the discüssión.l'i.st, fhere is â 6et of indetendent pronoun lorms which in most respectsfunctiod âs nouns. Threeol thesêâre monosyllãbic,and in thei. unde.Ìyingstructurea.e interp.eted as ttaving initial downst.p tollowedìy high tone. lhe initiâl downstepis, in aÌÌ probâìility, historicallydeÌived hom a voweÌ$ith Ìow tone. The six lorms are:
si
yá
'l' 'you(seì
ànyi únü
'he, she,it'
'há
'you(pl.)
Downstepwith the DonosyÌlabicforms È shownin the Íollowìng: 'it it is he ({ho) càme
Th€seloms are also usedas po$€sives. Downstep{ith the nonosyllâbic fom6 is agaiDatt€sted;after low tone, ôÍ course,do{nstep is àutÕmaiicâllydÈ leted. E.g., úlÒyá As verbâìobjects,thesâftêfôrns ãreusedexcêptlor the tirstpersonsingulâr, which is a syÌlâbic/m/. This and tle other th.ee mo.osyllabiclorms haÌe downstep-highaíter high, büt in the pa.ticular dialect under consideralionhâve the alternânt tone low âIte.low. E.s..
Às verìâì snbjects,the plürâl lÒrús listed sbove âre âgainused. There a.e, howeve.,specialsinsular subj€crpronouns. The secondpersonform is iil or iil (tle choicedependingon vowel Ìrâ.mony). The third persÒnlÒrfr is /ó/ o. /ó/. In someconstructions,the íirst Ìerson íonn is /úi. In other constructions,the Íi.st personfoÌm corsÈtsor /á/ or /é/ beroÌethe verb plus a sJllâbic/m/ aite. the vêrb; the tone ol the latter is doçnstep-highâlte. high, but ìow alter low. E-g., 3 Tbe snbstâncèol 5.16-19ls sêpâfâleìypúbllshcd âs Wêlnès 1970b.
136
ÀFRrcN
LNcúÂcE
SÍRUcT úREs
'ü I do it'
Perhapstô be identúiedwith rhê vôweìcomlonentol thè Íi.stte6on lom above is ân impesonaìsubjectprctroun,/á/ oÌ /é/. In n€gativecônstrücìiôÍs,with sDbjectsÕtherthân the âbovesiDgular!Ìc nours, the ve.b lo.m has â vo*eÌ preiix. BeÍore this prefix, the plurâl süject pronounslisted aboveluúctioDas nounsadd ünd€Ígono âÌternãtion. With singDlârsübj€ct!Ìonouns, howeve..the ve.b fom has no prelix, but the pronoüns ìave low tone rellacing then inherent high tone- This is interpretedas â moF phene with the neaning un.€aÌ'. E.g.,
únüá'byághi ò byâ'shi In atfirfrâtive verbâl constructjons,the sâfte replâciaeis used witlt both singularand plu.al subjectt.onouns. Such combinationsare usuâìlytrânsÌâted as, and have generallybeen desoibed âs, quesìions.Atter a noun sulject, the third persontom iòl o. /ò/ is required. E.e.,
ò gàràáhyá
'did ìe go to mârkei?' 'haveyou (pl.) doneit?' 'dìd you. Íather come?'
Thè meânjng unreal is ìere more specificauy'hypothetical'. The idenúicâtion of thc replacive h.re sith thât in negâtivesis pÒssiblebecausethere are no neeative questionsin lgbo, but there are coDmon circumÌocutions such as the eqüivalent of I think he didn'tgo', which €xpectsa respons€.By anâÌogy,the ãbove are interpreiedâs having the more basic meaning I supposehe went to mârket etc. Às in English,suchItypotheticalstatemenhexpectã Ìespon*. (In EngÌish, speakersôl lgbo sometimessy, e.9., I think you a.e goingto 8o to Aba tomoÌÌow , where a native speakeÌol Engìishwould invâriâbly use a question.) A Iew monosyllâbichorphemesare interpÌeteda3 beingiÍherentìy toneles. Theseincludefoür sulrixeswììch repeattÌte tone of the pre@dingsylìable,high or loa: the negativeinperâtive su||ix /-lâ/, the negâtivêsüllix i-ghi/, the âppìcâtive verbal€xtensionwhich consistsoI /-r/ pÌusa .êpeütionoI the pÌ€cediÍgvowel, ând th. âddilive verbaldtension i-kwâ/. Theseâll follow the pâtteÌn illDstmted é'méláyá
don't do it
ázàlà)à
A Iew other suÍfixestound in verb forns coüld aÌsôbe considerêdtonels, but they âpleâr onìy àfter high or onÌy alter low tone, 60 thãt their high or low tone cân equâlly well be cônsidered an inlerent !a.t of the suüixes themselves.
137 The .emainingtoneles mo.phemeis a sort oI pÌeposition,the lnderlying form of wlich is /nâ/. Before â consônânl (which is êxt.€mêly râÌê) this noÌphene hasÌow tone. BeIorea syllabicnasal,it takesthe tone oI the lollo$,ingsyÌlabÌe. BeIoreâ vowel,its vowelând todeareelided,âs indicàtedby an apostÌophe in the transcriptionusedhe.e. 8.9., ná Ígìèdè nà òbú
'in the êvening' 'in the beginning'
n'úÌò n'òbòdò
SigÍiÍicantÌy,the presence ofthis morphene,evenslren it consisisoI a consonânt only, inhibits in what folÌowsthe oteÌãtion of any morphotonenic aÌternation conditiónedby whât precedes. One nór?hotonemicalteÌnation must be included here, p.ìo. to the threê alt€rnationsdesoibedin the lollosing sction, shich hâvè a dilterent tJpe of coíditioning- Betoreâny modilier dcept â mônosyllabicform with the inhe.ent tone dovnstep-high,in nouns which independenilyhâve the ton€s hieh-dÕwnstep-high,the dowDstepis deleted. The exception,though jncluded in the ilÌuúrâtions bèÌow,is coveredby the first âlternation stated in ihe followingsectiont in mãny dialects,as shownby the pârenthesized âlternânt below,this exceptiôndôesúôt âpply. That the cruciâlenvi.onmenthe.eis a modifieris shown by the tact that this altemation do€s not take plâce before â verb. E.g., lrom
shiuins'l /é'só/'money, é'gódì ú'má 'three shillings'
é gó yá (égó'yá) 5.17. It seemsmost convenientnext to d€scribethree morphÕtonemicaìte.nations which are laÌgely conditionedby the p.ecedingtonaÌ envi.onúent. The derivationsot tìe @ndiüoningenvironnentsar€ âsuned [ere, but *ill be expÌicitÌy stat€d in the loìlowing section.âftê. which a nunbe. oI âppÊrenlor real exceltions wilÌ be accounted lor. The alte.naüÕns desoibed in this section wiÌÌ be ref€Ìredto âs 41. 42. and .{3. A1: AfteÌ one or no.e high tones pr€cededby ã dovnstep, in lorms with an initial voweÌ or nasalwhosefirst two ton.s are Ìow-high,initiâl lo{ tÕnehâs thè âlt€rnânt high. In this ênviÌonnênt, therefore,Iofrs yhôse fiÍst two tones are independentlylow-high have the sametonesas loms whosefirst two tónes âre high ìigh, Bofh âre illustrâied in the lolloNing: 'ndependcntÌy Àbá 'Ala (town)': ô gá'ghiÁbá 'he didn t so to Aba' 'oiì 'he Ììmânú : wânts to ìüy oil ó còrò Ízúú úmánú 'meât': ó caròi'zúL{ ánú 'he wadts tÕ buy meât' ánú A fo.ú ôf this âlternâtiónappliesin monosyllabicloms with the inhe.ent tone downstep-high;the alternâüontâkes the lorn of d€leting the downúep (compâre the end of the precedingsection). E.g.,
138
AFRrc^NLÀNGU^GE SrRUcauhEs züú 'ji
buy yans' I
ò zú !ághi ji
ânú g!
'youÌ meat :
écóci
'he didn t buy yams 'he wants to do it'
A2: Àfter high tone when no dosnúêp precedes.âlsoin loms whôseÍirst two tonesareindependentlylow-higì, initial lo*tone hasthe alterDalt downstepstep-Ìrigh.A modilicationof tìis alte.nâtionappeaF oDÌy in foÌms sith more thân two syltâblesând an initial nâsal;in 6üchfôrús, initiâl ìow tône hasthe alternânt high ând downúep precedes ihe seúnd syÌâìlFthat is, an initial nâsal delays the dosnstep Io. one syllãbÌe. The fourth exmple in the folowing illustratesthis Dodilicationl àkwá òSbá
eeq wrestling'
Àbá
'Aba (town)'
'yoD (pÌ.) hale doneit'
wètí ákwá 'hring eggs há nà àgbá'igbá 'they\e wr€stling' sèú úíddú 'bÌing some wètÁú'nánú 'bring oil' ónyé Ábá 'a peBon t.oÌn Aba' àkwá átó 'three eggs' ànyi ,émééláyá 'we ìave doneit'
Ìn thê láú ol these,thê dô{nstep ôt /,yá/ cannôt!e deletedby the A1 rúìe,since the dosnstep of the pr€cediÍg wo.d is d€rived by A2 ãÍter A1 has ceasedto applv A3: $ith the syntacticrestrictionsstated bcÌow,âlsoalter hiSh tone when no downstepprec€des, ir nou.6 with two syuable onÌy and the toneshigh-high, the secóndhigì tone hâ6 the alternant downstep-ìigh, This âÌtemationâpplies to a noun usedby itseÌt (i.€., withoüt a nodilier áft€Ì it) immediatelyafte. a verb, and to the secondnounin a noun-nounphrâse. Itdoes not appÌy,although À2 does.in the secondof two nouns att€r â Ìerb if the nounsdo not belongto while the onditioning loÌ the samephraseithe coÍditioning for À2 is phonoìogic, À3 is ìn part syntactic. ExampÌes of this alte.natiotr ãnd its restriction to two-
: Íkpúrú ósÍsi This alteÌDationalrpliesooly in nouns;in the following,/ócá/ 'liglt-colored' is an adjective,which ìndicats tìe cat€go.yor classto wìich a precediÍgnoun belongs(see$elm€Ìs ând welneN 1969):
NoÌ doesA3 aptÌy it a Doun is roÌlowed by a modilie., as /éwú/ i! the riNt two ofthe fouo*ing; by cÕntrast,in the third, /éwú/ is lhe secondnounin ã noun' noun phÌâse! and tle demorstratjve modüies the entire pb.as€, not /éwú/
139 kpÈtaéwú'áüá lsi éwúáhü
'tÌìe heâdof thqt goât'
Finâlly,A3 doesnotapplyinthe secondoftvo nouns,not in the samelhrãse, atter a verb. Às shown in the tlird ând the lâst of the follÕwing,hÒwêver,Â2 doesapply in this envnonnent: écl 'y.sterday,tomonow': kpütí é'sú éci 'bring â goât toúoF row'(cf.: gàá é ci 'go tomorrow') meât' i ó sìlri ànyi ánú shecookedmeatíor us' ánú àkwá 'eCCs' : ó sììrì ànyi'áksá the cookedeggslor us' iró 'hatred' I há hürü ànyiiró 'they hate us' (lit. they seeus hâtrcd ) : há úèrürÈ ànyi 'âhú '1heyhürt üs' (lit. 'th€y stoiled us body') An instârcewâs c'ted earÌierin which À1 cânnotânply if the tìonoÌogic en, vi.onment which otheNise conditionsit is de.ilcd by the alllicâtion of À2. In the envi.onmentjust discu$ed,however in the secondoi two nouns, not in the sâmephrâse,âfter a verb-À1 appliesâfter itself, âlter Â2, or âlter À3. The Ìationaleof this appeaNto be that Ìhe verb and tlìe first noun are treãtedas â unit; âny dosnstepfoìow.d by high tÒnesin the totâì unit, whetherit is in the ve.b belorethe fÍst nouD,o.in the tirst noun as â resultoi A2 or À3, conditions A1 in the secondnoun. This is confi.ned òy Ìhe lisr ot üe loììowingêxànples, in which Àl alsoappliesafter a high tonewhich is lotthe resultol eny alternationi the conditioninglactor is the downstepin the precedingverb: éwú goar', àhú 'body', há é'nìérúghiéwú áhú ànyi (1pl), àhú 'body', há ó'mérúghi ányi áhú ànyi (1pl), àhú 'body' há nà èmérú ányiáhú ésú 'goat', àhú 'nody', há nà èmérúé wú áhú
no aÌlerMtion ând À1: 'th€y didn't hurt â goàr' Al ànd A1: 'they didn't hurt Ds' A2 and A1: 'they're hurting üs' A3 ând A1: theyìe hurting a goat
In othcr enviroÌmentsthân the âbove,A2 atpÌies after itseÌt and after Á3. This recuNiveãppìicâtionot A2 is iìlustrâtedby the foÌÌôçing,in which thê âìteÌnation with the secondword must precedethe aÌt€rnationwith the third: àtó éwú
'three', ànyi (lpl), évú 'átó ànyi '8oat', ànyi (1pÌ), ánú é wü ányi
Á2 ând Á2: rôurthreegÕâtsl A3 ãnd A2: 'our gost meat'
The lollowing exâmpleshowstìe sâmesurfacerealizâtionoI tonâl âlternations, but is derived diffeÌentlyi the alternationwilh the third word precedes,ând is then unâtl€ctedby, the aliernâtion{ith the second:
140
AFRrc^N LNcu^õE
ikó
SGUcrüBEs
'cup', ànyi (lpl): {è!t ikó,ányí
In the foÌÌowií8, A2 âpp€ârslour times; the order of the Ioü. appÌicariorsis 3-!L 2-11 àn)i e$etâldrkó'âtó'ânyí 'we hâvebÍoüght ouÌ three cu!s' A contÌast between the sequenceol À3-À1 ând A3-42 À shown in the folloviúg. À3 appsnin /úmá.yá í'kwú/'nutpalm sine'; /Ìhbú/isâ nounneâning 'the li6t time', he.e '(n)ever': Ànyi á !úbèghì fimányá í kwú úbú 'we ve nêver drunÌ nut palm winer ànyiá'0úbèghiÌhmányáí kwú'ányi 'we hãvent drunk oDr nut palm wiÍe' Fo. somesp€âkeB.pecuììâ.Iy,in a monosyllãbicmodifie. aft€Ì a noDn(but not in â verbâl object), Àl reapplies alter A2; further, A3 applie in a noun beío.e a monosyllàbic modifieÍ, and then A1 reappÌies. (Ás on€ miSht 8u€s frcm this and otìer stâtements,these pronoun forús âre pêrhâpsihe pÌìne núsâne in Igbo when vorking wjth â íunbe. of speakers.)E.g., ìkó 'yá 'his cüp' : wè!á iÌró yá '!Ìing his cup' (cÍ.: àlyi éwéúlá'yá 'we have b.ought it') ánú 'yá 'his meat : wètéLá'nú yâ 'b.ing his meat' 5,18. The conditioningenvirônmentslor the âlt€rnâtionsstrted in the pÌe other cedingsectionmay appearin nouns,numerals,verbs,âÍd ve.y occâsionally soÌds. For âll lorms other than verbs, these are Ìexical tones o. tones de.ived by tle alternationsthemselves.For verbs,it is necessâÌy,beforeapplying the aboveâlternations,to derivê the tonesol bas€sand constructions.Suchderivâtions, in so Ía. as they plwnt no lroblems i! the alpücaüon ôI úe âlternaüons stated, are ouüned in tìis sectiôn. It is iiÌst necssary to make stltements deriving the ton6 ot vêrb bâsêsJ Verb stems are monosyuabic, and may hav€ Ìtigh or low toíe; â sinSlevêrb stèm Day consitDtea verb base. ln a baseol moft thân onesyllâbÌe,the Íirst syllable must be a verb stem;onê or ÕccàsionâÌly two stemsmay foÌor, ând morphemes ol a difreÌentclass,baseformátives,úây âlsob. incÌuded. The inherenttonesof base lormatives aÌe identified by conpâring thei. tonal beharior úth thât of stems phich may be used iDdependentìy. Bases of two ând three syllables âÌe coÍnmoí, ând someÌongerbâs6 ârê .ecorded. The toDesol a veÍb baseare determined ìy the independent(lexical) tones ol thê first two syÌlâbles. Il the toles of the fiÌ6t tvo sylâbles âre both independently high, the basehas h,gh tone tìroughout. Ir their tones are independetrtlylow âíd high, in that o.deÌ, the . Thb supplchents wslnc.s
1s?0a, in *hich th. dei{at,oí
o! tones ts rot discn$êd.
141 li.st syllabÌeof the baschas Ìow ton., ând âll louoving syllableshave ìigh. If their tonesa.e indepêndentìyhigh ãnd low, orÌow and low, the bâsehashigh tônè with the fiÌú syüâble,ìow with the second,and high with all syÌlablesÍollowing. ExampìesoI thesederivationsarel mé ci ftéci 'do, nâke', 'òe stoppedúp: 'cìose' (I.om alov€), si (indicâtingaction doneto com!Ìetionor to néci a stop?ingtlace): mécisi 'tie up. lasten up completety' kwà ci 'be stopp€dup': kwâci 'push shur' 'push', icrcss, gá pa$ overr : gáfè 'go across' 'go', rè wè 'take, pick up', ?ü 'exit' : wé!ü '.€move' wépÈ (trom âhÕve), tá (indicâtingâctiôn to*àrd Òr íor the sp€âker oÌ subject): wépüti 'bring out Stâtementsmay now be made deriving cêúain verbaì constructions.There is no constructionin which the verb baseis üs€dby itseìt; sone oth€r morpheme is always p.esent,thoDghi! somecass witì a zero alÌomorph. The rollowing numbe.edstatemenisalso eúãbÌisha nunbeÌ oI tonâlly reaìizedmoryhemesin (1) A moryhemeconsistingol los replacingúem tone occuN{ith â limited nuÌDberof verb stems,marking a '\taüve" construction.Two stemswhich may be u*d for ilbst.âtive pu.posesâre /di/ 'ìe d€sdibed âs; be ìocâtedât (ol n! animates,sometimes non-humanãnimatet ând /nò/'sit, beÌocatedat(ofIumans. üsuâÌly non-lìumananimates)'. È.g.,
(2) A iactative" constructionincÌud€sa Ìeplacivewhich can be identiiied siih thât ol the stâtive. FÕr âìl lâses exc€ptthose which òegìd sirh highlow (seeabove),low .eplacesstem ione throughout the bâsei to. basesvith initiãl highlow, the replâcivehasthe âlt€rnântdownstep-high sith thelirú syuabÌ€ând low with aÌl ÍolÌowingsyllablcs;the dosnúep js, ot couse, overt only after â high tone. ln âdditiÒnto the tonal reÍrlâcive,the factâtive has â suflix consistingof /./ !Ìus a Ìep€titionol the pÌecedingÌÕweÌ,also with low tone. E.9., lron some of the basescitrd above:
I gàú áhyá 'he püsh.d the door shut 'ìe brought out a knile' (3) Ân infinitìve is lomed by ã pr€Iix. with a morphoton€nicalte.naüoD in one ttpe ol base. The pretix includesa downstep,which is of coürsedelet€d betorelow tone; it is /i -/ o. /i'1. AIte. a Ìow tone in the bâse,all lolÌowingtones hÀvêthe âìternantÌôú. ExanpÌes ol inlinitive derivâtionare:
142
A$rcÂN L^NcuÁ6E SaRUcruÀEs .i
I i'.i zà : izà kvàci : ikwàcì
méci : i mécl wépüú : i'wép-ünà
(4) A negativeimperativchÍs â prefü /á -/ or ié1l, the samemôrphoton@ic altenâtion in the base,ând à toíelêss sufiix /-la/. For the bâsesused âbove, negativeinperâtives are as lóllows; At alplies in the object in the fiÌst and third:
ázàlàyÀ yà é'wépÈtàlà í5) NeÍt tÕ be consideÍedis a relativeconstructionin which the aÍtecedelt noun is tìe subject oI the relative (as in 'the mân who câme', not 'the msn I saw). Mãny speâkeNoÍ Igbo fom âliúmàtive relâtivesonly lrôn the úâüve and fâctative constructions. ãnd theseare the only types @DsideredheÍe. T*o tonâl replâcilesmüst be recogÍizedin such relativs. Fi.st, dowrstep-highÌÈ placesa final low tone in the antecedetrt.Second,in stativesand in thoselactatives which hâvc onìy low tones,ther€ is âú iniiiâl dównstep,ând high ton. replaceslow tÌr.oughoutthe lom; in factativesçhich begin qith downstep-highìow (alÌ ol shich hâve ât ìeâstthree syìÌable9,the.e is no alternationin the lirst tso syÌlâbl€s,but high replacesìÕwin aü follo{ing syllâbles.(Suchhigh tones âppearaÌsoin the base,ìui herethey aretìe p.oduct oI two sucessivereplacivesl lÕç r€plâcesììgh in the baseto lom the lactative, and then high replacesÌôe in the factative to lom the rêìative.) Exâmplesof relãtive derivâtionâre: Ìlwátàki.ibyàm. Ìlwátàki.i'byáú ' child caDe.' 'the chiÌd who câme' lwáànyì mècirìúzò. lwáànyi'nécirí úzò 'Á wótuânshut th€ door. th€ womanwho shut the door' únú wépüiàràyà. ú nú'wépüúrá yá 'Yoü (pl-) broüghrito ut.' 'yoü who ìroüght it out Relatiresârestrikingìl similârto, ândin âll probabiìityhisto.icâllyreìãtedto, âú âssociâliveconstrnctionwhich is discrsed late.. Becâuseof the ways in which tonal alterlations âre conditioled,however,it b necessary to sepamtethem. (6) In a number oÍ constructions,there is a suffix which, aner most monosyllâbic bases,longerbâsesendingwith /i/ ôr /u/, ând à few Õtherbâseswhich must be individually ìisted,is a roweÌ with high tonei the idenüty of tìe vowel neednót concernus here. Atter soóe nonosyÌÌabicbases,there is an alÌomorph consìstin8of /Ì/ plus a .epetition oÍ tÌte precedingvowel, also with high tone. Atter sofre monosyllâbicbâss, ãnd ãft€r most longerbasesending with voweìs oth€Ì than /i/ o. /u/. there is a zeÌo allomo.phoÍ this suffix. Belore this sufÍix, ìncÌudingits zeroâllomorph,baseshave thei. inherenrtonesâs descÌibedâbôve in I conú.uctionsbut one. E.8.,
143 ó byà.à íé'yá ó byàrÀzÀá'yá ó mécié yá, ó di ú,Ìná kà ó ksàcié yá kà ànyiwépüLi yá
'he cân€ and âte i[ 'shc câúc úDdsvcpt it' iÍ he cìosesìt, fine' he shoDldpush it shút' 'let's bring jt out'
(?) The imperativeuss tìis süIrix, but aÌsoiDcludesa mo.phemeoÍ tonal replacement.Except in bãseswhich beginsjth higÌì-low,low replacessten toÍe with the rirst (or only) syllabÌeot the bâse. For basesbeginninewith highìow, it is entipÌy reâsonâbÌe to supposethât th€ replâciveinherentlyhãsthe âlternânt dÕwnstepbeÍorethe base;this is not Ìecoverable, however,sincenothingcân!recedean ìmpe.ativein the sameclause. E.g., : Íìé ryá eat it : : : :
zì\â'yát swêepit mècié'yà 'closeit' 'pushit shüi ksàcié yá 'bring it out' wépüíá'yà A specialmorphotonemicaÌternationitrvolvingan impe.ative t.om a basewirh twô syllablesand the toneshi8hlow vill be noted in the folÌoçing section. Whât the for€gôingstatementshavedoneis to estâblishp.úicuìàr instances, other than lexical, of the conditìoning€nvi.onmentsfor the aìternaüônsstated in the precedingsection. Lov tone in somev€rbâl constructioDs has beenshown to be â morphemeol tonal .eplacement(1, 2, 7 abo!e); this is ÍrelevaDt to the morphÕtoíemicalternations,but, in (r) and (2), prerequisiteto the derivâtionól Íelatives. \ryiththe appropriatetypesol bâses,downsreplollowedby âll high tones ií inÍinitive, negâtivcimpemtives,ând relaiivcsconditionsÀ1 (3, ,1,5 above). The finâl high todê ôt a suftix in a numberof verbal constructionsconditionsA2 and À3 (6, 7 above). 5-19. The úatefrents concerningftÕrphotonefrjcãltêrnâtionsin 5.17 âbove were intentionâÌÌysomewhâtoversimplitiedin the int€restsof clârity. Special exceptionsto them remainto ìe stated,and a lev statementsoÍ nore .estricted alternationsnust be added. (l) Apart lÌom the negâtivcimpe.âtive desc.ibedãbove,there is only ole negâtivecodstructionin lgbo. Dovnstep is a châractêristicot thh negatile construction, but with ã uniquê mo.photonemjcaÌte.nation. AfteÌ subjectsothe. than singularIrronouns,there is a prelix /áLl or /éLl with autoúaüc deletionof downstepbeloreÌow, ot course. Àftêr ìow tone in the bâse,âll Íollowington6 havetìe alternantlow. Thereis alsoa sulfix, /-8hi/, which is toneless.Exâmples of this nelative constÌuctionare:
ànyi é'righiúrl há ázàsììúlò há áksÀcishìúzò únü é'wépütâghiyà
'we didn't €ât (Íood)' 'they didn t swee!tÌre house 'Okoycdidn t shut the door' 'they didn't pushthe door shut 'you (pÌ.) didn't bring it oDt'
144
AFÂrcN Ldcu^cE SmucruREs
Àtter a singuìârpronounsubject,which has low tone in the negatìve,the prefix has ân âllomorphwith no vovel, but with its high tône and downstepÍeplacing the first tônê ôf the verb baseiìI that ton€ wãs low, aÌÌ lÕllôwingsyllâblesin the torm hâve Ìow tone-in the s€cond and tourth of the fonowing exampÌes, the secondsyuâbìeot the verb Íom had alÌeady acquiÌedits low lone by the ruìe abôve, beIo.e tìe p.eceding low was .epÌacedby high âccoÍding to this rule. Counte.laÌts of the abovewith singularsubjectprcnounsarel
ò ú ghi írl ò ,ágh!úlò è mê'cighiúúzò ì wé!ütàghìyà
'sìe didn t sqee! the house' 'I didn't shut the dooÌ' 'I didn't pushtÌre dooÌ shut' 'you didn't òring it out'
Downstepiouowedby one o. moÌe high tonesin thê n€gativeconditions41, âs ex!€ctcd,ex@ptin onetype Õl iÒrm. Belorestâting the excepüon,it is Íecessaryto describea "ve.bal noun." A veÌbãl noun,wìich in most.es?ectsfunctions Ìike other nouns,has â prelix {hich is segmentauyiaí or /È/, with low tone before high in the fiÌst syllabÌ€ oI the base, and high tonê bêlore low. The verbâl noun is usedafte. the stative of â verb /nái (wìich is nÕt independentlyused, büt to which â mêâningnây be assignedsomethingÌike 'be at, ìe with') to lom an "incompletive,"atrd after tle staüve of /gá/ 'go'io lorm a "Iuture." E.8.,
ó sàázâúÌò
'she'sgoingto sweepthe house' 'I'm goingto shqt the door' 'I'm goingto pushit shut'
In the negatiÌe of the incofrpletile and ftrtüre, the lormâtion d€scÌibedabove âppli6 to /ná/ and /gál. This yieÌdslorhs which hare a downstepfollowed by on€or two high tones, AccoÌdingto À1, it vould be expect"dthát low tone in the prelix ol a Íollowing verbaÌ noun wouÌd have the âlternant Ìtigh. Án dceptionmuú be inco.po.atedinto tle statenent foÌ Al: the âlternationdoesnot apply in a yerbÂlnoun ÂIier a nôgátiv., E.ga há á eÉLgÌrí èri í ri ò ná'shièwépüú yá
'they re nót gôing tÕ eat' 'he s not bringiDgit out'
(2) A sihilâr elception must be inco.po.atedinto the statementol À2. A verbal noun may occur after a iiconsecütive!'cÕnstructionwith /ná/, in which /nà/ hasthe zeroaììomorphof the pÌeviousÌydesc.ibedsulfix with Ì,igh tone. AccordiDgto A2. itwould be expectedthat low tônê in thê lerbâl nounprelix woüld hâwethe âlternânt downstephigh;in this ervi.onment,hoveveÍ, the âlteÌnâtion doesnot atply. E.g., in the next-tôlàst wôrd of the following: há nà èri ú'ri, ú àÌlú ú'mányá 'they re @ting (Iood) and d.inking (boôze)'
145
FwcÌroNs oF ToNE
In spite ol the âbÕve,it mnnot be said that tìe veÌbãl noun !.efix befoÌeâ high tone is an invãriabÌeìow tonêr A1 âppliesregDla.lyalier a relaüve: 'the peNonwho is €âting (3) In a "@npletive" construction,after a sübject other thân â singúÌâr pronoun,thereis âho â prerix ià-l or /è-/. Àiter high tone. the tone of this p.efix has the alte.nant dosnstep-hÈhbeforehigh ãccordjngto 42. Àlter â singuÌâr pronounsuìject, the vosel of the !.efix doesnot alpeâri the allomoÌphoI thê lrelix is dôwnstepãlone. With appropriateverbaÌ òâses,thesestâtementsyi€Ìd forms wlich have a downsteplôUowedby all high tones,which is Òtherçisethe conditioningenvìronmentIor 41. Ilowever, this alÌomorphicdownste! is itsell tÌre product óI 42, wità a stltement addedheredeletingthe vowel aiter singular pronotrns,so that A1 can no lo.g€r atply. Àtt€r suchcompletiveto.ms, À2 ând A3 apply. E.9., with objects/àkvái 'ege'and /ú.i/ 'Iood': 'you (pl.) have€âten
ó rÍéláí'ri (4) A mo.phene witÌr the meaning"a$ociative" is recognized as pr€sentin phrâsessuch as /ú'ló'ányi/ 'ou. house'.which is /úlòi 'house asociated with /ànyi/ 'us (cr. 4.10). Tìe toncsoI tìis ãnd ceúain other lypes or phrâsesâre nôt âccountedÍor by the ÍnorphotoDemic alternâtionsstatedso lar. Nor can they be dirêctly âccountedtor by othe. alteÌnâtions,becausethe sane independenttones do not hãve aÌte.nantsìn a sequenceoi noun plus numersl,âs /úlò âtó/ three houses'. It might, ol cou$c, ìe suggested tìat morphoÌogicconditionineis pÌÈ sent; the âlteÌnâtiontâkes pÌaceü tIe secondword ìn the phrâseis â noun, but not if it is a numerãÌ. À numeraÌ, howevc.. mây aÌso participâte in the asociitive construcíon- There is â nininâl ând mÕrphemiccontrast between/úlò àtó/ 'threehouses'ând /ú'ló átó/ 'the ihird house'. The aÌt€rnationsin questioncãn bê accountedIôr if the âssociâtive morphemeis interpretedas hâving the underlyiúg Íom of â hjgh tone b.tween two nouns,or betw€cnâ íoun ând ânother wo.d üsednominaÌly. (HìstoricâÌly.the high tone undoubtedÌyoriginaìlyâccohOne morphotonenicâlt.rnãtion côndilionedìy this underìyinghigh tone is herederivedafter Al but beforeA2 and Â3; aDalternativeposibility is to de.ive it âÍto 43, but the Ìequired statementswould be more conplicated and lêss ÌeasonabÌe.Ir tÌ'e asociativemoÌpheneis foìlowedby â Ìow tone (belo.ethe âpplicâtioÍ of A2 ú á high tone lollows tìat), tinãl low tone in the pr€cedilg noun hãsihe âItuÌnantdowDúephigh; i.e.,itis âssimilated to the levelot the associatile high tone. This, with deÌetionoI downstepaÍter low, accountsfo. the torc oI the final syllableoi the first {ord ìn eâcì ôl thê fôllô*ing; the last twô of tlese include tÌre later applicaüonof 42, and aÌÌ of them showtìre úill lateÌ deleiionoI the associativehish tonèl
146
ATRICN
áhà òbòbò úÌò ìtè
'name' : 'town', 'house', 'pot',
LNGUÂGE
á há òbòdòáhÈ 'th€ naúè ôl à 'this' : òbòdóà ànyí (1pÌ) : ú'ló 'ányí ànyi (1pÌ) : ìte 'ányi
STRUCTURES
that town' 'this town' 'our hoüsê' iou. loti
The underlyinghìgh tone oI the assôciativemorphemeis deletedonly alteÌ the âpplicaüon of 43. It is only this that can account fo. À3 âppÌying after low tone in the súrfâce úânilestâtiôn. in phrâses like thè follôwing: úlò
'house,btrildiúg',
áhyá 'marl<et,merchândÈe': store,shop úlÒá hyá
It now becomes apparent that, in many of the exâmpÌ6 previously cited lôr À2 and À3, though by nô meânsãÌÌ of them, the aÌteÌDationis actualìy @nditioned,in the deeperstÌucture,by tÌre hi8h tone ol the asociâtive morphmè ÌatheÍ thân by thê linâl high toÍe Õt the prccedìngword. TheseiÍcÌude cases ükê the foÌowing: égó ikó ánú
'money', Ànyi opl) : é8ó ányi 'cup', nrmánú 'oil' | ìkó ú mánú 'goat' : ánúê'wú 'meat', élvú
'ourmÕney' 'a cup of oil' 'goat meãt'
Implicit in the foregoingis an interestingambiguìty. As noted above, in 'threehou*s'the a$ociativemor?hemeis not preseÍt,but iu /ú ló,átó/ àtó/ /úlò 'the third house it is prewnt and conditionstwo norphotonemicâìteÌnatioDs. In â lhrâse suchas /éwú átó/, however.there are tso posibilitieã: the âppÌication ol Á2 in the secondvord couldbe conditioneddirectìyby the finâÌ high tone ôl the pftceding noun, in which câsethe lhrâse {otrld mean three goats'; or it coüld be conditionedby the undeÜing and Ìate. deÌetedhigh tone ol thê associâtive nôrpheme,in which câsethe phrâsesôuìd m€ãn 'the third goat'. This âmbiguity is nomaìly âvoidedby usin8,to. t]Ìe ordinaì, the noun /ìkè/ 'thing, tìe ône' in âsociâtion with the nünerâI, yìelding /òké!átó/ 'the third'. The loun is then usedin â$ôciâüon with this phmse,yìeÌding /éwú ,úké átq/. In the reÌatively careÍul speech characteristic ot linguistic anaÌysis ând lãnguag€ teacìing, /évú iké 'ától b oÍten heard,without the nomal manifestâtionof the associative no.pheme âfter the Ínst vord. This is pÌesumably appositionâl: 'a goat, the third one', The technicaly âmbieuous /ésú ,átó/ is assumed to refer By anâlôgyvi[h the useoI /òkê/ to avoid ânbiguity in ordinaÌphÌasesaiter â high tone, it is comnonly used also aite. a noun vith inherent linal low tone, wheÍe there {ould bê no anbigÌity in any casê. Thus 'the third house' is often, iI not usua y, express€d as /ú'ló tké'áté/. On tle othq lìand, in somecoDbinâüons wheÌe the ordinaÌ is the only .easonabÌesemantic possibiliiy, /ìkè/ is not used;e.9.,/n'éÌéÌé.é'átó/ at the thi.d beì, ãt th.ee o'clock'. Àl num€Ìâìs( two through ten and der:ved phÌases) aÌe incìuded in thse statements; they aÌl b€.ginwith low-ìigh. (Thewordsfor 'one', 'twenty', and 'Íour hundred'âregraÍnmâticãlly nouns, not numerals.)
147 Thè íoÍêgoilg di*ülsion or the âssociâtive @Dstrucüionis, oí coude, in th€ @!tqt of â t@túdt of todology. lt may aot be out of plâc., how€v€., to add thât it is presêntêd with a ful eoÍsciousnessof the stdking gÌammatie!Ì pãrarl€Ìilm rdth a$ociatives in Bântu and other lar€uage! (ser WeÌneÌs 1963a). TheÌe aÌe âÌso BoDedüf@ncês in gÌârlmaü@l d€taü as wiÌÌ bê seeniü coülestion with (5) AJtlr Íouls othq ihán veÌbal nouÍr the combination oÍ â noun a{th a nonosylabic modifier (â prcnoun) do€s not incÌüde the lscìativê mo.ph€me. This ir âtt!Áted by the fact final loq/ tone in such â noun does not have the aìt€rnant downst4p-high as reqür€d before the associâtive. E.9.,
ìtè gi For lome sperkd,
ïoüÌ pot'
thé same is tÍúe r€gulâ y aíter vsbal nouns; thus, from a
ó n à ébèÉ
'het cutüng it'
For many oth* spskds, however, thê combination oI veÈal noun {ith pÌonour bBt be iDrerpr€ted as including the Nciative morphêmê; thus, pmbahly moÌe
ó nàé'bé'É Â v$bal noun with a lolÌowing noun ('object"), ho{ever, alweys üses th€ assoó Ià é,bê üdÒ
the'. sweapiq the coÍ:ìpoünd' The gÌânmaÌ of thês nay b€ .ètlet€d by 'he is-at Ìop€-cuttine' and 'shei!-at compouod+weepiÍg'. (6) In the rqu€nc€ oí an inpemtive fÌom â twGsylãble bas rith thè tores high-lowaíd â noun o. pmmun objectwith initiaÌ Ìow (or doí/Ístêp), a conplex ol alt€Ìnaüom identicâl vith tìose conditionedby the ssoci.tive moryhem€, attributâbÌe t ao oÌiginaì v€rbâl süflix, a voweìwith high tone, is found. E.9., ìÉ'pú 'ánÍ hl'Pú'yá (cf.: MpÈ évú à 'l€avethis goãt alone') (A Two speciaÌàlt€mations apply in the slbject of â veÌb if something preceds it ir the same clâuse The fiÌst oÍ the is A1 aJter high tone in this addi tional enviÌonineút: initial loììefolowèd by high in th€ subj@t has thè altqnant high. The secord is ideDti@l with thê aÌtematior beforc the alsociative moÌphem€, úough the pr€lence oí thât moryhme is out of thè qusüon: bèfoE low tone, linel Ìow in ìhe súbject ha! rhe âÌternaÍt doeüteÈhigh. Both of theie dtF natiom arê atti,sted in relâtive clâus$ (of the t)"e 'th€ lÌ|en I saw', trot 'the msn who came', ir which the art€ced€nt is the subj€st). Only tÌÌ€ secondis at
E l nrl nL
.L
d.L
dnLLl Lr
1!E
AFRrc^N LÀNcu^cE SÌRúcÍuREs
testedanywhere.lse, The Ìeâsonto. this is thát anything otle. thân the ânte6 dentoi â reÌâtive,beforcthe sübjectof a verb in the sane clãuse,m$t be Íollo*ed by the morpheme/kà/. vhich do6 not have the conditioninghigh tone. In thê relativeclauses amongthe foÌowing exâmpÌes, the antecedents arenounsmeaning, rspectively, thing, mâtte.' ànd 'plâ.e'; the aÌternaüonillustÌated in eâchis shownbv â numeml:
o):
\2) | (1,2): (1,2): (2) , (2) :
: : : ìkó únü | : :
ihé ányi mèÌè 'whât we did' ihé ú nú mèrè what you (pl.) did ihé Okó yé mèrè {hat Okoyedid' ébéikó ú'nú dì 'whereyou. cupsare' ébé'óÌé kà ú nú nò 'wìere are you?' ó bü yá kà ú'nú hürÈ 'it's he that you sãw
It has been asumed that tÌre third person pluraÌ prononn form, wNch dong otìer thingsDay be usedas a verbâÌsubject!hãsâí iíitiâl do*nstep: /'h{/. FoÍ the singularsuìject pronouns,th€rc is no evidencêthâf there is Õr is not inhereniÌy ân initiâÌ dôwnstep. lf the.e is, they are âlso includedin a minor extension oi tle Íist of these âlternãtions: afteÌ high, initiãl downst€p in the subject is deleted. 8.g.,
(8) Two dpressionsin âdverbiâlusaeeare qempted lrom À1 ând A2; their initial low tone doesnot ünde.goalteÌnâtion. Theseâre /òzó/ again,ãny more', ând /ügbú à/ 'now . The lâtter ol theseiÊ âppârentlyã noun m€sning'time' ând the demonstrative'this', but the nÕünis not âttestedin ânv other cÕmbinatiôn. Instãncesor thesein the conditìoninoenvi.onmentsfor À1 and A2 arel
ó còÌò i byá òzó
'he wânts to comeâ8ain 'he shouldcoDeagain
The Ii.st ot theseâìsoappeârsyithout alternationin what othesise seems to be an Àsociativeconstructionafter the words /izül 'w€ek', /óÌvá/ 'nonth', and /áfÒ/ 'year', with the meaDing'!qt'. The three expÌesionsare:
i zn òzí It caonotbe said,however,that initial low to.e is sirply invâiiâbleií these expÌesions. À com?Ìetely reguÌa. associative coqstÌuction using /Òzól i6 also found, similartó th€ ordinâl expresionspreviouslynoted. E.g., ú'ló'Íké ózó Nor do€s it seem feaúble tô assign the itrstánces óÍ nônâìternâtion in these dpresions to adve.biaÌuse in geneÌal. There are
[email protected]üonsiD Fhich â noun /ftbú/ 'the beginúiÍg, the first tine'âppeârs in conpaÍâble âdveÌbiâÌ usãge,büt with ÌegularalternaüoDs;lote the coltrast itr the fouolring:
FuNcÌroNs oF ToNE
149 ó gàrà Àbá ôzó ó gà.à Àbá ,úbú
'he went to Abâ ãgain' 'h€ went to Aba fi.st'
A rigidly foÌmaÌ presentationof all that hasbeensajdabout Igbo tone woüld ineütâbly be more diilicult to louow or mo.e lengthy,butit is oI couBeIrosible. It would foÌlov this oÍder: (1) Ìdentiry lexicaì tones, iúcluding the hjgh tone ol the a$ociâtile moÈ (2) DeÌive the tonesol verb bases. (3) Derive the tonesof verbal .onúructions, in.Ìuding the tonesof subj.ct (4) Mâke statementsconcerningnonosyllabìcnouns,including lhe prononinaì types. (5) StatetÌ'e aÌternaüonillustratedby /egó. . ./ rrom /é gó/(6) Stâte 41, À2, A3 with lhe exceptionsnoled. (7) Stâte the aÌt€rnâtionsin (7) ând (8) abore. 5.20. ln Efik, there are two kinds of tonal ãliê.nâtionsin nounsin different environments. Historically,tlese alternationsare very probably relexês of âú asociative Dorl,hemebet{een two nouns. They are also found, howeler, in a typ. of phrasein Nhi.h ân {ssocialivcmorphene is hârdly expecied;the conditioning environmentsin the two types of !ì.ase are laúiaÌly dillerent. PeÈ sonâÌ name, ând íive kinship tems (meaning 'Íather', 'noth€Ì, husband', 'nàmesàke',ând 'iriend , bút not the word fô. ton, dàuehter'ãnd sone olheB) âre exempt Íroú tlese aÌternations.Also exempt are the very rew nouns$hich begin vith a coísonant. Theren a cbs oÍ words ìn Elik vhich nay l€gìtimat€lybe calledadjectives. In somelanguages, manywordsthat haveolten uncriiicaìlybeencaÌledãdjectiles (usDally,appârently,lor no betteÍ ieasonthan that they paralìeìEnglish âdjectives in meaning)cân be shownto be nouns. Thc words cÌased as edjectivesjn Etik, however differ morphologicâllyând syntrcticâìly lrom sords which are obviouslynoDns. In nouns,€xceptÍor â few indicâtingpersons,th.rc is no singulâÈpluÍal distinction;but âdjectiveshavesingularand pÌuÌal homs dhtingúished by diflerent prefix6. Àdjeclives are used athiburively b€lore noDns by no meansthetypicalo.der in Nige.-Congolanguages;adjective-nounphrases,the.cfo.e, have thê structüremodifier-head.In noün-nounphrases,howeÌer, the first Íoun is the head and the second(in an asociãiiÌe .elationship)is the modili$. The demônshatives/Émì/ 'this', /óô/ 'that (n€ar rou)'. and /ókò/ Lhât (avay from us)', used âtt.ibutiveìy alter nouns,aÌe theDselv€sâ sub-clâs oi nouns. FoÌ purposesol slâting tonâl âlleÌnâtions,Efik nÕunsfaìl into two tonal CÌoups:(l) thosewhoseli6t tone is low o.high-downstepand whosesecondtone is high, and (2) thosewhosefirst t{o tonesare ãny other sequence.TheseaÌe iÌlustrât€din the two coluhns below. Sinceonly th€ first two tonesa.e relevant, the toDesol the IiNt ând secondnoun in eachcoÌunn needqot be distinguished; wnhâ singlerowel. 'they âre Ìistedseparat€tl' /^/ indicâr€sâ highlôw s€quencê
150
ÀrÃrc^N LÀNGU^GESÍkucruREs
jn two lyuabìe nouns, The seme.ely tô illüstEte alÌ posible tone sequedces quencesin the tso tonâl grÕupsâre shownin the foÌlowing: (1) t2)
Under aÌternatior, ãll nounsin the smê gÌoup have the sâÍnetoÍa in the sameenÌironmeDt;ror €ch gÌoup, there are two âlternant sequences.For (l), id the lirstâlternant, the liNt two tores arehigh-downstep,high ând aUÌenaining tonesareunchanged(thisÌ'asa zeroellectfoÌ the ihird seqÌenceillust atedabove); ií the scond âlternânì, th€ fitst two tones are low-high and all .oãining tones âÌe unchanged(this hasa zeroellect lor the Íirst two seqDenB). Fo. (2), in the íirst alte.nant, the initiãl tone is high ând âll renaining ton6 âre low (with â jìlDúrated abo!e); in the secondalteÌnant,all zeÌo eÍfect Io. the thi.d sequence tones ãÌe low (with ã ze.o efiect Ior the fou.th sequenc€). Bdore stâting the @nditioning environnents,these alt.maüons âÌe illustrated afteÌ tso adjecüves, the lirst âlternãntfo. eachgroup on the lelt and the secondon the right: àkámbái kpá{
èkpÍrj lkp.i{
èkpirì ülàk The conditìoningenvironmentsfor the first âlterüantsare: âfter an adjective endjngwith high tone (as above).o. altê. â noun erding with eitheÌ high oÌ low (but Dot highìov âccompanyingthe Íinal syuable). The conditioningenvircnnents for tÌ'e secondalternarts arer aiter an adjectiveendingwith Ìow tone (ae above,ând incÌudinghigh-los with the finâÌ syÌÌâble),âIte. ã noun hâving highlow with the iinâl syllâhle,or (á strikingly reúricted instâncê)âlter â nôünwhos inlercnt toncs are ell high alter it has undeÌgoneeither alteÌnâtiotr. The alterlations ãftêr âdjecliveshave ãlreadyìeen ilìüúrâted; the conditioningenvircnments ãIteÌ nounsare illustÍatedin the Iollowing.usì.g /ówó/ 'peÌson'and, Íor the last conditiÒn,/óôi thât (neâr yÒu)'l
Il âdjecti!€sâlonear€ consideredin th€ conditionìDgenvircnment,thes€àlternationscan be siDply statedas phônólogicallyconditionêd:th€ tiFt alteÌlants
151 appearafter high, the secordalter low. Il only nounsof the tonal ty?es representedby /ébót/, /út5k/, and iüsàn/ are consid€r€d, the sane phonoÌogiccondi tioniÍg cãnbede.ivedby positing,in thedeepstructu.e,ãn a$ociâtivemoÌpheme with high tone which is the actual conditioningenvironmentbeloreits deletion; the fiÌst alterDantsrouow. Especiallyin Ìight oI the Igbo data dÈcu$ed in the lreceding sêcüon!this is ân extremeÌyâttrâctive hypolhesis. Tso inúân.€s oI the secondaltertrantsatter nouns,howeve.,rcmain to be âccountedÍorì in eacì hoÍpheÌneDust be assumedto be presentin the deepstruccâse,the âssociative ture, and a rationalemust be soughtfor ìts deletionprio. to the applicaüúnoÍ tle tonaÌ aÌte.nationsand its subscquentdeletionelsewhere.In lhe iirst of these cases,the associativemorpìeme appeaK alter highlow accompanyinga fiDal vo*€Ìi the ãsociative morphemeis âsumed to be À voseÌ with high ione in its most unde.lyingfoÌm. The fiNt rule to be stat€dis that the vowel (büt not the tone) oI the asociativemo.phemeis lost in all its appearances, l€avinga variety oÍ tone seqüences âccompanyiDg singlcvowels. lI the preccdingvowel ÌÌas the ot three tÒneswith â slnglevÕ*el: highlow, this rule yields a seqDence sequence highlow-hi8h. The secondÌüle positsth€ nonpernissìbilityoÍ suchsequenccs oi th.ee tones,ând deletesthe last, which is the ìigh tone ol the associativemorphefre- ln the secondcasein question,at leâstth.ee wôrdsmust be in seqüenre, with two occunencesoÍ the asociative morpheme. If a noninitiaÌand nonfinal word in sucha pìmse hasonly high tones,the first rüìe âboveyjeìdsboth â precedinSând â loÌÌowinghìgh tone. The third rulô positsthe nonpermissìbility oÍ such â complexity, ând d€Ìetesthe high tone âlter the woÌd in quêsüôn.TÌìc stageis now set Io. the applicationoI the alternãtionsstatedabove. In âny noun phrase,the Íi6t âÌternântsappearâÍterhigh and the secoídalter Ìow; in ü€ lso câses1vherethe âssociative high tone has already been deleted, low rather than àigh is now the conditioningenvjronment. Finally, the associâtilehigh tone h deleredin âÌÌ Íemainingenvironments,and the presentsuúacestucture is lelt. Noun-nounand âdjectivÈnounphrâs€sftust stilÌ be recogn'zed âs g.âmmâticâìly 5.21. It is not ât alÌ uncommonto Íind morphotonemìc alt€Ìnationsor morphemêsôI tonâl replâcementwhich hâve ã zeìo effect,wheÌeihe âlternântor replaciveis identicalwith the inhe.€nttone or tonesto which it applies. 'this resultsin formaÌ neuÍaìizâtiôn,but rarely in âabiguity; there usuãllyseemsto be enoughÍedundancyìu.king aÌoundto makethe choicebetwee!derivationsclea.. À càseoI aDbigüity involving oÌdinal phrasesin lgbo, ãnd its r€solution,hâs âlÌeady beennoted. In the Etik lerbaì systen, there is ân interesting,thóughsíìl Ìestricted,instanceol neutÌâlizâtionvith unresolvedambiguityAs â loint of departure.considerthe tones accompânyingthe segmêntâì sequence /d€!/ in the foìlowing;both íoms are dê.i!€d t.om /dépi buy :
ikédèpÈbòró dìbôÌôké {kó dép
'ith banânâsI bought'
1í2
AFRrc^N IÀcuacE
SriucrREs
It would app@r from the trânslationsthat the secondol these is coÍtrastive, distinguisììng'bananâs f.om aìì other pôssibÌepurcheses, whiÌe thê Íirst is not. This is not entirell true, in thât tìe Ii.ú is an âppropriateanswe.to the question '\vhat did you buy?' (ând ssys 'bananas.not somethingetse'),òut not to the queúion What did you do? , to which the answeÌ might reqúÌe a dúterênt verb. In ânswerto 'Whãt did yoü do?', thereis â truly neutraÌtast constÌuctionwhich
The disünction is rather that the first €xample, with a morpheme oÍ tonal replacement(low repÌÀccs stem tÕne),indicâte cont.astor emphasisâccompãnying somethingvhich foìlowsthe !erb, vhicì may be an object oÌ an adverbiaì complem€nt;the secóndexample,with the verb s stem tone! indicâtescontrast or emphasiswith sometling preceding the verb and its subject pÌonoun preíix, sìich mây be â trÂnsposed object o. adve.bialcomplementfoÌlowedby /ké/ (as it nothing is above)oÌ, trânsposed,an exp.esed noun subject.sThe lâtter includ€sindependentpronounforms; in the En8üshtrânslaüonsof the fÕIowing, tìê conrrâstêdsDbj.ct js itâlicizedto suggestth€ âpprc!ÌiâtênêssoI contrâstive Ákpán ékédép Ìhbòú àmì Íké'dép ÌhbôÌó
'ÁI{pdn bougìt bananas' Ì bougììtbânanss
The saúe distidctiônis made in the sameway, tonauy, in the p.Nnt, without the past narker /-kéri the coneponding verb lorms,in the tirst leNon singular, a.e /ìidèp/and /ídép/. In tì,e future, a "neuirâI" lorn, /rtyé'dép/.is distingüished Írom â "mntrâúive", /údldêp/,but the Ìatter doesnot indiqte qhethe. the contrâúed item foÌÌowso. prec€desthê verb. Apãrt lroú other clueswhicì may be prsent, the.efore,tone âÌonemay be sutficientto distinguisì foìtoNingcontrast (with .eplacivelow) from preceding contrâú Gten tone) in the pâst ând present. There are, hos€ver, verbs whose úem tonc is low io beginwith; *ith such,the Íeplaciveloç tóne hasa zem effect, and the contrast is neutraìjzed in the verb form (ãs it is in the futurê as noted above). Sentencespârâllelingthe fi6t two cxampl€sáboye with /9Àn/ 'seU' lkátàm ÌìÌbòró Ìhbòó ké úkáÍàú
'I $Ìd banânâs it's bananasI sold'
Without a tonal distincüonjn the verbsin thesesenteúcês, it is úill posibl€ to deteÌminewhat is cont.astive. I! the ii.st, Dothingprecedesthe verb with its subjectpronoünprelix, so onìy whatloÌlowscan be contrâstive.lnthesecond, 5 IdÂC.\'ard (1933, pp.63-65), tboug!ptnrily conem.dvith phonoloef,, denonstrales hcÌ usüal insiSht by suggoíing M. GÌeen (leae) Éo3nizes thc i lricd 10 objedând Nbjed, qhi
nor. cledy, but ohly âs âp-
153 the tranTosed object followedby /ké/ is by deÍinition contrastive. Anìbigüil.y âÌises,ìowever, il there is ân erp.esed noun subj€ct and nothing transpos.d; bqt evenhereânìndependentpÌÕnounmaybe âsumed to be contÌastive,because it wouÌd othe.çise not be Ìequìred. 8.9..
Ákpá" ákáyà-
'nbòró
or:
'Àkpân soÌdòdn@6' ÁÌipdn soldbananas 'Ì soldìânanâs'
In wÌitten Etik, independcntpronounforns âre vcry commonlyuscdwhoe they are Dot requiredÕr are eveninâppropriatein the spokenìanguâge.A major reâsonfoÌ this is thât foD. diff€rentsubjectpronounprefiresin somelowel ìarmony contexts,ând iwo pai.s in other contcxts,are w.itt.n identicallyì/e/ and /ê/ a.e not distinguished,and tone is not rritten. with ure .esult that secondand thi.d teÉon prônounsâ.e never distinguished,and in some cãsesthe singuìâr and plurâÌ íorns aìe identical. The independentpÌoDounfoÌms are added to r€solvêthe âmbiguity. Be.âlse oI lhê eú pìiâsison tìc srittcn lângüagen,schooÌs, and becausenon Àirican lea.neN a.e likely to niss uÌose very contrasts,this usagesonetimesspiìlsoler into the spokenlânguâge. l his núroducesâ new anbiguity, betweencont.astivealter and contraúivebeio.ethe rerb. into sentences 5.22. In the precediDglew sections,do{nstep has been assigled,without comment,to the beginningof sÕnemorphenesand tÕ ìhe end of otheN. NÍost of the moÌphemesin questionhave beenpreiixes. ln someìanguages. downstep, it is lhe linâl phonene ofâ úensâÌsomây have wherever aptears, Inorphene,ând â finâl downstep- Downúep ìâs no phonetic reâlizalion,oi couÌse,shen such â foÌn is citediD isoÌâtion.But. in suchlanguages, somemorphemesaretypically íouowed by either downstep-ììghor loN, wlile other morplemesare typicâììy fonowêdby (thè sân€) high or Ìos. This, with somecompÌicâtionsiD detail, is the situation in Ukele.0 In someothe. languages,downstepmay normally !e thè iniriâl phonemeof sonê morphemes, ln Tiv, there are tlree posibilities.' FiÌú, downstepis the ÍinaÌ phoneme of somemo.phemeswith high tone, but not of othe.s. In the secondol the folIowing êxâmples,downste! is written, as usuâI,òetorethe syllablealter it; but it must ìe inter!Ìeted as beÌongingto the precedingmorphemel ná méy
drink thê poison
ká ,néy
'it is loison
In olher câss, downstepis the initiaÌ phonemeoÍ â mo.pheme. In the roÌlosing, the initial voweÌ ot eâchword is a p.efix, and it tlìe samepreÍix: the contrast must the.efôre'sbe attribute.l tÒ the lôllowing betweenìigh and downstpe-high i ji
eggi llies
ú As convi.cingìyÌepdnedby JohnFajen,pre*nlìJ ehgâecd ln , The Tlv dâtâ .re takenhoh R. c. Àbrahâh(1940b1Duttubânscribed.seêaho Ârnotr
15?t
AFRrcÀN LÀNGU^GE SnucnrREs
In stiìl other qss, downste! mrst be interpreted as haviÌg mo.phemic stâtus by itseìf. In some verbâÌ onstructions, dosnstep âppeãrs ìefore âìl veib stems which do not have o. begin with Ìow tone. In otheÌ constructions, this is not true. Dovnstep is thus the moÌphemewhich maÌks the past constÌuction; it âppears in some oìh€r coístrúctions âÌso. The vowel dúÍerene in the Íolá vé
he has come
In the lirst oi thes constÌuctions,however,downstepappeaF alte. the liNt or secondpelsônsineulârsubjectpronôún;in this câse,do*nstep mDstòe a$igned to thê pronoun. (The cognâtep.onounsin Jukun aÌe the onÌy onesshich hav€ Ìow tone.) E.g., ú
vé
'I ìave coDe'
ú'vé
you háve come'
5.23. In the languagescited so far lor jllustrative pü.poses,it has 8€neEÌÌy been possible, and usuaÌly not diliicull to distinguish lexicaì tones, norphotonemicãlternations,and tonally realizedmorphenes,and to stÀtetheiÌ inte.ãcting nânileúâtions. In íhe Bariòâ ve.baÌ system,th€ interâctioí oÍ aìì oÍ theseplus finâl vowelso€ates such an unusuaÌlycomplexset of veÌbãl loms thãt one is tenpted to wonder il ii is pÌotitabÌe,or even po$ibÌe, 1ô mâke morphemecqts in every foÌD. At beÊt,the.e is someuDusualvaÌiation among alÌomo.phs;ãt worst, â number ol poÍmântmu loÌns ntht be posited. In working on BaÌüâ Io. oDemonth in 1949,ând for thê most paú communicâtÌng wiü iníomânts thrcugh â missionâry's Yorubâ, it was most foúünâte tlat one of the lirst verbs chosento elicit a variety of verbaÌ constÌuctions w$ the v€Ìb meãning 'plaüt'. Out of 145verbs checked,theÍe are oüly three that shÕwthê nãximum vâriãüon of sevendiÍfe.ent foms; this is oneof them- Withoüt the dãta provided by such a ve.b, it would have been impossibìeto arive ãt ã completeoütline of the systeh; foÌ 85 of the renâiúing yerbs,threeôl the corÌespondingfoms areidenticaÌ,and Io. the othe.57 two to five ío.ns âÌe idenücâI, òut not âlçãys th€ shê conbìnâtiors. Vârious verbâl constÌtrctions aÌe distinguishedby ân s$oftment of pa.ticl$ in addition to the diff€rent veÌbal Íoms. Thus the vâriâtion in the verbâl forms themselvesis redundânt. Thê selection oÍ the conect lorm is nevertheless obligatory, âs was amusingly demonstrât€d by an a.gumentbetweentwo inÍormaDtswho disag.eedon a lorm that woüld probâbly not be usedolten. The ârgumentwassettÌedphen one inroÌDant cited two other iorns ôt the sâmc verb, exãctìy âs â Lãtin teachêr might cite the lrincipãl pâ.ts of a verb to show an ening student çhere he went wrong I Becauseof the Ìimitâtionsol tihe and the problds createdby indhect êlicitâtion(pariicuÌâÌìy when I was totâUy unÍamiiia. sith the Yorqba veÌbal system),the labeÌshere given to the reìêvantconúrüctionsmây not be ideâl in êvery ca*, but they wiÌl ât ìeâst serve to show ihât düfe.ent const.uctionsaÌe indeed involved.. For ol tJlese cdnsbuctlons difi.Ì
tÌom ahosê in weìnes
1952a.
PuNciroNsoF ToNE
155
three sampleverbs, meaningrespectively'plant', seÌl'.and count', ihe lo.ms úsedin th€ rel€vântcónstrDctions arc as foìlows: dúúra dò5rã
dúúrú dúúrú
garà ga.ì gari
dttrã ga.ìô garà
The linguist alwayshotes to lind a reÌatileÌy simple Ft of .ules, but none âre obviousin BaÌibâ. The pâú do€snot âlvays end in thc vow.l /a/; with lhe third.olumn âbove,comparethe tüsi two lorns trom a v.rb 'i.lhcr': /s5ri.s5ril. The incompÌetivedoes.ot alwayshave the toncshigh low; the fìrst thÌec forns hom a verb tie up a.e /b5kë,bikúã. bókü/. The linal lowel oI the imlÌe.aiiveis aìways/o/, but it doêsnot alwayshavêmid tonêì th€ inperativê oI a rerb 'break' ìs /buó/, and there are eighteenmore verbs Ìike it. ln l,ll rerbs, the hoúatire ând past hâve the sâÍnetones; bul in tour they have ditlerenttones(though at least the lour ãgreesith eachothet. Nothing, in lact, seeosio be su$ceptible to simpleand reâsonâbìe stâtement. \Yell into ihc month oi work, as might be cxÌrect.d..vcn a tâbulationÌikc thât âbove (which doesincorporaleâ râiionâlenot yet reveâted)had rol bèen âriled at. The darâ consisredof a table tull oi pilesof 3 x 5 slips,which hâd beenattâckedfrom more anglesthan a ball of string whoseprincital inlestigato. is a kiìten. By way of cÕmmenton practicâlaspectsot fi€ld vork, it is by no nÌeâns irrelevânt to Ìelâte thâi, âi âbout 10 p.M.â1t.. â lwehe-hÕurwork dav. it was süggested thât the lollowingday s rât-râcebe sdãtched,and â gróupofüs gÒhuúting. A choiceol bie gâne wâs guarânleedwithin â reasonâbìe râdìus f.on dÌlilope cheaalIo phacochete to lion to hippopotamus.Aite. €ight houN ol traipsing throughpãrk sâvannâhthe nextday, gamesighted:tvo groundsquì..elsând th.ee guine8iowl (ode ot which was drilÌed throughthe neck by a blìnd shol rrom â 22, Iired into the tâll grasswhere th€J hâd disãppeared, in an elfort ner.lf ro Ílush them into Ilight; thc other t{o took ofi at dilrer€ntangles,and yoür r€dtâcedrepÕúersucceeded in sprayinga 12-gâüge shellof birdshôtsqúârelybetaeer lield worke$ who may nÕt âppreciale Let this be a Iessonto inexperienced from a day of hunting the invaluablecontrìbutioDs avaììábleto linguistic.esearch (or possiblyother reláxâtion). While loôking over the slips thàt èvening,ând chewinga meditativep€ncil.light suddenlydawned. OI aÌl tìe setsor rô.ms,the hoúaüve showsthe leasl evidenceof being derived- The past Í.cqucntlt ends with the vowel /âi. In somelerbs. the jncompletiÌeand €xperientialend *ith the vo{€t /u/i moú oI the coúespondìng ìo.tatives end with iel. but a fe$ vith iil. The customarylrequently endswith Ìow tone. The imperativeaÌwaysends Nith the Íowel /o/. À.d the past negátivelreguently ends{ith lhe voqel /e/.
Aarc^N
LÁNGU^GESnuduREs
Thus the hoúatile müú be tâken as the ìasic forÍn trom ehich âÌl otheÌ Íoms are derived. Fuúh€r, in derivingthe oth€r sets,it qDickly becameobüouã thât, inespectiïe ol the identiticâtionoI morphemG,it wouÌd be simpl€stto stâÌt by makingsepãrâtestatementslor Iinal vosels and fo. tones(theìâlterin most câses only the ton€sol the linaÌ vowels.bnt in sonê câsesthe tonesol the eDtirelom). A com!Ìete.if not simpleúr very sâtisfying,set of stâtemeútswaô then wo*ed out with relatively littÌe dilficulty. V€rbs are lirst devidedinto five major clâssesdependingon the lo.mation or the paú. For fouÌ oi thesecla$es,onÌy the linãÌ vow€t ând/oÌ a sDÍÍix is invohed; Io.the finh, all verbsin which a.e monosyÌÌâbic. mid tone replâcesfâìÌing tone to lo.m the past. For ve.bs with linal mid tonê in the hoÌtÀtivê,thère is â ÌexicâìlycodditionedúorphotonemicâÌternãtiônin the incoúpleüve,cÌeating iwo subciasesin Iour oI the liv€ clâs€s. ÀpaÌt from this, ihe tonesof aÌÌ Íoms cân be stâted ãs derivationsirom the tonesof tìe hortaüve,exceptthat in one cÌassthe {inal voNel ot the hoúative is an additionaÌ conditioningIâctoÌ. In ânotherclàss,th€re âre t{Ò instâncesoI lexicâl cônditioningin tìe de.ivationof rinaÌ lowels. The posible pemutâtions of thesevarious lâctoN yield tsèntyfive theoreticâllyposible paradigmsÍo. the sevenlo.ms. Twenty-th.eeoí the are attestedby a nümb€rof ve.bs .ãngingfrom one to tsenty-nine. The detaiÌsoI this complexoi pârâdigús need not be pÍesentedhere; the chaú above{oüÌd merelyhavetwentyjive columnsiÍstead of three,two of them blank. And the derivaiionâlstãtementsby themseÌveswouÌd be uniÍteresüng lists. What is of interest,however,ìs the theoreticallroblem of the interdepend.nce of l.hetinâl vowel ând lone. In one sct ot foms, â norphotonemicaltê.nâlion hesbeen.ecoAnized,In the remainde.oI the data, howeveÌ,are the linal vowel ând the ioDe(oI the finaÌ vowel or ol the entiÌe fo.m) seperatrmo.phem6, or âre they componentsol singlenorphemes? The Ìatter âppeâh to be tÌre pF ierâble interp.etationi clases ând subcìâsescondition diflerent se8mentaÌâÌlono.phs in everJ cÒústúction,but in addiìion to what has alr€âdy been eÌi mìnàtcd therc ãre only two conskuctionslor which moÌphotonemicatat@ents türn out to be required- Th€ horpholon.mic aÌternântsoI linâl voweÌsend in sóne câsesentire torms cân bê cÕnsidered conditionedby morphemesdelinedas A linal questionconcernsthe compositiÕnÕt the consecutivefoÌm itselt Is this lÕ be cÕnsidered a stem,or is it alsÕcomposedof â st€m pÌus ânotheÌmorp.esumably the finaÌ vopel, at leastin fo.ms ôl tvo or úôre sylahles? !ìeme In disyìÌabicând ìonger toÌms, the final vowel is /â/ in over haü oÍ the vêrbs recórded. It is /i/, /e/ (with the resülar âlt€rnânt /o/ ân€Ì nÀsâls), o. /u/ in alÌ other fo.ms. Except aneÌ a Ía6alizedvowel, the Íinâl vôwêI is rs 'mmediately cordedâs nasâlizedin only oneverb; this may havebeenan eEoi Th@ r€3trictions suggestúãt the linal vovel is â süfÍix, ln âbout two-thirds of the verbs recorded,its tone h mid; instâncesoÍ high aúd Ìow (top doesnot occu.)may be consideÌedlexìcâlly conditionedby the stem. The suflix mãy be interpretedâ3 having a zero alÌonorph in monosyllabichôrtâtives;ân sevenvowelsex@pt /ô/
157 are íound, ãnd nasalization(including /õ/, but /o/ doesnot occur nasaÌized)is CoÌnplexas the Bariìa verbâl systemis, theÌelore,lts seúingÌy exnberant tonaÌ vaÌiâtiotrsaUboìl dovn to ìexicaìlone and a surprisinglyÍe{ mo.photonem5.24. Às trotedin 5.3 âbove,ChiNyanjahas no ìexicaÌto.e in verbs. ln any given conúruction, all verb foÜns witì the sane number of syÌlâbles hâle tììe sâme toÍe sequencè.Düterent const.uctjonsdiffer lrom each other in tone, are recordedby DeborahHarding (1S66, however.Fìve düIerenttone sequences pp. 114-22).For €âch,stât€hentsâre mâde for forns usinglerb basesfÌom one to rive syllalles. The conditioningÍâctoÌ Íoreach sequencenthep.elix $hich maÌks the psrticuÌa.constructjon. On the bâsisof considerablyÌessdata, Beatrice\velmershâs recôÌdedlour torc sequ€nces in ChiNyanjaverbs. A lilth nay possiblyoccurin coníructions not.€co.ded. Enoughdâta is aÌâilâbÌe,howeve..to sho$ reDa.kabÌedifierenccs betweenthe verb tonesas recordedby two diff€rentpeopÌe.The informântsfoÌ eâchspeaka diâlectknownas ChiNgoni,spokenby the ANgoni pèople,Nho came to ZaDbia lrom SouthÀlnca sone gene.âtiodsâgoand have âdoptedChiNtanja âs theiÌ only lãnguage.There âre, ho{.v.r, two nonadjãcentANgon' conmuni ties, ând it mây ìe tÌrat two Ìather dillerent diaÌeôtsâre b€jng reported. An exâmple oÍ the ditferenceis a lerb íorm meaning'he can sell'. recordcdòy the tso inv€sti8atoBrespectivelyas /à.gà8ülitsé/ând /àngágülìtsè/.ThereisalsoevideDce that tle conditionsfoÌ the occtrrenceól â giv€n tone s€quen.carc consjderàbìy more complexin tÌre data Ìecordedby MissHardiíg- ln spite of lhe drâstic difÍerencesbetweenthem, hosever, eachsystemcâú be treâled id the sameway. The fouÌ tone s€quences reco.dedby Beat.icewelneh âre jllustratedin the 'he r€ad'(recenrpâst) 'he read (remotepast) Thê condiüoninsfâctor is ihe lrefix, r€spectively/nà/, /mà/, /nká/, ând /d,â/ in theseforms. Eâch oÍ thesecônditionsthe tÕneol the pr€cêdingprÕnounând tòe folÌowitrgve.b bâse. The pronountonesarc obviousin the above. Atter ihe prelü. the li.st prelix conditionshigh ton€ with the next sylìable.and low qith âll remâiningsyiÌâbl€s.The secondprefix condiiionshigh ton. with the ncxtlolâst sytÌabìeof the form (rhât it is the next-toìast sylìâbleand notthe secondsyuable aft€r the ?refix is shown by forms with one or two more syllabìct. ând ìo* wìih aI otheÌ syuabÌes.The third and lou.th prefixesconditionlow tone throughout the Ìemaind€Ìof the lom. In süch a situatiôn,toúe is not sepârãtelysìgnificrnt fór €âch srlìâble; the lones of the €ntire fom âre conditionedby the pÌesenceor one preiix sylÌable.
158
AÉR,ctN
L^NcuÀcE
SrRUc@Rts
It is suggestedthât this be labelled"iocus tone" thê prefú is the focal point trcm which the tonesof all other syuablesare detemined. ln ShoÍâ, and ãppârentlycoÌnlnonÌyin SoüthernBantuìânguãges, v€rls lâll into two classestonally. E.g., Shonahâs contrastssuch as /kürüÌà/ 'to grâre1 and /kütúrá/ 'to bÌow . Fôreâchtonâl class,thereis a paradiSmoitone sequenc€s in dillerent lerbâl cÕnslructions, sinilâr to thê systehG) found in ChiNyanja. This nây be viewedas a @mbinationof lexi@Ìand locustone. DerêkFivâz(1969, pp, 20-21)treats the tso tonal pârâdigmsâs setsÕI morphenesof toÍe ÌepÌaF nent, and viewsverb rtemsthemôelvsas toneles. The asiSnmentof one or the other setsol mórphemesto a given std ìs neverthelesby lexical conditionin8, It is tru€, howeÌe., that tone is not sepaÌatelysignilicântfo. eachsyllabÌein any Ìerb torn. while il is in wo.ds oth€Ì tìân verbs. 5.25. FinalÌy, tone Iunctionsat the syntacticlevel in somelanguags. Kay williamson (1965)d€scribes "tone groupj' and "tone phrâses"in ljo; the tonesol odeór norc sords in â sequence may be detêrminedbyüeir grânnâúcâl relationlocaì word. is repoúedin UkeÌe sh;pto a key or À somevhatsimilarphenomenon (John Fajen, peBónal cohmunication),in which â negativeverb conditionsa speciãlsct of horphoton€micâlternltioús througholt âll oÍ shât followsin the seDtence.ln KiKongo. topicalizationand reÌativizationare marked soÌely by the tonesol the verb Íorms in thoseconstructions,thoìrghthe Íules may resüÌt in a zero etlect in some@sesiâ simila. phenonenonwãs d€cribed fo. Igbo in 5.18àbóve. It is quit€ possibleLhâtthe occurftnceof difÍerenl ton6 wilh yeÍbs usd in at Ìeastsome6uboÌdinateclausesb widespreãd. Ìn Akan, verb torms id three types of subordinateconúructionshave di! f€rent tonesthan oth€Ì environments.The ciausesare thoseintroducedby a 'n the FaDtefo.n is /déè/'that, in orde. that , by the .elative conjunclionoí shich marker /áà/, and by the contÌastivemo.pheDe/nà/, {hich appearsÌegularly after queúion wordsìDt âho aíter other torms. In Fantê (tle rulesare slightly dilferent io. Tsi ãnd Asânte;se€Schachtêrand F.omkin 1968),all low tonesüp to the first hjgh in a ve.b foÌm are Ìeplaced by high in such cÌaus€r, and a finâl Ìow tone âtter hìgh is replacedby dornstep-highif nothing eìsêfoÌows in the clãus€.
E.s,. òbÉbá
'he wiu coDe'; he s coning': 'he câôe here': 'he\ tiring': 'hê'sspêâking':
nlgwìn déèóbébá 'I tÌriDk Ìre wiu coDe' migwìn dÉÈjri'bá 'I thitrk het coúing migwìn déèóbáàhá 'I think he cameheÌe pànki áà árúlútrá 'â hoÌse thât\ tiÌin8' wáDánÀ ó.iká's '*ho \ speâking?'
Noun Class and Concord Svst€ms: An lntroduction 6.1. ln all branchesot the Nlger-Kordotanianlãnguagetamily with ure excepiion of Mandê,it typical that a nounin its sinplestiorm can be ansÌyzedâs coúsisting of â si€n ând ân affix. ln somelanguages e.g.,Yo.uba, Igbo, Etili.-the âtfi{ has at ìest a minimal grammaticâìfunctiÕnsúch as d..iviry a Ieç nounsi.om verbs.ând there âr. only slight t.âcesol semanüccorrelation,which one might hârdìyÌecognizeexcepttìrroughcompaÌativeúudies- Atthe otherextreme,rh€re are nany Ìânguagesand groupsof lânguagcsin wlÌich aftixeswith noun stems @nstitutea major criterionfor dividing no! ns into â numbe.or nÕüd .lâsseswhich dilfer Í.om eachother in a vâriety Òtgrâmnàlicâì.onstrüctions.Thc naiuÌe and lunctionsoI thesenoun classes, and to someextent their lo.m, shô* à numbèroi ú.iking siDiìãritieseren $hen lãnguâgêsbeìoúgineto rather disiântly Ìclated g.oupsere compared. with noun It is theBantu lânguâCeswhich are thc most conmonly associated classsJúems. In this very largeg.oup, there is â sübsÌânliaìâmount oi ìomogeneity in the noun classsystemsând in lheir grmnâtical lunctions. MaDy Bantü lânguageshavê â ìârgenumberol nÕünclâ$€s.aDdtìrei. g.ammaticalluncìn \YestAtrica, üons âÌe maximâI. The signiÍican@of â smaìÌgroupoI languages with a relatively iew noun cla$s whoseg.ânhâlical lunctiors âre taiÜ reúricted, nây seemto pâìe by comlaÌison. BÀntu. ìowever, is b] no meansunique; it is meÌely softewhãtoverpowe.ingat lirst gÌance, Nonn classification, with its g.ammaticalimplications,is just as basicto the structu.èÒI úânJ nonBantu languages âs it is to tsantustructure. been Bâútu and other Niger-Kordofaniânnoun clâs sytcmslrâvesom€tìmes compa.edto the gendersystemsol Indo-Europeânând sonc other ìânguages. There is, indeed,sometypologicaÌsimilaÌity. in that dillerent setsot rouús are disÌinguishedby affixes,and g.âmmaticalagreementis lound betseennôunsând their DoditieB ând olhêr môrpheúesreferfing to then. In gendeÌ languages, hoseveÌ, theÌe âre typicalÌy only two o.three setsof nouns,âúd thereis a pâúial coneìâtionbet$€enthen ând sex distinction. In Nise. KoÌdoraniannoun clàss languages, th€re ârê ordinârily many mo.e ihon thÌee cla$es,sexdjstinctionsâre inelevant, Ànd theÌe â.e a nunber oi otheÌ partial senantic correlaiions.An other ditterenceis oI conside.ableìúerest. ln Indojiu.opean g€ndersJslÈús, gêndd ánd nrnberâÌe atÌeâst to soúc extent setarâtelyidentiriable(asin Greek singular-plurâlpairs, mascülin€{s. -oi, femininc d, ai)i in \igrÈKordolânian noun clas syúems,on the othe. hand, eàchsinguìârând eâchpltml alfix is autononousand mono noryhenic. 1i9
160
AFÂtcN
LAGU^GE
STRUfrURES
suggestedin the title, this chapter is intended primarily Ío. students who ^s little or no halehad SchoÌlrior experi€ncevithnoünclassand concordsystems, ãF sith vast expenence in Bantu languages siÌ find liitl€ if anything by way of new contribulions,âíd nây seeclid.d.c ol ole6impìification in somedetãils. A lull treatmentofall oI the detaihaDdproblemsinBantu, on the basisoI rêâdìly âvailâbleevidence,could of cou6e lilt more Ìhan one volume. The purposeoí this chapterisby no meãnsto exhãustâ topic, but simpìyto acquainttherelaüve beginne.çith ahat miSht be caÌledthe ngs/igueol noun cÌassând mncord systems, ând to pr€paÌeÌlim for deepe.and noÌe vã.ied inv€stjgâtions-With this purpos in mind, Bantu has beenchosenas a startiDgpoint, and the iÌlustmüve Daterial is takeDlargeìyfrom S*shiìi. 6-2. In âÍy Bantu lâneüâge.a very largenünber ol noún lorDs catrreadib b. analyzedâs consistingof a prerix aDda stem. It may be losiòÌe to recôgnizê lrom ten to 1{enly dilfer.nt prelixesin â givenÌâíguâge. Mâly Dounstemswil be lound conmonly sjth t$o of tìêse !Ìdixês; suchã pair is ordinaÌily singular ând plüral- Sone stemsmây occurwiih only onê pÌelixj theseâre usuâÌÌyúâs, nouns,âbúrâcts, and other lypes fof which enumerationis irelevãnt. In addition, somesiems mây be tound, ât ìeâú fâirly lrequeDtìy,with more than tso prefìxes;this variêtl is likely tô rdlect sefrântic difiereacesin addiüon to Thereis no reasonwhy the lirst exam?lesshouldnot be âmusingas welÌ âs inírüctivc. ln S{âhiÌi. th. Englishinúruction on â road signhâs beenâdopted to Íeler ìo a trâllic ci.cìeor.oundabout;theS*ahiliform is /kipilefti/. By analoSy with â 8.eât nâny rouns in which /ki / is a singula.prefix and which haveplúrâÌ Io.ms with a pr€lix /!i i, the first syllâble of this noun is rÈânãlyzed as a pÌeíix, and more than one tralfic cìrcleb, or course,/vipilefü/. Similaú, the (BÌitish) English {ord nrdrüard has been adoptedin the lo.m /madigadi/;tlte syllable /ma-/, hosever, b a llüral pr€fix, so that tìe fon is tâken to mean Ienders ; the co..espÕndineSwâlìili singular lrelix lìas â zêro allomoÌph with polysyÌÌâbic @nsonânt-initiâlstems,so that 'a fendeÌ is /dìgâdii. Now. this pâir of foÌms has fuúher beenâdopledin â lânguageknoçn âs KeRdi, tor {hich a vocabulary and sDmcgÌammatìcalinlormation exist tìrough thê good officesof D€smond T- Colè,vith a Ìittle h€lp l.om his hiends. In KeRezi,howeveÌ,the sten is âlso lsed with a singülaFpìuràìpãir ôl prefires Nhich indicâte persons:/mudigadi/ 'â delender',plural /badigâdi/. (This pair was lirst recordedas â neologismin the speechol â t{enty-three-y€aFoldmaÌc inlornânt sho strangelybeâN the sâmesurnameas the author of the presentwork, in the lot entiÌely iÌrelevant cónterl ôl invesligâtingmanifesiationsof another p.efix /ma-/ which indi@tes liqüid nqses, ás in /mâtini/ alconoìicbeverâge'r/nâtini/ is commonlypuNeyed by a /nutendâ/. plu.al ibatenda/.) SuchanâlogicinnoÌations are basedon modelswhich hâve long existedin paiÍ is /m-zigo/'a loâd', Bâ!tu. ID Ssahìli, loÌ example,â typical singuìâr-pìúrâì /mi-zigo/ Ìosds, and many other nouDshavethe samepair oI I)Ìelixes. Another
N ou N C L ^ s s { r D Colc on D S y s ,rM s r ÁN IN n o D U L ,r o\
161
prir is jllustrated by /ki-tasâ/ 'a lock'and /vi-tasa/ ìocks Ì'ng with aÌl fou. of these yieÌds the iÕllÒNingforms:
Occurcncesot this type Dake it dillicult to say that a particuÌârnem "belongs in a particulârnoDnclãs. rÌâther,â gilen stem"Òccurs,"âlôngrvithmãnl other stems,in conjunctionwith â pâúiculâr p.efix or pair of preÍixes,ând peÌ ìãps ãlso sith other prefixesor pairs ol prelixesas selì. The cÌa$itniationof nounsis not inheÌent in noun siefrs âs such, bút is ràthèr àssociâred {ith Ìhe 6.3. In âny given Bântü lânguàg€,nÌost ol the noun p.€lixes lún.lion as nembersoI singularpluraÌ paús.lhough th. p.úiÌrg is elidcnt only stâtisticallt, not on âny lornÌàl bàsisithe.e is nothing that aU singula.prelixesor all plu.sì prefix€shave in coúnon sith ea.h othef. lor sonÈ pãì6, rhere is ât least a pârliâl semanticcon€lation. In man! Bantu languagegraìÌmars,accordingly. ithãsbeenconsidered convenientto saythâta pâiroÍprefixes,singuìaraDdplu.ãI, iiclãss" represents one of nounsiin ãddition, there may be some"classes"{itì onìy oneprelix, relÌectingidentity ol singuìarand plural or th€ absence ol nufreF ical d'stinction. Follo*ing lhis iyp€ of slítement, Svâhili is genÚâlÌy said to hâle siÍ nÒuncìâses. In the following o!flnre oI theseclases,lO1 is ân slìotìorph ol a preÍix which apteaÉ as /ji-/ beror€monosylìabicstemsand as ij-i beforesone vo{elinitiâì stems;/Nt retresentsa complex ot mo.phophon.nìic alternâtionsalÍecting the beginningof stems;and allomorphsoccufing beforc vo{el-initial stemsâre not indi.at€d, lhoúgh in froí câsesÌh{v dificr lrom the Ioms given here, geneÌsuyby sìnple moÌphophonemicrules. Tlìe usüal gross outÌineoi thc Swâhilinoun-.ìasssystem,then, is thìs:
m-zigo tolâli ki , N-,
mi-zigo ma-lolâli
viNplank'
On the surlace,the.€ a.€ cl€arly severàlduplicâliotrsin the above lorms[Íost oI theseduÌrlicationsdisàpp€âr,ho$ever,{hen norc than simÌrlyth€ noun prefix is considered.CeÌtâinroun prefixesr€nain identicâl,bul ditterences shoN up in othe. morphem€swhich, in a pattern Òf grâDrnàÌicaÌagrccnent, reier tó in which th€ sam€noun forDs ap' thesenouns. Comparethe loÌlosing sentences, peâr, with lhe addition ol verbal forns which in every casemeán ìs/ârelosl'; the fiÍst syllàbleol êâchverbâlform is â sübjectpreÍix .efe.ring to â noun oi the cla$ in questiÕn,singnlâror pÌurâl âs the ca* mây bei
tb2
AFRrcÀN LaNcu^cE SrRUcroREs
mâ-totâli ya-mepotea
On the bâsisof thesesentences, the lirst two singularnoun foms can be said lô belongto dilf€.ent classes, althoughthe noun pretixestìrenselvesare identicâI, A diiÍe.encealsoappea$ betweenthe singuì.r and rìüral vith DounsÍoÍ which the.e is a singleprelix /N-/. On the other ìand, the two iN-/ pluralsturn out to be identicalalsoin Ìespectto the subj€ctprefixesüsedwith th€m. The Ìast two sinSülaNpâir {ith plurals that âre identical in âìl r€spects.Workiíg frôÍn the subjèct p.€fixes,the *cond and sixth singula.Io.ms ìn the aboveare identcsÌ, but the nounsdilter nr iheir pr€fixes. Sidilârly, thê secôndpìurâl ând the liith singulârhale ìdeúticâlsubjectprelixes,but the notrn prelixesalifler. tsântu noun classes must be distinguisìedand deÍin€d,th€refore.not simply by nôün prelixes,but in addition by morphemessuch as the subject pÌonoun pÌeiixesillustrâledâbov€,ahich slând in âgre.ftcnt or "con.ord" Nith noun prelixrs, It is the combinationof noun preÍix ând concordialmorphem€sthãt is 6.4. lhe .onpÌeie identity ot t{o pìürâlsjn the âboveS{ahili exâmplesintroducesa iuúh$ problem. li a "class"is definedin tems oÍ a singularpluÌâl pai., lhen tqo ol the SNâhili classes(ìlÌe ìast two pairo are partially identical. Furlherrror., eâchsingulerând eachpluraì pÌelix and coDco.dset has to be indivìdually describedin any case;there is no formâl sjóilariry rúnning through âll singulas or àll plurâls. No mâlter ho* lh€ mât€riâlis organized,elevensets of torús musi be sepâratelyideniifi€d and desÚibed. The onìy merit in pairürg Ìhe lorms is kmantic, statisticaì,or pedâgogical. Nhen a DnmbeÌoÍ Bant! Iangüages are compared$ith eâchothe.. further conllications arisein treating a "class"às coúsìslingoI â singulâ.ând â Plural torm. For exaúple, thô Swahili nouns with the prelix /u, âre cognatevith nounsin other languageswhich hâve t*o dillerent pretixes.rrequently/lu-i and jbü-j. l| is onìy thosenounsNhich havecognatesusjng/lut thât âresemantìcâlly singular,and thât hâ!. plúrals using iN-/. Nouns whjch have cognâtesusing lbu / are typically abstracts,for which €numerationis inelevânt. Thüs, on â compararivebâsis,s*àhiìi /u / r€tlectstwo prelixes,one ol which pàirs {ith a plurâÌ and the othe. of which doesnot. Further. in Swahilithe pÌurâl corespordinÉto iu-/ is /N-/. In sÕmeothe. Bantu lânguâgeslìcre is a paraÌlelpâiring Õf /ìu-/ with /N-/, but th€re arê âlsoâ númbcroI languagesin which the singuÌar/lu-/ pairswith the plüraÌ /ma-/. Most of the comDÕúsingular-plünlpaÍs âÌe sell-nigh universaÌin Bantu, bút in some casesther€ is a lair amount oi jrregülârity. Only individnâl singulâr prelixes
No@ C L \ss Á À D Co^c ou D S y n rMs : A\ In rh o D U L l r o\
lô3
ãnd their concordiâlmorphemes,and individual plural prefixesand thejr conas a cordiâl morphemes,can consist€ntìybe comps.edloÌ the Bentü ìânguagês wlole. Ând then, of couse, one cân reâdiìyâdd on the sarìeìelel thosep.efixes and concordiâlmorphemesiÕr which there í no counterpartbecausenumberis As ã result, it hãs becometradiÌionâl-stârting {ith Bìeek Õverâ c€ntury âgo-to speâkol noun irclasss"in the Bantu languagesin general,and otten in individuâl Bantu lângüâgesâs $elì, in te.ms of spaÌate prefixesand theiÍ concords,whethersingDlã.0r plü.aÌ or neulral. On this bâsis,the Swâhiìiformseiven âbovecàn be describedin teÌDs of eìeve! diIleÌent Dounclasses.F.om the comparatiÌe point of view, twelve classesarc repres€nted;Ìhe lâst singular,/u /, ÌelÌectstso ditt€reÍt tsântu clâsses, while the iast two plurals,both /N-/. reÍlect only one Bantu cla$. Svahiìi, like other Bantu languag€s, has a lew additionâlsetsoI loÌms that muú be considered of the Doun class system. Verbal inlinitivessharesome !âÌt of the 8mftmâr oÍ nouns,including thc capability ot having cerlúid modifiers. The inÍinitilc prefix is /ku'/. In âddiiion,thre. tretix.s ârc usedto lorm locative d€monstratives; althougììthesedo noi âppcarâs the only pÌciix with âny noun stems,they shâremany of the functionsof the Dore obviousnoun and concÒrdiâl preÍixes. Theseuìree prelixesâre /pa-i (indicâtingexplicit location),/ku-/ (indi@tingg€n€râllocation),ând /m-/ (indicatingÌocationinside). lI th€seâretreâted as additionâl clases, Swãhili has â totâl of filteen clâ$es,reilectinssixteenin 6.5. Carl Meinhof(1899,1932)presentedüe Íirst outline oI the cìa$ syúen of a Ìeconúrúcledp.oto-Bantu,based,oI course,on â comparisonot the individual cÌasssyúeús of sev€.âìlânguages.He rollÒúedtsleeks nunbering syúem, âdd add€d â numberof clâ$es thât do not âppearin ihe ìanguâges with which Bleek hâd woÌked. The list b€ginsvith the Dost oblious ând wideìy âttested cÌâses, such thât the odd numbêrsa.e sinqülar.ìases ând the eren nümbers pluraìs.gene.allypluraìs oi the immediatelyprecedingsingulaN;Io. example, the reilexesof Meinhols clâsses7 and 8 constitutetypicaÌ singula.-pluralpairs in a nìajoritv orBantu languages.Àner so listing lhe clâss€s that connonly âppear in singulaÈplrtrâlÌrâire,the nunb.ring continuesIo. the cÌasses that hâve nô nufrêrical signiiìcance.SinceMeìnho|s day, a IeY clâses hàle beedâddcd to the list that hâveb€enfound in onìy â fes languâges. and somereinreDentsin reconstructionhave been âchieled. In order lo âvóid changingrhe esrâblished numìrcridgsystem,someclãsses .ecognizedsinceMeinholhâvebecnlisted as subdivisions of hìs classes.Clement Doke àdded clâssesIa and 2a, D€snond T. ColeÌar€r âdded2b and 8x. Class 64, added by tlÌe prcsentauthor, is not distinguishablein rorm hom ô within Bântu itseìti as Nill be sììovn in anotherconnection,however,it fruú b€ recogni2edas â distinct clâs in â lâte ú.gc of pÌc Bântu, and evenwiìhin Bâútü it 's identifiâbìeon dislrjbútiÒnalând semântìcgrouddF6 is a !ÌurâÌ pairedvith the liqüid nases. singular5, wlile ôa n numericallyneutral,indicaling
164
AFÂrc^N LÀ\cu^cE
SÌÀucauREs
On page165n an adaptationof Coles oDtlineol the Bân1unouÍ preÍixes, listing the prÕto-BânÌureconstrucledtoms! ând shple Ídlses Lom louÌ langnãgeswhich illuú.ate all oI the clasks except2l . Thìs chaú doesnÕtíollov the usual repÌesentationor vo$eÌs. ColeâDd!Íalcolm Guthrje (differingfrcm Meinhof only in tle cloice oI â djacritic) prite the sevenvowets oI prcto-Bantu ("comnon Bântu" foÌ Gutì.ie) as on tle lelt ìeÌow: the symbohus.d hereaÌe thos on
Thc trâditionaÌ symboÌsare reâsonablef.om somepoints oÍ view. Àbout sixty percentot tìe Bântú Ìanguages have only live vowels,and it is noú commonÌy the two highest front vowels and the two higlest bâck vo{eÌs thât have in the hisloricaldevelopmentlrom prcto-BãÍtu. Thus /i/ in a @ntqncoalesced ?oraÌy languagemay r€ilect both */i/ and */i/, ând /u/may r€flectbôth *h/ and */u/. Th€Ìê âre êxceptions,to ìe sure,hut this is tàe @mmontype of developDent. Tle Colê-Güthrierepresentation has the advantageoI usingsimilar symbols for diileÌent prototy?es of single vowels in many contemporary lângüa96. On the other hand, tìeÌe are sme contemporaryBantu languages(not mâny, but LoNkundo is an ouistandingexampÌ€)in which there a.e selen vowelsÌepÌesentedâs on the right âboveitor suchlânguâges, thãt rep.esentâtionoÍ !ÌotG (his Bantu voveÌs seemspreferable.Colemay (and does)disüke*êing S€Tswana secondnãti!€ languâgê)r€pÌesentedas ú is here (âÍd in th€ {rittên lànguage itkÌt); otÌ'ers can hâve an equaÌ aveNion lo seeingLoNliundo *riiteD with live voweìsâíd two u*s ol â çediììâ. For our presentpurpoâe6, which ultimetêly ênÌìsion the considerationof ía. moÌe than the Bântu lânguâgês,tle systemon tÌre right aboveis chosen. À Bântu lânguâgenámq âs u*d hy speakersof tÌre language,iB its€lf â noun with a cla$ prefìx, usuallyof class7, but not unconmonÌyoI cÌâss11 or class5. (Swahili,Shona,Zulu, etc.) The comnonest.eferencês to soúe Bantu ìanguages omit thc prelix, but the common€st referetrcesto oth€Ìs incltrde the !Ìefix ard gia€ no indicâtionoI division betweenp.efix âíd steú (Kikongo,Lugandâ,Lonkundô, Ljngâlâ, elc.). SômewÍiters have attemlted to be consistent by ãÌwâys omitting the prelix (Swalili, Shona,Zulu, Kongo, Ganda,Nkundo, Ngala);some otheN ìale w.itten the preÍix in all cases(Kiswaìili, Chishone. lsizulu, Kikongo, Lonkundo,Lingãla). Indiceshaveappeâredin ehich ihe prefix ìs iÍdicated afteÌ citing the úem. e.9.,Swahili (ki-). The conventionusedhereis, with a lew ex@ptions, tÕ write the lul lorm {ith prefix, ând to cãpitalize both the lreÍix and (intêrnally) the st€n (Kisvahiìi, Chishonâ, Isizulu, KiKongo, LUCâtrdâ,LoNkundo.LiNgaÌâ);aÌlhabetizaüonby thê úen Ìâthêr thãn prêIiais recommended Ior index purposes,so tlat tÌte name cân be .eadily Ìocâtedno mãttêr how it is cited. Exceptionsto this practiceare madefor a few oI the bestknown Ìanguage
NouN Cráss ND Cd\coRD Srsrus:
165
Áx Imoouoror
Ìh. BMtú NoúPn/t
S}ltan
2DI
tN-
NüN-
N. N-
22 pl
È êmênlssousd,ols d àulêur
160
LÀNG!{cE SmucrGEs ^rÂrcÀN
nameswÌrichare raÌely cited Íitì tÌ,e p.erixr SwahiÌì,Shona,Zuìu, Xhosa,and â lew others. In the noúhvesìernBântu âreâ,sone ìângüàgêúarìeshâve !o overt prefixr Bulu, Kâkâ. etc. 6.6. The lÕregoingchart lisis oDly the torms of prelixesas tìey âppeârbelÕreúems vhich ìãve ân initial consonant.Many of thesep.efixes,in mÀny languages,hâve diflereni alloDorphsbefoÌestemswhich hãve an initial vowel; fór th€ Dôst pâÌt, the rulesfôr nórpholìonemic âlternãtionâre simpÌêor evenoÌF vioús. -fhese,ând certajnoth€r ãllôDorphs,àre omittèd sifrpìy to perúit â bett€Ì oveÌaÌl vie{ oI the totâÌ system, if onÌy in a gros way. ODlr noun prelixesa.e i.cluded in the chârl, not any ot ìhe côícÕrdiâÌmorlhenes $ìich must actuaìlybe usedto ÌÌelpdistinguishsomeot the clase. Each classis identiÍi€das typicalìy singular(sg),pÌu.ãl (pl). o. netrt.al(nt), or conbinatiors ol ihesein câseswherediiterent lânguageshave difterent uses. Clases ta and 2a (or 1â and 2b foÌ somelanguaees)reflect a distinction that is on â ditferenl leveìlrom other distinctionsbeiwecnclâses. NÕünsused in 1a and 2âl2b are typically kinship terms. pe6onilications,and p.ope. nânes. The concordsüsedwith theseclases a.e the sameâs tho$ fo. 1 and 2. vrhich themselves areãlmostexclusivelyperenâI. The plurals2a and 2b areveÌy
[email protected] in comllêmentârydistributionamongthe Bantu ìânguages; a giren lânedâgêwill plurÀl ìoth have onÌy one ol thes as the oI 1a, except tìâi âÍe attestedin UÀs notedabove,classes ô and 6a a.e idenìicâlin theBantu languâges, though they hây be distinguishedsemanticallyin thât 6 is the pìuiâì of 5 while 6ã is neutrã1,indicâtingliquid úâses. À lomâÌ distinctionbetween6 and 6a is ÍouÍd in Tiv, which À fâjrly closelyrelâìedto tsãntú âs â whole. ClasesI and 8x are very neaü in complemêntãrydistrìbutiÕn;onÌy â Íês languageshãve rell€xesôl both. CÌâs 8x dôes not âppearin w€sternBantü. Howcve.,clas 10 may be araÌyzedas a combinationôf8r ând 9, âíd in this combination 8r hâs reilexesthroughouÌBãntu. 6.7. ]'Jl,ical singúÌâFplurâìpairs âfrong th€secla$es À.e 1-2, 3-4, 5-ô, 7-8, and 910. Betond these,11-10is a common!ãü. but ll-t3 and 11-6 âre also especiãìly14,âre âÌso found. 12-13is conrmon,but ?lü.als of l2 iÍ othe. classes, âttestcd. It shouldbe noted that tÌ'e order of 12 and 13, gedemllyâcceptedat preseÍt, is lhe rev€Ìseof Nleinhóh ôriginâÌorder. The presentnumbeÌingDses ãn ôdd numberÍora plural,but plâcestÌ'e plural ane. the two singulâN{ith which it most cÕmmonly pâirsThe.e aÌe soDe typìcal, but by no meanscompleteÌyconsistent,semantic coÌlelátiónswirh Ìheseclâses. 1-2 includemost DeÌsonalnouns.and sometimes â few other animalenouns.but râreìvinanimâts. 3-4 includenmes oi trè6 ând but other ?Ìants, but also a variely oI inanimâtes. 5-ô âre quite miscellâneoús, pair Ìanguages noun stens usuaìÌy found in some other oI cÌâses may in many âlsobe usedin ó 6 with ân âugmentativesignificance.7{ are alsomisceÌlaneous, büt in somelanguâgeshâve â dininutive significânce(ând ìn eme otheF eu8nentatiÌel) foÌ DounsteDsusuallylound in other clâses. 7 âlsoincluds nouns
NouN CLÀss
^ND
CoNcouD SysrlMs: AN lNrRoDUcrroN
iÍdicating manneror style, and 8 mal be DsedadwrbiaÌly with much the same meaning. g-10 typically includc nost ânimal names,but ãlso a variety oi iqânimates.and lrequ€ntlya fe{ pereonalnouns. lt is sometimesusedlor Ìong, thin objects(and assuchmay be calledattenuatiye),and sonÌetimes toÌ abstncts. t2 and 13 ã.e f.equenüy diúinuÌives. 1.1isúsedâs â pÌurâl in somèlanguages, ând is also coDmonlyabstractrìn at leastone language,stemsindicatinggrâins o. fÌuih aÌe usedin clas t4 to Ìndicatethe beverâges lermented(or disriÌed?) from them-thüs inspiringCoÌcto Ìabd lhis useot l,l "âlcoholative." Clâss15 is ordinâriry the verbâl inÍinitive, which nay lunction as a noun in someof its uses. 1ô,17, 18ârêa speciâlgroüpof locâtiveclases. Insoúèlâúguages,theseâ.e not rellectedas basicnoun prefix.s ât all, but âppearodÌy in the concordialsysien. Th€ prefixesmây âppeaÍbelÒreãdd in ãdditiôn to other pr€Íixes,with noünsÌeiering to placs. ln a iew Bantu Ìânguâges, ând in miny non-Bantü Nieer-Congolangüages, rellexesor cognâtesot */pa-/, *iko-l, */mo / functronsonewhatlike pr€positions.Generâlly.16 r€leB to neâr o. €xplicit locatioD,17 to remoteor generallocation,and 18 Ìo localioninside. ln non-Bantu Niger-Congoìanguâges,presentprog.essivelerbal constructionsotten involve locativeforms; in manr Bantü langüages, comparableconstructionsusethe infinitive. This süggests Ìhe qucstionof whctherclâses 15 ând 17,which âre idenâre âctuallyditlerentclâsses.For Bantu, tical in !Õth noun prelix âdd concÒrds, they must be kept distinci becau*. in pr.ci&ìy lhe presedrprogressivê \'erbãl constructionin question,in â lew languages, a double pretix is used.which is aíâlyzed âs the locativcof 17 betorcthc infiniiive ol 15. Class19 is diminutive; wh€. usedas a singular,it takesits plural Irom one oI the conmon plural classes.In Kikongo, tÌrc plural has the pÌeiix of clâ$ 8, but with redÌplicatiÕnÕl th€ stemâccÒúpanied by shorieningol â ìongslem voweÌ; e.g., /mbéeÌe/ knif€ , /Íi nbéele/ 3mâll knif€ , pl. ibi nbéle-nbele/. Classes 20-23aÌe rar.. Clas 20 is usuauyaugneniative,sometimcsdinintrúve Class2l is üsuâllyaugmentâtiveand pejorâtiverit hâs no concordsor its oìvn, but usesclass5 concords.Class22, iound only jn LuGaDda,is the plural oÍ 20 and of somenounsi'ì 5. Clas 23 is anotherìocative,which in ât Ìeâstsome appeâNin comìinâtionwith the p.efix ot nâny olher cla$es;in Zulu, Ìânguâges lor exãnpìe, it Ìepla@sthc initiaì voseÌ characteristicof aìl cÌâses,but is snìl Íouowedby the e$ential part oI the approp.iateclassprefix. Thus this is not a "clasí' in tÌ'e samesenseas the oth€. cla$es,thougì it partakesor someoÍ the same chãEcteÌistics. Two ol the languagesusedlor iÌlustrâtive purposes,hizulu and Lucanda. showin nost cìâsesà voweÌprecedingwhat âppeaNto be the reiìexol the protoBaDtu preÍix. In tÌ'eseand other languages, süch additionalvoNelsa.e or secondâry oriSin; the sel€ctionoI the vowel is generallyphonoÌogìcâlly conditioned by the vowelol the foÌlo{ing pÌelix, Á smentic distinctionbâsedon thê prêsence or âbsenceoí such a vo$el (which has beencaÌledâ "preprelix," ân "âugú€nt," or simply an "iniíâl vowel") is âlleúed in a few lângüages.In ôther languages,
168
Â!ÂrcN LNcu^cE SmucruÂEs
the vowel is usedin someconst.uctionsbut not in otheB. The voweÌât l€ãstappeârs ìo be historicâlly â selarâte norpheme. TherearenumeroosinsìãncesinBântü lânguag6oi a singÌenounfoÌm which includes two, or even thr@ or Íour, diÍÍerent clas preÍixes in sequence. Ìn such cases.a stem with one prefix is taken as â "bâsê," ând to this enti.e basea luÌther prelix is added; such â form hây thên agâin !e treated as a base to whìch slil anotherpreÍix is ãdded. 6.4. In the cha.t aboÌe, an asterisk aíteÌ â pÌelix indicãíes the p.esêfte ol morphophonemic alt€natiÕns at the ìeginning of the íouowing stem. In cÌãs 5 in SeTswana,such alternatiols âie pÌesentin some6tems,but not in ôfhers. wh€re ân €xpected alternaüon doe not ap!€âÌ, ânâìogic Íegtrlârization @ms to hâve tâken plâce. ln soúe diâÌects, hokver, the mnsonant in the clas 5 singulâr lorm is extended tô the plurâl in 6, while in othe. djalects the reveNe dt€nsiôn has ìeen nãde. lt there is alteÌnation in 5, the undeÌÌying stem-initiâÌ consonant âppeaÌs in 6i foÌms in 6 show a grqte. va.iety of consonãnts,ãnd the alte.nâtions in 5 have resuÌted in some neutrâÌizatiors. Judging fÌom the examplescited by Cole(1955,p!.83-84) tìê sltê.nationsâpply onÌy to ceúâin voi@d consonants. Steú-iniliâl /b/, /l/, ând r/ hâverhe âlternâdrs/ts/ ând /tÀ/,appârentlythefo.mer bdôre DnroundedvoseÌs ând the latt€r beforemunded vowelsand /w/; /./, /c/, and /h/ have paÌauel aÌte.nants /s/ and /À/; and stens with initial voweÌs have alteÌnants begiDling with /k/. (Simila. alt€rnations oÍ voiceless coDsonântuas well aÌe fourd in other morpÌtologic contexts; aìl ot them seemdovnÌight weiÌd In Lucanda, class5 nounshàve doüble conmnantsãIter the prdix; ágâin the lnderlying stem-initial coÌsnant âppeâs in the lluraÌ fom in 6 Gee CoÌe 1967,pp- 17-18). ln Shonâ,there is aìsoa morphophonemic âlterúâtionin nouns oI cÌass 5, but the preIix has no othe. overt fom. The alternãtions âpply to certâin voicelessconsonântsattested in cÌass6 plu.als. The ÌesuÌt of the aÌteÌnâtioí ií 5 is â setol conlonantsthal âpp€âÍsnosÌìereelsein th€ lânguage.Steúinliâì /p, t, k, c, te/ have, rêspectiveÌy,the âlternânts/6, d, g, j. dz,/,and in â Íee câsesipll hasthe ãlte.nant /bv/. (tr/ and idal a.e alhicatesvith labiodentaì A large Dumberol Bantu lsDguage,howeve.,ìave no moÌphophonemic aÌprelú pÌeÍix and thè it€ll hâs À zeÌo têrnation of colsonants alter the of cÌass5, alloúoryh belore consonantsìn many laDguag6. I! Swahiìi, a rdÌex ol the protoBantu p.efix, in the fo.m /ji/, âppeârs belore monosyÌÌabic stems with an initial consnânt; e.g.,/ji-we/ 'stone',pì. /ma-we/. /jii âl$ âpp€ãrsberoreconsnântiniüaÌ úems usuâllylound in othe. ciases but usd in 5 *ith ân âugnentative signiíicancet in such câs€s,it is treated as paÌt of the base of the noúú, ând th€ cÌâssô pluraÌ pÌeÍix ts added to the entire singular loÌm rather than replacirg the singulâr prerix; e.s., fron /nbsa/'dog'(classes e and 10): iji-bçâ/ 'big do8', pl. /nâ-jibsa/. Ehewhere, ihe cla$ 5 pRlix is zero before a cotrsônant, as in /nanàsi/ 'pin€âpple, pl. /ma-nanasi/and mâny sidilâr pâiF.
N ou N CL \ss À ND CoNc o u DSy s c M \: A \ I^ r o D L o roÀ
169
6.9. It isthe rule ratherthan tìre€xceptioninBaniu to iìnd morphophonemic alternationsin tìe clâs pÍelixesconditionedby a following stem-initial!o{el. 'the types ol âlternâtionlound in S{âhili âre typical. The preÍixesof classesI and 3 are both /n / belorea consonâdl. Ihesemay also appearas im-l betoreiul and /o/; in wrirten Svâhili, however,mu- or mois usedbeloÌe u, and r!,- beloreo, and many speakers, at leastamongthoselÕr wlom Swahiliis nÕl â native lângüâge,retleôtthêsefôrms in pronunciation.B€fore /i, e, a/, the* prelixesregularly have the alternant /mv-/, which cì.ârìy reiÌectsihe prÕto-BantD forú. Somespeâkere álsouse/nut belorethe consonant written The Swahili Ío.ms of nouns in cÌa$es I and 3 {ith vowel iniiiâl /h/. úems âre ilÌust.at€dby the íÕllowing:
baking' The pr.Íìx oÍ .las 2 before consonants is /wa i. The same form appeaF belo.e vos€ls in most ca*s; it is sometihes redu.ed Lo i w, betorc /a/, ând sometim6 fuses with /i/ to yield /we.../. Tbelrelix oI clas 'l G regulã.ly /mi-/ before voa€h as w€ll as beiore consonânts. Thus the plurals of the above Douns àre:
nri-ili
in The pr€lix oi clas 5, as no&d above,appeaNas lil beloreconsonants a f€w Ì€strictedcasesiotheNise it hâs a ze.o aÌÌomorÌrh.Beloresten-initiâl /i/, and occasionaUy beloreother vowels,the lorm ij-l is found; the zero allomorph h usDãlbeloreother vovels. In cla$ 6, /mâ-/ appearsberor€vowels othèr lhsn /i/i it Íusessith /ii tD yield /m€ . . .i. ExampÌesa.e:
pì., pl,. 'lh€ Dretir ol cìâs ?, lki-/ beÍor€consnaDts.has the alte.nânt writt.n cft([ò],which night be anâlyzedâs i ky/) òetorevow.ls in the vast majority oI câsesThe pretix oÍ cìas 8, /vi / bctoreconerãnts. hasth€ similãrâllernânt/vI- /bero.e vowels. ln â les words,/ki./ ând ivi-/, with a Íulìy syllabicvo{€Ì, apPea.beIo.e voselsi historically,a stem-initialconsonantin thesewordsw8sÌost after the delelopment of the prevocâli. aÌlomorphsoi the pretixes. Exàmpl.s oi cla$es 7 and 8 with vowel-initiaÌstemsare: Pl ,,
ki-âzi
pì., pl.,
170
,\mtcÀN
LÁNGUÀGE SÌRUcruREs
Bântu clâsses11 and 14 ïave mergedin Swâhili. The preÍix is /u, beio.e consonânts, sith the alterDanti$-/ beforevo{els. 8.g.. u-sìãnga w-embe
b€ad'
In coastalio.ms or Swâhili.the À'- ot cÌâsesI ând l0 is, at leaú lor many speake6,.ealizedas aspiraiionot a st€m-iniliaÌvoicelessstôp. This is not indicated in wìtten Sçâhili, howeler, ând in other areasthe pretix has â zero âÌìomÒrph with suchstens. In all forms oI Swahiìi,N- alsohâsâ zeroâllonÕrph ìeÍore voiceles fri.atives ând beforenâsàlsin disyllabicor longe. stems. Thât â Íefìex oÍ â leconstructed*/ne / is presentìeÌe DDst be acceptedon taith for the tollowingc$nplcs in isolâtion;it côuldbe provenonly by a lengthyandprobâbly confdsinginterludeshÕsingthê consistency of concords,and suchprool had best be d€lsyedlor the Doment. ExamplesoÍ the zeroallomo.ph(oÌ uns.itten aspiÌationin the firú four mses)Õl SwahiljN- are as louowsi ne'repr@rts /n/: hia.i
N- has lhe âll€.nânts/ú/ ând /n/ combiningwith the voicedconsonaÍts/b, d,j. g. v, zi to lield /mb, nd, nj, ng, mv, nzl, rith non-syUabic nasalbeloredisyllabic and longerstems. In âddition,N combineswith /w/ âs /mb/, with /l/ and /r/ as /rÌd/, ând presumabìywith /y/ as /nj/ (nÕcasesâre kno{n to ne). Às a result,ir a noun beginswith /mb/, it is imposible to tell whethe.the noun úem has initiâl /b/ or /w/ ünÌessthe steú is âttestêdin ânôther cÌâssor âs â veÌb. Similarly, /íd/ is afrbiguÕus;ihe stem-iiitial consonaDtmight òe idl, /li, o. irl. This is obviousIo. nounswitlì the singulârin clâs 11 (prefix iu-l) and the plúrâl in 10i but to. nounsiú g âod 10 there is not alwaysexternalevidenceãvailable. Exâmplesof thesecohbinâtionsâre: mboga mbao mbati ndizi ndevu ndifri njugu nguruwe nzige
'v€getâbìe' 'planks' 'hut tôìes' banânã' 'beÌd' tongues' ipeanutr pic' 'rain locüst'
(s10. cf. boga 'pumpkin'in 5) (l0i sg. u-bâo,11) (10i sg. urvati, 11) (9ì0; stcn not identifiable) (10; sg.u-devu, 11, 'a hair of bsÌd ) (10; sg.uìimi, 11) (9-10) (9{0) (9J0) (!10)
Syllabic (ând streJsed) /ú/ ór /n/ âppeâre âs th. âÌkrnant or N- berôÍe monosyÌlabicúems beginDingwith ary coÍsonant. E.9.,
NouN C!^ss ÀND CoNcoRDSysrEMs: Ax INmoDUcaroN
171
' dog'
Finally, the âlteríâÍt oÍ N- befole vowêl-initial stefrs is /ny-/. Class11 moíosyÌÌâbicstemsÌetãin thè singularpretix iu, in the plural, and /ny-/ is prÈ fixed to this as if it vere a stem-initiat voweÌ. E.9., (9-t0i cf. ch-umba'room', !1. in 8) (9-10;cf. u-ki 'honey',+14) ' ny.dbe (10; sg.e-embe,11) ny-imbo Songs (10; sg.Fimbo, 11) (10; sg.u-tâ. 11) T*o types of nounsin classes 9-10 dó not follo{ the abovepatte.n ât âlÌ, prelix but hâye â zero ío mâtt€r *hât th€ir iÍitiâl cônsonantis. OÍe of these types is âdoptedwords,like /bâisikeli/'bicycle'. The othe. type incÌüd€sâ numbeÌ oI kinship te.ms. suchas /babai 'lâthe.' ând /.afiki/ 'lriend'. It is nounsoi this tJpe $,h'chin sonìeotherBantu languâeesa.e found in clâses lâ ând 2a o. *hich 2b. Th€senotrnsÍequiresômeol the colcordsol classes t and 2 (personaì), ìs typicâl of 1a ánd 2â or 2b ìn otler Ìanguâges.Howeler, concordsof clas*s 9 and l0 âre usedat ìeast,íith demonstratives.Another reasonlor not Íecognizing thes nounsãs belongingto 1a and 2â or 2b id S{ahili is thât 2ã ãnd 2b in other Ìanguageshave oÌcrt prefixes simila. to thât ol cla$ 2. 6.10. The Bantu Ìânguâges hâve oftêÍ beendescribedâs hâving "aììiteratile concord". Suchã d€scÌiptionis undestãndâblein thê light oI *ntences like the ÍollowìDgin Svahili: lii-LapuÌj-kubwa Limoja ki-lianguka. basket lârge fell 'Onelargebâskêtlell. À plural counterpãrtof this is: vi-kâpu vi-kubwa vi-tatu ailiângüka. 'Threelargebâsketsfell. The situationis not al{âys so simple,ho*ever, as júst repeâtingthe noun prelix lor the approprìâteclas with every modilier or oiher reterent. In fact, the concordsystemappeaN.ather complieted iI clas I is considered.The variety oÍ.oncordiâlâÍÍrx.sìs ìn Ìhc Íollosing: 'lìusrìâÌed 'â pe$on hom utete De mons t r át ir e:
mìu l u ìe
'th€ peBÕnwho câme' Objecl: Using this cÌass,with its variett ol colco.dial altiaes,âs â úârling point, mâny vriters oI Bantu laneuagegrammarshave prcvidedlorbiddingo. at least impre$ive chaús oi noun ând concord p.eÍixes, vith six or eÌen more columns
172
AFRrc^N L^N6u^cE SrÂumuREs
(addingcolünns for certainallomo.phsbeforevóvels),ândâs nâny hres âs there â.e noun classes.U.toúunately, the diversitylound in class1 is just âs deceptive 7 ând 8. Fuúher, the differcncebetveensuch âs the ünilormitv Íound in clâss€s altomorphsas the demonstrativeconcord/yn-/ ând the r€lativ€ conord /y1 in the aboÌe, which is determin€dsinply by whether the iollowing phon€meis a or a vovel, is of quite â different order lÌon the dilte.ene betwetr, cÕnsonant IoÌ exampÌe,thê âttributiÌ€ concordin-l and tÌre subject concôrd/â-l. Mâny of the âppârêntnon-identitiesamongìhe àfiixesiÍ the enür€ systemcan be âcstâtúents. coDntedior by simpÌemoÌphophonemic pÒint,a siÍnpìerfomulation ofthe noun ânothercla$ asa slsúing Usingstiìì and concordalrixe6ìeeins to energ.. PaÌaÌleÌingtle example,giveÍ abovefôr clas 1 are the folÌosin{ in cla$ 3l
Subject:
m-shâìen-mojá D-shâlew-ângu m{hale ul€ nsÌ'âle nina-w-otâÌa n+hale uìiangukâ ninâ-u-tãkâm-shále
onenâil 'úy íâil 'that nail' 'the Íail that I {anf 'a naiì íeÌì I wÀnt (it) the nail'
Here only ìwo bâsicàÌlyditferent !.eiixes appear:/m-/ as the noun pÍelix and attributive .ôncord. and /u-/ (betoreconsonants,with the allonor?h ,tw-/ before vov€ls) jn all other câses. Th€ samepattern Àppea6 in seveÈl oths clae ses. For S{ahili, ãn €conomicaloutüneof the nôünând concordâfiix system@D be presented in two columns, with speciâl notes required lor just two clasks. A similãr two-columnôütline is po$ible loÌ otler Bantu lãnguages as well; speciãl i.r€gúlârity in S{ahü cìãss statements âre reguÌârly required for class I, but the 11/14 is not typiql ol Bantu âs â whoìe- Addi.g here clases 15-18,the comllete Swâhili ortline is as ioÌÌowsl
2: 3: 4l 5:
9: 10:
111r4: 15: 16: 17, 1E;
AB m-
u-, yu-,a-,D-
o-ji-
li-
ki vi-
kivÈ
NN-
izi-
No6 CL^ssÁD CoNcoÂD SrsrLMsrAr Irrnoorr rr"r
\73
(ând âl$âys âppeârsâs /"-/, sidceit ocItr cÌass1, tÌre concoÌd/ut is associative curs oDly before â vowel)r /yu-/ is demô.strâti!€/reìative;ia-i is $bj{t; and used{ith âbstrâcts In class11i14,im, is âttributive, thouglr/ut is occasionally *14derived írom The concordslÕr 11/14 aÌe thus identicâlwith thok ioÌ 3. Statementshâve âìÌeâdybe€nmade concerningtìe aüonorphsoI the roun lr€fixes beloÌe vowels,excpt lor clâs 15. Tle noun (inünitìve)Irelix oI class 15, and all concordsusedas subject or object, appearin the lorÍnsgiveú âbove beíoreconsonants, and also belorethe initial vowel ol a Ìe.b stem,exceptthât /m-/ in I and 18 appearas imw-/ belo.e/j, e, a/. In aìl other uses,the concords have different but similar allomorplshelo.evowels. ln 1, 3, 1i/14, /u, appears as /1{t beÍorevowelsi similarìy,in 4. I, ii-l app€arsas /yr- Ìn 7 and 8, as in the id€ntical noun pretixes,iki-/ ãnd /vi-/ have the allono.phs /ch i and /\'y i. In 15 ând 17, /kuJ appeas as /kwr, ând in 18 /n i âppcâ.sas /mw-i. In alÌ other câses(1 /yu-/. 2 iwâr, 5 /fi-l,6 ly^-1,ro lzi-|,16 lpa-l), auomo.phsberorelowds consistoI only the initial consonântoÍ the prerixi thus iy-, s-, l-, y-, ,-, pr. ând belorevÕwels.ân For Ìnost concords,the aìlomo.phsbeloreconsonants be convenientlyilÌuúmted in demonstrativeand asocjatile pnraseslik€ the lollowing; thoseon the l€lt are 'thal . . . oÌ 'those. . . , and those on the right ã.e 1: 2: 3: 4: 5: ô: 7: a: 0: 10r 11:
mw-âlimuyuìe w-âlimüwa-le n{haìe üìe mi shâleì-le shokali-le nâ-shokayale ki-su kì-le vi-su vile mfiki i-Ìe raliki zi-lc u-baoule
m{-aÌiDu {-angu v-alimu a-angu m-shale$-angu nishaìe y-ângu shokaÌ-angu mâ{hoka y-ângu ki-su ch-angu vi-su vy-angu rafiki y-angu raliki z àngu u-baos-angu
6.ü. ]t has alr€adybeennot€d thÀt tììe concordprclixesherc labell€d"attÍibutive" âre identicàlwith the nouD pretixesexcept iD cla$ 1l/14. Ío. which Swahiüis nôt typical ol Baltu as a whoie. Th€seconcords,undeÌ '4" in Ìhe chart in the precedingsection.have sometimcsbeencaÌl€d"primâry" concÕrdsi th€ *t under "8," which night be temed Ìelerential," have beencalled'ìecondary." The primary concordsaÌe usedin Swahìliwiih adjectiÌe and nufr€râl úems. The sãme usagesare typjcal ol Bantu as a whole, although sone Bantu lânguagcs (e.9.,LoNkundo) have no âdjeciives;conpâràbìemôdilicãtiónol â nôDnn €rpr€ssedby the asÕciâtiveconst.uction$ith a noun indicati.g quality. or by a .eÌâtive conú.ucüon. In sone langüâgès,â lew stemswith nuDericalmeáning unexpectedÌytake üe secondârycon.ords,ând mo.e olten somenDmerâlstake no corcord at all, but aÌe invarìable. In Swâhili, the numerâlslor 'one'throush
r74
ArRrcÀN LÂNcuÀcEST8ocruRE
'iive', ând âÌso 'eight'âúd the vord Íor 'how hâny', tâke regular concords. But the loms for 'six', 'sven'. 'nine', ãnd 'ten' take no @ncordjthe Íirst thEe of th€se are adopted froÍn Arabic. Mulüpl€s ol ten are aho âdopted lrom AÌâbic It has âlÌeâdy heen noted thât, under certâin coÍdiìions, the noün pr€lixes oI class6 5, 9, ând 10 all ìâve 2erÒâllôtuorphs.The sâmeis tÍtre, of coüR, Ior the identi@lprìmâry concords-ThDsth€rc nây be nounsând evennoun phÌâses with no overt jndicâtion oí their clâss membeÌsÌrip; indeed, úth only primary cotrco.ds,I ând 10 are âÌwaysidentical. The conditionsfor a zeroallomorphol the class5 prelix and lor zeÌoâllomorphsof the class9 ând 10 prefixes,however, âre not th€ sâme. Giv€n the alprop.iate conditions in either thè noun stem or the stem oÍ the modirieÌ,5 may be distinguishabìe f.om 9/10 on tÌìe basisof ole word in the phrâs€. In the phn*s on the lett below,an adjectivestem/-kubwã/ 'large'is used;the cla$ to vhicì eâchphrasebeÌongsis not demonstrabÌe, except Íor speakerswho use ân aspirated/k/ in 9/r0. Büt in the phraseson the Ìight, usingan adjectivesten /-dogo/ 'smau',thereis a diIÍe.elcebetwee! 5 and 9/101
5: shokakubÌ\'a 9/10: nyumbakubwa
shokâdogo nyumbândogo
\ïith secondaÌymncords, however, the th.ee clãsês âÌe ãlsays distinct; compar€ the examplesin the precedingsecüon. Às aÌready noted, the scoDdary concords (or sp€ciâÌloÌms of them lor clãss 1) âre usedas v.rbaÌ subjectsand objects,ánd as suchappearin Ìheir fuì Íoms belorethe injtiâl vorel of a verb stem. EÌsewhere, the secondaryconcordsare usedwith demonstrative, int€nogative,asociative,and relaüvemo.lhemd, and with â úem meâling 'âìì'. A variety ol theseis illustratedin the following,using
ma-shokâ nina-y'otâkâ In the lãst 1r'o of the above,/,â-l is the áNciative noÌpheme and /-o-/ is lhe relârivemorDhene.which hâs other us€sas wêìI. One fuúher detail is sigÍjficânt. The secondaryconcoÍdsappeárin â few types oi foÌns as suffixes.atheÌ üân pr€íixes. Thê conmonat such occuuence is in anotherset of demonstrativeforÌns,i! vhich the deDonstrativeno.pheme itselÍ consistsoÍ /h/ plus the voweÌ oÍ the appropriateconco.d. ln this set, th€ concordlor clâ$ 18 has íhe ÍDìl loh / nü/. The demonstrâtivèmorpheúe in questionheãns 'this'; a lurther developmeniis â setol demonstmìiv€s, indicâting 'this' oÌ 'the*' el.eady mentioned,shich has the iufthe. suffix /-o/, befoÌe which the expectedaìlomo.phesoI the concordsbefo.evowel, aÌe usedr/w/ has â zero âlternant beÍore /o/. Thes demonst.ative are 6umm!Ìizedin the rol-
NoL'N C!^ss
1r 2. 3: 4: 5: 6: 7r 8: 9: 10: tlr 16: l7: 18:
^ND
CoNcoRDSysrLrs: Ax lMFoDucrro\
mw-aìimuhu-yü w-àlimu hâ ws m{hale hu-u mi-shâÌe Ììii shokâhi'Ìi ma+hokaha-ya ki-su hiki vi-su hi-vì raliki hii rafiki hi-zi u-baohu-u ha-pa hu-kü hu-mD
mw-alimuhu-y-o w âliúu hâ{ m-shaÌehu{ mishâle hÌ-ro shokâhi-l-o nã4hokâ ì:â-y-o ki-su ìi-ch-o vi-sü hivy-o raliki hi-y-o ÌâÍiki hi-z-o u-bâohu-o ha-p-o hu-k-o hu-m-o
'teacher' têache6'
'kniÍe' 'knives' 'rriend' 'f.iends' 'plank' 'right here' 'aroundhere' 'in here
6.12. Specialrulesmust be statedior conco.dsvith som€types of nounsindicatiÍg arimates. The lirst type is nonteÌsonaÌanimates. Two of these,the words for 'âniúâl' ând 'insect', appearin classes1 and 2 i. Swahili;otheryise theseare le.sonal cìa$es. À fes app@Ì in clâses 7 and 8. Cla$es9 and 10, however,contâinthe Ìârgehâjority ol teÌns tor âniúâìs,bjrds, tish. and reptiles. AlÌ such nounstake the concordsof the personâlclass€sr ând 2. E.9., ki-faru m-dogo a-liknwa hapa tembo m-dosoa-ükusa hâpâ tembowalâtú wâlikuwa hapâ
'a small rìinoce.os sâs here 'â smalÌelephântsas here 'threeelephântswere here'
A Íew nounsindi@ting pe.sons{ith physicaÌdefectsâppeâ.in cla$es7 and 8. Thesetake the concordsot clases I ãnd 2. Büt someper$DâÌnounsin cla$es 7 and 8 âÌe diminutivesusingstens commonlyfound in othe. classes; thesetake the concoÌdsoÍ cÌasses 7 ãnd 8. E.s..
'that child') A number ol nouns indicâting kinship appeârin cÌassesI and 10. These take the concoÌd6oI classs 9 and 10with aUmodiiie.s,ìut the conco.dsÒl clas ses1 ând 2 fÕr subjectând object. E.g.,
Ìâriki y-ânguâ-xkuja Ìariki z-anguwalikuja À lew posonâì nounsappeãrin clã$es5 ând 6. Thesedo not âll agreewith @ch other in the concordsmost commonlyused,and evena singienoun mây be iregulâr, usingconcordsoÍ cÌâs 1 in the sinSuÌarbut 10 in the pÌuÌal, or oi 9 in the singuÌã.ând 2 in the pÌuml. The useol class1 ând 2 coÍcordswith nonpeNônâlânimates,nosüy Í.om however,âre clâss€s9 ãnd 10, is videspreadi! Bântu. Mary Banttr lângüâges,
176
-q.FÂrc^NLÀNGU^G! SrÂucruÃEs
mo.e .egüÌaÌ thân Ssahili ìn respect to ihe other typês of noDnsmentioned heÌe. SinceSwâhiliis ïroÌen ìy vast numbersof ?eoplewlose first laÍguageis something else,but olten BentD,thereÈ â eooddeaìot vâriâtionin someof the usês. It is significant. how€veÌ, thãt kinship terms vay ortên pÌêsent speciâÌ gÌammâticâl !Ìoblems in Bantu; it çill be loted that this is alsotrue of many otheÌ Niger-CongolaÍguages. 613. In â numberol Bântü languâgegramnãB.thereâreÌeÍerênesto .pe.sonaÌpronouns"in connectionwithverbsor with expÌessions (s,hich of poss€ssion representonly oneoi many usesof thê associâtive construction).The impÌication seemsto be that norphenes ór setsol norphemesneâning he/she,him/her, his/her'ãnd 'they, then, ureir (pesonál)' belongwith first ând secondp€rson pronoun lorms, and thât .êfêrentsto non'pesonal nonnshave $ne kind oI â secondarystatus. Actually, of couÌse,the releÌentslo. personâlnoutrs,singülâÌ ând plurâI, are nothingDore tlan the conco.dsfoÍ nounsol cÌâses 1 and 2. II there is 10 be âny dichôtony, it shouldbe òetveenfiÉt ând se.ondpeMn morphemeson the onehând and ãll .Ìâs
[email protected] cla$es I and 2, on the olher. Àctuaììy,lirst ând *cond !e6ôn moÌphemescÀnaho be treted with Lh€noun clâssând conco.dsystem, Th.re âre no tiísl and s€condpqen íoün pretixes!to be süre,ãndIüstand secondpeÉonconcêptsârehÀrdlyexpected with âttrjbutivesor denonsrrâtives.Bnt thereâre subjectand objectfoms, and lorDs lsed af&. tle asociativemorpheme(indicatingrosesiÕn). FurtÌ'er, the.e âÌe itrdependentreferentsfo. iirú and secondpe6on singularând plumÌ, and alsô10ÍDounsoI all cÌasses, shicì must bê treatedin â unitom way. (Thelatte. ìâve beencâlled'3elt{tânding" by msny vriters, thoughwhy on€ wouÌd choose this â{k{ârd câlque,irom the Gerúân rdòídrdig, whentbe tetu "iídependent" is aÌailaìÌe, is somethiDgoI a mysteÌy; with ls senaític justilication, thesê ìave àlsosometiúesbeencâllèd "emphâtic.") In the light oi thesesiúilârities, alihough tÌre pa.aUelism is not perÍect, it woüld seem mo.e elegant to ìnclude Íirst and secondpeÌsontormsin the conco.dsystem. Itr the lirst leÍson in Swahili,identicallorÌnsâreusedlor subjectând object: singuìaÌ/ni/, plürâl /tu/. ln the secóndpeMn singular,the subjectforn is /ü/ and the objectioÌm is /kn/- I. the wcondleÉôn plurâÌ,the subjectlom is /n/; the Õbjectrom mây be /wâi (the clâss2 concord),or it mây be either /wâ/ or Au/ (the secondpêNon siDsülârlorm) plus a suiÍix /-ini/, úth which rinal /a/ ií the vdb coaÌescesto yield /-eni/. In the louoving, the loÌms on the lêft m€ân i... camei;thos on the .ight neân 'he lookedÍor ...'; 2s: 2Pl:
ni-likuja Dlikuja tuìikuja nlikújã
ali-ni-tqfutâ ali-ku-taluta âli-tu-tãluta ali-wâ-tafuteni(etc.)
ln üseâlter the asôciativemo.pheDq Svãhili has@ncoÌdsfoÌ the first and peNonssiDgularând plümÌ, and lor cìases 1 and 2,òút not foÌ the remâinsecoDd ing noun cÌasses. For âll oìhd clâses, inespective of number, th€ concoÌd oI
NouN Cr ass dD
CoN@FD SysrlMs. AN lNrÂoDULlroN
t7ì
chs r (otheNÈesinguìaÌonly)is usedI thisisdiscussed fuÌtherin the nextsection. Foür ÕI the sìx fô.ms in quesiionare eâsily id(ntiÍiâble; the) âre th€ Iinal syllablesoI the foÌlowins;
'my child' 'youÍ (sg.)chìÌd'
For the liÉt ând *cond plurâI, the córrespondingIorms musi be analtz€d as */-itu/ ând */-inui respe.tively.\vith the li.st vowelor theselorms,the /a/ wbich preceding yieìd is the asociativemorphemeÍusesto /ei:
Independrntr.fer€nts ore rypicaìly redupÌica1-ed forms in tsantu, from the semndâry.oícords tor the noun clâsses.ln Swâhili, the forfts tor rhe secodd personpìürâl ãnd for clâses I and 2 requi.eminor morphothonemicstateDents.
5:
Ìiti Ìiki
tpl: 2pl: 2l 4: ô: 101
1l: 6.14. As noted âboÌe, alter the s$ociative morpheììeSwahiliusesthe clâss I concordfor all othe. cla6ses except2. This usageis illusfusledin the tollowing, in shich /-ke/ relersback to nounsof tÕurditferent clã$es(3, 4, 9, 10 respectively), tYo singuÌarand two plural: m-ti uìe na majani ya-ke mi-ti ile nã majani ya-ke rYunba i-le na mÌa.8o na-ke nyunbâ zi.Ìc nâ miìângoyâ-ke
'tìat tree and its leales 'thoselreesand theiÌ leaves 'that houseand its door' 'thosehous€sard their doórs
ln many Bantu languages, hosever,the.e a.e appmpriatecôncordslor each noúÍ clâssin this const.uction.The me.g€rof all of thesein SNâhilimight pos sibly be cited as an exanple oi Ì'ow ihe complexitiesof Bantü slructure have been simpÌiiiedin Svâhili-perhâps by çây ol pidginizâtionor as a presümêd 1 Ìn ReRèzt.onìy the p€sonâllnd.peìdentpronounslìale bee
C1,1 bihi
C1,2 hehe
178
ÀPRrc^N L^NGU^GE SÌRUúuÀEs
resultof Arabic influence.A similar meÌgerofthe côrresponding foms, howeveÌ, is repo.tedly lound in sone ÕtherBântu langüagesÍo. which therê cán òe no .easonablehypothsis Õf foreign-oÌ âr least non-BaÍtu infÌuence. It mÀy aìso be noted.in th€ light ot âll thât hasbeensaidabove,that Sqahiì hasretainedaÌÌ of ihe nâjor cha.acteristics or Bantu, and is in no sensea bastârdizedìaíguage. pârticüìar The fact is thãtthis usageis i! tÌre natureof the câsequite uncommon, and would quite naturâlly be susceptibleto ânalogicÌeveling. Àt the sametiDe, someBantu ìan8uages display the luìl arây of Íorms appÌopriateto this coístrüctioí. Tô hiends and acquaintances who, with genuine interest buÌ little iífÕrúâtiô., âsk Âren t thos Af.iqn languagesyou woÌk with awfuÌly primitive?", ône might weÌl .eply, "We.ll, in Shonâ theÌ€ âre 256 wâys ôt saying 'its or 'their'1" Theoreticãlly,that is, a noun of âny cÌas (oÍ which Shonahãs ninete€n,buÌ dupìicationsredúceihe lumber ol âctuâlly diflereút concords to sixteen) may be asciâted with a concordiâÌ refeÌent lor â noun of any cÌâs. Any suchform hüsi begiú{ith â côncordol the cìâs ol thê noun possessed. This is Íouowedby the asociativemorpheneiâl. Thè posssor noun is then refe..edtô by its appropriateconcord,and, in alÌ clâssesexcept1, the lorm endswith a morpìemei o/. Onesuchcombinâtionis the Ìâst word in the 'the Ìittle childrenand their dogs' tuvana neDb*a dz-a-tw-o He.e the first word ìn cla$ 13,with the p.efix /tu /, a plurâÌ sith dininutive 's si8niiicance,súperimposed on â class2 pluraì form /vaná/ 'chitdren'(sg.,class1 /msaná/). The rorm /nembwà/isâ combinationoI /na/ and and /mbwá/, which could be eithe. clâssI or classr0, 'dog' oÍ 'dogs'. In the lâst *oÍd, /dz-l is th€ clâss10 concord,indicating that tìe plural dogs was inteÍded. is th€ côncordIor cla$ 13,reiening to the po$esor noun,the littÌe cÌrildre!. ^tw, DiÍteÌenl .ombrnâlionsâre shownrn th. Íollowinê: imbva nâvâúâ v-â-dz-Õ buve nadandadzir-aÌ-o
'the dÕgsând thei. puts' 'the spiderand its web'
In the first of these,clàss2 (/vârâ v, 'chiìdren,yoüne) is âsociatedwith crass 10 (/imbwa . .. -dz-l 'dogs'). In the second,class5 (/dandadzir-/ web ) is associatedwith class5 (/buve. . . -Ì-/ tpider'). Similarly,any cÌas cân be âsociâted with itFÌI or any other cÌas, üsingthe conco.dsfor the noun posesd and for the posessor, in that order. Às mieht bê expect€d, someof the combinâtions are not ìikely to occur very oÍten, but âÌl oI them a.e possible, A systen snchãs this is Ìikely to strikè the bqinne. as bong liúuâIy impossibletô lear.. lt sìould be.emenbered,ho*e!er, thât onedoesnot learn256 forms. OneÌeârnsnineÈen noun claswsand theiÌ conco.dtsand evenin doing so, aftff leaÍning the first ten, the concords lor the rest can be sÂfeìy gused at t Shona.xanDlesârc tâkêh kon FortuncO95S),i. *hich tone is úblôrlunât€ly nor nrk.dSimilaÌ exanples hare been independe.tly cltclted ahit liêquêrtly co.strucled by tb. pr6cnt author, but thê tones arê not.eh.nD€rcd io. sonc {ords, and oiìier vord. tn tìèsè esnpl..
NouN CL^ss ÀND CoNcoRDSvsrEMs: ÀN lNruoDUdroN
179
by âúalogy.T hen.by ânãìogy{ilh â fes elamplesliletheâbove, âny otthe possiblepermutaÌionscânb€ lut togêtherwith ro needlor iurther memorization. 6.15. ln almost all of the foregoing,Swâhili has beenthe languageof iÌltrstration. NatüÌâlly. there arc nany detâils which âre languâge+p€cìlic.Swahili, loÌ examlle, hãs no reflexesoI clâses 12 ãnd 13, shich âre Íâirly coúfrôn elsewhêrein Bântu. For clas*s 1 ând 3, Swâhiìi hâs the prefix /D-/, whess i mu, is Iar morewidespreadâmóngthe Bântü lânguàges.At the sametime, the kinds ol morphamicand morphophonemicprobìens which it has been necessâÍyto discus ior Swâhili ar€ typical oi noun cÌa$ and concordsystcmsthroDghout Banttr. Oneor the Iew Ìespectsin whicÌ' Swalili is .eauy atypicalis thãt it is not a tone lânguâge. rone, however,presentstew p.obÌemsin the Bântu noun cÌâss and concoÌdsyúems. Fo. the most part, in a given lânguage,the noún ând concord prefiresall have the sâmetone, fâr ÍnoÍecommonlyIow than high. Subject mncordsmây hâve high tÒnein someverbâl constrücriÕns, büt this is a lunction oI th€ verbal constrtrction,not ot th€ concordsthÊmseÌves.In somelângüâges, however,@Ìtâin concordsio. cla$es 1 and I have low tone vhile all other @ncordshavehÈhtone. This irreguÌârityseemsto hâveb€enchârácteristic ôl protoBantu,in that â paraÌlelirregularityfor the samecla$6 is lound in Tiv (seeGÌeenbers 1963,p. 35). Tonemay neverthelesbe oÍ oucial impoúancein anotherÌespect. In Shona and other ìânguages in the south-centrâl BânLúrreâ,noún prelixesâÍe lôw- There is, hosever,â môrphemeôl tonal repìâcement. high replacinglow, {hich occúB *ith noun prelixesâs an "identiliel'. Thus for every noun which has an overt prelix, there is â secondfo.m which difies frinimaìly in tore. For nounswhich do not hâveân ôvert or syllâbicpreÍix, th. id€ntili€ris /i-l. E.9., in Shonâ:
mündà (3) chisárô (7) ngúrüvè
(9)
múndà chigárò lúgúrü!è
'it is a lield' it is a chair' it is â pig'
6.16. As notedin 6.9 above,norphophonemicalì€rnântsôl cìãs ând con@d prefixesbeforevowelsmuú be noted in perhapseverj Bântu langDage.Mâny ol theseâ.e the srt of alte.nationthat wÒuldnot be su.prisingânywherein the world /w / ro. iu-l. /y-/ ror ii-l. and ìnstâncesoI /c1 ror /cv-/.  wider vaÍiety ol more unexpectedâìternatiodsof ìhe cÌâs 5 prefix with úem-i.itial conenants includingthosein has also beenDoted,in 6.8 above. In a numbe. oI Ìanguages, which th€ pÌeliÌ has â fuìl Íom /li-/ ôr /di/ or /ri-/ beforeconsonants, an alternâDt /i/ app€aÌsbeforcvosels; this is p.esumãblyfrom */ly-i, becoúing'/dy-/ ând then /j-l. (In Nsungli in Cameroon,heârd only on tâpe but unmistakably trilÌ; the voielesclear,the cla$ 5 prefix beloreloìcelessconsonants is â voiceìess nes, with its relaxation,nust be interp.etedas low tonel) The manifestationsof /N-/ in clas$s I âdd 10 merit a Íurthe. wo.d. The moÌphopìonemicâlternâtionstound in Ssâhili âre not widespÌêad.In á núnbêr oI languãees, this rNt (whetheÌor Dot anything precedesto distinguishthe two classesin the noun and pÌimary concord)appeaNâs â nasaÌhomorgânicwith
180
ÀFÂrc^N L^Ndu^cE
SÍRúdüREs
any foÌÌoaiúg consonant,voicelessor voiced. The nâsâlmây oÌ may not be syÌlabic. Afte. the nasâÌ.alt€rnãtionsoI sone stem-initìâlconsoDrntsaÌe common, ãs found in SÍahili: /bi lor /w/, /d/ lor iU. and the like. TheseaÌô not alwâys recoverable, but aÌe 6ometimes identiliâbleil the stemis found alsôin other cìâ$ se, pârticulã.lyin languâges {hich us clâs€s 11 ând 10 âs â siígülâÊplurâlpair. Such ìoúorganic .asah are round in Ìanguagesás geogEphicaÌlyextreme âs LoNkundo, KiKongo, ZÌÌD, and LUGândâ. In Shona,no nasalapp€âÍsbefoÍê voicelesshicâtives ând âspirates,but there are certain moÌphophonenicaÌteÌnationBwith the sten-initial consonânt.\1ith voiceless stops,./Np/ is àctuâlized */Nti */Nk/ as imÌ'/, as inìl, and âs /k/. T he situationin KiKongo hasbeendiscussdlrom the vìewpointoÍ phonemic anãlysistn 3.22. It wastheresen tìât there aÌe phoneticalÌytvo kinds of nâsâlorâl sequences.Onê Õt thesêis ânâlyzedas /NC/, and the oth€r as /N c/. The lirú type incÌud€ssuch phenomenãas âspirâtionor âllricatiÕnot the oral comsone cônsonants âre neutâÌized. Occurrenc€s lonent, ând morphophonemicâlly or INC/ in KiKôngo âre ãll mânif€stationsor the /N-/ or classI oÌ 10, o. of the Iirst pereonsingularobject concordibotì oí th€s aÌe.€constructedas */ne/ for proto-Bantu. Occuúcnc6 ol /N'C/. oí úe oth€r hard, àre ãll manif€stations oI the prelix or clá$ 1, tlte preÍìx oI clas 3, or the objêct concordot.lâs 1; âlÌ of theseare typimuy identical in Bantu. and âre reconstructedâs */mor. Thüs, although the phon€fric ânâlysÀ ol the phonêtic dãta in KiKongo is justiíiable in its own nght as the mo6t econoDicalinte.pr€tation,it now becomescÌeãrthai one {ouÌd ârive at it most quickly agâinstã backgroundof someacquaintânce with Bântu nÕunclas ând mncord syslems. 6.17. À briefo!€rviev otthe íoün clàssànd coÍcord syst€mofanothe.Bantu laDguage, oneof tüe norê distântly relâtedto Swâhili,may l'elp to .einto.cethis iítroduction. The languagecho6enìs LoNkuDdo. The dâtâ aÌe tâken lrom Hulstâert (1938),but havebeenird€lendently checkedunderÌãthe. DnusualciÌcumstânces tle inlormant was â youDgAmericanwoman, ãìout tweDty-twoyeaN ol âge,who had beetrbilingDalin LoNLundo and Etrglishuntil she was about thiúeeD,bui hâd not usêdLoNkundo siÍce; she*âs extftúely reluctânt to act âs ân infomant i! tìe usual Benseor prcviding uttersDcesIo. imiiation oÌ transcrlption,but gave evêry evidenceot naüve @mpetencein heÌ enthusi$tic âp!Íóvâl or unhesitating.ejectionoI utte.ances.ead (or misÌead)to heÌ frcm Hulstâert s transcription. In the p.erixeswìich gene.aly have initiâl /n/ in the Bântu lâlguages(1, 3, 4, 6), LoNkundo hâs initial /b/. Further, tìere is a Ìest.icted vowel hamotry in LoNkundo, which âflects the lom of a numb€r ôf pÍefixes. The prefixesof live noun classesend witÌr /o/ or /r/, and ot two with /ei oÌ /./, depelding on vovel hamony; /o/ and /e/ appearif the nsxt voweÌis /ii, lel, ltl, lol, or l^li l.l ain /âi appearir the n€xt vowelis /â/ oÌ /e/. E.g., i. clases3 ard 4 (ãndvith low tone unnârked): /bo-Ìs{ó/ 'a night', pl. /be-tswó/:but ibã-kolô/'a day', pl. /b€-krÌr/. qcept 2, 6, ând 15,the linâl vowel of a prelix doesÍot âppeaÌ In all clâsses before vo{el initiâl st€ns. The low tone ot the prelix is also elided befoÌe a stem-
Now
clÀss ÀND coN"oRD SysrLMs: ÀN iNrRoDurllu\
181
initiâl vowel hâving low tone. \Yith a stem-inìtiâlvÒweÌhâving high Ìone, ho{ever,the lo{ tonc ôI thê prelix is retainedithô sl€m-idirialvosel has a low-hi8h sequence.E.g., in classesI and 2: /w-asi/ 'a lisherman',pl. /ba-âsi/:but /w-èkoli 'a studenl', pÌ. /hâ-ékoli/The following are the noun pr€lixes ôl LoNkundoi aÌternant Íorms beforê vowelsare discusedbelow: -C 2. 3:
by5: 6:
Ii-
r -/ i o-
9: 10: : l5: 19:
NN-
bynjdj-
j w i ri-
v-
In class1, the pretix hefor€vowelsis nornâlly /w-i. In nounsnol deriled írom verbsor from nounsin other clases,and in a lew nounsdcsc.ib€dasirr.gular, it is /b, berô.e/Ò/or /â/. ln cìass3,/w, is resuìârberôre/i, e, ô, â/ ànd, /b-i betore /u, o,â/. Perhapsthe rules lor clases I and 3 are actually the samerno counter' exampìesaregi\en. ln class5. i l/ âppeârsb€fo.e/i/, ãnd /j-/ beloreother vov€ls. In.ìâss 11,/jw-/ âppeâNberoreii. e, e. ai, ând /l i berore/u, o, ôi. The conditiÕns lor itsw-/ and /t-l in class13 are bâsicaÌlythe samei however.many words in 13 âre diftinuliles, ând in these/Ìs*/ appearsbeioreaÌl vo{els. For the first ten classes, consecutiveodd ard even nunbeF are.egular singulaFpluÌâl !âirs. Clâss6 ãlso includesliquid mases. Class10 also pâirs vith the singularclass11. Class15 is the verbal inlinitive class. Clas 19 singuÌâ. paíswith 13 pìú.âì; this pair ót dâses containsonìy ã Ie$ nounsoth€rthan diIninútiles ofnounsthat âppearaìsojn other clâsses.(Onc,in lrucKeÌìezi lâshion, pluÌal /tó-máto/ 'tonato'-) ln diminuüvesNith i6 /i-máto/,lrom the reãDalyzed consoDânt-initial stems,the li.í syllableof the siem is reduplicatcdrthe reduconditionedtonal alt€rnants. ?ÌicatedsyìlableÌ'as IrÌ'onologically 6.1a. For üe singDlar-pturâl pâir 1110, Hulstaertreadilyrecognizes the nasal prefix in 10; it is irÈl or /n'i, homorganicsith the ÍoÌlowingconsonãntre-9., /lo-káú/ a l€ar', pl. /D-kás/ Ohoneticâìly/t-i). For I and t0, howeve.,he peculiarly ignoresthe reguìârnâsâlprefix ând ânâlyzesáll nounsashávingnoprefix. ThereâÍe, to be sure,a numberoI adoptedwoÌds in 9 and 10shich actuallyhave no pÌefiÍ, like /sapátâ/ 'shoe,shoes'.But in indigenous{ords, the initial nâsâl
182
AFRTCN
L^NGU^GE
Snu(nREs
isobvious. Pairshom ll and 10 showthat /N-iconditionssomemoÌphophonenic alteÌnaüons,but HulstâeÌt doesnot di$us them in füll. Exântles include /loìén/ 'â tonsue', pl. /n dém/, ând /lojoso/ 'â hide', !Ì. /h-poso/; loÌ most @ns nâÍts. ìÕwever.there is no ãlternâtion. Mention aas made aboveof adopted wo.ds. In Bântu in geneÍâI,foÌeign voÌds are conrDÕnlytáken into clases I ând 10. In ìânguages itr which class5 has no overt p.erix, however, roreign words may be taken into 5, and ü*d with the prelix ÕI6 in thê pìüâI. Il üe ÍiNt syllâbÌeol the foreignwo.d is sufficiently Ìeninìscentofa lrelix in the adopürg lânguâge,the word is ìikely to be taken into the clas Ío.which that prefix is approlriate.singulâ.or pìürâ|,and the paiÌing p.eÍìx is then aÌsolsed with the reânalyzed stem, as in the caseol the pâir /i-máto, tÈúáto/ cited above. English hâs donê the convers of this with its bastardized pluEl of cirÍrnp@:ecithe lqíguage of origin is unknown,but delinitely Bantu, and the pìúral shoDldprobâbÌy be binpnzee. 6.19. Segmentally,there is only one set ot concordsin LoNkundo. In álÌ clâ$esexcept1, I, and 10,the concordsare jdenücâlwith thê noün prefixes. In class1, where variation is to be expected,the subjectconcÕrdis /â/, and /o/ oÌ /o/ se.veslo. âll other concordiâlsiiustiôns. The concordloÌ I is /e/, and ror 10 is /i/. Tonelly, ìowever, a distinctionis madebetween!Ìinary (âttributive)and secondaryconcordi pnmary concordshave hjgh tone, while secondãryconcoÌds hâve Ìo\Ì tone. Primary con@rds ictüaÌÌy âppea. onÌy leÍore the first rive numerâÌs: higìÌernumerak take no coDco.d,and LoNkundohas no clas of âdjecüves. There ãie three foÌms for 'one', ânrì tNó of th6e irr€guìârly(o. perhapscônditionêd by tìÊ lirst tonê of the numdâl stem)take con@rdswith a lo*-high sequence.Examplesol nounswith numeralsare: bo-nto
'mã
ione persni / bo-nto ;m;kr / bo-sto tm;nkrló be-támbábéJé two trêes' bâ-tókobá-úto three sloons'(6) 'four baskets t-úkã tó-nÊi njrjDgo itâno 'live hos'
HDlstâertdoeslisi â seemiígìydúlerênt set oi lo.ns Ior object coúcords. HoweveÌ,theseare deÌivabl€by a ?ìonolog'c .ule. The conenânt /b/ is elided intervocâlicâÌlywithin â word. ãnd connoniy âlsôiú word-initial positionâfter a vord endingwith a vowel,at leastin .apid speech.Án unambiguousêxampìe is loünd in a clâ$ 11 ând 10 pai.. The st€m fo.'hoe', citêd âbove,bãsân ìnitial !oweÌ, attested âlso in the singular f-óngo/. Also in thesêciassês,however,is a singDlarlom /l'€u/ 'lip', in which the prÈvocâìicform ol the prefix doesnot appeâr. The úem has ân initiâÌ /ò/, ãs shown by tìe pÌurâÌ /m-bstr/. Now, in the object concords, the only differences from other concords are precbely in thosewhicì beginwith /b/; the initial /b/ doesnot appea.. À!d object conco.ds occur oDÌy alter vÕçels; cleãÜ thêy âre nerely lhe intovocalic foms of thè noÌmal concords. In cla$, 8 /bi/ doesoccurqs ân obj€ct concoÍd,thoüeh /i/ is ân
Nou\
Csss
\ND CoNcosD Sy.rr !s: AN INrFoDr clroN
183
optionaÌ ãìternant;it is a generaÌphonologic.ul. thât [he lossof /b/ before /V Huìsta€rtdoeswhat â gnat nãny grànóâriâns ând beginningstudentsof Bantu Ìanguâges hâve done; he rei€s to the object concordsas "jnfixes". This is obviousÌybâsedon â comparisoD of forms Ìike the Íouowingfrcm SwâhiÌi: nili-ki-taluta
'I Ìookedlor a book' 'I lookedfor it'
The object concordapp€aÌswithin a verb rom, juú beiorethe stem, and âÍter aÌÌ oth€Ì obÌigatorymorphenes(in the ãbove,the firú peNÒnsiúgulârprônoun /ni/ ând th. úarker lo. pâst âcrion /lt). The object conco.ddoesnot âppearin the first of the âbov€sentences, Ìrut in thc secondii is "put ir." However,the tern "iúlix" has aìwaysòeen a technicaltem Io. a morphemewhich occu.s betwee! phonemeswithin anothermorph€me;intixes â.e commonin Ìanguages oÍthe Philippines.âs idBontoc/f um-ikâs/'heisbe@ningúrong, inwhich /-uúisan inlix within tÌre nononorphenic stem/tikâs/. The objectconcordsor Bantu lânguag€sdo not appea.within anotÌrermorpheme,but betqeeqnorphemesin a woÌd. They âre not infia€s,bul prelixesthe posiÍon ol which, iI they appeâr ât all, is alter all other prelixesand just belorethe ve.b stem. 6.20. Às stâtedat th€ be8inningoi this chapter,this has not beeDintended as a treâtiseon comparativeBantu, thougha goodd€âÌfrom the field ol comparativê ljnguisticshas been.elemd to and evenâsumed. Most of the morphologic fesruresthât havebeent.eâtedcan b€, and hâvebeen,subjeciedto comparârive study, so that equatingâ noun cla$ in one lânguagesith a classin ànôtherhâs fâr moÌe tlan mere typologicaljustilication. As one goesbeyondthe limits oI Bantü in the NjgeFKordoianiânlâmily, there is Ìcssobviouscognationin the mo.lhemesthât €nterintonoun clas and concordsystems,until amongthe most r€Í')inisdistântÌy .elatadlanguâgesve.y liÌtle can be loundwhich is specificâÌìy cent ofBantu, Ai the sametime. notrnclassand conôordsystemsâs süchâre by no meansrestrictedto Bantu,andthis iniroduclionto suchsuúemswithin BâúÌu will sene âs a trselulloint of referencein investigatiÍgthe nomiDalmorphology of oüer hrânchêsol the Nig€r-Kordotaniânfamily.
Functional and Vestigial Noun Class Systems 7.1. PrioÌ to Greenberg\incÌusioúoi the Kordofânianìa.guageswiih the NigêrCon8olanguagesin â larger fanily, it vâs cleâÍ that, within Niger-Congo,the eâÌÌiestdivisionrss that which s€pâ.atedthe ãnceúorÕt the presentMandelanguâgeslrÕmthe pârentNjeeFconeosìocÌ. The Ma.de ìaDguag€s oÍ todây âppear tÕ show nÕtrâce ol â noun clâsssystemcómparabletothat of, Ior example,tÌte BânÌu languages.Àt leastsÕnelâdgrâgesin âll oI the other bÌanchesof NigeÌCongo,howev€r,hâveor Siveevidenceol oncehâvinghâd noun clâs sytemsdisllâying some stÌìÌing simiÌariti€sto those lound in Bantu. Gir€n thal nuch cvìdence,it was reâsoíâbleìo râisethe questionNhetherProto-Njger-Congo hád noun classsysteÍr ohicì in theMânde â wasÌost branch,or vhether sucha system sas a later innovâlio! in th€ non-Mandebranch(see\Ìelmers 195E).GÌeenberg, ?Ìesentcla$iÍication,however,positsân evcn eârlierbilurcátionshich separâted KordÕtânianlrofr àìl Òf NigeFcongo. And many oI th€ !Ìesent KoÌdofaÍian Ìânguâges hâve nounclâsssystemsreúa.kâbly reninis.entof Bântu. IÍdependent innovãtion or bonowing or such a coDplex elem€ntof mo.phoÌogicstructuÍe seemsincredibìeiit is surelymore reasonãble to sDppose that Proto-Nig€ì-Ko.doranian hâd a noun cla$ systemto b€ginsith. In someWesi ÂIricaÍ languages, there aÌe a numberot noun p.efixeswhich distinguishsingulaÌsand plurâÌs.and Nhich hÊvesone scmânticcorelâtion, but which do Dot paúicipate in cóncordiâlrelàlioÍshipssoch as those desoibedin the precedingchapter lor Bantu, Someinvestigatorsìare ÌelerRd to sJstens ol this type âs "embryonic"or"rudinentaiy" nounclãs systemsGeeWestemânn and Bryan 1952,p. 9l). The implicãtionof suclìterminologyseemsto be that a ìângúâgenay sell stârt sith no noun clâsssXsteDât âll, ând develôpÕneìittìe by little, p€rhapsby bonowingor "grammaticaìcontaminatio!', as hasbeensugg.sted. The un.easonablen€ss oI such a hypotÌ'esishâs fr€quently been noted. À lar môre b€lievâbìereconstructionÕl linguistichislory is thât the lânguâg.sin questjonhâve Ìost someoI the nore conplex characteristics oÍ a systeD nore like that ol Bâútú, ând shoúÌdrâth.r be chârâcterizedâs having "lestigiaÌ" or "decadenr"noun clas systens. A hjghl) compÌ€xsystemnay, to be sure,have becomeas comlrlexas it is with the help ôf anaÌôgicdeveÌôpnents;but independent deveÌopmentor bonowing of ess€ntialIeatuÌes or 6uch â sJstem is highly imtrobable. Gr€enberg(1963,pp. 150-53)haspointedout soÍneplâusibìêiníãnces of po$ sibÌe conespondenc€s betveen specificKordotaniãn noun prelixes and tsantu nounp.efixes,oÌ afiixesoÌ p.onounsin otherNigercongolânguages.By no means all oI the noun cÌa$ âtfixes in the NigetsKordoraniânlânguâges,howev€Ì,can 18.1
l'uNclroNÀr ÀND VLsrcrÁL NoLN CL^ss SvsrrMs
185
b€ presum€dto be of extremeÌyancient origin. At best, hypotììeticalreconstructionscân bè $ggestèdlor only â Ie{ Nch aftixesithe yariety o{ noun class systemsìn contempoÌarylanguagesmay NelÌ reflect a considerableâmount of innovãtionthroughouttheir)ìistory. Yet the similaritiesâno'lg the variousnoun clâsssystenÉfôünd in Alricâ today, apârt lrom the sp€cilicmorphemes involved, jnteresting, are so notevorthy, ând the diff€rences so that onc is tenpted to âsk whether we cânnot at least detemine what the Proto-NigeFKordolaniannoun classsyst€mvâs like. It is the purposeol this chaptc. to descrjbetlìe noDinal norphologìesoI seiectedlanguages or Ìanguagegroups. In addition to discussnrg SrammãticâÌlyiünclionâl nÕunclâ$ syl€fts in ôther thãn tsàntú lânguages,âr tention wilì begivcn10âtpâ.ent vesligesot an earÌiernouncla$ sJstemin several languages in which the relevantnoÌplenes hav€liiiÌc ornogrânmatical iunction. Incid€Dtslto this discusion, howe\er,it nal be possiblcand int.Ìesting to say somethingâbólt the typology or noninal morphologl in Proto-^"iger-Kordofanian. even iI w€ cannotreconstructmuch of ìts nÌorph.mic detail.r 7.2. Even in the NÍândeb.anchof Niger-Congô, a look at the morphologyot jsôlãled pârâììelwith nôun clâsiti Loma night iempt ân inlestigalor to seean cation in somenon-lÍandeÌanguagcs.\Íost Lomâ nounshâle â singulâ.ddiniÌe sütlix i-il, but sonrehale th€ sufiìx i gi/j one is rcmìndedof difiereni allixes foÌ difierent clâses in olher lâúguâges, ând one mighi e\en *ânl io foint lo a sim ilâritJ bet*e€n the Lomâ suffix /-gì/ and th€ troto-Bantu classIÌre{ix */ke-/, shich âppearsas /ki-i in mân) tsânru ìânguages.Ìhere is quite a dirferenthistoricâl erDìânâtiôn.hô*ever. lôr lhe Loma suflixes. Lomâ hâs no linâì consonants;Itpell€, $hich is fâirly clo*lJ relâied,hâsÕnè,/-!ìi. For most ol ih€ Lona nounsNhich take the delinite sulfix /-8i/, there is a Kp€ìÌe cognãtervith a IinaÌ / !/ in lhe stem. lhis suggeststhât. in Loma, lh. consonântin tìre suriix fgilb€Ìones historicâìlyto lh. nour stem,ârd that tìrc defiÌ'itesulfix ishistoricalìy */-i/ ror all nouns;the.e is no noun classification re.onstructiblelor ân eârìier úage oÍ lhè lânguâge.Àppârenlìyâs the resuìtoi ân independentdevelopDcni, Loma seenslo favor th. sullix /'gi/ witl adoptedwords,e\en {ith ihosewhich haye iinal vowelsin the Ìanguages ot orignri suchwo.ds Nere p.esumàbl)trked ìrìto Lofrâ âlre. the lossoi the iinàl cônsonânt,$hen /-gi/ caN to bc recognized This is not to sã) that tÌ'e )íande Ìanguages sho{ no lossiblecognalêsoi ân) oI the frorphemesiDvohedin classsystemsìn other lânguâg.s. Thcre arc a lev liltely instancesot cognalion.but the norpheìÌes do not serle to dìilerenrìâte g.oupsol nounsinMande. At the ìevelol noünph.as€s,thereârc âlsoother parallels betseenrhe Mândelângüâgesând languagcswith nouDclas systems,but in of noun th. lorms of nounsas suchMandeappeaNto have ìosi ãll chârâcie.jstics classilicãtion.In ant case,rhe absênceol noun classslstemsin the lÍande langüagesÌ'as, oI couree,no bearingon questionsoI gen€ticÌelâiionshipo. .econstruction. The \Íãnde lânguâgesÍithoul. noun classcsremain âs much ^!ig€Ê
186
AFHrc^N L^Ncu^cE SÌnucruÀEs
Ko.dolânian as Englishvithoüt grammaticalgende.o. casedistinctionsÌemains Indo-Eúropeânând even Gernânic. 7.3. 'the Kordotânianlanguages hâle prefix-markednounclâsssystems.For the most pãrt. the prelixesâr€ consonântal,There are a number of singülarplural paiÌs, and they show somesemaltic correlationscloselypaÍaÌlelingthoãe lound in Bânlu. One pâir oÍ cÌasesis persÕMl;âlthoughthe pretixesdo not .esembÌelhe Bantu prelixes oI cÌases I and 2, similar âÍÍixes and pronounsare tound elsewhe.ein Nige. Congo. AnoÌh€r pajr of clâssesincÌudesterms loÌ trees and plants;in this casethe t.elixes, generauy/wt and /yr. areidenticalwith thê prevocaliclorms ol the secondâryconcordsfo. Bantu cÌasses 3 and 4, {hich aÌso includeierns lor treesand lbnts. fhere is âlsoâ lormaÌ similârity with Bantu in the clases which includeterns Íor t.uits. In addition to the paired clâsses, lhere js also â liqüid mâs cÌâs sjth th€ prelix h-/r there is evidenceoI a coF respondence betweenKDrdofaniãnh/ ând NigeÈCongo/m/. so tììat this lrelix may ültimately be Ìelâtedto Bânlu /hâ-/ for ìiquid masses. It is not clear Irom G.eenberg\Ìisting whether th€re are any duplicâtions âmÕdgKordotâdiâncÌàses;jt is posibìe. âs in Bântu, thât onepìurâl servesfoÍ more thân on€ singular. Greênb€rgât lêast lists eachsi.SulaÌ as pâüing with ã sepâratepìüral,ând on this basisKoÌdofaniânhasno le$ than t{enty{ive clâsses twelve pairs and the liquid mas clâs. Kordolanian also has coDcordindicated b) preiìxe${ith th€ âppropnate vords. Littìe infÕrmarionìs avâiìâbleon the forh. or the cxtent of the lünction, of conco.ds. It is known. ho{ever. thât concordsare usedwith ân âssociative norphen€ /âi, which is jdenticâlwith th€ Bantu torm. II Kordotâniânând Bânru âs â rep.esenlâtileof Niger Congoare indeedas distantly reìatedas Greenbeqbelieves,it $ôuÌd seemât tìis point tÌ'at protoNiger-Ko.dolaniânlÌad the samekind oÍ cla$ slstem. Evidencelromoiìe. NigeF CÒngolâng!ãges,hôNever,cobplicatesthc picture. Whãt do€sseemleasonable is thãt à fe{ prolo-Niger-Kordofâniân clâs âíixcs cân b. identitied specificâUy thoseior cÌases(by the numberingusedfor Bantü) 3, 4, 5, âíd 6a; Greenberg's inclusionol 6 is less.ônYincing. ?.4. In somelanguagesol the Kiva b.anch, singulaÊplu.âldisiinctioDsàre also marÌed by prefixes.which in most casesconsistoI a vowcl or a syllâbic nasal. Ther€ aÌe Iew tracesof concord,búl th. pretix systerìsthemselvescall Ior comparison{itl the mo.e complex noun clãssând concordsJstemsof the Bantu and oihcr languâges. ln Fânte, there are two prelìxeswhich lÌcquently have a tlurâl reterence. 'Ihe fi|ú ol these,â sylìâbicnâsãlhomo.ganicwith the lollowing consonânt,ãlso indicatesÌiquid masses,as /dÌbógyái blôod , insú/ 'wai€r', /ngú/ (lisúl) 'oil'. At this point, â conpârisonot this syllabìcnasalwith the Bântu preiix '/nE1 for liquid nrasses may seemspecious,but clidence from a number of other languageswill frâke such a conpâÌison signilicãnt. The secondPrefix which [re_ quently has a plurâl relerenceis /à-/ o. /èr, the chóiceol vowel dependingon a pervâsile pattern of voweÌ harmoDy. This preÍix is al$ used Íor nases and
Fun.rroN\' \\D v.cncr^L Nou{ C, \ss SvsrrNs
187
abstrâcts,âs /àbir/ 'time', /èbüró/ 'côrn', /àwìrèh(i/tadncs'. In addition, this lrelix is âìsousedvith singularreferencewith somenoun si€ús. Thc prelix ili Õr/ii, the choiceof vovel âgâin dependingon vowelhamont, Ì'es singuÌa..eferenceIo. a large numbe.ot semânticâllymiscellâneous non-personalnouns. This p.erix apl)eaFonÌy in clauseinitiâl position;it js d.ôppedif ânytling at all p.ecedesthe noun. Corespondingplurâls âre fôrmed sith the nâsâlprefix lór son,enouns,and with /à, or /è-/ Íorotìrers. Thus: ìhá, idúâ Ìdán ìkúr
a vehicle, 'â tree', 'â house,
pl.: pl.: pl.: pÌ.:
òhÉtr àdúa àdân èkú.
Anolher trelix, /ìF/ o. /ò-/, has singulã.reterencein rnostcases,but is âlso u*d for sômenôn-pìuraìizingabstracts. Most pe.sonalnouns have this prelix, thoughòy no meânsâll nounswilh this pretii âre personàÌ.This pr€lii alsoâp phrals â.e form€dwith leârs only in cìâuse-initialDosition.Again,conesponding plúral ÒI the two preliÍesEraÍnples either âre: pl.: pl.: 'ã stranger', pl.: pl.: 'a rat', a dog ,
rhbòdóm dìbònyid àhóhÚ èkú si
A third type oI singularhas no p.etix, or perhapsa ze.o trelixi oncènìore, bôth tlpes oi pÌurâl occu.: búüküú kÈtsi
'a book'. a thorn ,
Ànd rinallr, as noted abole, tìre prelix /à-/ or /è-/ may h.ve singulâ.âs well âs plrrâI, mâs, ând âbstrâctreference;both lypes of plürâl o.cu.. the second Íesultingin hoDophonysith the singular. E.9., àbúá èkütú
an aiimaì , pl.: 'an orange'. pl.:
ftbuá èkütú
Other Akan diaÌects,such as AknapeD Twi and Àsante,show sônc vâriation in the selectionol prefixesyith pârticularnoun stefrs,bül the oveÌall pattcrn oI p.etixâtion and pÌurâlizatior is closeÌysimilar. An int€restingdetail ií other dial€ctsjs the useoI two dilferentpr€iixesvith rhe sadc stem apart rrom pìúrãljzâtioniiú âddiÌion to lhe ììqüid nìâs /nsú/ 'wâter', Ìhúre is â noun /èsú/ Fânte displâysri.túally no evidenceof côncô.din nooí modilieN,and none in the pronominâlsyúem. Only one âdjectile hâs a difÍerentlorm vith llural than with sinSularnouns: ìdánk6r
'€ largehouse.
pl.r
àdánàkÈri
188
ÁFRrcaN LalcuÀc!
SrRUcruREs
All numerÀlsabove 'one'aÌso hâve the prelix /à-/ or /è-l, appeâringâItêr pÌural nounswitlÌ either tlural lreÍix; but the nume.al one' is ikúr/, *ith zero!ÌeÍix. ln oiher Akân diâlects,there is a fuúher trace ol concordin pronoDns;/r-l or /o-/ is a persoDalsingulaÌ pronoun. while is-l or /e / is imp€rsonal.In Fante, /ô-/ or /o-i is the oDÌythird peNonsingülarpronÕun. Fante (ând the rest of Akan) thus hâsfour prerixes,ir ze.ois included,which mâJ havesingula.rereÌence, and tvo (onehomophonoüs wiih odeoI the singularE which may hãle pÌurâÌ reterence.There is .o reÉularsirgular,llnÌâl pairing; a.y oi the Iour singuÌarprefixesmay be pâÍed sirh either óI the plurals. Some oI tìe p.etixessho con€ìateNith such câtegóriesás mâssand abstract. Com!âringÌhe Fântepr€lixeswith specilicBantutÌelixes andconco.dsproducesÌittle by way of convincingresults,but the lollowingâre someoí the mostlikeìy instâücesoI actual cosnationl
o, ài è (ssì à-, è- (pl.) (PÌ-) N-
1, 14 5 ? (úây be secoídâryin Akân) ? 2,6 10
'Ihe.e are a lery iew casesin Akân of pr€fixeshaÌing high tone. Iwo of lhèseâre in lhê deÍnoúsirâtive lorms /ánú/ 'that (one)'and /iyi/ 'this (one)'. Anolher is in the word /údi/ today . Pe.hals thesea.e conditionedby moÌphologì. subclassilication.In one other case,lúpúà/ 'bânana,bananas',a nasal preiix âtypicâlly has bolh singüla.and llural relerence;but this woÌd âppears only in the Fante dialect. There are âlso â few süllixesin Akan nouns, but they have a more cleaü derivâtionaÌiÌnction, and do not suggestân underlying noun classÊystemin th€yay tìãt the prelixesdo. À sullix /-lú/ derivcs,trom non-pe$naÌ noun stèm8 or Ircm rerb stems,pe.sonalnounswhich âre loÌ the most pÀÌt pÌurâI,typically indicatingmemb€Ísoi a classor occupation;such nounsnomãlly have the !rerix /à / or /è-i. À iew nouns çith this strIlix aÌe singula., nomalÌy vith the pÍ€fix i ì!/ or /ò-/: pluraÌsor theseârefoÌmed with /à'/ or /è-i. A surÍix /-nyi/ (the Fânte tô.m) derivesconespondingsingulâN lrom nâny ol the sãmestems,but aÌso irom a iew plurâìswith /-fú/; suchsingDlarshave the lrelix /ò, ôÍ /ò-/. Exânples ol theselomations a.e: òÍàírnyi 'iisìermân, pl.: àÍàFfú (presunâbly trom hâpsan old rom of /rà/ take ) òsilú 'ministeÌ, p.iest', pl.: àstIú (fron /sòi/
àpúJú-nyi kailor',lrom pl.: àpú{ú (r.om iìpúi 'the ocean'
F u\ LÌ 'o \^'
\ \ D V F s dur \ L \o ' \ C L \s s s ' " ,1 v \
189
The.e is als a süIlix /-núm/ in the tlurals ot somekinshipterms,oi the denonstrâlive /iyli this , and ot the nou! /òbí/ someonê';plurâlizâtionin the prefix aho is not iound in âll combinãtions.D.9., ònúá yìi òbl
'brorher', pì.; ènua-nun 'vife', pì.: yìi-núm 3oncore', pl.: òbidúm
A sulfix i-il or i i/, with â lexi.âÌly condiiionedallomorph.onsisÌingol thc iúúêdiàteìy pr€cedingvoweì with high tóne, d€rivesnounsindicâtingrhe tifr€, pìace.or circumstances trnderwhich someÌhinghâppens;the ì recedingsten muú be a veÌb, but that hàt be precededbI a noun $hich is lôgicállyeithe. the subject or the objcct oi the r€fb; everylhing precedingthe $úÍix hâs low tone replacingwìãteÌe. stemtores âre involled- Examplcssrel
àhè.'gìnà-i àbü-gwli àdrsà-á ètìÌ-di-i
t.aport, ãirport',lron /ihÉn/ '!eh'cle', /Ciná/ 'stôp' 'câÌD. contentmert', from /àbú/ 'iive. , igwì/ 'cool off' 'evenjng',írom /àdii 'Ìhings, /sã/ 'die asây' 'malaria'.r.om /èiiri 'hcad', /dì/ 'eât, consume'
Th€sederivâtionâlsufiixeshaÌe been brought into the pi.tur. in paú to give â luìler oütline of Akan noDinaÌ mo.phology,and iq pa.t becausesulfixes do enter into noun classsystemsin somelâúguâges, so thât ih€ qu.sÌion is wortì) râising in lhe caseof Àkan. In Âkan, howeler, {hat are undoubtedly\estiges ol ã on.e íDnctiÕnâlnoun cÌâssãnd concordsystemappearonly âs prelix€s;rhe solfiaesare in â diflerent categor!', 7.5. ID someother Kwa lãnguages io. cxâmpÌeYoruba and nany oI its closestrelatives,ând Igbo ând Elik-possible vesligesol a nounclas syst€mhave trequ€ntly not beenrccognizedâi all. Theselânguagèshâle no aliixâl plumli zation oI nouns,no concord,and lery littìe elseimrnedìatelyreDiniscentof functional nóun classsystems.Thereare sig.ificant featüresin thê st.uctDreof these ìanguâges,however,whi.h âre by aìl odds best explâin€din tÚms oi lestisiâl lr theselanguages, verb roots are typically monosyÌÌabic sith ân iniiiaì consonant:CV, or in lhe caseol Elik and someother languages alsoCVC. By tâ.lhe commonesltlpe oÍ noun tornâtion, ho{ere., is silh an initiâl vowetor syllabic nasal.VCv oÍ VCVC. Thus in Yoruba tvDical !e.bs and nouls are: lQ
go
Nouns suchas thoseon the Ìight hale commonlyb€en inierpretedas nonomorphemic noun roots. ThÚe is nÒ plu.âìizâüônãnd nothìng r€semlrlingconcord. Ho*ever, the very dilfereDcebetweenthe canoniclornrsof lerbs and nounssuggests,paúicuÌâ.ly in th€ ligìt oÍ the tunctionâl prelix srstemsof many othe. Niger-Kordolânianìânguâges, that the initial vowcls oi nounsâr. prefixes.
190
AFnrú^N L^NGL'ÁcE SrRUcruREs
This suggestionis greâtly str€ngthenedby occasionalinstancesof the sâme consoúâílvoweìseqoence, with reÌâtedmeanings.ãppea.ingwith diile.ent initiâl vowels in dilrerent nou.s- Thus Yoruba /ewé/ h 'a Ìeâf, ìeâves',lut /iwé/ is 'pâper,boÕk.educâtion, the semãnticlink being what even we in English câÌl a "l€1" of paper. Here a rcot /-wé/, which originaìÌyâppearedwith one p.efix tÕ meâí lêâl, hâsbeeúgivena difierelt prelix to lo.m a newnoun with â relâted meâning. SimìÌâ.ly,in Igbo /dìpi/ is 'horn of an âniDal', while /Òpi/is 'wind instrument.musicãlho.n'. Further Ìeinforcementis iound in the íâcì thât nôunsnây be derivedfrom v€rbsby the âdditiÕnol ân initial syllabic. Thus Yoruba hãs a ve.b /rò/ 'think', and a derivednoun /èrò/ 'thought,thinking'. and â nuhber of cómpãrablepãirs. Igbo has a verbal jnlinitive. wÌÌich itself hâs nominàl uses!lomed by a prefü /i'-i or /i' /, ând â number ol nounsderìvedIrcm verbs by otheÌ preÍixes;e.g.,
im ibü
àmá
'knowledge'
ting'
Efik h.s nunerouscaseslike the ve.b Ìoot ,&pá/ die ând thè de.ivednouns/Ìlkpá/ 'death' ând /àkpá/ 'â bequest'. Ii an addcdinìtiâl syllabiccânlôrm â noun frcm À verb as in the casescited, then it must be a prefix. By anaÌogy.the initial syllâbic tpicâl óI âìúost âlÌ nounsmây be inieÍpreted,at leastat the derivãtionâl level,as a lrelix, eventhough in many casesthe p.efix and noun stem are completeìy inspâ.abÌe norlhologicâlly. The Ìariety ol prefixes, ând the traces oI ássociitingdillerent meâningswith diff€rent prelixes,are unDistakablyreúiÍiscent of noun .lass systems. Ìn the lânguagesin questionhere,the noun prefües hâve no grânmaticâl function, but thei. uìtinâtè deriratiÕnfmm ã functioning nôun clâsssJúem is vi.tuâlly an dndebâtâbÌehypothesis. SuchobseNationsa.e, hopever,much Dore thaD an exercisein sleculâtive Ìeconstruction.They hâve to do with no.phene structure.and they shedÌight on ce.tajn rest.ictionsin sómelanguages-Ìn Yoruba, ior examtle, the vowel /u/ doesnot âppeârin nôun prefixes,thÒughthe Òthe.sia vo{eÌs do; in Akan, the.e is also nô prêfix /ü-/ ór /ü-/. Furthe., the tone of Yoruba nouú ?ÌeÍixe nây be low or mid, but not high. In I8bo, aìl lowels occuÌ as noun pÌelixes,âs well as a ìomoÌganic nasal;there are really only four vocaìiccomponentsin preIixes, since àÌternâtions bet{een two voweÌs ìn lÕur pâi6 are detemined by vowcl harnony. Each oi the lour vowel p.efixesand the nasal!ÌeÍix âppearwiú high or low tÕne. In nâúy câses,there is no wây of ãsc€rtâining whether the sam€ vowel with high ând *ifh Ìôw tÕnerepresênìsone or two prelix€, but there are â few detailsor derivationâlsigniiicance vhich, Ircm a compa.âtivepoint of view, are nothing short of cxciting. The vord lor 'tree' and the nâmesfor many trees have the prefix /ó-/ or /ó-l, with high tone. The prefix which derives leNotrâl agent noünsfrÒn someverbs and verb-objectphÌâsesis identical beroreâ v€rb steDÌwith lôw tône,but it hâs ìow tone, /ò-/ or icl, berorea verb stemvith high
Fr ! c[o \{L
{ \ D V r . r r ur \r
\o r \ C L \s s 5 ri fl r"
191
tone; ìry cotrtrâst{ith the prefix for tree nâmes,ihis peBonãlp.rlix Day bè ânalyzcdâs having lôw tônê in its underlyingiorm. TIìe paraÌlelis,nwitlÌ some ând ìn prôto-Bântu,isúunconcordsoÍ clâsses 3 and 1 in someBantu lãnguâges, ning. Also in lgbo, a numberol âbstrâcts,includingseleraÌdÚiled lrom !obs, hâve the loseì lì/ or /ui in the prelix (compareBântu cìass14),thoughthe tone is not enti.ely predictâble. ln Etik, pÌurâlizâtionis foünd $ith a sfrâll clâs ôl àdjectives. \ïith the nôun u.changedin rorD. /úsàn/ 'dish', compâre/óbútá úsàni 'â new dish'and /úbúfá úsàn/ 'new dishes'. Nor âI âdjectiveshave the samesingülarând llural pÌefixes;compa.e/ákánìèkürì/ 'aDold axe' and /íkánì èknÌi/ 'oìdaxes'. Theseadjectivesprecede th. noun in Efik. whìchis unusuâl-though not unparâlleled in Niger-Kordolanian.In Igbo, a numberoÍ appárenuycompa.ableÍo.ms âre ânâlyzedas noDns.ln Elik, ho*evê., they âre definjtelyadjectives;nounshale no llunl iorms, and conditiondiflerent tonâl alternationsin a followingnoun. Although this Efik patteÌn is hardly tlpical, it siill suggestsa noun-class system lurking in the background. 7.6. IÍ nàny of l.heGúr languàges, there ârê functionâìnoun clâsssystems, with singüla.-pÌu.aÌdistinctionsand ât leãst sone concord,but with a basicâlly suliixal rather thân p.efixal tvpology. In Senari,tor examtle, there are three singulaÌand thÌee plural noun clases,with regularsingular-plurallanine, and two classesindicating masses.The cÌases arc most convenientlyidentifiedby norphêúes whi.h nây be câlìed "identiliers"; rhey neãí 'it is â . . .'or 'thel are . . .'.' ExâftDlesilÌuúrâtinp eãchclâssare;
!ègélegeÌe
rJèlèI'
káràti In the ui class,somenounshaveâ linal syllablcwhich docsnot áppca.LJ€lore sutrixes, the cor.spondingpÌu.al suftix /-béle/;thesesyllablesmay be consìdered but therê ìs a laÌietv oÍ tìrem sevendille.ent suilixesÌecordedin a iotol oI €ÌevennounFso that no characteristicsingularsuffix can be cited. lew noun steús hâve jrreguìârâlt rnâdÌs in Ìhe plurâI. But moú nounsin Ìhis^ classhâle nosullixj the full singuìarform is usedbelorethe plurâl suflix. l hisclasinclüdes peBonaÌ nouns,some animal names,pe.hapsa iew oiher nouns of indigenous ori8in, and aU ideDtiliabÌyadoptedDouns.\itì the identirier/wi/ ând the suberions langnâgcsbâve som.lin though ll can hâÌdÌy bc sâld lhâl lhcy \lâbilìzc ânythlngi lbc In sonìeBDtu ìâÌ8urgcs, r sylìlble ,r addêd lô vhât Nould olhcÌv owing â gcnerd pâllcrn olavoid' t.g nonosylabi. {o.ds in som blc bss no Ìrcaning, IJut seNes heftlY tô nlkc tbe orììeÌ*ise n 'ttâbilirèa i3 well .tìosen-
192
LÁNGUÀGESrRUcruRDs ^rÂrcaN
jecr concord/u/ and oljecr concord/ú/. compâreBânìu */o-i (úsuqly iu-l Õr iwr) âs a clâss1 (singúlârpersonâl)cÒncôrdiind€€d,lhe/m/olthe conespoDdiígnoun pretix +/mo-/âppearsto b€ ân idnovâtionsithin Bantú, ìeâving./o-/ âs the pÌeBantu noun pr€iix also,parallelingâlso io-l in many Kwã Ìangüages.The coÍrespondirgplural clas in Senari,with the identilier /p€k/, hâs â Ngular nôun sullix j-béle/. witì theseând the subject ând object conco.ds/pe/ ând /bé/, cÕmpare theBantu class2 prefix and concord+/u /. In the *i clas, with the exceptionoI a ve.y Ie$ iÌregüìâr nôuns.all nôúns hare â sútfix, either iel oÌ /S/ plus a vowel. The choic€Õt consonantis lexicaÌly detrmìned, {ith âboút equal nünbers of nounshâling eacì. The voweÌ oI the sulliu is identicâlwith the linál voweì of the stem in the câseot /e. e, a. e, o/i àlter /ii, /i/ is recordedas the surfix vowel in somenouns,brt /€/ in others;simjlarly, atter /ui, /n/ is recordedjn somenouns,büt /oi in others. SoÌíe úêms occür in both tÌ'is and the {i cla$,eachwithitscorespondingpltrrâl;Ior suchnouns, âre âügnentâtire and the li'9s16classesare diminutive; tor exthe Ài-yi classes ample, /yá"é?e/ 'â lâ.ge aninãI , /yáwéle/ 'a smaÌl aíinâl'. With thè iri class sullix€sànd ideniifie., and alsothe concords9i and gl, cÕmpàÈth€ Bântu clâss plural clâssin S€nâri,vith tlìe ? pr€lix ând concordr/kc /. The correspondin€ regular noun identilier bi/. has a sullix consistingoI /yi plus the appropriate ro{eì; tor a Íe* nouns.a plural identilier /di/ and sufiix /rV/ is reco.dedas ân optionâl alternant. The.e is nÒconvincingparaìlelfor this plural classin Bântu. Ìn the li clas, aÌl nounshavea suttix,whichis /l/ plusvosel âiter oÌal vowels, lowels. N ith this suttix, th. identilier.ând the and ln/ plDsvovel alter nasaÌized conco.dsililaÍd ilil, coDparetheBantu class5 pre$x and concord*/li-]. The corr€spondingplurãl clas in Senãri,Nith the identiiier /gelÈ/,hasa regularnoün sur rix /-géle/. wilh theseand the conco.dsigel and igéi, coDpârethe Bantu clâs 6 concord+i/a-l; in pre-Bântu,*/2a, $âs almostsurelythe noun prelix âs well. In tìe !i clâ$, alì nounshale a suIlix, $ìiclÌ is /Ì/ plus !'osel. This cÌâssindicate$solid úâsses. Concordsscre not .ecoÌded. Very posibly this clas coÈ respondsrô Bântu 13.in {hich Ìhe pÌdix is'/to-/, and wÌìich includesma$ Íoüns in â nufrber ol languages. In the pi clas, aÌl nounshave a sullix, Nhich is /nt plus voÍel; becâtseof generalphonotacticr€úrictionsin the languâge.lhe vowel is /e/ Ìhere i e/ woüld be exp€cted,and /r/ sherê /o/ sould be €rpected. This clâ$ indicâtesÌiquid ma$ ses. CÕnparethe Bantu cÌass6a prefix '/frâ-/, {hich r€constructsin the same tom foÌ irÌe-Bantu. Eighi of the nine SenaricÌases thus have cÌearpa.aììelsis hardly too stronga word in Bântü. conespondences in rhe âboar,thereis pronominãlconcofdwith the noú class€s. As suggested !ìr eachnoun classthe.e is ã conespondingsubject,object,pose$ive, relâtive. aDd inte..ôgâtile concord. Except Íor most oi the subjecrand obj€ct concords, thesewere nor recorded,bui are known to exist ând to showformal similaÌities to lhe clâ$ identifieN. howeter, apS€nâriÌras no attributive concord. Àttributive constructioDs, peâr to be lúrgeÌyâ form oI compoundingof a nôün stem({ithout suffix) and â
FulcÌroNa-
a{D VEsrrcrÁL \oLN CLÁri Syrrru,
193
ve.b stem;the combinationlelongs in oneofthe nouncÌâsses, but not n€cessaril]' thât ôl the noun, and in somecasesa choiceof t*o o. th.€e clâssesis optional. In my eaÍlier treâtmentof SenaÌi (\\'elmers1950a).I did Ìndeeiìreler to siems occuringin âttributn'e consl.!ciionsâs"âdjectives",butthisshould beconsidered in the light of the facl that therewâsâ grândrotâl ot oneweekin shich to analyze as Ìnuch of the lãnguageâs posible and type thc mânüsoipt fof a d.súìpliôn ot the phonôlógyand most oi the morphology. In any case,conco.dmight at leesl be expectedwith the ti6t I've num.mÌs. but docsnot âppear. 7,7 Suppir€is !êry closclyrelated lo Senâ.i,though lhe t{o lângüâg€sare nuluâlly inleìligibìe;cÒntrãrytô my ihpr€ssiônìn 19.19,hôNerer,there is Dot a cìain of mutüally intelligibÌedialects.dÈcoteredìn l9õ7 on a visit to a small viììág€about wìrerethe languâgeboundaÌy was thousht to be, whde Americâú missionáries who hâd l€arnedS€nariãnd ôtherssho had l.ârned Suppi.eiound lhey couÌdall undeNtandconveGalionin the local dialect,and wereundcrstood, though the n'ssionâriescouìdnot communicateNjth eacholhe. in the lârguages 'Ihe noud clâssstst€m 01Sutpire is closelysimilã. to that oI Senâri.as vould be €xpect€d,but therearesomeìnterestingdiiicrences.Tììe semânticcorelâiions oI the cla$esâre far nore obviousând consisientin Senafi. IrÌ mân) cases,cog nate stemslall into one cla$ in Senâri.but iúo anothercÌa$ in Suppnc. (This hãs âlsobeennote.l to a lessererlent amongdialeclsoi Sena.i-) 'lìe iri cla$ ìn SuppÌe is somervhatmore.egular ihan in Senari;most nouns hrve no suiÍix, but a number have a sufiix consútiDgoi /w/ fltrs â rowd, *hich is deÌightrul Irom a compâ.aiiveÌ)oint ot yiN; a vo! les hâle a sulrix consislingoi /!/ pÌus vosel, shicÌì otìeõÌjse belongsin the lí clas. In the ti cla$, the commonsuilixes âre /-gvl aid /-!V/; lhe chôicebetweenthesois ler'câÌly determined,noi condìtionedb) the absence or presence oI nãsalizationithe.e are alsoa lew nouns Nith f tY/, ând severâìwith no suftix. In the li class,mànr nounshale th€ sutIix /-V/ identicalwith the sl.enfinal !owcl); othe6 hale /-rV/ or i ÌV/, lcxicall) determined,after oral loNeìs, and i-nv/ aft€Ì nasalizedvo{els. The plural correspondingto thc li clâs ìâs ihe idenliiier /iliâ/, ând thcrc js cotrsiddabÌeirregulariiy in the pluraÌ suilixes. 'Ì'he li classhas the sullixes /-dV/ and i-nv/, detenninedlcxically,ând the pi cla$ Iìâsthe $úiìx.s / nvl !nd, in on. rccorded càs€,/-bV/. All ol thn suggests Droreir.egularily in the slstem oi noun súllixcs pÌoto in Senrlo thân is no\Ltound in Senâri,but a táíÌt regulârâdd snnpl. concord slstenÌ. Someotlìer Gur l.nguagcsdisplat sÍnilar or eren greatcrÍregulaF A nunÌberol seÌsof iornÌsinvoÌvingconcordveÌc recoÌdedlor Suppire(aiter all. in spitc ol hâving to úàck the pe.versel)coúpìicâtednorphoionenics oi the language.I did hâve iour Neeksrâihcr ihan just one; seeNelmeB 1950b). 'Ihe* âre tabulatedin the six columnsbelow. Column (1) lbts the identitìeBColunn (2) gi!€s the concoÌdsfor subj€ct.objêct,ând pos*ssi\er thes€âreìdenli cal in theh phonemicshape,but thc object âDd po$r$ivc concordscondition certainmorplÌotonemicalternationFand noÌ thc sâmeones.eiiherl CoÌumn(3)
19.1
AFkrc^N
L^Ncu^ôE
SÍRUCÍúRES
ìisis remotedemonstratives,'thât. those'.vhich appearbeforenoünsithe noun also has a delinite suÍtix. Column (4) lisÌs denoíúrâtive cÕpulâlivepârticìes, usedlike the identilie$ aÍter â noun,with the meaniry 'that is a . . -, ÌhoseaÌe . . .'. Cohunn(5) lists atlributile int€nogâlir€s,usedâlter noünswiih the meâning '*hich. - .? . Colunn (6) lisls independentor noninal int€rrogatives, meanine which one(s)?'with relerenceto â noúú ol thê appropriateclass. For most of the cla$es.the concordialelementin aÌÌ ot ihe* lorns is cleârlyidenticalwith or closelysimiÌar to tìe identiÍieÌ. ln the Di clâ$. hopever (and wouldn't you know that ihat is shere ir.€güìâritywoüìd showup?), /Ìl/ ôr /Agi âppeâs in âddition lo /u/âs a con.ordmôrDheme.
0) wi
(?) u
(3) ìeé
yi li tyi
i li tIi
ììyó nné òtyi
ri
1ì
ntè
(4)
(5)
(6)
u!ce kúÌlke
ly'ntyiá
Iü conne.tionwith BaDtu noun classand conco.dsystehs,il sas nÕtedthat eàrh singularând câch plnrâl clas must be treâted s€parately,sinceneither all singtrlaBnór âll plurah haveany comDon.ecurrentleãtur€. Ihe regularpâiring or siDgularand pìurâl clâssesin ìãnguâges likè S€nâriând Suppiremakesit po$ siblc to usê llìe rem cìass" ãs I orginâlly did, though thqt wús bêIo.e I Lnew anything aboui Bântu-lor â singuÌâFpÌrüâlpâir. À dctail in the abovetabuÌãtion givessomesuppoú to sucha t.eàtmenli in the last two columDs,the sitrgüìâr ând Deutralio.ms arc châracterizedby concordsvitl low ton€, shile the plurãÌ lorms âre characterizedby concordswilh mid tone. ?.4. Very similâr noun classsystcmsare Íoünd in lhe orlìerSenuiolaDguages in rhe northch lvory Coast,DyimnÌi and Palâra. Àt the soüthw.sternextreúe oI the SenâriEìeakingar€a, }owever, there is a remârkâbìt divÚgent diâlecl. ln the cours€oI â dialect survcy condu.tedby thê MissionProtestântein 1957, \Ìe d€cidedon ihe basis oI ÌexicaÌsimilarity to conside.it â dial€ct of Sená.i; âlrhÕughwe had no opportünilJ to mâke a careiullycont.olledstudy, it âppeared that the spee.hoI that areasould by and la.ee be mutüâlly int.lligihle with lhe major diaìecrs. OnlI tvo singülârnoun clases were reco.ded,however,the ui qnd ki clasfs, ârd neilher oI the neutral cla$cs; everythingother than the t)i cla$ has coÌlàpsedinto the ki cìas. The statusol plu.àls is not recalled,but we certainly got thc jnpressiÒnthãr Ìhe dial€ct bâ.ely made it into the categoryoI noun clâsslanguages, Belore leaving lhesefâscinatingÌân8uages and pleasâDtmemories.an âsid€ is in order ón lield techniquesând nãtile awâreness oI languagesrÍúclure. the woÌk on Senârisas dÕneâlicr two or three $eeks ol sÕrk on SuDDire,and ât
Ë u {L rro \\"
\ ND v Ls c !Ár N o u \ l .ra \s 5 \s l , $ !
195
l€aú the e$entiah oI the clâs srsieú ol Suppirehad beenrecognized.The impressionât that tine $âs thât StrFpireând Senã.iwcrc mdcly dift .dnt di.lects oÍ a single"Senufo"lanÉuage.Às $c sât down i.o beginwork on SenaÌi.I told jn English.that I Nântedtirú to checkfor noun cla$ the oìseraingmissionaries, ses. The seniormissionâry,who had made somehâphazaÌdeÍIoú tÕ leârn the langüâge,askedwìât I meânt,and I cxplâinedthat I was lookingior something â little like the gendersoÍ French. Hc imnediâtely .èpliedthat therewas nothing like thal in the langüâge. I askedhim how he knew, and he sâid h€ hâd âsk€d our infoÌmânt, BefoÌe I coúld stop him, he addressedthe inlormaDtin F.ench ând âsliedagainiI the.e were noun gcndcB in Senâ.i. The inlornÌant, Nho had prÒbâblyhad little moÌe tìrânâ yea.olto.úâl educãtion,saidno; neeas certainly right iD .ecognizingthâl therewâs no grammaticaldilrerenceb€tNeenthe {ofds lor 'mân'ànd 'woman'. I managedto gct the subjectdropped,and stârted$ ork. I ii.st €licitedìwÕ nÕunswhich I had Iound to be in tìe ai cla$ in Suppúe.Nith the identitier,and then tNo I tÌuíed would be ìn the Ìi clãssithey Nere as expected, I then àskedfor s noun I expectedto be in the ki class. It was, but beioreeversâyingit the inlôrhant said.in IrÌench,"Oh, Doq I seewhat you nean. Yes, {e hàve live things like gendeBin ny languâgel" He cleady regardedsinguÌâFpllrâl pâirs as single gende6, Nìrich is eniirdy underslàndãbl€,but ìhe remarkâbìething h that he {as conpl.tely asâre oi thh structural charâcteÈ istic ot his own Ìânguage,ând djdn r have to stop to count cÌases. ln other respeclsàs well. he showeda remarkablcSprdc,l'riisens.,ldlsreli;,i1. 7.9. Bariba is a Gur lânguagcìrv no ntèânsclosclJrelatedto the Senulolanguâges,bui with à remarkâblysinilar noun clâsssystemGe. Nclners 1952â). 'Ihere ãre six singüla.o. n€utralclasrs ând tour brsicâlly pìurâl clásses. t*o ol which includesomemas üounsând â tes singulaN. The classesare most convedentìy rel€fed to by their ìndependentpronominalconcords. 'lhe ui class incìudesalÌ singular pcreonaÌnouns, and a tew ifrpesodal nouns. Stemslound basicãllJin rhis clàsshave no suiliÌ, but stemsfrom other clasfs may take a sulÍix /gi/ indicalìnga Frson or o$ner,and then lall into this cla$. In all othcr clases, apâú trom one Ìninor no.phophonemicalternatìoD, lh..c âre id€ntical.oncordstor the subjectol the conrcutile" verbal conúNction and Íor objcct. ln ihis cìâ$ alone,thesèconcoÍdsare dirterent:subject/ü/ and object lìrün/ shâdesof Bâniu I lmpesonal nounsìn this clâssdo not hâÌ. pìurâlcounterpàrts;ther includewords tor 'the sun'. 'the moon'.and 'iire', PeÈ sonalnounspâir $ilh à pìural ú,) clas, and are lormed sith a suitix /bu/i e.9., /s€su/ sister',rrl. /sesubui. ln the sìngulartl class,nosr noúnsend $ilh â back vo*el, bur ii most cases thefinal voweìh'nciionsas partol rhesreú. ThereâreâfÈçjfegulâ. plü.âls,but ot€r hâlf lhe nounsin this da$ have pluraìs the Àl cÌass.vith a noun suriix 'n remainingnôüúsin thê ri cìâ$ inu/i e.S..ibòo/ wâter jâr', pl. /bòonui. The have llurâls in th€ í clâs, with à noün suUix /súii ..1.1., /boorol 'o{ì , pl. alsoinclüdeâ DuÌnberoi massnouns,ând a re{ /boorosu/.The ní ând ri cìasses
190
AFRrcÀN LÀNcu^cE SrRUcÍuÂEs
The singulaÌgi classis tìe largeú clâs; it inclüdrsã nunber oI animâlnãmes, but ãlso mâny inâniúâ1ènoúns. Nouns ir this clâs generâllyhâve linal iâl, shich in most casestunctions as pa.t ol the stem in tìat it is retainedbeÍore nodil'e$. Tlis classpairs regularlysith a plural Jl class. Singula.ssitÌr linaÌ sinsìe/â/ hâre plürâls *ilh linâl /i : /bàrâ/ a stick', pl. /bàri/. SinsuÌâresith linãl double /ââ/ ìâve plurah vitì finãl hElr /waâ/ 'a snake',pl. /wgs/ (an exhâüstile treatment müst aÌso incÌüde stâlementsconcerningtone). SingulaÌs endingwith other vówelshâveâ plu.al sufíix /-bà/: i fjràtòt 'â bâ9 , pl. /fàôtàbà/. Thereare alsoa le\' Ìregular plu.als: /guwA/'a chicken, pl. /guwë/. The lé clâssis reguiaÌ; aìl nounsin it have the sufiix /-rn/- Plü.als are in ih€ nl clâs {jth the sullix /-nuj. E.g., /biréru/ 'â basket'.pl. /bi.énu/. -Ihereis â pl clas shich wâs discoveredand repoúedto me by ìêtte. some months âlte. Dy one month oI resea.chon Bariba; I hâre no recordof spêciilc Dounsin this class,and even the independentpronoDiDalconco.dlorm has not The ni rl.s, {ith s}llabic /-hiâs the nôunsuffix,includesGhalì*e âÌÌ sy it in unircn?) liquid masss; e.g.,/nim/ water', /gum/ oil . As in Dãny languages, "ìiquid nases" include somenouns likê 'sând'ând 'dirt'(in Sêna.i, also the *ord lor 'populâtion,inhâbitants'); a more generaldescriptionoi suchnounsis that they indicate substances which take the shapeol the containerinto which they ar€ poüred-elen a populâtionis containedby naturâì obúaclessüch as mountanN, rive6, and swamps,ãnd by neighboringpopuìÀtions. In Bariba, the né ciassincludesalso lhe Nord for 'language. /bàrüí_V. The appeãÍance oÍ th. liquid mâsssüflix as â syÌlâbic]n/ in Bâribâ (and severâìolher languãees) stÍcngrhensth€ casclor recôgnizingthe hoDorganicnãssllrcÍix tor liqúidmâsses iD Àka. as a .eflex oI the sameaffix. There is attributire concordin Bâ.iba. Noun suilixes oi the shape/-CVi, and in â tew cases/-Vi, are droppedb€loremodiliers,ând âÌ l€âú sone modilìeB can salelt be caÌledadj€ctires. Someadj€ctivesâÌe cleaÌly derivedlrom veÌbs, and somehave correspondiÌgnomi'Ìallorms; h the latter case,th€evidencesugg€sls thát the nomi.al forms ãre derived from the adjectiÌes mther thân vice ÌeNa. Irost attributile adjectivesusethe app.opriatenoun suffix; e.9., gé yé tè ni si mÉ
rgünã : duma i biréru I birénu : sirúsu : yam
abüd a hoNe 'a bãsket' baskets pots' space
a ìig bird
'big pots
Someadjectiles,or at leastNords trsedattr'butively in nuch the sãn€ wây, have â clas of uteir oNn. singúlârând pÌrral, sìich .eúãins the sâfre alteÌ all nouns- Suchlorfrs àrê Íècórdedin the gd and li classes:/pibu/ 'smalÌ', /tòkãrú/ 'oÌd. lhere are aho a lew invariableâdjectiveswith foÌms shich âr€ not chaÌqcteristicôÍ âny clas, âs /Ìereré/ 'úàÍrow'.
E u N cl ro NÀ L Á ND V r . r r c r^ r
\o ' r C L \s c S y s ,, M s
t17
Attributive concordalso âppearsNith the nufr€râl for 'on. , ÕÍ vhich the sten is /teèr, but not $ith ìigh€r numÊrals.The lact thàt â rcN nôunsii rhê nl ând í clases are singulâr is âltesled by the tolloNingi in the second,ihe noun stemhasa firal /n/which do€snol app.ârbciorethc nounsulfix, and which hâs the alternant /n/ belore/t/: ni sú
: gbÈzenu : tasu
cucumber r_âm
The âìtributive concÕrdsuliixes,as notedabove,ã.€ idcniicâl sith lhe Doun suffixes. Às suggestedby th. indcp.ndent pronomnìâìconcordsby which lhe clases haÌe b€enidentificd,conco.dswith otber ihan adjecii\ts aDdthc nunüaì 'one have difieÌent loms- The secondart concôrdsâre uscd ro lorm largely monosyllabicsubjects,objects,posessives,relativÊs,.nd demonslratnes and probably, though not recorded.interogatives. The fo.egoingestablishes, Òl course,lhal lhe distinclion b€hveenprimarl concordand secondaÌyconcordnoted lor Banlu in the trecedingchapt€ris ÍaÌ mo.e widespread.Tìe full cxtcnt oi it is not knovn, but iis 8pp.arânceü both Bantu and Gu. suggcústhat it is quite en ancicDtdistinction. 7.10. LâígúãgesÒI rhe Àdâúasâ-Ëâslernbrânchôl rhr Nig€r-Congo lamilJ are not consideredin âny detaiÌ here.for lack ot ân)thing but tìre most nininâl persÕnalexperience {ith them. Greenberg(1963,19{j6).ho{ever. notestììat the Adamawa ìanguages in pârticular, ând ât leâst someoI the ËasiernÌânguâg.s, hâre pâirs or singülarand plural noun classesmarked b) slfrìxes, Ìike the Gur languagesjusl discused.3 He pôìdc oul numerôuspârallelsNith BaDtu nÕun prelixesin botÌ' th€ lorm and tìe semãnticconelatesoI Àd8ma$â Eastcrn sul lixes. At leastsoDeiorms or concordare alsoattested. someÀdama^lthoügh {a-East€rn languageshâve no phtralizâtionând iew othcr vesiigesôl â clâss system in somecasesapparentlyIeser than, for example,Yo.uba aD original cìâs syst€mis d€Iinit€Ìy €stabììshedIoÌ the bÌanch as a whoÌc. ând cxtensi!. ând tunctioning clas syslemsremain ìn a nudler oi contemporar!lânguâgês. 7.11. Th€ pr€lixaìnoun-class,vúemsol thc Bantu ând nany oÌherlânguâges, Ànd the suilixaÌ systemsoI many of the Gur and Adama{a Easi$n languagcs, thus showa Dumbe.of reDa.kabÌesimilarìtiesin function aDdtorm. It ìÌat still seemnysì€rious,lÕ be sur€,lhâl prefìxâlând suttixâlsFtcdìs cóuldhâve â.ommon histoÌicaloÍigin. In spil€ of th€ simiìarities,to say nothing of â sìgniiicânt number ot lexjcâl similâritiesas $eì1,not elerlone is conlincedthât th€ prelix marked clas languagesând the súlix-mârked classlaneuâeesdiscussedin the foregoingseciionsare g.neticâìly relâled âl áll. Prrhaps ii. ÍiìÌ be eâsierto ac cept this possibiìityafter exâhining t\ro lery closetr.elâled lxnguãg.s.perhaps even diaìecìsol the sâne lânguag€,$hich displãJa someNhatsimilar dìIle.en.e in st.ucture. Theselânguãgesor dialectsa.e .lukun (Nàrt) ând.Jukun (Dìyi). 3 Nhen *ririn8 \Yernìe^ r9?1â, I had rolgolrcn ând dnt ror haÌrprn td ìotj& cÌccnber(r roncols ihrtressionthat the Adânrâ\Íâ-Ìjaídn langtrâgtssììoN
t9E
ÀFRrcN L^N.uÀcE SÍRúcÍuRÊs
'Ih.r. ar r'o lun-ionsl noun !lssss in.rlher \Ààpáo. Diyi, Ihere i. nô Do.lìologic plurãlizâlion- Ther€ is nô cìeãr-cutpattern oi deriving nounsÍÌom ve.bs by âtlixes, as hâs b€€n noted lôr severâlother languâges.Yet th€re are alfixes which hìnl slrônglJ at a vestigial noDn clâsssystem,in somewhatthe sâmê*ãy âs hasbcenarguedlôr Yoruba ând someoihèr lângrages.l he remarkablp lhing rs Ihal lhe aiÍi\esare p'eirxesi0 lVàp;lDut:ufirresin Oiyir Írrther. they shos no obviousÌesembìance tú eachother, nor any parâll.lismiú their occumencervith târticuÌar nouDstems, In 4.1819.â numb€ror nounsìverecited from wâpã, eâcholthem b€ginnine *ilh â lowel shich âppraB only ií phrâse-initiâlpositiod. The Ìôwel is /a-/ (sith mid ton€) IoÌ the largemajoÌity oi suchnouns,but /à-/ (with low tone) io. sorne. No word in âny morphoìúgiccìâs oih€r thân nounsbeginswith one oÍ theselowels (thoügh numeralsbeeinwith /á-l). TheÌe are sme nounsoftwoor more syllablesthât do not Ì'âve an initial lowcl. but the st.uctures/aCV/ ând /àCV/ áre cleárlybãsictô lhe lângtrâge.Verb stemsãre unilÒrúly monôsyllâbic, vitl the strücture /CV/ (a singleverb /vini/, indicating completionoÍ en action, is undoubt€dlr âdoptedfrôm Pidgin /ini 'finish'). Thêsetãcls âìÒúêúâke it âppar€nt thât i a-/ ând /à-/ in nounscan be anãlyzedas prelix€s,though they hâv. ônìyinphraseno grammâticâìIu íclion. Althoughlherocalic conpÒnentâppeâN initial position,the tvo p.efix€saÌe diÍte.entiâtedalter mid or high tone by the rercntionol th. loN tÕd. of /à-/. âs notedin 4-19. \thâl âppearsâÍter the prelix In Diyi, there are a gr€at many cognateroots, but oDìy a veÍy lew nouns consistofsucÌra rootaìone, (Theoneswhich do aretapicallykinsìipterms, çhose equivaleDtsin â Bsntú languagemigÌrtNell belongin class1a sith À zeÌo prefix.) In 4.20,tso suriixeswe.e recogDized.The lirsl ÒI thesehâs the âlloúÕrph/-.à/ sfteÌ oral vovels, and /-nà/ aiter nasalize.lrosels- Exampl€swith obvióusWàpA ÌVap.ì
DíUi
âdyi
dyirà
Thc s€condNiIi\ recognizedin Dìyi consistsol lo$ ioíê, realt.d âtter mid ol the preor high rone âs the terminus of a ÍalÌing glide,without leDgtheDing âfler ÌÕ{ tone, but mày be Ìeceding!o{el; thjs sulrix has no ove.t reatization cognizedas p.€*nt in the deepstrrcture oI most Donosyllabicnouns{ith lÕw tone (excelìtingposibly ã iew kinship tdn9. r"ounswith cognaterooìsin Wàpã
F Lq l crro \^L
^ND
V E s c r^ L \o ^
199
C L \s s S \s l v s
dví' dyé' dvi
'Iish
À sDall nlmber of nounshâle â suttix consìstingof /t plus lh€ tinâì Ìoçel ol the st€m. with Iow tone. All nounsrecoÌd€dwith this suiÍix alsohâve stens with Ìov tone. E-g., dìri
FinâlÌy,a very few nounsappeario have nhcelÌaneoüssüttixesin Diyi. The suffixesdesGjbedup to this point were identìÍied as süch on puÌely internal g.ounds;these,oi wÌ'ich th€ foÌlo{ing arethe only Ìecordedexamples, wereanalyzed âs suÍÍixesonly alte. compâ.isonoÍ the \'àpâ datâ: àdò
sikà Somenounsin bothNàpã ând Dìyiìâ!e òâsesof l{o or nore syllâbÌ€s.Mâny oÍ these are probably compoundsoÌ adopted {ords. For the nost part, such Dounsdo not hale suflixesin Dìyi. Howerer, the.e are a tew comtoDndslike tÌ'e foìlowing.in which only the lirst memberlosesits suriix: tânà
house, kirà
'nashedfood': lãkirà
kitcheí
Thereare sometenuoustracesoI sufiixationin tìe d€ÌivationoI nounshom verbs,sÕmewhât noÌe in wàpÀ than in Dì)i. À tew nounsappearto be retated to verbs,but hâve â difiercnt ÍinaÌ voweÌ. Two of the* are coopouíds wiìh /bu/ 'thing, possesioí'âs the lirst component.Thus, inwàpã, /tsa/ n a verb meaning 'do. perform'; the de.ìved noun is /butso/ work . That ihis js a câseoÍ d.ri yation is more evidentwhen tle Dìyi rormsare compared:/sa/./buso/. Àgain in \üàpã, /dyi/ is a v.rb meaniry 'eât'; the derivednoúú is /budyu/ 'tood'. ln this câse,Dìyi doesnot show the vow€Ì chânse:/dyi/, /budyi/. For the Íünction of /buí in thesenouns,comparewàtã /atti/ 'head', /butyi/ 'hat'. In ìoth Wàpã and Dìyi, ìhereare mâny phraseswhich.onsisÌoÍ â v€rb with â cognateobject,as irlgo/ 'be tough', Wàpã /Ìlso Ìgói 'be ânsry'. In ât leastone suchphrasea deriÌation by roweÌ changeis round in \ïàpã, and by Ìowel change
200
LÁNcuÀcË SrRúcruREs ^FrtcÁN
and sulÍix in Diyi. This is, in Wàpã. /dal 'hit', /da do/ 'be sick'i in DiÌi, the Ìerb inâ/ 'ìie do$n'is usedinstead.and the phra* is /na dom/. The only vesligêof concordis that Duneralsiú both Wàpã and Diyi have a lrelix /á-/. After nouns,ìhe vocalic componentof this p.efix doesnot appeaÌ, but its tóne is retainedalte.low or hid: cf. 4.19There is no convincing case of a noun âtlix resemblinga clas affix in other languagesvhich hâle been discussed.Yet the veÌy existenceof such affix€s sith noüns, but nothing compaÌâble{ith lerbs, suggests that we âÍe deaìingh€Ìe with a lestigiâÌ noun cÌasssystem. Kutep, wìich *€ns to be one ol the cìoserrelâtivesor Jukun on the bâsisof l€xical evi.lence,has s ruller and functional noün clâsssystemi pr€tix ma.ked. .âther similâr to the Bántü systems. Yet within Jukun, Nc tind thê v€stigesof noun cÌasks markedby pÍÈ fixes in onelanguagcoÌ diâìect,but by su{fix€sin ihe other. 7.12. Sône ìight mây lerhaps be shedon this phenomenon Irom a still more closeÌyrelatcd lânguâge,Tjgolg. for which suÍIicienlerâúpìes hâ\e beencit€d in 4.25. The nameof this lângüâge,ãs urd by its o{n sp€akerc. wâstransc.ibed. perhapsnot eniir€ìy .ccurately,as [ménbë]; it hâs beenreleúed to âs ltbembe, but lhere is quite â dille.ent languag.aìsocâììedMbeúbe somedistanceto the southvest. NesteÌDann and B.yân (19á2,pp. 141-142)cite a rer Ioms Ircm what they câUUbenbe, shich are clearìyfÌom the samelânguageas ouf T'gong, thoughtôssiblJ Irom a dilÍerenl dialect. They statethat nóun pluralsarefôrúed "by cìângeot linâl voNel,. . . by changeoftone,. . . and b) larìous other neans (never,however,by P.efix)." In our dàtâ, howeler, a very few nounsin the singDlarhavea lowel prefix,bDt virtually everyplu.al hasa preÍix,which is usually /è-/ {wjth the next-to-hig}esttone in a discreteìelel systemwith fou! levels), büt in â lew cãses/é:/ with a tonc falÌing lrom the neir h-highestìevelto Ìow). -{t leastâs manv pluruìsare lormedwith pÌelix alonees in any otherway. Voweì changesand tone chang€sâre âhô invôÌved in many pl!.als, but we find no "various ourer meâns",though our data are not extensiÌe. Vowel substitution most commonlytakes ihe Íorm of â iront vovel in the plüral replacinga back vosel in the singular,though â number oI othe. replacements are alsorecorded, 'Ihe in most ol them only onenoun€âch. conmoneú tonaÌ repìacmeni is a tone oneúeP hi8ìÌerin the plural thán in the singularia sccondtypc is ã ton€ onestêP lo{er in the plural tÌ'an in the singuÌa.iand insomenounsthe plural and sirgular havethe sametone. (For erânples, see4.%.) It would seefrlhe mÒstlikely hypothesisthat thè voweìand tone replacives in Tigongpluraìsare morpÌrophonemic aìt€rnationsconditionedby sutiixeswhich no Ìongerappearoveúlv. In somecases,it is po$ible that the plural Íather thân the singuÌarrepresentsÌh€ baseform- It this hypothesisis vaìid, tìen the âncestofoi node.n Tjgóng at one time had ã numberol singulârând pÌural types coúparableto noun clases. vilh at least sone types or class$ marked by bôth prefi! ând sullix. This would presumablyhave been the cáseâlsô in Jükun, vhich is .ather closely.elâted;lroú srch à system,wàpã Ìoú âll suilixesexcept Ior a few trâcesin noDinalizations,ând Diyi lost all prelixes(though nunerâls
Fr\crroN\L À\D VLsÌrcrÀL ),r"rN C!Àss Srsr!!^
201
rêtâin â prlix). Regulãrphônóloeicchânge the simplclos oI âÌl linaì or inilial oI Ìhd p..scnt sitrâtioD. syìlâbÌesor vowels-is p.obablythe simÌrlestexplanâtiÒn P€Ìhapsthisis a goodpoint at whicì to mentiona detãiìNhichis particulârly iascinâting,thoughby itseli it is ha.dl] enoughto pÌoveân]th g. In Kru,vhìch is a long distanceâ*al lrom thcs. lânguages in Liberia,a numbÚ ol pllmls hâle a lront vowel corespondingto a back voweÌ in the singuÌaÌ. One oI them (and the onlv ÒneI recaììl.om extremelylinited €xposur€to lânguagesol rhe Krü group) is the word ior 'tree', singular/iúi and rrlural /tii. The pluÌaì rorm, ol coursc.is ìike the extremelywidespreadl1 ãs the rÕotlôr 'r.ee'thrôugìroutDost of NigeFcongô. Let us sutposethât the vosêì àlternàliônin Kru hàd lo do {ith a sufiix or sufiixesoncepres€nt, Let us Íuúher iutpse that the sullixes*e.e historicâlly the sâm€moÍphemesãs thosê rell€ctedìn cómmonBrntu pr.Íixes used*ith the sâme.oot: singuÌarmü/ì, plural nili in many languâges, Nith lhe conco.dstr ând i. No{, the m of theseBânt! p.€fixesis thought by som€tsr i tuists, and by myself, to be ân innovâtiÒnsithin Bantu; ihus the orìginal 'noF phem€swerc mo.e like tr ãnd i, simply ro$€ls. As sutlixcsid ltrü, they sould hâvc yjeldedlormsÌike *lÊ! and *ti-i (th€ tonenI the snffix is trnkno$n,olco(rsc). Thet, by assiDilationto the vo{€Ì of th€ suflix. the forms rÌould hãve become +fti ü ând *11-i,ând linalìy. as today, /tú/ and /til. Someteople m.t teel lhaÌ this deiailis loo lÈnúouslo botherNith. It may heh tô nÒleihal, sere.aÌmonilÌs alteÌ writìng the Íorcgoing,I leâmed(from thc Rcv. JohD Duitsman,peFonal comnÌunicâtion)and am nos able to add that sufiix-mã.kedclãsssvsl.ÌÌs aÌc atteúed in the K.u ìanguages, and that in oneot then, Kwaa, the Nord lor'l.ee is singula. /ti,, plural /tti/l Desoiptilely wìich h our major concernherc the nominâlsystemsol lheselânguâgesal ìeâí seemtâr more râtionâI.and are nore readily subjectto satislactoryânalysis.in the Ìjght ot the lunclionãl doun clâssslstemsof othe. Ìanguages than they Nould ne *ithoüt strchlight7.1s. Oie night now ask qhethe. botìì PeÍixes and suttixesâl,peà.âs clâss úarkeN in âny languagesthat have actuallt Iuncriôninenoun classãnd concord slsten$. Tìì. ansqerc€úainìy appeaNto bê âlfirmâtilc il Nc consid$ a group oI Gu. languâges includingGourmâ. l he GouÌna examÌrlesgilen hereare taÌen lrom Zwernrmânn(196?,pp. 75-97),ând tonc is not markedlor all oI them; ho*evd, trom somesix da)s of rield soÌk on GourDâ in 1948,hon vhicìr I now have no notes,I cân conlirn lhat lorms sucìras thesea.e tvpicalGourmâhasat Ìeastsix singulaÌand six rlural clâses,plus a cìsssrof liquid mases. One pair ol clases h pe6oMl, ând other clasrs indude âugmentâiilc and diminutivereferences, like so Ìnany other NigeÈKord.fâúìanclasslanguages. Each clâssir úârked by a pr€fix and a sultix. 'Ihe pÌefix and sullix à.. ideniical in severâlcâses,ând similar to eachother jn rhe r.sÌ, FoÌ example,th€ singulâr peBonaÌclasshss a pretix o âdd â r'ariet) of sullixes,mosl oi thcm endingNith -d. Thus, $jtÌr a sufiix {õ, ihe.e is d-nÈió 'â nân'. Lì ihe corespondhg plurâl cìass,the.omnronesl,patrernis a p.efixòi ând a $úfix -òa; the plurâl ol ó Ìì_ló is óiniD.i. (ODcsondeF iI thc root in this pair cotrìdnoi be anaìyzrdas -n,r, {ith lossol I belorc consonânriniliaìsuttix, and whetherâ coútârâbÌc ânàÌysis
202
AFkrc^!
LÁNcu^cE SÌRlcÌuREi
corld núl be appliedro frâny other nouns,simpliiyi.g rhe attix systcmconsideF âbìy.) In lorn âs seìl as relereíce,oI couse, theseaftixesareÌeminis@ntof the Bantu clases 1 and 2. ând oi pesonâÌ alliÍes in mâny other languages. Ànôtlersingülar classhasa preiix tj- and a suffix ìt the corespondingplürâl has í- and -i. E.g,, nJÍìmri a hoÉ , Ilu.âl l-l{ìn-l; conpâreBântu cìasses 3 and ,1. Another singulâ.cias hasa prelix ótr-ând à süUix-Õx;the corespondingplurâl clas has a prefix a and a suffix -i or -di. E.g.. òr-liótr 'â trêe', plüral ilidi, with the lamiÌiaÌ root ti foÌ 'tree'. \ïith the sâmeÌoot, there are âlsô lrü-li{u 'foreú'. plual ii-li-di, and ÌÈii-rd a smalìtree', plural mniimu. In the liquid ìnãssclâss,thè prelix is mi ãnd the sullix -na, as in ni-nÌlima 'qãt€r'. â somewhâtdifierent ana)ys'sof thN data Gee -A.ndróProsl has süggested z{ernemann 1967,Ì. 95). Hc sâysthât Gourmânounsas suci consistor stem anÍl sullix onlJ (as in other Gur langüaeet,and that whlt has heÌe be.n called à prefix is rathcr a concordiâlprônounpreliaedto the noun form, jDdicâtingdeIiniteness. lt {ould nót be the lirst languãgeby any neans in which nounsare commonlr cited in a delinite lormi this has beennotedin Mende,and it is olten doncin KpelìeNììenan intormâniis askcdto repeâiâ noun ând onecaninâginê the iÌüstration oI êârly untrâi.ed leaÌnêrsshen lhey askedIoÍ ân equivâleúìoÍ 'ricc (cookcd)'ând heaÌd somethingresenblinsEqlish òaá(/6,í/),then âskedto hare it said agãin and heârd sômethinglike English as (/òái/)ì the informant was nerelJ taìking about the Ìice alread) m€ntìonedl Pe.hapsthe úatus ot lhe âpparent preIixesin Gouma cannot be deÍinit€ly wttled ât present,but it remainsa t,ct that Gôürmanounsâ.€ cited in loÌms like thosegiven above,and I do not recaììr.cofdirg, cven in a vâ.iety oi tâirly simpÌesentences, any torm Incidentallt, the anount or rcgmentaÌrednndancl in a larguage such as Gôurhâ mâr_hâve a signiticantdÍect on the .ãse oÍ acquiring competencein contrehension. Aiter siÍ dâys in Fâda N'Gourhâ, I lound ir possibleÌo underúând â .emarkâhleamount oI bargainingconversationolerhea.d in the market; jn Kpellt. Nilh \i.l,uâllv no segúentâlr.dundancy !t rhe morphologiclevel, it took terhaps six monthsto Ìeâch the sâmedeg.€eoi conpêtencenhich WeúermaDDlong agolâbelln Togo,tììe.earesev€ÌalsmalllangDages ìed "lìgo Heúsp.achen".or "Togo RÊmnantl-anguaget'GeeWesternann ãnd Bryen, 1952,ì1.96). The iDplicãtion óI this lãb€l $âs that theselangüâgespresumâbl) retìcct â lemnant ol Bantu origin or iniÌuencefrom a very long time ago. The Bantuìike clas systemsof Dany ol them are st.iking. Ìn ât leâstone oI thesehnguâges,Kebu, there aÌc fouÌ plural clâ$es which have both pÍelix ând sullir (\eslêrnânn ând Bryân 1952,p. 101)-'the tourconspond'ng singula. classeshave only a sulrix in three cases,but prefix and süÍtix in thê remaining one. There are. however.aìternationsbet*een the stem-initiâlcoÍsonâniin the singularand plurâl il the singulârhàs do ot€ú ?retix,$hich suggests that an originaÌ pÌeiix conditioningsucì an alternationhâs beenìost. The dâtà, takeÍ lrom \Ì{estermannand Bryan. includesuchpairs as pii 'â child', pluml eóiÕ,t*uluk
F uN . n!N ^r
Á ND V r ' s f lc r { L N o , N L r \s s S\s r!M 5
203
'for€head',?lurâl u!ÌìíÕa;rulÌÌri ttodâch, plüral e/ülüú; rÕ.Do 'throat'. plurat No speciÍiciniormatlonis avâilubleon concordin the courma group oÍ tânguâgesnor in Kebu; it is knosD. howelcÌ, that there is lull p.onôhinál concord in Gourúâ. ând à gôod deâl ol other concordjn other of tlc so-câlledTogo rennant lânguâges.Greenbergincludesthe latteÌ in the Kwa b.ànch,which adds sigÍilicanceto the evìdencepreÌiously cited lroú other Kwâ làngüages, which 7.14.  reDarkablyint.icate noun cÌas ând concordsyúen is toúdd in Fúlâ, in the Weú Atlantic branch of NigeÌ-Congo.cre€nbere(19ô3,p. 25) recoenizes sixteensingulaÌ(ìncludingü€utrâì?)clâs*s ãnd six pluràl clâsses. Dãvid ÁÌnott (1960),desÚibingeâsternfôrns of Fulâ lrom Nige.ìâ,Dahomey,and Niger, recogÍizesa tolâl ol twenty-iive cla$es. The clasFs are suÍIix marked, btrt singular-plu.alpairs ãlso shoN âlternâtiÒnin stem-initiaìconsonaDts.It.g., puÌ Ìo
!ì.:
tuì-6e
In eachclas, the.e a.e up to iou. dilierent allomorphsof the cla$ sultii, ìhe choiceâúong thefr beinglexicall] determin€d;the setsoI àllôhorphs,{hich (or lack oI such). À group ArDott calls"grades'.difi€r in their iniiiaÌ consonânts of fou. sucì alÌonorphs fruú be cônsid€redãs b€ìongingto Òneclâ$ because th€y â.e accompaniedby identical concoÌds. In a ieN cases,the.e are sub-âllomoÌphsof onegrad€,undeÌ phonoloeicconditionin8.In one cla$, lor example, Arnott lìsts thr tour grâdcsas-f.--de, -re,-de,ând -rde. For a noun followedby modiÍier,he citesthe tollowjngasexamplesof the posible combjnationsitorftÕdifier as well as noun,the choi.e oi gradeis lexicâìÌydeìermined:
In addilion to this conpÌicarion(multipÌiedby hventy-live,oi couBe),each classis cha.acteÌizedbJ onc of thÌec types or "catego.ies"ol initiàl consonantin the Doun. Consonânts musl b€ chârâcierted âs stops,I.icatives,or nâsâh. In the singularÌresonsìclâ$, for e$nple, Ìhe noun beginswith a stop. In the corlisted by respondingplurâì, ìt bcgidsNith â írjcâtive. Ol the twenty{ile classes Arnott, initial stopsare found in €leven,initial lricatires in six, ând initiaì nasals in eight. ln the "nasal" catcgory,actually only nb, nd, Ìj, ,í shownasality;the counterpârtslor woicel.ssconsoíanlsâre real'zedas voicelessstops, identical {ith thos€in rhe 'stot" câregorJFuúh€r, tle initial consonantoi a lerb b determinedbJ thc clas oI the snbjectnouni it is eithera tricatile Òrâ nâsâI. 'fherejs âlsoa iuu systeDoI other independentÌelerent,reÌatiae,asociative. conco.ds-súbjecl,object, possessive, inteúogÀtive,anapìoric, and demonstrâtive-*hich remmbleone or anotherot
204
AFÂ'cÀN LÀNGU^GE SrRlcroREs
show very similar noun cÌâss Someotìer northern W€st Atlãntic !ânguâges ãnd concordsystems,though that oI Fula js undoultedly tle nost ompÌex. For purposesol the presentdiscDsion,the important point to note is thât th€ initiâl consonãÌt alt€Ìnâtionin nouns,attributives,and ve.bs is very losibly thè Íemnânt ôlâ setoI prelires,soihât the ân.€storol theselâdguâg€swould âlso ìave had a noun clas syst€n markedby both prelixesand sullixes. In ât Ì€astsomeoI the southernWest Atlântic Ìârgüages whicì, to be suÌe, sone scholâGdo nót âgr€êâre as cÌowly relâtedto Fula etc.âs Greenbe.ghclas silicationmay suggest,tìough the time depth withiD \vest AtÌântic husl be considerable the.e a.e ÌÌelix-ma.ked noun classsystemsmuch moreÌ€Diniscentof Bantu. Even in the 1850's-this .esenblancehad been noied and coDsidered highly signiÍicânt(secBleek 1858.tableopp. p.l9l, pp.204-5). W.Â.4. Wilsoü (1962)recognizes sixteenclassesin a group oi theseìanguag6,and there is lull concord. In Teúne ândBâgâKoba, ânimàìenounslâke concordsol the peNonal clas*s, iúespecti!€ ol their own classprefixes-ã phenomenon*idely att€sted alsoin Bantü. This and â detãil in th€ essociati!€conú.uctionare so úrikingly like the situationin soÌneBântü languâges that, when wilson's ârticle âppea.ed, I lelt consiràin€dto câll it to the âttentiôn of my then colleâgueProfessorA. C. Jordân. I did so by readingthe reÌevantdiscu$ioniÍ Wilson'ssectionson"Concord systems"and "Genetivêconstrüctior". çithout idenüfying the languaSes and {ithour citing rh€ eÌafrples,but citing the specjficâssociãtive morphem€soI Bagâ Koba. I th€n âskedProte$or Jo.dan if hc knew {hât làneüâgewas being wilhout hesitâtiod,he repli€d, "Ol .ourse-thats my ìânguage[IsidiscDssed; Xhosãll" GreenbcÍgâlsonot€sâ iel instsncesol prelixesrather tìãn sulfix€si! some in the EasternsectionoI the Adamawa-East€Ìn lãnguages branchofNigeÈCongo. lÍ MÕndungâ,most clâ$€s àre sullix-fraÌked, bul there is otre singülâr-pluÌâl pai. which is prefix-ma.kedithe p.efixesare ÌË and na-. In this FúicuÌar inúânce,sithÕut â body Õl datâ but in Ìi€N ót the locâtionol }Iondúngâ,I would not nake an issDeol tlese prefixessithout checkiDgon th€ posibility that they appeârin {ords lorvhich both singulârâdd pÌüâl fo.ms haveb€enàdoptedlrom a neighboringand lery po$ibìy doninânt Bantu language. Actually, in someBâ.tu langüagesth€re are instâncêsoI sDIIix€sas weÌl as pÌeÍixesin at least someclâses. In the eltrene nôúheâstêrnCongo.the lânguageor dialectnâm€sNyangali ãnd Gbâtiri shov suffixation,ând the language nameLi-kari-li shovs bôth pÌelixationand sufiixation, In-depth studiesoI coDparative Bantu, iDcludiDgtaúiculaÌÌy the northwesternBantu languâges,are begìnningto Ìeveal conside.ableevjdenccoÍ tmces ol sutfixation. Àt this pôint, therefor€,it appea.sthat prelixes alone, suttixesalone, or both pr€tixesand suffixesaÌe no strangeBto NigeÌ-Kordolaniannoün-clàs systems. Aìthough systemswith prelixesonly or vith süIfixesonly are the most common,thereis evidenceof both pr€lixesand suffixesin everyb.anch oI NigerCongowhich has noun cÌâses ât all. Histo.icaÌ\'. it {ouÌd âppeârthat such a system so!ìd be the úost ìikely cândidâtelôr â p.ototype; the sy8t€ns moÌe
Fr Nsron^L
^\D
VLsrrúr^LNoUi C
^ss
Svrir,Ms
205
commonlylound todaywould then bc simplilicationsby ã total los of âll prefixcs or all suflixetsând of bôth in ihe cãseÕtMânde. Befo.esettÌinson sucha conclusion,however,the p€cüliarlt mjxed syúem of Ti! must bc accountcdfo.. 7.15. Tiv is one oI the non-Bantulanguagesmosi closell reÌatedto tsantu, ând the Tiv noün cÌasescan with lirtle dilliculty be equâtedwith specificBanru clases. Gre€nberg(1963,p. 35) hâs pointed out, ìnd€ed,Ìhat -liv agreessith mâny Bântu langua8€s in on€!€ry stÌiking detail: in both. cotoin mânifestations of the cìâss-hârkingmorph€oesfor clâsses I and 0 havelow ton€,but in all other classesthe toDeis high. ( simiÌardistinctionlor a peÌsonaland a noD-pe.snaì noun pretix hâsbccn notedin lgbo, ?-5abo!e.) In ouilining lhe 1ìv syúen he.e, the traditional Banh' cÌa$ numb€ÌsNill be used. Thc ìllustÌative lorms are iaken lrom Abrâhâm (1040b),thôugh they are retranscribedin soDe respects. For the sakeol convenience,Bântu dâs prelixesand concôrdsâre ciÌcd in Ío.ms comfronly lÒund in Bântu languagestoday, rather than in the h)pothetical reÀb.âhâm .€cognizeseìevennoun cla$es in Tir, though dividing one clâss jnio two becâtrseit indDd€sòôth singuìâNând pìurâÌswould )ìeld tseÌvc. Of the ele!€Ddific.ent clâs€s,onehâsa zeroâltixi live âre markedby p.efixesonly; two are mãrk€dby suÍfix€sonly; ând threeàr€ markedby bÒihprelix ànd sulÍix. Rathe. lhan using nominal affixes to identiÍI clases, a concordialmorpheúe Íor eachcÌas is Ned, which appearsin a concordiaÌcopúìâ. CorcÕrdsdifle.ing only in tone in somecìlses âppearâÌsoin dÈnonírâtilcs; Àbrâhâú üscsone oi the demonstrâtivesto reler to the classes, Class1, sith the noun prefix commonlym!- in Bantu. ììasthe concÒrdÌnor phen€ nrü in Tiv. Nounsnì thìs.la$ have a zero âttix in Tir, thoughthere are tÌâcesol limitations Õl the initiál phonemeof the stem. lhe subjectánd object concordsaÌe d and ún, r€ry sirnilarto the Nidcspreadd and nu or syllâbicm in Bânlu; in bolh, this is tbe oDÌycÌas in which subjectand object concordsdifier(Comparethe sane situation{ilh tsariba iül ând inüni, 7.9 above.) This clâss includesbut is dot restrictedto singularpeNonals, Clãs 2, the regularplu.al ot clâs 1. has the noun p.efix Òd-in Baniu, and ihe coícord nó,i in fir. The noun in Tiv is mârkedby a prefix, ejther ü- ornÕiì-. The âìternationbetseentheset*o is at leastpartially conditionedby the initiâl 1ând 2âre: tlon€mc ot the sten andby sedântic carego.y.Exampleslôr classes 'ã chiel , 'â leopa.d',
pl.: pl-:
ülÍjr nbàànyàm
Class3, Niih the noun prelix n!- jn Bantu like cÌa$ I, has th€ concordntú nÌ Tir, like the cÌas I conco.dexceptlhat ils rônejs high rather than Ìo*. l:or mâíy noüns,the pr€lix is ri-; for someoth€rsit is zero,thoughÀbrehâmmentions what he bclieresto be an archa'c prefix d shich is Òccâsionâlllheârd, lhere âre sot)e const.aintson the tonesol stemsin this clas, CIas 4, the .eguìarpÌurâl ol cìas 3, hâs the noun prefix ni nÌ tsantu, the concordàgi and the noun preiix l- in Ti!. Examtles lor classes 3 and 4 a.el
20n
{, n,c\\ L\\c! 'â fronth , 'a t.ee,
pl.: pl.:
^c!
SrRrcnREs
iwér ikón
Class5, with the prefix Ii in Baltu, is ideDticaÌçith class4 nÌ Ììy: concord .gl, nouDp.efix 1-. It is distinguishedhereonly tÕ incltrdèrhe singularlouns in Class6. the reguÌarpÌural ot clas 5, has the noun prelix na- ìn Bantu; in Tiv it hãsthe concordÌgd ând the noun prelix d-. À cÌâssõ and 6 pair is:
pl.r a ji an egg . 'ji In Bântu, liquid mâssesâre âhó cónsideredto belongto clas 6. A class6a ior Ìiquid mases hes âlr€adyb€enproposed(6.5)j this wâs done on tìe hasisof the neâÍ-BântuevidencefÌóm Tiv, in whjch a liquid massclas is quite distinct Irom thc classnhich lo.ms plunls lÌom 5. Tiv cìâs ôa hasthe conco.dn.i ãnd a noun pÌelix and sufiix. both ni tìe pÌdix is sylìâbic,but ÀbÌahâm doesnot make it clearwhetheÌ the sulfix âlsois. ExanpÌesof ôa âÌci Clas 7, with the noun prefix,{i in Bántu, hasthe concordÌ, in Tiv. Noutrs iD tlis classare markedsith ã preÍix Í- and a sDÍfix y, which is ?erhapssyllabic. A hypotheticâìderivâtiÕnôI these affixes from a prefix *Ìé and â sDlfix *-li seemsentirely pÌâusiòle. Clâs 8 in Tiv seNesasthe plu.al ior somebnt not aÌl nounsin clas 7. Plurals fo. cla$ 7 in clas 6 are alsoconmon. Clâss8. with the noun p.efix ói- in Bantu, has the concordaòl in Tiv. Nouns are narked with â DreÍix I and â suflix -v. which is lerhaps syuabic. A hypotheticâìderivâtionof thesèâtfixesfrom a preliÍ *ri and a sDffix +-ài seemsentìrely plausible. A clas 7 aDd 8 pair is;
Class9, with vâÌious mânifeúâtionsof a nasâl prefix in Bantu nouns,and with the Banttr concordi, has the concordngì in'fiv, with Ìow tone ãs previousty noted. Nouns in tlis classhave the pretix i-. PIUÌalsoI cla$ I nounsapFa. in either class4 or clâs 6. An exampleol €âchcombjnâtionis: ijì ìcàmêy
pl.: 'a fly', 'â sheâtree', pl.;
i'jÍ átsi'mêy
Class14, with the noun p.efix òu- in BÀntu, has tìe corco.d nòú in Tiv. Nouns in this cÌas hâve the sufiix -r, which is perhapssyìlâbic- Abrâhâfr desribcsnounsin tnis clas as "collective".by shich hc nay mean to includeâbstÌâcis, â iypical r€Ie.enceIo. this cÌâs in Bâniu. There â.e aÌsoa iew singula$ in uris clâss;at leastonehas a plural in clas 4. An exaDpleot this clâssis:
Cìâs 15. wiih the !Ìelix *ü- in Bantu, hãs the concordÌú in Tiv. Nouns in this clãsshãve the strttix -y, âgain perhapssyÌÌâbicjAbmham nentions aÌso
FuNcrroNÀL ÁND VDsrrcrÁL NouN CLÀss SysrEMs
207
what he b€lielesto be an archaicprefix È shich is occâsionallyhea.d. ln a very la.ge numbe. of Benìtr languâees, this is trpicâlly the inlinitive class;inlinitìves however,clâss15 includesâlso are nominaljzationsoI verbs. In somelanguages, ã small numberoI other nouns. In f iv, this classincìudesonly suchother nouns. Somenounsin this classlorm their plurah in clâss4, somein cìâss6, ând somein class8. Exsmlles are: gba)y kpáy húrúy
'a sli.k, pl.: ígbóy (.1,suUixretained) ra cam\roodtreei, pl.r ákpá (ô) 'tree Gp.) , pl.: ihrúrúv (8)
SinceúeíliÒn hâs beenmâde of inliniÌives.it nay be àddêdthât Tiv hãs a veÌbal lom which Abraham describesas a "re.bal noun", whìch sharessome oI the srntâctic üss ol inÍidiiiles in Bantu and other hnguâges. lt is lomed úth â suflix n. lt is dnÌ]ious,howcleÌ, whethertlìis lo.m beÌorysin ihe nour classsyst€mas Bantu inlìnitivesclearlydo. 7.16. The ïv conco.dnorphemcsmentionedin ihe pr€cedidgdiscusionâre Ìsed ìn, o. in somecìa$es themselvescotrstitute,copulas. With cerìain ional dirierences. Ìhey are usedaÌsoin demonstrativeionìs. However.a pâúially difle.ent sêt of concordsis us€dlor attributiv€s(numeralsonly; there are no â.ljectives in Tiv). asociatìvc. subject,ând objeci. ln this set, tlìe jnitial ng- oi the copülà concordis nissing in clases 1, 3,4, (5),6, and 9. This rinds an almost perfect paraÌlelin Bantu. in whiclÌ ihe nouD prefixesIo. clases 1, 3. 4, and 6 hâve ân initjâl n-, and classI ìs characterized by â násâl;but in s€côndâryconcÒrdsjntheseclãsses, initiâl m-and nâsalitydo notâppeàr. fhisis not to saythâi Tiv ng- conespondsto Bantu m- and/oÌ a Dasal;on the contrary,as wilÌ be seen, they must ìâve dillerent o.igins. lt is still signjficãnt,hoÍever, that concotds Íor the* cìascs in boÌh Tiv and Bintü. âs weìl âs the noun pretixesin Tiv (except ior classI, which haszero),consistof a vovel only. MÀny chaÌâcteristics ol the Bântu noun clâ$ ând concordsysted, therèfore, can cìearlybe reconstructedfor â pre-Bantustãgebelorethe divergenceoi Tiv. Yet Tiv, with spo.adicpâúial âgreementin onÌy a lev periphenlBantu languâges. diÍÍers strikingly lrom most Bantu Ìa.gua8s in mãrking nounsjn soDe clâ$es with prelixesonÌy, in somewith sullixes only, and in somevith both. Tiv, ot couÌse,djite$ alsolrom languâges which usesullixesonly, and trom ihosewhich u* òoth prelixesand sütlixesin all classes. A vâriety of .ominal systemshãs nowbeenôutlined,show^-iger-KoÍdolânian iÍg everythingfrom hìghly Iuncüonaland complexclassand concordsysremsto minimal vestigesof noun clasiiicâtion. It may nov be interestingto departlrom the sübjecrof synchrodiclângüâgêsÍuctúres âs such,and râiseoncemore the qDestionof the typology ol the Proto-NigeÊ(ôrdofâniâdnoún clâsssystemiit is obvioüsthât thêre musi hâve beenone. Following the estabìishedprincipìe óI cômparativeand histo.icaì linguistics,it is necessaryto postulatea type oI
208
ArÂrcd LÀNcu^cÈ SrkucrukÉs
slsìem Nhich nost reasonably,alter the applicatìonof typicâl phoneticof ânalogic o. other chaúg€s,could result in the variety oI systemsexistingtoday. Lrntil comparatiÌelyr€cently.it is prcbablysatetÕ sav, it hasgenerallybeen assumedtIât rhe typical Bântu preiix system$us chârâcteristicof proto-Bântu, aDdthat any tracesof sufiixeswe.e the .esult ol sporâdjcindêpendentdelelopnents in isolatedlânguagesoÌ subgroups.Indeed.the Íullest ànd most regular manifestãtionôl noun clases and concoÌdsseemsto have been conside.edthe most raithlul representation oÍ the originalsystem an assumptionwhich ignores Ìhe verl reâl possibìlityôf anâlogicregulãrizationãnd also ânalogicextension. The existenceof sutlix marked and pr€iix and sulfix ma.ked classsystemsiD \Vest Africa {âs, id lâcì, oíe ôbstàcl€tô âcceptinglhe hypôthesisthât lânguâges with suchs!úens {ere gêneticâllyrelátedtô Bântü â1 âlì- Ìn pâúicülâr,it would be dilficúlt tó juslity a hypothesisoI a historicalshilt lrom âll preliÍes to âìl suÍ. Iixes,or vicevers. On the other hând,if se âssumean ori8inaìsyíenÌ with both pretixesand suilixes in all cla$es, it is not inconceilabÌethat soDe langdâgês souìd hâve dÍoppedthe oÌiginal prefixesând othersthe originâÌsuflixes. Fo. â languâgcsuchas TiÌ, hosever,it is noi pâúicuÌârlyappcâlingto assumethatthê prelix€sof someclassesv€Ìe lost. but the suftixesol soDe other classes,whil€ both preiixesand suffixeswe.e retainedin still oth€. clases. It would seemmorereasonabletopostulatetheDoú compÌicatedoÌ ir.€sular type oi sysleú lôr lhê prolô làngüage,and to a$üne thât anâlogicrqularization accountslor the more lÌomogeneous systemslound in today\ lânguagesor lanSuageSroups. Thus,startingwith a systemsimilarin type to that of Tiv, the applicationof anâìogicregularizariod,in vâriousdüections,could ìav€ Íesülteditr âny oI lhe úo.e regulars)slemÈâll prelires,âìì suffixes,o. aÌl botì. Thüs the type oÍ noun clas systemlound in Tiv would be the key ro, ând typologicâlly wouìdÌeÍÌcct,the Proto-Nige.-Kordolanian system. That, inde€d,{âs my hyPothesisuntil I câne to thisvery point in writing a preliminaryveÉion ÕIthis cha!ter,and I have stâtedit on mo.e than one occasionjn classlecruresin pastyeah. Consideration of one detaìl of distrìbDtionìn Tir. howev€Ì,which was ãltudedto above,suggesta dillerent reconstruction. ln Tiv, as tyljcally in Bantu, the.e aie sômenoun cÌasesfo. úhich the secondàry cÕncordsconsistoi â vorel oDly, rather thãn ol consonantPlus vowel Thesea.e cìasses l. 3. 4 (and 5 in Tiv), {i, ând g-but Ìery siSnilicantlynot 6a in jn Tiv. Fururer. the light oI Ti!, mâny other non-Bantulanguâgesin the Benúejn other bÌanches,the preCongob.ânch, ând the typical situationin languâgês 1,3,4 ând6 nây be Ìeconstuctedâs consistiÍgof â vowBantu ìrÌelixesof classes el alonerather lhân the modernBantuconsonant-vo{eì;then- tyPicãlolBantu is considereda Bantu innôvation. To be su.e,.ot every scholârâcceptsthis re_ construction.Tâlny Givón (personalcóúnunicâtion) objectsthât, vhile los ôl âú initial consonantis coôrnon tnough, ìnnovationôI àn initiâl colsonàúl is un_ paratleled.Tne iniliaì n- or clâs 6â (liquid na$et, howeve.,is âttestedthrough
FuNcrroNÁ! ÁND VÈsrrcr^L NoLN CLÀss SysrF,ús
209
ôüt NigeFcongô,ãnd even strcngly hinled at ìn Kordolanian. lhere are onll extren€ìy sporadicâppeârâúces óI initial ,L in classô outsidêBantu, p.obâbll explainableas retlectingindependeútmergersoÍ cÌasses ô and 6â: in l, 3, ând 4, initial n- is unique in Bantu, ând rÌay be cÕnsidered a diâgnosticcrite.ion lol recognizingã lânguageas Bantui initial ü- in languagessuch as LoNkundo is â still laler secondarydcvclopment-How iniÌiaì m jn dâs 6â âlone*ouìd be retãined almost univ.ÉaÌly, bDt in otìrercìases loú elery{ìere exceptin Bantu, ditlicult lÒ explâin lhân lhe innÕratiônof n- in tsantu. The initial ng in the'ti! copulâând demonstrâtiveconcordstor clases 1. 3, 4, ârd 6 nray reflectmerelyan aveFionto inilìalvowelsin suchiorns. orperhspsshould be con)pâr€dNith the iniiialy- ot Nlei'Ìhof\ reconstn'ctions of lhe cÌas 1, 3, ând 4 nou! prefixes;in any case,it has notìrin€ to do sith Bantu m-, becausemâpp€as in Ti! cÌas 6â. At leâsttrior to lhe deveìopnentol lhe presentlorm oI the liv cÌa$ system, then, the âtfixes íor cÌas€s 1, 3, 4, and 6 conshtedol a vowel alone. Nos, it is pr€ciselyin theseclâssesin *hich Tiv nôünsdô not have a sullix-âlong *ith 5, which hâsnere€dsith 4 in torm, and I, tor $hich â sin,ilârargumentcouldbe developed.An oÌìginaÌvowel sufiìx in just tìere cla$essas th€n lost, wìile an originalCV súllix is reiâinedin redrcèdlom shoainglo$ ôl linal !o{el: -y in 7 and 15,-, in 8 ând 14 (and in a Íes norns iÍ 2 âs {ell), -n in 6a. Il mây wèÌl be asumed, theÌelore,tlat alÌ clâses in Ti! oncc had suffixesas well as Ì]reBut what ol thc clã$es iD Tn'in which nounshâve â suffix }ut no prcfix? lhese âre 14 ând 15. In 15, Abrahamrelen to {hat he calls an archaicprelix i- shich is ôccâsiônâllyheârd. Àllhôugh he doesnôt nenliôn süch â prelix lor clãss14. it may well exist in similar archaiôloms. Nos, in contemJ'orarfTiÌ, onìy the tbree voweÌsin extremeaúicuÌatory positions,Ë, ü-, and a-, occur in sord in iaì posiliôn. ll È eÍe. did occur,or even dôesin lhe speechot clderll' peoPl€,it hasotherwiseb€enlost. Althúughthe origin oÍ a prefix d in thcsecÌae *s (RndÊlsóin somcno!ns in clas 3) has no readyexplanation,the fact remains thât Ab.aìam rccordedit, ând its non cxistencêin contêmpomrtTir is conÈ Ìletely exllicãbìe on phonotaciicgroúnds. \ve úal conclude,therefor€,that ât somestâgein pre-Bànlubèforethe di YergenceoÍ liv. nounsin alÌ dases had botì p.clixesand sullixes. This leaves us with only three types ol noun-classsystcn alÌ preiixes as in the vestigial srstemsoI many K{a lánguages, aìl suÍÍixesas in sorneGu.languages,and both in all cÌasses, as in other Gu. and Kwa languages and, signilicantly,in pre-tsântt. As alÌeâd) suggested, it is this last typc of noun-clã$ systemthat can, iI postutulated fo. P.ôtô-Nig€ÈKo.dotânian, moú readily explajnrhe origin ol ure allpretix and aÌl-suftixsystenN.The lo$ of pretixeso. sufrixes,o.orinitiàl and linâì yoweÌsãs in 'ljv, may weÌÌ hale beenthe resuÌtol regularphoneticchange,qüite possiblyindependentìyin rarious languageg.oups,rathe. than analôgicchânge; therethis h ãlsothe more comtoúabìehypothesis.In Proto-Ni8er-Kordoraniâú,
2to
ÀFR|(N
LNGU^oE
SÍRUcruaEs
foÌe, we may po6tü1atêâ nouú-clâ$ and concoÍdsyltem in which nouru in ÃÌl cÌass*w€ÌêtMked by both pr€Íix endsüÍfix,the suÍÍix probablyât l.ást r pârtial €choof the pÍefix. If theÍe ìvâs â diÂtinctionbetwu pnbffy end !€coütary concoÍd,it seemsno.t lüely thât pdmâÍy concordw6 na*ed by.üÍÍües, but 3€condaryconord by prelixê3. ftom the point of view of enteÍingupon newor moE d€t{iled irvertigations or almost atry Niger-KoÌdoÍãrisn langu,gr,s,the roÌ€goingis, what v€r itr hi!toricãl validity, ãlsoa ueÍul ÍÌâm*oü by way oÍ pEplriIg rh€ iNar.iSatrr for tüe typ€s of pheÌomenahe mây expectto find in nominâÌsystrm!. In nsry 6es, ihe p@ntation ol dat! and ânâly3ë in thé liSht oÍ this Ítuwork will be m$.imâlÌy rÌluminating.
È êmênlssousd,ols d àulêur
Nonclass Noun Systems 8.1. Vestigesoi ãn originaÌnounclas systen hâvêbêenidentiliedin â nunber of languâgesin shich such a systemis no longê. gÌâmnâticâlly tunctionâì,or at best futrctionsonly at the deÌivationall€ÌeÌ. Somesuchlanguâgesdisplayother lhenomenãin their noÌn systedsçhich remâinto be discussed-Within Nigersnownothingat aÌl comparable Congo,the Mandelanguages to the cìâssand conpreceding cord systemswhich hare beentreâled in tìre 1{o chapters,but their noun systêmshave other characteristics which must be desc.ibed. FeaturesoI notrnsystemsinlanguages inthe Nilo-Saha.an,Airo-Asiatic,and KhoisanIãmiÌies must also be given som. attentionMorphologicâÌ ând syntâcticdistinctiónsin â nünberol th€selânguâges fuìlv justily the ÌecognitionoI whât linguistswoüld noÌDally caÌì diUerent"clases" or "sub-claswí' oi nouns. In disrusiúg the languâgesof Alricâ, hoveveÍ, it seemsbestto Íest.ict the tem "cÌas" to the us€madeoÍ it üp to this point, with Ìeler€nceto languâges*hich hâve â systen of singúìâÈplurâìdbtincíons and úsüallyât leastsomeconcoÌd,nÌo.e extens'vethan tìe tso-{ay or three-waydi vision oÍ nounsin Ìânguâges with genderor other kinds ôl distinction. ln nônclâs languaÉ€s as so delinited. gmfrfratically difiereútsetsot nounscan âs {eÌì be câìled "cat€gories,""types," oÌ, where appropÌiãte,"gendes." If, Ior exãmpÌe,one {ere to discoverin an Atricãn languageâ morphologicâÌdistinction betwee! nounsr€iering to ânimateb€ingsãnd nounsretering to inãnimateobj@t5 and concepts,one would not likely câÌl it â "noün-clâs" lângtrage,though onemight weÌl sp€âkol the classification of nounsin the ìânguagê.A distinction ânimate would between and inanimatenouns be one oi the phenomenato be treated in this châpter. Actually, just sücha distinctionhas beennoted-on the basisof oúly ã lew houF ol investigâtion, to be$r.e-in Ndoro,ãBenue-Congo languâgeof Cameroon. SomeoÍ the languagespresumablymost closelyrelated to Ndoro hâve rypicâl íunctiônallouÍ cìassaúd concordsysteús. In Ndoro, ân o.iginaÌnoun classsy$ tenì ìâs rppârèntly,by coâÌescenes ând reâlignments, developedinto a no'ìnsys tem which can be consideredtypologicãllydifferent. lt has beenobserv€dthat, faúhe. southjn Câm€rÕon. the Bantu in thè Bamilekegrc{p ofBanh! Ianguages reduced,seemstô be moling noun classaúd concordsyslê'n,âlreâdyconsiderabÌy in terns ÕI in the samediRct'oD-toward a reorgãnizationof the noun cÌasses p.57). (se VoÈltz, 1971, ând ìnãnimÀte Hyman ând tso categories,animaÌ€ it may be posibÌe to recognizereflexesoI the Ev€n âÍter such â reorgaDizatioD, original systen, but we wouÌd seemto be dealing{ith a siSnificantlydiilerent kind ol lomiÍaÌ moÍphology. 2lt
212
ÂFRrcÁN LÀNGU^GE SnlcflÂEs
4.2. A tço-say distinctionin the noun syí€m is âlso chârâcteristicol the Mandelanguâges-In the cãseot Mând€,the lvo câiegori€s of nounsmây be lábeÌled "fÌee" and "reÌatìonâI."r A lree noun is a noun whosestem aloÍe may constitute a comtÌete nôun phrase. À r€lâriônâlnoun is a noun whicb may be used only with an expe$ed possessôr.By ând large,thesecategories rellect ihe die possession.tree nounsÌeler to qhat iin.tion betw€€nalienableand iDalienable may be obtainedordisposedolâÌ çill, or rÕthâtlorwhich posesioÍ is Írelevânì. ReÌãtiotral.ouns r€fer to what cannot be obtaìnedor dìsposedoI at will short of pátÌicide ând lhc ljke. or nutilâtion. Reìâtionâlnôúnsâre priúâri\ kinship teÌms, wo.ds for pâits of the bÕdJ,âúd Nôrds lÕr IIâce relâtionsìips;incìüded ãlso are onet name, de*Ìved pay Ior se.vicesrendered,Íootprints,odor, âod sinjlar üiDgs inseparablyassciated sith their poss€$or. The fomal crite.ion lor asigning a nounto the relationalcategory,hoser€r, is the lact thât a posee soÌ must be expÈssed. The rigidity oI this cÌiterionmâv be ìllüstratedby .elatitrgan eaÌly and trnoI a relationâlnoun. duly stubborn ellort o. my part to eliminatea possessoÌ I describeda Ìather macabreinaginary scenein which someone\ìand had been {ccidentellyseveredby an âÌe alongâ fo.cst peth, ând h l.tt lying there. Later t*o men cone by, ând oneol Ìhem noticesthe hând ând âsksin hormÌ, What's tnât?' Hó* doesthe other reply, 'à hând'? The.esponsein K!êlle must be lnúu yée/ 'a pe6on s hand'. The only recordedexceptionto the obligatoÍyexpÍesion oi â poscsÕr in Kpeue is in â proverb-likeütìe.àÍce meâúing'Elery mother loles her c}ild.en '. This doesnot mean,however,that it i6 othe$ise llRpôsibleto speakot 'a mother',a womanwho hâsoneormorêchildren,without specifyingshose mother she is. The stem for the ÌeÌational noun mother' is free nÒunis cônslructedsitì a toDal replacive,ìow re/lee/. A correspônding pÌâcingthe stem tone oi the .elationaÌnoun, ând conpoundìngthÀt fom with the word Ío. 'pe6on': /lèenüu/ 'a mother'. lÌ the csseÕÍ 'chiÌd'. the rêlational noun srefr is /lóÌl/ 'sÒú/d.üghter,Òllsp.ing',and a coüespondinghee noun ii formedby reduplication(not a widespreadprccessin Kpelle)riÌólo!/ 'a child'. Th€re are a Ieq inúancesoi noun stens fouDd in both catego.ieswith semânlic ditterenc€s.In a numbe. of Mandelânguag€s,the sten for 'skin', â relationâl noun,is elsouscdâs â fíe. nounÍith th€ m€aÍing 'páper',extend€dâÌso io 'somethúgwritten or prilted (letter, book, etc.) and to 'education. A rew relâtionâlnounsrefeÌringto placemây âìsobe usedadverbiâUywithout an expressd possessori the physical 'back'and 'lace' Day be so usedwith refe.ence (to ìo motioD 'back a place)'and 'loNa.d'. 43. ID nost ìÍande languages.Íree and relationalnouns are distinguished not only by th€ optionâlveNusobÌigâtoryexpresionÕÍ â !ôsesor, òút âl$ by the say in wbich posesion is expressd. In BambaÌa,for exampÌe,a mo.ph€me /kà/ is usedòet{een the losesÒr ànd â pôsesed free noun,but this morpheme doesnol alpea. with a possesedrelaüoDalnoun. Thus: I The renn 'rclalional , sugex ion by PÌÕí. Talny seêns pirírrar,le to tht r€rm dep.ndrnt vhlch I hâle prNrously Ned.
GivoD,
213
NoNcLÀss NouN SYsÍEMs
In Kpelle and Loma, a diflerencejn the expÌesion of posesion is iound for the liÌst and third personssingularonÌy. Comparethe follo{ing Kpelle formsl i píei
'yoür (sg.)house'
i pjr
'youÌ (ss.)possession,
kú pÉ.êi ká pÉrêi 'ti p{oi But: Ìlá pirei rJòpâ€i
'our house' yoü. (pl.) house' 'their house'
kú pjô ká piô 'ti póo
'yours (pl.)' 'thei.s'
'my hous' h's/herhouse'
úp5ã póa
'nÌìne' lis/hcN
FoÍ relationalnouns,the lirst p€rsonsingularpose$ìve pronounis a homorganic nasâlwith high tone; the third pe*on consistsof trefixed low tone,a morphemc vitb mãny other usesc€nte.ingaroündthe id€a oI 'preliousreierence'(ct.5.13), \€stermann and Melzian(1930,p. 13) recoenizediilcr.nt firú ând lhird peFon singrlâr posessiveprôúounforns, but treat them âs jl rhey âr€ me.èàlternâtiles Ior any noun, the loms giren abole io. rclationalnounspresumabÌybeingsonr Itind oÍ contraction. In dow ând car€hl speechtor the berctit ol lcârnes. the fo.ms üsedwith l.ee nounsare soDreiimes heard$itÌì reÌationalnounsunlil ìt is cl€âr that the hearerhas undeGtood;but the Ìeverseis nerer true. 4.4. lntemectingcach ol lhesetso câtegories,ther. is iú so'neif not all oi ìhe ]Iande languag€sa secondaryformal dislinction b€t$eenlereonal and íôn pcrsonâlnouns. This distinction invohes, in paÌt, lorms vhich have been âs sumedby many tÒ be nere flurals, but {hich in fact requireâ la. dore $tbtle intcrpr€tâiion. Nhat hâs beenâssumedto be pluralizâriônin KpèìI. Iâs Ìnore than oncebe€Ddescribedâs a gcnemh regularpâlÌern with â feN nìisceuaneoús €xceptioDs(s.c \esterúânn and llelziân 1S30,p. 15; \\'estennsnn and Bryãn 1952,p. ,14), 'Ihe Iact is that the forns and usãgesin questionn€.UJ divide free nounsinto pereonâÌs ând nonpcBonalson ceúâin grÕDnds, ând rclâiionsì nouns inLole6onalsand nonpcAonaÌ. on olherground:. Nonpe6onâlfreenouns,otherthan lhosewhich arenot @üniâbìÈinany câse, occur in their stem Íom berorenunìeralsand simiÌar sords. 'lhey âÌso occul viih a sulfix /-!à/, al$aJs with ref€renceto morethan oneireú, bul tot "llu.âl in the usuâlsenseoI rúrely more ihan onc- Àn ânecdotemay be the besl inlroduction tó the cônceptin questiôn. \'orking with tvo inlornÌantstogether. I oncet.i€d to elicit an equiralentlor 'There are s$€et potâtoeson the veranda'. hoping tÕ lind à sÒrd ntr irerândã/. I $âs iâÍniliar Nith the $ord for ìs eet potato', /kwiÉrJ/. One oi thc inrorDânts quickìy responded{itha sent€ncenr which he used/kwiêì-!àr for 'sseet poÌãloes'. 'Ìhe secondinroÌDant object.d, ând sâid /kwiet/ âlonc wâs appropriâle. The li.st inlormãnl argüed,"No, the maD said 'sweet potatoes';that is plüral." lhe se.ondreplicd,"BDt iI you siy /kwi€! !à/, it meansthat there is one potato here,ànóther theÌe, anotherovcr
2t4
ÀFRIC^N LÀNcuacE
SRUCTRES
theÌe, and perhals someon this side- I think he meant that the potatoeswere together in â òâsket or a pân. That is /kwi€ÍJ/." The fi.sr informant, hâving tearnedaÍother littÌ€ lessonon the noncoÍgruity of linguisticúructures,concurred. Clearly, tÌ'e stem by itseÌl .efe.s not merely to one item, but aìso to *veral itemst.eated as a unit. while the lôm Ìith /-Ìlà/ reiersin someeây to a number of itens treatedindividüallyând setaÌately. The sten by itself is not specifi@lly siDguìar,büt ratÌ'e. gene.ic;thê lÕrm with /-!à/ impliesindividuâtion,whiú âs sunesìut doesnot confineitseÌf to plurality. Perhapsfuúher iuustrationsiI ìe usêfuì. The sentence/tá tÉãkàâ./, çoÌdìy-sord 'I chjckênsâw', mây equallywell be usedâltd I haves@nonechicken oÌ afteÌ I have seena numb€Ì of chickeds,vhicn may but neednot hâve beenin â lÌock. há n:ô-tà kàa/, however,speciÍjcauyihplies that I Êawtwo o. mo.e chickenshereând th€re,but probablydidn t noticeâll that I might have. SimilâÜ, há té€'tà yà/ I bought somechjckens'im?liesthât I wãs selectivc,not buying all that we.e lor sale. PersÕnâl lree noúns,on the othe. hand. haÌe forms th.t lnnction much more ìiÌe pluralsin the usualsense,and they âre not lom€d ií the sâmepay. There arê relativelyf€w pêrsonalnúunsìêms,aÍd the voÌd fo. 'chiel'is not oneof them it relersto the oÍlice.ath€r than the humânoccupântÕtit, ã phenomeÍon?âÌâlleledin nany noun-class lânguages in vhich the úord lor 'chi€í'is nÕtin the personal clas. Such stemsâ.e usedbetorenumerãlsând similar voÌds, as impersonâl fr€e noun stems are. In other contexts, ho*ever, the stem ioÌm is specüicaÌly singular,andthereis a corespoDdingpluÌâÌ fom which hust be üsedwith ret €Íenceto more thân one peNon. ThesepluraÌsend in /-à/, but theÌe ar€ ãlsoirregulârmôrphophônemic ãlternationsin the Btem. The mâjor pâi8 âre:
nãyâ lóÌoÌl
'chiÌd'
ln the light of the refeÍenceof /-{à/ {ith impersonâlíree nounsto ìndividuation, it might alsobe said that ttrese plurals" are individüated,but that a pÌuElity oI pe.sonsis necessaÌilyconsideÌ€das a number oi individuals. For thoe who sould Ìike to make ìd€oÌogicâlhay whiìe the sun shineson this d€tãil of KpeÌle shucture,it mât be âddedthat, in Kpeue cuìtúre,therê wÕDldseemto be less Ìâth€Ì than more emphásison individuality or individualismthan theÌô is nr 'WesternEuropeanaúd Anreri@ncultures. In âddiiion to pcsonâl lrce noun stems,thereis a Ìa.8enumber of@nìpound pp.!onalfFenoun\ ôÍ trhi.h üp finâtrornponenl in lhe sineulâris/núu/ Iì.Bon. with the.egulaÌ tonal replaciveof low for stem tône typical of compÕünds.Such compoundshave plu.alsendingwith /6èlâ/,which is interprctedãs b€ingdeÌived fÌom a stem{ith unknoìvntonewhich doesnot appeâ.exceptin suchcompounds. Thus. irom â phrase/tii ké/ 'do work'(noun Ìrìusve.b): rii kê6èla
215
NoNcL^ssNouN SYsrEMs
Fo. conpoundsof this type, it is the tlural lorm Íhich L lsed belorenumerals ãnd sinilaÌ words oth€r thàn 'one'. A specialtype of conpound peBonâltreè noun is a noun ìndjcâtingtribâÌ âffiliation. Singularsof such comnoundsâre ãlso lôrmed sith /núu/ 'peÉon', but pluralsareíormedwilh the othersiseiúpersonâlsúllix /-tü/; e.9., tõâ nüu
a Loma peÌson
iõâ-tà
'Loma people
Impe$oneÌreìationalnounsappeâronÌyin their stenìfo.ms; thereis nothing pâÌaÌÌeìto either indiliduâtiotr or plúráÌizâtion. Mâny such Douns,oÍ cou6e, aÌe €xcluÊivelysingulârlor a singlepo$e$or i! any câse-'head,lâil, hack, top, ündeÉidè'€tc.i ho{€ver. tbe stenÌlorm is âlsous.d in.elcrenc. to lle many Ieads etc. of noÌe tÌrân onepersonor aninãI. ln the caseot body parts {hìc} aÌetaüed o. quad.upled,specificrelerenc€to morc thân one is expre$edby a numeraì 'my ta,o f€et, the dog's fouÍ feet', etc. (lt occursto me, though lhe circunstâncehas neve. arikn in my exp€.jence,ihat one might conceivablywant to refeÍ to an indefinitenumb€rof the leet ol, for exâDÌrìe.a centjpede.!Íy intuition, to whateve!extent ii spproxìnâtesthat of â native speakerand Ior whatever it is worth, {oüld require De to use the iDpersonalindividuâtiúg sullix Personalrelationalnouns.like peFonaliree nouns,hale pÌuraì lorms, vhich with a süliìx /-nì/, $ìich âre also uscd bêforenumerâls. Ìh€se are cÕnsr.ucted showsã regDlârnorphophonemicâìternatiônin côhbinaliÒn{irh sÌemjinâl h/. The major pairs arer I liâ 'yóu. youngersibling'i i ló!
pì.:
Í lônii
(IÌrelevânt to Kpelle structr.e as srch, it may be oi intc.estto noÈ the possible cognationoÍ this suffix /-nì/ witlì a ?eBonal plurâl clas pÌelix trg- attestedin Kordolanian.) 'Within the cateSoryoÍ relationãlnouns,personals ândjnpersonaÌsareIurther po$esor is a noun. Imin constructions in vhich the expresed distinguished pe.$naÌ relâtionâìnounslolÌôw ã noun lossessor$ith no úorphemeinterveninS. but personâÌreÌâtionaÌnounsmust hare a pronominâlpossessorlor the thiÌd personsingular,p.efixedlos tone; e.g., 'that român's foot' (ihervoDân ihql foÕt) Àenii ti k5r nênii ti nóÌl 'UrâtwomâDì child' (th€{vomanthât heÈchild) With free nouns,a lrononinal po$esor È us€d{ith both personaìând ifrpeÌson8lnounsatter a noDnposesor: n€ni_i ti tò surâ{ ìen'i ti ÍJòsiyei
'thât aonân s husband(mân)
In connectionwith tìe semanticsoi relationâlnÕüns,it nrâ) be noted thât the usuâl expresionslor 'husband'and '$ile' aÌe the free nounslor 'Ínan'ând
216
ÂFtsrc^N L^Ncu^cE SrnLcr!ÂEs
'Noman. There is, ÌìoseÌeÌ, aÌsoâ reìâtionãlnoun which may b. üsed{ith a terson ot eth€r se\ as posxsor, 'spouse, Formal diteriâ âre better than se 8.5. The closingsenicnccof the precedingsectionmay also be consid€rcd the ih€meotthis section. lt hasbeenm€ntionedthât impe.sônâìrelationalnouDs ìn the lÍande Ìânguag.sincludeprimârily bodr parts and pìsce.elations. Plâce relationstypicauy includethe insideol somerhing,lhe top, edge,underside,vicinily, âreaâbo!e,ãnd sô Òn. Many wordsof this type are by târ most coÍnmooly usedslter anotìre.noun in conplementpositionâlter â verb. 8.9., vith t.âne lationsthât do lot reflectthe moÌphologiccâtegories ol Kpelle:
â tii kÉi'píêi rlá
'he\ *orking nr tÓwn' 'he\ wÒrkingneârthe hourc' 'he\ working on top of the hoNe' 'h€ s sorking iÍ (ündefthe ceilingbeams
'fhe wordsthãt end thesesentences, and a numberoÍ other wordsìike them, âre pa.alleledby Iocâtiveprêpositionso. prepositionâlphÌasesin English, ObseNjngonly this, stüdentsol oneor anotherMandelanguagehavesometimes called such words "pÌ€positions." \\ith â gÌeatcr sophisticâtionborn ol knosing Latin etymologics,nost autho$ of {orks on Mandeìânguages have calìedthem ''Postpositions," becâuse thet ãpp€aralter ratherthan beiorethe.oun vith which ther belong. Two very impoúârt poinls âre gen$âÌÌy oÌerlooLed,and overÌook ing them hâs se.iouslyimpededthe progressof would-belearne.soÍ a numberof 'Ihe first point is that â numberol theseso-câlled'postpositioN"aìsofuDction as oÌdinâry huúân or animal body paús. For exâmple,Kpelle /'pé.êi pôìu/ may generâllt'be tEnslated as 'bebindthe house,on the other side oÍ the hotrse', but /pôlu/ is alsoâ bodl pâú: /úpôh â sôÌii/ 'my bâck hürts. Similarly. /'p{âi lá/ is oiten the equiÌaleDtot at the house, but it .elers mo.e slecilicaìly to 'at the door oi the house';/lál reten to an opening,âÍd is âìsÕâ body pã.t: /tiá â sôlii/ 'my mouth hurts'. Onc may be surprisedat the further useof this /lá/ in /nyái lá/ 'st the Íiver'j /lál her€ ÌdeN to the openingmâde by a pãth through the lo.est o. underbÌushto the water'sedge. The secord point commonlyorerlookedis thâl aÌnost all oI the words in qüestion,even thosenot thoughi of as body paús in thê strict sens, mây âlso, with a posessor,be usedas the subjector object oI â sentence that is, jn âny typicál nominalusage. E.8. (sith someiÌreÌcvant moÌI,hophotrqic âlternâtion): and: neyii sDè liôi
'thereì cookedrice ìn the lot , 'the insidcoÍthe pot got dÌty , 'I washedthe insidcof it
hetwcenìody laús in the restrictedsenseand place Su.h semanti.ÒverÌaps Ìelations,and the freedomof usagcot phrasesendingwith the wo.ds in qu€stion,
2t7
NoNc.Àss NôlN SrsrrMs
cleârly esìâbìishthâl súch Íôrds ãr€ oÍdinarv relationalnouns. In uÌc câs. ol such ã nouú phrâseDsedâs â cofrplementâlter a v€.b, the pr€positionlikê.c lâtionshipis roi inherentin lhe relâlionâìnoún at âll, but rather in th€ position ol the noun phrâseârter the verb. In a seDtenceÌike /a tii kÊi taai sü/ h.\ {oÌking in town , it is nothingmorethân the syntacticpositionoi / taai sü/thâL reÌatesit to the action;a nore Íaithiul represcntationwoüld be hè is doingrork (at) the-town'sinside'. A numbe. oÍ süch relationâlnouns âre commonìyüsed as ve.bâl objects, nol only in Kpell€ bül in any Mâúdelànguâgejâ leÍ are roundonìy in this usagc. Sincethe pose$or oI a relationalnoun is identìcâlitr torfr with tlre object oI a verb. such nouns have commonlybeen intcryreted âs pârt ot lhe vèrb-some*hat like the prepositionalprefixesol verbsìn Germanic.presumably and {hât precedeshâs beenlaken as the object of the rerb rather than the I}osessorof a relationalnoun. In Kpell€,for exâmpÌe,the relationalnoun /süi 'inside (Íith r predictablealt€Ìnânt /sul) is used as tìre object oÍ â \.fb ikrlâi 'r.mov.'i thc combjnation/'su kúla/ is literally 'tâke our ì|s insìde, bül in iâcl ú.âns 'cxplàin iì'. In a cofrbinâtionìike /rìênii ti su kúlâ/ 'explainthat nÌatter', tìre common inte.prelâtion,undoubtedlyba*d on the siructüre oI tìre ÈngìisìrtrànsÌâtiôn, is ihât the constitu€ntsâre /dÌÊniiii/ 'that mauèr'ãnd Fu kúla/ 'explãin'. The interpretationinsistedón ìere ìs rather that the conslituoús are /Èenìì ti sü/ 'the inside ol tIât mattcr' and /ktrlâ/ 'remole . Like many such conbinâtiÕns, tlìis one is somewhat"idiomatìc"r that is. its specilicmeâningcannot bc conlidently predictedt.on à kno$tedgeof the Deaningsol the separateconstìtuents. Aü erâct granmâticâl pârâllel,ho$ever,is /àeyii li su wáâ/ \'âsh the insideof tÌ'at pot . in shich the idenliiicationoI the constituentsis reflectedalsoin trane Ìation. In Mende,âll súchcombinâiionsól relalionâì noun object $ilh verb ã.e {ritten âs sineÌewords, as il thc combinâtion a lerb ol $hich the preceding 's po$esor is the object. Sucha distoúion ot the gramnrar ceúainly servesno useful purpos€in $riting lôr nàtivc spcâkers,ând is doNnrighlmisleâdingto tle ün sophisticatedlearne.ol the lânguâge.Although recedit.eâtmenlsotNÍeüde(e.g., Innes l9lì3) aroid suchnailete, it unlortunatelyremainstÌüe thât too mãn} socaìledgrãfrúâs ol Àtricân Ìanguagesare Ììtllc more lhar S.annârs oI English traDslationsof utteÌancesin this or that language In the caseof a relatiônâlnouü shich is usld onlt as the object oi â !e.b, il undcrelaDd.blcthat the analysisis not immediatelyapparent. Sucha casc is 's the Kpelle relàtionãlnoun is.ìã/ as object ot lh. v.rb /6ót; r'sôb 6ó/ nÌeans 'r€ceile it'. btrt /$Ìr/ is not Iound in any other coDbinationand no ìnd€pendcnt meaningcan be assignedto it, xhile /6ó/ appearseìsewhererÌith the meâning 'breâk open, leak'. \'hich hârdly seemsappli.âbìè io this coúbinâtioí. Yct the supeúiciâllt allraciive interpretâtionof the combinationas a one-poÌd!€rb is ìndelensible,For oDething, there âre no other tìì.ee-s)llableverbsin rhe language. ìlore imlortântlt, tone plâysân jmportánt rclc in the v€.bâl Dorphology of KpellÈunlikc Mendeând Loma. In this conrbination.onll /6ó/ ìs aflected by ìhe tone rules lor verbsj hâs its Òwnindependenttore ìikc.nI noun. ^rlr/
21 8
AFucaN L^NGU^GE SrRUduÀEs
A conìpìetelyanâlasousa.Sumenthas been âppÌied to lhe ânâlysisoI simitar combidarionsin Mano and Dã, Ìânguâges âs distântìy relátedto Kpelle as is po$ For M€ndeand BambaÌâ. I hâve hea.d ârgunÌentsto lhe elleci thâi some morphemescannot be interpretedas reÌationalnouns,but do indeediau jnto a clâssot "postpositions." In the caseof Mende,it hâs beensâid that foÍnàt distiúctions belweenbody pâús ând poslpositiônscân be defined. I am Íot Êúflici€ntly acquâintedsjth either Mende or Bamba.a to catego.icauystate thãt all suchfoÌms areÌelsiionel nouns,âs they cìearlyâr€in Kpellc,butit seemscì€Àr that their ãnalvsisas r€lâtionalnounshas not ben adequateìyexpÌo.ed, It mãy be, ol couse, thât theseând posibÌy other Mandelânguagesdo have a separate morphological.lass oI postpositions, but suchan analysissÌtouldrotbe accepted on sup€riiciâlgrounds. In any case,. distinctionbet{een what is hêreÌÀb€lÌed Iree and relationalnounsseemsto be basicto Mande noun syst€ms. 8.6. ThetypologicaÌdifferencebetweenúounsysremsin the Mând€lãnguages and noun cláss and concord systemsin other NigeÌ-Kordolanianlanguagesis not, of cou.f, to be construedas im!Ìying thãt theselanguagesa.e unreÌated. Negativeevidenceof this so.t p.oves nothing àt all about relatìonship. 'lhere âre, in iact. a numberoi detâilsin noun-cìass lânguages, ànd ií languags which sho$ clearveúigesoI noun-cìa$systems,whichparall€lleaturesor thenoun sye tems lound in lÍande. In Bântu, lor exampìe,kinship terms aÌe lrequently a recognizablyspeciâltype ôl noun, âppea.irgin classesla and 2â râther than i! I and 2 as other personalnounsdo. Lo@tive notrnssuch as words lor 'inside and top arc comÌnoDlyreslrictedto clâss9- CÌassesltj, 17,ând 18 alsodeúonstrâte â spccialtreâtmentoí locatives. PaiÍed body parts hây typicauy be Íound in clâ$ 15. Such restrictionssuggestthãt the distinctionÌellectedby frêe and relãtionâlnoúdsií Mândeis no strangerto NigeÈKoÍdofaniân. In itseÌI, this is nothing sensâtionâÌ.Distinctionsor ãomesort between, rÕughly,aliemble ând inalienâblepossesionsâre commonin Ìanguãgêsâll ove. tÌìe {o.ld- ID Drivate conveÌsation.Kenneth L. Pike hâs noted à rcúârkâble siúilâdt) IÌctweenMande ând Mâyân in this respect. when {orking with langúâgesbelievedon other groundsto be .elated,however,it is üsefuÌto obseÌve ând even to seekparalleltìsagesor this sort. In Jukun (Diyj) theR are t$o setsoi protrominalpos*ssive lornrs,the úses ofwhich distinguishâ nunbe. of (but âppârentìynot all)Ìinship ìems lmn otheÍ phrâses: nouns. Comtare the loìloNing setsof possessire
'youÍ (ss.)lriend 'you.(pÌ.)rÍiend'
219
NoNcLÀss NouN SlsÌEMs
The posssile torms on the right are cleârlythe simplerset. Ìhey are sêgúêntâlly idênticâlwitì the Ìerbal subj€ctpro.ouns,but incìudea morpheóeoI high tone replacingstem tone lhe sl€nrtone is low in th€ li.ú t{o, büt nid in the rest. The possesiveloms on the leit shôw no diúincÌion in the lirú ?cBon singülar. The secotrdând thnd pe6ônsplural clea.ly sho* a linking morphefre /bu/i the Ì.naining fo.ns âre unqueúionabìytÕ be anâlFed as Ìhìs sâm. /bu/ combiningwith the âppropriatepronoun. The moÌpheme/bu/ may be â rôün referringto thing or 'possession i in a consÌructionwith the identilier /á/, cônpãre /á bu bé/ 'it is theiÌs'. Th€ possesi!€toms on Ìhe right âboveâ.c record.donly with nounsmeaning 'lâthe., frôthe., husbând,$ile, sibling,lri€nd', not âs might b€ €xpecledwith â Iorú jn the sâúe seúànric.âregôry, ólder brother'. Fürthef, lhere arc othe. form, meâÍine 'lather' and 'mother'which are not uwd with thesepossessivesi the foÌÌovins aìternâtivesare recordedl Li be yè bé
'their iâther' 'th€ìr mothe.
'fhê lirst ot eachôl lhesepâüs âppeâh to be more conÌmon.and âhô rtorc in IoÌmãl. Thereisevid€ncetìâtihesecond connotesnore Ìespecti.lukúnChristians insiston /tá i/ our Fath€r' in r€te..nceto God. In ex!Ìessionsof poss€ssion ãnd other associâtion{ith nounsrarher than in âll câses.E.9., pronÒuns,/bu/ is comnonly us€d,ând âppârenìlyis pcrmissible 'thãt peNon\ sibling' 'his sibìing') 'lhere are sone combinations,howerer,in shich /bu/ may readily be omitted These do not invoÌve kinship ternrs, but do appearto involve especiaììyclose
yô kà
'thê insid. of town, in town
Thus, ãlihoughthè distinctionbetweensoDethinglike aÌienablyand inalienably posse$ednounsis far Ìessdeveìopedjn Dìyi than in the MÀndelanguages, there âre cl€arcâsesot such â contrast. the sl€m lorm oi ifr8.7. lt has been noted tìat, in the Màndelânguages. peÉonal nouns has â gcnericreference,not speciticallysiDgularor plural, but thât it is possibl€to expre$ indiriduâted plu.alizatìon. P€rsonalnouns,on the othe. hând. are singularunle$ pÌurality is sp€cilied.A siDilar cônirastis Iound in a number ol otheÌ Ìânguâgeswhich. though they dispÌâyvestigesÒI â noun ctasssyúem, do not have afiix-marÌed siúgulârand IrÌurâl forms. My liNt €xFrience in teachingYonrba was with â native sPeâkerNho! through no laült of hjs ovn, kne{ even Ìes ãbout langúâgesin generaÌìhân I knes abúut his Ìânguâg.in !ãrticulâr. The lirst severalhoursol inst.uctionwere
220
ÀFÂrc^! LtNcú^cE SÍÂucnREs
devÒtedio drills designedto teâch âccu.acyin the recogÍitionând Ìeproduction ol lonâl contÌasts. The d.üÌ ftâteriaì consistedof v€ry shoú sent.n@s,otre oI the ti.st Õrwhicì wâs /no Ìi âjál, vith the eloss I sawa dog . Alter having said it fôr Ìhe studentsto Ìepeat severâltih€s, the idformânt sidled up to me and *hisper€d."You know, thâl doesn't reâlly neãn I sãs 3 dog ; it m€ans I sâw dog."' My reply was, "I know what you neãn. but uDloúunately I sas dog' is not an Engìish sentence.Let's leaveit as it is, becauseiI I ask€dyou whât yÕü had seen,and you hâd âctúâlly sêêna dog, you would ündoubtedlysây /no ri ajá/." Therecouldhârdly be â nore explicit demonstrâtionol the gene.ic to specifysinguÌarity, characteroI simpÌenounsin YoÌubâ. lf it ìs leÌt necessary the numeraÌ 'one' can be used. Such nôn-pesonâìnounsmn âlso,ho{ever, be precededby the thÌd pe6on pluraÌ pronoun to Iorm pÌ'raseslike /àwqn ajá/; as in Mande,howe!€r, such phrâsesexpres not nerely pluralizstionbut indi liduâtion. Ii one hâd seen tìree dogs together, he wouÌd süÌ in alÌ prcbality say /mo ri ajá/i /àwen âjá/ refeÌs to sone dogs ÕDtoI a laÌgeÌ posibÌe The pronoun iàwa./ is also ukd beloÌe personâÌnouÍs. Àlthough the dissuchlhrases tinclion is not as clea. in Yoruba as it is in the Mandelanguages, a.e oiten Ìrrelerredin contexÌswheretheir impeFonaÌcounte.partsaÌe consideÌed quite unnecessary; the relerenceseemsto be mÍch clóserto siúple pìurâlüât!ôn than is the càse{ith impersonâÌnouns. In the caseot lgbo, a distinctionmúsì lirú be madebetweeninanimateând âniúât. nouns. Inanimatenounsare genenc;in alnost âny context,/éléré/mây reler Ìo 'a dish' or 'dishes',or 'the dish' or 'the dishes', Àn individuâtedpluÍâl by âdding /údi/: /éléréódi/ ceúâin dishes, /éÍérèídi à/ these cân b. expressed ãnimãtenôünsmây be usedsith modifi€Nspecifyingplurâlity, NoDpersonal süch âs nun.raÌs highe. thân 'one'. OtheNise, however,an üúfrôdiÍied loun in this câtegoryis speciÍicalÌysirgulari /ó hÈrü éwú/ is onÌy he s{ â goât. Pluralizãtiônis expressed by i únì/ betoresucha nou!: /úmÈé wú/ goate. Tltis /úmü/ is also tie wôrd tor posesed offsprins: /úmü yá/ 'Ìris/herchildren,its young'; the corcspondingsinguìâris /Ìl{á/: hwá 'yá/ his/h€r child, its (one) young'. In constÌrction with â nón-pêÍsónâlânimâte noun, /!wá/ indicat€sâ singÌeyoung specimeD:/!wá e'wú/ 'a young goât'. Bút /únü e'sú/, the âpparent pìurâ1,doesnot speciÍyage;it is nerely â !Ìu.al. A Íew ?e6onal nounsbehavesoÍneshâtsinilar\, büt there is ã siÉnüicânt disliú.rion in lhât only the pluml may be usedwith a modilier specifyiÍg!Ìuràìity. The singuìâr lorms ol tso of these are unquestionably derived l.om lhÌâses beginningwith hwá/ 'child', but this hâsbêcomean intagÌaÌpart of thesewords, and their pìu.als aÌe exprssed by /únü/ beIorethen:
pl.: ptl
NoNcLÀssNoa
221
SYsrEMs
In two otìer cases, the singularmay optionaÌlybepreceded by /ÍJwá/iagainthe plu.alis fomed with /úDÈ/. Ìn thesê,the word/óbyà/,*ith no s€párât.lyidcntifiâblemeaDing, is alsooptional.ThesesÌe: òkóró(óbyà)-{wá 'ókóró(óbyà) !1.: ú'nú ókóú (óbyà) àsbóehó(óbyà)-!sá'áebóehó(óbyà) pl.: ú'mú'ágbó'ghó(óbyà) Thr€ewordsÍor 'child' (unpossessed) âre âlsoderivedtrom phrasesbeginning {ith /ÌlÍá/, with elisionol ihe fjrst sylìâbleof the s€condwo.d in the underlying phÍases.The coÌrespondingplurals are luu phrasesbeginnidgsith iúmür:
!wátàkiri
pt:
úmüútàki.i
TheÌe a.e a few similar phrasesb€ginningwitÌì /Ìl{á/ vhich show no elision; these âlso pluÌâlizewith /úmÈ/. ÂlÌ of tìese ÌeÍer to young peopÌe. E.e., Ìlwá ákwúkwó
'student',
plr
úfrÈ ákwúk$ó
Another pìural iormâliÒnâptìies to a lew other persônâlnouns. For thes€, unliÌe the types desoibedâbove,lhe singularloún is usedvith modifieB speciIyiÍg pluÌâlity. If such â nÕdilier is nÒt present,pìúràlsot lhe* âr. elpre$€d by the morph€me/ídi/ beÍore the noDn; coúpare the use describedabove oÍ /ódi/ âneÌ ãn inânimatenoun to iorn an individuâtedpÌural. The teNonal nouns .ecordedoI this type are: pl.: ókiìbìri
pL:
ÌÍdi óLÍibirì
Àlthough/údt usedalso{ith inanimetenouns(but alte.them, nÕtbeto.e), 's its undeüing relerence is personâI. In noün phrases,inclúdingnounsaith Ì* lative modiliers,a word /ónyé/ is usedfor 'a peson , and /ídi/ is its suppletive plurâI. E.g., pl.: údi ó'rú 'work': ónyéó'rú 'workmân', óú perion pÌ.: ídi byáni ónyé 'byáii 'the who came'. Apart Írom noun classsystems.theretore,the ìÍând€ distinction between individüâtednon-peNoDalnouDsand plu.alizedpeÌsonalnounsis rcfìecl.d also ìn other bÌânchesof tìe NigeFcongofàfrily. a.a. The AÍ.o-Asiâüclângrâgesdispìâyâ type ôl noninâl frorphoÌogyquite difíerent frón {hat hâs been desúibed for the Niger-Kórdôlânianlanguages, Typical ol Afro-Asiâticlanguagesis a two-gend€rsyst€m.reflectedin the torús of nounsand in pronominâlrelerentslor them, ând coísiderabìe.ônplexity and Íregulârity in noun pÌurâlizâtion. Eâch of the gendersin.ludcs a semantically misc€ÌláneÕus âsÕúnent Õfiúânimatenouns,but almostwithout ex.eptionnouns Ìefening to maÌepesons or animah belongsin onêgender, ând nounsreleniDgto
222
ÀFRrc^N L^NLU^cE SrÂucÍuREs
Iemalepersonsor animalsin the otheri the latter distinctionjustiíies rhe hbels "masculine"ând "leminine." Sâhowill be tâken âs a .epresêntative 0I the Cusìitic Ìanguages GeeWeÌme.s jndetend€nt pronominaì refeÌent is 1952b). For mâsculinesingulârnouns, the /úsnk/ 'he, it'j for feninine singDlârnotrnsit is /ise/ she,it'. À thiÍdpeNon plural pronoun, ol which the independentfom is /úsuni 'they', is usedonly with referenceto pe$onaÌ nouns. CônpaÌable"plural" forms ol impersonâlúoúnsúse siúgnlârpronominaìrelerênts,and thus tâll into the singularCenders. A word in Sahomay be st esed on âny sylÌaòlêexcêptthe lást, or may have no stre$. Nouns rith stressare.€3ulaú mâsculine.Nounswithout st es ând with â ÍinaÌ consonantârè usuallymâscúline;therê are sofr€ exeptions, most oÍ them recognizâbÌy adâptâtionslrom Arâbic feninine noüns. Noünswithout stress ând wiih a finâl vo$eì âre regularlyfeminjne;i! â few apparentexceptionslik€ /abba/ iather', the presenceoÍ the Íinaì rowel is conditionedby the pÌecediÍg Nouns that are stresed (and rhereloremascüline)ând have a ÍinaÌ vowel hâve â súbjectto.ú in distinctionfÍom â generalform; the subjectiorm is unstressed,and the finaÌ voweÌof the generaÌÍorn is replocedby /ii. E.8., lntersectiíg the distinction ol gendeF. nouns ÍaU iDto three categorieson ôther fornâl grounds. Firú, lhere âre, in êacì gênder,mâs nounswhich hâve oDly oDeIo.m. E.9.. gádda
(D.) wealth
Second,there are genericnouns,which in their sìem íôrú indicate ân unspeciliedquântitl. t'rom thes€,unit Íorms âre derivedby suffixation,indicãting i singlespecimen.Ther€ a.e two Ìnit surrixes,i-toi and /-ta/. with a few êx' ceptionsfor each,/-to/ is usedif the last vosei oI the stemis /a/, ãnd /-tã/ if the Ìâst vowelol the slem is anythiÍg eìse.B€loreeitherol thesesuffiues./y/ is added alteÌ a stemjìnal vowel. Unit forns appeâriÍ either gcnder;thè choicecannot !e pÌedickd rtun the genderof the stem or in àny other wây. In â few ca$s, both a masculineand â t€minineunit fÕrm are de.ived Ircm the samestem, indicati'Ìg sex differen.esahoc appropriâte,but âlsooth€Ì ditte.ences.Examples oI senericnounsand nnit derivstivesâre: (m.) 'sn onion baúlto (m.) (f.) bi.siq melons biraiqto 'a meìon' 'tvins' (i.) gàÍgáyro (n.) â twin E^4a (L) 'a pieceÒrmeãt' hadoyta râryà baryáyto (m.) ã mateEla\e {1.) sìâves' (1.) baryayto 'a fenale sìãvê pepper' !ârbâre (f.) bârbÀréyra (n.) 'a pepper' baÌbareyta (f.) 'â pepperplÀnt' Third, th€re are unit nouns{hich have singularând plurâl fórms. lf süch nouns âre listed in groups,süch thât âll nouDsin eachg.ou! sÌ'ov the sâInere-
223
NoNcr^ss NolN SrsÌEús
lâtionshipbetweentheir singularand pluml Íorms, there are orer thirlv g.outs ôf uÌit nôuns, pÌus â nunrberoI idiosyn..!üc nôunsinclL,dingsom. with süppÌetive pÌurals. With the exc€ptionoI thê ìâtter, ho{ever, thesenounsshowÍour mâjor typ€s oÍ pluÌaÌization:by internal vowel replacement.b,! sDUixing/-iti, by suÍIixiDg/-âl, ând by inliring /-á-/. Io ã lârgeeiteÍt, the choiceamongth€se fÕurtypes is detemìred by the structu.eoI th€ singülar,but tìere are â núfrber oI nouns,pâúicuÌã.ly sith thtrals of the liÌst two tyÌrcs.Íor whi.h the chôiceis ÌexieÌly determiDed.PÌuralsNith the suflix /-al are leminine(andgmnmaÌicâlly singüìâr€xceptfoÌ pereonals).ÀÌl otherplurâlsâremâscúline(ahÕgrâmmaticâlly singulaÌexceptror pe*onals),and with the exceptionoI a reN nounsin one subtype the pluraÌ lorns âre stresed on ihe nêxlto-Ìâú svìlàble. lnternal lowel replac€mentis the predominanttÌural iormation lor singular foÌms tlat haÌe tvo or more voa€h beforethe last (but Dot nccessaÌiÌyÍinâl) consonânt!thê Ìaú of which is iâl, tor singulaftormssith on€ voNeÌ{hich is inherôntly slÌort, and ror other singularto.ms wìth linaÌ /a/ or iol. The replacjve vowel is most cômúonly /o/, but there ârc soóe cas€sin whi.h it ìs ru/, ji/, Õr /e/; under most ci.cunstanc.sthc choie is lexicaìly dcternined- The ioÌìowitrg examplesincÌudeonly nounsìvilh two or mo.e vorvelsbelorethe last consonant in the singuÌâr.the last oÍ them /a/. and $ith the Ìast consonantalso ÍinaÌ; /ei is nót attestedâs â repláciverow€l in this type: arat, á.ot bed mabrad,mábrod lile sáI.Ìsâì, sáiÌsot roastinspân sraL. aruh Load qârâqâi, wâráqiÌ 'pieccof paper' AÌthoughthe lâú ol iheseis, in its singuìârtorn, ãdoptedirom Arâbic (ând, incidentaÌÌy,f€minine),the plural is not Arabic. The sameis t.ue oi tlÌe pair /Iãras, láaÍis/ 'hohe', which aìsoshowsa lexicâllycondition€dvo$eÌ lengtheningin the For singüla6vhich hâve rwo or more lo$els belorerhe last cónsonant,tle Ìâst ol ther! not necessarily /a/, ând which âlsohaÌe a finaì vo\Íel, idle.nrì vôwel Ìeplacementope.atesin the saDe{ay, but in âdditionthe iinâl loNcl oI ihe sin gúlardoêsnot âppesrin the pìuâì. Fôr lhis rest.ictedtype, the.eplâciveis usually, but not entirelyregularly,iol ror /a/, a.d /o. u. i. e/ ior thcDsehes;in the laiteÌ câses,tìe replac€mentas suchhâs a zero eÍect. ExampÌesâre: 'lip yangula,
yángul
hâsângaÌe, m.úúcel
224
AFRrc^N L^!cu^c€
SÌHUcÍuREs
Ii the singulaÌendswith a codsonântcìüsterlôllowedby i a/ or /o/, inte.nal voveì replâcefrentâttuaììy takesthe lorm ot i.Iixing the loseì betweentìe con sonantsol tìe clEier, and droppjnglhe lìnal !o*el. ll.g..
b'rit gúnde,
'log
It the singüìa.has oDly one lowel. inhereDtlyshort, and a linal consonant, internâl roNel replâcementagâintikes the form of infixâtion,betweenthe vo\r€Ì and finâl consonânt.Thereãre onìy à rery few suchfo.ú.tiÕns; e.g.,
Othd pluraÌizâlionsNhich úây be âsigded to the sâne generaÌtype involve reduplicationof the last consonantol the singuÌar. Any voweÌmay âppeâr beforcthc tinaì redupìicâtedconsonântin the pÌürâI,thoughagâinitìs most comnonìy /ó/; it È ônly tartially predictable. Most singülaÉwith this type ol pìu' râlization have Iinaì vowels,but a few are ìnonosyllabl€s with Iinal consonantsj tle latter hsvc pìurâlswhich, unlike àÌl other masculineplurâls,afe unstresed. Thesenounsrefer predominanuy,though not exclusively,to body parts ând kiúshìDterns. Exâfroìesâ.e:
illa,
gábob ilÌaÌ
'spring
AI,
lhe secondtyp. ol pluraììzâtionis by sullixing /-it/. Àll singuÌâFthat plu.alizein this way havea linaì vosel. ll the singuÌâ.is mâsculine,as mÕstof them âr€, the suliix / iii rêplâcesthe finâl vo{el. In ihe livê reco.dedcasesin which the singuìaris leminine,the suffix eplâces the final vowel in one, foìloss it in two, ând âppeârsâiter an ãlternâdt Íom of the stem in two. The pluÌah Gtres sed)ãre mascuÌinein aÌl cases.Exaúpl€s âft: m, s.:
L s.:
alténta, disti, siil€, úaxâdda, nallâdâ, l',ada,
alléntit distit siilit haxáddii mauadáit ìódit
'lid 'pan 'pictuÌe 'pilÌow' 'tree
22;
NoNc!^ss NouN SysrEMs
The third type ol pÌuralizationis vith a suiÍix /-a/; Ìhesepluruh, unlike âìl others,are teminin€. Ì'o a largc extent but not pithout exception,Ìhe singulaÉ {hich pluralize in this say dilÍe. ü their segmentalstructure hoÍn singulârs which ìake the li.si 1$o typ€s of pìurâlizalion. For exampìe.a majorily ol lhe singula.sNith pluraÌsin /-a/ hâle tsÕ or nore voveìs ând a linal consonãnt,but the lãú vowel is not /a/; ii it were.?htralizationby vowel rcplaccdediwould be typical, Som€otler singülârshâvesbuctúres$hich pemit any oI the li.sr three types ol pluraÌizârion;thè chôic€is lexi.allt dete.nÌined. Álternationsin the stem are common. Exãfrples âre:
dik, gádi, 'dog' ïhe fouúh lype oÍ pluraÌizâtionìs bt inlirâlion, usuaÌlyNiih sonreâdditional alternation.'lheinÍixis/á/o./áaijnnostcâsesritìsinsert€dbet{eentNoconsoíânts oI a DediaÌ cluster,or in â tèr câsesalter oÌ beforea singìe con'ned'al and sonant. This type ol plú.âìizatìonresemblesâ lype lound also in Arâbic, someÒIthe singularsare cleaÌÌyadoptcdÍ.om ÀÌabjc. Ìhejdonotall,ho$€vcr, appeaÌto be iníances ol âdôptingboth the singulârand pluraÌ loÌms. Examtles
rng
smellsubtypeol pluràlswjlh inlix âreexceptionallylemiÌrine,and alsohâ\'e ^ /i/ o. /ci, shich in a re$ casesis the sãmeâs Ìhe endine oÍ the singulá.. â suÍfix
'kid
226
ÀrH,c^N LNG!ÁcE
SÌRlcruÁEs
\Yithìn the r.amesork of theselouf typcs ol pluraÌizâtior,ìhere is a tairly largenumberoi nounswhich dhpìây somelexìcauydeterDinedinegularity apoú from the tlural aflix. ln addition, there is a iâi.ly smaìlnumbef ol nounswhose llural loms do not lit into any ot th€selour typesin any way. For sone of these, the singutârãnd plu.al lorms a.e paúially similar; in other câss tlì. pÌural is suppletive. Exonples are:
8,9, In the tserberbrãúch ôl the Àfro-Àsiaticfamily, the complicationsoí Doun nôrphology are someshatsimilaÌ.à Belo.e discusing genderand pluraÌization, hoNever,it is Õl inferest ro dote thàt kidship terms lom â speciâlcìa$ ot nouns- ln iwo st.iking.espects,thei. behaviorresembles that of kinshiptêrms in tlÌe Mandelangüâges.Sucha similârity ÌÌrust not, lo be sDrê,be taken as evidencc oI li.guistìc.elationship; the typolog'câl simila.itiesare of a sort thât tìight.rot up in languages elsewhere in the sorld, ând therearealsogrammatical difier.ncesthât should not be olerlooked. Most kinshiptermsinBerberbeginwith a consonânt, while other nounsìegin silh a rowel, or $ith a temiline prefix loììo\íedby a vowel. Kinship te.ms âÌe nol úârked ror gender. Posesilc pronounsused with kìnship tems aÌe difierent lrom those usêd$jrh orher nÕuns;lo. ât leâsl somepronouns,the same ìs t.uc in lhe \Íânde lãnguâges, but ror impersonalas weu ãs peÍsônâlrêlational nouns. Fuúher, ior kinsh'p terms aÌone,a redundant third pereonlossessive pronounis uscd$hen â noün pose$or is erpresed; in )Íande, this is true of pe.sonâlbut not impersonalrelâtionalnoüns,thoughit ìs alsot.ue oI all free Íôuns, E.9.. Berber /babâ/ lãth€r'iákes tÍre pôssessive sullix /'t his , ând is linked to /uryâri nàn' in thc ph.ase /baba-s n-uryas/ 'thê mânt fâih€r'. (Mande has prelixed pronouns,the r€vemeword order, and no marker oI the pÕssessive @nin Cushilic, úâsculine ând feninine geddc$ âre morphologicallyând ^s sjntactically distinguishedin Berbe.. In addition tô designâtingt€malesex,the Ìlerb€r tenìininêgendernrâyindicateã diminütive. In âddition,a mâsculinenoun mat be gcnedcin neâning, sith a derivedfemiDinenounindicatingaurit oI the genusiin Saho,as has beennoted.the generic-unitdistinctiondoesnot conelate with gender,but the.e is a compâ.âblederirâÌive tormation, With very les exceptions,mascuìinenonnsbeginNìth a rowel /a/ in aboüt eighìy percentoI the cas€s./il in Dost ot lhc rest, ând /u/ a Ìelatir€Ìy les. The initial vosel is ãn'n Nith a IeninÌne preJix/t-/toUowedby rllzcd âs a pÌelix. Femìninenounsbegin one oI the sâú. rosels, with âbout lhc sane Ìelative l.equency. ('lheseare the t rììc fouo{ins ritârn.nt
ol BerbeÌ noun noÌphology ìs bâsedon â pi€llninarv ontlìne T a m r z 'g ì i . l h c í a t c s . r c r hvê attrnptcd lo rcÍlne the anelysisin a Íev deraik, and tdÌc
227
NoNc!ÁssNouN SrsEús
only vowel lhonemesin the Berberlanguâges;ih..e is âìsoa shwâwhoseôccür rerce is predìctâble.)NÍosilêmininenotrns,csp.ciaìlyÌhosedcrivcdlron corêe pondingmâsculineíorms,âlsohâre a süIlix /-t/ in th€ singuìâr,thoüghnot jn the pÌu.al. TlÌus typicaì mascuÌin€J€nininepâús are as foìlÕws;the specitictorms in this seclionã.ê lrofr lãmâzight, and the predictableshwa is ind;catedby â taÌfult tâxamt tiz.mt
'fcmaledonkq 'smalltent' lione$
'Ihere are, of couse, óâny nouns in eâcl gender *irhout conterpâ.tsin the other; c.g., Ìnâsculine/âlüd/ 'mud', teÌninine(sithout sutrix) /iig.nmi/ tent Four mechãnisms âpârt lrom the automâÌicâbsnce oi thc i€lnininesullil pìúrals are lound in the fomation ol pluÌsh fronr singulâÉ. Theseare in /-tl prelix vowel âlÌernâtion,sullixâüon, vo{€l .lternalion in the sÌè'n, ând tenFÌaÌ âìternâtionin consonãnts.'Ihe vaú mâjoriiy ot nôuns sho{ bouì pretix vowel alternationand sufiìxaiion,bui therc arc âlso otìrercombìnationsôI t$o ot the lÒür n,echanisms, and alsocombinationsol three and of ãll fôür. In adthougìr dition, eachof the nechanisnshasl$o to severaÌsurÍacemaniiestations, sôúe óIthe distincÌionsmightbe collapsed by mo.phothoneÌìicstatements.Thus tìê pernutãiions ãre very numerous. In terns of süriâcetorms, 86 ditierent pÌurâì lormationsare attestedin â corpusol 433 masculin€nouns,and 53 in â corpusot 200 feminìnenouns. ìÍan_ÌoI the loÌmationsapFar in only oúe noün, ând onÌy â Íea in úÕre thaDten. Yet there is nruchDore regularìtyihan sücha statemeDtsuggestsì one combinâtionaÌoneaccounislor 169oi tììe 'l33masc{line noüns,ând one for 75 of the 20! Iemininenouns. The amount ot .eetrlârity.as welÌ as the po$ibilities of variett, will be evident irom a brieÍ suDDÌaryol the Iour mechanisms loünd in ihe Íormâtionof plürals. ln the totâl co.pusof 642nouns,th€ singulâ.preÍix vowelis /a/ ìn 505câses, /ii in 111,ãnd lü/in 26. Il the sinsDlãrtreÍix lovel is /â/ or /ii, th€ plurãl preiix lowel is /i/ in the last majorib oI cases,/a/ in a Ie{, and /u/ in only Õne. Ii the singnlarpreÍix vo*el is /u/, lhe pìuràl pretia ro{el ìs resulâ.ìyiuJ asweÌI. These fâcts hale beendescribcditr terms oI 'alt.mâtions" oi /ã/ to /i/. /a/ to iu/, âúd /i/ to /â/, plus 'no âlte.nation"ror eâchor the three Ìos€ls. Ìt seefrspreierable, howerq, to group logetheraÌl appea.ances oI the predominânt/i/ in the plural, all app.arâncesol the müch les l.€quent /à/, and àll âppea.ânces oÍ /u/; aÌl but oneol the last are .eguÌar.corresponding to /u/ ìn the singular. Most Tamâzightnouns€nd with a consonant,ând the !âst Ínãjority tãke a súlfix in the !lüraì. For suchcorsonânüiúâl nouís, the masculin€ptuÌal sullix (iÍ usedat aU)is r€euìarly/-Dl; the femininepluraÌ süIlix is iegülârly / in/. Thus the úost cÕn,honpìürâl lormâUonis with the pÌefix vovet /i/ and the sullii âp
228
ÀFR,C^N La\üL'^cË
SÍRL'cÌukEs
propriate to either gendêr. This cÒúbinâlionis foúnd sith orer foúy perceít ol âÌì nÒuús.An €xampleIo. eâchgend€Ìis: Ìaxâmt.
tixamin
Á numberol orh€r nounsnây be anâÌyzedãs having finâl !Òwelsin the singülãr,ând o.e oI threepluralsullixesiD eachgender:nasculinei-w.n/,fy.n/, /t.n/, leminine/ vin/, /-yin/. /-tini. In most sucl cases,howere.,it would sen preÍeF able to analyzethe /*1, iyl, or itl ôf rhe âppa.enìpìüral sufiires as belongiDgto the úêm, aDdas havingdroppedvhen no sullix ioÌlowsithis ana\sis is support€d do nol âppeâr{ordjinaìly âfter lowels dcept by the fâct lhâl rh€scconsonants âs Ìhc rcsult oÍ Ìdativell recent secondarydeÌelopnrentsiand this ânãÌysisis lirtually Ìequired in the hânI câses*here theseconsonantsâppearalso belore the teninine suiÍìx /-t/. In such cases.Ìh€n, the pluÌaÌ sütfix€sâ.e the regular /-n/ and /-ini. lhis $ould accounttor a nunber or s€tslìke the following: am-ksã, tân-ksawt, uska, tuçkayt, tanutt,
im.ksa{.n tim.ksasin uskay.. tuFkayin anut,n tanutin
The.e àre, hover€r, sôhe casesjn *hich this ânâlysiscâníôt be màde, becausethe exp€ctedconsonantdoesnot appearin a f€miÍine siú8ulâÌ íorm. I.or suchcâses,it would âppeârthât the threepluÌâl sullixeslor €achgendeÌ,as cited above,must ìre posiredâs dbtinct from the nomal /-n/and /-in/. Somenou.s, all nìasculineand haÌing a ÍinaÌ consonantin the singulâr,appcâ. to have pl'ìraÌ snltix€s/-an/, /-aw.n/. or /-iw.n/. ln thesecarcs,howev€Í, th€ lovel of thê ap!ârênt sulÍix câ. mo.e convênientlybe treated as â úâniIestâtionof !ô$el alternâtiônâs descÌibedbelov, in vhich cas€ìhe plurâl suÍfixes as suchwould òe regüIa.. lnterlockingwith thc threeway disr'nctionol plürâl prelix v.wel and the variety oI po$ible sullix€sor the non-useof a suffix, ìs ã thi.d mechanismloünd in pluÌâl lomationi vow€Ìâlternaüon. PÌuÌâlswith suffjxes.ãs describedabove, may âìsohâle vow€Ì âÌternâtion;pìuralsNithoüt suflixesinraÌiâbly do. VoÌtel âlternârion,if it âppeârsât all, müst ãpp€âr€ither âlter or bêloreth€ lâst consonant of a st€m; there Day then also be alte.natior oÍ an earliervowel. Thè alternationmay be betweenâíy voçel in lhe singülârând aíy other vowel o. z€ro in Ìh€ pluraì, or beÌveen zero in tle singulâ.and âny roweÌ in the !Ìural; â {ide !ârieiy of.oúbiúaìions is lound, búì ìh€ con)monesr oc.uÌrencesâre /a/ ôr zerÒalte. the lâst cônsonantin the pìurâl, and /ul betorethe lâst consbãnt. À iew ol the Bany posibilities ol losel âÌt€ÌnationaÌe illustÌâtedin the folowing singuìaFplural!ai.s:
229
NoNcr^ss NouN SYsrrMs âkurdi,
il.rgân
tpring' '*âlì'
tislit,
ln a iew nouDs(17 in the corpu9, in addition to sullixatioDor vosel alleÈ nãtion oÌ both, but not independenìlyÒt both, plur!Ììzâtionis cha.acterizedÌ,y and laxncs in thc secondconsonantol the róót. Il an âlternâtionol tenseness the consonantinvohed is linal in the singulâr,the âliernâtionis belw€ena lâx consonantin th€ singulàrând â tcnse.onsonantin ihe Plu.al. li tlÌ€ consônâtr| involled is not tinaÌ in the singulsr, lhe óppôsiteâli.rnâtion âppcas. A re{
iyil.
iÍ.uân In addition to genderãnd numberdistinctions,one fuÌther aspectof Berber noun morphologyb noÌthy or note. For any noun. singuÌâror pìural, there âre two lo.ns (which hâppenro be identicalfor a lew types oI nount Nith dilf€renr gramÌrãticaÌÍunctions. FolÌowingthe tcrminolÕgyÌông usedjn desc.ibingthe the* âre knôNn às the "absoÌutestate" and the "construcl Semiticìangüâg€s, siâte"j in boih their lorm ând their iunclion, hoveÌer, the.e ãre striking dill€. encesbetw€enBerber and Semitic. The te.m "conúruct" has to do Nith "conshuctions"; the constru.t stâle is usedwhen a noun is Dsedin a parti.ular graú DaticâÌ construction. In Ììerber, unlikc Scmitic, â construcl âppearsaftcr anôther sÕrd in certâin construcÌions,and is distinguìsìedfroDrthe absolütebI a difierenceât the beginningÕt th€ noun. ln lanâzight, tbe ditterencebetweenthe absoluteaDdconstructlorms is in the ÌoweÌ prelix. Irboth thesingularandtle pÌuraì\o$eÌ preÍixesof th€ absolui€
230
ÀFRrcÀN LÀNGUÂGÉSrRúcrúREs
are known, th. p.efix of tìe const.uctis lredictâbÌe. Fo. the predominanttype of masculineDoun,úith the prelix vowel /a/ in rhe singularand /i/ in the plurâ1, the const.lct prefix vowelsare /u/ singülãrand /i/ plural- For the conestoDding type oI lemininenouns.the constructprerix vowel (afteÌ the lemin'neprefix /t-/) is ze.o in both singuìa.and plu.al- If the absoluteprefix vowel is /i/ in both singuìârând plurâI, the conslructpretix vowel is usually /i/ ior nâsculinenouns buÌ ze.o io. feDinine, but in somecases/yii Ior masculineand /i/ ror teminine. Oth€Nis€ in tìe lesscommontypes ôl nouírúâsculine consìrúctsbeginwith â semiroqelberoreuìe treÍix voveì, y'elding /yi/, /wu/, /vai, and f€miiiie coíshucts ârc identicâìwith absolütes.For purposesot iuustrationin foUowingpâ.agraphs,onÌy three nounswiu be usd; the côúespondingabsoÌuteând cÕnstruct
Four usesof the constructmay be distinguished,though p€.hâpsthe first three mây be consid€rcdsubtypesoI onêusâgêin tìê underlyingst.uctuÌe- First, the cónstructis usedwilh the secondnÕunof a noun'nounDì.ãse.in wnich the fj.st noun is the heâd. ll the secondnouÍ ìs voweÌ-initiâl(incìudingmost mae cüÌineo, it nãy optionalÌybe precededby a lrÌeposition-likemôÌphême/n/; ü thesecondnounis cÒnsoDant-iDitial, /n/is Òbligâíory.This usãgeratherÌesembles that oI án Indo-Eurolea. genitive case, oÌ a Niger-Kordolaniânasociative
Second,the constÌuct is used âÍter nuDeral!. In this cohbination, /tr/ is neleÌ usedwith a vosel-iniüal noun, but n obligâtorybôfoR a co.sonant. This usagecould be consideredthe saDe âs lhe tirst if numeÌaÌsnây be treâted âs a subclas of nouns. Exâmplesa.e:
Third, the constructh usedafter prepositions.It is ?ossiblethât p.epositions ftây âlsobe treatedas â subtypeoI noun in th€ underlyingstructure,so thât the rollowingdâhpl€ would bâsicatlyneân somethingtike'he{ent'Ìo placeoÍ tent':
Irou.lh, àíd apfarcntly in quite a differêntcategoryoI usâge,the construct is used for a noun subje.t wheú it ÍolÌowstÌre Ìerb-ils usuâl positiotr. E.g,
rhereis â similargenderdistinction,thereare 810. In the SemiticÌanguages, pluralization, ãnd thereis a disti.ction between in noun coúpãrâbìeconplications
NôNc.^ss No6
231
SYsrEMs
an âbsoluteand a mnú.uct sÌate. AlÌhoughArâbic is spokenby fâr more teotle thân âny othêr singlelânguâgeon th€ Âtricân continent,it h not (írâlly thóught oÍ asbeingan Alrican language,and is not chosenheÌeior purposesoiiìluú.ation. Amongthe Ethiopian Semiticlangüâges, noun morpìolÕgiesquite similarto that of Arâbic âre found. Tigrinyâ is lairly typicâì.s BI conpârison,Âmhâric has a cotrsiderablysimpÌiÍiedsystemoi noun plu.alüation, usìDgonly suffixes. Ti8Ìinyâ showsonÌy a lew tracesoI s gendeÌdistinction markedmoÌplologicalÌy in the noün its€lI; the dìstinctionnererthelessexists,âs sho{n by obligatory âgreement ol a nounwith masculineand lemìnineiormsoI certainmodiliers ând p.onoun substitut€s. The lypical Semitic(ând prÕbâblyproto-Airo-Asiâtic) lemininesuffix /-t/ is tound silh a lev lypes ol derivednounsand â iew personaÌ nouns,ând aÌsowith someadjectilcs- An cxamDÌejs: káfati
a man who otens
/a woma! rvho oPensi
Besidesindicating lemaÌesex, tlc t.Ìúnine nay hale dimiÌtrúivc. pejoÌâtive, of afÍectionetesignificanc.. The constructstat€is âlsoa Ìeìatir€ly mjnor probÌemin figrinyâ. Ìhere aÌe a lew phrases,largelyin the contextoi religìon,which showan archaicconstruct lomending in /á/. In ôthercases, the const.uctis dislinguished lrofr the âbsôlute onÌy fo. nounswhoseabsoluÌeforms hâvelinâl /i/ ând elcn then tIe useoi the constructforn is optional. The constructis usedonl) in noun-nounphrâsessuch as thoserelresentinglhe tirsl of loúr uks in ts.rbd. ll. is lhe li.st rather thâr the secondDounin the phrâse,hoveÌer, that takesthe constructlo.n. lhis is typical or tìe Semitic languages.In ihe Íollowing exâmpl€s,using Dounsior which the absolutelorns aÌe /lami 'cow ând ikàlbi/ dog , only the thÍd. ân oDtionalalt.rnâtiv. ot th. secodd.sho{s â dislinct conskuct lorm:
TheÌe is alsoàn âlreÍnativclo the atrov€,nol usingâ construclfornì in any case. bút using â norphene /nay/ shich, al Ìcâú for prcscntpurposes,may be caÌled a p.€position.The modifyingphÌâsenây €ìtherlollow or precedethe heâdnoun. Thut:
Likethê CushiticandBerberlanguâges alreâdt discussÊd, and like most other S€miticÌanguages, Tigrinya showsaDexubeÌantproÌilerationo{ pluÌal io.matioDs. Before going into detâil, â generâlcoftúeút ãbout Senitic word structureis id order. word rootshâvegeneraUybeenanâllzedas consistingoi consonants oúlyi the commonestroots have three consoDants, but somehaÌe only two, and some e Datr on Ti8Ìinye
232
ÀFR!c^! L^!c!ÁcE
SrÀucruREs
lourornor., Àccompanyingarool, theremâyb€ a varietv olsequences olvowels, sith or Nithotrt an additionalconsonâútbetôÍeo. ãfte. the root, or both. A Ìoot is treated as a disconiinuonsmorpheDeconsistingof consonantsonly. Everylhing €Ìseìí â *ord, âpàú lronÌ inllectionaÌprerixesor sullixes,is treatedas another discontinüous norpheÍhe. Ihus a typical word consistsol two intercalated discontinuousnorphemes- For exâúpìe, â root consistingol th.ee consonânts mây be lound in one{ord Nith a sìape suchas CaCaC,ând in anotherwoÌd w'th a shapesuchâs ?iCCiC. Pâúicula.\ in thê vêrbal s!úem of Smitic languages, eachnÒn.ootmo.rìeme hasa delinablemeaninS.The sameis not so cÌea.lytrüe Ior nouns,but a great Dany nounsha!€ pluraÌ foms dilfering from singuÌarein that whìch is intercalatedsith a constantsericsol consonânts.Suchforms may bc anal)zed as having conÊonanlâÌ roots, which may be acconpaniedby eitheÌ â singulâror a pÌurâl nonrootfrôrphetu€;indeed,sômenouns,derired from consonântalverb rootsi can only be so anaÌyzed.There is som€correlatiotrbetween the use ot pâúicuÌâr singulârand pâúicúlâr pluraÌ donrootmorphemes.but by no means conplete regulaÌity. In fact, a given noun may have tvo or môre plurâl torfrs, u*d optiÕnâllyor in sômecâseswith â distinction in details of úêaning. Thê sitDârion $jth respccrrô pÌü.aìizationin TigÌinya is Íot Íully syíeftatized he.e, hüt illust.alionsót sómeôl thê nâjôr pâtternsar€ given. Fi.ú, a number of nouns hâve plurah lo.med oÍly by suffixation,with no diflerencein the internal non-root morphene. The usüal pÌnrâl suÍtix is /-at/ afteÌ a fi'Ìal consonantor /-tat/ âtter ã timl vowel. E.9.,
archaictlural sullix fan/ apl)earesith somenounsusedprimarily by qell^n €ducâtedspeâkers.In âddition, somesingulâ.sendingin i-al or /-ây/ hãvè correspondinspÌurâlsendinsin /-ot/, aÍd sonresingulârsendinein i-il or /'ây/ haÌe conespondingtlu.aÌs endingin /-o/. Examll€s or thes€lorúâiions are:
ewâsâ.
g*asot
kâfati,
kâiato
Among the intercãlatednon-roôt plLúâl morphenes,oDeis CáCâCâC-In a to ã singuìârCâCCâC. ând in someto CáCCãC; nnmberoI lorms,thìs coÌresponds in the there are slso paús vith three consonantsin the singularshicì illix plural. E.9., ^!/ mánâber qàlasem qãmâvâs
'seet' sìirt'
Somenonroot morphemesincludean addiiionâl consonantbeforethe root; perhâpsthis mây be considerèdâulonâlic if tìe first vowel ot lhe morpheme precedcsthe root, sincethe consonânth âÌ*âys a glottal stoP,and th€re are no
NoNcL^ss NouN SYsrEMs
233
woÌd-initiâl roseìs, pluÌal taCCaC appeâs in a nunber oI câscs likc the lol^ including a suflìxl lo{ing, the Ìâst ol lhese
A sômewhatsimilar eaCaCâC is attestedin ihe iouowinÊ:
bãggã, The sanes€quence plúsâ súÍÍi\ /-tii is Íoun,linl kãtbi, And a somewhatsinilar form is illustrâtedbt: râdgi, rãrdug Variâtionson anotherthemeâre iÌluúrâl.d by ih.Iollowing: baryã,
bãrayu
lìaÌàqâ, mâ.ak.
lìalâqu m.rakut
'slate' chieÍ' 'cali
SonÌepluralizãtionsare generâÌlIgroupedâlongaitìì the vârious 'iìúernal' pÌu.ah solar illuúrâted, presúnâblybecâuse of Ìhcir relativcinlrequency,though they âppearto be vaÌietiesoi suilixation.aUincludinga linal /-ti/- ttxàfrpìesare:
sè.âiãlü
'lask'
Finally. somepluralsshowredüplicationol ân internaìconsÒdânt id lhe singular lorm, or rhe sèpârârionby â vo$eì of â doubl. consona.tin the singularE.g., tânàn, nárà$an, gwárâbei,
tâmâmãn Dárá,8âq.n gNdrâbabâtti
snake mirror' 'neighbor'
a.11. Àìthough it was only relàtiveÌI recenrÌylhât the relatioDslìipoI the ChadiclanguagesÌo Cushitic,Berbef. ând S.rnitic (and ancient Egyptia.) wâs videly Íecognized,an almost monotonÒuslysimilâr rypologt oI nominal noF phoìÒgycân be found in Chadic. À genderdhliúciion, â typc oÍ conúÌuct, and ã proliferâtionoi plüral fornâtions is Íound,Io. cxam!Ìe.in l{ausa.r rlausonoun !ìo.pbology. ' I anln{tebt d lo Ir. RuseÌì c. schuh íôrrh€ íollovlne ourrne 0l T b eiinâl{o!dih go llhe d6 .riDliv es t ât r nr nt s is niie, bnr aÌ ì . r edi t l o r t h e o r g a n ì z a r ì o n i s h È . my ovn pàt ând Ìlnlted cônpctenôc in the lâhguâee,shich at Fr6ent is vinn,IJ to chcckine suspedcd slips ol r
Ìêínded
234
AFnrcaN LÁNGU^GESrÀuduREs
There is a fairÌy good corelariÕnbetweenthe segnentalforD oÍ sirgulaÌ nounsâúd thei genderin Hausa. Nearly àll leDìninesingulaÌsend in iâl, aÍdatl singülaEwhich do not end in /â/ âre mâsculine.The.e ar.. howevêÌ,a nunbeÌ ol masculinesiúgulârsendingin /a/; someot th€seà.e recognizablyadopted{ôrds, ând someotheN are in aÌì probabiìity histoÌicaUyplumls. Th€re is nó gender disiinctiÕnin the pluralj the no.phúe jndicating identification úth pÌúraÌ nôünsand the const.uctendingare identicalwitì thosefor nâscúìidesingülaN, thoughplu.aÌsdo ÌequirepluraÌ agreemeítin pmnoünsa.d demonstÌâtives.The lollowi.g illustrate the constructionol idenüIication;high tone is unnârked in examtles this section.ând thè Do.ph€mesindicâtingidentilicâtionÌegulaü 'n bãvethe opposite tone hom the immediâtelyprecediúgsyllabÌe: I s8.: pl.:
8idâ nè rìgã cè rigunà na
A constructlorm hasa sulfix /-nilo. mascDline sìngula.and aÌl pÌural nouns, and /'ri (almoststrrelylroft ân original'/-t/) Íor femininesinguÌaB- Wirh short, ening oi Iinãl lo.g vowelsin closedsyuâbles,the constructsol the nouns used âboveârê illuúrated in the lollowins: 'thc chieft compoud'
À sDperficiâì surveyÕtHânsâpìu.ahsuggeststhatthere ârôNell ov.rlw.ntyIive types. Ìlost if not âll oI th€secân b€ â.alyzed âs inrolving sutfixâtiôn,büt there are also irequent occunencesoI inte.nal voweÌ replâcementor insertion, and of coísonadt reduplicâtion-frêchanismswhich have been noted also Íor Cushitic,Berber,.nd Sêmitic. Cârefuìânalysisrevqh a coÍside.ablecorrelation betweentÌre segmentaland tonal shapeof tìe singulârând the choiceol pluÌâl foÌmation, ard sofrc correlâtionwith deriwãtionaltyles and semqnticgroups. Sil bâsiótypes ôf plurâìizâtjôncán be distinguished,most of tÌrem with two oÌ nore sub-types,ãíd there ârê a lew miscellâneous uncla$ifìedplu.als. The lirst thÌee oI the types dêsoihedbêloç â.e p.oductive,iD the sensethat new words taken into the lânguâgewilÌ be assignedplu.âls of oneol thesetypes; ot the non' ?Ìoductivetypes,ìoqeveÌ, (6) below is one ol the conmonôú pluÌâl Iomâtions in thê ìânguage,eventhoughit is nôt DsedfoÌ newly âcquirednouns. t) Pluraìsin -õC't, in which C' È a repetiüoDof the last consonaDtof the singülâr. lhc sidguÌâris usüàÌÌy disyllâbic,with the ton6 highìow, ând with Iinal /à/. This is the commorestpÌural lomation Íor âdolrtedwords. The pÌurâls hâve high tone thrcughout,âÍd the linâl vôvel of the singulârdoesnot appear. The loÌlowing exâmpÌesincÌudethÌee highÌy typiqÌ pãiN, the third of which iÌlüstrates â regulãr pâttern of pâÌatalizâtion befoÌe front voweÌs, âs vell as oÍe paiÌ with a Iinal vowel other than /à/ in the singdâr, ând one with â trisyuabic
NoNcL^ssNouN SìsrMs
5 hanyõyi
k'õià, zâkì,
ákõki
2) PluÈlsin -uCà,ìn wbich C is either/n/, /k/, /w/, o. a.epetition oI the lâst consonant(or in somecase,two consonants) of the singuìa.(C'). PluraÌsin /-unà, {rkà, -u{à/ are rormedlrom most disyÌlabicsingularswith th€ tones Ìov-high, and fmn nâny disyllãbicsingulaBwith thè tÕneshigh-ìowând â linâl vowel other tÌran ial. There is somedissimìÌatoryÌestrictionin the choiceof C in the pluraì endingjit ir not /n/ iI the last consonantof the singularis /D/; it is nót /k/ iI the last consonantof the singúlâris a velar, ând it is not /w/ if the lâsl consonantoÍ the singularis /m/. OtheNÈe the choiceof C is lexicâllydete.mined. In additioD,someot thes€pltrrals nea.ly alÌ if C is /w/-show Ìel,etitionoÍ don bling ol the lâst consonântôI the singular. Plürals in /-uC'à/ are formedÍrom â numbeÌ of trisyÌlãbic o. lorge. singuÌaÌs,or Í.om â few singuìa$ ol the shape CVCCV,whereCCis not a doubleconsonant.ln all oÍ the subtlpes,plurâlsi'ave bigh toÍe througÌ,outexceptfor the linal rowel. Again, the ínal vowel of the singuÌardoesnot ãpp€arin tle plurâli yet there is no laúiculâr motiration for analyzinStle final lowel oI the singuÌaras â suÍIix. In the last subtype,/-uC'à/ replâcesìh€ linâl VCV or CV ol the singulâr,smetim€s with redupl'càtionoi the last colsonant ór twô consonantsôl the singulâr. The âvâiìâbleoptionswithin this generaÌtype oI plural r€sult in a considerablevariety of sürfacelorms ol DluÍaÌization. Exafr DìesaÍei
rigunÀ 'bundle(asÕIsras)' jiki,
-usÀ:
cütá| gàÌi, k'ayà,
-uC'à:
gàtari.
gãtu.à
shâgàli, àlkãwàri, talki. hargi,
shâgulgDlà tâiukà haÌúggà
3) PluraÌsin i-âil, i-úl, /-i/. TheseâÌe groutedìosetheron the bâsisol tone; all pluÍâls {ith theseeDdingshâve low tone throug}out €Ìcept for thè ending
236
ÀFnrcÀN L^NcuÂ6E
Srnucr!ÂEs
itsell. Mâry singülaÌswith thes€plural loms, and apparentlyâll i! the caseôr l-n/, âre trisyÌÌâbici many ol th€seâre ãdopted words. NÕunswith pluraÌs in fãi/ and fii aìsoiúcludeâ numbe. ol teÌms lor domesticor small {ild ãnimals. Nours indicatingirstrument or placeoi acüon, derivedÍrom re.bs and having a prefix /ma-/. reeularly lorft lheir plurâìs{ith / âi/. Agâin, codsoÍântr€dup iication or doubtingappearsin somecases;in the caseoI t.isylÌabicsingulars,this âppliesto the secondor tô the lâst lwo consonants.Exâmpl€sof th's type jàki, àbõki, ttrãfì, takàrdâ,
k'ãrò,
jàkai / jàkkai büai àbòkâi ìòkàtai littàttàfai úàdìbâi tâkàrdú màgàngànú tàbàrmi Ààràyi k'àttÍ sàbbi /sàbàbbi
donkey nonkey Triend' time book' 'mirror' rpaper' :p€ech' 'Fãlm l€al Dat' thiel 'huge' 'new
4) Pìurâlsin /-ú/ oÌ in i-il o. /-ãl, diff€rìngin tone rrom the alove. with oneexceptioD,pluralsol this type hãvethê sâm€tônesâs thê co..€spônding siúgulârs,exceptfor the finâl rovel which is âlwâyshigh. A fes nounsassignedto this type could aho have beenincÌud€djn 3) above.sincethe "same" ton€sâre distrilowto beginwith. PlürâlsiÍ /-i/ ând /'5/ in this type arc in complementâry butionr the llu.al has /-il il the silgulaÌ ends in a non-fro.t vówel, and /ái il the singuÌârends in â iront voweÌ. SingulaÌsinclude a rather small numbeÌ ol disyllâbicfo.ms.mostly with the toneshighlowr âDônCìhêseâreseverâlpemnd DoDlssìich if one may include 'wómân, siÍe' ãíd 'strânger,guest'oÍ cultüraÌ gÌonndsand 'husband' pe.hapswith tonguein cleek seemto sha.esomething ol â deprecãìorysigniticance.Also incÌud€dâ.e t.isyuâbicoÌ longeÌde.ived singularswith a prerix iha-i, indìcâting âgents (cr. 3 above)i th* alÌ have singDlârs endingin / i/ ând plurâlsin /-ã/. No consonaDt redutlicahonoÍ doubling is âttestediÍ lhis type oI plurâÌ. A!âú l.om the de.ived nours, the patteÌn íoÌ wÌrich is !Ìoduct've, tÌre rollowing exaDplesmây be dhâústive lor this type of plurâl:
-ú:
yãtsà. mãyè, she8hè, sâniyã
yátsú
shêgú 'bull'l
'ringer'
237
NoNcLÀss NouN SYsrEMs -i / -ã:
bãwà, kàzã. bàk õ, zàbõ, arnë. mijì.
bãyi kàji bàk'i zàbi arna mâzã
hàcè.
dãtã
(Àgentrmagini, marübict,
magìnil marübìll
5) Plurals in /-àkú/, /-àkii, l'ànni/, /-ac i/. The lirst oI ihese, /'àkú/, hâs an optionalalternant/-àiküi. \Yith €ithe. / àkú/ oÌ / àki/. the plurâl haslow tone throughôüt excêpt ior the linâl syÌlâblerho{eier, i-àki/ âlso appeaÌsNith n duplicationand doubling of the lâst consonânlof thc singulor,and this combinâtion has the tones /-àccaki/, preced€dby high. Singularsconespondinsto theseplurâls âre disyllabic,mosuy oi the shape/CãCãi(high-high).in {hich the scond consonantis a resonant. The third subtype, /-ànnì/, also has disyllâbic singuhre, but with other tones, nostly low-higìì. \'ith singulas which ìãve three consonants, this hasan alternantwith /è/ berorethe last consonant, 'Dserted$ith th.ee (or more)conând the ending/-anì/. The sub-type/-âC'i/has singuÌars sonantsand usuaÌlyhìgh tone throughout;the pltrrâlsshowvowcÌ in$úion, ând consonantreduplicationin two of the three known câses.Thus,in r.stects {hich Ì'ardly seem relevant, theÌe is coDplementarydistribütion amoDgall oI thesè subtypes,exceptbetweenthe ii.st two. For someof the subtyp€s,the rolÌoNing exampÌesare probably erÒaustivel -âknr
rânã.
gõna. kwãniì, -àCcakir gã*ã, kãyã, k ãrã,
-àki:
-ànni:
g*àlã.
.ànàkú / rànàikú zÀnàkn/ zànàikn gònàki kwànàki gãwà*$akì kãyàyyaki k ãràrraki kunyàytali gwàfàÍni lüràúni sàsànni sàtànni garèmanÍ làrètâni malètan) k âÌàirây' tãrèwadi shãwàrwari
'sun,daytime' 'grassmâl 'lârm day icorpsci 'load 'complâint,noise' tÌoned row' 'torkedpoú 'flowe. 'Fìây,gâne moon,month' ÌaÌgehoe 'súâlì hoe stra{ hat' lie' 'cattúh' 'ad!ice'
238
AÊRrcÀx l-rxcuÀcE
SB!ffis
6) Plu.als in ìCl, in r.'hichC i.,V/or the Ì,a3tc.DlonâDtol thê singür!Ì,.nd V i. /é/, /ã/, or /ú/, thê úoice dêpendinson thè !.{úêíül rüd todal .h.pè ol the 3irguÌ.i This is â very commontypê of pÌüÌdirâtioD, âccoürtinglor mmy diryllabic si[guÌals ard mn€ otìer than disylabic. IÍ thê singulârha! the t!ftâ hlghhigh, ard if the fiBt sylablê ha! â long vow.l or a short vowêl foÌÌowedby NC oÌ a doubl€con$ürt, the plunl etrdiry B /.àyêi. Ir tàe sioguÌaÌhâ! tìe ülpe CVCqÍdtÌr the ton€shigh-high,thê ptuúl ediDg is FC'ë/. II thê siDguÌrÌcontâiÌ$ â cÌüst€tother thâr NC oÌ â doübìeconenant, ard hB th€ t na high-high, tìe plural €ndsin i-àCè/,in which /À/ i! imertrd befoÌetìrc ìast consoÍúntând C i! üe Ìast conen.nt ol th€ iDgulÂr. Il tìe lingullr hasth€ shap€CVCVyrith th€ toner highioÌr, tìe plurâl en& in /-C'ã/, in which C' is a douhlingof the !€c![d côÍrsoÌÌântof the singulâÌ. If thê singülarhr! the shapeCVCCV.Td the tone! high-low,th€ plurarên& in /-ÀCã/,in whichC i! the Ìâst cô onsnt of rìè !ingur!Ì, and /À/ b inieÌted beroreit. If the siryüÌar i! eith€r CVCVoÌ CVCCVwith the ÌôneshighìoÌr (like the pÌecedingtÍ/o 8uÌFtype!,but with smè eüd€n@oÍ diff€Mt histoÌicâl devdopn€nt rêÍlectad in moryhophordic irêgürrritiB), thc pÌutl end! in /{Cü/, in which C i! the last coDsonartof the lingulaÌ and /à/ i! inierled b€foreit. Ìn aÌl pÌurâb ol thi! typ€, rìe to.ê are highld-high. Ex-
Ayè:
zõmõ,
zõmÂyë .únÀyè
'Ìabbit'
bargõ,
bangldyë k'yaüàyë
'i,aÌÌ'
k'yãtÌë,
'pieceof cloth'
k'$àshê
grdã,
wük'àÌ'ë biÌànë
-àcë: -C'ã: -àCá: ìCü:
gidàjê
kâBkõ,
ka3àLè
lsÌkë, zõbè, r&hè, shdi, suDÌì, dútsè,
fatlkë zôbbe
sçiwà, idò,
kniÍe' 'ìrânedcity' 'Íing
úÀdã
sumàkã
'idol'
duwàtlú kumàtü SwiyÀyü idàúü
Ârì oÍ th€ pÌec€di4 may give rìe inplaior ol beiDgr€markabìyexhlustiye TheÌe are iÍ âddition, hoíreveÌ,a ÍeÍr ÍroÍe ninor typ€â oÍ pluÍalizâtion, qnd â few unclasrili€dplurals, inctudingor€ kDownsuppletive. EveDwithin the typ4 outlined above,theÌe âÌe imtqnc€. of morphopho&nic dteÌnttion which hsvê uot beenloted; someoí ü* âe EguÌar, âccoüítedfoÌ by phonologic!ul€., but
E l nrl nL
.L
d.L
dnLLl Lr
NoNcL^ssNouN SvsrrMs
239
someaÌe restÌictedto the lexicalit€ms in shich they occür. Thus the dâtâ cited Íron Cushitic,Be.b€Ì, S€mitic,and Châdic display chârâcte.i3tics excccdinslJ commonin Ár.o-Àsiaiic languag€s;r*o geúders,noún lorms ol a "construct" type, and complexpluÌâlizaüonÍeaÌuringsulÍixation.Ìowel inseúion,consonÀnt doubling (or lortition) aÍd/or reduplicâtion,ãnd sporâdicmorpholrhonemic irreguÌârities.-\s might b€ dpected, somelangüãges showdtensile simpìiticâtion. a.l,|. FoÌ sheeÌcomplexityoÌ inegularity in nominalmorphology,howeve., it is hârd to b€at q nDmb€roI Nilo-Sâhâránlânguâges-BecâuseôI very lióited direct expe.ien@ud the paucity oI extensived€scriptionsby othersthat can be confimed âs ÌeliâbÌe,no adequatelyrepresentative tÌeâtment is âttrmpted he.e. The nature of the probÌemcân be suggested by two typicaì statementsol others. Or Maasi, Tucker and Mpaayei(1955)sây, "There are mâny ways ot forming the pÌural, âúd althoughHollis hâs listed nounsinto 'classes'accordingto their pÌurãl íomâtion, ilese 'clâses'âdúit ol â be{ildering nuúber ôi 'exceptions'. TheÌe:s onÌy onesaleÍuÌe fo. beginneÌs,viz. lea.n the plural or eachnoun as you cometó it." Ànd oI Áteso,lÌildeÌs and Lâwrence(1956,p. 3) observe,"To lorm the plurâl the endingolthe nounis changed.This changenay consistoI the omis sion oÍ the last sylìable,the addition ol aíother syllâbìeoÍ syÌlâbles,or the alt€Ìâtion ofthe Ìâst syllâbleor syllâbles.E.g., (oúission)anülral shoe',pl. aftul: (addition)eÌe.k'door', pl. ikekio; (âlteÍnâtion)rpese'girl', pl. dpesur.... These chaÍgesin the erdingsoi nounsare so irr€gularthat it is not woúhwhile trying to formulâte rules for the formâtion of pìumls-" SomeyeaN aeo I had the oppoúunity ìo Íôrk tor sone time with data Irom Núer, bpÈrecoÌded and transcribed,Siving the variouslo.ms ol a Íew hundred rouns. lí âdditioDto â singular-pluraìdisrinction,ihere {erê lÒrmsthat appear€dto lunction some{hât ìike the caselorms of Indo-EuroleânÌânguages. ln the singulâr,one iorn is usedlor subjectand object, anotherìn other constructions,and a third (in âppropriatecaset as â vocãtive. ln the plu.aÌ, only foms consponding to the rirst two of these {erè fÕund. 'Ihe fôrms a grst mâny of them oí thê structufeCVC,in shich V may be single,double,or a clúster -differed Írom eachother in their vocalicnúcleus,olten in tone, ând $metimes in íinal consonant. Àttempting to clâsify the variationsin form, on the basis oÍ onÌy two o. th.ee of thê avâilabÌe five loms, resulted in recognizing ât Ìeãst sevúty-five tyles, no one ol them representingmore than â hândful oI nouns. There Âppearedto be no reâsonâblehope of gÌouping numbereoÍ these types tog€ther in ány Ìãtional way. The internâl changesìn Ntrer and someother languâgesâre aery likely de veÌopments lrom suíixes in aú earlier period of the languâges hislôry. Sülfiaation âppeârsquite commonlyin the nominãlmorphologyoi other EasternSudânic Ìãnguâges.GregeÌson(1970)suggestsa historical.elationshipbetweensülfixâtion foÌ plumlizátion in Nilo-Saharan and the troun class systens of NigeÈ Kordolãnian. If such an ultimate .€Ìationshipe*ists, ho{ev€r, it shedslittle in Eastern light on the complentiesof sutlixâtionãnd its histo.icaldevelopments Sudânicas lar as svnchrcnicdescriútionis concerned.
240
AFÀtcÀN LÀNcuac! SrkucroREs
the nôminaì norphology of Sqtiny (Sebei)is describedin ã disseúaüÕn (Montgomery1066)wÌitten unde. ny supülision, and the generâloutlinesol it $ere checkedby myselfnot onÌy lrom trânscriptionbut aho from tape Ìeco.dings ãnd rith ã natiÌe speaker.Nounsin Sapiny showa two-vây ÍornaÌ distinctionl betweensingulaÌandplurâl,ând betweenwhâi MissMontgoúerycâlìs"thematic" and paradigmatic lo.ms. Fo. any noun, all lo.ms containã rcôt, which is deIined as consistingof segmentâìphonemesonÌy; tonesare ânâlyzedâs belonging to s€pâràtemorph€mesâccompãnyingthe root ãnd ailixes of any Íom. A thematic forD may consistol only â root and an accompanying tone. o. it may hâve any of severalconbinâtionsof one or more thematic suffixes;a root aloneand ân âccompânying tone hây be câìledâ'\iem." À pârâdjgúâticforú hâs oíe ol jn fiDal positionithey includedeDonst.âtiveand possessire severâlsulti&s súf. ÍiÍes, a zeronominativesutfix for one cla$ of nouns,and a "gene.al"casesufÍix. ln most constructions,the thematic lorm and the pa.adigmaticlorn with the generalcasesultix are optional alternâtives. There is no significântcÕrrêlation beì{een the choiceol thematicand/orparadignâticsuitixesid singuìãrandplu.al -rhe signilicânccol the detinition of a sten as a roôi with an accompanying tonal morpìemecan be *en in one type of pluraÌization. There are Êomecâses in which neilher the siDgularnor the plDrâlthematicforn hâs âny suffixes,but in wìich lh€y diiier in tone; the.e is no predictâblètÕnesequence Io. the plural, lrom the Íollowingtwo dâmples, nôÌ fôÍ ìhe singulâr. The as might be supposed ap!€arânceof stemonly in both singularandplunÌ is by no meansa predominant type Õl pìurãlizâtioD,but it ìs attestedin sone câseslikè these(with mid un-
Thereâ.e ã fes instancesof internâl voseì alternationbetweensinguÌarând pÌuÌâl foms, but in the last majority of casesthe rÒotis the samein the singúlâr and pluràI, ss well às in thenatic ând pârâdigmaticiorms. À câseof inte.nal
A smallg.oup oi kinshi?termsmay be usedwith the demonstrâtiveând possesive parãdigmâücsuftixes,but nol Nith the gene.alcâsesuffix. Fo! these, therelo.e,there are not two optional forms as there are lor other nouns. These nounsalso táke no themâtic suflixes, positionqslterá root:ân) number Thpmaticsulri\esaplìearin Íoursucc e('vê oi thesepositionsmây be liÌled dependingon the root jn questionând on whether oÌ not a paradigmaticsufiix is atsôüsed. Ìn most oI thesepositions,in singulâr ând pìüral íorns, there ârê two or moÌe possiblesuffixes. In somecass, the choiceoÍ suftix in a partìcularlosition is leicÀUy detemined; the.e are ãìso, hôyeve., co-occurrence Ìestrictionsamong the sültixes. Ir tìê firú losition i5
ul
NoNc!Àss Nou!Ì SlsEus
fiÌÌed, the &cond positionnust aÌsobe íilled ií no pâÌrdignâtic sufiix b uÊed, or the Íourth positionnust eko bê finêd if. paEdignaüc auíÍix i! üed. Ex@pt Ío! the gmup of kinship terms mentionedâboveand oneother group oí nouns, thê lourth positiotrnust be fiued if there i! a pâÌadignatic sÌrffiÍ. An exaÍÌple of á DounÍom with €very suffix po.ition fiued b th. folowing: | 2 3 4P Singulârnoün! (€xclusivêoÍ thê kitrshipt€.ms)fall into sevencÌâlsesin tlnns oÍ the combinationsoí ih€matic suffix€swhich occuÌwith and without prÌâdi& matic sufíix€!. Therc is 8oÌnesubcla$ìficstion,d€pendirglaryeÌy oÍ the choice oÍ sútix in a parlicübÌ position. rÃithout inclüdingâll oí thê detâils,the lollowing *iI give someideâ of the nature oÍ the system(oÌ lâck of system). Vow€lsâre búg ülr€ss otheMis indicâted. (1) No Tomâtic lutíix) without o. with P(aEdi8maticsuffix):
(2) No T without P, T4 wiih P: 'clÍí' 'kind of nagic'
tâúáy kâdt
(3) lÌ4 withoutoÌ Ídth pÀkuÌi
pát<üÌÍt
(4) No T without P, T1 and T4 with P: 'tâil'
(5) T2 without P, T4 with P; â strbclesâlso hásTl both sithout and with P: 'shield
lànà
'bov' kà*à
ka*et 'hiÌl' 'goat
(6) 'I2 without P; T2, 3,4 with P: 'lamb, kid'
$oúvò
tü{úyòntet
È êmênlssousd,ols d àulêur
242
ÀBrclN
LÂNauÁaE SrÀucÌuÀBs
(7) T!, 2 withoutP; Tl, 2, 3, 4 witì P: tolyr : toÌyàDtet 'b€ll' tàÌyÀ : âr$otet 'tê.mite' c€psôkey:j: cepsâkéFntêt'diúneÌ' Thê last or thc abov€cxamplesincludei aLo â prefix /cepj. TheÌeb rbo a prefü /ÌIp-/; botü oÍ th* ddive peBoDrt nouDsrin lnother dial€ct they lle malê ând Ímale. In addition, thêre .E nomindiring pErixs /ko-, /kr+ /kG/, Ai-/ ddiving nouN íbm verh. PluÌâÌ nouÍs falÌ int! ÊiÍnitaÌdlâssesdepeÍding or the choiceol thematic suíÍixes. In ÂÌl politions, suíÍiÍ$ for pluml ÍoÌms dift€r from tlo!€ for singulrr Íorm. Mas muDs!E lormaly plunr. A bÌicf outlin€oÍ thc plüral clas3€!ÍoIN.: íl) No T without oÌ lrith P:
pé (2) No TorTl orT2 and3 withoutP; l'4 with Pl àÌtk tukúk hptk Ìê,kok
tiptn Ièkoy
'ttrings 'gi.ls' 'chiÌdrü'
(3) No T without Pi '14 with P, but diffeÌiDg fÌoln fie abov€ in that T4 i3 â short râthq than a loÍ! vowel:
tàrlt
: :
loklk tâdtèk
'biÌ&'
(4) No T or T3 and 4 without Pi T3 md 4 wilh P:
kutút mèlil
néliÌtltk
'l€opads
(5) 'Il without P, Tr and 4 *ith P: 'Nlh'
Tr oÍ T2 ândT3 and T4 with Pl
(6) T1 or T2 without :
latybyëk
(7) T2 without P, T2 âÍd T4 reith P: püdút püDutëk : :
lwèlkütëk
ELnrlnL: .L d.L
dnuLlLr
243
NoNc.^ss NuuN Srsrlls
(6) Tl and Ì2 viihout Pj T1, 2, and 4 with P:
There aÌe, lhus, sewdâlclâsses ot singularnoun Ioms and severalclassesoi plural noun Íorms. Sienificantly,howeve.,there is no appreciablcco.rêlation b€rweensingularand plu.aÌ clâ$.s, excepilor oneiypê ol eerbâlnoun. Thât is, there is no aay of ÌÌedicting the plural hom the singuÌa.,nor vice versa. TheoreÌicâlly, there a.e liltv{'x posibÈ combinâtìonsol singúlarâdd phrâl cÌâses, ând in Iact a greât maDyol lhescconbinarjÕúsâre âttested;it is dilíicült to say üut any combinãtionis inpossible,sincethe very smallnumberol nounsin some of tìe dâses is sufficientto pr.lent âll posible combinâtionslrom occudng. The tonesor tone sequences occurringwith noun forms are conditionedby an ex@edinglycompÌexset ot factoN. Thereis Ìexicâltone,in ìhe sensethât the idenüty of Ìhe noun root is oneoi tìe lactom conditioningihetones oI the entire tom- The dilieredt cofrbinâtionsof sullixesalsoente. into determiningthe tone s€quence-There are also morpìÕton€micâlternânts conditioncdby adjâcent words. And finâlìy grârmâticaÌ lunction ma) conditionditterenttône sequence; in paúiculâr.a sort ol esc distinctionisnârked b! tone,in that most noun Íorms hâve dirlerent tones detending on vhcther rhey lun.tiotr as subject or object. 'he\ lookingat the old man 'the ôÌd úàn is lookingât him Àlthough it is po$ibìe to isolâieaârioüsfâctorsthât conditionthe tonesol noún forms.the pernütâìionsâre sô nuúerôuslhât it is hârdìy nore econonicâl tô mâke shücturâl statementsthan merely to list the sequences that occur in in isolation. difierent enÌiÌonnìents.and in diiierent constructions. ln the abore classifications of sineuÌarand plurâì rorms, it mây be noted tlìaÌ aÌte.nativesseemto lorm tlìe basisIoÌ subclassilication in somecas6, but Ior distinguishingclasses in other cases.Theremight thus be some.efinementof the classilications.No matte. how tìe datâ a.€ orgaiized, Ìrowerer, Sapiny cleaÌly ìâs ân unusDâllycomnìex syúem Õt noun morphology(ând th€ verb morphoìogtis evensoFel), quite ditlerentin type holn anythinglound iú NigeF Kordolánianor Àiro'Asiâlic, bút shoNidgât Ìeáú somcsimilâriiy to complexities in other Nilo-Sâhàrânlanguages. a.13. Dho-Luo displaysconsiderabÌymore phonologicalcoDditioningin its noun morphologl.s In addilion to a numbe. distinction,Dhol-uo also hãs a ! Nork on Dho Luo r$
begun hods. da!â havê ^ddlt,onâÌ bsôn,and the initial 8roüpingol $â. dône by hlm. Thc iÌ'arÌlar rvailabììiry ol ouÌ lnÍoÌnânt. Mr. John Ochiens,hr *oôd ìn the Nây ol chs.king aÌl or tìÌc dlta in detaiÌ and lsling tìe loÌms in lârer {nd moÌe vrird
2U
AFÂrcÀN LÀNcu^cE SÌÂucruÂEs
distinctionbetw.en absoluteand consiructforms, simila. iìì lunction to the distinction typical of Àfro-Ásiaticìanguages. The alqiÌable Dho-Luo dala are ìn somc resÌrectstentaüvè.ând knoyín to as Iar âs tone is concerned.In tonns cited in i$lation, a distincbe incomDlete, tiÕnbetw.enÌow end nonlowis ususllyrìea., but we havenotòeenãbl. to distineuish twô dillerenr nonlow ìeveìs. In iniÌiâÌ posiiion in ã senÌence,howeveÍ, hi8h snd nÌid in a noun canreâdilybe dbtinguishedbeforeâ mid tone. Fornâny of the nounsrecorded,ro conlenient oÌ plausiblesentencecould be found, so Ìhat the tonesin sucha cont€xt ha!€ not be€ntested. For this r€ason.low tone is indicâtedin the exâmpl€sin this section.high ton€ is indicatedin onìy â few lorns *here it hâs beenÌeco.dedbdore nid, ãnd in other cãsesnonìol! tone (presumablynid ií sÕmecâses,hìgh in Õthere)is leli unmârked. Füúher, it is knównthât the tonesol nounsnây vaÌy in dilierent cont€xts,bul not âÌì the.onditiôning lâctors hâve b€cn isoÌâted, The .xâmples cited here âre, therefoÍê, eitherfôrms in isolàlionor initiâÌìy in a sent€Ícein the câseoÍ âbsolütes;fôr const.ucts, they are the iorDs tìât appeârbeloÌe a iirst peÍso. singutaÌpo$essive pronoun. The possessive pronounhasthe segmentâlshape/-al alter a consotrânt. vo{€ì; ils tone js non-lowatter lo{, but los âlter nonìov. ând /-na/ âtler a Examplesot tormsfÌon vhich the constructsar€ abstÌactedarel kità
(kitì (kito )
Dho-LüÕnoudslaìì jnto three major dêlidâbletypes, in âddition to which tìe.e are somequite iúegulâr nouns. lvirhin tìe ih.ee major types,a lew nouns aìsoshowãn âlternationbetweentle two harmonicsetsof vowelsin singula.and plurâl forns. A Íer Iorms with suilixeshave also beenr€coÌdedwith violatioÍ ol vowel harmony (âs /kiiê-/ âbove);it is posible thâi thes€âÈ enôrs in tÍânscription, sincethe contÌastsbets@n sho.t /i/ aDd/r/ and betweenshoú /u/ ând /u/ âre not âìvâys eâsyto re.ognize. Ther. âre âlsotonâl âlt€rnâtionsbetween singnlâ* and pìúrâlsin mâny câses;ihesehâve not beeí úudied in detâil, bul it âppeaÈthãt they are largely lexicâlly determin€d. In the rirst type ol noun, plu.als are fôrDed *ith a $flix /-ei ôÍ /-êl, dependingon vosel hamony. There are sve.al sDbtypesdelinedby the last coÌsoúnt ôf the singulârton. The singülârconstrDctis lâirly reguìar,and the ?Ìural const.uctis identicâl with the pìu.âl âbsolüt€. For nounsol this type, âccordingly,ônly three lorms will ìe list€d: the siígüÌâr âbsoìute.pÌumÌ âbsolute, and singularconstruct. The liÌú subtypeinclüd€snounswith a linal voicelesscon$nânt in the singülâr (âbsolute),Òr (in iwô rêcôrdêdcâses)a linâl vôwel precededby /Ì/. Thè plu.al sullixes/-ei or /-êl ãppeárâltêr the finâì cônsónàntoÍ rêplâciíg the ÍinaÌ vowel. ln aU recordedcases,the pÌural suffix has nonÌow toDe, büt this may not be significant. On tìê ìâsis of a limited nunbeÌ oi nounsôI this subtype, the siDgulârcoÍstruct seensnormally to be ide!ücaì vith the ab$ltrte; one ex-
245
NoNc!Áss NouN SYsaEMs
ceptionaìconsonantâlternâtiÒnâdd oúe (dúbious)ãltonâtion in vowcl length ând tonearerecorded.Exampìesare: l€p ìÀk yüwòth aÜrà àtheÈrà
l€p6 leke yuwoth. aòre athèèÌe
l€wlàkyüsòth? àthèri
'tongue' 'tooth' aÌmpit rive. bow'
Tìe secordsüb{pe includesnounswith a linâl rowel prec€dedby a roiced sto!. The final rowel might b€ treatedas â sufiix (the sorr oI ânáÌysiswhìch hâs beenappliedto Sapiny),but the.e se€nsto be no 8r€at notivaiion Ío. such an anaÌysis. In the pluraì, the correspondingvoiceÌessstop âppears,lolÌoqed by the pÌúrâl suilix r€plâcingihe Íinâl vo*eÌ ol the singular. The sjngularconstruct is Iormedby ÍepìâceÍnent with ihêdèletionot the vowel ot voicedby voicelessstop, oI the âbsolute,elcept lÒr one recordedcâsein which the constructând àbsôìulè are identical. Exampìesoi this subtypeâre: kidi lúÈdà
àj!àgà
kité ÌüètÈ
kitlu.i-
stone hand
àjüòkè
kuÌhcokàj!ògà-
'thorn' bone 'docto.'
GÌoup€dtogethe. in â thúd subt)pê âre nounswhosesingulâNhãve linal a irl, lew with Íinel /yòi, ând a f€$ with a finãl aô*el. ln the plurâI,/./repìâc.s /./ or /y/ ând lollówsâ rinal voweÌ,and the !Ìuraì suilix app€arsalter /c/. In the singuÌârconst.uct.tvo câsesare recordedNith linal /r/ as in the absolute,but dilÍeÌent ìn tone, and rwo cases*irh /c/ r€plâ.ing /r/. ExâmpÌesâre:
'Pjgeon
The lourth subtype includesnÕDnswith singulâNhaving linâl /c/. In the pìurâl, iyl replâcesicl in three recordedcases,iouowedby the ltural sultix. ty!€s- The OtÌ'er nouns witì singuleNìâ'ing liDâÌ /c/ b.long in other 'rajor singularconstructãlso has /y/ .€plâcins/c/. EaaÍnpl€sare: wic kwàc bündìc
wiye kwaye bündryê
*iykwaybündry-
'belly
The filth snbtypeincludesnouns$hose absolutesinguÌaFhave as tleir last (ând usuallyÍinâÌ) consonant/l/ or â nâsâì0m, n, ny, rJD,oÌ ân orãlly.eleâscd
u6
ÀFRrca
LÀNcuÀcE SrRUouREs
nâsâl(/frb, nd, nj, !g/) belóreâ linál vowel. Pluraìso{ suchnounshâve thê cor, responding(or jdenticâl)orally releasednâsãllÕllo$edby ihe pluÌâl suÍÍix. Singulâ. constructsmuú be d€Jinedin te.ms of the last consonantof the âbsolüte singuìâr. lI thaÌ consonantis /l/, /m/, /n/, or /ÌJ/, the constructìas the comÉ pondirg orally reÌ€ased nasâlin final positionin aÌmostevery câse;thêreaÌe two .eco.d€dcasesoI constructswith linal nasah without orãl relêãse. lf the ìast cónsonântot the âb$lüte is /ny/, thê conshuctãIsoha6final /ny/, but nay diIÍer in tone from the absolüte. lf tìe absoluteendswith ãn orãlly releâsednasâìfoÌlosed by a voweì, the constuct ând absoluteare identical. ExamplesoI this
d ììl
d ììnd-
pààny
pànjè
wàÌl büÌlgü
wà{8è bu{gÊ
bü{gú
ln severâlol Ìh€ âbovesubtypes,there s€ens to be â conmon eìeÌneDtof loúition ol the Ìast consonantof the absolutesingularin the plural and construct Íorms-voic€lesslor vôiced, /c/ Ior /r/ ór /y/, âÍ orãlly releãsednãsal roÌ /l/ o. a nâsaÌ. ln only one subtype,in which /y/ repÌâces/c/, is there cÌeârlylenitiôn. That Iact might suggestthat that subtype belorys with the secondmajoÌ type describedbeÌow;the lorm oI the pÌural suffix, howeler, is a counterargument. 'Ihe *cond úajor rype of noün has â linâl voiceìe$úop in the âbsolütesingula. (as do somenounsin the first type. first subtype). In the plural, the coÍrespondingvoicedstop appeârs,and the plurâÌ sultix tollowing it is usually /i/, thôügh iel is recordedin â tes câses.Thê singula.coDstructusuallyendswith the loiced úôp, büt in three r€cÕrded.ases(all of then, and only these,hâpp€nto be body partt sith tne voicelessstop. The plural constructhas the voicedco!sonantin all but two cases,and a suffix /ei. Exafrpìesof this iype âre,eith the fourth lorn being the pìurâÌ constru.t: guòk
guogi
cuoc-
guoge-
gòòk
goo8e
gòòk-
googe-
{üt-
!ütè-
'dog 'buìÌ'
247
NoNcrÁss NolN SYsrMs
The third mâjortype oI nounin DhoLuo takesa pluralsulrix/ niJ.with nonlow tônc. Singühr âbsôlur.sot this typc âr. sith f€{ .xcepriodslorÌìs of tvo oi three syllâbles,$ith â linal \orÌel, ln the pìurâI, the.e âppearto be no contnsts in vovel quality bdore ih€ suliix i-ni/; howcver,thc p.ecedingcon sonaDtìas a voiced releasesith noDìow tone. On the a$unption orot lully p.oven âs yet) that uris is ân autoDâtic trânsition lrom â consonântto /n/, this .eleâseis not indicâtedin the exanrp€hhelow. A leq plurah showa lowel alter nâtion,ândìn onerccordcdcâscthe pìurâlhâsâ voiccl.s consonâtrt corrcsponding to a voicedconsoÍantin the singular. The singulârconslructis bâsedon ihe absìúte wiÌhort its tinaìloNel, wiÌh orâììI r.leascdnasaÌsjnlìml positionreplacing jn /l/ and nàsâìs the âbsolute. Ihe plurâl conslrDctshoss thd sâúe coúsonânt âÌternations,and has a su$'x Êel, ìn Ìnost casesNilh the sanretoDeas the precediíg sylìâble. Exâfrples oÍ lhis lypc âr.: àgülu
àgülni òbüdÌìni òkÈmbni àgwètni àdìtni pèlni ìuÈtni
àgundòbudhòkumbàgwà! àdrtpàúdhô|-
àgund€Òbüdheòkumbeàgvet€àdìtependeìriÈtè-
Finally, th€Ìe âr. somenouns{hich cân only ìre listed as irreguÌâ.. There is sone pârtial similarity {ith other nounsas lar as consonântàlternâtionsare concerned, taúicularly in the constÌuctio.ms, but in everycaseth€reis a unique inegulaÌity betweensinguÌarand pÌuraÌ, incÌudnrgone câseol completesupDletion. Ïhe recordedinesulâr nôúnsâre: dhrà! drÈl yààth
Ìrèl
dhàkà
dhòk dièli yon nyìri nyrthrndò ÌÈtè koke guen wnny yrsdhi wèlò
dhn drendyààdhnyàr nyàthF lrÊnd' kòkguÈndMnjyièwendodhàke-
dhògdiègyendnyig nyrthrndliètekÒkegüÈndewnnje? sèndmond
'girl
Although Ìhô forcgoingis by no meansa completeanalysisoÍ the nominal systên of Dho-Luo, and Day contai! sonreerro.s in transdipriôn. somc pâtterning is cÌeâr,and ihe mâjor ârea lÕr fuúhe. inÍ.stigâtion is the complexities ol morphoìonenics.Although the systemis sofrê*hâl ditterent irom, and not as complicâtedas, that ot Sâpiny,there are aho distinct typoìogicalsimila.ities.
244
ArRIcÀN l,ÀNa'rÁaE SmucÌuGg
Ir paÉicuÌâr, the Ìecognitionof thmaüc .nd pandignstic aúlix€. h Sapiry s@msthe morevaUdin th€ üght of the Dho-Luosyltêm, and th€ function of tone in thê two languâg€sÍÌây be mole similaÌ tìan hâsbeendefinit€ly êstrblilhêd !o Íer. Further detâiled inv€sügationof th$e and noÌÊ diltântly related NiìoSâhâÍânlaügüâgesmay Íeveâl oihs maDü$tationsoÍ someoÍ th*e stmstural 4.14. For totâl lack ol pêr€onalexpeÌi€nc€ with any of the KrìoissúlâDgua€$, a h€âtmert oÍ th€ir noun sFtemr i! not includedheÌe, exceptto note the neÌÌktrown lact that many of thm havê a Íunctiorar gend$ sy3trn dbtiogukhiDg rnasculin€,feniniúe, ând côÍnrnon,âs wel as â numbe. 8y!tm includiDgdual Íomr ar wel as siì8ulaÌ and plunl. To whÀt dt€nt the gênd€Ìsy3td incÌuds moÌe than phyei@l3exi3 a qu6tion Dot âm*@d in tìê mGt r*dily aveiÌâbl€ brièt obs€Nâtionsábout ü.i€ laDguae€!.
È êmênlssousd,ols d àulêur
Adjectives and Un-Adjectives 9.1. Many sorks on Alrican lãnguages,inclüding somethát might be €xpected to be amongthe most reliabÌ€,showa .emarkâblelâck oÍ linguisticsoplisticâtion jn their treâtmentof noun frodifiers. The têrm "âdjective" mây be appliedto any lorm which is reflectedby an English adjective ìD translaüon,without relerenceto its derivâtionor eÌâmmâticalfunctiod in rhe ìanguãgebeingdescdbêd. Wàrd (1933,pp. 42-43),lor example,lists eight iradj€ctives"in oneclassfor Efik, and twenty{ou. in anotÌ'ercla$. TlÌe clâ$esa.e distinguishedby the morphotonemicalteÌnâtionsthey conditionwitha tollowingnoun. Her first clas is vaÌidi it includesôDlyadjectiv€swhichendwith Ìow tone. Iq her secondclass,however five morelo.ms vhicì end with low tone are ìncluded.Theseshouldbe analyzed as nÕúns;they condition th€ morphoton€micâlternariônstypical oi the âsoci atile conúru.tion in noun-nounphrases.Three ol theselive show â deÌivâtion by r€duplicâtioniby analógywith these,six otherswhich showa similâ. d€rivâtion but end with high tone can as {ell, and probabÌy should,be analyzedãs is concerned,the remâiniúgihirtêen forns in nouns. As lar as morphotonemics oÍ usage Wârd\ seconddâsscouÌdâlsobe ânalyzedâs nouns.but cÕnsiderâtions lavor consideringthem adjectivesI'ke thoseot the firú clas. \Yorking lrom quite a diflerent g.âmDaticalnodeì, Câ.relÌ(1970,pp. 44-45) lisis a f€w "âdj.ctives" in her sânple lexiconoI lgbo. Someoi them are indeed best clâsed âs ãdjêctives,brt â spe.iâl lransÍormationâlrule ol "adjectiveshitt" âppli€sto tso ôtheÉ. This ruÌe simply hasthe effectoI making thesetwo lorns Iunction like nouns; it they had m€rely beenanalyzedas nounsto begin {ith, the ruÌe would ìâvê b€en ünneccssa.y.It ãrrpearsthât lhey were anâlyzedas "adjectiveJ'primariÌy on *mantic grounds,thoügh it nighl alsohâve beenobmodiservedthat they râreÌyif everoccDrindcpendently.ând are not theÍnselves Iied. At most, it wouÌd seembetter to aúaly2ethese(ând severaÌforms sith siniÌâr úset às belongingto a sub-typeol noun rether thaD a subtype ot âdGreenand ÌgNe (1963),ìike nany wrìters on othe.lângüâges,include some qusntitãtive and dêmonstÌâtivêloms in their cìassor "adjectiv€s"nÌ kbo. lhe quantitatiÌes-tvo words neanine aìl' and lhe altrìbüiive iorm Íor 'two'could ât least as appropriatelybe classedâs numemÌs, The demonst.âti\'esâre distinguishedby other disrributionalconsideratiôns.'fhree torms are described ãs adjeciiaessith cognateverb roôts. Theseâre indeed adjectiÌes, but there âre âbo fivc more, and not alÌ of them are @gnatewith verb roots. Greenand lgwe do not nention the tyte of noun which othes havecalled"adjectives". (They do alsoincludetwo monosyl
2io
ÂFRrc^N LÀNcuÀcE SrRucruxËs
labic "adjectives *hich a.e not r€cognize.l at all by inlo.mants qith whom I
L€st the lor€goingbe inlerpretedas nothing morethân negâtiveâÍd perhâps petuÌant criticism, it should be ob*rved that inrestigatoÌswho may at least be describedas more suspicióusìave a)somade somestatementsabout "adjectives" lhât tãlì shorl oI adequact. My âúicle on Senãri(Weìmers1950a)includes â sectionentiìled "The Morphologyot Adjecìives". 1\ó types of fo.ms labeìled "àdjectives"àre recognized:those not us€d in lerbâl cônstructions,ând tho* usedin verbalconstructions.lncìüdedin Dy list ol the latter aÌe fou.lorms de$ cribedas "verb stemsúsedâs âdjectives." To my knowledgeat treseüt, there is .eally no justiiicâtionfor distinguishingadjectivesusedas verbsÍ.om lerbs used âs adjectives;they all appeârto be verbs,perhãpsor a sub-typedeiiDedby thei. use att.ibuüveÌy âIier a noun stem. Similar tr€atmentslacking in .igidity aÌe to beloundin úy ârticl€sonSuppireandBariba(Welners1950b,1S52â) thoughin Ìhe lâtter there is â shonSercâselor recognizingâ sêparateclassot adjêctives, sinceattribDti!€ foÌms are not identicâlwith ve.b .oots. PerhãpsI could pÌeãd the pressuÌeoÍ time âs an €xcuseror inelegantanalysìs. MoÌe significântly,it should be r€cognizedthât the stâtus ol lo.ms used ts noun modiliersiÍ th*e lânguages, ând oi relâiediorms,is intrinsicauydilÍicult to detine. Th€Ìe âre âlso difticulties,though not just the sameones,in the caseot lgbo, Efik, aDdmaÍy other lãnguages.The problemremaiN, however,thât le* çrileB hâvê cânied theü anallsis beyondthe point or âssufringthat a sord is an adjectivemerely if it seemsto hâle â meaningsuchâs snáll, red. or 'a loi of'-the lâstol which, oI cou6e. is not an adjectiveìn Englisheitherh LoNkundo,wherethe grãnÌmaroi noün modiiiÊrsis lêssdiliicült to p€netrate, HulstaeÌt (1938,p. 19) doesnot hesitateto say that the.e are Do qualificÀtn'es. Ìn orher languÀges, there'arelorms witlì qualiÍicaüvemeâningwhicì a.e usedto modìty nouns,and whi.h constitútea separatelom cìass,büt âÌl or which mly be de.ived lrom ve.bsi they may be called adjectives, or coure, lhough perhâps"âdjeclivals'is a p.ele.ableterD. In stll other la.guages,â cìas oI non-d€.ivedlorns tnây be iÕuddwhich an legilióâtely be câllèdâdjeclàdguages ti\es. lt is imÌo.tant to note,however,that in almostall Niger-Congo {hich hare â clas ot adjectives,the cÌas is rather sDall, and many concepts expresed bI adjectivesin Eüropeânlânguâgesâre exp.esed by other kinds of constructioDs usingDounso. ve.bs or both. The pürpos€oI this cìâpter is lo illusÌratehos â cÌâ$ oi âdjectivesmÀy ormay notbe definedin a Ìarìety of NigeÊ ãnd âlsÕhov someconceptsêxpresed by âdj.ctivesin English Congôlânguâges, 9.2. In Kpeue, there âre a number of quslilicative adjectivâls,used attri butively atter nouns.which âred€Ìivedtrom ve.bs. Many of the verbslroln {hicb the commonestadjectivalsare deriw€dare inceptiÌe in meâningì becomebig', get dirty', and so on. The adjectivalsare alsousedin a predicâtiveconstruction relening to presnt stâtr, vhich is unüke âny verbâl coústruction,ald in ân âd-
ADJrcrrvls
251
ÀND UN-ÁDrEcrrvEs
In only one krown câse,an âdjeclivâìis identicalvith the stem oi ihe ve.b f.on which it is derived. This k /két4 bìs'i my eârly trânscriplionsin.ìude someothers,but ât thât tim€ I wâs not hearingvoweÌ lengih contrastsin Íinal position@nsistently. A verbaì and ân âttribü6'e useare illustratedin the lol'it got bigger Othe.wiw adjecÌivâìsâre derivedby suttixârion. The sullix is segnentauy /-al after /rJ/.ând otherwisefo/, /-ô/. or /-al dependingon the iinâl rowêl ot the stem. The sulrix has high tone alter high or mid, but low tone âIter low. Conbinàtionsôl tinal singleând doúblevoNelsfÕìlosrd by this sutfix involve soDe rulesi Ior stemsvith mid tone. the .eaÌizâtionsere âs foÌlows: DomhoDhonemic
ci-é C€-É Ca-á co-j Co-ó
ciÉ
cvci-É
CeÉ
CVCCÉ
Caá C.ó Coi
CVCa-á CVC' i CVCo-ó CVCU-j
CVCíe CVCÉe CVCÉo CVCáa CVCóÒ CVCó. CVCúõ
ciì-É
CiÉ.
Caá
For the tirst and ìast forms in the second.oÌumn. ih. vâriânts /CVCÉê/aDd /CVCi./ âre sometimcsheârd. Thc high lone ol the süttix is reâÌizedwith the lâst vÕ{eìolthe sten aÌsointhe câs€Õldisyllâbicstens s lth tinal h/. SoúeeÍaúpìes ol st€msand derivedadj€ctivals,in âttributiv€ Dse,are âs tollows:
li6i
'difficult wo.k tii kpanâ'lr yâli séklr 'a hangingvinc' leyi li6iê 'á di.ty pot' kpiriwiËE a healy load' núu ttnââ a ìot ol peÕpìe 'a fine house' pÉrêlÉÌêe (/kpâÌó.) tipe bananas 'kvÉi kpalúo
lfhat nây be ãnâÌyzedâs ânotheriype of d€dvedadjeciival,üs€dâtt.ibutively after a noun,consistsof a verb stemwith a morthemeoi tonal .eplaceúent: loú tone replâcesstefr tône, vith the reeúlãraìternânthighìos aiter mid.r In â few caws,this is ân alternâtile to the âdjectivalwitì â sulfix descnbedabove, but in most caseseither one or the otìer is the only possibility- Some€xânples ,wash, kpela yr, kpôÌu
becomemature 'bêcomedry' 'b.comeÍipc'
l
I ln \|elrneF 1969b, rhe.e phÌaF' ar
si/e aâa nEnikpèla kôi yôõ 'k{êi kpòlu lÌêakd,.
s rlpe
clean cloth 'a maturegirl' 'dry lüewood' ripe bânanas'
252
AFÂrcÁ! LÁNcu^cE SrRUcÍukls
The last of theseqampìes is ân ãllernativefor the lâst ol thosein the p.eceditrg Á.djectivalsd€Íived by suffixâlion,ând the úems of those derivedby tonal Ìeplacement(without tìe tonal replaciv4 are üsedin a p.edicativeconstruction which dilieF rrom ordi.ary verbal constructions.The ìogicâlsubjector topic ol such â prêdicâtiÌe is. in lorm, like the obj€ct of â Ì.rb (or ihe pôssesso. of ân imlreFonalreÌationalrou!). The form has a suriix /-ìl, which is aìso Íound in includingonewhich indicatespresentaction. À consone lerbãl constructions, trást betwee! a verbal constructionand an adjecüral pÌedicativeis iuustrat€d 'it is g.tting bigger' 't is big The negativeco(espondingto such predicativeconstructionsusesth€ ve.b úen in all câsesrthe constructionis the pãst negâtile, usuâìlytrânslâiableby 'be {ith âú âdjectivein ih€ câseol verbsrelening tÒ stâte o. conditiôn. Some exampÌesoÍ affirmãtive adjectivaÌp.edìcâtiv.sãnd theiÌ negâtivecount€Ìpaús 'tii d kpanáqôì ('üi ÍJi Ié kpanaÍJ ni)
this sork is djiiicült'
neyii ti li6iêi (ìeyii ú lé ìi6i ni) 'there are a lot ol them
('fé lÉlÊni) 'kôii !i yôsi ('Ìaii !i fê y', ni) 'kprlúôi (l'kpôì5rì) ( Ié kpôÌu ni)
'ii is ripe'
Finally, adj€ctivâlsderived by sullixation, â.d the ve.b stemslróm which ãdjectivalsa.e derivedby tonal Ìeplaement, a.e us€din ân adverbialcoÍstÌuction. This is a "mâÌked conptenent" aite. â verb, which is ã complementbeginDilg with the Dorpheme/à/. The adjectivalor verb stem haspÍelixêd low tone, which in generalis a morpìeme indicating previousÌelerence.Nouns,without prefixed low tone, mây âìsobe usêd jn such ohplements; a contrastbetwen the two is iuustrated bv tÌte Iollowinp: 'ké à ôdã Such adveÌbiâlsare commonafter /káa/ p.ecededby an object. In Íorm, iseê'; in this use,ho{e!er, the numbeÌ of /káa/ is a sirgular imperativemeaning peÉonsâdd.esed is irelevant, and the combinationwitì a maÌÌed comtlement
253
ÀDJEcrrvEs ÀND UN-ADiE!ÌrrEs
is tÌ'e common€xpression oI description.Ân examplevitÌt a noün,an adj€ctiral, snd ã veÌb stemt.omwhich an adj€ctivalnay bc derivêdby tonalrêplacenênt,aÌe: 'káa à 6óa 'káa à nibÍe 'káa à'kpôÌu
'it is a kDiÍe' 'it is dirt)' ìt is ripe'
l.ôú, the The last two of theseexâmplesãre thus siúiìar to, or indistinguishâble Ia. is Th€ prêdiusege discused above, as as mea.ing conce.ned. tÌedicative cative usageis generaUyprereÌred,but both are heardCodespondingex?resionsof desoiption lor othe. than the presentusethe verb /ké/, int.ansitively. Thus: à ìi6ie Here. hov€ve., theÌe is generallyâ clea. distinction in meaningbetseen such desoiptive sentencesvith adverbiâl compìementsand the use of an ordinâry verbâl construction. The descrjptivesenten.esreler tô ã siate which used 1o obtain. whiÌe the verbâl const.uctions.efcr to â proce$. ComÌâ.e the loÌìowing à kétE èkè à òyô.
'it was big' it was dry'
è kÈtÉ è yòâ
'it got bigge.' 'it got dry'
Adjectivâl derivâtioncan hardÌy b. dcsoibed âs productilc in Kpclle, but on occâsiÕnI hàv€ sugg€stedá fo.h, in an att.ibutive cónst.uction,which I had beenunableto elicit by t.anslâtion,and tound iÌ acceptedcventhou8hnâtive speâkeresaid they would not hâve thought of using it. SoDêother quâlìlicâtile concepl-e are expressedby lorms classiliedas "ideophonet, which wiu be discussed in anothercontcxt. 9.3. In Jukun. qualilicalivesâre âÌsoderiv.d from verbs,âdd thei. lerbÌike cha.acte.is conspicuous.They oc.ur âll€r â norphcme iàl, toìlôwins . noün. The sâmeconstructionwith a verb \\,hichhas no subjectis a relatìre shose sübject is tÌ'e ânteredentnoDn;the sameconslrüclion$ith â verb which doeshave a subjectis â .elative whosesubjectis other than the ânÌecedentnoun. Quâli licâtivesditl$ tron ordinâry verbs,hÕseler,in thât ÌheJ âre redúpìicâted.Ìhe fouowingexamplesÍ.om Dìyi illustrate thesetlree po$ibiÌities: 'ihe personwho câmehoc' pòrèâ bi kéré ni (cf.. pèrèni bi karé the p.rson camehere) tóÈ à ku to ni the trap he had set (cf.: ku to tó.à hc set a t.ap') rukpâ à kìkyè cleancloth (cf.: tükpâ kyò râ the cloth is cÌern') The segmentalform oi the redüplicatingsyllablein qüalificatiresis not entirely p.edictaue, FoÌ somelerbs, the stem sJllableis pr€lixed{ithout chánge.
251
AEh'c^N LÀNut'ÁcE SmucreREs
lìor ôtheÍ verbs,the redüpÌìcâtingsyllahlêconsistsot the initial consonantoÍ the stem foìloved by a dilterert vowel-in the limited nuDber oI forms Ìeco.ded, iii appearsin tìree and /oi in one. TonâÌly,however,the reduplicatedfoÍms âÌe regulaÌand Ìevealan interestingpattern. Verb stemshaveeithermid or low ton€, neverhigh. Thê tonesof â redupìicàtêdqüâlificâtived€pendon the tone of the vêrb stem, end also on wìether the ve.b is intransitive o. tÌansitiÌ€. FoÌ intrârsitile verbs vith Ìow tone, the quaìiticâÌivehas the tones lowìow. For ìrânsitile verbs with Ìow tone, the qualificative hãs low high with the first syllable and midlow with the second. For intrânsitiveverbs with mid tone, the quelificativehas th€ tones mid-mid. For transitive verbs with mid tone, the quãliiicãtivehâsthe toneshigh-mid. Th* Iou. types are illustrâtedby the folSiem low, intrânsilive: Ià 'be hot' kyè be cleân mbü be white tü 'be dilficult' StemÌow, transitive: syì boil kì split pe rox up 'roast wõ Stem mid. intransitive: {on 'be dry Ìtgô be tough' Stem mid, transiüve: hsâ 'drink pè 'put out to dry' mbyâ 'make,fix'
zàpèà lìÍà tukpa à kìkyè tukpa à mbümbü bus à tüÌü
'hot water' cleancìoth white cloth 'difficDltsoÌk'
yinà à kìki' tulipâ à pépè'
büsôà $o{go
:
yinà à hóhwâ zàpèà wáwa tukpâ à pãpê bà à mbÍmbya
'a pointed stick 'drinking wâtêr' 'clothesout to dry' tomethins repâired, somethingmanulactuÌed'
It can be seenfrom the abovethat, for tÌãnsitive ve.bs,the qüâlificativeis usuâlly trânslatâbleby a pãsive. In one câsê,howeve.,it meaningis strüvê: /zàpèà váwÀ/ is water that is d.inkable,not water which has beend.unk. In negatile counterpaúsof the âbo!e, the distinctronbeteeen intrânsitile and transitiveis retained. For intransitiveverbs,the negative âreÌegularverbâl .eÌativ€s,without reduplicationoI the v€Ìb stem, For trânsitiÌe verbs, the Ìeduplicatedforú js üsedin the samêíegâtive conslrútion. E.g.,
zàpèàlàámbá yinà à Nom rÀ á mbá
'wâte. thât is not hot' 'wood that hasnot d.ied '*ôod thât is not splií 'clothesthat have not beenput out to
ADrlcrtvls
255
ÁND UN-ADJICÌI\xs
'fher€ is one recordedword which âppea6 in the sameconst.uctionNhich is not reduplicãtedand not dcrired lrom ã wcrbi this is loünd nÌ thr lollowing: I i à k $àLì
Unfoúünaicly, no regâtile ôr predicâlivcsâs recodcd coú.spondingto thn. There arc a lcw pecüliarphrâsesoÍ an agltluiinativetype which do not lit any majoÍ pattern.but Nhich certainlycannotbe calÌedadj€ctival. An example is /fipà pèrè/.titcrally l€opârdcàl.h person',{hich is â cornnoí eÍpresion simply designatinga leopard. With Íewexccptions, therefore,qüalìticâiives inJukünâ.e deri!ed Írofr vcrbs, and are üsedin â constructionçhich is bâsicallva ..lative clause. Thcre is no cìâs of âdj€ctivesindeFndent oI verbs,unlessthe form /kNàkì/ is so clâ$iliedi ìut eventhat Íom appeâÌsin what is bâsicaÌìyâ relativc cìause. 9.4. In Àkan aho. thotrghfor dìÍter€ntr€asons,it is legiÌiúâte to queúion whetherthere is â clâssoi âdjeclives. DêriÌâtiôns trofr vêrbs ãÍe nôl invollcd. Christâll.r (1875)rcfè6 to "âdje.tive nôüns", ôbservingthrt mãnJ ol th.m are âlsousedâs substantivenouns,thouglì he âlsocallslhe *ords in .{ucstion quali lying âdjecliv€s",and seeústo begin with à semânticrâther thân â sbúctural detinitiÕn. In 1943,I dislinguishedâdjectivesf.od other clâssêsin Fânle on the syntâcticlevcl. but not on lhe horplrolÕgìcâllev.l (s.e \\'elm.6 1946). \Íorphologically,they beÌongto or are derived lrom a generalcla$ ot non-verbâl úêms. Syntacticaìly,they are dilteÍentjâtedhom nouns in thal they hây be Iollowedby an adverb,and frcm adverbsin that they may appearin sentenceinitiaÌ position(iI followedby â denonsiralive). It thus seemsposiblc to.ecoglize a clas ôr adjectives,but it must be emphasìzed that th€y sharemany of the gramôâticâl propertiesol nouns. Thus the louowing phraseshâve â nominal ni 'Ii{ din
'its beauty' its hârdnes
In a prcdicativcusag€,th€ distincrionbetweenadjccìivesand nounsis. al best, not well estabÌìshed.ThÚe is a v.rb, or po$iblt two homothonouslerbs, /y!/, frêânine 'be (describ€dat'and 'mâke'r the anãlysisas one verb pàrâll.ls the similar usesoÍ the KpelÌe verb lké/, which in fact may po$ibly be cognálè. Berorea noun and with the nÌeânine Ìre', iyÈ/ takes snbjectpronounsvith lo$ tone; wilh th€ meaning 'make', it tâkes subject tronounswith high ione. /lè/ is also usedbdore adjectivcs,obviously with the m€âning'be', ìrüt in this use it tãkessubjeclpronounswith high tone. lhtrs rhc predicâtivescntencewith an ãdjectile is like the usa€eDeaning make' with a noun, ulike ihe erpressioD lor desoiptiÒn. lt r€Dainstrue, however,that both nounsand adjectivesappear in an identicaìenvironnent. The tollo{ing sntenccs iìlustratcthh prcbleml ò yÈkyéw
á yÈkyÉw ó yÈhyÌw
ã6
ÀFRrcÀN LÀNcu^cE SrRUcruREs
Someadjectivê stemscombinewith nounsto form compounds,foÌ which ther€âre distinctivètone rúles. CompoundsoÍ t\'o noun stemsare alsocommon, howe!êr,and the sane rülesâppÌy tô thèm- Thus the c.uciaìc.ite.ion for distinguisling nounsând adjectivesappearsto be that an adjectivemÂy be followed by an âdverbwhüe â noüd.adíôi; the ph.âse/kÈi dúdú/ too big prcves/kèsi/ to be an adjectiverâther thon â noun. A frÕresúbtle distinctionis tìât â noun may be usedby itself at the begidniígof â seítence.as â verbal subject;ãn adjective ât the beginniígoÍ â sentence must (asa noutrmay) be followedby a deIn Fantê, I haveremrdedonìy oneadjectivethat hes dilterent singularând llural Íorms. (Christaìlercitestwo more Io. Twi, btrt I âm nút âwareúI the in !'ânte.) Stúngely, bút pe.hâpsnot significantly,this is tÌre third languagecited in this chapÌer ìn which the expresion lÕr 'big'h in sôúe *ây unique. The
Someadjectivesapp@Ì only ìn a stemfoÌD, o. jn a foÌm consisti!8oI a stem {ith â pretix. Other âdjecÌivesâpleâr onÌy in ã r€düplicàt€dÍôrú, usuàllywith lull reduplicâtionol the stem. À few typicaì tormsâre: iprcsp€rousi 'big' !Üròm!ÜÈm 'blâck tüntúm gÌeen númún Oih.r âdjectivesappeârin teo or ìhreeforms. Onelorm h thê úem, usDãlÌy â monosyuãbler this is the usüaÌÍom in pÌedi@tìon.it nây be usedin â compoünd noDn,ard it may be usedattributively. ln predicaüon,the stemhaslôw tone in mâny and perhâpsâll câses.The othe. forns, generãllyusedâttributively ând sonetimeswiÌh ân intensiveúeâding, âre nduplicated and tripÌicâted. In the triplicâtedfôrús, the secondsylableis lengthened.Somespêâkersseemto preler lhe triplicâtedto the reduplicatedforms. Thus there âre $ts like thê lÕliÉÍÉw
IéféIéw
'Ìong' iD Àkan, a numberol Although ã cla$ oi ãdjectivesmay thus be recognized qualiÍicativeideas are aìsô expresed by verbs with an inceptive mearing. A presentstáteis expressed bya completivecÕnstruction; âttribution takesthe lom oI a relatile cÌause,in which the ve.b has a dilferent tone sequencechârâcte.istic oÍ suboÌdinateclãuses.E.s.. òèbii
'it is (hasbecome)blâck' 'bÌâck cÌoth (cloth which has be'he is (has becone) tired
ADJrcÌrsls
217
À!D UN-ADJEcrrvEs
9.5. Qualilicativeattributiles in YorubaarereduplicâtedÍormsd€rivedfrom vêrbs ôr alsô us€dâs werbs. This. however,is only one aspectoi the usc ot re duplicâtedforDs, and such fo.ms cannot sjmply be cãlled adjectires. R€duplicationoi v€rb stems(mostoi vhich ar€ monosyllabic)is productile in Yoruba, büt by no neânsâll reduplicâted forns âreâttributile or cânbc usedâttributively. A statementcoveringother useswiÌÌ shedlight on ure attributile construction. Á topicãlizedÍord o. ph.ãsein Yorubàâppeàrs{t th. heginningot â sentence, ând is folÌowedby a norph€me /ni/ indicatingidentiiication,which hasan alternâni form beÍorevowclsother than /i/ which is hererepÌesented as /l'/. A verb mây be topicâìizedby usingits redüplicatedto.m in this pôsition. È.g.,
jijç l'ó jç iíu náà (cr.:ó je iSunáà lilo l'ó lo (cÍ.:ó Ìa gigal'ó gâ (cl.ró ea
'ãctüâììy,he di. the yâms'
'he'stall')
Beyondthis point, howev.r, it is necesart to distinguishbetweentransitile ând intrànsitive verbs-ó. perhapsbetweenverbs indi.ating âctiód ãnd rerbs indicating state. FoÌ eachtype. il ìs possìbleto use the redutlicatedlo.m oI a ve.b ãft€r a noún, bul the undeÌìyingst ücture of rhe resrltânt phrâsesis quite dilÍe.ent. Wiih â trânsitivev€rb, the phraseindicatesthe aclion d€sìgnãiedby the verb. and the noun is the obìectof that qction. \\'ith an intmnsitiÌe lerb indicati.g state, thc phrasehas the slructúre oi a noun ând an âttributive. E.9., iiu jijr igi giga Verbs indicâìingstate dilfer in othe. respectsl.om re.bs indicaiing action. In thesimpleconstrúcrionol a subj€cttronoün aúd â lerb úen, a lerb indicãting âctionreiersto pasttime. but a !$b indicatingstale refeÌsto presenttime. Ihis difierenceis reÍlectedin the translationsoi the sentences above. lt is ÕnÌyÍrom intránsitiveverbsindicâtingstatethãt redupiicatediorms aÌe d€rivedwhich hâle an attributiÌe lunction alter nouns. Ìn the fe* lÕrns cited thüs fâr, lhe reduplicàtidgsJÌìâbleconsislsoi the initiâl consonantof th€ stem lollowedby the vo{eÌ /i/ {ith high tone. lhis is thc predominantpattern. ïh€ foììowingâ.e sone tJpicaì attribuÌives oI this typei the stem,\'hich is in all restectsa rerb, is ererything alter the ftst syllable: grgun
gica
'tong' taÌl' 'hoìy' 'big
titó
straight
gbigbun
There are some coínmonattributives, ho{,e!er, which lioÌâte this pattern. like the following:
2;8
AFRrcÁN L^NGUÀGE SrRUcrukEs
kpúkpò
íká
big'
OI these,/úlá/ mây welÌ be derivedtrom */ìiìá/ by typicaì morphophonemic Ìules. 4Iuúher irregularityappeâ6in /kékeré/,in thâr the verb Ircm which it is de.ived hâs the loneshigh-hlgh:/kéré/. Full reduplicationoI the úem is shownin /dáâdáà/, as attestedby an aìternant lorm often heard. /dárâdárâ/,with /dára/ as the alterDaDtoÍ the verb úen. I hâvc h€ârd the regular Iormation /kpik!ò/, which ìs reportedto be normâl in somedjaìects. l_hereis alsoa small number oÍ attributiveswhich show redúDlicâtion.bút Ior which thè coüespondingverbs have the samereduplicatedfoÌms; e.g-.
lncludedìn this group are the three prima.y terms fo. colom,usuâllytrans lated white, bìâck', and '.ed', but designslingmuch large. rangesâs sugSestedby the glo$€sbelov. ('fhis is â rery @mnod priDâry divisionol the spectrufr in west Alrica.) The pattern oI redupÌicationis alsoditfer€ntin theselorms. ln ÍouÌ ot tle follÕ*ing cãses,the reduplicàtionincludestone and nasalization, and the redupìi.alingvôwel mãy be consider€d/ü/. The glo$es given ìe.e reIl€ct the att.ibutive use.but aÌl âDD@ralsoin ve.bâl usesì tútü
'coìd,set, iresh
kpukpa ln tlÌe caseol /iútü/ th€ lone is irr.gulâr; in jrs verbâlüse.the form hâsmid-low: /iutü/. Ihe attriburire to.m may refl€cta contractionfrom a regulârredúplicâ great many qualiiìcativeconceptsare also expresed by ideophonesin Yoruba. These.hoveler, constitutea specialSrammaticalclass,paralleledin counilesslanguâges ol Áfricâ, which is reservcdfor sepâ.âtet.4tment, Oldertrcatmentsof Yo.uba, and schoolinstructjonin the Ìânguage,provide â striking exampleof ihe blind applicationol English (or Latin) grammaticãl câtegoriesro â languâgewith quite a diflerent structure. Words ar€ àssi8úedlo classesnot on the basisoi tìÌei. Iom or function in Yoruba. but on the basisol the Englishcla$esio which thci. Englishequivalents(at leastin tems or semântic featuret belong. Only one oI many instãncesoI this is thât the stemslrom Nhiclì redüplicâtedattributives are d€rived are themselvescalled adjectives'. even though, Íor exampÌe,/ga/ must be tÌanslated 'be taìì', nôt simply taÌl'. SpeakeNoÍ Yorubâ siìl naturâlly go on speakingthek languâgeâs its strücture requúes,büt ellorts to teâch iÌ.sg.ammar p.obÀblydo more to obscurethân to iÌìuDinare,and learnersa.e thoroughlycodfused. 9.6. As Írentionedât the beginningol Ìhis châpter, lgbo doeshave a cìâss of âdjectives. li is highÌy reslricted and synmet.ical, and js chaÍâcterizedby a peculiarsemanticfeature. Belore deÍendirglÌtis ânâlysis,the chs wiU be dc-
ADrEcrrvcs dD
259
UN-ADJEcrrvEs
fined ând described.' Igbo has e'ght adjectives,scmsnticâllyfou. !âirs o{ an-
ójó'ó óji'i
'lighi coÌored'
ó.á
bad 'dâ.k coìÕred'
Any ol theseadjectives,usedâÍier a noun,implicsthât the nounjs ã menber oI a categoryvhicì is Ìarge!new,and so on. In somecasesthis ieatureoi categoÍy heúbeship is nótconspicuous orúucial, but phrâses*ìth cont.astingm€âning sho{ thâl il is present, Attribuiion {ilh the sâmemeaningâpârt irom this cãtegoryfrefrbeNhip is exp.êssedby â.eìàti'e cìàuseusing the verb /i'di/ 'be describedas' and ã noun related to the adjective. Fo. example,iüwé óji'i/ is 'blâck (or dark bìüe eic.) clothing', búl ol â pãrticula. lype or lo. a pa.ticulâr lunction, as a uniforú. This is usedwith a noun meaningrpersonito iorm the phrase/ónyé úwé ójii/, specificâlly a police oilicer'. But dark clotìring nÌ eene.alis /üwé 'di óji/À conparisonof the ?hrasescited abovesuggeís that the adjective/óji'ii mãy be a derivedÍorm, and indecdit is. For fouf oi ihe eight âdjeciil8s,tlrc.e are rcÌatednounsi lor eachoI thesethe stcm ({iihout the vowel tÌeiix) is âlso a verb, wìich is üsedonly with tlÌe related noun as a cogmteobject.aDdwhiclÌ mây be consideredthe und€rÌyingroor. With rhê verbs cited in the inlinitive Íorm, ând gÌoses {or the adje.tivesonly, the rour setsare: NoD ú má
j'ió
Adj. ljmá
í'jó
óió'ó
lú r ji
Òcá òji
ócá óji i
Yetb i'má
Tlìe Iour adjcctiv€sin the above sets are used onìy âttributively. Predi(yieldingdilterentshâdes cationisexpressedbyeither/i'di/ortheuDderlyingverb predications used âs rel.rilc ol meaning)with the Ìelated nouns. Nith such cÌâDses, â noun nay thus b. nodilicd in three vays. 8.9., 'a good book' (vorthwhile or çell vrittcn) 'â tinè book' (ât leâsÌin âppeaÌânce or manufachtre,not necesarilyin content) twáànyi'máú ú má For the othe. four adjectives,there aÌe no related verbs lrom {hich they can b€ conside.edto be deÌived,and identicalIorms are usedâfler /i'dlionìy to expresspredication. Àpârt t oú theseforms,ihere arc goodreasonsto say thât /i'di in the meâning be desc.ibedas'(t âÌso meâns 'be locatedat') caí be roì-
260
,{rkrcN
LÀNcu^cE SrÂuouÁEs
loved onìy ìy â noun. For this reasn, thc lour Íoms in questionhereã.e inteF p.eted as adjectiles when usedattributirely, but ãs hoúophonousnouns{hen usedpr€dicatively, The cat€gorym€mìerhip implied by the adjectiveis ãgãin evident in the Iollosing !âir: 'a ìime'(cf.: ÒÍÒmá 'orange')
úkú'médiítà It must íill he demonstrâtedthaì the eight lorms herecaÌledâdjectivesdo jndeedconstjrtrteâ sepârâteclâs, Ìâther than being,íor eaanple,a speciaÌtype oi noun. It is clearlrÒm the âbÕvediscussion thât the eight foÌús do constitut€ sone kind oI a set. Fo. three oI tÌreD, â detail of tonal behavio.demonstrâtes that they are distinct fÌom nouns. Crucialphrasesare suchas the louoping: 'white clothing' (e.g., a Ìu6et unifoÌm) 'a large plete' (e.8., a diDne. plate as opposed to a sâlâd pìate or sâucet
Il â nóun $ith the ton€shigì-high is usedalter anothernoun (in ãtr âssciâtive constÌnction),â downst€pmust âccompânytìe scond syllable,in contmstwith the âbsenc.oÍ downste! âbove. E.g.,
The other tive adjcctiveshâve tonaÌ *quenceswhich do not undeÌgoâÌternation evenin nouns. But tÌ'e othe. evidencecited âboveis sufficieDtto gÌoup tlem with tìese thÌee in â speciâlcìas for which "adjective"is a just liabÌelabel. Adjectiles ãre not üsedin an assciative const.uction. A numberoI other Igbo sords a.e commonlycalledãdjectives,ând it is now Dece$aÌy to exclude theD irom tÌ'is class, or to show câusewÌ'y they should be asigned to other.lâ$es. ÀftÕng sdch wo.ds, Íüóerals cân reâdiÌyìe excluded; tÌì.J sÌc usedâltributiv.ly âllo nouns,but aìsojD aD a$ociative construcüón aitìì ordinaÌ ncâninq. Thus: ,ilô àrd
'l hrechouss
ú'ìó ( {kó)'âtó
thê thhd hou*
The words /üródú/ 'sone' and /ôbúlà/ 'any' âre cÌeârlynouns;they are usd ãIter oth€r nouns,but only jn an â$ociatiÌe const.uction.The wo.ds /ótü/ 'one', ìut neitheÌ âÌe they /ó gr!/ 'tventy , and /íDü/ Iou. hundred aìe not nDmerals, âdjcctives;they â.e nÕunsusedbeloreÕthernounsin ân â$ociâtivecÕnstrucüoD, identitiâbjèby châ.âcteristictonal aÌteÌnations.The vord /ótútú/ 'â lot of' Dây be grouted with these; it is u$d in tììe sane wây, âÌthoughits tones âre such thãt ihè diâgnosiictonal alte.lation is not possibÌe. Two demonú.atives,/áhü/ 'thât' and /à/ 'this, co!úitute a speciaÌcla$; they aÌe the onÌy lo.ms so Iã. consideÌedthat can occuÌ âfter â numeÌâI. Two wordsior 'aÌì , /dúü/ and /ni'ilé/, constiturêstiÌl anothe.cÌâss;they caú be ued alter numerals,and ãlsoalter d€monstratives.The word /ná'áni/ 'only' can also
ADrEdrvEs
261
ND UN-ADJEcrrvEs
be so used,but iD ãdditionit may be usedbeforea noun; it is probablybeú considêr€dâ type ol adverb. Sevêralwords which designatequâliti€s,ând which hâve conmonly been caÌledadjectives,âre aclually nouns,alihoughihere are soÍneresìrictionsin their use. Theseincludethe loÌÌowin8,heÌe glo$ed as ìI they were adjectires:
ógólógó tall long óbódóbó 'vide' úbádáúbá wid€ tkpóikpó 'shoÌt(ânimâte)' 'smaÌl' óbéró
í r!fti úrâ!iri n âcádi í kpisì
a snall anÌountot 'â snìallamountoí
TheseâÌe usedbeforenouns,and superlicialÌygire the impre$ion oI modi, Íying such nouns in â modilier-headconstruction. 8.9.. ógólógóósist óbódóbóúzò However,thê diâgnostictonâl âlternâtiÕnlor tle âssociafi'econstructionwith two nounsappeãresith ihe onÌy oneotthcsetor{hich itis possibl€;âsjn the second of the fôllowing,finâl ìÒwtone becômcshigh b€lÕreìos: {kpisì ósisi úkpisi iLda
'a short (Ìenglhot) rope'
Thus the words in qtrestiona.e interp.etedas nouns,and h€reâre heâd nounsin an a$ociativeconFt.uction.Strangeas it may seemfron the vie{point of trane latiÕn,the phÌâsesâbÕle have the sbuctu.e 'a tâìÌne$ ol t.ee', 'a widenes ôf Ìoad', 'a sho.tne$ oÍ úick/rope'. As night ìe expected,the words in question ãre câììed"adjectives"in mâny tÍeatmentsÒl lgbo and in schools,but it is signi ficãnt that speakesot Igbo wìo have not studicd ih€ "grammâr" ol theif lân guâgein schoÕlr€adily recognizethe noDinâìráther than adjectivâlchâra.terof thesewoÌds. There a.e. indeed.someusesin {hìch theiÌ Dominalcharacteris more obvious,thoúgh thcseâre not very common, It is quite possible,tor exampìe,to sây /ógóìógó'yá/ 'its h€jght'. Ìnterpretedas nouns,thesexords also íit into the siâtemeÍt previÕuslynade that onìy a noun ma_rappearalter rldir in the meaning 'ìe desc.ibedãs', in absolut€or Ìelative constrüclions. There aÌe admittedÌy restrictionsin the use ol these nouns. Except alter /i'di, it s€emsto be impossibleto useâny oÍ them unnodilied. Includedin this is the lact that they cânnotbe usedaloneafÌer the verb /ibú/ 'be identiÍiedas'; be \o used,bul cannolbe u\edaitpr,i di. moslnoun5can hs nouns,ho$e\pr, ^ presentanâlysis. cân bê üsedâlterìóth, ând the disnnctionis illumjnatingIorüe lollowjngl Comparethe ó bü úÌò ó )È ókú in terms ot 'it is hot'(i.e., desc.ibabÌe tire, bul not âcÌuâÌìytlânÌc)
262
ÀFÀrcN L^NdúacÉ SqucrmEs ó dì ógólógó
'it is taÌ' (i.e., dêsdibabÌein tems oÍ tâllness, but not actuauy the quaÌiiy Õr tallnessjtseÌf)
It may be desirabÌeto set up subcìâsses of nounsoÌ to dêfine ã semântic leâlure,such thât /úlò/ is "concretè"rhile /ógótógó/is 'nonconoete", ând /ókú/ À numberoÍ other wo.ds mãy be usedaitcr ih€ verb /!,di/ o. afte. verbsÌelatedtothem and r.om which they nay be taken as derived. Thek âreâlsoânalyzed as nouns. ExampÌesarel
ó dìüto/ ó ódì I ìp é /ó
úri'di út,j / úri tóró úló tsecâuse ot their quaìilicâìivemeâning,thesehâve alsocommonlybeencalìed They cannot,ìowever, be used attributiÌeÌy âIte. nouns;the ât. "adjective tribütives in the above €xampÌesare relatìve clauses.Thesedo not âpp€ârin most other typicaÌ nominal constructionseither, but one other is attestedãnd is is sulÍiciert to establishthat th$e alsoare nouns. À "nonconcrete"noun not so Iar cited is /ézigbó/'a tÌue specimen,rel ; it is typically u$d in an exclamâtory s€nse. The fouosing show it usedwith an obviousnoun, and with onê oI the nounsin questionhere:
Finâlly, ihe.e àre à fêw erpresionsfor coloB which are redüpÌicatêdphrâses of a unique type. but cl€ârly derivedlrom nouns. Thêy âÈ usedâlter the vob /i cá/ 'be bright, shine,b€ colo.ed',ând corsponding relâüve clâusesârê used âttÌibutively. The undeÌlyingnouns in the ÍollowinSare tvo nâmesol species of tÍees lrom {hich dyesâre made,ând twô words (r.om diffeÌent diâlect âreâs) úhyé: èdò: òbàrâ: únér
ákwúkwó cárá úhyé úhyé ákwúkvó 'cárá èdó èdò ákwúkwó cániLÒbàniòbàÌà áksúkwó 'càráúné'úmé
'a a â (brisht) red book'
Igbothus proridesan ôüts!ândineexânple ol the needtorcaution in labeling Nords "adjectives.' There derinitelyis ã classoI âdje.tives,ìo be sur€,but most words one would ât lirst think of câllingadjectivesare nounsoÌ b€lóngtó other snâÌler forn clases, while adjectiv€sare a limited âíd disünctiv€cÌass. in ãnother 9.7. The eiistenceof a clâs oI âdj€ctivesin Efik wâs estâblished conncctionin 5,20,and alludedtô ât the beginningol thìs chspter, The cÌàs is not ìârgc, bui it has nothing oI the symmetryor semanticuDiqueÍes cha.acteF istic ol Igbo ãdjectives.As in Igbo, toDeis $úciâì to the delinition oÍ ãdjectives;
263
ADrEcrrvEs áxD UN-ADrrcrrllg
in the caseof foms vith final low tone, adjectivesdiffer lrom nounsin an associâtila .ônstructionin thc tonaÌ slt.rnatiÕnswìich ìh.y codditiÒn. Elik adjcc tives âlso diller lrorn nouns in lhat they have â sing'rlaFpluralcÕrtrast. An attributive adjectile precedesa noun, an unusualwo.d order in Niger-Congo lângúâges, thoughnot únpârâllel€d in ljo. frôdiliesoÍ âll types precedenoüns. Wâ.d (1933,p?.42-43) had.oted differences in tonaì slternations,and âç ot "âdj€.tives". He. lirst classincludesonly âciual tributed them tÕ tÍô clâsses adjectiveswith linal low tone. IIer secondclas incÌudessomeiorms with Iinal Ìow tone which âre better analyzedas nouns,and a numberoI forms viih lìnal high lone which, as lar as lonal âlternationsare concerned,could be eìther adjecriles or íôuns. Hâliíg fâiled 1o discoverthe âctual bâsisfor dislingüishing âdjectiv€slrom nouns,sheraìsesthe queúion ot why theresÌroüldbe Ìwo typesof moÌphotonemicalternation,and quotesa süggestionbI M- D. W-.lefireys that ìe. Clãs I Àdj€ctives comeirom Sudanic.oot verbs." Sincêthe dedvation oI âdjectivâlsl.om verbshasbeennoteditr othcr Ìânguagcs, this suggcstion is woúÌr paúiculâr nentioning here. Àctually, I seeno elidence Íor such a hypoihesis, althoüghâ few âdjecliv€sa.e clearlyde.ivedf.om verbswithin Elik itself. There is no extensiveor p.oductive pattern ot adjectìvederivation; the roìloving recognizâbìeinstãn.es,estâblishedas adjectiraÌ rather than some othe. type of derivation by tonãl behavio.or the cxistenceoÍ singulârand pÌural forns, ãre insulficientto establishrules lor pÌelixatioDor tone in derivedadjecti!€s: tibé dyók 9àn
b€gin,hâppen' : be bad' : : 'expãnd'
ütibè, (pì.?) idyók, Àdyóy àtán, àYán
'remarkable' bad lons, târ'
With lrer chârâcteristichunility, integrity, anrl goodsens€,wârd adds that sh€ "has been conc€rnedwith Ìhc existing facts ol Ìhe languagcând hâs not toucìed on tÌ,e historicalsideof the question. Sheis ìar.lìy to be castigatedior not presing the des$iptive analysisto a .igidll deÍensiblesolution.thouehsuch a !rccedure would have explairedthe ditferences in morphotonemicalternation without recourseto historicalspeculation. 9.4. Given the oppÒúúnjty tor fâr more extensiÌe exposureto someGuÌ thê statusoi forns thât nây al leastbe describedas âdjectilah n,ighl Ìânguâges, be lar more satìsÍactoÌilyeúablished. The ÌiDited evid€ncealailable, hoaever, is suficient to demonstrâtethat càuliousânãlysisis in order, and rhât vo.ds cannot blindly be labeled adjectivet' simply becaüsethey happento have a quaÌifiotive heâning. In SDppiÌe(sêeWelmem1950b)lorns wilh â quaìiticalivem.rniry are used âÍt€Ì the stem of À noun, wiÌhout the noun clâsssufiix (if âny). Somecxânples
kâkà su-go bo-Ìo
'lizârd' 'bag
261
ÁFk,cd
LÀNcuac! SrRUcruREs
The Ii.st oi the nounsalove belongsfo thc ,ti clâssând the secondto the ui cla$i the form meaning big which is usêd âIler their steDsis the samein both câses. Simiìarly, the third oí the nouns abole belongsio the ki class,ând the lourth to the li clas; the foÌm neaning hnâlì' shich is used after their stms is the saúe in both cases. The phraseson the right abore do bêÌongto noutr but the classis determinedby the quaüiicâtiverather than by the noun classes, sl.m. Thc qurlilicâtivesthêmselves consistoI stemandcìasssuffix: /bó-?á/in th€ Ìi clas and /bilèè-Ìe/in the ri chss. Eâch qüâlificâtivesÕusedbelôngsto a specific cla$; the r€coÌd€dexâúplesaÌe aìl in eithertÌre li clas or the li cÌass,and the approlÌìatecon€slonding!Ìurâl forns alsooccur;it is dubioúswhetherfoms in olher clâsesâre 1o be lôÌnd in the language. In spite oI the Ìest.iction in cÌas m€mbeNhip,the dâta strcígÌy suggest thâi Ìhc iorms in queíion ãre nominal,and that they conbinewith the st€ns oI other nounsto roÌD a type of compoundnÕun.the cÌas ol which is deternined bv the cìâssol the secondmehbeÌ. which is the modilier rather than the h€âd. Unlortunâtely, no inlormation is avãilãble on other po$ible @mbinâtionsof tso nouns(e.9.,a combinatìonol house'ând 'wood' for 'â lramehouse')wìich night leÌiiy this anâllsis or suggeúthat the quaÌificâtiv€sin questionbeÌongto a roÌm clâssoI their o{n. OtÌ'er evidence,however.su88eststhat the solution nây not be âs sìnple âs the âvâilabÌeloms make it seen. Coneslrondingto at ìeast someoi the quãlificaüveswìich âÌe used as illuú.âied above,theÌe aÌe aÌternaìiaeattributive loms which âre usedâtter the indelinit€ singulaÌ tom ol nounÈthe steD vith its cìas sufiix. ïhese âttributives have a prerix /nu-/ or /ni-l (lhe alternationis probãbly phonologically conditioned).sith morpÌÌophon€nicaÌt€rnâtioúsât the beginningof the sten. TÌ,e recordedcasesol conespondingqualificativesusedaner â noun stem aud aiter the indefinitelo.m ol â noun ârê: 'light'
iógó tágà
Fuúher, â hâjÕrity of the recordcdquâlificativesa.€ de.ivedlrom verbs,or are at leãstcógnatewith verhswhàtêverthe underlyingrcot Day be. Verbsâppear in two rorms. rìich foÌ presentpurposesúây sinply be labelled'tteú" ând "pr€sent"j thè presentseemsto be derivedfrcm the steD hy a com!Ìex set oI derilationsl pâttons, though ìn at least sÕmecâsesthe stem alsÒfrây be derivedhom an underlyingroot {hich doesnot allear by iiself. Cass of reÌÀted verbsand quâlificativesare as folìows;aìl of rhê quâlilicative hereare in the lÌ
ADrEcÍrv€s
265
Ìir-ÁDJlcÍrvÌs ^ND
s/en duso fârai nyÍ[é lyu rí. tyügò
Present dtrdui tàràgà nyitili lràgo ítáá àtyügòÌì
Quatif. dusoso ta?a nyi{s lvágá túgá tyügÍlg{i
'(b€)heâvy' '(be)lisht' '(be)coìd'
Iìor qualiricativeswhich âre notÌelatedto verbs,verbswitl rehted meanings ãre record€d.For the Íirst two ol ihc foìÌowidgsetsvilh Ìhe quâlilicativehaving aÍ independ€ntúen, lhe quaÌilicativeis in the ki cìass;lor the other two. it is in
Quatit. pèì tyíÉ
pèrì
(b€)big,rat'
ntyégÉ
tógó bilèère
(b€)small
Unfortúnãtely.th€ data elicited or happenedupon in Senari(see$elDers 1050a) which h not faÍ beyondthe boundsof Ínllúql intelìigihility {ìth Suppire-aÌe not suffjcientÌypârãlleì$ìth the Strpple data to conÍirm of.€lute a hypoihesisoi a closeÌysimilar structu.e in restect to lorìns {itìr qualitcative Deani.g. There is some€vid€nce,however,oI signilicaDtdiilercnc.s. Three rorms Ìelerring to thc p.inìâry coloN er. recoÌdedin Senari,onÌ! i'Ì a predicãtiveusâge.This üsag€is nót recordedlor âny other words,ând predi caìiod lor other wordswith a qüaliiicatn'emeaningis cÌearlyverbal. AÌÌ of this mây welì be paralleÌedin Suppnercomparâblesenten.êswe.è not reco.ded. lr is not known how âthiòution is expressedÍor thesecolor termsi it maf be bl a kind ot relâtive conúruction. For what lhey arc wortì, ihe thr€e sentences which mer€Ìyexist in the blue Ío. lãck of other data are: kl
OtheNise, one cân start with â pâttern oI qualilicativêsused atier doun stemsvhich is soDewhatsìmilarto that of Suppirc. Ágair. the cÌa$ or the coDbinationdcpendson the clas ol the qualificâtivc. st.iking dilfetncc, ìrose!.r, is that at lesst somequâlificâtiwcsnsy appeaÌin ^tso or thre. dilferent cla$es, largely independentÌyol the classoi the modiliednoun. Iìesbiction to one class is illustÌâted by /kprt./ big. tâi in thc ki cÌasi this frav secrì Dâtü.alin riew ol the lâct that the Ài classmay hare ân augmentatireforce,bút ân inte.esting coünteFexâmplewill be noted lâteÌ: k!àsa kpatâ rJèlè
(ui) (ki) (Ì0
mât 'house' 'belì'
'â big belÌ
266
ÀÉRrc^N LÀNdú^dÉ
SrnúdruÂEs
The qualilicativemeaning small is iound mostfrequentlyin the Ìiclassas/pilé/i this mây alsóse€mnâturãl in vjèw ol ihe lâct thât the li clâs úáy ìâve a di niúutivè force,but actuâlly a form /pigé/ in the Àt clã$ mây aÌsobè used,with no âppãrentdiller€nc€in fr€âning. Àfi€r â úoun in the úi clâs releúing to ân aninrate,a Ìri cla$ forn isu*d with the speciricmeaning'inrant; onlythe plural i pibéle/is recorded.E.g., kpàsa
(Di)
I Io:'"ol'".Ì , .."',."'
súgu
(Ìi)
I ': n:'". l sU Iììgej
rlèÌè
(/i )
dck.
(ui
I a smarrmonar
oer| I n:01',". I 'asmarr rle p,sc I
I pile 'â small cst' Ídèk{ pigeìe smallcais dèkd I IdéLâ p,béìÈ kitten\'
'cat'
'lhe quâlilicâfi'e meaning tick' has iorms in three clâses: lyâ^l (ui), lyi\1^l (kÌ), iyálai (li). Ànv or the three nây be us€dalter a noun belongingto the úi class.but the di clâssIo.ú is not uscdafte. nounsof orher cÌasses,It is inter estingthãt th€ distincrionbetweenaugnìentãtiveànd dininülive is neütrâlized in such conbinations. The noun iyáwétei (li) Ìelers to a la.ge aninìal, while iyáwélei(li) is 'â smalÌ âninâl'. wh€n the úem /yáwé / is usedbeioreâ quãlificative,the qualificativemay appearin eitherthe Âi o. ii clâs, but the distinctior hâs no ref€renceto size, Tlìus: dèká
(Dò
""' : "
'{u I
f,d' \.n ,,/',
'cat
r
sn i ma r' :
o,,,r
,
yáa Ídériá ì { dèkáváea } a sìckcat'
yar" I I aer.,i Ivdwé) ' Ì
t vâwP!ára
Iâsi.r ân,,nar I
ll' 1 ) i) " 1 ' Ìj a s i. kb i, d
trdyl )aia l'or Senâ.i âs well as Suppire,such combinatonssuggeú thãt quãlifietives mây be nÕminâÌ,thôugh there is â heedomol clâs menbeship in Senarithat is not iound in Suppire. Even more consistentlythan in Suppire,hos€ler, SenÀri quâìilicativcsaÌe relatedto verbs. Only Ìso qüalificativesare.ecordedtor *hich there is no .elatedverb ro.m. One oI th€seis /yáâ, yátâ, yáìâ/ 'sick'. for which no pamllel is .ecordedìn Suppire. The othe. is /pilé, pigé/ 'smâìì':in Suppire, the cognâtequaÌiticaliveâìsÕhas no relâtedverb form. One Senariquaìili€üve {ith reÌâtedverb is cognâtewith a SuppÌe verb, while tso âre cognâtewith Suppi.è independentquâlificatives. (À questìonnot Ìaised berore,ând unans$erablel.om âvâilãbledãtà, is whetheronìy those qualificativeswhich ha!€ no reÌatedverb lorm are free as to cÌas rnenbership;it seemsÀ strongpossibility.)
267
ÂDrEcrrvEs ÁND UN-ADrtrcrrvEs
FuÍther. in Senaritlìe quâlificativc loms â.e identical vith the coresponding verb stêms,râther than apparcntlydcrivcd ãs in Suppire.ÀÌl süclìSenariquâlÈ ticâtivesand identicalve.b úems hâve mid tone throudhout. In loüf rècÕrded ca*s, the identicaÌve.b is transitìve: 'breakin twoì brcken in two'
I n t hp ê i 8 h t r m âinr ne r p.o rd p d .r!Ê s . rh p rd e n ri c a tv e rh i s i Fl ransi i vp.
'(be) light' '(be) short' '(be) big, ra| '(bc) oÌd
'(be)sood '(be)taìl '(be)yonns'
It was noted in Suppireihat verbs have two forms, stem aqd presedt. In g€nèrâì,the sameis truc in Senâri. Hos€ver, therc is no prcsentÍor the eight intransìtiveverbsàbôve. PresentdeveloDment is exrresed with â pârlicle/Ììbâ/, not otheNise recorded. E.g,,
The loregóingcompansonof qualificatìvesiD Süppi.e and Senârithüs reveãlsâ great deaÌof simiÌiÌity. and aho som€interestingdifferencesconsideriúg tÌte close.êlaiionshipof the languages.It vould requke more datâ and analysis to definethe stâlus ol quâlilicativessatislactorilyin terms ol the tolál structuÌe oÍ the languages,but it is clea. tìât one must be most suspiciousin respectlo â clâ$ of 'ãdjectives.' Thereâre mànJrüdãns{eredqúesiions,but âctually ìt is suÌprisinghow much pattern cmergesfrom â ìinited âmount ol dãta. gâihered aÌDost incideítally in a shorLperiod devoÌedlargely to the considerablecompÌexitiesol the phoúology,morphophonologl'. and the morphologyot the nominal ând verbaÌsyslêds- lhe experience alsopoints up a highly significãntprinciple ôI ti.ld sork: râther than geth€ringa massof dâta and hopingto mãkc senseot it lãter, the investigâtorshouldproceedwith analysison the spot, while inform antsare araìÌableto fill in gâpsin the data and to p.ovide âdditionaìintomation so lhat the ânâlysiscàn be nade more comprehensve. 9.9. The Íollow'ngsÌatenedt represenlsâ lairìy .easonâblewây oI treating certainlorms in Bariba (secWelm€N 1952a),though I would âpproachthe prÒblem $omewhatdìilerenÌly toda\': An adjective.in Bariba, is a word {hich hâs â Íorm ukd attributively âtte. doüís. SÕneâdjèctileshâÍe ân âdditionalÍom that mây be câUednominal,somehave a Stative lorm and verbal lo.ms." lt is signilicantthât I added,"Ilêâning is nÒc.iterióú: the neâúing sweet'is expree sedby a ve.b /doú/, 'b€comesweet',StaÌiv€ /do/, which cânnotbe an âdjective becâuseii hâs nô âtt.ibutive lorm." ìÍore signiticânt,ho*ever, is the considets ation that at leastmãny oI the attributive forDs in questionâre best treated as
268
AFFrc^N L^NcurcE SrcúcruhEs
de.ived. It wouÌd seen pr€leÌabìeto speal ol "adjectivals" rather thân "adjectiv€J'; they may be said to constitutea class(or three class6)of woÍds, bút with a classoi Ìoots. By way of oÌientâtionfo. this is by Ìo meânsco-extensìve jD previouschaptersmay be rÈ the followingdi$usioD, a lew detailsdiscussed p€âtedhere. Bariba has rouÌ tone levelsrtop /'/, hiSh (unmarked).nid l/, ând low /'/. Thereàre noun clâ*s identifi€dby the iniliaÌ consonântot â concordiaÌ demonstrâtive(singülâr):y-, t-, g'. s, m', s, n', p- (the lâst report€dbut not recorded).Móst singülârclâ*s hâve char.cteristic!lu!âì coünterpâús. Baribâ âttribülires aÌe of thÌee types: invâriabl€,cla$-bound,ând cÌãseinIlected. For nounsin somênounscìãses,ihe cÌassmúking sultix doesnot ãppeãrbetorean attÌibutive. FoÌ Dounsin otheÌ cÌa$es,a linal vovel is tr€atedas a suffix in somecases,and doesDot appeârbelorean attributive, but is tÍeâted as pãri oi the stem iD other ca*s. In at leastone cias, the m-class,the sullix /m/ is relajnedbelorean âttribuÌiv€. Seveninvariableattribulives âre iecÕrded;lÕr thêseth€.e is no singuìarpluÌat distinction. They âÍe úisceìlâneous in lorn ând meãdiúg. À phra* consistingol â noun with one of theseattributivesmust helongto someclas, but unÍortunâtelythe classmênb€rshipis not recorded-One of th€sewâs rêcord€d undoubtedÌyftpr€sÍts ãn eúorincopying. with two di{ferenttoneseqüencesrône ãre: The inÌariable attributiv€s pikó 'high'
'â liuìe' 'dillicult'
Ì(aà (kàã ?) Ol these,the lâst is deriÌcd. thoügh not by any producÌiÌe pattern. Th€reis a corespoDdingstative ve.bal lom /s;/, wììcÌr is apparentlythc utrderlyingÌoot; wìich is /sãsiãi.The loÌn /püó/ other verìâì lorms âre bâsedon the consecutiv€, rrcm veÌb, is alparently âlsodenred, though not a and againnot by any p.oductive patt€Ìn; iÍ the secondclâssof âtlributives describedbelow,âí âpparently relatedfom, /pibu/ ãppêars.with the meâning 'smálÌ'. lt is quite possiblethât turth€Ì aneÌysiswould leadto the conclusionthat all oI tìese lo.ms are a type or íoün, usedin ân âssocistiveconst uction vith the !Ìeceding noun. Dâtâ oI a kind not eÌicitedwould b€ r€quiredto proveor disprovesucha hy!ôthesisCla$-bound attributives are those Nhich hâve their o{n clas, irrêspêctive ol the cla$ oÍ the lreceding noun-a phenomenonpamnebd in Súppireand Senâriâs noted in the preedinS section. These attnbutives ìave plu.al roms like nounsin the sâDeclasses,Five âie recô.dedin the t-cÌâssonlyi tpo are Ìs @Ìded in the g-classonlyi and one is r€côrdedin both ôl the* cÌâs€s,independently oI tle cÌas ol the precêdingnoun. The r€guÌâ.suÍÍixesoI the Èclassare conditionedâlternaüon,and plu.aÌ /-nu/. singular/-ru-{n/ with phonologicâÌÌy The threeg-clas foms au end in /-ìu/ in the singulâr;rhis isby no neanschâÌacterisücoI nonnsin the g-class,wìich no.mally hasno sufÍix. Plural nouÍ, in the g-classìave either i-nul or i-su/ as suÍÍix, underÌexicalcôndiüoning.The plumÌ
ADrEcÌtvEs ^rD
269
U!-ÀDJror\!s
Íorms ol the âÌlributives $ere úndÒübtedlyheard. but aÌe not Ìecord€d- The foÌlo*ing lre cÌass-boüldaüribuüves: binu (pl.) dabiÌú kpi.ìrú gorú t k5Ìiì kìnèrü
yãkàbú !ome, a few 'much.many' pibu sho.t, smàll kpinbú 'deâd' old 'maìe' (of ceúain ânimaÌs)
'súãll' 'small' short.smâìl'
Ol these,two are derived trcm verbs; tìe úativc, consc.utiÍe, ând attributive Íoms lor theseare as tollôws: dabi gõ
dabiã gbi
dabirú gorú
'(be)mu.h, mâny die; (be) deâd'
An effoú wâs hâdc to elicit pÌedicativeconstructionsinvolving neâningsparâìleling eacháttributive, but related!€rbâl lorhs were not lound lor âny othêrs. As in the cãseoI invariableattributives,fuúher anâlysismây leâd to thê concÌusjÕnthât ìì€se âre . type ol noün. A consid€Ìâblylarge. numb€r of attributives are clâ$-inlÌeci.d. 'Ìhât is, they hâaetoms tor âìl clâsses, dependingon th€ clâs oi the precedjngnoun. The followilg illustrate this type of âttribrtive in tìe singula.: y-clasr !dâs: g-class: v-cÌâss: n-clas: s-class: n-class:
duma kpêrú boo dàj yanr tasu gáánu
'hoÌse' : 'stone' : 'goat' I 'tire' : tpace' : ryani I 'thing' :
dum bãka kpèèbakârü boo bak, d:à bakô yam bakam tam bakasu gàá bakanu
'a big hoNe' 'â big úônê' 'a big goat â bis rre' 'a big sFce' 'a big yam a big thine
'lhe liíâl vowel /â/ is châraclerisìicoÍ l.hey class,thougìì it is not always tr€âted as a suttir. Sifrilarly, the finâl rÒ*el /õ/ or /o/ (a râriãtion whoseconditioning has not been defin€d)is characteristicoI the g-clâssand lhe w-clâss. This analysisis substantiâtedby the tollowing s€t, in that â difierent voweÌ, iii, âppeârsbelorethe CV suíix in oth.r cÌasês;thc nounsare as abole aith on€ duú kpì\á 'a white hoNe' kpèékpikirú 'a white stone boó kpìkõ a whiÌc goât (no appÌopriate noun in the n-class) 'white soap vereú kpìkiÈ tàú kpìkìsú 'â vhitê lân' gáá kpikì!ú 'â vhii€ thing'
270
AFÂrc^N L^Ncu^cE SrÂucruÃEs
(Tìese includeexampì€sol moÌphoton€hicâllernâüon;finaÌ high hasthe alt Ìnant tDp beÍoreÌow.) The steú of âiftibütives ol this type mây be d.fined âs whât precedes â CV suttix. Somewhatìêssthan half of the recordedclassinfl€ctedâttributivesãpp€ar to be derived;in selc.al.âsesthe derivâtioninloìves reduplicâtion.The stãtiv€, cónsecutive.a.d âttribute stemsoÍ relatedsetsâ.e as lôììows:
b5-bóbn
bãbiã
'(be)rât' '(be)lons súÈri
súêrã
tãú
taàyã
sòã-
'(be)bitter' '(be)Ìed' '(be)toush'
w5kúThe lollowing clàss-inflected attributives, on th€ other hãnd, are rcco.ded without relatedverbal lorms beiDgelicited;thesediller in their linal tonesIrcm big
kpikÍ' sìnüngi-
dangi-
'thick'
'good gbebu-
'dry'
While inlariable and cÌaslbound attributives may teÌhaps be aDalyzable âs typesof nôDns,thê sân. cânhardÌy be the casefor clâsçintlectedâttributives. These, at least, seemto constìtute a .eal clâs oi âdjectir€s, some of which ÀÌe derired but môre ót $hich are Dot. At the sametiDe, even someot tìes€ have IoÌms which seemto function as nouns in c€rtain constructions. For $mq predìcationis expressed by sucha Íom belorea Frticle hã/ it js , or betoÌethe stative ÍorD /mò/, a suwletive stative of the ve.b /kõ/ 'do, nake, be. E.8., ya kpâà sâ it is new ya dam Dò 'it is strcÍg' Other âttributives,includingÌeprese.tativesót àU threelypes, ârê lound only in th. âttributi!€ us€aftuÌ a noun. The numeral 'one' is class-inllectêdlike âdjeclives,$ith sone moÌphophonemicslternationswhich seemto be unìqueto this word. The loms are;
ÀÌÌ ÌliÉheÌ numeraìs,howerer. are invariâblein f{trD. ln Suppireând SenaÌi, discussedin th€ prêcediígscction,all nunerâls â.e invariabÌe. Frcm loilts ôr liew other than clas concord,nunerâls âre treâted in the foÌlowingchapter.
ÀDJEclvEs
ÂND UN-ADrlcrrvES
271
9.10. From many points ol vìew, and pâ.ri.úlârlJ in terÌns ol p€dagogical usêfnl.ess,onê oÍ thê nost sensibletÌeatmentsot qualitìcativeconstructions in an AfÌican ianguageis to be lound in E.O. Ashtons S'!,arriiiGrdnmor (^slrton 1944). TheÌe a.e two chãpters,10 and 25, coveringthe topic "Adjectival Concepts". The Ìâtter of thesecodlenicnlly groupstogerh.r a numbe.of const.uctions translâtâbleinto Englishby âdjectiles,but cl€arly not grâmmâiicallyâdjectivesin Svahilii theseincludethe associative construction,relatives.nounsin âpposition,and the useor a lorm meaDing hav'ng . fhe rationâìctor this tÌeatment is lound at the beginningoI the earlierchapter ' In SrvahiliUre.eare few {ords may be termed' Adjectives'. Thereare,ho{eve., many wâysol expre$iDg ân adjectilaÌ concept." This, ol couFe,takes ltnglish adjectivesâs a point of whâÌ deparlu.e; but ihe orgânizâiiônof ihè S\râhiìi dâtã deârìr disringuishes may l€gitimatelybe called "âdjecliveí' hom other ways ot t.anslating English Like nost-but not âll Bantu lânguages,Swâìrilidoeshave â classoI adjectives. Ashton dist'ngüishestwo types oI lorm in châpterl0: roots and stems taking Ìhe adjectivâl con.ord, ând unintlect€d1oânNords. The câútiousstarcment is made tlat 'Thesetwo categoriesof qualiliersatproach nearestto the conceptionol Adje.lile in Edglish-" Aslúon lists iilty stens (it /nane/ cight' is addedto her list; the omissionâtpeâ.sto haye beeninadveÌtent)which take clas p.elixesidenticaìwith thow of noünsexceptÍor clas 11/14,and wlich âre usd âttributively after nouns. Shenotesthãt this usage"lirtually conÌ€rtsthe 'Àdiective'st€m into a noün in apposition",and indeedadjectivaliorms can also beusedindepeddertlyâsnoüns,thoughwith implicit rcterenccto an urcxpÌesed noun. Adjectivestemsmay be distinguishedfrom noun stems,hoNever,in that they âre not restrictedin clâssmembeNhip,bui tâke cÕrco.dsdeternÌinedby tle cìâs oI the nÕunretenedtÕ. Someadjeclilesappeârto be derivedfrÕn verbs es /-bivu/ 'ripe'from /ku-ira/ (,/ku-biva/) ïipen'. In other cases,verbs appear to be de.ived l.om und.rÌyine adjeciiles, as /ku-nenepai eet Iat rrom /-neDe/ 'fât'. Most âdjectile stms, ho*€ve., are exclusirelyadjectivâI. lncluded ìn the list ol adjectiÌes are the st€ms lor 'oDe' through 'Iive', 'eight'. and hov many?; these take the sanìeconcordsas quaÌilicativeadjectives. À fomal distinctionbêrweennumerâìsând other âdjectivescouÌd be mâde on the basisol the fact that the stem ror 'one'takes only singuìarcla$ concords,ând thê Õtherstak€ only plurâl cìas concords,while quaÌificative adjectivestake both singularaDd pluraÌ concords. lhis seemsto be a.ath€r triviaì distinction,ho{ever. SoDe uninllected adopted words, largely iI not exclüsivelylróm Àrâbic, are used ãttributiveÌy like clã$-iDllec&dadjectiv€s,but are invariablein lo.m. They include the sords foÌ six, 3evên', and 'nine, and multiplesof ten. The word lor 'ten', though Bantu in origiú, is âlsorninflected; ihis is typicaÌ oI the Bantu Ìânguag€s in generâI.
212
ÁFRrcÀN LÀNcu^cE Sr^ucr!ÂEs
The geneÌaÌprincipÌ€sând specificprelixesol att.ibutive or primary concôrd in Swâhiìihave beenou nÌed in 6.10J2. The Iollowing ilÌustrâte the üsage
1: 2:
'ân inportãnt peNonÌ
3l
4, 5: ô: 8: 9: 10: 11: Thp iolìo*ineillu,rìârêunìnfiprred ãdjecrneò rborh adotredÍrom Arabic):
8: Actuâlly, â f€N stens âdolled lrÕm Ârãbic ârê no{ u*d sith âdjectivâl concords.Thesei'tcìudei-dhâirü/ 'weâk' and /-kaidi/ 'obstinate'. As might be expected,th€seusagesare somevhatlìnitedi not lll clases are repÌesented. Mostadjêctivesmay lo.m the basislo. â de.ired abstEct nounin class11/14. E.9., uhodari
'bÍavery'
Áshton dcsüibesher list of infl.cted âdjectiy€ siems as more or lessexÌ'austive". ThereaÌe somein addition to thoseshelists. but it is still true that the cìâ$ ol àdjectilesis by no m€ânsâs largeâs the cÌas of Íouns oÌ verbs. Àt the sámetime, it is by Domeansas rest.icteda clâssrs hasb€ennotedin a íumber oÍ non Bantu lânguagesin the NigeÌ CongofamjÌy. Without Soinginto detâil, it may sim?ly be noted that a gÌeat many Bantu langusg€shâve a conpãmble clàssoI adjectiles,not very lâÌgebut sìowinga vâÌiety of quaÌilicativem€ãnings. SoDewriters havetÌeated the Ssahili lo.ms in questior ás nouns,but must still distinguishthem from othe. nounsby tle Ireedomól clâs m€mb€Ìship,and alsoby the fact Urat primary concoÌdIor cla$ 11/14is not the sâhe âs the noun lrefix. Quite â diilerent structnÌe nÌust be Ìecognized in phÍâses consisting ol two nounseâchof which has its own clas nenb€Ìship. This is not an extremely common constructionin Ssahili, but weu established.For exânplê, /mbwa/ 'dog' (910) combin€swith /mwitu/ 'foÌcst' (3) in the phrase/mbwa nwitu/ 'a sild dog . It is qüite ìegitìmateto recognize the noun-likechârâcte.istics or vhat
ÀDrEcÌrlEs
^ND
2?3
UN-ADJEcÌrvls
are SeneÌallycalledadjectiÌesin Swaìili, but ìt is ãlsoimpoÌtant to notethe clìarâct€risticspeculiârto them. get âlong 9.11. SomeÌang!ãges,ho{ever, incìudingsomeBânttr lânguâges, very ni@ìy without any quâlilicâtiveâdjectives.Onesuchlanguâg.is LoNkundo (Hulstaeú 1936,!.19)- Ás nôtedin 6.19,LoNkündoìâs prima.y concords,distinguishedlrom secondaryconcordsonll in thât th€y ìâve high rãthe. than low tone, which aÌe usd only with the numeral stemsIo. 'one'thÌoügh 'Ii!e'. ld€as which one might expectto be expresed by adj€ctivej are €xpre$edin other *ays, tnoú slgnilicantìyby louns $ìich, $ith a specialexceptionnoted below, hãve their oNn clâssfr€mbeship. Such nouns,like other notrns,Í,ây be üsed alt€r a copülâ/-lei tÒ eapres predicâiion. To expressâltributiod, they ârè used in an associative conqtrüctionwith a heâdnoun. FôÌ exan)IÌÌe.the Íouosing use a clas 7 head noun ietóo/ eaÌnent' and ã cìâs 3 qurlilicative noun /wÈb/ 'tÌre garment is white' the latter oÍlhesemây be moÌemeâningfulllrcprescnted by the glos 'â gârnent âssociatedwilh whil€ness'Most nouns $ith quâlifica$. neânjng so used seem1o âppeârin cla$es 3-4, but sÕheare lound in otler clasfs. The lasl oI the lollosing exâDplesis in
bòIó,
byÈlc byitló
ln predications, suchwordsâppearin the singulâril the subjectnour singular;they may appearin eitherth€ singularoÌ pÌuralif the subjectnoun etóoel€wÈlo bitóo bile wilo binjo bile byèI,
'tI. gamcnt is {hitc
t I
'lhe gârncnts âre white'
ln th€ assocjative. tlere is a speciaÌand peculiarusagelor somequalificative nouns. Ther€are dialectalva.iationsin this usage,but the môst widespÈâdând thus obìigàtorytattern appìiesto iou. nouns,ot which tìe regular class3 sin-
271
AFF,c^N L^Ncu^cÉ SÍÀucÌuREs
Theserour noünstake the noun prelix of ih. head noün in the constructionil that noun is in class2 or 6 (for both of which the lreiix is /ba-/). They neveúheÌess remâin independentnouns,wìth *hich they must be in an ãsociativeconstrrclion, boi lhev cnter into a lorm ot concordwith the head noun. Thus: banto bá baiótsi (2) basukúbà banéno(6) bayá bà bâLiìé (6) Apart Irom theselimited and specialexccptions,qüalificâtile nounsretain their own clas membeNhipin the asociâtive. The lÕurcited âbôvea.e usedonly in the singulâr(3), evenâtter a plural headnoun. The noun /isisi.tosìsi/ 'smallness is usedonly in the pluraÌ (13)ât1€râ plu.al heâdnoün. Other quaÌilicative nouís úây be trsedin either the singulâror the plural alter a plural h€adnouD, beüimbá(4) byà brnÉno(3) yómbâ (19)yà baìótsi(3) 'a goodthing (abstrlct) tòmba 03) tssà bôlórsi(3) 'goodthings(âbstrâct)' jòi (5) jà isisi (19) baói (6) bã tosisi(13) etóo(7) èà wélõ(3) btóo (8) byã wèlo(3) I bitóo (E)byà byélr (4) | A Íuìler dncüssionotasociãti!€s jn ã numberoÍ languages is.eseNedfor the ÍollowìDgchâpter. Elen úith what hasbeensâidôn the subjectup to this póint, hosever.it is cÌearand hi8hly impoúânt that the linal wo.ds in tìe phÌâsescited âbôve âre nouns,ând not âdjectivesãs ihê English r.âíslâtions night sugS€st. The formulâ lór all of them is 'a tling a$ociatedwitì a quality', and the words q!âlity âr. noúni. exPressing 9.12. A numbeÌoI gÌamnas ol AÍrican languã8eshavebeenconsuìtedâpâú l.ôm âdy peBonal€xpe.ienc.with lhê languâg.sthcy describe. AÌmost all oI ihem sreak ôf "ãdjectives." In the caseoI Bantu Ìanguages, the des$iptionsâÌe usuâÌly sulticìentlycleâr to make it possibleto determidewhât the situation is of quaÌity, FoÌ non-Bântulanguages, hÕaeler,thê dev in .espectto expressjons cripiionsvery commonlybetray a great deal or confusionon the subject,usuaÌly stemminghom thc Ìacìt âssúhptionthat the equivâlentsof English adjectiv€s wilì be adjectilcs in otherlânguages.It is rar€ly po$ible to extract a sâtistâctory descÌiptionoI quâljlicativeexpre$ionsirom such grãúmârs. 10 be su.e, even my o{n hàsiy t.catmentsof sohe langüâgeshave lallen well sho.t Òt âdequacy in this respecl,bui st leâsl they displâyâ r€asonâble ireedomIrcm ünwânanted is by no a$ümptions. 'Ihis âreâof ànâìysis,.t ìeâsttor Niger'Congolanguages, trom the discussiols âbove mcãnsthe easiestto explore.But the message deriled is lÕudand clear:ìe snspiciousoi "âdjectiveí'; someoI them are not.
Other Noun Modifiers; Conjunction 10.1. Therehârê beennunerousrelerenesin precedingchâpterstô "âsôciative" construcüonsìn ã vâriety ol Ìângüâges.11çâs inpossibleto âvoid the subject; it was crucialfor describìngthe ÍunctionsoI tone in someÌanguag6,Íor distinguishingadjectivest.om nounsin som€lânguages! ând lor dscribing concôrdin âomelanguages.No attempt was made,however,to describethe fuÌl range oI the mâniieúâtions ând usâgêsol such const uctions. They conúitute ãn important aspectol noun modilicâtionin â vâfiely of Niger-Kordofanian lânguages, and must now be surveyedi.om that ?oint of view. The stãúing point wiìl be the Bantu languâges,in nost of which ãn âsociative conshuctionis conspicThe beginningstüdêntof a Bântu languagemeetsphraseslikê the folloving (i.om Swahili) at an early stqge:
nyum)âyã mtu yuÌe ln êãchof theseph.ases,the secondword consistsof a concoÌdâppropriateto the clâssol thè precedingnoün, plus â frôrphene /-al. 'Ìhê beginneris likeÌy to .eferto süchconslructionsâs ândto /-âl âs a ripossessiÌe" morphemc. "pôssessive", Indeed, â numbe. of treãtm€ntsot individuâl Bântu ìângüâg€shâve untortunately usedjust thatterD, and haveth€n beenforcedinto toÍtuous and confusing explanationsoI the identical const.üctionwith meaningsthat have nothing to do çiìh possessioD. À number of more sophisticat€dwrite6 hâve resoúedto the term geniüve," and indeed the usagesoI an asociative constructiona.e râthe. closeÌypârâllêlto the usesof the genitivêcâsein lâígüâgessuchâs Latin. PeNonalÌy,howev€r,I p.eÍer to .eservetlte t€rm 8€nitive" Io. inllected noun forms in lâdguâgeswith câsesystens. A siúilâ. preterenceseemsìo hâve b€en felt by E, O. Àshton (1044.p. ?), who calls the morphême/-al in Swâhili the -A oI .elationship". For both the Dorplene and the construction,and their counterpartsin coutless other lânguages,I have chosento use the tem "àssociatire". Sonethingof the vâriety of semanticâspectsot rssociationexpressed js illustrated by the foÌloving: ted Írcn â soncwhat dtlícreni Doinr ol viev in \\ielne$
215
276
A!ÂrcN LÀNcu^cE SrÁucroEEs
mateÌiaÌ: contenis: llâce or or'gin: pÌãceol use: tim. ol use: Iunction: quantity:
nyumbaza nâwe chupâyâ úâji mtu eâ Utete saaya mkono chakulachâ âsubuhi miti ya kujene€a chalulâ cha kutosÌra
'ìoüsesmadeof stone' 'ã pe.sonirom utete' 'wris!* àtch' (clocktor the am) 'bÌeâkIaú' (iood lor moÌning) 'enoüshtood' (lood âssoc.with
In Swãhili and most Õthe.Bantu languages,pronominaÌassociationis expr€sed with the samenorph€mei-al. Four oI the Swahilip.onorÌinalforms are monosylÌalic,and lon onewo.d with what lrecedes. The ti.st and secondpeF sôÍ plural prononinaìlôrns are reconstrücted as */-itu/ and */-inu/ reslectiveÌy; the a$ociative/-a/ combines{ith the initial vowel oÍ th€seas /-e/. The Sçâhili lorbs in questionare:
'yourGs.) As noted in 6.1314, Swahili doesnot use pronominalrele.entsor conco.ds mÕrph€melor clâses other thân l and 2; the foÌn toÌ class alter thê associãtiv€ 1, /-ke/, is used lor aÌÌ oth€r clas€s, both singularand plural. In many other hosevêr. â châú ìike the âbovewould hâve to be extêndedto Bãntu ìângüages, include foÌms Io. eÌery noun class. In someBantu ianguages.tÌrere is a secondâssociaüvemorphme /ka/, usuallywilh qúite reúricted uses.sOnôexâmlle oi its useis to b€ found in Lobut nót fôr âssoci Nkundo, Fhe.e it is usedfor personaÌpronomiÍâl âssociâtion, âtion with nounsor with concordslor clas€s othe. thân 1 and 2. The íouowing examplesdo not indicat€a peNasivevo*€Ì elisionat po.d boundaries,âÍd use ihe iull.st pronounlo.ms; tfte lulÌ loÌn /-káí is tound sith the singularp.oÍG ninal reÍerents,but ìeÍóre tie vowel-initiaÌplDralíorhs the alternant /-k, âp-
'your (sg.) eamert bikálá bikátrdé 'your (pl.) youngerbrother' )itóo bikiyj For other clâsses,the associative /-âl is used with independent ÌeÍdents vhich function as nouns:the sameassociativeconshücriônis usedwith âÌl nouns. The en hom HuìstreÌt 1933, lcneuagcs, I an,ndebtedto PÌole$orDesõondT. Coìe(pÌivateconnrnlcâtlont.
O Ì H E R N ô!N
277
MoD,F,Ens, CôNr Fc r ioN
irdependentÌeferentsl,âve a stem /-ká/, wilh ã clâsstretixi llulstâeri is not entirely .Ìear at thh poi.t, blt th€ prclixcs Êpp€a.to Lc tLe saÌÌê as ihosê lor priúáry concordsith num€râìs,having high tone. Às noted in lh. preceding chaptêr,Lonkundo usesnounshavìnga quâlilicativeneaning in ihe âsociâtive const.uction,olten pâÌallelingadjectivesin languagessuch as SaaÌ'ili. NonrinaÌ association,incÌüdingp.orominal referenceto classesother than I and 2, is ilÌustrâtedby the tollôaing: 'the teâcher'sgârDents byili Dyà bákó ìyili byà bÉkó ìekóo byà bikó
'their (8) colors
À sóÌneNhâtsimilâr r€strictedusc Õl the à$ôciâtile Êkã/ is fôund in Zulu; it is used onÌy ìetore lesonaì nÕunsot Cias 1â, which in.hdes largely prote. nâhes ând a lêw kinship t€ms. This is iÌìust.âtedbl' th€ first oi the lollowingj in the s€cond,a coünter-examtle,the a$ocistive /-altus€ssilh the initial rowel of the lollowingvoÌd, /umuntu/, ãs /o/; tone is not indicatcdherel izinjazika6â6a Tsvana usesa no.phene /-xs/, â .eflex or */-kâ/, jn the saDecircumstances as Zulu, but only in addition to /-a/, in the combination/-axa/. [Í\'ela uses €ither i-âl or i-kal, inteÍchangeabÌy, in almostall combinations. ìn someweslernând no.thw€slernBântú lânguâgese.g.,tsu!Ót ând Ngonlq n€ith€r/-ai nor /-ka/ appeaÉi. anl .eadily identiliabÌcolert iom in â$ociâtive constructions.The posibilily oI sucha Ìnorphme disappearine hisloricalÌy is tlus recognized ev€nvitlin Baniu; it is qujte possiblc,ho$c!er, that these lânguâgesretâin sornetrac€, p€rhapstonal, ol an assocìatilemorphemethat is not âppaÌ.nt lrom lhe âvailâbleevidence. In Bântu langüagesthat mâke êxtensiveuse oI an associativemorphcme. it is jnportant to recognizenot oDly the constructionsin $lÌich sucha Do.phenre occurs,but also the reÌationshipsnornãlly indicâtedwithoul sucha morpleme. The associative /-ai (or /-ka/) is not us€din constructionsoi noun plus nodiiling noün plus d€monstrâtive.N_umerical numerâlor attribution is expresed sinply by a noun ÍolÌowedby â nün€râI. the numeràlnormaìlyhâvi'Ìg â concordprefix to agreewith the notrD. In Ìanguageswhich have a classoI adjectivesGuch rs Swahili),tÌre saDe is true Íor ãdjectives. Ordinal numerals,ho$ever, âre eapressedby numeÌâlsin their citalion forn (clâ$ 9) in ân âssociâlileconstruction âÍter a noun. Comparethe followingin SwâhiÌi:
An assocjativeconstructionwithout an expresed antecedentnoun may be used as ân adverbiaÌcomplementwith â rsrjety oÍ references; theseusagesin
278
AFRrc^N LÀNcu^cE SrRUcrr,REs
Bãntú, wilh striking paraìlelsin Ìalguâgesnot ât all closely.elated,wiìl be discus sedin conneciionwith âdvê.bialsat a later point. 10.2. It vould not be pa.ticDlãü surpÌising, of cou.se, to Íind closepâÍãÌlèls tô the Bàntu âsociâtivês in lânguâgesfairly cìoseìy reìated. Âctuauy, such constructions,ând evetrthe speciÍicmorphenesthat úark them, appearto be t ac& ãUe to proto-Njeer-KordolaniâD, and are reflected in a va.iety of wâys in ÌanSuagesol many bmnch€sof the family. Specilicauyin a KoÌdofaniânlânguãge, it is repoúed that a noun po$NoÌ is int oducedby â concordreferilg to tle posNed noun, plN a voweÌ /-â/ tunctioning as an ãssociâtivemoÌpheme (werner Winter, privâte coÍÌnunication). The extensionoI this const.ucüonto ÌelationsÀipsother than possesionhas not beendefined,but in aU likelihoodexists. within the West Átlantic bÍânch oI Niger-Congo, a fantasticaÌly cÌosepaÌalÌel to someof the soutìern Bãntu Ìânguâgesis found. W. Á. À. wiÌson 0962) hãs describedthe situaüon in T€mne,Landunâ, ând thê Baga ìangüages,ând, vìrtually every detail could be repeated verbatim, with tmDslat€d examples, for Zulü or Xhosâ. wilson doesnot nention numqical att.ibution, but âdjectivaÌ and demonstrâtiveáttribution involve immediâ1esequence, as in Bâ!tu. Sìrch sequ€nces involve peÌsonaÌclassconcoÌdfo. tnpeNonal but animãte nouns,as in mâny Bantu languages.Wilson'sstatemerton this is: As is lrnovn, theÈ s.e in Teo.e lRo types ol
[email protected], dependiÌ8 o! vhether the noun is aninãte (denotine a peEon ô. mÍ'uu ô. inditulcIn tìe lãtt.. ss., lhc
[email protected] '5 ìâs 1 Ginsulao o. cla$ 2 (pluml), iftspèctivè ot the classoi thc !oun- T{o cxanplcs sulltceto shov this:
d tn thê lattêr èxmplê do6 no! opêEtê in .Ìl mênò.6 ol the llÀnguâeêl clustêr. ln Bâgr Maduri and Basa sttenn iherc is no díleen@ bet*èèn a$ Kob, thc mnco.rt oF ânimrte ãnd iõsninare.ouns i erltes just s ln T.nne. Ìn Latdumâ, bos€ver, tbeE is a nlf,êd s$tcm, ln vhich mdt erd êv.í {lth dtnctê noun& bur pbDduru shov nouoml 'this boat, t have seen it
Even the miÍed concordÌetened to can be Íound in Bãntu; in the last *t ôf exmples. lkr/ is the personalpronoun object. Theseqampl€s âÌsoillüstrâte the immediate sequence(with mncord) of dmonstrâtive áttrihution. lú the ãssociãtive const.uction. however, there is ân associâtive morpheme /-al. In all the ianguâgesilìustrâtedbelov êxceptTemne,the noun prelix it$Ìf is /dat, so that an additional/-alis âbsorbed(unlessit is betrâyedby tone,which Wilson doesíot mârk). lnlmne, however,the noun preÍix is /r4-/ in this instance (with other alternantsúnder some circuústances);the associative/.4-/ with â ditferent vowel, is /È/ lrom thê côncord plus the âssciative /-a/. Wilson refersto the âssociâtileconstructionas geíitive ; his totâl statementis:
279
OÌHER NouN MoDrFrERs;CoNJUNcÌroN
A3 Houb (Bull. Il,,tN, t935, Ìì. 343) has polnted ou!, uiêre È a generâlín lârlty ln rhê génilive .oníruclion ìhm' coÌdânl lrnr{rngsynâbìcwrrch pEcedlr lhe eenruve louh or prcnounì the llnktng êreìnenr h a hyph€n, rn BK lBasa Kôb3ì the vo*eì ol thè linklne guâg€r!e íìnd rro âdjacsbt vo
daboÌìp di'jbã Baee Koba: It win bè noti.èd úâr in BrId t scnilive nôun is pe6onal.
the chtef'siìead nâbÌe /kâ/ vh.n thc níÌucrion in Bs IBe$ sitcnuì.
Among otheÌ West ÀtÌântic lângtrâges, Füla ãt ìeâú âppearsio showDothing like the Tmne, Landüma,and Bâgâ pâtie.ns. But in the ìâtter, the us€ ot ân associativela/ in most circünstances,but ol /-kai with pe.sonâlnouns,is alÌnost identicalvith úe pattern oI usagein SouthernBantu. 1o.3. Among the }Íande languages, somedialectsol lÍandekad hâve a moF phemeiká/ which is usedin on. ol two types ot posesile consÌruction,showing a detãil oí paraÌlelismwitì Bantu usagein spìte ol st.iking diilerences. The Mânde lânguagesâs ã vhole distingtrish"free" nouns (thosewhich cãn be used without an dpre$ed po$e$oÌ) and "relational" nouns(thosewhich require aD expressedpossessor;these are largely inâlienâbleposessions-kinship terms, body pãús, ând placeÌêlaüonssuchâs somethingt 'inside'). In the diaÌectsin questioD,/ká/ is usedto link possesorand ?o$esion when the posessionis â lree noun. but nôt when the Dossession is â relâtio.âl noun: í ká bón ké ká bón a ká fani musoká lani
'my house' the man\ house' 'hÀ cÌoth' 'the woman\ cloth'
ú bóìo kÉìóio a dén muso dén
'his chüd'
Although this precis€distin.tion is not lound âny{herc in Bântü, tìere is new€rthelessâ !âÌtiaÌ psraìleüsmin the r€strictionol usâgeof /kái. Relaüônaìnouns in Mândeíom a set some{hat liLe that oÍ tsâdtu classes1â and 2a, pârticula.Ìy in incÌuding kinship terms. ln SouthernBantu, the üsc oÍ /-kâ/ (oÌ /-!a/) is d€linedin teÌms of disünguishingsuch nounsl.om ãll otheFi in Mandekanlikewise, the use ol /ká/ is simiÌâ.ly delined in tems of the distinction h.t{retr .elâtionaÌ and free nouís. The âctual surlacemanilestâtiônsâre,tô be súÌe, qüite MãndediÍÍerent:southernBantuDses/-ka/ only vith a restrictedsetoI poss€ssorsi kân uses/ká/ with âìÌ exceptâ restricteds€t ôf pos€ssions.Elen the sord ôrder (!os6sor first in Mandekan,loÊsession lirst in Bântu) js reve.sed.Yet the aÍ sociâtionof /ká/ with sucì a hrghlyrestricteddistinctionin Dounsisünmhtakable in both. ln Múdekan, relerencehasbe€nmâdeonly to constructions cxpre$ing!o$ sesion, not to â broâderrângeof nominalâ$ociãtion. Po$esion is distinct from othe. aspectsoI asociation th.oughout the Mãnde lânguâges,büt, âs Ìn Bantü,
280
AFRrcÀN LÀNGUÁGESrsucÌusEs
numericâì,àdjectìraì,and demonstrativeattribution a.e distinct hon both. ând are expre$ed by immediâle sequence(and wiih no concord,of course.since ândehas no noDncìasssysten). In KpeÌìe,torexânpìe, immediatesequence is sho{n in the lollowingl 6oli iêêrê 6oli náa!
two goats Íoür goâts
'a bìg goat òoÌii tÍ
Pronominalând nominal âsociatìon,howeve..üsethe ÕppositewÕrdordd, DodiiieFheâd. Prononinal po$e$ion consistssìnply ot pronounplus norn in Kpelle, though in the tirst and third personssinguÌarthere is a distinctionin pronoun lorms used$ith tree and reÌâtionalnóuns(parâìlelingthe Bambârâusâgeâbove ol class€sla and 2a), Thu6l and tìe Bantu Deculiarities
úpôlu i pôlu 'pôÌu
i tíei
In the caseof noun posessor(as opposedto otheÌ noninaÌ a$ociativeconstrucprônôunlôllôss tìê noun posscssÒr belÒrêfreê nounsi imtions), the pôssessivc hêdiâte sequ€nceis iound beforeihÌJesonâl dependentnouns; but the alp.otrjate pronôünis usedbelÒrepeNonâldependentnouns(kinshipterns) ân even froÌe selectivelyú.iking pâÌãlleÌto Bantu clases 1â and 2a: 'kâloì rJòpérÉi
(In the ìâst ot the âbove,Jnee/is 'his motÌre.',usingthe stem /-lee/wiih prelixed Nonlosesire nominalasociatìonin KpeÌletâkesthe lorfr olwhathas been so expre$edis simiìâr to d€scÌibedas compoundingithe range of associâtions show thát expressed by the assocìativela/ in Dantu. SeveralMandc lânSoages soDe typ€ of tônâl âlternâtionin such conpounds. In Kpelì€, mmbeN or tne compouDdatter the liÌst have ìów tone. no mâtter shât their jndepeÍdenttône máy be; this low tone has a rcgularalrernanrhigh-lowalter nid. Thus: ksi-tòÌi kóli-kàloÌl
'pcânutoil (Núlâ oil ) fôreigneÌ; t.ll 'coconüt'(k*i 'turiìe shell (kâla slell') tectìon (oI tovn) chief' (kâlo{
paln Ì(ernel) chiêr')
'lhe lówe.ingôt tône in tìc secondmem}er oi a compóundis â moÌphemq a.eplacementof stem tone by low. Hisloricâìly.the most lìkely assuDptionis thât wìich had low tone, ã morphemecomposedol ! segnentalphoneDeor sequence, hâs disappeâr.dexc€ptfor this tonai hace. The segm€ntalsÌtapeol such a moÌphemeÍas most likely just a vôwel. Thereis no partìcula.reâsonwhy this vowel shoDldhâve òcen /a/ in Kpellej but neitheris there any reaso! why it coüld not
28t
OrHEF NouN MoDrFrEFs; CoNiuNcÌ,oN
have been. ln íâct, there is excelìentevidencefor the lossoI iai in Kpelle, with .etentiÕnof ìow tone, in uìe câseof a dilferent morphcmc,a prono!ú; compâre: MandekaD: KpeÌle;
à nyin nyíl
his tooth' 'his tooth'
MândecoÍnpoundnounsnây thus very s€ìl be deriled f.oh noun phrasesusìng an âsociâtive conúrucüonlike thósewilh É/ in Swàhiìiillüstrâtedin 10.1above though with inleúed word order. 10.4. ln a number of quite disparatelanguagesasignêd tothe K$a b.a.ch oÍ Niger-Congo,theÌe are âlso tonaÌ nanifestalionsof nominal association.ln Akan, as in âlÌ the otherÌânguages c èd so fâr, nuneri.al, âdjectivà|,and demonstrative attrìbution âre €xp.ess€dby innediâte sequence.À rcsti8. oi concord âppeârsin the lolìowing qample hom Fante: 'a big lìouse 'onehouse ìdán kÈsi Ìdán'kúr 'big 'five house' àdán ákìst houses' àdán é núm PronominaÌand nominal ã$ociatio!. ãs in NÍande,inveú the Bantu woÌd o.der. The Àkân syúen is simpler lhân rhe Nlandein thât there is do distinction involving kinslip terms o. oth.. nounsNhich hight be conpâredto Bantü cìases la aDd24. Relevantpose$iv€ constructionsarel
Like Mând€,however,Akân ãlsohâs ã nôün-nouncodírü.rión lhât is generàÌìy descrìbedâs compounding.St.ikingly. ìt is âlso maÌked by a lo{$ing ol tone. In the caseof Akan. however.it is the lirst rauìer thân oth€r menbersoi a comtound that has Ìow tone repìãcingstem tone. 8.9.,
ììkàtì-ngú àbètgú
(âbÉ
It is possihle,therefoÌe,thât AkaÍ alsóhasretainedodly the tone of a morphemê thât orce consistedol a vowel with ìow tone. Sucha reconstrüctionse€mseven moÌe conviDciÍgiD the light of evidencefrom other langüages, Yorubâ, Igbo, aíd Ìifik usethe sane word order as Bántü in possesi'e and othêr associãtiveconstructions.In Yorübâ, the dhtinction betNeeúâlÌributire and âsociãtive coDstructìonsis âs sharp as it is in Brntü and, âs in Bãniu, it is the associativeconstructionthat disl)ays a! additionaìmorpheme.Yoruba attributive numerãlsebove one havea prefix /mt, reDinisc€nioI plurâl âgrccment, and p€Ìhâpsân actuaÌ vestigethereol. T]Ìe nuneraÌ 'one'lìas lover-mìd tone, .ellectìng the Ìos oÍ a p.ecedingvoweÌ with Ìov tone, lllustrâlions ot Yorubâ attÌibutives ã.e:
ilé kãn ilé Ínéjì
ilé yl ilé titóbi aSqkpukpa
'this house 'a ìrig hoüs' 'rcd cloth'
282
AFRrcÀN LÀNGUAGE SnúcruRF-s
In associativeconstructionssith two nouns,both possessive ând other than pos sesiv€, the nounsâre joined by â morphemeconsistingol mid tone, Il the li.st noun endswith â mid tone, or if the secondnoün beginswith a mid tone, this hor?heúe generâUyhâsa zerôlom, without lengtheningof the trecedingvo*el. Betweenhigh and low tones,a !âDseat the mid leveÌis not alwaysdesce.nible. Joining a sequence of two low tones,the morplÌemeis normally realizedas nid tone Ìeplâcing Ìow with the fi.st oi th€ two vowels. This sens to l€Àve lew €nvirodmentsfor the frÕrphefretohave an overt realizâtion;it is Inoú srgnificânt, hoveÌ€., tììat the presence of tÌ'is morphemeis bet.ay€dby the alsenceof vowel elision,which is typjcâl of other sequences,E,g.,
rlé-ojó ònà kpàkpá
Prônominâìâsociationoperatesin müch the sâmeway,exceptthat whât app€srs to be the a$ociativemorphemehas th€ Íorm lov tone Io. the lìrst and *cond personsingularpronouns.TÌrishâsve4 widespreadpaÌaÌleÌs,hovever: in Jukun the sâmerwo prônounsaddno othershaveìoe tÕne;in Tiv the sãmetwo p.onouns and no othersconditionloweÌ tone in one verbâl construction;and many other Nigercóngo languag€s,includingBantn, have low tone fôÍ the first ând secoud singuÌâ.òut higl tonelor the lhird (thoughthe pluEÌ systemmày be ürlikethat ol Yoruba). The linal vowel oI the noun is alwayslengthenedin prononinâl associàtion;this seemssüpeÍliciâlÌyto differ lrom noninal âssociqtion, buÌ it âctuaÌly does not what follovs the "lìnking" tone is a consonant,ald iD the oc@sionaÌcaseswhêrethât is true in nÕninaÌ âsociatiÕn.vo$el Ìengtheningis also foünd, Yoruba pronominalassociationis illustratedby the loÌlowing: iìé mi ilé yiD jléaè A cÌearercâs€could hâÌdly be cited fo. interDãllyÌeconstructingan âssociative morphemewhich, in an earlierstageol Yoruba, took thê forÍn oi a vopel pith nid tone. 'Ihere is âmpìeelidencein contmpo.ary YoÌuba foÌ los oÍ a vo{el with retentioDof its tone in a number of combinations, In discu$ing the functions ol ton. ând the ìdentificationor a clâssol adjectivesin both ISbo Ànd Efik, an â$ociâtivemorphemeconsistingoI high tone in the underlyingstructure(and presumablyaccompanying ã ïowel in â! eárüer úage of th€ langüagetÌrâsalr€adybeedidentifiedin 519-20 ând 9.6-7. In th€se languâgesâlso, it hãs ìeen obseNèdthât numericàlând âdj@trvâìattÌibDtion â.e expresed by immediatesequen@,ând âre guite distiÍct from nominaÌ ãe
283
OÍBER NouN MoDrrrEns: CoNJNcrÌoN
sociaüon. It hâs ev€n been noted thât, in lgbo, just âs in Banlu, ordinalsar€ êxp.esêdòy tha associatiwc coDst.uctionwitlì num€ralsjas in: ú,1ó(úké)'átó (cl.: úlÒàtó Tonal evidencefo. one ol the two Ìgbo demonstratives. hoNever,suggeústhãt they alpear in th€ associative construction,With /áhü/ that'there could be no overt ÌealizâtionoI the associâtive morphemein anv caseìbelorelà/ 'this , how, ever,a linâl low tone in a noun becones(downstep)high.ân âÌternâtiônlypical of the associative constrüction.Thus: úlò áhü On the othêr hand, in Igbo and Etik, like lÍande and Akan but unlike Bantu aÍd Yotubâ, p.ononinaÌ pos€sion is expÌesed withoui us'ng ihe âsociâtivc construction;the tolal alt€rnationstypicaÌ oi the âsociativeâre not iound in the lollowirg EÍik exâmples(a compârisonsith LoNkundonây b. in ord.r, i! whiclÌ rafhe. than /-a/ is usedin preciselythesecontexts): ^ka/
úÍòkmi úIòkiò úfòkésyè
'nl' hÕuseÌ you. (sg.)house hisìÕüse'
'ourhÒuse úlòkntìn úIòknrbürò your(pl.)lìousc 'thcir hoúse' úfòkúmi
ln Ìgbo, prononinal posessionfor the fi.st and secondpe$on plurâl is exp.e$ed with inde?endentp.onoünlorms which aÌe noninâl in tunctioni the construction is clea.ly associâtive in the liBL pdsón, thoughthe tonesof the secondÍo.m can-
ú,1óányi
']ourhoúse
For the othe. louÌ pronouns,hoveveÌ, monosyllabicrorms are used which âre like the independentprônÕunforms, but the âsociative construction,which wouÌd be bet ayed by tonal âlte.nations,is not used. 8.g., úlÒ úìò eí
úlÒyá
you. Gs.)hÕüse' úlò há
'his house then house
ho$Àlter â verbal noun (usedin the incompletiveând futúre conconstructions), êvêr,the to nâl âÌternâtiodschâracteristicÕtthe a$oc'âtiveconstructiónâreiound, as atiestedby the lom of a v€.bal nouú otherwiseendingwith highrow tóne. gâ èwépü úmà 8à èwé'pir'yá
'he s going to tâke out s knite 'he\ going to take it out'
Igbo ând Elik thus shÕwâ sell-detineda$ocìativemorphene ând construction in nominâÌasociâtion, distìnguishedfrom nunericâì and adjectival athiof demonstrâtives and pronouns,ho{_ butioÍ. With the highly restrictedcÌâsses êver, theÌe is lesscompleteâgreementwith many other ìanguages.P.ononinâl aseciationimpli€stÌre speciaÌcategoryol posesion, and the functionol dmon-
264
ÀFÂrcÀN LÁNcu^cE SrRUcruBEs
írâtivcs is alsosenânticalÌyuniqüe,so it is not surprisingthat inconsitenci€sin the system*ould âlpear with juú thesetypes ol morph€mes. langDages otìer than Bantu and its cÌos€st 10.5. ÂÌnong the BenDe-Congo Ìelatives.Jükun is àìout as unlike tsantu in superticiaìrespectsas a lânguãge cân get. There is no classsyúem in lhe usuaÌ sense,thoügh vstiges ol a clas systemwere desGibedin 7.11;there is no !Ìuralization or concord. JuÌun has â morpheme/à/ *hich may lery well be cognatesith the asociâtive/ã/ of Bântu languâges, ìut it is not usedin typicaÌÌyassocjâtive constructions.It Ìather Íuncrelative in the foìlowing: üons as a naÌker, as 'the personwho cameìere' !èrè à bi kéré ní (ct.r pèÌè ni 'the peÌson',ku bi kérj 'he camehere') parèà ll pà (ku) Íi the pereonlüc Ìeopard.âught' (cl.: Íì pà kü 'thc Ìeopardcaughthim') Onecombìnation,hovever,sho\s a closerÌesenblancetoBântu usage.This is ìhe.onslruction ól /à/ with â r€dDplicât€d lerb slcD, tuncüôningas ân adjectijn 9.3. This may ìe comparedto the useoI an infinitive, val, which {âs described which is nominãI,in the associãtiveconstructionin Bantu. E,9,,
SwaÌÌili:
zàpèà iìiâ 'hot wãter' (cf.: ià 'beconehot') chakuÌâ.hâ kutÕshâ'enoúghiood' (cI.: kutosha to süIlice')
Ordinary noDinál associationin JuÌun, as well as proDóminalpossesion, inÌoh€s ân entirely diIlêrent morphehe /bu/, lhe rangê of Dsãge,hoçever, is quite similar to thât ôl âssocjâtives in Bântu. This morphemealpeâB in Wàpã âs a nounneaDing !thingi; in Diyi th€ conesponding norn is ãpparentlyâ deÍivalion hoh this, /bwa'/, bul the lorm /bu/ is usedto indicateassociation.As noted in 8.ô. this to.m combineswith th.e€ prcnounswlich consistof a vorel only to yieÌd /bú/ 'your (sg.)'. /bá/ his, her, its'. ând /bi/ 'our'; the lom is not usd at all vith lú/ ny . Exanples ot its usearer
yàkè bu tanà
'the back of the house 'the insideoI the lot
Às àho previÒuslynôted. /bu/ is optiónal in som€combinationt ap!âÌently primarily when the rirst noun h pereonalor locâtive. Thus, besidethe third oí the aboveexmpÌes,/yàkëtânà/was aìsoÌecorded,thoughnot freqüently. PaÌellelingthe ìaú of the ãbove,the phÌaseiyô kà/ 'the insideof tovn'must hãv€been heârdhundredsoI times,but nevo with /bu/. Thc us€ol â nouÍ heaning 'thing in asociativeconstructions, {ith o. without anotheÌ associativemo.pheme,is not peculia. to Jukun. In Iglo, /ìkè/ 'tÌ'ing is so usedin threeways. It is usuallyusedbetweenã noun aÍd a numerâl
285
OrHEU No u N M oDr F r E F s ;C o N J U N c rro N
which are associative;âtler â nôun which cnds {ith ìigh in ordinaÌ expressions, tone, â numqal alore woDld be ambigüousÌycardinal or o.dinal in reldence, ln simple âsociatives, /ìkèi indicatesthat the lollo$ing noun (or possessive pronoun.)is in contrast {jth other possibilities.It is also usedif the prec€diq noun is hodified Êolhst the associâted noun is separatedIrom it. E.9,, ó!wá'úké'átó ócé'dióhúrú ìkè Ìlnàú
'my lâther's new chai.
SomewhatsiJìilãrÌy, the posesive constructionir Kpellè nây üse â rclatiónal nouD/-w./ bet{een lose$or and pose$ion. This noun seeDsbasicaÌ'rio refer to one's shâre Òf sómêthingìit ìs alsoused,howeler, to indicatethat the losessôr is in contrâstwitì other possiblepose$ob. E.g., 'yoür shãreol the food. go!. food' 'our count.y (as opposedto others)' 10.6. It was noted in Chapter8 lhât languâgesin âll branchesof the ÀfÌoAsiatic family, and someNilo-Sahârãnlanguagcs, have noün ÍormslabeÌled 'constÌuct." Súch lorms eíter jnto combinationswiti s€mânti. ràngesverl snnihf to thoseof âssociativeconstructionsin NigeÌ-KordoÍaniân.In mosl cases.ho{ever,the grannaÌ is irterestinglydiffcrent,and both typ€s oi constructiondilfer alsoIron the useot â genilive cãsein â lâdguâgcsuchâs Lâtin. In âlÌ three,the order head-mod'Íie.is typicâl(thoughnot univeNal,as hasbeennoted lor Mande with and Àkan, ând as is sell known in the câseof Lãtin). In most Ìanguâges coníruct torms.it is the heâdnounwhichhasâ speciallorm; in languageswithcasc systens,it is the nìoditier;in ianguages with âsocialives,it is neither the nouns are râther linked by an additionalmorphene, Suchan additionalmorphemeis found aho in Berber,but a cÕnsfuuct Íorm is neverthelêss reqúired. In Dho-Luo, tìe.e âre two âllemâtive po$ibilities, one usidg â construct lom and the other Ínore cÌoselyresemblingâ Niger Kordolanian asociãÌive, using a morpheme/ma./ âfter the IiNt or ìeãd Doun. 'lhus the lollowing pairs
10.7. Ànong thosenoun nodiliere vhich arc typicâlìy excludedhom the âs sociativeconst.üctionin NigerKordolanian languagêsã.e denonstralives. In somelanguag€s,denonstrâtilcs âre ludicrouslysjmplei there are two invariabÌe íorms, often monosyllabic,the oneneâning 'this' or 'these'ând thc other ìÌeaning 'thât' or 'those', wiuÌ .eferencespretty much as in ttngÌish. In manl more languâges,the demonúrâtivess€emperÍectÌy ú.aigluoNard at lirst, büt tu.n out to involve somesublletiesthat are not easyto discoy€Ì. In Kpelle, the demonst.atives /!i/ 'this, ìhese'ând /tl/ 'rhât. those'are used aÍte. the specifictom of â nôün or noün lÌrrase. E.9.,
28ô
ÀÉRÌcN
LTNGUÀGE SqucrmEs
'píei !i
'pérêitl Thereis, however,a thi.d denonstrative,rarely usedaft€. â noun,but otheMi5e usedlike hi/ ând /ú/ with relerênceto a noun; it seemsto have a more geÍeÌal relerence,lot contrastiDgan item neaÌ at hand o. fa.theÌ âwây. E.g., lé 6e {i
Ìé 6€tÍ There are also independentor nôminaÌ Íôrms ôl thesedmonstrativ€s: /nyÍ4i/ 'this one, these',/nyiti/ 'that onê, those', and /nyinii 't'. Indêfinitereterence is exp.essedby a lo.m /'ta/ 'sone, â certâin',ìvhich hâs somediffercnt usesaúd aPpea$tÒ be a noun. Ai{ân hãslso dmonúratives with definiteÌele.enceand onewith indelinite Ìelerence.They are /yi/ this', /nú/ that, th€, ând /bi/ some,a cêrtain'. The Iorm /nú/ is âlso a third personsingularpronouDform; iD Fante, it is regulaú reducêdto [í1. TheÌc is no othêr noun fo.m to indicate d.finitenes or spêcili city. The demo.íratiles hâve independentor nÕninaÌ lorms /iyli, /inú/, ând /òbi/, the last of thesereúricted in neanine to â persoDâl.efeÌence,'Êomeone'; tomething'is expÍesedwith a noun m€âning'thiíg': /às:mbi/. Somewhatsinilar systems,with minor dilte.êncs in detâils of usage,ã.e foünd jn a numberof Ìânguage. Theseare,however,by no meânsthe only possibilities. Efik, for example,has â threÈvay distinctionin definite demonstratiÌes, as illustratedby the Iollowing: '[his dog' 'íhâì doe (reÌâtively nd) 'that dog (ÌelativeÌy far) In Elik ând other languageÊ with this type of system,the seconddêmonstmtive is cÕhnonly usedto reler to somethingin the posêssionof o. nea. the pe.son addressed,wlile the third reteN to somethiDgaway froD both the speâker ând the pe6on add.ess€d.In Efik, tle sâmelorms areusednominally:
ókô édìébwá
'that (nearyou) is a dog' 'that (oveÌ th€re) is â dog
CiBmba has commônlybeensaid to have ã fouÈway distinctionin demonst.atives: 'this near the spqker, 'that' near the persoí ãddresd. this near ìoth (ãs 'this roon'in which we are), ând 'that' a{ay Í.om both. Sucha fouÌway djstinction seemsentireÌy .easonableÀnd may âppeâÍ in some otheÌ Ìanguages.büt ã Ìinguisticauysophisticatednâtivê speaÌe. of CiBemba(StevenP. C. Moyo, peBonâìconmunication)hasmadeit clãerthât there is âctuaÌlya rivÈ way distinction;one distinctionhas ãppÀÌentlybe€nignoredbecâuse.ecognizing
247
OÍH€R NôLJNMoDrrrEÌs; CoiJúNctroN
it .eqDi.esrecognizingvovel length and/or tone I l he iive demonstrâtives, vith ü-nó ü-yú ú-yóò ü-yó ü-Ìyà
'this' 'this 'this' that 'that'
tnm.dìât.ly adjaccÌt to of on lhc st.aker neaÌerthe speakerthan the heârer equallyn.ar or relelant to both immediatelyâdjacentto or on the hearer away from both.
À diÍferentkind of distinctionappeaNto be the locusof â contrastin llausa. Proximity and Ìemotenes are dìilerentiatedas in many languages,but in addition therê are toms lor eachwhich indicatesomeihingneslv introducedinto the convereaüon ând somethingp.eliously retened to. (Sincethe latter distinction invÕlvesonìy â contmst in tone, it hâs beeü ignoredby nànJ whô have studiedôr workedon Hausa.) The iollowing contrastsãre Íoudd, sith explánations believedto representthe semânticdistinctioN quite closely:
gidán càn gidán cón
'this compoudd(in vhich *e ee, d rea. s)' 'the compoundpreviousìymentiôned' 'that compound(ât â distance)' 'thât other compoündmentionedearlier'
The roÍm /gidán/is a mascuìineconúructi /gidán/is alsousedby ils€ll âsa sort of delinitelo.n, not shã.pÌydillerent in usagelrom the secondphÌaseabole. CoF Ìêspondingto thesedemonstÍativ€s, there are independentnoninâl forms Nhich may, however,also ìe usedbetorea noun much lik€ the aboveforms âre used aíter â noun. In theseiorns, the fcnininc const.uctendingof the lirsi part ae similat€sto the consonantbeginningthe last taú. resultingin idertity aiÌh the mãsculin€in the caseol the neâr demonstratives.The lorms are: 'Ìhis (newÌJnentioned)' 'tlìe one previouslymentioned' 'tlìat (newlymentioned)' 10.E. LânguageÊ with noun cÌas systemsand concordadd a Des dimension to demoDstrâtivesi in generâI, classconcordis requned. In the Bantü ìãdgúâges secondaryconcordsa.e used. Thesehave be€n luuy illustraied ror S$ahili in 6.1G11i for purposesoI the tresent discussion,it should pâúicular\ be noied that the concordsare lrelixed Io. the remote demonstratives, but sutlixedtor the neaÌ demonstrativesand lor those indicâting pÌeviousrelerencc. Ihe demonstrativemoçheme jn the lnst caseis fle/i tor the other two types,/hu- hi--haris used,ând ân âdditionâlsuflix fôl spcciti€strevious relerence.Thus, using cla$es 3 ând 4 ior exam!Ìes: 'the aloresâid huo the âfor€sâid' hito
284
ABrcaN LÁNcu^cE SnlcnÃEs
TheseloÌns can âll be usedjndependently.Attributively. they mây be Ìsed either ìêIore o. afteÌ a noun. Belorea noun, tÌre tirst Ìwo seìsdo not have the sharpdistidctionin relerenceto p.oxìnityi eithermay usuallv bê translat€dsinply by tÌìe'. Boi.h imply prcvious relerenceor knowledge,but the tìi.d set makoslrêviôus relerencemore explicit,ând gen€raìlysems to .efe. to something mentionedveÌv shortly befoÌe. Demonstrati!€sfor the three ÌÕcâüveclâses (16. 17, t8) a.e noninâI, aúd are coinhonly üsedâs âdveÌb-ìikecomplements.The s€nântic reterenc€s ol the threc clâssesope.ateindependentlyoÍ the dehônslrâtive distinctions,but itr a way thât js eâsilt confusingto the beginneÌ. Il a speâli€rof S$ahili is askedhow to say here'. he \iìl almost inÌâriably.eply sith /hâpa/ (n€ãr demonstrative. clas 16). Il he js askedhow to say 'ihere, the .espons€siìì almoú al*ays be /kuìe/ temote dehônúrâtile, büt cÌassl7). Yet every nop and then, in conve.sat'on. he wìll sây /pale/ (clas 16) ior 'there. ând /ì!kD/ (class17) for'heÌe' The clas 18 fohs /nle/ and /humu/ aÌe alsoheard.to say notling ot the pr€vious .eie.encedemonstratives for alÌ tlree cÌa$es:/hapo,huko, humo/. The secretto undeBtandingthÀ apÌraÌe.tlynìxed up systen lies in iìcmore speciÍicmeânings ãssociat€d vith the rhrccclãscs. Clâss16 ípa-, pa/) r€l€F to locatioÍ in â specitic plâce;the Ìcssonihâpa/ is eenerâlìygired âs ìh€ first equivalentIor 'he.e' is simply thât 'lhh place'Ìrasa tendencyto be a very sp€ciiicplac€. Clãss17 (/ku-, -ku/) releÉ to locárionin a generâlarea; the reason/kule/ is generallygiven as thc fi.ú equivalentfor 'ther€' is sinply thât 'thât plàce' or 'Òverthere' is more reãdily assocìâted virh general.ather thân specificlocatio!, But the oppositeae sociationsare álso po$ible. ând one can also expr€ssthe meaning Õl clãss 18. 'localion inside'. A chart ol the pernutaÌjônsisas lolÌows,with speciticgÌos€s
1A
17
Fo. remotereference,the three clas foÌns are approximately'right there,there as opposedto ànolher l,herei,rover there'i ând in rhere'. For near reference, they âre 'righl nere', 'à.ound h€resome{her€],and iin heÌeÌ. For pr€viousreíeren.e, j ust v herewc weretalking âbout , 'aroundwhe.€we we.êtãlkiíg âbout , and jn sìere ve weretalking about'. ln sÌ'ort, the appâÌentsim!ìicity oÍ doonst.ãtile systênsin soÍrêlanguagês $hen oneli.st beginsis olten dec€ptive.ln additìonto lroximity and rmotenes, one must considerlocâlionsreìativ€ to the speakerând heâ.er,new leBus !r& vious reterence,ald generalityversüsspeciricity(distinguished .ãtler òy cìasses thaD dehonstatives in Swahili)-ând possiblyother pârmetds not cleâ.ly Ìs cognizedin someÌanguages.For thosewho nây ìãve occasion to teâchan African Ìanguâgelo studentssitì a weak backeÌoundi! grammarof any liind, it náy be âddedtìat an astonislingnumberoi adult naüve speâkeKot Erglish âre not ün-
289
OrHEF NouN MoDrFrEFsi CoNJ!NcÌroN
mediât€lyãwaretlat 'these'is the plural ol 'this' and that 'those'is the plü.al of 'that'l 10.9. The remajDinglype oÍ atÍibutìves typically excludedÍrom a$ociâtive constructionsis úumerals. A clâssof numerâh very commonlyincludes otler quantitativestemswith neaningssuch as 'all', tome', ând 'hoN ftâny?'. The granmar oI numericalir, moregene.aÌly,quantitative attribütion rs such râÌely pr€sentsâny seriousproblems.A les deÌailsmusr be mentioned,however, and an outline of sone representative systemsof numeraìstructureqili bc given. Words with nume.icaìmeâDingâre not necessârillnunerals. Irì Igbo, thc wo.ds t.ânsìâtedâs 'onc', 'tventy', ând 'fou. hundred' ãre noúnsiin Yorubâ, the sameis ttue lor 'trenty', 'thirty', ãnd 'tso hundred'. Such nouúsappear belo.ê othe! nouns in an âssociative.onsttuctiôDi the rel€vântpìrâses cân be represented byglosessuchas 'a Dnit ol..., a scoreot.... Numerals, on the ôthd hand, âppeârafter nouns,in immediate*quence shen countingis refered to. Fo. exanple,in Igbo onìJ the Ìaú ol the tollÒwinginloìvesa numerâll
ótü 0'Sú ínü àtó
twenty : ,100 three' :
ó tú ákwá
rone eggr
ógú ákwá í'nú ákNá àkwá átó
'tw€nlyegss tourhuDd.ed eggs 'threeeggs'
'Ihe samekind oi contrástis lound in YorDbâãìso eéjì ln lgbo, âdditionstô 'lwenty tolìôw rhe noun
ógú ,ákwá nà iri nà ótü
'thi.Ìy-oneeggs'(+ 10 + 1)
Multiplesol twenty involvethe kind of problemsoi the sbüclure ol nümerâl systemswÌrich is the topic oÍ the next se.tions, 10.10. Strâightforuàrddecimalsyst€ms,sith no catensilcâdopiingol words Ior nunerâls lroÍn otÌ,er lânguaees,do not seen ìo be particularly conmoD in Africâ. Perhapsthe bestexampìeis Akan, sith exsmplesh€reÍrom Fânte. The simplenumeÌalsup to ten are: èsìí 'eight' 'live'
Elpressionslor 'eleven'through 'nineteen' are phÍâsescombining l€n' with whateveris âdded.Tneúructureof thesephrãsesis sinilar to thât of noün plus numeraÌ,so that it Dây seemas if nuìtipli.âtion râthú thân addition is
290
AFNCÀN
LNoúÀcE
SrRúcúREs
being elpresed, except that the plurâl lon for 'ten is not ued. Th€re is â specialform for 'one in the combinâtionheanidg 'eÌeven',usiDga mo.pheme +/bì/which appea$ alsoin 'two' and 'three above,but the other numerâlsâre .r âbovr.x.' pÌ Íor reguìdrtonrl âìlprnâlroni.I hp-ephÈs6 are: dú bá'ákó
dú ési'á dú é són dú áwókwi dú á'kurún
'sixteen' 'seventeen' eighteen' 'nineteen'
NÍultipì€sor ten are exp.essed by compouDdsconsistingoÍ the pÌural oÍ ten and themultiple; aÌt€Ìnântsof'tvo and three'âre usêd,withouí the morphene */bi/ mentionedâbove. The forms fo. twenty'and 'lhirty'end vith Ìow tone in phÌaseJinalposition,but in ìigh tone when anotherword folloss. Th€ lorm Ior 'Íorty adds a Íinal /n/ when anoth.r wo.d foÌìôws;iÍ Ìnâny Àkan diaÌects, 'Iour' is /ànán/ to beginsith. A!ârt t.om the pr€lix châÌâcteristicol thesecÕnpounds, Íorty throügh 3eÍenly' differ only in tone from 'lourteen' through 'setenteen'r'eighty'and 'ninety' show a distinctive vowel asiniÌâtioD. These
'tÌìirty' m
Ïüty'
èdüèsiã èdüèsón èdüàwòkYi èdüòkúrún
'sixty 3ev€nty oghty 'ninety
Àdditions to frultiples ôl ten ârê ph.aseslike thoseÍor âdditionsto ten
E.9., êdnènúébi'én 'twedty twô'
èdüàúáná ná
'foúyJour'
There ìs a new unit ror 'one hund.ed', /òhá/. Multìples ol ã hundÌed are exp.essedby this word, permissiblyin its singulâ. form but commonlyin the plurâ|, /àlá/, folowed by a numeÌal;in tems of tonal alternâtions,thesephrâs€s resenble those lor âddition to muitiples ol ten, but this tmê muìüpÌcâtion is jnvolved. SimilaÌÌy, the.e is a new unit for 'one tìousand', /àpim/, which is multipÌied in th€ sâmewây, usine the plüraÌ fom /üpifr/. Exmples of such 'Iive hundred'
úpim é'són
'seventhotrsãnd'
lfa nümerallow..then ten is âddedto oneìund.ed oÌ onetÌrousand,it must be pÌecededby /ínà/ ând', to âÌoid confüsionwith müÌtjplicâtion. In aÌl oths combidâtiÕns, /nnà/ is permissible,but it is âlso cômmonsimpìy tô pâusealter the thousandsand hundreds. Thus: àhá ébi'én ínà êdüèein àhá éìi'én, èdüèsón Ìhpim ébi ën, àhá á ná. èdüènún ébâ ásá
108 '270 '2,,153
291
OÌHER NouN MoDtF'ERs; CoNJrNcfloN
10.11. S{ahili has a straigìttorvârd decìmâÌsystem,but it is marked by extensiv€âdoption of nufrêrâl wÕrds lrÒm ÀÌâhic. Only the foms for 'one' th.ough 'five , '€ight , ând 'ten' âre indigenous.The basìcunits. in theiÌ coun-
mbili
ïüty
'eighty' 'eight' eüu Additionsto multipÌesof tèn are inirodúcedby /nâ/ 'ând'; highd cohbinâtions âre mãrked hy pâusesalter the thousandsand }undreds. E.g., €lÍumbili,mia nn€,haxrsinina tatu
'2,453
The numerals 'one' ihrough 'live' and 'eight', vhen used attibütively, tÀke classconcordrthe remâiningnumerâlsdo not. In numeralsÌrigberthan ten, the sameloÌms requireconco.deventhoughthey appearat th€ endof the nuDeral
niâkâ ishiridi nâ Di*ili
'Ìhô countingÍorns listed aboveâre cìass9 noun lolhs. 10.12. LUGândâhas {hat is bâsicallya decinal system,but the forms for 'hundred'and 'thousand' âre deriÌed lroÌn 'tên by a chângeol clâss. Within elery ser ol ten or its muliiples, one' through live op€ratein the sane say; thereis sDrÌesystm, thoughnot cofrpleteconsìstency, âboveÍive. In their counting to.ms, 'Õne throügh five' âre in clâs 9; 'six' through 'nine are in cÌas 3; 'ten'is in class5. TheseloÌns are:3
'five' e ol l! vèfy 8ood, Ìo conìp.eìÌ€nsive tEatnìêht ol thê Duncrals {i1h tone ìndicated{as ronnd,
292
AFÂIL^N LNGUÀGÊ SÌÂucruREs
In att jbutive use,onÌy 'one' th.ongh 'fi!e'require cÕnco.d.'Six'th.ough to use lhei. stemsin otler classes 'ten'âre invâriabÌe.ahich Ìnâkesit DossibÌe lor tens,ìÌrndr€ds,and thousands.This setsup â sharp diÌÈion betweeí 'one' ihroügh 'fiÌe on the onehand,and highernumeralson the oth€r hand,as multipÌieN, Fo. 'tsenty' through IiIty', a clâss0 tÌurâl of 'ten' is used,/ànàkúmì/i the huÌtipÌiere tak€ class6 secondarycoDcord(not pÌiDa.y as might be dpected trom üsageìn nâny oth€r Bantu languaget. Fo. Sixty and 's€venty, tens âÍe not separarelyextresed; cìâs 10 forDs ol 'six' ând Seven'are used. For 'eighty' 'nineiy', ând 'on. hundred'. clâs 7 toms oí 'ei8hi, nine , and 't€n are used. Thus the multiDlesol ten throush a hundredâre; àmàkúnì àbin twenty' àmàkúhì àsálü ìirty' àmàkúnì ànâ loúy' àmàkúmiàiáÀnó fifly'
'eighty
In the first lour oI the above,th€ tens', /àmàkúmi/,âre Íedündantin most contexts,and are not exp.e$edithe class6loÌms oI the nultipls are distinctive. There is one exception;in nodiÍying â noun Nìich È sheâdy clas 6, to.ms likê /àbiri/ côúld reter eith€r to the noun or to the otheNise unexpresedtens. Tô distinguish'tyenty' IÌom 'lÌo' etc. âlter â Clâs 6 noün, /àÌnàkúnii frust ìe
'two egss(6)' 'Onehundred',as notedabov€, clâss7.The first Íive mulüpi€soI a hundÌed usetIê coüespondingcÌas 8 pluDl 's lorn sith conco.djâlmulülliêN. Agâin. the hundredsareredundantexcett alter a cÌâss8 noun. 'Six hundred'through 'one thousand'a.e .xpresed by cÌas 11 foms ol 'six' through 'ten'. Tìe mulüples èbìkúmiìibi.ì bìútü binâ bì!ínÒ
'200' 300' '400 5m
lükáàgá
lüúnì
'600' '700' 'E00' '900 '1,000
The firú five muìtiples of á thousand use the clâss10 toh ôl 'ten' (the üsuâl plürâl of clas lD with conco.dialmultipliers. 'Six thousand' through 'eight thousand are class 14 fo.ns of six th.ough 'eight i 'nine thousând is the clâssI form of 'nine'. Thus:
293
OÌtsER NouN MoDrErERs;
'2,000' '3,000' ,4,000, '5,000
kàkáàgá
kkèèndâ
'6,000' '7,000' '8,000' '9,000'
So faÌ, rhe entúe numeÌãlsystemìâs beenbâsedon thc irst ten digits,silh the deviceof cla$ membssÌ'ipto distinguishdigits,tens,irundred8,and thousands. Now a new unit ìs ìntroduced:inütwáàlòi 'tcn thousând'. This is a nornaÌ cìâs 3 foÌm, and plu.âlizcsin cÌass4, /mìt\'áàlò/. ìÍultipl€s areex!.e$ed by the usual concordiâlmultipliers. Additionsto ten are iúlroducedby /nà/ 'and', bül additionsto Dultilìes and d€.ivativesol ten, ând to ten thousands,a.e introducedby imü/, vhich mây be a concordiâlmÕ.phcneoI clas 18. Thus at least ten aid perhapseleÌen clases figurein the stÌuctureoI numeralloms, in addition to which 'one'tÌrrough'Íive' .equiÌe concordwilh â heâd noun. Il ân exmple like the tÒlÌosingis fully ünde.stood,the entiÌe systemis not difficult to maste.; hde the noun is in class6, plurãl of clas 5, tÌre lo.m for '€ighty' is in class7 becausethat is its inlariable class,and the tom lor 'onc is in clâs 5 to âgreevith the singulariorm ol the àmàggikináánâmü lìmü This is a cónlenientplaceto add a .ômpl€telyin€Ìcvânt but âhusing detàiÌ ol historicâlìinguistics. Thc clãs 5 singula.rorm meaning 'egg'in Lucanda is /êggi/i Lucandã is spoken in what sas torinerìy â B.itish protectorate. Ìhe Hererc lom for 'eee' js /ei/: Hererois spokenlìr what was lor many ycâB Ge.man SouthwestÀIrica. That theseNordswereadopt€dIrom Englishand Gernan respectivelyseemsâlÌnost t.anspârent büt they were not; both âre trâceâbÌc through deDonstrabìephoneticchangesto the sâmeproto-Bantulorm. 10.13. Like Svâhiìì, Hausahas a fâirÌy straightfo.vardd€cnal syslen wilh heâvy âdoptinglroh A.abic. In pà.licnlàr, the rnuliipìesot ten are tâken f.on AEbic. The basictoms âre: 'tsenty àshirin dáyã tàlàtin thirty biyú àrbàein 'forty' 'Iifty hàmsín sittÍn 'sixty' bìyáÌ 'seventy' sábàtin 'eighty' tànànin bákwài 'eight' tàsàein-càsàein-tìs?jn'ninery' gómà For 'two hundr€d, a new unit, /nètán/, is comonly uscd. For 'three htrndred' tìÍough 'five hundrcd , phrâs€sol Árâbic origin are fânly commôn, For aÌl multiples of a hundred,however,simplesequences of /dàri/ and the ap'one digit may be used. For thousand is , /dúbú/ the commonestlorm, !Ìopriate
294
AFRTCNL^Ncu cE SmucrunEs
but /zámbàr/ and tÌrê Arabic /àüin/ are âlso heard. Tle secondoÍ th€se is 6mmon in the muìtiple for 'tvo thousand', Àdditions to 'ten'are intÌoduced by â morphemelshâi, which is nowheÌe fo. 'and' or 'pÌus',but confinedto the phrases for 'eÌeven'through 'nineelseused teen'. AdditionstÕaÌlhighêrunits âre introduc€dby /dà/,the úsualwordlor 'and'. Although the Hausâ numeÌâl syúem is thus decimâÌwith lev pÍoblems, there is evidencefrôm other Chadiclânguagesor a 6ystm in *hich nunerâls aboveIive are bâsedon additionsor Íive and the lowe. nmbeN. Tìis, as vil be seen,is lery comno. in the Niger-CongolanSuages ol Weú AÍricà. 10.14. Kpelle cìearlyshowsthe useoÍ 'Iive' âs â basefor lix' through 'nine', but in othe. .espectshas â decimâl systm, with âdoptedwoÌds tor 'hundÍed' ând thousand. The countingfohs th.ough ten are:
'êight' ìáat All but the fi.st and Ìast of th€seapleâr *ith prefix€d low tone, which ìn gene.alindicats pÌeviousrefaence. The lorm to. 'one' aboveis used only in counting;i! attribution and in phÌaseswhereone is addedto ten or a muÌtiple of teú,ã foün /t nr/ is used.The abseíceof prefiÍed Ìow tone wiih 'ten' iÊ signüicatrt lor the lature of counting,ând countingmuÌtiplesof teD is ve.y cohnon in neasuringrice by the pint (: pound),ôr in côuntingorânges.BâsicâÌly,the countiÍe goes'a ünit, two of thm, th.ee oi them, , , ,, .irc of thm, a teú', and tìen the counteradds,/'puu !5Ía/'oneten of thm'. That is filed awây Io.lutue re.te.€nce, and the countingis rêpeâtedexâctly âs âbove,tàrough /puu/ 'â ten', to which is then added./'puu íeerd/ 'two tens of them'. The samepÌoc€duÌeis repeat€d üp io a hundred, lor which the foÌn handr/, âdopted lroD Engü3h In the fo.ms Íor 3ix'thÌou8h 'niÍe' given above, the liÌst vord is from â relational noun /-n€i/, refming to the area over somethiDg; it riìÌ here be repr€sentedby 'superior'. The fom /'tâ/ in 'sia' eìkvhere tain'. The pÌôvious.elê.en@ìn /Ìhoi/ js to the preceding'five'. Thus the loms ãre reflected by 'â superiôr ot it (live), tso of its supêriors, ihrêe of its superioh, lour oi its superiors'. In attributive use, the p.efixed low tones usedin counting do not alpear. Fuúh€r, 'tive'nust be expressedin the coÍÍbinâtionsfor 'six'throügh 'nine'.
O'HEF NouN MoorFr€Rs;Co!iuNcÌroN
295
Addiüons to ten are int.odnced by a mo.phem€ikáu/, which is not used €Ìsewh€re in the meaning'and'or 'plus'; it is homophonous rith, and may be thê sâmeÌnorlheme as, â relâtional noun meaning 'kemel. MultipÌes ol ten âre sinple sequences ol /puu/ ândthe âppropriâteìowerdigit. The foìloaiíg exâmples useDretixedlow tonè bêcâusethere is no exDr€ssed noun:
'puu saã6akâu laaìumei ta Ìn additionto the adoptedlorn /rJôndri'hundÌed',it is repoúedthat eÌderly peopìeônce üsed /-0üU 'herd' in the sâmeneaning. The .eleredce*ss to a 'head'or clust€roI paün nuts; at â rough gÌânce.the pile ôi pâln nuts that cân be r€ÌnovedÍrom a singleclusterjs suggesüve oÍ about a hundred. In 19,1ô19,18, no infoÌmânt couÌdcite âÍy higherünil thân a hrndred, but uDderthe necessiti€s ünposedby Biìle translation,and specilicaUyat thc suggestionoi inteÌligentinformaíts who happenedto knos the word, tìe Iorn /nála/ 'a thousând has beenâdoptedf.om Mãndekân;the "NÍandingo"speãkers ol ìÍândekanin Liberia, moúly tÌâdeN, weÌe about the onÌy peoplewho had occãsionto tâlk about tho$andFespeciálly thousandsof dollars. Àlthough the nuÍneraìsyslemôt â languâgesuch âs Kpelle mãy seemawkwa.d, jt canbe mastered.Aner'cân cunencyis usedin Liberia.but until .ecentÌy (with the gradual adoption of /dâla/ 'dollar' ând lrwSta/ 'tvent)-live cents'), âs a hangover fron earlier days, cuÌrency was counted in the terminology oI sterling. Value equivâleútsdate from the time {hen a pórnd wâs S4-00ând a shilling 20c; Kpeue has speciâlt€rms tor the equivalentsoÍ 5c, 10c, and 15c. 'With p.octice,it haspÌovenpossibletolearntosnap backwith the KpelÌesterling teminoìogy and numeraÌs for ânounts Ìike the price of ninety-€ight ?ounds of rice at sevenand onÈhalf centsper pound-in about threesecords: páu tànr, sêìeÌlpuu káu Ìi.lu m.i 'ta, éetì. 10.15. JukuDâlsoshowsâ ìrseof five âs â basenuÌneral. In addiüon,twenty íorms thê base lor multipli.atiôn, so that the syslem is vigesinâl. The lorm foÌ 'twenty is ÌelatedtÕ the word tôr 'body'. and in multiplesthe phraseexplicitÌy refeN to th€ body ol â peson. In some othe. Ìanguâgesas welÌ, twenty is expre$edby a phrasereÍerringto somethinglike 'the whÕlepeson', presunâbìy with relerence to the !ìysicâÌ digits. 'Five', howeve., is .arely il ever expresed with a.€cognizabÌeword meaning 'hând'; ten', to my knowÌedge,is neverexpressedâs 'two hands ; and I know of no languagein which the numeralsystem Ìefers expÌicitly to the leet. Yet the relerènce to the totâÌity of physicâl digits in connectionwith twenty is signüicânt. Oi coume,the asociâtionol the fingers with counüng is obvious,perhals in evêry cülturc. Yerbãlizingsuchan associâtion is not comon, but ìt is undeÌstandâbleiit is Dot, as the remârksof some observeB seemto suggest,evidenceoI a "primitive" cülture Òr a Ìow Ìevel ol nen-
296
AFRICN
LNGUÁGE
STRUCaURES
The precisederivatìonalproce$€stomìng nufrerâls on the bâse Íive in Jukun is obscu.eâdd inegtrlâ., but there âre cleârly sone relationsìipsbetween numcÌalsbeÌowand abole five. In Diyi, the numerâl 'ten' is strâng€tyanomâÌous. Dìyi hasã rew *ords Nith riDal/m/, but /ádup/ 'ten'is the only known wo.d in the lângúagevith any other rinal consonart. It hardly kems likeÌy that it is ot foÌeigdorigid, thÒüghit mây perìâps hâvebeênadoptedlÌom EIik /dvòp/. In counting.âllnumeralsbeginwith â prelix iá-l; jn attributive usealter a noun, ìhe lowcl ot this prelix doesnÕtâppear,but its tonè is retaidedâfteÌ mid or low. i ne rr,]r ano wapa rormì lnrouenten area\ Ioxos\:
ápyìnà
'fi!e'
átsòpyi 'eight' ádup Àddìtionsto ten aÌe int.oducedby diffeÌent morphemesin the tso diãl€cts or languâges,as lollÕws: DígÍ ádup kpã zú ádüp kpá sâra Fo.ms Ior'twenty',
ádì zú Ìpá pìnà ádì zú kpá dup ádi ádì ádì
lYdpd ádzwewà'zü ádzse wà'tsara
eleÌen 'thirteen'
and Íurtler additions and nültiplicâtions, ârê âs IoÌ-
ádi ádi ádi
Couíting higherthân two hundredsas not thoroughlyinvêstEâted. In Dìyi, ânoih€r expresion lor 'hundred' wâs .eco.ded./küsá (górò)/ 'a goürdjull (oI kolâ núts) , which can ãlso be nuÌüplied. This is not geneÌâÌly.ccepted,however,in countingp€.so.s. In Wàpã, /àsyükú/ 'a bag CluU)' is üsedtor â hundred kola nuts. bul not lor olho obj€cls. the fom /züi 'one', witìout its prelix, is uscd fo. 'sone, any,^ttrjbutively, a ceúain'. With the tonê of the prelix .etãiDedafts loe or Íúd, and f.eqüently reduplicãtedas /ázúzúl, it hâs the specilic nun*icâl meaniÍ8 one'.
OÌHER NouN MoD'F'EFs;
297
ColJUNcfloN
10.16. Ìgòo aÌsoshosssomeevidenceot the úseol tive âs a basetor the next higÌrê..um€raìs,thoueh agâinin ãn obscurepattern. The derìvationot the !âriousformsfo. 'nine', us€din diiierent diaÌectsand sometimesalternaliv€Ìyby the samep€rsoÌ, are unk.own, buì may originallJ lìave alludedto one rnissinglrofr ten. Igbo also üsestwenty as a basefor Ì'igher multiplication. As previousll notêd,howev.r, tle Igbo wÕrdsfor 'Òre ând tweúty' âre nouns,roi numerãls. Twenty is multiplied up to nineteer times,ând lh€n thereis a neN unit neâüing 'lou. hund.ed. The num€ral 't$o'has diffcÌcnt forÌns foÌ countingand attribution; the lâtter is see. in the phrâseior 'toúy belo$. ln counting.the basic udits, patternsoI additior, and patternsof multiplicatìonare summa.izedin the
'thirty' ìsiì àsá'tó 'eight' itèná'áni-itégìéité
'ÍÌi 'iri
Four hund.€dscân be nultiplied like t{entiesj iínü/ is alsog.atumâticallt' ÀtrÌibulivdy. numeraÌsareused ali€r a noun,{ith regula.tonal alteÌ.ations. ThenorÌís/ótüj, /ó'gúi, and /ínÈ/aÌe usedbefo.eanolh€rnoun jn an associârive construction. For ligures high€r than tvenly. the remainderof the numerjcâl expresion tolloNsthe nÕun. lhus:
ÈmádünáâbÒ 'eight peoplc ó8ú ú'Dádü ó8ú ú'nádÈ nà ìri ó8ú ú'Dádü ìri Dà ótü
'two hundredtwenty teople
The last ol the abovenay seemto be ambiguousicould not the ône rel.r to one personmore than the 'two hundred people', rather Ìhan being added only to ten toexpÌes'eÌcven scoreof p€ôple'? OnÌy the lâtter canbe intended. To expres aÍtthing Írom 'lso hünd.ed one'to 'rso hundred nin€teen, the noun muú be repeated. Comls.e the foìlowing:
og'1
àsá'tó
'360
òmádü ásato
'208'
298
ArÂrcd L^NcuÀcE SmucÌoÂEs
10.17. In Efik, the basefive is Dore clea.ly âDd corsbtently !sed. 'Six' 'seven',âDd 'eight' aÌe cleâÌly combinâtionsol 'five' with 'one', 'two', and 'three': 'nine containsthe lorm lor 'one'. and apparentlyrcle.sto one lessthân ten. There is a new unit for tên. ând ânothernew unitior fitteen; the stemsíor 'one' through four' aÍe joined to theseby /èi, which is probâbly a coDtraction oi /yè/ 'ard'. Thereis âlother new unit lor twedty. Coüntingup to this point is
ttí
thÌee'
Ityôkyèt ityâbà ityâiú
six 'eight'
dwòp+-kyèt dwòp-Èbà dwòp-ttá dwòp-snàt èlit èlit-è-kyèt èfit-è-bà èfit-è-tá èlit-è'nà! édip
'eÌeven' twelve' thiúeen' 'Iourteen' 'tifteen' 'sixteeD' sevênt@n 'eight@Í' 'nineteen' 'twenty'
Any combinationtìrough nineteen'mây be added to twenty ÀIte. the édip yè kyèt édi! yè ìtyôkyèi édip yè d{òp-è-bà édip yè èÍit-è-nàt
'twenty-one' íwenty-six thirty-two' thiúy nine
'l'orty', 'sixty', and 'eighty, muÌtiples ot twenty, are derivedIrom 'tvo', 'three', and 'loür'by üsìng â diÍrerentpreÍìx, /à-/râuìer üân /i/. (Comlare the closelysimilâ. but more füìly developedpâìte.n in Lucandâ, 10.12above.) There is ã new uÍit lor onehundred,which may be multipìiedby digits through nine (qüite lilely th.oDghnineteenamongoÌde. people).Beyond '999', younger informanh use the adopted fon /tjsin/ for 'one thousând', ând multiply it. Thesehigherpâtternsare iÌlüst.atedby tne following;
ïiity àbà yè èfit-è-bà
'eiglty ikyê ikyê ibà yè àtá yè èfÍt
'100 '150' '275
10.1a. Five ând tventy appea.to be commo. basesâlsoin thê Gu. Ìalguages, ìüt there a.e soIn€ interesling dúlerencB âmong the kDo*n systems at higher
OTEERNouN MoDÌFrERsiCoNruNoroN
299
leveÌs, Ìn Bâriba, 'oúe'follows clãss côncord,but no oúd humerâlsdô. The counüngÍormsthrough 'ten' a.e âs lollowsr
ün 'eight' 'five' There âre nelv units Íor 't\renty' and 'thirty'. 'Foúy' introdtrcêsa new moÌphem€íor 'twênty', ÍnuÌtipÌiedby iwo'. Alternant torms Õt the samemorphene a.e mulüpÌied by thÌee' th.ough 'five i the multipÌying ro.ms or the nümerals'two'through 'tour' suggesttÌrat the Íi.st part of the full Iorms mây be a preiix-class 9? Thesefoms arel
tÈnã
'thiÍty'
'qghty'
Àdditions to 'ten'. 'twenty', and 'torty' ÌesenbÌe those to Íive' as illustrated âìove. Àdditions to the rehainde. of the âboveuits are introduced by a no.pheme /kà/. Thus: ôkurá üâ y€ndá nóbü ìrà yiru we.á àkuru
'eleven' 'twelty4even' 'tilty'
tÈnákà yìta wàú kà ôkuru wÈnékà rkuru
'thirty-three' seventy 'ninety'
Additions to one hundred, up to ninêteen,a.e int.oducedby /kà/. Then, with a new structure lor âddition, twenty and higheÌ conbinationsare added. There is anothe. new morphene for 'twenty' in the conbination one hundred twenty'onÌy. 'T*o hünd.ed'is a new únit. Ìhus:
'110', '120 '130' '140
wònaàteèrú kà âku.u
w5nâàw€erúkà okuru
'150' '160' ,180' '200'
Just as â newlorm Íor 'twenty'is úsedwhen muÌtiplyingbegins, so foÍm ior 'two hund.edis usedfo. ìts muÌtiples.Thus: '300 '400 '500 '600'
'700' '800' '900 '1000'
The loÌns /goòbu/ 'two hundred'and /nòrobü/ 'thousand mây pe.hapsbe derivedlrom uniqueunits ior 'loÌty' and 't{o hundr€d' múltiplied ìy 'livê'. II so, a new unit sould be extected lor 'two thôusând',which wouÌd €nter into compa.ablemultiplicâtionsând additive phrâses.The pattern ol multiplying by two tltÌough tive, and no moÌe, s€emscompÌet.lyconsistent.
300
A!ÂrcÀN LÁNGuÀcE sÍRUcaüBEs
10.19. In Senari,fiÌe agâinlunctionsas â bâselo. tÌ'e next highernune.âls, Iut not $itì as simpl€a pattern as in Bariba. Tìe numeÌalsthrough ten a.e: nibi si tãrj sityÉrÈ kaguÌò
two 'three' 'four' 'fivc
k5Ìóni kòrósi kiÌótãri kpàidyÉre ké
sif,' 'eight' 'nìne' 'ten'
Thêreis a neNunit fo! 'twcnty'. which is nnltiplied by two'tò.ough'four' and by tix' th.ough 'nine', but Dot by 'Iive'i there is â speciallo.m for 'one hund.ed . Therc is â new Ìhrâse lor 'i{o hund.ed , ap!âÌently ãdoptedíÌom NÍandekan;ìut anotheÌ morphemeÍor 'two hundred is used for nuÌü!ìying. Àìthough sampÌeloms $ere not Ìecordedbeyondabout six hudred, this may s ell Íom tìe baseÍor phrasesup to 1,99S;a .ew unit Ior 2,000soÌÌd be expected, though th€ syst€mmay reveÉ to â decinal ìâse alter â thousând. Th. types ot muÌtipìesrecordedaÌe âs foìloss: tòkò tòkò èsì tòkò ètãÌi tòkò èsitye.ê dàbàlà tòkò èkòóni
lwenty Ío.t] sìxtI' eighty' '100' 12O
tòkò èkòrósi tò!ò èkòótãÌi tòkò èktàidyere sirà kéÌé sâlàsi sàlàtãri
'140' '160' '180' 200' 400' ô00'
AlÌ addìtionsto ten ãnd higÌrernune.als âre introducedby /ni/. exceptthat js /dàbàtà/ recordedas addedwithout this morphene. There is a diílerent morphemeIor 'ten in additjonsto lwenty and highe. numdâls. Smple âdditions lÉ ni nibi ÌÉ ni kpàidyoro tòkò ni si tòkò ni kpòÈgò tòkò èsi ni kpì'riìgò nt t{pàidy.rE tòkò èsityÈÌeni kpàrògàni kpàidyerE dàbàtâni kpòÈgà tòkò èkpàidyerôni kpàràgòni kpãidyor€ sirà kéréni ròkÒètãri sàlàsi ni tòkò èkò.óni
ielèlen' rninetyi 'tw€nty-two' 'rhiriy' 'Íilty-niúe' 'ninety-nine' '110' '199' 2ô0 'í20
10.20. Suptire is closely related to Senari, ând the númerâls u! to ten âre clearlycognate,though additiontolive isdiÍte.cntly fomed. Tìese numsals a.e: nitliÌ syutini tããri sityiere kaÌlkuro
two thÌee' 'lôü' 'five
ìáâni báásyutini ìáátãàri báárityi€re ké
'six' eigìt 'nine ten
301
O rsER N o u N t r t oD, F , E usC ; .ri L rc l o N
NDmeraÌsinvolving mültipìication,however,are remãrkablydillerent lrom thosein Senâ.i. Tle.e is a unit 'twenty', \'hich is multipÌiêdonly by 'two'ând 'three'. Th€Ìe js then â new unit 'eighty', unpâralìeÌedin any other langrage discussedup to this point, which is mültipìied by 'tso', three', and fÕur'. Between 'two eighties' ând 'thre€ eighties', there is a spcciâllorm tor 't{o hundred', wh'ch is us€donly foÌ âdding 'one' through thiÌ1y-nine(20 plus 10 pÌus 9)'. UnfoÌtunateìytìis íÕ.n was not recoÌded. Alter 'iour eighties, there is a new unjt for 'tour hundred', also not recorded,thoüAhheârd ând üsedin sômecômbinâtions.Thh is alsôhuhipìied, but in this mrjtied Àlmosphe.ethe intoÌmant begaDto get coniused,ÌÌe saidhe wàsqüile surethàt rhereis ârorher higher neq uniii ìt probâbly hâs the value of tvo thousand. The recorded multiplesare as follo{s: bényeg€ bé syutini ìé tããri
tventy' 'forty' 'sixty' eighty
úkúü syu'lini úkúü tããri Ìlkúü Ìityie.e
'160', 240 '320
íkúü AddìliÒn is regularly int.oducedby /ná/: banyêg€ná bááriryiere banyegená ké ná kálkuro bé syulini ná ké ná bááni ÍJkúüná bényeg€ úkúü syuÌlini ná rÉnyÊgená kÉná báádtyi.rc Íkúü ÌityieÌe ná bé lããri ná ki ná báárityiere
(8 0 x 4
+ 2 0x3
+1 0 +5 +
twcnty'nine rnirty{ive 'Iilty{ix' 100' '190 '399'
4 )
You'd gêl confüsedtoo I Actuâlly, if onc can get aNay Irom ihinking in a decimalsystem,this systemis nor parricülârlydiliicult to hândlci there is ycry littÌe üregülâritJ in the pâtterns ot muìtiplicâtionând addition. 10,21. For sheèrconplexity or at l.âst dilficulty lor the leâ.ner,hor'ê!e., it ìs hard io beat the Yoruba numeralsyst€n.aEven in coüntingup to ten, there are two sets of foms. though neither set is pârticuìàrlt dilticüll jn itseìi. Tìre simple. set thoügh not the one mo.e conmonly used-has lretircs consisting of â voweì with low tône. Ìhe secondset hàs preiìxesconsistingoi a double vowel with the tone sequencemidlìieh. This sel is sâid to be â contrâctio! ol the noun /owó/ 'noney' (orjginallyrereningto covrie shells)Niih lhe numerah, but àll that is lelt oI the noun is jts lones, us.d ãrl.jburivcly alter othe. nouns, 'one'app€arewith no pr€lixr the remaining forms ìare a pretix consisijngoÍ /m-/ and â vowel with hjgh tone. The tonâl âlionâtions ìn stemsàre regulâr; the first s€t must be conside.edbasicto tle otheB, The three setsàre: { Yorubâ núndâlsaÌeírn! tho (19ô2),$hicb ìn axxlx. To a lâÌgc.xlcnl, rbh iorms thc bÀll lôÌ â tÌealmenr by An!íÌole dudcs a sugg.íd decinal :y: For tntoÌnìârioÌ oÌ plìo.olosy ând tonoÌogr,
m2
AlRrc^N
L^NGU^GE SnucrmEs
Ìèji
néjì
çétã
métã
'êight
çei0
Therea.e newunits ior 'tweDty' and thiÌty.'Forty'ândhiShermuÌüples of twenty, through nine twenties, comìine an altqrant loÌm oI twenty (with subãÌternstions conditioned by the folìowin8 vovel) with the stêIn of the âp!Ìop.iãte digit. AlÌ ol thes ã.e nouns, Dsedbefo.e ânothd nouÍ in ân asúciãtiv€ construction.The loms a.e: AgDçN
oCójt 9gótã agóÌin
'thiÌty' lorty 'eighty'
agóIà ogójë egóJ0 qgósán
100' '120' '140' '1ô0 '180
Odd mültipl€s of ten, ìeginning with 'Iilty', representsubt âctions lrom the next higher multiplê of twenty. A great deãl of contÌàction has SoDeinto these foms, but the ênd .esult is a Ìegüle patte.n. These foms a.e aÌso noun8.
àádótã àádóÌin
'lilty' sventy'
àádórà
'110'
àádójë àádója
'130' 150
The di8its 'one' thÌough 'fouÌ' âÌe added to 'ten' or any of its multiples. 'Ì'he digit comêsIi.st, but its stú hâs an alteÌnant úth low tone every ca*. 'n is ÀdditioÍ is then expressed by /lé Ì"/i ll"/ (the âpostropheis noryhophonemic) vowels othe. thân The combinatiotr oÍ thiâ a re€ularalteríânt of /ni/ belore /i/. with 'ten'invoìves fuúher contÌâction.but the other coDbinationsare Ìegular. Tìe ãttnbutive forms ól tìese comòinâtions, used âtte. nouns as the simple diglts âre, hegid wiÌh /m-/ iouow€d by a vowel with high tone. This is ìrue even fôÌ additions ol 'one', which begid sith /nó-/, though 'one' by itself has no prefix vhen used attributiveìv. SoÍneexâmDì€sof theseãdditionsare: €éjì l'àá ç{tà l'àá
OmER Non
303
MoDrFrEus; CoNJUNcDoN
eéjiÌé Ì'óeún e4tàlé l'ógbòn çérìnlé Ì'ógójl oókànlé Ì àádótâ eéjilé l'ósósãn
'182
The digits lrom 'Iive' down 1Õ ronerâre subtrâctedlrom the next higher nuÌtiple oI ten. Agãin the digit comesíirst, and its stem has an alternaút with low tone. Subhactionis then expressedby /din Ì'l. Thus:
'Íilte€n' eénô'din l'ógún eéjì din l'ógún
'\79 An ineAuÌârity is introducedin the combinationsfo. '185' through '189'. Theseare âddiüoDsto '180. The form Ío. 'nine tventi€s comefirst. Àddition is ex!Ìessedby /ólé/. The íollowiúg digit has the form attÌibüüveÌy, with 'rsed lollowed by â vowel with ìigh tÕne. Although 'nine twenties'is used as /n-i a noun, these combinationsaÌe used âttribütivelÌ afteÌ a noun, without modi Íicaüon of Drefix. A sâmDleof these fom6 isl
qgósán óÌénéjè
'185 187
TheÌeis â newunii /igbâ/lo.'tso hündred'. Conbinâtionsfor '190'through '199'are subtrâctionsof 'ten' down to 'one' i.oD this ünil. 'lhe lorm /igba/ comesÍü6t. SubtÌãctionis exlressedby /ódin/. The digit rollowsin its attribuüve form. The utrit /igba/ is anothernoün, and like other nounswith nümericaÌ meâDingis beloÌea noun in an a$ociativecoDstruction.ln the subtractive 'rsed @mbinâtions, /ighâ/ stiÌl lreced6 the noun counted,ând thc .eú oi the combinâtion fouows. Examples of this g.oup are: igba ódln m{tã igba okünrin ddÍn móji
'190' '197', '198men
The loreSoing@úies the outÌineoI the Yorubâ numeralsystm only through in thê sour@scited, brt the 'two hund.€d'. All of the infomation is accessible úove tÌeâtnent o.ganizes the system in â new çay, which qüile cleârly is âÌso of pedagogicâl value. The systemâs suchis bestseenby úarting with onethrough t€n, then going on to twenty and its multipìes(aìorg with thirty), subtractioDs of teÍ from muÌtiples of ürenty, additions ol ÕnèthÌough tour to all decimal combinâtioÍs, sult acüons oI five down to one Íron the smq and linãlly the subsys t ms lound in 185to 200. Fo. highernumbeA, the sametypes of lo.mation are found, aìthoughnew muìtiplesot twenty are used. StâÍting wilh 320, multiples
30.1
ÁFÀrcN LNcuÀcE
SmlcreREs
ot t*enty aÌe subiractedÍrom a new unit lor 'rour hundred'. Still hiÉhs, multiples ol 'two hündred' âre üsed. The interplay oi addition, subtraction,and nultiplication is not entirely consistent,and continuesto involve a great deâÌ oI contrâction, Details.rn be Iound in th€ souÌcesoted, While discussing this with ã NigeÌian who ìâs spoken Yoruba lÌom chiÌdhood, though as a languâ8eof secondchoic€,the dry Ìmârk was made, "Àtry Yo.uba who knows sofre English tries very ìard to avoid thê Yorubâ numeÍâl system." So what elseis Dew? ActuaÌly. oÍ course,any ol the systemsthat has been describedis peú€ctÌy viable to. the purposeslor whicì it \ras useditr Af.ic{n cultuÍes Fior to extensiveEu.opeãninfluence. Items, especiâlycowrie sheÌls and koÌâ nuts. we.ecountedse.iatim.which is not difiicult to leah to do. The.e wãs,however,littÌe occasionto cite specificìârgenumbemout oÍ a countingcontext, o. to practicea.ithmetic operationsextensivêly. Even âr that, a.ithmetic is by no means impossible nsing these systemsi the greât dilficulty is ÌÌrereÌy in trânsbbnglrum onr oÍ lh.m 10 ouì5or \r.e versa, 10.22. Ihe loÌegóingsectionshave cover€dtypes of noun modifiersthat ârê commonto Ìangüâg€s in generâl pÒsesiv€s,demonstrãtiv€s, and nueraÌ9. In many hnguages,pos*ssiweshaw€beeDseento be oÍly a specialusâAêof an âe socjâtiv€construction.What suchmodili€rsmodify Dây be considered the head oÌ cor. ol â nÒüdphrâse. Súch heâds,however, âre thmselves Dot always singÌe wo.ds. A few ilÌust.ationswilÌ suggesthow they may be delinedj problemsol analysisin individuaÌlanguãgesare usuaÌlyminimal. In lgbo, it is convenienttô tr€ât phrasesconsistingof tvo (or occasionaÌly nore) nounsin the associâtiveconst.uctionas singlenouns. This is pâÌticulârly true jn the câseol Õnetype of combinâlioniÍ shich thê secondÍoün is ddived froD a ve.b. Suchnouns,r€Íeüilg to actions,are derivedin two ways,depending on vhetheÌ the origin is â monosyÌlâbicÌerb stm or â verb baseof two Õr Inore syllâbles. In the lomer case,there is a prelix /ò, or /òr, and the verb stem is .eduplicated, the ÌedupÌicÀting syÌlable tâking â high voweÌ. In the latteÌ câse, the.e is â nâsâl prelix wiú high tone p.ecedingthe verb bas. Th€sede.ived nÕunsâre rãftìy usedexceptin the âssociâti!èconstruction.SomeexânpÌesâre:
i'Ìlú iú
'dridk' 'bite,eat'
ihé'ó!ú!ú ihé'ótitá
These,oi cou.se,them*Ìvcs cónsistÕI a one-wo.dnoun (/Íhé/, iónyél in th€secaset with an associativemodilier. The head ol a noun phÌâsemay âlso consistÒl tsÕ or moÌe wo.ds in other reÌationshipE.Àgain in lgbo, noún phÌâses are derivedrrom phrasesconsistingof verb ând object,indicatingthe customary perforner Õt the action indicâted. In such deÌivations,there is â preÍix /ò-i or /òr, foÌlowed by the ÌeÌb stm with high tone (even if it has low tonê ìexicaÌly), lollowed by a dóvnstep (reàlized oíìy befoÌe high tone, of couÌse). Tìh is a
O Ì H rÂ
N ouN Mo DrFrEn s; C or i Lr . r r oN
305
tonally uniquelomatjon in lgbo, ând mDstbe definedasâ tonaìly reâlizedmorlheme deriving such nouns. Somc such deÍivÂtionsã..: 'dancc : òtr'e€*ú i té + égwú 'booze': ò!ú ómányá ÌüDányá 'driÍk'. i'lú 'drúh' : òti ìgbà Íti 'hit" ìgbà iood : òri íÌi í.i 'cry' : òbé ákvá ákwà 'cloth' : òbé'ákwà Compa.ableagentivederivationsaÌe Íound in KpcÌle, though with qrite a diÍIerentúructure. The objeci ând verb âppeârin their usuãlo.der,but the ve.b is comloundedwith /núu/ 'pe.son'(plurâlizedâs /-6èlâl) with ihe usualìoN ione replâcingsten tore with the linâl elèment. fhere âre âlsosihilar comhinations in vhich the heâdnoün, in linaÌ position,is not peBoúal. Exâmpìesâre: tii ké-6èlâ
'tailor' ('cloth sew-person') 'vorlimen' ( \'ork do-people) 'laundry soap ( clotÌ' wash-sodiuD) 'weâpon' ('lieht iight-thing')
Contraryto what the last oI thesemight suggest,the derivationot one-word noúnslrÕn verls (orvjceve6a) is h'ghly .xceltionaì and by no hcansproductive in KpeiÌe. A Íes suchderivationshâvebe€nmentionedin connectionwith sone other lânguâges,but the tolic wjìl not be systematicallytreated. In somclan8uases,patterns or noun derivâtion are transpaÌentand productive. Sporadic and unp.odüctivederivaüonãlpatteÌns are aìsocommon. Derivâtion oI nouns Lom ve.bs by suffixation and addition oÍ cla$ prefixes is typical ol Bantu; it shouldbe notedthat the linàì vowelin formslìkethe Swàhili/kilDngo/'aiaúening. rron /kurunga/ Iasten, is a suffix. 10.23. Appendedtô this discussionôl nÒunmôdifies, becâuseth€re seemed to be no bett€r !Ìace to put it. is this sectionon nominal conjunction. ln the vast majority oI Alrican languages, there apteaN to be a singlesimpleword ror 'ând', Írequently â monosyllabÌe,and onenight wonder shJ âttedtion shouÌd begiÌen to the subjectat all. Thereis onecruciaÌreasonIor doingso. The beginne. is aünostsuÌeto assumethat he can usetle sameword to join verbs or sentences,to êxpressconbinâtiôns like 'they wúe €âting ând d.inking . Thât Êimplyìs not tÌue in any Ahicân lãnguageto {hich I havehad sullici€ntexposure to find out. VerbâÌconjulctiÒnsiìl be treâtedin connectionwith v€rbâlsystems, but it must be mphâsized herethat, when the form oi nominal coDjunctionhas beendiscovered,that b pretty much the end Òt it lhe conshuctiônhâs ìittle ìt Disjunction, 'or', is Ìik.ly to bc somewhatmore complicât€dor idiomatic. À very few qâÌDpl€s will suggestthe posibilitjes. Ìn Kpelìe, 'or' is expresed by a twGword phrâse,/kpà má!/, which appa.entÌymeans No, also . . . . In Ìebo, it is expres*d as /m ò bü/ 'but it mây be'. ln Fânte,thereis a sisple con-
306
AFÂrcÀNL^NGU^GESrÂucruREs
junction /ànáá/;this, however nay alsobe usedas â questionmeÌke. ât the end One i.siânce oI noninâÌ conjunctionthat is corside.âbÌymÕÌecom?licãtêd than a singleword is worthy of note. This is found jn KpeÌle. Ones first imp.ee sionmay selì be thât nominâlconjuncüonis as siÌnpÌein Kpelle âs in moú other ÌÀnguages.Nouns appeaÌto be joined simply by /tà/. \Yhen pronominal.eÍeÌents aÌe bÌought into the picture,how€v€r,it deveÌopsthât /'tâ/ is a thi.d peMD pl!Íâl pronôünform, d€rivedl.om the basiciôrm /'ti/. The sent€nceFuró{ 'tà nenl'ti pà/ a man aDda voman câme is structurâlly'man they-includingwoman they cMe'. Thh h oDlyore speciâÌized eaanpleoÍ a morecomtlex structure. ÀIì€. âny mnjúncüv€ phrâsens.d âs thê subject oI a claus, the subject pronounvith ihe verb Ìnust Ìeter in persoDto the lair or group nenüoned,and must oI coureebe plural. Thus 'you and I' or 'he and I' constitute'we'; 'you and hê' ôr 'you and Súmo' constitute 'you (pl.)'; 'he ând she' oÌ hè end Smo' constitute 'they'. It the corjuncÍve phrase incìudestronominal reference,it mDst itseìI begin with a co..espondingplural prononinal .efepnt, which may be labeìleda "conjunctrvelronoun." This is loìlo{ed bJ â noun, which mãy be an independenìpronounlorn. It the ?hrâsereteB to only tso p€Nns, thè noun o. independentpronounmlst be singuìâr. Ìf the phrase.efeÌsto mo.e than two persons,an oïertÌy plu.aì noun mây be used,or ã pÌD.alindependentpronoun, which must then be lollowedby /-nìi. Thus the lollowingconbinaüonsare pot
kwà yá kú pà
'you (sg.) and I came' (we-incÌldiDgyoü-sg.se 'he/she and I cane' (*e-incÌuding himiher we
kâ nyâká pà kà Sumoká pà
'Sufro ând I câme' (wÈincludingSumowe came) 'he/sheand you cane' (you-pl.-includinghim/h€r you câme, total oI tao) 'Suno and you came' (you-pl.-includingSumo you câme,tútãl oi two) 'he/sheând heFh€ cme' (they-incìudiDg him/her 'hê/she ând Sumo came' (they-ìncludingSumo 'yotr (pl.) ãnd I câÌne/ you (w.) aüd we came / you (pl.) and we can€'(wÈincludins yúu came, totâl more thân two) 'they ând I came/he/she aíd we cme / they and we câme (we-includine3d peNon came, total 'Suúo ând we câme' (w*incÌudilg Suno cme, totâl more than two)
OrsEÂ NorrN LÍoDrFrEÀs:CoNrn{clloN
kà 'tiá-nl ká pÀ kà Sumó-ììkÁ pà 'tÀ 'tú-ni 'tÍ pà
307
'you (pt.) ând hebhe câne / you Gs. oÌ pl.) and thêy cÀìnê'(you-pt. incìuding3d peEon cam€, totaÌ more than two) 'you (pÌ.) and Sumoc,ne' 6'ou-pÌ.-ircludingSumo cam€,total mor€ rìan two) 'hê/sheed they @ne / they $d tìey l)Úei (th€y-incÌuding3d personcame,totsl morethan lwo,
'tà ìôaI tt'tt pà
'he/úêithey and rno6€ peâpl€ câm€'(they-including pêoptetho8è they csme) Sent nces likc the âbove caD aìlo be t â.!Ìatêd by s€ntrncë Ìik€ rsumo c€me with u3'; tìi! is the only way to expr$s accompaniment,
È êmênlssousd,ols d àulêur
Being, Having, and Verbs 1t.1. "I tried lor threeyearsto lind the verb 'have'in Ewe, and now yôü hâve it all ligured óui in lilteen tuiíútesl" Thosewep the *ords, uttered with ã Dixtu.e ol lrüstrÀtionand delight,of âmissiodàryon rurloughseveralyeârsâgo. It wâs my lirst $o.k on Ewq with my low dbtinguishedcolÌeagueând b€loved triend GilbertÀnsq then a gÌâduatestndent,âslnformant. Theworktas undeÍtaken in order to help the missionaryin questionin leârningthe langusgeishe had spentthr€e)eâN fìoundeÌingon ü€ lieÌd, ând wâs unâbìeto cotrúruct even sinple sent€nces.As usuaÌ,I had ìegun by eliciüng ând tÌanscnbingthê equiválents ol âbour tsenty common,con.rerenóüns,notìng padicuÌârly suchtonal distinctiónsâs w€re âpparentin their citâtion lorms. I then proceededto elicit tìe sãmenoDnsin rhê frâh$ 'Th€rês... ôvêr th€re'aÌd 'Theres... nqe', in order to compârethe tonesot nouls sitì someüingthãt night be invâÌiâble. Tlìe next iramesI usedwe.e'I have...' ãnd'you hãv€. . ., This proceduÌe produc€dsiÌnplesetslike the following:
gà gà gà lè àIiì ga gà It $as inmediâtely appârentthât the expressiÕns lo. loeüor ând the expre$iols lor lo$esion {e.e simiÌâ.. Having had ?ÌìoÌ experieÍcewith a simiÌar siluâtion, I hâde . jüdicìousgues and askedhow one woDldsây my haÍd'. The responseNâq /nyè ási/. Allhoügh lhe order oÍ eÌúents wâs diÍferent, it was oblious that the sâtnenor?ìenes vere invoÌved as in the exprelsionfo. po$ js merely â se$ion. So I observedthat apparentlyan expressionloÌ possession specialcaseoI ar €xtresioD foÌ locationi if you want to qy I have so-atrd+o', you ex!Ìes it as 'So-ând-sois in rDy hand'. It oas, oÍ coúrs, a lortunate coi!cidencethat I happen€dto choosethe particulá. lrames I did Ior vhat was suppos€dto be prima.ily a test foÌ tone. but it vas a dramátic lilte€n-minutede monst.atationto onerho iad nevú dÌemed ol expressiDg 'have' by anything NatuÌally, the loregoingdoesnot answeÌall the questionsthat caÍ be asked cited. Àn obviousquestionhâs to dó sith the difev€nabotrtthe Iew sentences fqent structuresoi 'ny hand', /àsinyè/a.d /nyè á6i/. It tDÌns out úât there arê t*o tormâtionslor pronominaìposessionin Ewe. The fomation illustÌated by the lirst oI the above is regula. fo. kinship teÌms (shadesor Bantu lâ âúd
B ErN c, H ^vrN G , dD
309
v E u8s
sinilaÍ patterns in Mânde and otheÌ bmnchesoi Niger-congo). The iormation illust.âted by tle secondoÍ the âbove is r€gtrlarfor alieDâblypo$€sed nôuns. For body paÍts (for which I happento hâle very littÌe evidence).tìe secondi0.maúon aptearsto be the usuaÌone,tÌ'ough perhapsthe Íirú is an optioMl aÌternâtive, Theli.stlormâtion, hosever,is usedlor a bodypaú in a locativeconstÌtrc tion. In this foÌmation,the fimt and secondpersonsingulârposesive pronouns prcnounsp.ecede. In thc second lollow tle pôsesed noun; âll othêr possessive formaüon, all pÌonounsprecedethê noún: the íirí ând secondpeFon singulá. pronours p.ecedêit irnmediãtely,òDt a morpheÌne/Jé/ is used âfter âlì other pÌonounsaÍd âfter nouns. Another questionis the stâtusof the lorm /lè/. Onemight liÌst assuncthat this is the verb 'to be ." But there is ânÒrheÌpirl.ll to be avoided. Àll thât is cÌea.Lon the few examplescited is that it means be-located-âti there no jus tification fo. asuming that Ewe, like DngÌish,{ould usethe sane v€Ìb to'sexpre$ desúiption or identilicâtiÕnos it uscslo erpres locâúon. ÀctuaÌìy, the sâne tom is used in sohe €rprcs'ons ol deso'ption, bclore words $hich very likely conúitute â cÌe$ of adj€ctivals. To expres identificâtion,howeve..â difle.ent lom is usd, /nyé/; e.s.,
Ìtiseven questionâblê wheth€r/ìè/ is a verb atãì1,ãnd the samequestioncàn âsked about Th€se loms nay peÌhapsbe clâssjiiedâs lerhs, bur it sô be iDyé/. they aÌô peculiarlydef€ctiveverls. They do not appeãrin the usualtense-âspecl. const.uctionscharacteristicor veÍbs like 'buy' or 3ee. It wouÌd perhapsbe saferto describethen as copulas. Ewe thus illustnt€s â situationtìât is .xceedinglycommonin NigetsCongo. ând utrdoubtedlyin ìângusgesall oÌer the world. It is thât iou. types oi pr€di cation, çhich hâppento ìe expftssedby ihe verbs 'b€'and 'ha!e'jn llnglish, are fÌequently non-verbâlor ma.ginâllyverbal,and invohe sematrticdistinctions we âÌe not usedto expressingôvertly. Thesetypes ol pr€dicalionare: identilication, descri?tion,Ìocation, and po$essìon. These,ând their relâlionshit to ordinary verbal predjcation,ãre the subjectoI this cÌrapter. 11.2. An unúsuaìdisúnctiônbetweenjdentificationand des ipiion is fÕund in Akân. Identiticationin tÌìis casedoesnot ref€r ner.ly to identitying,but to being identicâlwith. One elementin the pr€dicaüoDis a nóun; th€ other is lre quently a p.onouno. a d€nonstÌative,but may be ânothcÌnoun. BciDgidenrical with is expre*d by /ni/. Tltus in Fante, ni yi ni ánú
'this js ny hât' he is my fatheÌ
In such sntences.the point is that the noun êxhauststhe defi'Ìition oi the other eÌementin the lÌedicãtion. SimpÌe identilying nerges with description, €xp.essedìy /yÈii e.g., ò)i kyiw
310
AÌnrcÀN L^Ncu cE SmucreREs
The point herêis thât, âlthoughthe object ií questionis identifiedas a hat, 'it' does nol exhâust lhe câtegory ol hats; there âr€ many otheÌ hats in the woÌÌd, The Íoms /nÍ/ â!d /yÈ/ aÌe membeÉ oÍ a smalÌ *t or what I hav€ descÌibed âs "stâtive vêrbs" (WeìÌnes 1946, p. 54). There âre perhâps no more than ne or ten such stems. They dilÍer Í.om other verbs in that they a.e highly Ìestricted in thei. usewith verbal atfixeswhich mark tenseaDdaspectdisünctions,and in thât they take subject prcnouns with low .athe. than high tone. Most ol them, incÌuding iDil, occur with none oí the verbaÌ affixes; somemay occür ãIoneor *ith the lüture âffú; /yè/ rnây occuÌ {ith the füture âffix and also vith the compÌetivêâÍIix. Thereis â homôphonôús regülârverb /yè/ 'do, Ìnâke',which is usd wìth aU afiixes and which tãkes subj@t pÌonouns with high toneì it is ãppaÌentÌy this verb râthú thân /yÈ/ 'be desüibedas' which isüsedsith adjectivals(cÍ.9.4). The.e is no negative coÌ.espotrding to /ni/; being identicaÌ with is neutnlized ìlith being described as iD the negâtive, aÍd /yÈi iÊ us€d for both. in Aka! Agâin râther unusuãlly,both locaüonand !ôssessionâÍe expressed with tìe sâmestm, another sbtive ve.b, /wò/. In the n€gâtive, thÈ hâs the suppletive âlÌôhôrph /ni/, hômophonous with the âfinmâúve /nl/ 'be idetrliceÌwith'. àwòsiká òwòdán nú nú mü ònni siká ònni dán nú nú mü
'hê hâsnoney' he is in the house 'he doesn'thavemoney' 'ìe isn't in the house'
AnotheÌ .esenblane betveen exp.esions loÌ locâtion ând posession was úotedin Ewq but in that casèitwâseasyto seehow posesion is merelya special case oÍ Ìocation. Hae, howeve., thêre is identity of constructioÍ, not m€rêÌy a special atplicatio!. Technicauy, that is, theÌe is ambiguity, Às ia. as the veÍbat predication is concerned,as to whether locâtion or possê$ion is being expÌesed. Àctually, however, there can be no confusion. WhÀt Iollows the stâtive veÍb unambiguouslyrêIersto one or thê oth€r; ône @Ínot póssess â pla@,and one @nnot be loÉted ãt an olject. Or to put it düferently, it might ìe said that one do€B indeedpossess a place,ãnd rhereis really no veÍbal apressôn of ìo@tionât all. Ànotlêr of the stative verls in Àkan, /tì/, âlso hasto do with locâtion,but in â morê sp€ciÍic wày, pâúicularly in the meaning 'live at, stay at'. A possibÌy .elâtedr€gularv€.b /tiná/ is u*d vith the ve.bâl âIlixes. 11.3. The sit'ration is some*hat sunilaÌ in Igbo, but mDst be desc.ibed in t€rms oI â stâtive constructionin vhich somevsbs appear,râther than in tems oI stãtive verbs as such. The stative conslructionis u*d onÌy with monosyÌÌabic veÌb stens, ãnd úth only â relativeÌy lew of thm. FoÌ the most paÍt, !erb8 which are used in the stâtive do not appear iD the conmor "lâctative" coDstruction in the same diâlect. In somê dialects, ho{eveÌ, there is ân âlteÌnant of the lâctâtive which is used with snch ve.bs to expres past time. VsbÊ uÊedin the stative, however, may also ãpp4r in other constructions such as the incompleând conditionâI. Tìe staüve is ma.ked by low tone É tive, Iutur€, consecutive,
311
BETNG,l l ^v r Nc , aND V E s 6 s
llâcing úen tone. The lâctâtive is narkèd úìh the sane tonal repÌãci!€,and in addition by â sullix consistingoI /r/ tÌüs the precedingwoveÌ r€p€ated,with Ìow tone. The âÌternantlormâtion lo. verbsusedin thestaüvehastìê úem vo\. eì doubled. Ihât verbs used in the stative are not cleaü á sepârÀte.lass as in Akan, howeveÌ,is suggested by the fact that the factativeconst.uction,which ÌefeN to past time foÌ verbs expressing action, refers rather to present o. undeIined time lor other verbsexpre$ingstate or situâtion. For sone verbs,indêed, no.rhern dialectsuse the stâtive wheresôutherndiâlectsúsethe lactâüve, with the samep.esentôr undefinedmeanjng. Identilimtion here meaningbeing identified as, as weÌl as being identical with is expresedin Igbo by the verb /i'bú/ (cited in the iniinitive; the Ìoot is /-bú/). Thus, in üe stãtive:
In diaìects{!ich do not have a factativeio.m for ve.bs üsedin the stative,this seltence is ãmbignousjit .orld âlso mean 'he was â teacher',and the latter could be specifiedonly by addinga lhÌâse releÌring io a pâú tim€. In diãlects whichdo ìave ân âÌternantol the lactativeioÌ suchverbs,ure lollowingispo$ible: d büür üdnyértkúzi Decription-being descrìbâble in terms ol is expressedby the verb /i di/. Iìxcept ío. a Iew specialcâses.this is not usedwith the sânê nounsthat a.e used aner /i'bú/, but only with nounswhich are themselvesdescriptivein Deaningand shich have conmonly but errcneouslybeen .aìled âdjecüves;cl. 9.6. A speciâlcâsFand there âre prôbâbly â relâíiveìy lew others-is illústrated by the loìlowinscontraú: ó bü ókú ó dì ókú
'it is (identiliableas)Iire' 'it is describâbìe in termsof fire, it is hol
Ihe sâlneverb /i dt is aìsousedto expresslocation,bút only for inantnâte noüns,o. optionaÌÌy(with dialect or personalvariâtioDs)Ior nouns indicâting r€ptil€s,insects,only small animals,o. all non-humananimates. Fo. other ânimates,including hmans in âU câses,the verb iinò/ is used; in sone contexts, thú may havethe sêpcificmeaning3it'. ìÍore than oneoI theseverbs,however, is requiredfor predicaüonsol locâtion. The noun or phraseindicâtingthe placè is introducedby ã morphenewhosebasiclorÍn is /nà/i belorea vowel,the vovel ând tone ol this moÌpheme a.e deÌeted (but il some dialects not the dtrrãtion ol the vovel); beforc a syllâbic nâsâlwith high tone, the aÌternânt /ná/ âppeâ.si but ìeÍorè a ?lâcenâm€ begidningwith â cóftoíânt (vith râre exc€ptionsI.on another Ìângüage),the bâsic lorm /nà/ qppearsâúd cânnot be consid€Ìedderived. ExamDlesoÍ exDre$ionsfor locationâre:
ó nò nà Kánü
3t2
AmrcN LÂNcuacESmucruREs
The stãìus or /nà/ in tlese con6t.ucüÕns is worthy ol conídeÌatioo. There ú ânotherIom /nà/ which is üsedbeloÍeá verbal nouDto rom ân incompletiv€ construction,usuâlly trânslatâbleby ! IrÌesentpÌogressive.This is ânály@dâs a staüve verbâìform fÍom a root /-ná/, the tone ol which is attestedby it! usein a presentcônsectrtivê constnciion; this verb hasno other uss, but the constructions are paralleledby luture const Dctionswhich use the con€spondingfoms or the verb /igâl 'so'. For exâmple: há nà èí í'ri, ná àÌJúú máDyá ó gà àbyá
'they âre eâtingand drinkiíg'
The su.facephoneticreâlizâtiônsôt inàl belóreâ phrâseindicatingplace(oÌ tihe) and of /nà/ beiore a veÌbâl noun difer in somerespects. For both, thè voveÌ quality is completelyelidedbeio.e a diÍfe.ent Ìowel; but in tìê latter câ* the vowêÌ duration is Íever Ìost, and the low tone renains (as thê bêginnineol a gÌide) belorê â vowel with higì tone. NeveúheÌ€s, it is tempüng to posit an underlying relâtiÒnshjpòetweenthe tço. ll future action has to do with 'goingto' then presentâctionÍDayúelì be associat€dwith 'ìeing ãt'; compârethe sdaútic similarity betweenEnglish he is ât sork' ãnd 'he is working'. The /nà/ oí locative phrâses cannot be ãnalyzed as âny kind of le.bal construction in the presentstructure of lgbÕ, but the evidenceiÊ good lor positiÍg  relâtionship to ine jnà/ of tle incompletive. It will be sêenthat locationand p.esentaction appeãrto sÌÌowâd ünder\ing relãìiônshipin a vaÌiety of languages. 'lhe Ìgbo expressionlor idcntilicâtiôn, úsing /i'bú/, riguresheâvily in the gramhãr óI topicalizàtion. The subject of a sentence may be topicalized (mphâsized,conhasted,singled out lor ÀttentiÕr)simply by intÌoduciúg it with /ó bÈ/ it is . OtheÌ eÌements in a sentènce.eacept â verb, mây âÌso be topicâÌized by being t.ansposedto the beginring of the sentence,introdu.ed with /ó bü], ând-cruciâììy foÌloved by a moÌphme Aà/. In topi@lizinSsonething other than the snbject,pâúiculârly a locative or ternpoml compleÌnent,/ó bü/ is occasionallyomittedr qu€stionwords, which siu be tÌeâted moÌe fully in a later châpter,but which als nÕÌnally appeârin â topicâlizedconstNction,are usually not introducedòy /ó bü/. The lse oi this phrâse,ôl couÍse.is simtly a wal ot identifying the majo. topic Õf the senten@. E.9., ó bü ínà ú zürü éwú ó bü éwú kà Ínà ú zürU ó bü éci kà ó zürü yà (- éci kà ó zürü yà) ònyé zÈrüyà gi'nt kà ó zürü
(- ò büsi ni kà ó zü.ü)
'my lather bought a goat yesterday 'it sas my Iather who bought â goat 'it wâs â goât that my iâthe. bought 'it wâs yeúerdây thât he boúght it'
313
BErNc, HavrNc, ND vËRBs
(Beforeâ questionword, âs iD the Ìâst parenthesizedaÌt€Ìnative,the subject pronounìâs low tône, itself ân indicâtorol sonethìnghyto[heticâÌ,inplicitly a Posksion is expresedin Igbo by a verb /i'!ré/; the presentstâte of possesion is expresedby the Íactative. Thus: ó {wèrè é'gó
'he hâs moncy'
It is de@ptiÍe, however to âsúme thât tìê vêrb /i Ìvé/ sinply neâns hâve . In const uctionsothe. than the íâctativ€, a mo.. basicmeanjng'.eceive,obtain' is olvious. E.9., ó nà è{wé é'gó kwà izü
'ìe gets money every week
11,4. In tems of the types of constructionpresentlyunder considerâtion, therè is Dodistinctionìetweenidentificâiionand desoiptionin Yoruba; descrìptiôn involvesspecificverbs suchas 'be big'. ldeDtilicatio..includingtopicâÌiâtion, is eapresedhy â morphene /ni/, with the âlÌÕnorlh /n i ìelÒr€ /i/ ând /l'i belore other vowels. For examDle. iló ni ilélóri (cL: ó í ilé In topicâÌìzinga subject,a subjectpronounmust be usedalter /ni/. Ìn rer eÌenceto ân explicitly pÌurâl subject,the third peNon plural lronoln mây be used, but the singularis alsô lossibÌe. In reterenceto â liml or secondperson subject,the third personsingllâr subjectpronounjsúscd;thatìs, any independent pronounis treâted likê ân ordinâry (rhird peÍson)noun. E.g.,
âw!'nni vón râ evúré (- àwqnÌ'ó .a ewú.i)
'my father bougìt â goat 'it wâs my lâlher sìo bought a goat 'it vâs ihey who bought a goat' 'it was I who bought a goãt
An nnusuallhenomenonin Yoruba is that an enti.e sentencecan ìe topicalizedìy adding/ni/ at the end. This givessomethingof tìe rorceoI 'The point isthât.... E.g., ó ra ewúréni
'the point is thât ìe ìought a Soat'
Às no1€diÍ 9.5,a reduplicâtedlorfr of a verb Dây be topicâlizedin the same lÍÌ91'ó Ìo
'actuãlly,he sent'
It ìâs ìeen noted thât Ìocâtionând possession âre expressedin tle sãme way in AÌian, and-thattocâtionand pÌesentâction âppearto be .elatedin lgbo. In Yonba, aÌl thr@ ot theseâpp€aÌtobe .eÌâted. This alÌl not be inmediâtely
314
AFRICÀN LNcu^cE
SÌRUcÌuFEs
ãppârentfrom tle foÌlowingèxmplês, but â strongcâseen be madeíoÌ the hypG thesisoÍ ân underÌyingrelationship:
'he is going Each of the above contâins a form rhich is cl€arly o. p.obably derivable fiom an undeÌlying /ni/. The ÍuU form Àppeãísin qpresiotrs of locaüon ard possesionbeioreâ word with ân initiaÌ consonant;there âre relâtivêÌy lew such @ses,büt the lollowingis an exãmple: this /Íi/ is not to b€ confrsedwith the quite dillerent moÌphemeindicâtingidentificâtiod, which is /ni/ with mid .ather thân high tone. Both have similar Âllomorphs before vowels, but tle alÌomorphs of /ni/ Ínust be represenredas /n '/ berôre/i/ end /Ì '/ betoreoth€r lowels; the followingvowel aÌwayshás high tone, which is a Ìeplacivesinceonly mid and lo{ tone occu. with wôrd-initiâl vowels otherwise. (I âm quite awareol a more sophisticâtedãnalysiswhich treats [n] and 0l as âllolhonesof onephonem€,but Ì considerit inconvenientheÌe; by this analysis,the allomoÌphsof /ni/ and /nii voüìd hâve to ìe describedâ ìittle difteÌently, but the d€süiptionswould bê mutually convertible.) In expresions oI presentâction,the lon/ú/ apFars (â honorganicsyuabicnasalin the 6u.iace phonology,with high tone), âlwayslóllowedby a consonant.This ie not as obvious ân âllomorphoI the sane /ni/, since/íi/ occuÌsin the surÍacephÕnoÌo$rin expressions ÒI locâtionand possession; but an rnderlying relationshipseensextremely likely, pãrticülarly in view of the aDelogoussituation descibed above lor Igbo. Locâtive predicâtionis expresed by â verb /wà/, vhich hâs â süp!Ì€tiveâllomorph /si/ in negative constructions, Íolìowed by /ni/. The ve.b /wà/ may be usedwithout a ÌocâtiÌe compleÍDentin the meoning'exist, be on hand'; in responseto a questionãbout someone\weltâre,â commonÌeply is /ô wà/, pe.hâps best reilectedby 'heh âround'. (A verì /be/ is âlso usd in the p.sent conslrüctiôn to mean 'exìsí, be aìivê'.) A ìocative complementloÌìovs /wà/ just as it iollows othe. predicãtes;lor exâmple,
ó í òiséí'ibè It is not ditficuÌt tô conside./ni/ in such combinationsÌeÌbali the above couÌd be Ìêpresnted by 'he existsand is,ât thê.è' ând heis working ãnd is-at there. Po$€sion is dpressedby /ni/ alone,as ilÌustEted by a few exâmplesin the precedingpaÌagraphs.If /ni/ cân !e considerêdto hâve the semânticrange be al, be wit}r', the reìâtio.shipìetween locationand possessioD is cl€aÍ, Present action is ext.essed by /d/ ìeÍore â verb, ând ân uÌtinate Èlationshi! betweenthis /ri/ ând /ni/ hâs alreadybe€nsuggested.Às in lgbo, the underlying ideâ of lresent actìonappeâÌsto be 'b€'ât . . ,-ing'.
B E' NC, H^v rNc,
315
ÀNb VEÂBS
The ilte.relatiÕnshipsbetweenlocation,po$e$ion, and p.esentaction cân be summedÌF in tì€ follÕwingcitati.os lrom Yoruba, Igho, and Fante. Spâccs bn bÌânk couÌdoI cours be lilled in, but the constructions invôlvedareiRelevânt to the point ât isu. heÌe. Note the occúrreoces oI /ni/ in Yo.üba. /nà/ in lgbÕ, Yorüba ó wà n'ibi ó l'ówó óúìo
Igbo ónònébéà
Fonte àsàhá ò wò siká 'he s going'
ónààgá
11.5. 'Being'and 'having' p.€sêntspecialprobleÌnsin Kpell€ a:so,but iD difieÌent wãys. Fi.st, the usnal e{pression Íor location is illustrâtêd by the iollowing: 'th€re'sâ housethere' In lorm, /káâ/ is â singülarinperâtive óf tìe verb meaning !ee', and the âbovesentences could be repÌesent€d by 'sêehih/her/it ìhere' and 3eea house there'. But /káa/ Dust be irte.pÌeted as having a speciâlized, íosilized lunction in süch ìocâtiveexpresions,sincethe plurâÌ jnperâtive lorm is not usedwher speâkingtô more than ône penon. Whât lollows/káâ/ is â nôun or noun phrâs€, the head of which is lÌequenuy a reÌationalnoun ìndicatingplace. E.É., 'it is in the pot' 'washthe insideoI the pot') Pr€sentaction may be expresedin â closelysimiÌaÌway. Thereare two alìernative consirúctions,üsedquite iúterchângeâbly viih no recognizãble dilfer€ncein menint. Thev are:
â pâi
-
'káapâi
In the Íi.st or these,/a/ is a conbinãtion of the third pe.sônsingulârprcnoun {hose únderÌyingfoÌm is /è/, and ã constructiÕn markerìndicatingpresentâction, elsêwhe.eãttest€das /a/. In both alteÌnativ€s,/pài/ is lrom the verb /pá/ cone , with a sulrix /-ì/. lt is signilicaít thât, lor someverbs,this lorm cÌea.lyrunctions âs â relational noun with Ìocativemeanilg in othd combinâtions-Frcn the verb /láã/ 'lie down, sleep',Ior exâmple: a Ìáai 'káa ìáaì kú ìárì káa nãa
'he's(in the pro@ssof) lying dosn' 'theres a ?lacefor us to sleeptheÌe
The sulfia /-ìl is thus atiestedâs hãvinga loqtive meaDing,and it is aí easy step to recognizingthe €xpÌe$ionsfo. p.es€ntâction as meaningsoÍnethinglike 'he is-at lying doïrn'. OnceÌnore,locationând llesênt action âppearto be ÌeÌâted in the undeüing structu.e.
316
ArÂrcN
L^Ncú^cE SÌRUcruÀEs
This in tu.n foms the barisfo. tÌre description of expresions oI ?osesion. is the PGsession of â freenoun expressed by same/káa/Íollowedby a possessed lorn oÍ the vord Íor 'hand, i-yéel.silh the sâ'nelocativesüffix/-ì/. E.g., se!-kâukáâ úâ! yéei
'my fâtheÌ ìâs money'
Possession is thns a slecialinstãnceoI locationithe abovecan be relreËented by sometÌ'ingìike money is-at my hand-place'etc. The suffix /-ìl is usedin only â very lew conbinâtionswirh othêrrelãtionâlnouns,but its locativefunction is cleâr in such expresionslor posesion. It wâs this consirucüonin KteÌlê which providedthe cÌueto tle ânâlysisof exFessiorsÍor possession in E*e (ct. Expr€ssioústor poss€ssion ol Ìeìationalnouns are also locâtive,but use â dìil€rent locativeconplement. The concett ot ãlienaòÌevs. inaÌienablepossion finds expresion in this distinclion. One cân be thought of âs holding an âlienablepossesion-ven by extensionsonethingtoo Ìdgê to carry!ãsa cos in ones handr it wâsobtâin€d,ând cânh. dislósedof. The sâbê is nôt tru€ ol inâÌiênabl€ posessionsithey sDrply erist. Tìe ìocativecompÌementus€dis /dÌà/, literâlÌy 'its surlace,its edge'. E.g., óey€-ni lee.E káa Ììà I have two youngêr sibüngs' (lit., my two youngeÌ siblings are-at itssüúâce I, or rmJ two younger siblingsexist') 'I ìave two hânds úyéelêerekáa Ìhà 'God (cf.: yâla káa nÌà exists) Expr6sions Io. desc.iltion oÌ idenüficãtion âre oI two Lypes. The lüst, sith an jmplication moÌe oÍ descriptionthân oÍ id€ntificãtion,uses/káa/ once ÌnoÌe,but foÌlowedòy â rnârk€dcoÌnpì€Ìnent-anoun or noun pìÍase introduc€d by the complementmarker /à/ (which in other combiÌrâtions, as l{iÌl be noted in â Ìater châpter,closelyÌelÌectsthê widesprêâdâssociãtivênoÌphme /ar). Às notedin 9.2,a fom oI an adjectivaÌcanalsobeutrd in suchma.k€dcoÌn!Ìments, as aÍ alternativeto àn adjectivaÌpredicativeconstructioÍ. E.g., yâla káâ à kú nâ! 'káâ à 6óa 'káa à néb€(- nÉbei)
'God is ouÍ lather' it\ a knile' 'its fiDe'
AnotheÌ construction. with mo.ê of an implication Õf idêntüicâtion and used ônly with demonstrative8, inlolves a norpheme /ká/, which has nothiÍg to dô with the veÌb /káa/ see',ând which is in nó senseverìâÌ. In this constÌuction, the noun precedesand the deÍnonstÌâtivefoÌÌovs /ká/. E.g., 6óa ká ti !á 6óâiká !i
BErNc, H^vrNc,
^ND
317
VEUBs
Thus Ìocation.presentacüon.losession, and desc.iptionaìl useor nây üse tle fom /káa/. Iú every câse,the rêlereúceis to a pÌesentsituâtion. Other tihe and ãspect.€feÌences nay ãlsobe exp.es€d,but with the verb /kÉ/ 'happen,be' (alsotransitivü 'do, make'). With rele.enceto presenttime, the noun located, âcting, pôssessed, or desc.ibedis the object of /káa/i with other references, it is the subjector /kÉ/ D.g., è kÈnáa 6óâ è kÈnââ è kÈàeyii sü è kè pâi ìêyÈni teere'ti kà dÌà è kÈà kórãÌl lál€€ è Ìè à Àéko â pài kÉià àÉlêô
'he/sheiitwas thêre' there was â knile there ìt wàsin the pot 'h€/shewas coming' 'he hâd twó youngersibÌings' 'it vrs ã goodyeâr' 'it was line 'it will be fine'
Expre$ions for identiricâtionusing ikú/ and ã d€monstrativewere noled abôve. The.e is stilÌ another expressionlor identificâtion,not commonlyused sith a noün exept rs an answerto ã queúión such as 'W!âÌ is thât?, bul torming the basisfor topicâlization.l The key morphemeis /6ei with an âllonorph /6ei (\!ith mid tone) in linal losition and ìeÍore demonstratives.A simple answerto a qu€stionaskingidentificationmal' ìe:
QuesüonsoÌds âre only occãsionâllyused,in very short questions,in other than a toDicalizedconst.uction.SomeexamDles are: lë mi
'what? : 'wheÌ.?'r
a lé kii 6a Ìii mi
'wherea.e you goìng?'
Othenise, questionwords comeat the beginningof â sentence,ând âre loÌÌowedby the topicalizingnorpheme /6d/. ln the ÍolÌowing,if th. questìonwo.d retersto an object or compÌementol a verb, note ÌIat tìÌ€reìs a back .€ferencc to it, or a .ecapitulationol it, in the last pãrt oÍ the sentence: Ìé 6e ti lé ôé a kêi 'kpeâ 6€i 'kàâ
'whãt is he doing (it)Ì' 'who did you see(him)?'
mâlôÍJy€elu 6é 'kás nãa 'how nuch .ice is there there? mi 6é Sumoâ lii nãâ 'wlìereis Sumogoing (there)?' À typical ansrr'erto the first ol the âboveis likely to be ot the type /6óa ká !i/'thisisa knite'. Ingenêral,noneottheabove qu€úionsisÌikelyto be answered with ê sentenceusing/6éi. This is likely to leada Ìeârn€roi the ìanguagêto concludethat /6é/ hassomethingto do with qDestions assuch. tsut it is by no means
3lE
AFÂrlN
LNcuteE
SmuctÚEEs
Ìestrictedto questions. lf lrequently occurein strtemênts,but as ân indicator of topiqlization. 8.9.,
'it\ work thât hek doing(it)' 'it s Sumothát I saw(him)' 'taai sü Ai Smo âÌli nãã 'it s into town that Smo is going (lhere)' nãa 6€ è li nââ 'it's the.e thât he went (theÌe)' The âppearanceof /6é/ iD most question-wordquêsüonsmúeÌy demonst ates, the.elo.e, that such queúion *o.ds are nomaÌly topicalized. In topicâÌizationsiD general,/6é/ may be usd âJtêr â nôun or noün phras (incìuding independent pÌonoun foÍns), or a qu€Átion word. It may be used afteÌ a noun thât might othesise appeaÌin ã mâÌked complenent (introducedby /à/), but not alter â tull mârked côhplement(with /à/). It is not ued aÍto an adjectivâl from â marked complement, nor afteÌ a verb. RecãpituÌation oÍ whât is topicÂlizedis typìcal, ãnd must be morefülly treâted. ÀlteÍ â topicâÌizedsuòject,theÌe is a recqpitulaüígsubjecttronoun,agreeiÍg in peNon and ntrmberwith the subject,inmostverbâÌ constructiÒns; two signíicant eÍcepüons wiÌl be noted. Subject p.onouns comòine úth vqbaÌ construction markers; befoÌe thi.d leÌsor singuìãÌ toms consisüng of or beginning with /ai, /6e/ is rcdu@d to i ô-/. \ryhat ÍoÌlo*s is in each casea complete entence with a pÌonoun subject. E.g.,
úyá 6éÌlââpá kúa 6éksââ pá
'l'm tììe onewho has come' 'çe'Ìe tle ones{ho hâte come' 'hè\ the one \Â,hohas come' 'it is Sumowho shoulddo it' 'it is Sumowho doesit'
In the pâst, there is no (o. a zero) const.uctionnâ.k€r; the subject pronouns appeaÌin their basicforÌns. In the pÌesent,theÌe is â constrüctionmaÍker /a/, but thê vêrì stên has a sufiix /-V which is unique to this construction and thus sufficieDt to mark it. In tÌ'ese two conúrucüons, thêre is no respitulating suòjecl pÌonoun. It thus appeâ$ that the importânt thing to indicate aÍter a topicalizedsulject is the vêrbâl construction;vhere this must ìave an overt form, the pronoun gôes along for the .ide, but whe.e the construction mârker d@s not hâve to appeãrthe pÌÕnoln is âìsounDecessary. Thus:
lé 6ékÈ Sumo6épà 'tiâ 6épà 'tia 6epâi
'it '\Ías Sumo who came 'it wâs they who câme 'ith they who úe @ming' 'it's he *ho\ cutting sticks'
A topicalizedobject is recãpituìatedby an object !Ìonoun sith the vêrb, âgÌeeing in peBon and nDmber with the object. Where number is inelevaít,
BE'Nc,
HÀvrN(,, ND
319
VÊFBS
sincenounsgeneraÌly hâveâ generic Ìâtherthan nunericaÌsignilicance, a singular Prcnoun b used, Ágâin. what Íollows /6€/ is thus a compÌete sentênce,with a
pmnounobject.E.g., 'what did ìe do (ii)? 'who did you see(him)?' 'they re the onesI saw (them)' 'we'rethe onestÌ'ey saw (us) 'it\ sticksthar we cut (iU' 'tÍi !i 6é Sumoa 'kÈ 'it\ this work that SuDo does(ìt) In caseswherethe subjectând object tronouns hâve the sâmepersonand DumìeÌ .ele.en.e,one might {ônder whether ambiguity is not possibìeicouÌd not eitheÍ pronoünbe taken as r€capitulatingahât is topicalized? Such a pos sibiÌity wouìd seemto be restÌictedtó thi.d lreNon relerence. In the singular, no ambiguityis po$ibìe in móst constructions.ln the pâst ând prsent, âs nored above,a recâpituìâtingsubject pronoun is not usd; thus if there is a subject pronounalte. /6él, it mrst be tìe object iìat is topicâlized;e.g., Ìé 6é è'kè 'kteê 6é i kàa 'tia 6e {á'ti kàa
nya 6é'kàa
'it h he who sawhim' 'it is he whom he sç'
In most other cô.shuclions,/6e/ hãsthe âllomorph/6t lelôre â thjrd personsinguìar conúrucüon after â topical'zedsubject,but not alte. a topicaÌizedobjecl. Thus the folÌowinc contrâst: 'it is he whô hâs seenhin' 'it is he whom he has seen'
In oneconsüuction, howeve.,thereis âmbiguityiI the sunjectandobjectperson are both third peÌsonsingulaÌ; this is the hórtáüve. Further, there is âmbiguity in all câses iI the two pÌonoursa.ê both third peron plu.á|. Tnus: 'it 'it 'it 'it
is he who shouldseehim' b hê whom ìe shouìdsee' is they who sawthem' is they whom they saw
In !.actice, of couNe, such ambigüóussentencesâre quite unÌikeÌy to occur; Domally either the subject or the obj€ct woüld be ideítilied nore specilicâÌly than by mere p.onoüns.A noun beforethe subjectproDounwouÌd indicât€that the object is topiqÌizedj a noun in plâceóf the object pronounwould indicate that the subjectis topimÌized. A locãtivecomtlúent may ìe topicâÌized,and is recapituìâtedin the cÕnplenent position by /nãâ/ 'there ; tlis js lsed even il the ìolicâlized eìeúent
ôéft Ìlá 'kàr nãâ 'taai sü 6é!á lì nãa
'there is where I w€nt (ther.) 'hde is where I sâw him (the.e) 'it was into town that I went'
320
A!ÂrcaN LaNcu cE SmucruÀEs
Locativeconptdents âre commonlylike the onein tìe last ôxâmpÌ€âbove, a po$eskd relationalnoun Ìeterring to pÌâce(in this case, 'the townh inside'). hat preced$ ând toseses the reìationâÌnoun hây be topicãlizedby itsêlJ. ln this case,it is recâpituÌated by a possessivep.onoun sith the ÌeÌational noìrn in compÌemc.tposition. 8.g., 'taâi 6é !á li 'sü 'it's thc town thât I weít into' (cI.; 'sü 'its inside') 'pÉr€iü 6é è kÈìí ìt\ thât housethat he wasât' (cl.: ìá its mouth, its opening,its dooNay ) A nonn or noun phrâselroln À mârkedcompìementmay ìe to!ìcalized,ând is recâpitulâtedby â word /là1. This itsell lunctions âs a marked cômplementi it is a po.tmanteâu for the cohpÌenent úàrker /à/ with â third pefton singulaÍ p.onoun,with jmpe$onaÌmeaning. E.g., kàli 6é è pà là 'â hoeis vhat he brought' (ctr è pà à kâli he brought (câne sith) â hoe') 'a knüe is what he cut it with' lìia 6é è 'tèe là (cf.: è tèe à &jâ he cut it with a knile ) wúru 6é 'ta konà kpètôÌà it s Noôd thât ft€y mâke mortÀrsof' (cf.: 'ta konâ kpèt. à vúru 'thêy make nôÌtãF of woôd ) Temporal complementsmay haÌe the sme conúrucüon as Ìocative comtleDents, a noun indicatingtime plus a r€lational noun indicâting iDside',oÌ they mãy bemãrkedcomll€ments.When topicalized,howeve.,onty the construÈ tjon parallelinga ma.ked conplementmay be used,with /là/ Ìecàpitulatjn8.8.9., 'it vas last month thãt se cme' ìálo{ ti 6e kú !à Ìà (cr.: kú pà à òáloÌlti kú pà ìáloÌl ti sü we cane last moÍth') itwas lastmonth that he brought ìálot ti ll€ è pà là à mrb! rice'(cf.: è pà à holâ! ìálo! ti sü he brought rice last month'i here,to âvoid two mârked compìementsin one sentence,the locâtile lormatioú is usedfor the temporaÌcomplÈ It is posible to use/là/ twìce in on€ wntence,onceâs â ÌecapituÌâüngelement, and onc.eas â .egula.rnarkedcomplement,ând cìearlyin thât ordeÌ. 8.g., 'it wâslâstmonrh that he lrÒüght it' ìálo! ti 6e è pà là Ià (cf.: è pà là Ìlálo! ti sü he brought it lãst month i cf, also: ìálo! ti 6é è pà là 'it vas laú Donth thât he cane ) By ànâlógywith the âbove, /là/ is âlso used to recapitulâtethe tempoÌal questionsoÌd iyÈÌol 'çhen?'. The wo.ds ror 'tôdây', 'yesterdây,'and'tomorrow, however,âre topicâliz€dsithoüt recâpitulation. Thus: yele 6e i pà là
'when did you cone?' 'it vâs yesterdaythât I camê'
BerN c, H^v r Nc , dD
321
VERBS
This discusion ót topicâÌtâtion id Kpeìle begân*ith tìe obseNationtìat a noun (or jndependênrp.onoun)may be idêntiriêdsimply by usìng/e1/ ã&e. il.. Snch sentenc€sare simply apocopâiedtopicalizations;tÌrcy identily tÌÌe topic v'thout sâyingânylhidg lurther aboúl it. Verbsând âdjecrivalsàre not topicâlüedin Kpelle. Thereare, however,âdverbssith r€stìctive or emphaiicneâning shich servea som€shatsinilar Íuncüon. In English, topicâlizaiìonot âny elehedÌ in â sentencevery commonly taÌes the fom Õl contrâúive slresi the gÌoses given in the foregoingare conveíj€nt for àvoidingambiguityin sriting, büt a.€ not the most natural ways ol exlr€sing sucì ideasin speech.EDglisì{peakingl€a.n€Noi AÍricân langüages are âltúostinesistibly tdpted to sp.inkl€th€ir sp€echvith Englishcontrãstile st.€ssesãnd varietiesof inionation, desiroyingtonsl coítrasts in the p.ocess. The íoregoingshoulddemonstratethât an Aírjcan lânguagehas the equilm€nt to expÍessâllthesubtl€ nuanc€soI€m?hasisthat we are usedto, withoutr.soú'ng to ou. conveDtions ol stÌessánd intônâtión. 11,6, Desoiption, location,ând tossession {ere not Iülly investigatedin the Gur languageswi$ $hicÌr I hâve worked,ând there is not a gÌeat d€al in the literâtur€ which is cl€aÌÌyreliaue. ldentiticâtionin Senanand SüppireNas dis jn 7.6. lhere cussedin conn€ctionsitì the noun classsIlems of thosclângusges b a forn indicâtingidentifi.âüon,usedalter a noun,lor eachclass.singularand plural. Suppúe(ând probably SenaÌias {ell: the subjectwâs not investjgated) ìas â s€cÕnd*t of lóÍÌns indicatirg identificationol somethingat â dislance, The two types ar€ illustrâtêdby the lollowing: iJÌüü wi sugoki bo.o li ká.à ri súmópi sikqa piâ baya yi booriryiâ
'it\ a chick€n' it s i mortãr' it's a bag 'it\ m€at' it s sâlt' 'they a.€ goats' 'they a.e houses 'tÌrey aÌe bags'
ìküü úÌlgé
Theselórms indicatingidentilicàlionâppa.entlt do not €nter inlô constructions oi topìcalizâtion.The only Ìelevant const.uctionrecordedatpearsto be â câseoI a topicalìzedobj€ct, which is simply put at the beginningoI a seDtence so tìat ihe order is obj€ct{ubject-verbrathe. thân lhe nornaÌ subj€d-obj€c! Ìerì. E.g., iÍ Senari: 'it's meàt wè waít kârà wò tJãa rÍe sant tneât (ci.: wò ka.à tyae ) À rew exFe$ions ol ìocationare recordedin SenaÌi. They us€ a norplÌene wÌtich is cl€arlynol verbal,sinceàll verbshâve initiâÌ consodants.Ìhis mor /i/ phehe.an âppãrentlybe precededby either an indeFnd€nt pÍonoud ôr â subject pÌonoun,or of coursea noun. Thus the lollowing âlternativesâpleâr:
322
AFRÌCÁN L^NGU^GE
SrRUouREs
A. expre$ionof pose$ion is reco.dedin Se.ari, using ã ve.b /tâl, the unde.tying meâdingof which is 'ôbtain'. With hinship terms,howev€r,this is not uwd. In the folloqing, /ò/ appeâÉto be an âlte.nant of the locaüvecopuÌâ/i/ in negatives;/ii is â n€€âtivêmaÌke.. The phrãse/mi Ìná/ âppeaÌsto be a poe ssive pronounwith a noun indicâtingplace,but the steciÍic type of location, oi any. is nôt known. This senten@seús to hÀve thê structure 'a chiÌd is-ãt
Even thesevery limiteil data are sullicientto suggesttìat all ofthe concepts iÍ queúion identilicâüon (ând topicaÌization),description,locâtion, and po$ rcssion-are lonverbal, or at Ìeast olly ma.ginally verbal. Ìn Bariba, â úorpheme /vá/ is ftcorded {ith the n€âning 'exist, be locâted ât'. which is âppa.entlynot ã verb; I have no .ecordof sntencesin which it is used. OtheNisq only identificationwas reco.dedin Bãriba, and my notesshow gloses of the type 'thereì a goat', 'thereì sone money'; diIíiculty in colnmuDicatingsith jrlormâíís may hâvc aff€ctedthe situâtion,ând I súpect that sinple idedtilicâtion is ctoser tÕ the meaning. AÌthough Bâribâ hâs â sufÍix-màrk€d clás sytemrâther slniÌâr to that ol Senariand Suppire,nouí class€s do not €nter into the exl'.essionfor id€ntilicatior. The singÌemorpÌ'emehasallomorphs,hówevef, vhich are conditìonedby the linal vowel ol the noun aúd, iI the noun ends {ith high tone, by its no.photonúic clas. Âítú nÕunswith finãÌ high tone in the sfrâlleroftwo moÌphoronoic clâsses, tle identiiyingmorph€mehâslow tonei âttd âll other nouDs,it hastop tone.! ÀIte. IinaÌ /i, e, .l the roms fuá yÀ/ âppear; âtter finâì /ü, ô, ô/, rh€ lorms ar€ /wá-*à/; âÍter linâÌ /m/, the lon is /á - à/. Afte. a linât single/a/, the lorm with top tÕneb an added/á/; the forn sith low tone has no addedvoqeÌ, but the linaì tone becomeÊ Íalling. With a tinal double/ââ/, only the top tone lorfr is atteúed; it tâkes the foÌm ol top ÌÈ placingtop or high tone, and rising tone replacingnid; no noun is reco.dedwith fiDâl /aà/ and Íinal low tone. ÀlÌ Õf theseallomo.phshave nasalizedsubâllG moÌDhsalter nasaliz€dlovôls. Sone examDlesof identiÍicaüonin Bâriba âr.r gobi yá wn yâ
'it s money' guwã yasa duna yaa naã
chicken 'cÌoth' 'hoF€ 'animâl'
boo wá : i r : :
'itt a goat 'ith â dog
güwãá yasaá dumâ yâá naã
11,7. Ìn a nümbd ôI Bântu lânguâgcs,ideítilication is expÌessedby â tolal replâciverccompanyingthe noun clas preiix if it is â Iüìt syÌÌâble.or otheNise : This eas ênonèously labeìled higì,
rhoügh trdscrlbcd cosectly, in Welnc.s 19524,
B E ' N c, H ^v'Nc,
32J
ÁND VERBS
an addedvowel, ln Shona,for exàmple(and the sãmepatfern is tound in miny oth€r lànguagesin thât pârl of Bantulând),nouns by rhcúselvcshave pÌêIixcs wìth Ìow tone, oÌ nonsyllabicpreiixesin the caseof classes 5, 9, ând 10. To expressidentificâtion.high tone r€placeslow tone: if there is no tone to .eplac€, /i-l is prefixed,which undoubtedlyis the saÍnereplacivewith ân underlyidg'/i-/ Ìelrec úg the originsllofrs oI the clâsspr€filesin question. Ihere ãre rìsÕsome instancesol tonal aìt€rnâtionin nounstemsrI haveno recordoftherules for sucì aÌternâtiôns,but toÍâì alterdâtiônsìnShonââre,in gederâÌ,.eúrictedand simple. Here low repÌâceshigh in â monosyÌÌâbic ú€m, and high replacesthe Íirst oI two ormorelowsjn a st€mithesemaybetheonly siâtementsrequired.3l he foÌlowing iÌÌustrâteidentificâtionsith rouns of cla$es1 throulh 101 münhü
ia p.son
vànhü
'peopìe
ìhúkü nàbhúkü chìgàrò zvìgàrò ngürüvè
a book' hooks a châir' 'chairs 'a pig, pigs
miti Íbìúkü
â pig, theY âre Pigs
There are other noun cla$€sin Shonator which expresionsoi identification prodounloms. aÌe similârlyfoÌmed. With cÌâs 1a ârd (includingÌ)iDdependent js hoveveÌ, a morpìene /ndi/ usedas a !.eiix ro. idenlificâtion. To erpÌes identilicâtionwith reference to anythingother thaí pr€s€nttime, a verb is used,the infinitive loÍn ol which is iküváJi in somecâses,this is aÌso transÌãtabÌeãs becone . E.s.. 'l'n going to be chief ndìnódà küvá mámbò by à morpheme/rl/, with the regularsubjectconcôrds Locãt'onis expressed âs lrelixes. loÌìowedìy a locâtive noun. Locative nouds âre lormed by the lrelixes ot dâses 16 (/pâ-/, ol speciticlocation), 17 (/kur, ot gen€râllocation) ând 18 (/mu-/, of locationinside), superjfrposedon thc tull noün lorm wiur its own pretix (il any). E.g., bhúkü íri !àtáIürà bhúliü riri küchikóô chigàrò chiri nüümbá
'the book ìs on the table' 'tìe book is at school' 'tìe chair is in the house
by lÒrns ot a vô.b /küngà/, Locâtionin othcr than presenttimeis expresssed which eÌseshêremeaís 'be like', with a "paúicipial" constructionusing /ri/i in this construction,Iirst ã.d secondpersonsubjectloÌms hâvehigh rather thân 3 The dâra íor shonã is tet.n I deteno.ãted beyond ihe point ol 8suÌing compúhen:iv€ 3tâtênents.
324
AFÂrcÁN L^Ndu^cE
SrÂúcúREs
low toíe, the srbject concordror cÌass1 Ìs /á-l rather thân /ú-/, and Ìow replaces the stem tore of /ú/. This appeaNto be comparableto what I noÌmally c.U a "consecutile"construction;however,iril is noi â normeÌverb in other.espects, sinceit requiÌesthe auxiliary /kúngà/ to expresswhat {ouÌd normally be Íound in â vêrb cônúrúctionwithout an auxiliary. Examplesoi Ìocâtionin othêr than bhúkü rángá.i.i !àtátü.à tìnóngàtiÌi küchikó.ò
'the book sas on thê tabÌe
Shonâlrovid€s another striking ex.nple of expÌessingpresentáction in a way clofly sinilaÌ to that oI expre$ing location. ContinDousâction in other than the pÌesentis âlsoexpressed in thê sâhe way. ln either case,an ilfinitive (wìich is nominal,ìn cÌas 15)is usedafter /ri/ ratler than à locâtiveDoun.With tìe constructionsillustrated âboÌe. compa.€: tiÌi külúndá chìMànyikà we âre studyjngChiMânyikâ' tàngá tiri küfúndá chlNÍànyikà we ver€ sìudyingChiMânyika' tinóngátÍì kütámbá ve sill be plâying' In Shonaas in the Bantu languãgcsin geneÌâI,the pretix ând âÌì concoÍds Ior clã3ses1ã and 17 are identical. In a ú.ictly syDchronictreaünent oI compaÌative Bantu. the two cÌãses must n€ve.tÌteles be distinguished, bêcausethe Ìócative cìâs 1? prelix nay bê superimposed on the inlinitiv€ clas l5 p.elìx in sone Ìanguag€s to lom a locativenoun.€f€rirg to ãction. Hoçeve., ãn trnderìying relationsìip aúd near identity betçeenexFesions of locationand p.ewnt action hâs beennolêd iú â úunber ol othd Nig€Í-CóngoÌâÍgrâges:it sould appear thât the assÕciâtion oI the tso hâs its rooÌs in proto-NigeÌ-Congo, ínce it is iound both in Mândeánd in nôn-MandelangDages,In Ba.tü lãnguages which at p.esentpemit the superjDposiüonoÍ classl7 upon class15, i.Iinitiv€s have cometo be t eâtedas actionnounswith no suggestion oÍ location;cÌases15 atrd by th€ intmsion of â distinctionòetweenaction l7 have beconesepa.ateclásses ând ìocaüon. In Ìânguagcssuchâs Shonâ,hoseveÌ. the constructionlor ?.esent âction (ând continuousâction in oth€Ì thân the pr€snt) strongly suggests thãt the jnfinitive siDply is â locative,a.d tìãt classes15 and 17 should.ôt be distiúguishedin mode.n SÌ'onâ,ând p.oìably notinBantu rs â wÌrolep.ior to relatively Shonahas a mo.phemeus€dâs a noninal cotrjunction,and , which hasthe âìlonÕrphs/nà/ (only beloÌe nounsol clas 1â and exeptionally in â few othe. caset. /nè/ (eìsewh€rebefo.e unde.lyiDglow toDe, but a lolloviúC low is repÌâced by ìigh. and a iolÌowing disyllabic noun with low-hi8h takes the toÍ€3 highloÍ), and /nól (elsewhereberôre underlying high tone)i this is ususÌly witten with the toÌlowingvoÌd. E.9.,
'vegetables âÍd neât'
325
v eu B s
B E'N c, HÁ ! r Nc , ^ND
Actually. this may ìe divisibleinto t$o morphemes, mor/n-/and the associâÌÌve phmq *hich has rìê sâm€vocâlicand tonal âlternants.and *hich Ìry ìhis anal' ysis appeaNin othercombinatiônsas well. This is in itselt ãn âttrâctiveànâlysÈ, but is not pâúiculâÌÌy r.Ì.Ìânt to the pìeseDtdiscu$ion. The combi!ìationin quetion is also usedto expressaccompânimenl: 'we rent qith father' is aho ufd with subjectconThe sanc moÌpheme(or no.phene sequence) po$€$ìon, thoúgh with difier.nt tonâl rules (high âIter low, Ìow cordsto expres âlt€r ìigh). Thus the morphetneappeamto impingeon the cat€goryof veÌbs, but it doesso in a very def€ctiÌeway. The underÌyingìdeaappeaBto be that the possessor'is with' whât is Iro$e$ed. E,g., 'they have twÒ children' tìné DüriYó nèmichèrÒ
'we have vegetablesând r.uil
To expresspossession in other tÌran the pÌesent,the verb rküvá/ is Dsed(as jn expressions oI identilication;seeabove)Nith tìe r€gulaÌconjunctiveforms of the samemorpheme. Iìere, stilÌ moÌe clearly,po$esion is beìngsith . E.9., ndjnózòvánèmúívó
'l *iÌl havevegetables'
ExpressionsóI locationcomtâÌableto 'úere is... (there)'âre expressions olposesion, the po$essorbeingthe subjeclcôncôrdof oneôfthe ìocâiiveclâ$es. E.g., 'therea.e lvo childred (theÌe oÌ in existcnce) 'rhêres meât insidethis 11.8. Swâhili,âs âd uâmpìe of ânotherBâdru lãdguâgc,showsa numbe.oI similÀritieswith SlÌonâin tlÌe typesof constructionundcr consideration, but also some dilf€rences.Fi.st, identiiication expressedbt a morph€me/nil rather than by tonal replãcementas in Sìona; 's Swâhili,oI course.is not a tone laDgüagc, but other Bântu ìangüâg.suse similarsyìlâbi.fôhs- Tô expr.ssthe correspodding negâtive, is üsed, ln eachcâse,tne noun completingrhe identilicãtion foÌìows. II the is an indepeld€ntI)roioun or a dmoní.ativ€, /ni/ ma) subject ^i/ be omitted,and the Ìesultani constuction is simpÌcparâtâxis.The last oI the foÌÌowing€xamtlesjs a delightíuÌsaying to bc grâciouslyused{hor yoDr {ire asks ií sh€may Duy a new dress(orwhen your húsbândsâts Joü aÌta'nìymay noi): hiki (ni) kisü hiki si Ìisü mimi (ni) Hamisi nini ni nyâmaj sewe ni kisu
'I am Hamisi' 'I n thê meât; yotrte th€ knife
326
AFRTCN LÂNGUÀGE SmúcúREs
If the subject identilied is a lirst or secondpeÍson p.onoun, independent pronounrormsÌnay be usedas aìove. Alternatively,and *hen enphasisor contrást is not involved, subject pronoun forms nay be üsed,wìthout /ni/. The tirú personsingularsubjectpronoutralsohâppensto be /ni/, but there is no âmbiguity becausethe íolÌowingnoü is peÌsÕnal.E.g.! ni m!ìshi
'Io expres descriptiôn with âdjecüves. the sâlne /ni/ ÍDây be ued vith some adjectives,particulârlyiÍ the relerenceis to an irrevocablequâlity. Alte.nativü, hower€r, .oncord norphen€s may be usedinúeâd of /ni/; thesearc not veÍbal subject conco.ds,sincethe class 1 ioÌÌn is /yu/ râtìer than the veÍbaÌ sÌrbject íoÌm /À/. Fo. adjectiv€ g€ne.allyÌefêning to â temporãrystate, only the concord norphem€saÌe used,not /ni/. E.g., Hamisini Jìretu " namNr Yu mreÌu chunswâh,ìi ni bovú . ' ..,. !,, Dovu . cnunswa nu
ì l I L. I I
... Hâhr{ is tâll' lhis orângpis rort.n
The ebove const.uctions mây .eÍeÌ to othe. than pÌesent time if it is not necessar-! to specily time. If such speciíication is necessaryto âvoid âÌnbiSuity, and to expr€s otlte. than tmporaÌ ideas which a.e normally expresd by a verb, the verb /kuwa/ is used(conpâre Shonâ/küvá/) in pÌâcèôl /ni/ or the concôrd nârker. This verb hãsregulâÌ n€gâtivelorms âlso.so that /6i/ dos not apnegatives.E.9., lear befoÌethe noun to exprGsthe corresponding niÌikusÀ npishi Hamisi alakuÌâ mrefu sahanizikisa sati, . . .
'I was â cook' Hamisi is goiúgto be tâÌl' II the platesare clean,. . .'
ln Ìelâtjves and a tew other unusuaÌconstructions,â st€n /Ìi/ is used in pìâceol /kuwã/; fôr idedliticâtiÕn,/ni/ may ottionalìy be u*d alte. it. In the fouowing./a-/ is a subjectconcord,and /-y€i is â concordusedin relâtivês: áliye(ni) mpishi To expres ìocation,p.edicativeio.ms of the conco.dsroÌ the locatte clâses (16, 17,18: spêciiic.gene.aì,inside)aÌe usêd. Thesea.e conbinationsofthe concords with â morpheme/-o/, IomiDg /poi, /ko/, ind /no/. concordiaÌprelixes reler tô the subjectj âgãin th€seare not ve.bal, sincethe class1 forÍn is /yur.
BE'NG, Hav'Nc,
327
aND vERBs
ThesecombinationsaÌe fôlloved by ode oI À lew speciiicallylocativevôrds. ôr by â noun wiÌh tìa genêrallocâtiwesuffix /-ni/. With thc lirú th..ê ôÍ the fôlcitedin the precedingsection the corespondi.gShonaseútences lowingexâÌnples, may be compar€d;thê conúruction is rather dillerent, but the locâtive distinc'the boÕkis on the tabÌe' 'the book ìs ât school' 'the châi. is in the house
If the pìâcehâs âlreadyb€enrelered to, as in a question,thesepredicative foms may be usedby themselves;e.9., vikombevimo sandukuni? vimo
de the cupsin the box?' thôy are (inside)'
To eÌlress Ìocationin othe. thân the lresent, iorms ol /ku{a/ and /li/ âre used as lor idenülication and descripiiôn. The predicatoÌsi-po/, /-ko/, /-noi mây be usedÀtterthese,or Ìnây optìonâllybe omiued if shât lolÌowsnskes the nature of the locãtionsulÍicientÌyclear. E.g., âtakuwa (yupo)hapâ kilikuwã kinÕ sândukuni When the v€.b /kuwa/ is u*d directly belorê à noun, ãn adjeciive,or an expÌesion oI place, it approximatesihe rânge oi usâge oÍ English b€ moÌe closeÌythan ânything that has been describedin other languâgesdiscussedso far. It may r€{er to identilication,desdiption. or location, It is stiu most ìmpoúant to note, ìowev€., thât it is not used with refe.ence to the present situation; vith suchreference.Ìhe three conceptsmusLbe Lrerlcd sepârately. Swahili,Ìike Shona,ìas a nominal coniunction,'àrd'; in SwâhiÌi,it has the invâÌiable lorm /na/. This is usedwith Ìegular verbaÌ subject concordsto expp.9&99) cleâ.lyaDdlercePtivelypointsoüt. pr68 possesion.ÀsÀshton (19.14, po$€sion is invôlvedj the emphâsisis on asociation. however,more than meÌe In somecases,the pose$or and posesior may âppèârin the reveBeordertrom {hât iÊ expected;what G expressed isnereÌy an âsociationbetwe€nthe two. lhe use of subjectconcoÌdswith /na/, âdd alsothe fact tìrãt the negativeiornâlion with /na/ is the sâmeâs vith verbs,suggests. as sas noted alsofor Shonà,thrt ve.bs. Àgâid it is delectile, howeleÌ. this fom imlinges on the câÌego.y oI Among other things, it doesnot tâke the usualverbal obj€ct coDcords.Râther, concordscombinedwith a noryheme /-o/ aÌe used aner /na/; ior clas 1, the specialform /-ye/ is üsed. The last ôt the lollowing exampl€sshowsthe reve$e of the expected orderl
328
ÀFRrcN LÁNcu^cE SaRUcruREs
ana watoio wawili sahânihizi zinâ tâhq
kinâ Hâmisi
'I hâve a knite' 'he hastwo childÌen' 'he is hungry' (is-with hungo) 'thesepÌatesa.e dirty' 'they have ìt, they have one (7) 'they hãre it, they hâve one(9)' 'Hamisi hâs it' (it is-with Hanisi)
Às in Shona,the conco.dsof the Ìocâtivèclâsseshây be üsedas suòjectsof /na/ to expresslocation: kunã vBu
'thêrêare knives (therein generâlor in
pâna nyoka
'therê\ a snake' (r&ht there, as when pointing) tìe.e a.e }nives in it
With Ìeference to other than the present, the verb /liuwâ/ is used oncê nore, 'he hâd a kniÍe' The situationwith .egardto posesion, therelore.is cÌÒselysimiÌâÌin Shonâ and Swâhili. Ií connecnonwith Shona.it was mentionedthat /nà/ and its àltêrnants could be analyzedâs a seqúenceol morpìenes, /n-/ and the âssociativ€ morphme. Ihis analysisbecomesmore significantin the light of what is lourd in Ss ahili but not in Shona.The i n-/ oI /na/ Dây be identifiedvith th€ /ni/ which eÍpreses id€ntiticationând desoiption,and /Ìa/ nay be seenas having th€ underlyingneanìn8 be desdibedas âssociatedsitì'. It is âlsousedâs â Íôminal conjunciiôn,and as suchis not p.edicatiÌein the snÌIâcestuctur€, but its underlying predicativ. châraclú js clear. Compareâlso thê /ni/ dpresing identifi câliôn in Yonba (11.4abov€),ând the ànâlysisol the conjunctivê/nà/ in ISbo as apparentlybeingulLihâtelyrelatedto a fom ânalyzedas verbaÌbút delective in usâse(11.3above). 11.9. Ììe foregóingsectionshâve iÌItrúrâtedhow, in a vâriety of lângüâg€s! aÌe P.cdicationsref€ning to identiticalioD,desdiption, locâtion,and poss€seion frequeniÌynÒn-verbâÌ; il verbal p.edicationsaÌe Dsed,th€y are Ìestrictedin soúe say! or ât Ìeast differ significantìy Í.om their EngÌish counterparts. In aÌnost any Ìângurge,sucì expressions Ìequire speciaÌtreâtment,most convenientìybs roretììc terbâl systemoI tle Ianguageis desoibed. It is lor this Ìêasonthat such predicâtionshave b@D outlired here, p.io. to a discu$ion of veÍbs ând vdbãl systens. The way hãs nôw beenprepa.edto go on to tle lattd. The ÌmaindeÌ oi this cha?teris devotedto a dìscusionof verb roots and verbal bâses;the foÌlowing chapter wiìl ìllustÌate ìow such roots and basesents into â vanêty of gÌmmâticãl constructions, Ihplicit in this division oÍ the subjecthâtteÌ is the recognitionot a dbtinction betweendèrivâtionand infì€ction. It is quite true it that is difficult ü nôt
B ErNc, H^vrNc,
sD
VEM S
329
impostble to give a ri8id and satisiactoryfomaÌ d€ijnÌtion oI this dìstinction, but it hás neveúheles frequently ban iound uselnÌ. wìat is releÌânl h€re is that, id âlì the languagesto be consideÍ€d, tìeÍe ar€ Ìnorphmes marking distincin tions such catego.iesas teDse,asp€ct.ând modq which ote.ate sonewhátsimilârly; thereâr€ àlso,oI cours€,pronominâlmorpì€m€s. Süchmo.phem6 Dav, ât leâstin r Ìoosesây, be cÌâs€d âs inlìectiodâÌrií somehnguâges,ther mar be consid€redâggÌutinâtive. Ìn onìy sóDeof the ìânguâges to be considêred,süch inllectionalmoÌphmes may b€ usedwith lexicalunits which thmselv.s corsist ol môrethân ore morpheme.The fomation of theselexicalunits may be viewed A root js, in generâlìinguisticusag€,â singÌemorpìenc. Fo. the most pârt bêcau* â disíinctiônhâs râreÌy beedfound necessaryin the languageswith wìich I have deaÌt-I have tend€dto us€ the tems "root and st€m" interchaDg€auy,ând wiÌÌ undÕubledlycortinue to do so. TlÌ€ term "bâse,"hôwever. nÀy be asiÉnedã speciticneâninei it is â toÌm conposedofno.e tìan onenoF phme to which iDnectionaìmo.lh€m€s may be ãttachedas they also ar€ to a rcot o. stem. A bãsenay theoÌeticâllybe composcdot two or mor€ roots otherwise used independenrÌy,ol such a root and one or rnoreboündnorphemes,or cohbinãtionsoI such ing.edients. In noú oI tle NigeÌ-Congolanguagesof \\eí Àlricâ, it js unnec€ssâr!to make any distinctionat all betveenveÌb Íoots (oÌ stent aúd verbâl bârs. Inflecrionaìnor?h€mesoccür onÌy wjtì monomorphenicÌ€a'caÌúnits. lnfleclion may, to be sure,involÌe internalnoditication as $rll ãs cxteÌnalaiiixation, but it is n€Ìeúheles ânâlyzâbleas jnfìection. (In the câseoi Seneriand SutpiÌc, I did t€ntâtively proposethe term "presentbâse"lor vhat must be aDalyzedas an inflectedfom lweln€b 1950â,p. 139; 1950b,p. 5221. I {ould no$ coryect that to "presentstm". and uk "root'or "non-pr.sentstem" fo. what I caÌled simpÌy "steÌn". The tomâtions in questiona.e complex.which pÌobably hãd som€thingto do with my lailureto âcìiew a consistentterninÒlÕgy.In the càse ol BâÌiba, wherethe situâüon is evenmore conplex, I suc.esluìly dodgedthe issueby rele.ringsimplyto verb "foms" lwelmeB 1952ã,p. 93].) Morphehicâìly com!Ìex verìâl basesâÌê found in lgbo and closeÌy.elatedlaneìages,and sequeDcesthat hight ò€ thougìt to b. cobplex le.bal bâsesmust b€ conside.€d fÕÌ Jukun and Yorubai EIjk also has coÌnplexveÌb.l bâses,bDt ol lypes quite diÍÍ€rent t.on the otlì€Ì lânguâgesnenüoned. Othe.wis€,{ithin NigeFcongo, súch bâsesâre fotr.d prihaÌily in Bâútu, The folloNing tr.âlhcnt dÒesnot go ìeyond the Niger-Congolanguages, but qtrite cleârlythe súe kind of approâch is âpprôpria& to languâg€soI other râmiliesas well. 11.10.À skeletonÕÌtline of the de.iÌation of Iebo verbâì ba*s âppea$ in 5,18, wìere their tonaÌ structuÌe is significântior an oütline oI lgbo tonology. À fuller stat€m€ntoi tleir horphehic compositionis now in ord€r.' To the delI lvhai lolloss h, v,th lev chânges,rììe sub*ane oI the l6t p
3m
AFRrc^N LNGU^GE SnucruREs
inition oI a verbaÌbarc giveDiÍ, my earliertreâtmeDtmust be addedone detail in connectionsith tône.  verbâl base is defined, tor Igbo, âs ihât paú of the infinitive form which IolÌovs the iniinitive !Ìelix, excluding two morplernes (desdibed às th€ âddiüve ãnd âpplicative extensiont which may occur alter other cleârly iÍÍlecüonâÌ affixes, but with no more than the first syìlabÌe having low tone. Such veÌb basesmay consistof one or nore syllabìes.Ìn basesÕl nore thân one syllabÌe,the liÉt is itsll a verb root, whichwith very few exceptionsocôur6independently asâ nonosyllâbic verb base. The l€w excêptionsdispÌây no systd; they appea. to be merely a iew spo.adiccasesoI bound roots, appearjngonly in combinationwith otheÌ morph€mesto loÍm bases. It is the ôyÌlable oÌ sylÌabl€s after the first in a bâse Ida C. WaÌdt Án lnlrc.lüction lo the lÕo ,qnguolr?was lublished iú 193ô. Itiss WaÌd\ Iield of stecializationças phoDetics,As sheheNeüdplicitly stâfes, hosevcr. the study oI tone in€vitably l.d he. íarthe. into the ri€ld or gÉnnâr thân shehâd ànticipated. In her discússjonôÍ two{yllâbÌe veÌb ìâsês Ghe cits â lew three{yllable bases.but mâkesno statementsàboutthem),shedistinguishes betwêênwhat she câlls .compoünd verbs" and '.vê.bs with meãning suÍÍix6" (pp. 127fi.). A "coDpoundverb" is â baseconsistingof two verb roots, eâchoI Nhich occtrrcindependentÌy âs â monosyllâ)icverb bâse. À "meãningsulfix" is a morphemewhich appea.sin secondposition in a two{yuabÌe verb ba*, but which doesnót occurindependentÌyas a monôsyìlâbicverb bàse,yet phich adds sonething to the meaningot tle pÌecedingroôt. She .ecognizesthe po$ibiÌity thât shat sle câlls "meâning sullixes" nây be bound verb roots, o. at Ìeast may originãÌlyhave beenverb root; and sheobseN6, nghtly, tbat th€ di3ti!ctiÕn betseen the tso fomâtions is inelêvânt to the glaÌmãr of lgbo iÍ so fa. âs sheteâts it. MissWard\ remârkabìeintuition in mattersof languãgeanalysiÊ, hÕwev€r.mâkesthe qüestiônof the vâlidity of her "tu€âningsüIÍix6" as â sepâràte clâssôl môrphemeswell woúh pDrsuing. SomeexampÌesof tscsyllable verb basesi! which eâch syuÀbìeis att€sted as an independentverb root âre âs Iollowsi 8a
bvá
'go'. fè 'c.os, pas over' 'cofrc', Íè (âs âbove) 'push', ci 'be úopped up' 'do, naLe', ci (as above) 'do, nâke', ghé 'be open' 'hit, beat, aá 'split open' 'tâke, pjck up', pü 'exit' 'scooPur, ! pü (as âbove) 'throw , lü
get ìost'
go âcrcss
gátè byáfè kwÀci Déci
'pushshut 'close,shut
wépü kwópü wúnyé túfü
'takeout' \coop ôut' 'pouÌin, on 'thÌow awây'
ExamplesôI twô-syuableverb bâsesin {hich the secondsylÌableis not !ttestedÀsân independentvêrb.Õot, but is oneof Ward's "meaningsufíixei", ân:
BErNc, HavrNc, ^ND
331
VEUBS
'With /-ú/, indicating acüon le.IoÌmed in the dire.ìion ol the subject or sp€áker,oÌ in his int€r€sr: zú wè mü dó twé
'buy' 'take, pick up' Study' 'puÌÌ' 'ohtain,get'
, : : : |
zúri\ wòtá mütá dóti !péú
'buy ând bring. buy lor oneseü' 'bring' 'ÌeaÌn,mâster' 'âttrâct, bê âttrâctive to' 'receivê'
With /-cá/, indicating ãction peúo.med to completion or to the exhâustion rl hú gú
'eat' 'see' 'count,r@d'
: : r
ícá ìúcá gúcá
'eât âu of, eal úp' get â goodIook at, inspect' 'reâd all oI, Iinish r@ding'
with /-si/, iÍdicãting action peúormed up to â stopping point or to temporary Ìi kwú
'eaì' 'stand'
: :
ísi kwúsi
'tinish eâüng' stop'
wìth /-ci/ (not the independentroot meaning'be úopped up ), indi@ting âction peÌloned as â replacementol anotheÌaction: zú nò lú
'buy' 'be ât, sit' ma.ry
: : r
zlt i nòci lúci
'buy as a re?lacenent' 'take the placeof' renãny (âs a widower)
wiih /-ìyè/, indicâüngãction donein a vrong way or by mistâke: gá ìÌwú
'co' tpeak'
: :
gáhyè 'eo the wrorg way' (obj. 'road') kwúhyè 3pêak disrespecttülly of'ì with oìject 'mouth':) 'make a slip or the tonguer
with /-ì/á/ (not the independentroot meâniüg'split oped'),indicatingaction taken up o. initiat€d (not just b€gün): teel g,iwá : 'Co' Cá eojne' gú gúwá 'count,Íead' : 'get at Íeading' In soúe threeéyllâblebâses,the secondând thiÌd syllabl€sâ.e not reàdily analyzâbÌe as separate noÌphemes. but âÌe ìound to @ch otÀe.; furtheÍ, these combinationsdo not âppeâ. âs indep€ndentveÌb bases,and thus beloDgwith Wâ.d\ "meadingsufiixes". Examplesarel With /-eidé/,indicatingcontinuationol ân âctionl nÒ Íú
be at, sit 'work'
: :
nÒgldé rúeidé
stãy 'keepon working'
332
ÀFRrcÀN LNGU^GE SnuouREs
With /-gháí/, indicâtìngâction peúomed âl raÍdôh, ainìesly, o. in other ga Ìé
go 'looli'
I :
gághári {aÌk âround,stroll' légháí 'took e.ound, tu.n one\ heâd'
In other threÈsyìlaòlebases,the s€cord syllable,as in tso-syÌlâblebãses, mây be eitheÌ an indepetrdent.oot or a boünd norlheme. The third syllable, ìoseve.. is oDlyvúy rarely ân independentverb rcot. MonosyÌlâbicboundmorlhemes of the type iliustrãtedãboveâre coÌÌìnon in this position. Only a Íew indetendent.oots nãy occuÌ in third positiÕn;onÌy /gái 'go' indicaüngaction âsây fron the speâkeror subiect,ând /iè/'pas by'indicaüng actioÍ past oÌ ove. a place,have beenrecorded,though it would not be surp.isingto find âÌso /pÈ/ exit indicâtingâction out ot a pìace. SignificaÍtìy,thesefoÌm â semântic gÌou! with the bound morlheme /tál indieting âction toward the spêake. o. sübject. Exanples of three+yllabìe basesof tÌris tyte aÍe: sè wè mé Ìé dà
'tak€, tick up', dà 'fall', with /tá/: wédàtá 'bÍi.g down' take, pick u! , pü 'exit, with /tá/: wópütá 'bring out' 'do, mâke', /kó/indicating âcüor dole togethq, /tá:/ mékótá 'do togetheÌ, b.ing together' 'tie', ci 'ìe stoppedup', with /si/: këcisi 'tie rp, tâstenup conpletêÌy' 'fâìl', sá 's!Íeâd', sith lsi/l dásási 'IaUapaú and scatterall ãround'
The sme pâtternsapply to bas€sof more than three syììables;the fi$t syllabìemüst be ân indep€ndentve.b Ìoot, the secondnây he eitho an indepetrdent rÕot or a bóund norpheme; âny syllable theÍealteÍ must be a bound morpheme oÌ one ot the rery few directionâÌ ve.b .oots m€trtioned âbov€ in ÍinaÌ position. Ìgbo Ì€rb basesmay thus be tomposedor moÌphemesor twô delinabÌydÍlerent types in tems ot distribution. Independentmonosyllabicrootsmay oc4ür alÕnêto constitutev€rb bàses.'Ih€y bây abo occurin eitherlúú o. secondpe sition within a Ìonger verì base. With only a lew exceptions,they may not occur aÍteÌ the secondposition,and thosewhich do must be in finaÌ position. On the otheÌ haDd,ceÌtâinboud moÌphmes, l'Vardt "meaningsuIÍixes,"nay Íot occuf in riÌst posiüoDin a baseol two or more ryllabls, but mãy occurin any position The bound horphemesin qu€stion,which Òccurâs parts of verb bãses,nay now be given â lâb.Ì mor€ tomaÌ lhân "meâning suffixeí', nmeÌy "bâse ronativ€s." Most base fomatiles, like veÌb roôts, are ÍDonosyÌìâbic, but â haÍdlul of disyÌlâbic morph€mes(o. ât least unanâlyzaòle disyllabic foÍN) are included in this clâs. Some thirty such bâse fo.mãtives have heen identilied in I8bo. Semanticaìly, they indicate motion or diÌectioí oI various soÉs, compÌetion,in-
333
BE, N G, Há vr NG , r ND V r Âl s
ception,and compâ.âblemodilicâtionsoi the action indicât€dby the preceding independent.oot or roots, No claim is made that every morpheDeinvolved in Iglo vê.b bâseshâs been unaúbiguousìyidenüfied,sidcethe stâtus of a noF phme met for the first time may not be inDediâtely €stâblished, but it is clear thât â mo.phme clâs ol "bâse iÕrmâüves"cân be Ìecognizedas distinci tron The morphotãcticsoÍ lgbo bâseÍormativesin basescoDtainingmore thân one have not beeninv€stigated. lt is cìear,however,that there âre ceúain rest ictions on theú .Goccurrences and o.der.s l1.fl. In my treãtmentoI Jukun (WdneN 1968n),I retered to "open" ãnd "clôs.d" verb phrasesconsistingôl twó verb rools. I dislinguishedthe lwÕ l)rpes by noting thát an objecl mây follôw the firú verì in ân "op.n" pìmse, but only lhp be.ondin â .lospd Ìhrâsê. An pxâmpleoÍ pâchin Diyi is: zè kúnà bi ku sà zu be
(zè 'bring a knife' 'h€ savedth€m' (vã
'take', bi 'come') 'pull out of the way', zu
'Co â-
wâv) TÌtê lirst type ôtsequenceis a seriallerb construction,to be discusedin the lollowing châpter. There s€ensto be no Ìeasonwhy the secondtype cóuld not be calleda complexbaserather than a phÌase,though I seeno stÌôngnotivation foÌ doing so. Ttere a.e Do inllectionalsufrixeswhosepositionmight fo.ce the interpÌêtaüonof the sequence ot two Ìôots âs â unitâry hâse. Suchs€quences, hoseve.. must be cã.efuÌlydistingujsìedlrom sequ€nces ot tso syÌlables{hich aÌe verb-noun;the distinctionis not âlwaysimm€diâtelyaÈ pârent. lf th€ moÌphmes can be identiliedby independentüsesin othercontexts. of couse, the quêstionis settledimmediately. Oth€Nise, the form ôl the se.ônd syllâbÌemày betÌây its cÌassiticâtion.In the sequence /na ná/ 'sÌeeÌ]',IorexampÌe, th€ secôndsyllablecan only be a noun becauseoI its tonêi a verb root can have only â lev€ltone, ând the structu.eoi /nâ/js /ná-/ plusa nominaÌsuffix consisting oÍ Ìow tone. Judging ÍroÌn â Íew sinilâr cases,/nâi is â noun d€rjvedlroln /nâi 'liê down'; its high tone is paÌt ot the de.ivationaÌpattcÚ. On the other hand, the statusol hdè/in theph.ase/Ìi ndè/ qy out'cannotbeso simtly detenined; it is not independenrÌyattested,aíd could be either â verb or â noun às târ as its tone is conc€.ncd.Th€.e is alwãys,howe!e., a diagnosticcrjte.ion, which in thjs casedemonstrates that /ndè/ is a noun. Negativeconstuctionsare cha.acterizedby th€ useof â p.onoünlom, rempitulatingthe subjectp.onoun,which appers immediatelyãIter the lerbi thereis alsoa legative morphemeat the end of the clause. In the followingexampÌ€s,tle positionoI ihe recapilulatingpronoun forn /bé/ denonstrâtesthãt /,ü/ is a vdò and inâ/ is i noun({hich hâd âlrcâdy bê€nêúâhÌjshedon othe. gÌoundt, ând âlsothât /ndè/ is â nounl 'they didn't sâvehim' be và zu bó ku Ìnbá be na bé nâ mbá 'thcy didn t slêêp' 'they didn t c.y out ìe ki bé ndèmbá !  deraiì.d lnaìnenr oÍ this sbjcdr ror â closelyÌeìâted lahguaceìs lound in CÌark 19?1.
334
ÀFÂrc^ìt L^NcuasE SlRucÌrnRF3
11.Í!. Th€ situatioú in Yoruba i! somewhÂtsimilaÌ. Spelk€f! oI YoÌlbr rnÂycite, and â dtctionarymay üst, @urn€ls two-lylsbÌe !€quencëand DcÌiücaìry catÌ iheÌn "verh." Ths vâ8t nijoÍity of thd âE two-veÌb s€queÈc€! ú iivhiú the ÍiÌst verb Ìeqüir* ar obj€sti the t*! veú! spp€âÌ in immediãtesÈ quenceoDryü thê obiêcti5 topic.lizeì, or IoÍ pulposa3oÍ cit{tion Thu! i gbÁi9/ b not "a v€rb" m€rning 'coÌlect', !! denoÍstrat€d by thc lollowing:
ó gbáwenje À $eat nary more ruch !€quênc€!conút oI a verb lnd N noun, iD Thidr th€ iritiaÌ vowcl of the Douni! êlided. Thu! /kpâÌi/ iÊ lot a "vsb" m€rnilg 'fiDtuh', but a phÌasewho!€conponetrtpart! rÌe /kpa/ 'cut ofi' .Íd /oí/' heád'; Íiniehirg Êomerìbg in Yorubl is expÌ€Eed a. cutting off its hêsd. Thi! i! dÈ momtÌ{ted by thè íâct thât the s.{u€n.! may bc folÌowedonÌy by s po*t€isive pronouq not ân object pronoun. Thw 'íiniih it' i! /kpalt-4/ (conpâÌe /oú-4/ 'hi! - her - its h.ad', not ./kpaí-/, h rhich the finâÌ Did tone wouÌdbê ân object pronoun. Th€Ì€ âre, howcr€r, lome verb-verb sèqüerc4N, proven t! be such by the IacÈ tàat tüêy t!k6 objoct prcDô@.
Ìróú bâ-ü'
E.9.,
'úey saylaid him' Oa 'hüê', dè lÍâit íoÌ') 'thêy toot rcÍugêwftü him' (bq 'hid€r, ü Ìstron')
A! in Jukün, luch verb-veÌbsêquencrN night poÊsibÌybehtarpretrd âr crnplêx veú bas$, though agah tìêre aÌ€ no infl€ctionaÌ suffi(€€ whcle podition Inkht íorce suchan .n ly!i!. TheÍ€ is eüdeDc€,however,tìlt n.tivs ip€lker| oÍ Yorubâ tênd to think of th6e a! phra8alraúer ürn ioined !B !i4r. sd!. Th€y canftadiÌy be anilyzed 13serbl veÌb enÍltÌüctiom in c,hichtllê firÊt veú happ€nst be iotrsnsitive. In moú (5s, !s thê two €xahplê lbove, the two vêÍb6in luch 8êqueÀc€. csn be s€paratly identified. Therê aÌe  fcv in.t3res, howv€r, in vnicü tìs 3.@nd Byllablê i. not atkst€d
d@pt
in a !.quenc..
If tüê lylabtè
hd lowd€d
nid or ftilg t!Íe, it su8t befton â noünlrho3eelidedpÌ.fix haslow torc, Oth€F x,i3€,if such r€4uencrcannotbe trsedwith eithêrà po.3€$iveor ar object pr DouD,th€re ir no wày to t€ll whètbq the secold .ylâbÌê is vêrb oÌ noun, Evên whèrs a pÌonoun tÌ|ay bê Eêd, I ht ê kDownDativê sp*kd to be uDr@ (ü th€ câseoÍ ore sêquscêünfortÌüât€ìy Íot Ì€corded)rhich to ü!€. 1t.t3. Efik has a linitxd lumb€r of typ$ of dedv€d vüb bú€r, ronê of which i! composedoí two indepêdent veÍb root!. Sone of the€€involve sulíixâtior to monosrjÌlabicroot€,ând accountíor à numberof tso- ard thÌ€€-lyÌlâbÌê b&!€sin tìe language.Thft e, how€ver,haDy oth€r tieo- ÂndtlÌr€Ê4yüâble baÉs which c€nnotbê Ânâ\z€d as derivedflom nono.ylr.]ic Eotr. In fâct, the most obvio$ ddivrüoMt pÀtteÍnsm 3ti&Dgêly!Ê5tÌict€dj FiÌst, À \'eÌb {ith irtraolitivc m€âoingmay be dedved ftom â üa itivê veÈ by Êúfixbg a vowel (wunüy the same93the voÍ,el of the mot) vitì high . Tà.loUovLA l! out|t.ôd tn Wdm6100a&
pp, 15È60 6d 141_44.
E l nrl nL
.L
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335
BEn{G, H^vD{c, ÁND VEnDs
to@. Thb pattêrr is Mrd€d onÌy Ìíith Ìoots haviúgfinsÌ /p/, /t/, or /ki; with the vowel .uffix, thaè .toP8havêthei. u.uql int roeÌic (and ahbbyltabic) altemant!, heÌê iDterprctedas /b/, /r/, qnd iel. Exampl$ of this fomÌstion arê: fóp byàt
'bak€,bum' 'dcsboy,ruin'
syík
'6pÌit in two'
bók nüL
'gqthq üp 't'end'
lábó byÀú nwÁgá syáSa wà8i t'ógô nüSó
'bè büÌDt' 'becomespoiÌed' ?et crush€d' '(get) !püt' 'get torn' 'Âslemble' 'g€t bent'
S€rond,the sâhedeÍivâüoral pstt€m ft foundwithout the d€rivedÌoot b€ing irrÌutittue. ODecaseis r€coÌdedin x,hichthe loot hB Iinsl inl. E.9.,
kÉp kòt yét
'gÌ{w (intraDs.) '€quat,fit' 'wâsh'(thing3)
kpéhé kìrj
'ìmitâte' 'addto, Bupplement'
yéÉ
rwash'(hody pàrb)
rn âddition t! th€ lorD /kòt/ cited in the lbove, therc i5 a foÌrn /kòd/ rith thê 8!rne Ìnêânin& clêâÌty r€lated; thêÌe are a few othe. !uú pqiB, but tüey appear to be fr€€ or pèÌhlps disìect alt€mÀrt! mther thar d€Ìivatiom, ThiÌd, some tbÌeèlyÌÌâble b$€! aÌe dedved fron rÌìoro€ynrbic .@ts by !uÍÍixilg a vowcl tìe choice of which doer not seêÌnt! b€ luÌy predictrble, folÌow€ì by /-Ìs/, ân with Ìti8h tone. FÍom the f4 tt@Ìdêd câ!€s, therc do6 trot seen to bê any Í€âhictior ir thê endiDg ol the bot; alt* a root with a finaÌ voq,el, the !üffix has ân aÌtomatrt with initial /ìn/, ïhe dêrived bs*s in thi! câ3€have a r€v€Ìlive mêâningi th€y r€fer to undoiDg the acüon Et€rÌ€d to by the Ìoot. E.9.,
tór
'hÃngout' (clothe!): kâ,íé
dyÁ" Ítü kàp kàbì dé
'add
'Ìrook"hângup' 'go to sleep'
dyáDáÌé flaéÍé kòháé dénéÉ
Fourth, lone loots rith final /k/ onÌy ÌeIêÌ to a singleacuotroÌ âr action pcrloÌmrd by ore sübj€ctrpaÌaÌl€llorff v'ith fiúâl iyl (oÌ ir om c{!ê hál) Efer to multipÌe sstioN or |ctioD8 peúomÌedby leverârsubjecb. E.9,,
wàv dwàk dwSy
syát úy
't€âr' (è9., one 3heetof papq): 'têÁÌ' (ê.9., naDy .h€Êt! of papeÍ) kplinkìe' (Èg., â sinsÌe pLa!t): 'spriD['le' (e.g., âlÌ tì€ now€rs) 'iab, .€t' (a! a stick in rìe ground): 'hglúêÍ li8htly ând EpatêdÌy' r3püt i! tro' (oI oúe object): 'spüt in two' (of s€veral objesh)
E l nrl nL
.L
d.L
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33ô
ÀFRrcN LÀNcuÀcE SrRücÌuREs 'be bad' (sitÌì singuÌâ.subject): 'he bad' (with pÌuÍâÌ subject) 'c.ow, hoot'(oI rooster,owÌ, leÌhaps others): kpòk set !p an incessantbârking (oÍ dog only) kpòy 'thÌow âsây (â sinsle obj€ct)l dwók dvólii 'thrcw away' (nâny objects) (with no singl$action counterpârt Ìecorded): 'bail out (a boat; usuaÌlywith tlural subject) dyók
The Ìst.ictions ìn the lhonoÌogic shâpesof Ìoots in some ol these types of deÌivation, and in particuld the restíction of the last to Ìoots with linãì /k/, suggest that wìât ârê treâted hdê âs Ìoots may thdselves be moryhologicâìIy complex. There is nô ôthe. evidencethat this is the case,however. In fâct, it is poF sibÌethat lairs Êuchas/kòt kòbi/cited abovemây histori.âUy -kò.i/ãnd /kòp have ìeen otler manjlertationsof the müÌtiple âctioú derivâtion;â sutfix ./-i/ would be posited,ând tìe stâtêmentmadê thãt rcot-tinãÌ /k/ llus this suíi! is In qüite a ditfereDt category Írom the denvations cited so faÌ, EfiÈ also has verb hâsesdedved by redupìicâüon. Reduplicâtion hâs two @mplêteÌy diíferênt íunctions. With verbshaving an inceptivemeaning,the .eduplicatedbas refers to the stâte resulting from thé pÌÕcess,rather than the p.oces itsell With other verbs, the redupli.ãted hâse has a coniÌastive ÍÕrce. The fom ol ÌêdupÌicâtion is the sme in each câse. SegmentâUy,a sylÌabÌe is prelixed to the Ìoot which consÈtsôr the initiaÌ consonâÍtoÍ the root plus â harmoüizingvowel Uel b€fore /i/, /o/ bero.e /u/, othêsise the root vowêl). Tonãlly, the redupÌicâting sylÌable is low b€tore â .oot with Ìrigh tone, ând downstêp-high bdore a Ìoot with low o. Ìow-high tone; low-high in the lolÌDwing root becomeslow thÌÕüghout. In reIative and n€gaüve coNtructions, r'owever, theÌe is a diüerent lom of reduplicâtion; the unredutÌicat€d root È usôd with the app.opriate .€lative or negative sufiix, ând theú thê root is repeâted in íDì|. Exanples ôf inceptive-stâtive pai6 d5!i
get sick'
dòdó!ó tétyè nánà dàdá
'be sick' 'be seàt€d' 'be lying down 'be standing'
Redlplicated staüves ãppeaÌ to be lsed primarily if not exclGiveÌy in the present and pasr The follosing incìude an ê\mple of â negãtive with rcot ÌÈ
ékítétyè k'lsà! (ctr Ékétyèk isòrJ ikétyè8étyè
'he'sìyiÍg on the gÌound' 'hè çâs lying on the gbund' 'he Ìay dow! on the eround') 'he wasn't Ìying down
B E'N G ,H^v'Nc , À ND V E RB S
Contrastive rcdupÌicâtion is illustrated òy the folloaing; th€ inclusion of n€gâtives o. relaüv€ sith root .êpêtition is âlÌnost inevitabìe in ord€r to get cl@r+ut exampl€s.The verb rcots us€d in the lolÌowi.g âre /dét/ buy, /li 'cúltivate,gro{', /byàt/ ttoil', and /9àm/ 'sell : úkédèdép byà Émì. úki'üigótó. 'I boughtthes€yams; I didn t grow them.' ikábyàtkébyàténà! úkwàk ésyè. áká'Íátàm. 'He didn't Meck his bicycle;he sold it. ákánìrÍótò Énì tkáyàfrdé9àmó fán ákàn óbúÍáÉni {ké,dépdédép. 'The old ca. I sôÌd is better than the new on€ I boüght.' ReduDÌicatión âs a lorm of verb base deriÌalion is attested in sereral otìer W€st Alrican languagês,but not with such speciticfuncüonsâs in Efik. Other derivaüonssuch as thoseilluú.at€d in the foregoinglor Igbo and Efik do not s€emto be at aÌl comon. The typ€sol deÌivationin Igbo and Etik âft not Ìdy sinilar, and neith€rhas a greât deal in commonwirh Bàntü, 11.14. Typi@l of the Bântu languag€sâs a sìole is the der'vâtionof verbâÌ bass flom veÌb rcots by süIlixes which are commonly known as "verbal extensions". Fonally, theseaÌe soDevhat similar to the bas€formativs dscÌibcd for lgbo in 11.10âbove. They âre Ìâthe. düÍe.cnt in their smârtic charâctets isücs,hoçever,atrd Igbo doeshave a close.ounterpartto one ol theBantu veÌbâl extensionsçhich doesnot functiôn as a bâ* IorDatite, Prior to discussiDg the Bantu extensionsin detâil,it shouldb€ notedthât v€Ìbs in Bâriu âr€ cohfrônly without theinlinitive prelix; the citâtion cited in the infiúitive forÌn,or sometim€s form ends with /a/ in âlÌ but a very fes cases. Thus, sone Swaìiìi ve.bs âs usual-
'like
'buv Not only j5 /kuí in th€seÍoms â preÍix: the finãl |a/ can also be shosn to be â sufiix, tbough it is not aÌwÀys .€cognized as such. There a.e certain ve.baÌ constÌuctions*hich hâve oü€r linaÌ vow€ls,using the same.oots, No specific mêaningcân bê âsign€d to /-al, ìut it is obìigâtoryin conjunctionwith ceúâin prefú€s. The Íoóts of lhe âbove v€rbs are, rApecíiveìy. /tâluG/. /p€nd1, and /nunu-/; probâblythe najoÌ Ì€son they aÌe Ìârely cited in this way js that they cannot be pronouncedin isolationwiihin th€ phonoìÕgicrüles ot the Ìânguâge. VeÌbãl extersions â.e suffixe which occuÌ immediately alteÍ the ve.b rcot -on€n with compìex norphophonemiceÌte.nâüonsinvolving the liDal conBonaÍt of the root ând the ex&nsionits€lf-ì€lore the linal suríix /-al oÌ othe. vowel. Citations of the foms or extensions comonÌy iíclude tì€ suffú Êal. À coÌnmonÍo.Ìn of a causâtiveextenÊion,foÍ exanpÌê, is usuâÌlycited ãs /-isâ/. ActualÌy, the €xteúsio! itself is /-is-/, ând the finaì vowel is an inflectionâì
338
ÀFÀrcN L^ìcuÂcÉ SrRUcruÂEs
Somêthing Ìüe ten diffe.€nt verbal dtensions are ãttested in â number oí Bantu langDages.Fortüne (1955,p. 200) ìists thiúeen íor Shonâ,but soÍneof thesê ãrê duplicât€s, listed sepãntely becauseof düÍerent shadesoÍ meaning âs sociatedçith the sme extemion. Rather easilydefinableúeaningsâre lssignable to some of the ext€nsions, such às pâsive, câustive. relleiive, recip.ocal, and .eve.sive. TeÌms ÍoÌ otheÌFand the teminology nây vary from wÌiter to writer-do not so reâdily convey the ideâs expr€ssed. Some example íÌom Swahili wilÌ ilÌust ate ã number ol extensionswith the root /Íung-/ Íasten ; the inlinitive prêIix is not used ìere, but th€ sullix /-a/ is, *ith hyphens mârking ofÍ
fung-ish-a
'ìe Iastened(agentimplied) 'causeGom@ne) to lâsten'
lüng-i-a iung-ik-â
'Ia6ten for (som@ne) 'be Íâsteúed (no âgent imllied),
Othêr terms more or Ìess comÍnonly used lor sone of the âbove âfe "@nveNìve" formy "reveruive","?reposiüonal"or "applied" (ândaccâsionally "benetâctive") loÍ my "applicaüve",andrlneuteÌ"(âsweÌl âs "?otenüal" with.eÍeÌence to one ot its implicaüon9 loÌ my 'tiâüvè". The âbove exâmples do not show ânytÌting ol th€ morphophonmic âlte.nationsinvoìvedwìth exteDsions; they âreÌelativelysimplein Swatìili,but deserve explanation. In severalol the extensions, sone of the alternântformsshowvowêl harnony: /e/ ifthe precedinsvowel is /e/ or /o/, and /i/ otheNis€rthe $me patter! is found in nâny otìeÌ Bantu lãnguãgôs. The SsâhiÌi pâssive extension ÌEs the foÌm /-w-/ aÍter roots with a ÍinaÌ consonânt. Alter finãl /â/ or /i/, it is /-w-/ or /-livr, optionalìy wìth someverbs, but sometimesìexically mndiüoned. Àfter Iisal /e/, it is sinilarly /-w-/or /-Ìew-/. Àfter IinaÌ /u/it is /-Ìiwr, aÍd afteÍ rinal /o/ it is /-lew-/. Thereãre â Íewmots coúsistinsor â singleconsonantiaíter such, both /-iv-/ ând /-ew/- âre ãttested. ÂÍter veÌbs adopted lrom Ambic which do not usêthe suílix /-al, the alteríants .equire ã lew ãdditionalstâtenentswhich n@d notbe includedhere. The ordìDAryaÌlomoÍphsâre illuslrâted by the ÍoÌ-
poke-w-a
p-a
-
pokÈles-a
'give'
The câusative e\tensioú is somewhat moÌe compücãted. Combinâtions oI cerhin rootfinâl consonantswith this €rtension sugg€stãn undeÌlying Íorm ./-y-l.
BEÍ^rc, HÀarNG, ÀND vEBBs
339
Root-fiDalipl coDbin€svith this to ioÌm /ty/i íinãl /t/ yieÌds /s/ in sornecâses ãnd /sh/ in Õth€.s;linâÌ /Ì/ yiêÌds/sh/r fin!Ì /v/ yieÌds/wy/; linal /n/ yields /Dy/; and linâl /l/ yi€Ìds/z/. The ext€nsionis aÌso/-zl aner ã .oot-rinalvowel. It is nomãlly /-ish-/oÌ /-esh-/alte. othe. consonânts, ìul thÌÕDghoutthe syúen there aÍe some lexicãlly conditioned ir€gular fomations. A f€w exãmplesaÌe the lolIowing; moÌpheme cuts cãnnot âlwâys be illusthted:
pit-ã 'jump
Sing The âp!ìicãtiveextensionhas ãÌternants/-i-/, i-er, /-li-i, /-le-/,the choiceoÍ which is conditione.lv€ry much as for the pâssiveext€nsion. Th..e âr€ sonê veÌbs in Swâhili(ând ôtherBâútu lânguã8es) which in fôÌn and meâninga?pearto consistol â root âbd an extedsion,but foÌ {ìich the Ìoot aÌonedos not âpp@rin the languageât pÌesent. The.e aÌe alsoâtt€stedcâsesot Íalse etlÍnologi€s involving sDchforrns. OtheÌ extensionsin Sqâhili mây be more b.ieÍly mentioned.,One is a "stá(âfteÌ consônants and vo*els respectiveÌy), indicating a úatic," /-ân-/ - /-m-i tionâÌy condiüonoÌ inâctivity. E.g., /kwa-a/ htumhÌe,ìe stoppedby ã sudden jamm€d'. Anothê. is a "cÕrtactive"or "tenâcious," obstacle'r/kwã-n-a/ 'becÕÌnê it woüld seem from thê exanples thât "int€nsive" night be a better /-at-/ - /-t1: tem, thôüsh somelanguages hale an intensivein âdditiôn tó this. E.9., /kâm-a/ isqueezei: /kam-at-a/ 'take lorcibleìold of, arrest'. There is a.are "inceptile" (attested alter vos€k ônÌy), from roots çhicn alteaÌ eìsewherein the lan/-!t 8uage,but not âs v€Ìbs. E.g.. /nene/(adj.) 'thick, stout': /nene-p-â/'get fat' (of pe6ont. Ànd linally th€reis an "associâtiÌ€,"fr€quentlycaled "reciprocal," shich is sidespr.ad in Bântu, /-ant (aíteÌ both coDsoDants and vovels). E.9., 'know'r 'be mutuâlÌy âcquâintêd'. /ju-a/ /ju-an-âi Dependingôn tne rôôl with which an extênsionis used,ând iüsmeânin8,the pÌechesehanücfor@ ol tlte ertensionis not the samein ãll câses.Th€ situaüon is ÌeÌâtiveÌy stmigìtÍorwlrd in SwaliÌi, but corsiderably more sübtle in sÕmeotleÌ Most signifi.ântly. mor€ thân one extensionmây âppeâ. in a si.ele base. Two aÍe lãirly .oÍrmon; in at ÌeastsoÌneÌânguages, as mâny as fouÌ with some verbs do not seemunduly âwkwaÌd. Bãseswith as many as seveneÍtensiôns aÍe prcbabÌy hãvê beeú repoÌted, but such forms, {hile technicalÌy gÌmâticãÌ, not eãsily used in speech. Th€ composiüon of a SwÀhili base with applicative ppleneht bv.athe. libihd cônpete..e- r dle tìe loÌns ol thê eatÊnslons, hoseÌêr, in a n
340
ÂrÂtcN
LÂNcu^cE
STRUo!uES
and pa$ive extênsionsis iììüstmted by the folÌôwing set of selteoces; with botì, note tle uDusualrelaüonof the subj€ctand object to the ve.b: Jumâ âlipik-â chãkuÌa Juma aÌinipik-i-âchâkuÌa châkulâkilipik-w-a nâ Junâ niÌipik-iw-â chakülâna JuÌna
'Jumâ cookedfôod' 'JumÀ cookedlood fo. me' 'fôod vas côôkedby Jtrma' 'lood was cook€dfor me by Jüma' (ìit. 'l *âs cooked-foÌlood by JtrIna)
The atpÌicative does not alçays reÍer to âction pdfomed on som@Íeì behàU;it m€relybÌi.8s â peNonintÕ r€latìonshipsith the action. CompaÌethe followiDg: babâyãngn alikula .iÌiËi-w-a na ìâbã yangu
'my father died' 'my tather died (with direct elfêct on n€)' 0it. 'I was died-toby my lather')
A combinâlionot âsociâtive,câusâüv€,ând pasi!€ is illuslratedby th. folpáta 'g€t' pãt-ân-â'agree'('gettÕgether'l) pât-ân-ish-a'recoúcile' pat-an-ish-w-a be.econcilôd' Somedescriptionsot Bântu verbâÌ extensionstreât the .ausativêas hãving rather an intensivemeaningwith sone .oots; othe6 recognizetwo homophonoü! extensìons. The laiier is probâbÌy the more satisfactory, since what âppears to be ã.d has beend€süibed âs à "doubl€ cãusative"is s€manticállyâ câuetive intensile. Actual doubÌe cÀusâtiÌesirom intrânsiüve vols aÌe also posFible. there appeârto be two succ€ssive usesol the âppliSimilaÌly, in someÌangDages catiÌe in one fom, ànd this combinatiotr hãs been câU€da "doubÌe prepositionãl." It wouÌd probablybepÌeleÌabletoÌecognizethis combinãtionasâ ringleextension dillereÍt írôm the ãpplicative, an "ext€trsive"; it Ìef€É to action done a Ìoi or "aìl over the plãce." It cân ìe ombin€d with th€ âpplicaüve,so thãt the htter apteâre to be used three tiÌnes, to Ìefer to such extensive action peúomêd lor The moryhotâctics of e\tensions in successionmÂy be complicat€d. PaiN such âs the âptlicâtive and câusative nây âpleaÌ in either ordeÌ, with different meaniÍgs. À lew resirjctions âre cÌ€âÌ, hôwever. the pássive ând the stÁüve cân onìy be the last extensionin a base, The reciprocaÌInay b€ lollosed by the aptlicâiive, câusâtiv€, o. staüve, htrt not òy otheÌs. At the pre*nt statê of ou. knowÌedg€,p€rìaps the bestthât cãn be sãidis that a great deaÌdependson the smanrics of individuâìroots.dThe useof most of the extensionsis hy no m€ãns productiv€, and jn rome languâgesis quite Ìestrict€d. TheÍe aÌe rdâtiv€ly few ! Tbis is rhc opinio. oI Mr, Liünsstone ìÀaìnsinbi (DeBonal cobnuniqtion) exLtulvr sludy ôl ctteNlô$ th Lucmda and !oh. ôth.r Bântn ìaDgürges.
âiter r l{iÌly
341
BErNc, H^vrNc, ND VEMS
dtensions ií the noúhwesternBantü langúages,and in sone oÍ thd perhaps no extensionsãt l. Th€Ìe h som€evìdence, however.that thc useof vcrbal cxtensionsgoesbãck to pre-BântutiÍnes,âs the foìÌowingsection{ill suggest. ü.15. lt has been noted thÂt, in slite of the operation of â simiÌâ. derivationaÌp.ous, the vê.baÌextensions oÍBântu do not tind a r€{l pâmlleÌin the bâse fomâtives oÍ lgbo. The.eis in Igbo, hoçev€r,â closepâmlÌ€Ìto oneof thc Bântu extensions,the applìcâtive. Even its fornì, /-r/ pìtrsã repeütionôf the preceding vowê1,is reinis.€ít or Bánlu lorns Nith /l/ or A/. Ix is íot, however,sifrply attachedto a verb rôot to foh an extendedbase. ltratheroccurs alter a root ór ãfteÌ certaiD inflectionaÌ suÍIixes. E.g.,
j'kpó ó gààkpóínà
ó eÀÀkpórósi kpòóúnàsi gi ó kpóóÌáÌá'úúnÀyá
'he will call his lãther' 'he wiìl call his lather tor yÕu' 'câlÌ yoür tâther lor ne' 'he hâscaÌledìis tather lor ne'
The derivâtional suitix.s us.d with verb roots in Efik. on the otho handsÌrov moreMantic similaÍity to Bantü verbal€xtensions, thoughno greatfoÌnal sinilarity. The derived basesoÍ Eiik incÌude intrÀnsitives lrom transitives. $Ìich âÌe sinilârto stâtivesinBantu. The Elik rêversilesin /-Íré/hâvè theirsemântic pârâìleÌin Bantu, and perhapsa lo.mal pâ.alÌetãs *eìl; compaÌethe Shonareversive extension /-trr-/. And the Efik rorns indicating âclion peÌtormed on a núber ofôbjectsoÍ by a nunber oI subjectsmay be comparedwithBantu bãses with the extensiveext€nsion. From the viewpoìntof speãkeNoi English,ìt is inturestingthat, outsidethe Bantú languages,there is no recordedpassivelormaüon in Niger-Côngo.What in ôthe. langüagesis exp.ê$€dby â pasive withoüt an âgert nây be expressed by an activeconstructionwith a rhird personplural subject,Òrin soÍneÌanguages úth àn impeBonalsingularsubj€ct,o. by a stâtiÌe corst.uction. Other ideas dpresêd by Bântu extensions, suchâs the cãusâtivêând applicâtire,a.e usuaÌly verbsi expresedby combinationsof úilÌ otheB, such âs the int€nsiveând extensive, tend to be ex!Ìessed by adverbiãl complements. 11.16. By sây of àplendix to this châpler,ân observâtionvill b€ madcabout nâjor sigüificânce a cüriouscaseof.ôÍvergencebetweenun.elatedlanguages;1he of this point is peÍhapsto assurestudentsoI ÀIrican langüagesthãl earlierinvestiSátôrsoI thoselânguageshave nor b€.n totâlly nâive, The obseNationhâs to do with expresionsfor obligation('l haveto do it'and the like) in Yôrubaand Etik. In tÌ'e relÀtiveÌyeâ.ly dâysoI my acquâintânce$ith Yoruba, I elicitedsentenceseÌlresing obÌigation,aDdrecoÍdedthe followiÍg, without a commoncon-
u2
ÀrnlcÀN LÀxcu^cE SnusÍraEi
Frrlny, po!g8',
I dftrn't believ€it. I rcoognizêd/úr/, ìrhicü èbévhèrerÌ€ârs 'have, $ in /no úI bàtà/ 'I hÁve shoej'.
I âÌ!o E@goizêd /t'á6/ a! a lorl
üled
Âít€Ì other veÌbsii the mesÌing 'h ord€Ì to'. So 'I haveto go'(it!€[. stlelge idiom in Englirh) i! 'I poÊless i! ode. to go'in Yorubr?? I ììsa!conülc€d thlt Dy iníorìnant hsd bu güilty ol a gÌNs taBlationi!Ìn, giüng Ìtry Englilh wod! individual €quivâÌêntsone Àt â time. It devèlop€d,howev€r,that t-hât rcürdly i. ü€ ordin$y @Ntdctíon ued by everybodyin Vorubâ, Could it 3dü hlvê be4noriginâlÌy a cslque? The likelihood of thãt diniDilhd t appÌoxinqtêly zero rhen I bêgrn wo* on Efik. EÍt ha! Âninrinitive forÍn, úth the prelix /údi/. Elü !Ì!o hasa v€lb /yéné/ 'get, aequiÌ€',which ir uscd in the completivecoBtruction for 'hâv€'. Atrd ir Etk )ou 8ay: úmé'téúéúdü(ü Ajabu P , Ovd a ysd rft.r wdüÍg tì1, r&tloD, lt w t..rn d tht th4 âryr-dm .clúdly bry b. -D@strÌty |litepodeluy tn YoNbc od EAt--..1q!6 aJt.r rI. A@odhg to Xr. BNcü B|nncl.cà (pív.t @EEuÌietlor), Yodòr.pqrr6 rrth whoD È. hr rsl.d Epdt tàrt rnd186@ .lddÌy p@p|., çho!. @tet *ith E gÌLh hú bd d.nuÌ, u ú .pprútly b.lt h ú.t th. .||t@tÌ'' EN YoNbâ er"r..dd /gbqdÀ/ ú.e1n3 'h.v. to ; tb.ld@út @bbon dprüdon t! a rnrútron lron Eqllh.
È êmênlssousd,ols d àulêur
Verbal Constructions i n Niger-Congo 12.1. lhere is a gÌeât deal morê structuralsimiìarity betw€ênthe lôìlowingtwo clauses,lrom çidely sepaRteda.d only distantly .elatedìangDãges, tÌìân meets Swahili: KpelÌe:
tukisemâ, kwà lòno
EâchoÍ thesecÌauses these contâinsfourmorpheÌnes. ln the Swahiliclause, can be vdy simplyidentiliedby a coÌnpârison of ofter clâÌìses usingdilieÌent ref€r€nc€s, and ditf€.ent verb bâses,The lroÍouns, diller€nt tense-âspect-hode fi6t morph€meis a pronoun,/tu-i. The secondis a narkeÌ of what may fôr the time òeing be called conditional,"i-ki/. The third is â verl root which is also thê bâs€,/-seÌn-/. The fou.th is a suffix vhicì appeâÌswith tle conditiônâtand with many other, but not âÌ, verbal constructions,i-ãl. The ânalysisoI the Kpelle cìauseis not so imêdiately âpparent, but strikingly simiÌaÌ. First theÍe is a pronoun,the bâsicform of which can be establishedas ikúi. This comlines with a morphene /-à/ which, in combinâtionwith anotheÌmo.ph€mestill to be detin€d,signalsthe conditionaÌconstruction.The.ejs a ve.b root, tle basiclorm ol which can be esbblishedas /lóno/,with hi8h tone. And linalÌy the.e is â rnorphêÍnedelinableas low tonereplacingúd tonè.which ãppeaBin the conditiônâl and someoth€. constructions;both /-à/ and this .epìaciveare reqüiredto nâke the constÌuctionconditionaÌ. In neithe. languageis theÌe anything ìike ã conjunction conespondingto Etrglish 'if'; the constructionis @nditionalby virtue ot the párticula.moryhêmesusedwith the !e.b bâse. Iú both Swâhiliand Kpelle, the construction can b€ Íep.es€ntedby the lolmuÌa P-C-V-A: Pronoun - ConstÌucüo! mârker - verb base- ÀIrix with verì base. The saÌne Iorlnula is valid foÌ a gÌeat nâny moÌe vdbâl conúrücüonsin both languages,and Io. much oi thê verbal systms oi côuntlessNiger-Côngolanguagesthroughoutthe fâmily, It is hardly to be expected, of couÌse, that tÀis lormuÌâ is pr€dominânt in every language,oÌ for everJ conúructiôn in a giaen languagc;at the sametimê, it is sô peFasivethât itis woithy ol statment by way ofintroducüon to veÍbãìsystems. (For the most part, the verbâl syú€ms of Nigd-Congo lãnguâges are bêst describedin terÌnsof a trni-diÍnensional list ol verbal coÍ,structioís"râther than in terms of â òidinensionaì or multi-diÍ8ensionaÌ grid with idìersecting câtegories suchas tense,ãspect,and mode. Theremây be vays of expr€$ingtwo dimensionâl pâhlÌelúms sucì âs simpÌcvs. progresiveâction in the pâst end in the lüture (as'he worked,he wasworking; he wilÌ work, he {iÌl beworking'),ònt (ãsin Engüsh âlso) these distinctions typicaÌÌy do not involv€ combinations oI morphem€s 3,13
344
AmrcN LNcu^cE SÌÂucrtBEs
as a verbalfoÍm, but .atheÌ âüxiÌiaÌiêsand similarsecondaryconstructions.Even tÌ'e âÍÍimâtive-negâiivccontrâstisüsúâììyasymmetrical;therearetypically mor€ affhmatilc tÌran negâtile constructions,ând not alÌ negativesâre foÍmed iÍ the sme way or in 1eÌmsof a single,simpletranúormation ãppliedto aÍÍinatives. In the Bantu Ìanguâges,thê unìdimensiônâlchâracterof the systemis so conspicuôusthat many graìmanans, hãving âppli.d the term 't€ns" to foms with ôbvious reieÌencetÕ pâsi, !Ìesent, ând futuÌe time, have felt compelledto extend tìât ìâbel lo other lorms vith similar noÌphologicalcompôsition,sô that Õneheârs such incôngruouscombinationsas "the subjunctivetense'ând "the conditionaÌtense." To ìc suÌc,the Bantu Ìangúag€s, unÌikealÌnÕúaÌl orherNigêF CÒngolanguages,ultimately have câtêgorìes suchâs pâsive. causative,and stative jniersectingthe ìasic systemoi vê.bal construcüons.As notèd in the pÌecediq chaDteÌ,however.thcseidvÕìle the deriÌâtion ol verb bâsesìihe âlmost totálly unidinensionalsysten of verbal constÍuctionsis tÌren appÌiedtô these de.ived basesjust as to simpleve.b Ìoots. In a wide !âriety ol langüages, two mpoúant types ot verbâl construction mây be distiúguished.The IiÌú type mây be câÌled "primsy constÍuctiors"; thele contair onÌy onelerb base,ptnsjnllectionaÌÌnorphem€s ot defìnâbleclassë constructionmarkeN a.d âItixeswith the ìase. Iìe s€condtype is "auxiliaty constÌücüons"rthesecontaintwo veÌb bases,oneof wlich may be considered an âuxiliary ând the otÌrer th€ "mâin" ve.b, though gÌarÌÌmaticallythe auxiìiary Ìather thân 1ìê main verb tãkes p.imary inflectional moÌphemeí Iú sômê Ìanguâg€sit h usetulto speâkaho oI 'expândedcÕnst.uctions"itheseinclude,fôr exdpìe, p.imâ.y cônstructions sith theaddition ol âdve.bialmodiiieF not othèrwise freely used, combinatio.swhich lill in gâpsin the list of primâry negaiivê The len "vcÌbâl construclion"is thüs designedto âvoid the conlusionsand cómplicatjonsinherent in dhtingujsling categôriessuch âs tênse,âspect,a.d mode, Somcconst.üctions,to be sure,may have sFcilic Ìeleren@to tim€, such âs !âsti othersmay havespeciticrefe.eDce to mode,suchas conditionãÌ.But tle íoÍms or construcüons ot Niger-Congo ìânguagesdo not lall into neat setÈwith diff€renttt,FesoI mo.phologicâlstructu.e, For eachconstructioú,of couÌse,the semânticrefer€ncemDst bê defined,and in manv cásesfmilia. lâbelsa.e sdequrte to sügg€stth€ lunction ol given constructions.In mâíy otheÌ cases,ho*ever,there hasbeenwidespreadmisuseof labels,and àppârentìywide6pread misthe verbal undeBtandhg of nsâge. Accordingly,betoresâying âdything about syslemol any one ìanguagein depth, someobservatiodsârê in ordeÌ àbout the types oI v.rbaÌ conúrucüonslound in á variety of lân8ÌÌrages, and ho{ they hâve typicalÌy ìecn treât€d or mistreâied. 12,2. IÍost trâditionâl gr,lmâN of laneüagesthroughourthe *oÌÌd begin thei. discusion of ve.bs ând ve.bal moÍpholoeyvith "the PresentTense." And in lield work, Òrin ã coursein Field Methods,many â studentvho shouldbe íâiú solhisti.ated âbout tanguagesand Ìingtristicscan be @ught, rery early in his
YERB^! CoNsnucrroNs N NrcER-CoNco
345
eÌic'tâtionofthe equiraleítsof EdglishÌerbal predications, askinghow ode*ould sây 'I huild â house'.BdôÌe Ânythingcân be sâid âbout Ì€rbàÌ const.úctionsin Alrican lãnguâg€s, it must be llointedout úat 'I build â hoüse'is not an Englhh s€nt€nce,ând if an Airican inlomant givesan allegedequivilenr we reâlly have no ideã*hat it acttrãllymeans. Onecan say 'I build noüses',or perhapseten 'I büild a houseât feú-fìfteenevery\Íonday moÍnìng', both of *hich expresscüstocontinuing mary action. Or onecan say I am buildinga nouse',rhiclì €xpresses action in the presenttime. But 'I build a house' is nÌ ibelf totaÌly meãningless. On theotleÌhand, 'I seea house'is pertectlylegitimâte.and rete6 to the prescnl time. EDglishìâs. in generâI,t*ô typ6 Õf verbs. one rèfê.sto vhât mây be called"private" âctionÈactions oi eìicì only the actor is the properjüdge. For sucì verbs, likê s€e, le€|, hâre, be, think, ìeâr, súeìI, believê',th€ sten ôl the ve.b,with the intl€ciionat endinsl-zl in lhê lhird pe6onsinsulâr - l-sl - l-.zl (the so{aÌÌed "presenr")indi.atespns€nt time. 'fhe secondtypc ot vcrb rete6 to "ÍruìÌic" actionFactiôns *hich can b€ obseNedby someoneoiherthan th. âclor âs vell as by ihe actor hìmFil. For such lerbs, like 'ço.k. sing.sl€ep,*alk , the so-calledpresentdoesnot .efe. to tÌeseDt time as such,but rathe. to custoDary action;the actuaÌpreseútis €xpresed by tìÌ€ 'bc. . . -ing conúruction. 'Ihis distinction must b€ fuìly Ìecognized.since nâny Alricân lânguâgcshave quite distincrconstructiôns to indicatecustomaryãnd pr€s€ntcôntinüingactioni and il thev do Dot. the Ìâck of such a distinctionshouldbe noted. Hâling straigh&n€d thãt much out in EngÌis}. one might $elÌ elicit an êquivâlentol 'I an búiÌding a house',and the .€sponsecan iegitiÌnatelt be sâid to expres continuingâctionin th. present. Il doesnol toÌlow.howcveÌ,that the construct'onilluúrâted cãn ìmmediateìyb€ labelled"present". In alì probability, jI tìere are nó furthe. modifien or compÌements, it *ill by itself be interpÍ€ted ss releúing to thc p.esent. lt may rell bc. hosev€r, that ?recherythe sameconstruclioncân be usedNith â Ìnoditier ôr conplehent ntering specificâììy to anothe.tìDe, sxchas 'last year', and ìn that casethe .onstÌüctionr€f€.s to continuingâcrion in rhc pâsl. ln süch a situâtion,lh. constructionmighl belt.r b€ lâhelled"continuati!€". Süchis the casein Yoruba: cohDarethc folloó ú iiíé 'he Yas $orking tesr(drt
Yorubà hâs â customârv conslrucliondistincl lÌom the continuative. Ìn Ìgbo, on the other haDd.contìnuingaction iÌreslectile oI time, and cüstomary action, ar€ âll €xpÌcsed by the samcconstruction. The only tìirg that can be saìd to be in commonto all us€ris the iact tìât therehas not as tet beenan €nd to tÌ'e âction;it eitherisgoingon ât p..senÌ,Nâsor{ill bc goingon at a tine nentiôned,or goeson regularly. Àccordingly,a mo.€ appropriatelabeììi thc câs. of Igbo is "inconpÌ€tive". This const.uction(ân auxiliary typ€) is illusl.lled by lhe
346
AFRrcÀNL^NcúÀcE SmúcruÂEs 'he is woÌkins'-
'he wo.ks'
í nà àú ó'.ú ügbú à 'hê wãs*ôrking yêsterday' ó Dà à.ú ó ú kwà úbòci \Íãdy Ìânguages,Ìike Yotuba, do distiÍguish a present or coDtinuatrve constructior lrom a customâry construction; the lãtter usuâlly hâs sp€ciÍic reÍeÌen@ to the present. An adveÌbiâlcomplmênt or ân auxiliary is lound in someìânguagêsto €xpres the ideaof 'üsedto', but more.onmonly simpleand ctrstomary action iD other than the presentâre not distinguishedât aÌl. KpeìÌehâs a specifi.âlly p.esent constructioni and ale a customary; e.9., with a veÌb whose Íoot a üi kêi -'kàa âüikè
tÍi kêi
Swâhili has two difierent constructions cove.ing the range of present ãnd custonâry, but they âre nôt aìvâys sharply distinguishedin usge. AppaÌenuy the original distinctionwrs betweencontinuâtjveând customery;tbe two constructionsâre sometimesrelened to as "PresentDefinite" ând "Present Ìndefinite". The lirst has â constructionma.ke. /-na-/: the secondhâs â construction nârk€. /-â-/, which onditions frórphophónemicalternãlionswith the p.eceding
For at least somesDeâkeN.the disünction betweenthesetwo const uctiom is mâintâinedin that the Íormer,if usedwith tle ve.b /tãka/ 'wânt', impli€sa more immediateneedie.9..if one is distressinglyihirúy, he {ould nore ükÜ sây:
Not everything thât we think oI as refeüing to present üme is expr€ssedby a Presentor a continuativêconstructionin mâny Niger-Con8olúguages. Fi*t, a numbe. of lânguagesdistinguishtvo types oÍ verbs,in generâl'ttative" and "activeì" stâtiveverbsusuãllyincludeequivaÌentslor most oI the "privâte" verbs of English. For stâtiv€s,â r€leÌenceto p.ewrt üme may üsethe sme construction that.efe6 to pâsttime iI an activevqb is rsêd; ôr úore accuÌâtely,thê @nstructionis timelesslor stâtive verbs â modiiier mây indicatethât the Ìêfe.eÍú€ is to pasttime, In Yoruba,the const.uctiôninqüestiÕn is th€simplest@nstrüction in theÌânguâge,consistingol only â p.onounând â verb rooti this mây be aDalyzed as having a zero construction mark€r, but YoÌtrbâ hàs no âfÍixes sith the verb basein any case. This const uction h commonlyknown ãs "past", but the Ìeferênc€is obliously not always to pâst time. A better lâbeì might be "factaúve"; the constructionexpreses the most obvious lact âboüt the veÌb in question,
VEãBA! CoNsmudroNs N NrcER-CoNco
347
which iu tte caseof actìve verbs Ì thât the action çâs obse.ved or took pla@, but for stetive veròs is thãt the sifuation obtâio. at present.r Thus:
ó Ié owó l'ánã
'he wantedmoneyyesteÌdãy'
lSbo âlsÕusesa factativeconstrüctionin a similarwây. In the caseof Igbo, the Iactative is Íomed by ìow tone .epìâcingstêm tône lor a monosyllabicba* (with minor nodificationslor one type ot longer bâse),plús a suIÍix consisting of /./ pÌus the prê@dingvoweÌrep€âted,alsovith low tone. Thus: ó lwèrè é'gó ó cô.ò é gò
i còÍòé'sòécl
'heIookedror(- wânted)moneyyest€r-
ó tòròütó A secondtype of nonnatch betweenwhat ve tnink of as presenttime and Ìerbâl conúructionsin mâny NigeFcongoIanguages hasto do with veÍbswhich, jn thos Ìânguages,hâve ã basicaìly inceptiv€ meâning+.g., 'get sick, ripen, mâture, age'. With süch verbs,Íelerenceto the presentsituation ('be sick, be Ìipe, be hatüre, be old') is typically exp.6sedby a "completive"constÌüctioncômúoíly, on the ìackgrcund oI ou. Laün-EnglishterminologicâÌ trÀdition,called "perfect" or "the Pe.ÍectTense." D.g.. 'he is (hasbecome)tired' 'he is geiting tired KpeÌÌe: ãâ kp€€ (cf.: è kpÈs and: aà'kpeE
'it is âll gone' 'he has linishedit')
Kpelìe has a rath€r trnüsúalapplicationol the useof the compìetivewhich deseÌvesa report on tle circumstânces of an int€.€stiDgdiscove.y. I had noted from my vêry êârly elicitqtiÕns thât 'see , with reference to the pÌesent, is ex!Ìesed by a completive,But I Ìtad no explanâtionÍor tlis íâct. Then one late aítemoonÌny two infomants ând I wedt lor a waììr,sith ã shoigunând some hop* of briíg'ng homc sometreciousprotein. On a qüi€t forestpath, they suddenly stoppedmej one ot tÌtem tointed towâ.d â tÌee b.anch aheadand above me, ând whisp@d in EngÌish,"TìeÌe s â monkey." \Yith ny in€xperiencein the sigìts of the Ìain Íorest (late. tanly well overcone), I saw úothing but branches ând leâves.With â miniÌnumof moüôn and sÕund,both infomÀntst.ied Íor some r Tbê rêrm "ladârtvê" v,s nnge oÍúsâge,n lgbo, tn \ìr.ln.6
delined ío. a constnctton Ìlth a íhiìr and weìhe61963b, Dp. ?s 6.
344
AFRrc^N Ldco^GE
SnucruREs
timê to telì me just whde tÕ Ìook. Finaììy the monkey rÍoved slightly, ând I wâs âbÌê to distinguish him lÌom his background. Withôtrt sâying a woÌd, I quietly cock€dmy shotgutrand sìo*ly Ìaisedit. Àt that point, oneof my infoÌmânts whispdcd to the other (yes. ton€s cân ìe distinguishedin â *hiqrer), "/ââ 'káa"/, which I knew in tìe meading he seesit', but whicì is completivein Ion. The infoÍmantsand someoi their friend6nad meât Íú ditrner,and I hâd a iewardingbit ol inteìlig€nce:the Kp€lle lerb ikáal doe6Dot simply m€n teer, but Ìather 'catcì sighr of', and 'he seesit' is Èapressed as 'ìe has caughtsight 12.3. In many lânguagesthere is â singÌeconstructionshich hâs explicit ànd excÌusiveÌeferenceto tÀst âctioni for such lânguâgesit is qüite Ìegitimate to speâkol â "pâst' construction.lt hâsalreâdybeennôted!howevênthat some Ianguages úsea singlecô.struclionto Ìeler to past time lor Àctiveverbsatrd PI& sent time lor statiÌe verbs; Íor such languâges,â tem like "fâctâtive" may be pÌeleráble, ând the BÌárMâr moy very pro!€Ìly mâke no rclerence tó a "past tense" as such. Oú the otÌìer hand, th€Ìe ar€ a numbeÌ of languages which hâvè more thaÌ one constructionreÍeningto pâst time. SomeBântu lângDages distingüis]ìa ín€a.!sst" (pâ.ticuìaÌlywith ÌêIê.ênceto sctiôn pcÌlomed eârli€ron the sme dây) and a "rmote past" (oÌ te.hâps bett€r â 'lgeneraìpâst"). Such â distinction is reportedin LoNkundo (se Hulstãeú 1938,pp. 55, 189-90). MÈ inteÌp.ctãtionsof languâgedâtâ in tems of sucha disiincüÕnwilÌ be notedlre sently, but it seemscÌeaÌ that Hxlstaert has presented the conect anaÌ)6is Ío. LoNkundo, sincehe explicìtÌydesc.ib€s ã conpletiv€in dìstinctionÍrom â "today pasI" (DetL.IenDom oan heder) and an "€arÌier past" (r,etledenroÌm oM te Men)i ìis analysissas, in fact, conlinêd by ã loBê. studentôI mine who hâd 3poken LoNkúndÕâs â chiìd. Thê 1NÕ!âst cÒnstructiÕns ôl LoNkündoare distinguished onÌy by tone (and the distinctionis thus ignoredìy most speâkeNof English l€arnìng the lânguâge). Thêre is some evidence that what is süffiÍed to the verb bâse in each ót these cólst üctions is tro morphmes, one indi@tiDg past time and rlìe othe. iDdicatingth. d€gÌeeot remotenesithesêwould then be subtypes in a nnidimensional of one constnction. not two totãllv distinct construcÜons list, ThDs.lrom a verb vhose root is /kìs/ sit dovn': ákÈàki áÌìsákÍ
'he sât down (todây)' 'he sât down (êarüer)'
Not eve.y repo.t ol â distinction between "near past" and "Íemote past', hosever, can be taken at fâ@ value. Àòrâham (1940b,pp. 47-{8) appeãN to describe such a distinction lor Tiv, but it is clea. on the bâsis of tllê dâta he himsell tresents that the distinction is rather letveen a compÌetive and . Bimple pâsi. He describes what he callsthe "SpeciâlFoÌm" oí ve.bs,with two '/vâÌieties'; the two foms m€.ely show â moÌlhoton€nic alterration conalitione.t by tüe choiceof subjectpronoun,ând the ten "special"seem3to ìave no tositivesigrüicânce, bul âppeârs to have ìeen chosen merely fo. lâck of â moÌe specifi@lÌy meaninglúììab€1.This fom (or rons) is said to bê used "when ân act has oc-
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c'dÌrcdncenlt!," and Àbrahâm'sÍirst exâmples all incÌudea vord /áshén/ìe-
Abmhd doesgo on tó say that strcha wôrd is not essentiâI,ând fhât the verbal constructionby itself referstô actiôn "ãs Ìecenl âs â lew úinutes âgo or â fcw dâysãgo." but that if a speciÍicpâsttime is.ele..ed to, eveny€úerdiy, the "past terse" is üsed. Yet, in spite of his repeatedmphasis on the recentn€ss of action süpposedlyeÍpresed by this constÌuction,just tFo pageslaterhe citesa sêntence usingthe sme@núruction in which the ideaof an immediatepastis ìy no m€ans 'thê gÌas hassprout€d SuÍely tÌre 8râ$ in this caseneed not ìâve sp.outed within the pâst few JÌinutes oÌ eventhe pâst lew dâysi the loint is that it is now in â statewhich is tìe.esnlt ol â pfft âction a typiút relerenceol â com!Ìetive .âth€r than a r€@nt past. Hâd the ilÌustrativesentencebeen 'the gÌãss hâs dried', the situation wouÌd be even clearer; tìe drying ?Ìocess might have been pretty weÌl complete Às much âs two o. three moúths ago, but the point is smply that it is dry now. Ìn all rurth€. citaüonsol the sameconstruction,Abrahâm t anslateswith the English "perf€ct," which is clearÌyâ more faithÍul represertãtionthan a paú $ith recentA siúilãr misin{êrprehlion oÍ the usâgeof cônstructionshas been âpplied to LUGãndâ,in which thÌee deg.eesof rônotenessin the past have òeense.n by some: imediate (today), n@Ì (roughly yesterdÀy). and .emote (earlier). The fiNt of these,ho{ever, caÌrnorbe usedin an equivalentof 'I did it this morning' if one is speâkingin the Ìâte afternoÒn.i.e., âÍter soúe time has €Ìapsed;on the otheÍ hand it can be usedwith .efeÍenceto somethingthat happenedat an ünspecifiedearÌie.tine it ihe focusol attention is on the resultantlresent situation. Nothing could more preciselJdefinea compÌetive. Fortunately,the best vorks on Lucânda at leastcâll it â "perlect" or "perlective"; I hãve avúid€dthe latte. labelsmereìybecâusethe word 'perte.t' no lôngerhas its older ú€âúing ol cômpÌete, and the constructioÍ in questionhâs lothiDg to do with being flawless or 's'nless. The Lucanda compleüveand recent tast both use a lo.m oi the verb which is o|monìy knosn âs the "noditied stem;" it is the Ìoot plus an inflectionalending,reqüiredin ceúain constructions, which aptearerathercomÍnonly in Bântu in foÍms like /-ile/, but which iD LUGândaand sone other languâges conditionsa complicetedset ol moÌphophondic âltÚnâtions. E.g., usinga Ìoot /kól/ 'wôrk'. the tÌ,ree constructionsare:
ikózè ,ÀkólÀ Three degÌeesoI }ast âctuaÌly do app€aÌ to be dhtinguished,howeve.,in KiKongo. Using the best techniquesof elicitationand compaÌisonI coüld think
350
AFÂrcrì L^NcuÀcE SrRUcruREs
of, I hâverecordedÍormsdistinguishingimmedjâte!âst (today),neâÌ past(yesterday or peÌhâpsa little more generâÌ),ând remotepâst (eârlier),âll in distiúcüon froh a comtìetive. Tle IiNt oI thesewas suspectIor a whiìe; I thougÌrtit mj8ÌÌt reterto 'I wâsdoingit' o. 'I hãveì€en doin8 it'. But spêcifÌcsêntencês recorded, such âs the lirú ol thos€ bêlôw, sìnpÌy do not yi€Ìd thenseìves seÍnaúticâlly to the id€aot conünuousacüonin otherthan the pÌesent;althoughI did not âcquire great lluency in XiKongo, I âlsorecordedthe immediâtepãú in convosãtioí! ahout such topics as going to the mârk€t and buyiÍg things eâÌlier in the day, Tìc immediate ?âú is neveÌtheles fomally the @mpÌetive sith â suffü consisL ing ol ingiplus the precedingvoveÌrepeãted,with high tone; thê sameÕrã homolhonous sufiix appeaNalsoin the customary. In a pattern strikingly simiÌa. to thât ol Lucandà, the iDhediâte and neâr past, âs weìl as the mmpletive, use the root with ân inÍlectionâlsultix which in üis casehas the lo.m lidi/: there are other âlternâdlslargely conditionedìy the tinaÌ consonântof the root ând by vowel hamony. The four KiKongo constructions are iÌluú.ated with a ve.b whoseroot ìs /suumbi 'buy'; orÌy high ton€ is Ínarkedhere:
nsDumbidingi nkóombo tásuuDbidi nkóombo
'l bought a goât (today) 'I ìought a goât (y6tddây)' 'I òoüsht â goât (êarner)' 'I hâve boughtâ goât'
12.4. A good d€al has alreâdy b@n said about "cohpletiÍe" coDúructions; languagethât lâckssomethingol the ther€ doesnot seemto be any NiSeÌ-Congo sort. The reference, as alr€âdy sugg€sted,is to thc pÍeseút etlect oI ân âctiôn: 'hê hâsbecometired (ândther.foÌe is tiÌed now)', 'he has eaten(and is therefôÌe fuÌl or at least not about to eat aeain)',ând the like. ObviousÌy,tÌje action or IÍocess thâl has such a pr€snt etfect is nomally Bomethingin the pâst, aíd aery commonìy(thougÌìby no m€a.s necesarilJ)somethingin the recent past; hence the rather comÍnon ând unfortnnate confusion of such a construction pith the id€â ol rccentpast. In onesÌriking insiaDce.ì'owever,â @mpÌetivewâs recorded in which the prcsent effect is actualÌy the resült of â Íuture action; at l€ast, this seemsa bett€r wây to describe thê situation than by hedging about the sPeakeÌ being so sure that the actìon rouÌd túe pÌacethat he thought of it as already completed.The lang!âge{âs Kpelle onc€more; tìe situâtionwâs a mocL @uÌt casestagedby inlómánts who shouldhâve beensignedto côntâcts âs drâmãtic ând comedyâcto.son the 6pot. The defendântwas accusedof stealiDga bag or dcei the evidedcewâs largêlyci.cumstântialând not unequivôcâlÌymnfimed by impârnd vitnesesi tÌìe defendanthad no gôod âìibi, but mi8ht hâve b@n innocent. The judge pontifically pronouncedthe def€ndantguilty and imposeda fine. At that point ihô defendantâÌoseand rnadeâ stúring ânnouncment (the Xpelìe soÌds are forgotten, òüt nôt the completive con3tÌuction): "l hâve alpealedto the Dhtrict Commissioner l" The âctionwas úilÌ in the futuÌe, but the "complete"elÍect *ãs drânâticâÌly in the !Ìesell
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For moú Ìânguages, it nay secmlikc nilpicking to observethat the compÌetive constructionmây reler to twô kinds ôf pr*cnt cffcct, but in ã tew olh.r lângüâgesthere âr. xwo distinct consFuctionsrellecr'ngjusr sü.h â contrast, FiÌst, the pÌesenteffectmay be the jmmediatesituation.âs in I hale.alen (ând âm thereforefull)', or 'the clôtheshave dried (and are thereforedry)'. Second, howev€r,tìe pr€sentefiect may have to do with thc totality ol experience, âs in paln (at 'I hâve eâten oil stew one time or often, but not nec€sa.ill rcc€ntly. and at the momert I frây be{nd am-stârved for some). o. 'l ìave played âll of Beethôven'spiano sonatâs(thoügh thrt Nâs âIfrÕstlorty yeârs ago, it is n€vúthelcss!âÌt ol ny experience) . In most Ìanguâges, tìresetwÒideâsare not ji düle.entiated in the v€.bãì system as such, but only ii is considded nece$arJ to avoid ambiguity-by adve.biaÌcomplementsor explanato.y âddiüons. Thc conespondingnegrtivesâre olteí expr€ssed bJ cômpleú.nts,in Niger-congolang!âgesâs wêll âsin English,ãs in 'I hãvent doneit ret vs. 'Ì !e neve.doneit'. Ií a languagedoesincorporatesucì a distinctioninto the lerbaÌ syúem. ihe iirú oI the tqo constÌuctiorsmay be calÌed comtÌetive , and the label "experiential" is suggesiedIo. the second. Kpelle is such a language. The completive and expe.ientiaÌ usediiie.ent con struction markers; in both conúructionsüe verì roÕt has ils siem tone (zero áIrix). E.9., 'I hâve lixed it (and itvorks)' 'I hâve fiied it (many times; but it Ìtà 'kpÉte(à tái támãã) keets breakingdown)'
In the ÍolìowingparalÌ€lpâiÍ or examples,note rbât Eúglish usesdillerent Ìe.bs to expÌess this cÕntrast: ãâ li Dukao à Ìi Dukôo
'he hasgoneto lÍonroÌia (and is ãway now)' 'h€ hâs beento }tonrovia'
ChristiannissionaÌies,undoubtedlythe Ìa.g€stcat€goryor non-ÂIricanssho attempt to DseÀlÌican ÌangÌages,woDlddo well to pay attention to suchacontrast. lt wouÌd ìe disaúrousto siy tÌÌat ou. sins âre to.gilen becauseiYis6 aâ sââ/ 'Jêsus has died (ãnd is dead), üthe. than /fhr à saa, kélEr aâ Ìhü siye/ 'Jesushashâd the experience of dying, but hâs(and rhen'. FortunâteÌy,most it is peúectly âd.quate for missiônâriesfind the past constructionhandier,ând's) And unfoúunateìy.not aÌl missionaries do lay atteniion to sucì a contrast. It is Iound aÌsoin LoNkundo, tìough it is not clearly Ìecognizedby Hulstaert (1938,pp. 42-43,191-92).I Ie citest$ o paradigmslor Nhat he caus -pres€ntcompletedtense(sitüation)" (,ottôôídtegenúootdise tijd (toesldnd)), shich ìe desdib€s ãs Ìeferring to todây ând eãrlierrespectileìy. Such an analysismay well have !y thê fâct thât thê tvo forms djJferonly in tonc, ând in somc ìeen suggested whât the samewây that theÌecent (today)snd Ìemot€(eãrlier)!âst constructions descÍibediú 12.3aboveditter lron eachother. The two .onúrucÌions âre illus tBted by the fouowingvith the root /kìs/ 'sit down':
352
ÁmrcÀx LaNGUAGESrRUcrmEs àôkisà áôkìsà
he has sat down (todãy?) 'he has sât down (€a.Ìier?)'
My erpeÌìencewìthKlelÌe hade mewond€r$hethe.the distincüonwaslot Ìathe. betsecn completive and exleÌiential, neithe. ol which is necesa.ily tied in with either Ìecent or r€mote tiDe. AÌthough I had Do acc€ssto an Àfícãr nâtive speãk€rot LoNkundÕ,I was loúunately 8Ue to checkwith thê student.efeÌÌed tÒ in 12.3abole. SÌreconsideredLoNkundo he.lirst lânguage,and had spoken it constantìy,ãìongsilh English in heÌ nissionary iâmily circle, until she was âbout thirteen. Eight or nìnêyearsÌater, sheÌelusedto act as an infomÀnt in tle nsüal sense,but would gleeluÌlyapplaudmy ellorts (if they we.e accuÌate) io prodúceintelligibleutterâd.eson Ìhe basisof Hulstâert'sgenerâllyerc€lìent desc.iption. I ìaboriouslypüt togetheÌ two sntences,both or which would be meânidgfüI,{ith â desdiption ol the siluationsin shiü I thought eaih night be used,to illustratethe diÍfer€ncebetreen a completiveideaandan experiential ideâ. lhe emphasiswa! on the minnìaì contrâú in tône. Having set the stage with desojptionsot contrastingsitüations,I producedthe tso sênt€nces tô see iI they match€d thê situatio.s. With unÌêstrain€ddelight, the student said, "That\ exactly.ightl Ànd you know, ny parentshave spokenLoNLUÍdo for twentyjive yeàrsànd h e never reôgnized thât difieÌencel" \Yho knÒwshow nany otler Ìânguages hale unreportedãnd unnoticeddie tinctions oi this so'tÌ 12.5. AÌthoÌgh Mitten f.om moÌe of a philosoplicalthan a linguisticvìew' poiút, the follosing statenent may seÌ\'eâs a legitimâtewârning by wây of introduclion tó verbâÌconstructioísrelerrinsto the iuture: "Thê linôâr conceptof Tjme, with â Pâst, Presentand Futür€, stretcìing hon iníinity to inlinity, is loreign to Àt icân thinking, in which the dominÀntlactor is À virtual Àbsence oí the Fulure. By our d€finition,Time is â compositionôl evênts,ând sincêthê !-uture erenis hale not occurred,the Future âs â necessâry linear coúponêntof Timc is virtuaUy absent. Suchìs eitherprlelidi ?im., *ith certâintJofits êventual reaìizâlion,or NÈIine, Ìyidg bèyondthc conceptuâlhorizon of th. people." (ìÍbiti 1969,p. 159.) On the basisot eridenceor intomãnt t€stimonylong Io.8otl,cn,I obseNedthât àn âppârert "füturè" coústructionií Jukun, pârtÌcuÌârly Diyi, relered to ân action tlat will, can, or may take place, ând not€d, "No lelity h intendedin refeniig to the commonobservâtionthat when an AÍrican says I wilÌ do it (evenin English),it mens tlat perhapshe will and peÌhâpshe won't. His hequent faiÌuÌe to 'keepa pronire' nay be moÌe oÍ a liDguisticamòiguity thân à norâl fãüIt." (Weìmers1968b,p. 159.) It may be diíticult to pintoiit tle reie.enceof a givencoDúructio! as locusingon potentiâÌityorlDturity, but it sìoüld not be suÌp.isingthat our t.ânslationsmay veÌl lalÌ short ot predsely representing6uchconstructionsin Áfrican langüâges. The dilference b€tseen tpo wâys oí Ìeferdng to the tuture in English must àlso be r€cognized.We normally think oI úe "futüre" âs being exprcsed by seDtences ìike 'he siÌl do it'. Àctuauy, we probabÌy more comDonlysay 'he's
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!N NlcER-CoNcô
Soingto do it', and tew oi us are awareot the semanticdifiü€nce ìetwêen the t*o sentences.It hÀs Dotling to do sith d€sìreoÍ {ith úotion, as the words might suggert. Rather,tÌìe 'riìl'Íuture generallyfeÍerst0 an action incidental to a ìÌoadeÌ pD.pose,ând often ân âctionjust dccidcdon. Thc 'goinglo tüture ÌefeÌs to nore of â Dredêteminedaction. Thus. ii onc leavcsthe honsewith lhe prinâry inteDtionof mailingsomelettere.he sould say, 'l m goiDgto nrail these letteÌs'; but ii he ìeaveswith someolher purpose.and incid.nlalÌy noli&s some ìetteÌsready to be maiÌed,hewould say, 'I'll Dail th€sel€tteN (while I m at it) . This .ather unusuaÌand sübtted'stinctionis rar€ly lound in oih€r languâgesr Ne (ittak€s lessspace may usethe 'aill' future in glosses for the sakeof convenience in type), ìüt foÍ the úost pâú our 'goingto' futü.e is a better representation oI Íüture or futureìike constÌuctionsin other languages. It shouÌdaho be notedthât Nc sometimcsusethe pr€sontto .xpressluiurc action in English,pârticuÌaÌly$ith tle ve.b 'go' ('he\ going tonono{'), olten wilh 'come'. and occasionalìvsith other verbs. The use o|can'ìlith tuture refer€nceis alsoconnon ('I can do it n€xt we€k'). In all suchcases,a morc consistentuse of luture cÕnstructions can be .xp.ct.d in other làdguâges. With thesewa.ninssand rese.vatìols.one oÌ Dore future or futuÌelike con structionscan be recognizedin any knoNn Aírican laDguâgc. In sone câses, th€re is a sirgle Íutu.e constructionparallelingothcÌ conírucüonsin fomâtion. In Swaìili, for dúple, rhe futu.e consiructionmarkeÌ is i-ta i, and jts paralleli6n with otÌ'er constructionmarkes ìs .vident hom thc foÌlowinq:
There are two Íuture constructionsin Yoruba. Both aÌe used by nant speakeB,but lhe firú appeârsto be morecommÒn;the sÈcondmây be more l]pjcâl oÍ soÍnediaÌects,and nay be archaicin olhêrs,hüt no súanlic dislinctionis kDowD. The subjectprorounsrequiÌedby tlese two constructionsditter in three câses;pârtiâì sirilàrity tô th€ liNt set is found âlsoin someother constructiÒns which reter ro other ihan the Ìnown last or lresent. Ihe t$o fulures âre ilÌus trãted by tÌìe folìowing: 'I n going io go'
ln Akan. tle lutuÌe const.uctionmarkeris unquestionâblyd€rivedlronì thc verb lor 'come',the root of which is /bá/. Às a conslructionmsrker, it ìas rour alternant Íoms. /bé ìé ìó nó/, conditioncdby Ìovel hamon) ând rhe unroundedor roundedouâlitv of tìe nqt Ìo*el. Thus:
354
ÀFRtcd
LNcúÁcE
SrÀudEEs
òbébá
'he'sgoingto go' 'he'sgoingto beâfrâid'
òbókó
Aìthough the iuture construction mâ.ker is de.ived Írom the ve.b menìnÉ 'come', it hâs no mÕrêrelerenceto mÕtionin this direction than Engtish 'goingto' as ã IutuÌe marker hasto do with moüon away. SimilâÌ derivaüvesof /kó/ 'go' âre alsousedas a type ol constructionmarker in Akan, nost commonlybut noi exclusivelyil /kói hâs beenusedas â Ìegular verb earli€rin the sent€nce.This ha specíic relererceto motion âsây in ord€r to pêrloÌm the actioí. If /bá/ 'come' is usedas â nain verb, the derived consttuctiônmaÍke. úay alsoìe usedlater in the sent.ncewìth specific.ele.ence to motionin this di.ectionÌather thân Íuturity; in fact, it may be usedbeforea past fom. E,g.,
òbáàhá bédáì
'I'm goingshopping 'he went úqe to sleep' 'he camehe.e to sÌeep
The úseol a verb meaning coDe as an auxiliary in luture construstionsis widespr@d; 'go' is also attestedas a rutuÌe auxiliary, but l€sscommonly. In Kpdle, the present of /pá/ 'cone is üsed beÍore a fo.ú of ìhe nâin v€rb {ith a sulfix /-ì/, which i3 â kird ol verbal loun vith a! urderlying .efqenceto plâce (ci. 11.5). 8.9., â pâi'kÉi ,
'káa Pâi'kÊi
In the cohplex knówn ãs Jukun, twó !àttems âr€ fôDnd. tn WÀpã, /bi/ 'come is usedin the preseDtcolstruction as ân auxiliary belorethe main vqb in its stm lorm. ln Diyi, tso lulurê constructionmarkeÌs âre used, /á/ aDd /bái, thè lÕrmerappârêntlynore freqüentìy,but with no knosn distinctionin meãningoÌ usagebetweenthe two. Thus:
t Í In lgbu, gd/ go' is usedin lhp slatrvêrons, ction âs an âuxiliary b€lore á verbaÌ nôun tÕ expressthe füture:
ó gà àbyá In 5.21,â distinctionwas noted in Eiik bctweenâ "neutÌaÌ past" constructiôn ând two "cônhâslive pâst" consfructions,one tocusingattent'on on some thing precedingthe verb and the other on somethinglollowiüg the verb. Etik aÌso distinguishesbet{eên neutrality and contrast in the future, but the.e is onÌy one contRstive Iuture; what is contrasted can be deterúined only by thè cont€xt, usuãlly a questionwhich is being answered.The neutral íutuÌe has a cônstrúctionmârker /-yéL/, alter which the verb bâsehas its Ìexical tone. The cont.astive iutu.e has a const uction marker /-di-/ (with an alteÌnant /-di-/ alter
VERBÀLCoNsrRucrroNs rN NrcER-CoNco
andperhaps r€gulãrlyin somediâÌects), loìvtoneroÌ sonespèakêN, atterwhich the vêrb bãs€hashighìow ton€. The form /-di-/ is somêtimBìêârd sith â long voweÌ;it is in âìl probàbiÌityderivedftum ihe vêÌb /-di/ 'coúê' ând an archsìc inÍinitivê prdix /!/ (tìe regularErik inlinitive pr€riÍ is /ndl/). Thus the contÌãstive luture is only â ste! away tron being ãn âtrüliãry construction. Ot the foÌlo*iÍg tvo exanples,the fúst woüld be a typical stateÍnentsith no relerence to anything lreviously said; the s€condis an a!!Ìopriate answerto a question suchâs r\ryhatare yotr goingto buy?', Iocusingattentionon the objectl íyé'dép dìbòró ì ídldêp Ìhbòró I
'I'h gÒingto buy bananas'
As in the pâst, theÌe mây be degrees oÍ remotenesin the future. LuGaDda distinguishes two degrees:a near luture lor action expected to take place within about a day, âDd â remotefuture lor actio! qpected to take placeoÍÌy later. ln ãdditior, the.e is a third futüÌe wlich appaÌentìyhâs an indetiniteÌefe.ence ( $metime'). The nêâr luture usesâ constructionmarker / náÀ-/. The remote futu.e us€sâ constructionmarker The itrdelinit€ luture is a! âuxiliery 'come (vhicÌ' sith the p.eceding pronoün tyte, usìng tle stem oí the verb /jjá/^ll-/. is not othenise an ind€peÍdentv€fbaÌ constrüctiod)lvith the intinitive oÍ the 'he's góing to go (withjn â dày)
àìlgéndá àjjà kúeéndá
'he'ssoins to so (Ìâter) 'hesgoìngto Co(soDetime)
KiKongo ãppea.sto hâve veÌy nearly the same distinctionsas Lucandâ. The ner future hasa mo.phene/si/ belorethe subjectpronoun,no construction márker âfter th€ prônoun,ãnd high tone with the Ii6ì vowd ôl the v€rb (ôr ât least fo. the verb in the examplesbelow). The ÌeDote future usesthe sâne DoF pìeme /sÌí beforethe pronoun,and â constrüctionmârker/-á-lalter the pronoun, âIter which the first vowel ol the verb has low tone. (My inlorÌnant suggested the term "ìndefinite futuÌe" for this construction,but it is mutually exclusive in usagerrom the clearly "nea.Iuture". I would prereÌto reservetìe term "indefiDitd'for the third luture. shich may b€ used in tlace of either of the lüst two.) The indelinitefuture usesa constructionm.rker (or pôssiblyân auxiliary, though I an not awaÌeoI other usesoI iO i-ená-l (in somediãlects/-ná-/),aner which the first voveÌ oÍ tle verb hashiEhtone. Thus: situsúumbânkóombo sitwásuumbankóombo twenásúumbã nkóombo
'*e're âbout to buy â goat' 'we're going to buy a Soat (later)' 'we'.egoingto buy a Coât(sonetim€)'
It is possìblethat suchdistinctions,or other distìnctionswhich may belound in oth€r Ìânguaé€s, Ìellect unÌecoSnized subtletiesof ÌeÍerenceto the deg.eeoÍ prcbãbility or pot€ntiâlity: the quotaüonat the beginningof this sectionshoDld not be d;niss€d as mereíâncifüÌ philosophizing.
35ô
AFRrcÁN LÀNGUÀGESnúcruREs
12.6. Verbal constÍuctionssuchas thosediscusedup to this point are rel.rred to by Àshton (lor Ssahilì, 1944,pp. 35tr.) âs "the primarj tenses"(though sh€ fully recogniz€süat not all oi th€m arè primãrily tmpo.ãì in reference). Thereis ür e if ãny loÌmaÌ justiticationfor dEwing a Ìine ãt this point âúd rcfets ring to aÌl othe. coÌstructiols as !€condary'r Ashton'sdistiDctionãppeaF to retlcct Ìittle nore than a .ecognition ot Latin indicaüves as opposed to other moods. In lact, in many if not mostNiger-Congo lãnguag€s, sone of th€ constÌuctions discus*d in the precedingsectionsare not "primaÍJ" in the sensedefined in l2.t above,but Ìâther "auxiliâ.f,". On the othe. hand, nost languagehâve other construclionsshi.h âre equâllyprimary in formâtion,âÍd vhich hây âlso appearas independentratne. than srbordinatepredications. Perhapsthe conmonestol theseis â construcüonwhich has aÌnost universãUy but unlortunately,in ny consid€redopinion been mìled "sDbjuncüve". It is not thâì I hrle any vioìentobjeciionto lerninoÌogyderivedfrÕmthe grâÍnmsÌ ol Latin; it\ not bad ât âll-fo.Latin. Nor do I haveany zeaÌfoÌ the p.oliferâtion ot gÌamnãticoìte.minoÌogyfor its own sâke. I sêêkonÌy teminolôgyÌânguag€{pecilic when necesary-which wilÌ m€aÍingÍuÌly Ìellect the cÀtegories ãnd üsâgesoI thc lângüâges with which Ì work. FÕrthè most pârt, the sGcâlled 'tubjunctive" in Nig€r-Congolanguáeesnâtches th€ Lâtin subjúnctivein only óne use,ând in úost lâ.guâgesthât is its nâjôÍ or only üse. It is nôt prinaúly "subjoined" ór used jn sübôrdinâteclaus€s(wìich the tem 'tqbjunctive" is meânl to suggeí). On the basisof its usâ8.in the lânguages in qu€stiÕn,I hâve settìed(after somevâciuâtionin ny eâny workt on the lab€Ì "hortâüve." To be sure,somesrudenìscomplâinihat "hoúâü!€" is no nor€ heâninefulto then thaí "subjunclive". lhe tom snd the consfuction for w]ich it is used-has to do sith urging or suggestìngiit is ÌeÌated to 'exàú.|'. Oncenôre there is â pÍóbleh, lór hany people,with Englsh €quivâlentsof utterãnces ìn other lânguages. ln th€ firú peson plurâl, a hortative nây rêãdiÌy be transÌated òv the construction found in 'l€t's do it'. But how is ã similar ref€Ìenceto á.tion expressed, lor exampl€,in the thi.d p€.sonsingula.? The nost is let him do it ; òüt thât dôesnot have a hortâtive meâningin Ìikely r€sponse contcmpoÌâÌy infomâÌ English, but rather a peÌmissive mening- pemit him to do it', shich is usuaìlynor incÌud€din the rangeof ã Niger-Congohortâtive wìthout sme sodificatìo.. 'Let him do it sas ìortativ€ in oldeÌ Engüsh,as itr the Biblical 'Lct hin sho is sitÌ'out sin cast the lirst stone, and is stiÌl so $ed in tomal and some{hat úerêotypedêxpresioDssuch âs 'Let everyon.join in songon this Iestive occasion',or 'Let us púy'. Sincethis ütêrâry ând fonaÌ üsâ8eis tâught in Al.ican schooÌswhere English is used,infomants are ükeÌy to give eqüislents süchâs 'let hin do jt' íor a hôúative in their orn lânguages; they do not meanit as pe.missiÌc,but that is what it m€ânstous. MoÌe accuÌate .quivâlenls iÌr coniemporâry Engìish are 'he shoüld do it (with should having veak stÌess,o. othenise it :6 obligatory,an eqüivaleÍt of'ought to'), 'have him do it', or 'he'd bett€r dÕ it'. In nÕú ìânguâg€s,ììe liret peMn sitrgrÌãr of the ìortãtile is used primanly or excÌusiveÌyin questions('should I do it?'
VEÂBÁL CoNsEúcrroNs
357
N NrcEÀ-CoNco
oÌ thaÌl I do it?') or aner verbs like 'telÌ' í'he told me I sìould do it' : 'he told me to do it'). The Ìâtter combinât'Õnis âhÕthe .ofrhônest o. only cncum stanceunder which secondpersonho(âlives are used;in isolqtion,there is usuaÌÌy ân imperâtiveiD pÌaceoí the hortâtive,atÌeâst iÍ the singuÌâr,which commonly hãs no subject?Ìonoun. The hoúative in Jukun ras desc.iìediD 5.14in connecüo.with a discu$ion oÍ norphemesof tonaÌ replacement;high tone repÌacesthe 6temtone oi subject lronouns, shich aÌe low in two câsesând mid in tìe rest. The secondpersoD tluraÌ hortative fu.ctioDs as an imperative;e-e., /ni ya/ Gol'. To expr€s â singuÌâ. command. the ho.tãtive may ìe used, or aÌte.naüveÌy the voì stem by thãx the hortative is itell; e.g., /ú ya/ or sìúply /ya/ 'GoI'; il is quite possilJÌe â more couÌteouso. gentle{ay oÍ teÌÌingone pe6on to do something. In Kpelle (aho discú$edin 5.14),the hoúâlivc alsohss hjgh tÒnereplácing the úem tone of subjectp.onouns. The stem tone is low in onecaseand high to beginvith in all others.but the stm Íorm of subjectpronounsis not usedwith a veÌb without an aÍtix (whichnay ìe a .eplacive).The secondpeNonhortativ$ aÍe üot usedin isoìâtion. À singuÌarimperâriveis expftsed by the verb stem âÌone,or occâsionÀlly sith â subjectpronouni6ei. The pÌurâl imperativehâs â subjectpÌonounwith mid tone; e.9., /ka li/ Go l' The Kpeìle hortaüve {r what might perhâIrs better be ânalyzed as a dìI íerent bìrt homophonou,constructioú-n aho us€d to expressrctions after the Íibr in a serips; tìis wiu bc lr.ál.d in a ìalersrcrion. In Igbo, the hortâtive has aú introductorJ norpheme /kâi, which mây be conside.eda laúicìe or a conjunction. (ln anotherusage,the sameor a homophonous/kÀ/ can be replacedìy a noun, but it can hardly itsell be considered a noun.) This is folÌowedby the subject,ând then the verb base$ith â vowel suffix; ìhe fom ol lhe sufiú is genemlÌyconditioncdby thc tinal vosel ot thc bâsc, and, with a few lexicâìly conditionedexc€ltions,is zero âfter â baseot two or moÌe syÌlâbleswiih a ÍinaÌ vowel otÌ'er than /i/ o. /u/. Nhat lolÌows/kà/ is identicâl with a condiüonaÌconstruction,but tÌ'ere is littÌe motivation lor positing an underlyingÌelatìonship. ExampÌesoI the hortâtiv€,with the verb baseidcn-
gá:
méghér
kà ànyi gáá
kà Obì méghéúzò
'Àeshouldshul the door' 'Obi shouìdopentìre dÕor'
Igbo has â distinct imle.aüve constÌDcüon.The samevosel sufiix is used,hut the iDperative difieN lrom the horlatile in tonal strücture. For a baseoÍ two or more syÌÌablesìeginning with higÌ'ìow, the lexical tonesare used. Otherise, the li.st syÌÌableof the basehas low tone Ìepìàcjngstem lone, and aìl oüer syÌlables hâve high tone. The Íeplâcedtone is itself low tor bâses$ith low tone, and in this casethe bas. ând suffix hâve the sane tom as in the hoúãtive, ìüt only becausethe replaciveÌequiÌed loÌ the impeÌativeìappens to hale â zerÒ
358
ÀFR,c^x L^xcL'^cE SrÂucÍuÂEs
êIfect. There is no subj€ctp.onoun fo. â singulârimperâtive;to lorm â pÌuÌãI, /nü/ is used ãfteÌ the verb a unique nanif6tation oÍ the second pe.son pluÌal. ImpeÌâtivesconespondingto the hortâtivescited aboveaÌe:
cèÀ
'Gol' 'Do itI
mèshé nUúzÒ
'open (pi.) the door l'
In SwãhiÌi, the ho.tative ("suljünctive") hâs no (or â zero) construction narker belóre the vêrb bâse, but hâs the suflix /-ê/ Ìâther thân úe /-âl *hich is comon to a large numbe. or verbal constructions.Comparethe íouosing: a-li-nunu-ãnyama â-nunu-enJama
he bought met' 'he shouldbuy mۋt'
Àgâin thereis â distinct impeÌative. In the sing â., no subjectp.onounis usedl the verb has the suÍIix /-al unlessthere is an object concord,ìn vhich ca$ the süfiiÍ is /-ê/. In the pluÌâI, the ve.b has the sulrix /-e/, roüôwêd by a !Ìüml indi@tor /-ni/; note tle strikine pa.aÌlelwith lgbo. E.9.,
'Buy m€atl' 'Buy it (9)l' 'Buy (pl.)neat I It wasmentioned abovethat a ho.taüvemay be usedalter a verb suchas 'tell'. Ar example lrom lgbo (in whichthe veÌb 'tell' hasan iÍÍeg!Ìarimperatile vithout suÍfiÍ) wiÌl be sulÍicieDt to illustmtctlis @mmonpâtt€rn: gvà 'yi ká ò nédé úzô
'teìl him tô (thât he should)
The situetion aÍter a veÌb mening 'want Ìequir$ spec'aÌtreatment. In the Bântu languà8€sin g€nerâl,ând in somebut !y no meánsâll West Áfricâr lângüages, there is an infiDitive lo.m ol the verb. This is geremuy leed i! equiìikê 'I want to dô it', in which thê peÌsônwânting and thô valenh oI sênt€nces perso! pe.foming the desi.edâctionâÍe the sâme. IÍ tìôsê pêsonsâre dilferent, hoÌrever,es in 'I wânt him to do it', the ho.tâtive is used;thãt is, one eys 'I want that he shouÌd do it'. In lgbo, foÌ exanple: á còròÌì kà ó méé yá In Yorübã, there is no Senerallyrecognìzedinlinitive. In conúructionslike the first oI the abôve, however, the voweÌ oi the verb meaniDg 'want is lengthened; this unqúestionâblyÌeÍl.cts an older inrinitive lÌeÍir with tle following vdb bâse, lÌobably *ith the rom +il-l (which I undeBtand süll exists in ltsekiÌi). Thus the Yoruba pattern mây be consideredthe same as tìât oí IgbÕ ãnd many other languâgês;ê.9.,
359
VEÂgÀL CoNsÍEUcÍroNs rN NrcEÂ-CoNco
no fééle (.mo ré ilç) In languâgesthich dô not have an inii.itive iorm, it appea6 tìat the ìortâtive is typicaìly used in both types of expresions,whether thè peúomer of tle desiredaction is diffeÌent Ircm or the sameas the ?e6on wanüng. E.9., Dryr Kteììe: Bâriba:
m Ìr sYom yâ Ìn Ìi syõ kú ya !a ivâlii ÌJáli !â ìwclii é Ìi na ki n tasu dJõrã nâ ki ü tâsu dá'ã
'Ì wàít him to sellyâús'
Very commonly,â hortaüve is usedaiter anotler verb to exp.esspermission, necessity,pu.pose,and the Ìike. Etik, Íor cxâmple,usesâ hortâtive âfter /yàk/ 'Ìremit', /nà/ 'be necessâÍy',ând /màn/ (not s€parat€Ìyidentilied.but introducing â lurpose clânse). The Efü hoúative is chârâcterized bl highlow replacing stem ton€ with the verb. E.9.,
üâ yâk Étit lkô ú má íyàk é9ó! úIòk ánàtkpêp òwèt ákánàúkpèpÌlwèt í!àm útómmànúbá òkúk
'iet's go
'I'm woÌking to ea.n hôney'
InBariba, tle hortãtive is trsedalter a no.pheme/ko/ to fôh the Íegülâr€xpressionfo. future action; it is posible thât this is ultimately derivedfron' ân dpression somethinglike 'let me do it'. E.g.. 'I'm goingto buy yms' In Ba.iba, as in Kpelle, an identicaÌconstÌuctionis usedto expressactionsalter 127. Rele.encevas nade in 12.2aboveto â distinctionin someÌanguages betweenstãtiveand âctiveverbs. In âddition,someÌangììages hâle a disünct úative construction.Sucha conúructionis treqúentìyreslrictedto â ìimited nünbe. of verbs, particula.ly verbs Ìike Stand up , 'sit down , 'lie dow! , fo. which the lresnt constructionÌefersto the lrocessof getting into the posiüon.efeüed to, but the st€tive Ìefers to being in that position. In KpeÌle, the stative usesthe sameconstructionmaÌker as the pr.sent, but the ve.b root ìras a suftix /-nì/ nther thàn /-i/. E.9., 'heì getting to his leet'
a tâ5ni
-
káa trSni
In Igbo, the stativê is usedonly with a limited numbe. oÍ nonosyllâbiclerb Dots; it ìs charâcte.ized by loìy Íepìacing stm tone sith the verb Ìoot. The
360
ÀFRrc^N L^NGU^GE Snlc&REs
tollo$ing âre the cóDmonestjthe last two are stâtivesfollo{ed by a verbalnoun, Ioming the auxiliary-typeincompl€tiveând futnr€ constructiols:
ódinébéÀ ójiégó
'it is (identiriedat a pot' 'it is (desoibahlêãs)good' 'it is (locatedât) here' 'he/sheìs (locatedât) here 'he hâs (with hin) money'
ó bi Onìcà 'hô is (in thê prccessor) cohing' ln norlhern dialects,statives a.e nrore commonlyusd, especiallywith vêrbs (or verb phras€s)havjng a desoiptìvemeaning,whicì in othe. diãlectsãre us€d in ìhe factâtive (cf. 12.2abov€). Someexamples,sith the nonnorthernfoms in ó Ììwèé gó (ó lwère é,9ó) (ó pèrèÈpé) ó pè úpé
'he has (owns) money
In Bariba,úâtile lo.ms âre Ìecordedlof â nunber of verbs,largelywith inceplivemeãning.The fomations areapparentlyrotheri.reguhr. Someexâmples comparingtìe hortative (*hich is the lo.m Ircm which othe. verb fomô are most Ìeadily de.ived)with the stative are: tr-irã
tr-rri tãü
kiã
ki
EqüaÌly i.reguìaÌ end ever suppl.tive forns. brst ânâlyz€dlormally as statives, ârêusedin placcof the continuâtivelor the commonverbs '8o', 'coDe',and 'do'. Ssahili hâs â constructionçhich, while not restrictedto â smâÌÌntrnber of v€rls. is unusualin its iomation. It js ío.medwith a norpheme/hu1 betoÌethe base,ând the coDDon suffix /-al alter the base. No subject concordsa.e used $ith lhis coníruction: â prcnominâl subj€ct is exp.e$€d by atr indeperdent p.onounform, usedlikc â noun. Tlis conúrucüonis d€scÌibedby Ashton (19,14, p. 38) as occuning "in contextswhjch imply habitDaloÍ Íecürent âction, âpaú fron üme-" The mphâsis, how€v€r,is not on tì. habituâl oÌ customarynãtüre of it; the .onstrucüonis of the actioD,but rather ôn the inevitâbÌenãtDraln€ss much more of a statile. Thus, when one says:
361
VERB^L CoNsÌRUcrroNsN NrcER{oNco
one is not Ìetening so much to tle daily Ìtabit oi cows ãs to "the nâtüre ol the bêâst." Âslton observesthàt this cÕnstrüctionìs commonlyfound in pÌoverbs and aphoÌisms-pÌecisely the kind oÍ idioD that commonÌy refe6 to the state ol affaiÌs. 12.a. Another idea Írequeltly expre$edby a simpÌeãnd independcntverbâÌ constructio! ratìer than by clausalsyntax is "hyJ'otletical." In EIik, the construction maÌke. fo. üe hypotheticaÌ ìs /kpv-/, in which the vowel is d€termined by voweÌhamony; the referenceis to actionwhich would take place. Past hypolhpti.al aclion i' erfrê\sedby âddingthe pasl coF\lrucüonmarkpr/kÚ - . or alternâtiveìyìy nsinga .eduplicâtedform ot the vüb ìâse. E.g., Íkpé dép ÌhbòÍó iìkné'kédeDÍhbòró ì ',' . ,. , '. , Ìlkpedeocl mloro II
'I would buy banãnas' .. I rould hâveboughlbânânds
As migit be expected,such construclionsâre conmodlv usedvith another cÌaüserlor thc ábowc,for exàmple,'but I don't /didn't hâvemo.ey'. Thêy arê alsousedin contraÌy-tojact conditions. In Efik, the cÕnditionâlclâuseis introducedby the wo.d /èdyékè/,which seemsto lunction lile a noun; it is followed by tÌre hypotheticaÌin â .elative construction,Ío.med with â suÍÍix /-dé/. The coíclusionis a hypotheticâÌas illDú.ated aboÌe. The clânsesmay âppear in either order. E.9., Èdyékèlkpé ténédéôkúÌ, ikpé dép Ììbò.ó úkpéké'dépdìbòró,Èdyékè Íkpé'ké'Íénédéòkúk
'II I had noney, I $ould 'I wôrld hàle bought banâíâs
In Swâhiìi,â pÌeseútand a last hypothetrcâlsilì sinilar üsesâre fÕrmed by the conúructionnã.kers i-nge1 ãnd /-ngaÌi-/Ìespectively;the latter may welÌ be a combinationoI the lomer sitì the pãst constructiônmàrk€r /-li-/. These constÍuctronsare usedin both thê conditionaÌclauseand the concÌüsionin contrary-to-fact condiüons:the conditjonalclauseDay optionallybe introducedby the word /kama/. The tenpoÈl distinctjo. is not Ìigidìy observedby aìì speakers, but the conúrucüonsrecosnizedas standârdârel
'if youwouldlooklor it. 'iÍ youhâdìookedfor it, tou *oüÌd ìâ!e loündit' In Kp€ÌÌe,â construction with similãruseshasa special neaningwhenused in isotation,wlich l€d me to Ìâbelthe conslruclion "desid€Ìatile"iit expr€ses an actionwhichthe subjectwish€swonldtake llac€ oÌ hid tak€r !Ìace. ltis fomed with a suffixi-il âfterthe subjectp.onoun,andlow toneÌeplacingúem iNis usedin both clauses with tonevith the verb. lÍ contrâry-to-fact conditions, 'lìere presnt andpast. E.9., Íothing added. is no distinctionbetween (kamâ)ünSalikitafutâ,
362
AFRÌCN LNcu^cE
SnucruREs
'Iwishhewould (/hãd)come', ironlyhe would (/hâd)coÌne' èi pà èi pà, rJàilì 'ir he woüÌd cohe, I would go', if he hãd come, I would nave gone ln Igbo, the hypotheticaÌ corstruction is deÌived from the future. The Íuture uses the stative of the verb /!gái 'go and a verbâl íoun. À stãtive úth past referenceis fomed by dÕubÌing the voweÌ ol the v€rb root âÍd âdding th€ factâtiÌe suÍlix *ìich conâistsof /ri plus the precediügvoí'eÌ repeated; the entire lorm hâs los tonê. The hypotheticalis Íomed wiLh lhis Íorm oÍ /igs/ touowedby a verbaÌ noun. Used by itselr, tÌre.e is nó disütrction betw@! pr$ent and past;
ó gààráàbyà
'he would (have)come'
In contÌary to fâct conditions,this hytothetical constructionis lsed only in the cotrclusion.The conditionis introducedby the ph.ase/á si nà/ 'if one sÀysthat', foÌloved by ân ordinâry verbâl consìruction which in nost câseshss â cleâÍ refeÌence to !Ìesent or past time. E.9.,
á si nàó nà àú ó'Ìú, ó gààràè!wé é'gó ó gàà.àè!wéé'gó
'if he weÌeworking,he would hâvemoney' would have (had)money'
12.9. Most languagesâlso have a condiúônâÌ dnstruction whìch is used âbove,/á sí/ 'ir one sâys' is only in subordinâteclâuses;in the Igìo sentences sDchâ constrDction.A conment âboDtE.glish Dseswill heh in dplâiniúg mnditionels in NigeÌ-Congo languagês. We oÌdinarily think of a conditionál cÌáu* as a cÌauseiltroduced by 'if'; by coútrâú, we thiúk of â cìauseintrodücedby 'whên' âs t€m?oÌâÌ. Thus ve gÌoup claus* such as 'when he came'ând 'when he coms'together, in contrastwith 'if ìe comes'. Ánother g.oupiÍg, however, is eÍtirely logicaÌ. OÍ the three clauses,'when he cane'refers tô â known time in the Dast- On the other hâDd.both 'shen he comes'and 'if he com@'.efer to somethingwhich has not yet happened,and technicállywe àre not poútivê ol the üúe in eithei case. The dilference betwêen these two clâuss in EngÌsh is úât 'when ìe côhes' inpües thât his coming is fully expected,while 'iÍ he 6mes'implies thãt it is dubious; 'ü he shouÌd come'exp.Nes ân even lower degÌee of dpectability. Such degreg oÍ expectability are not obligâtorily distingüishedin mâny lânguages; th€ sme €apresion nây be translatabÌeae 'when he comes or 'if he comes. In ã randomsãmplingof Englisht ansÌations oí KpeÌle conditionalsby two itrÍoÌmants,'wìen' and 'il' were usedby eachwith appróximâtely eqúâl freqúency, büt not with the sme distÌibDtioú by the two. Such conditional coDstructions are used in Dost Nig€r-CongoÌangüag€swith nG thing like a conjunction coÌreslonding to ouÌ iI t th€ construcüon alone tu the condition. In KpelÌe and some otheÌ Ìanguages,a loweÌ degÌee oÍ qp€ctâhìlity, reguÌârÌyretlectedby 'iÍ' in translâtions,may be specüiedìy intmducinga coídiüonãl úth anothêr condiüonâI, of À v€Ìb whiú may be translÊted âs rber.
VEMd
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Thè Kpêllè conditionâlusesâ conúrüctionmârker /-à/ combinedwith pronouns, ãnd Ìow tone r€placingstm tone with ihe vêrb. Thê lirst ol the lÕllowingerâm, Dleshâsone conditionaì.ând the secondhâst}/o: à tà, !a pâi lii À kÈ à pà, !â !âi lli
'when/iÍhe comes,I will go 'if he comes,I siìl go'
The ICboconditionâÌ, as notedin 12.6âbove,is identicalwith whatloÌlovs includingzero /kà/ in the hoÌtâtiveithe verbhâsa vowelsülfix,with âllomorphs underdefinableconditionr.À ìowdegree oÍ expectability may be expr€$edby intrcducingâ condiüonâÌ with ió búrú nà/ 'ir it is that. E.9., mééyá,i gààhú'yá 'rhen/if he do€s it, you ll see it' 'iI he does it, you'lÌ see it' é búrú nà ó héé ,yá,i gà àhú yá The Etik condiüonâI,lormed by low tone replaciúgstem tone with subject pronoun3(and witì resultantambiguities.esolvedby usingnominalindependent Fonoun forms), se€msinhe.ently to expressa loweÌ deg.ee of expectability üan is the câseiD Ínary other lângüages.It is a ìigher degreeof expectabilitythât is optionaÌly exprês*d by somethingâdded; the coúditionãlof â verb /mái, not othevise att$ted in â meaningthat seemsappropriateto tÌris combination,introducesãnotherconditionaÌto giv€ â rôugh equivâÌentôl 'when'. Thus: èté Iò èdi, ídìküt èyé èté lò àná àdi,údüüt àÍé
'if youÌ lather coDes,I tl seehim' 'when yoür fâtheÍ cones, I'Ìl seehim
In S*aìili, a singleconstructionuring a marker /-ki/ and the connon süffix is /-a/ us€das a condition,and aìsoin a way lhât seensquite differentto us, paÌâÌleürgthe EÍglish paÌticiplein a sentence like I ew him coming. On the basis oÍ the latter usâg€,this hâs freqüêntlybeencâlledthe "pâÌticipiâl tense"(l)- A semanticlink betweentle two usescan be seenin the ide of 'when'. E.g., ukimtâIutâ, utamwónâ niÌimwona âÌinitâIuta
'when/ifyouÌooklor him, you will lind hin' 'I saw him looking for m€'
The sãmeconúrücüon,which mieht perhapsbetter be labelled'timultaneous" to Ìellect its Ìangeof usage,is u6edafte. foms oI the ÌeÌb /kura/ 'be' to express conüruousor customaryaction in other ihân the presenÌ. E.8., 'he was looking foÌ me , 'ìe lsed to look lor me Seâhili hâs two othêr cônstructiónsusedin suboÍdinãtecìâüsesodÌy, which mây be caÌled"concesive,"lrrâlleÌing English clausesintroducedby 'although'. One or ìhese,úsiÍg the conúrucúonnarke. /-nga-/ ând the sufiir /-âl, expr€sses a concession of something actual. The othe., using the construction marke. /-jãpo-/ and thê snffix /-ai, €xpre$esa concesionol somethiDgsuppositionel; the constructionmâÌk.r is â derivationffon the ve.b /kuja/ 'come'and a .elative foh with a s€nseìike wheneverr. Thesetwô concesivesare not âìwãvs shaÍlly distiígúished. Exahples âre:
ArRr.Àx LlNcü^cÉ SÍRUcÍuÀEs
364 angafanyakezi, hana Íedha âjálof ânyá kâzi, hângekusa
'althougì heworls, he doesnthavemoney' 'even il he w€Ìe to work, he wouìdn't hav€
I knos oÍ no caseoutsidetheBÀntu lânguages wher€a concesiveideais ininto ã bâsic v€Ìbâl corpo.ated const.uction. 12.10. A greâì mâny lânguâgeshave â specjaìverbâl constructionusedto rel€r to actionsalter the lirst in a sequentials€ries.Sucha constructionmay be as noted in the lollowing section,â lãbêl€d"consecutive."(In somelânguages, secondtyte of v€rb s€quence Dust be Ìecognized.IÍ sucha sequence Ìequiresa speciâlverbaì conúruction.the Ìab€Ì 'tequential" is suggested.The two terms shouldthereforenot be us€dintelchang€ably.)A consecltiveDay be usedalt€r ony conúrüction.€feÍi.g to the Ii.st âctioni in itsell, the cons€cutive has no rÈ ÍereÍce to tine, asp€ct, or ode-the reference ôl the lirst verb applies thrcughln Klelle, Ìhe consecutiveis identical in loÌn with th€ hortâtive (cf. 12.6 above);Ì'igh tone r€pìacesstem tone with subjectpronouDÊ, aúd tÌte verb hâs no (oÍ a zeÌo)âfiix. The two ideâscoívergeiú s€ntences in which the secôndâctioÍ mây be interpretedas the püÌposeÕt the lirst. E.g., è lì !ò k!âìâi [á é tii ké (cf.: è tíi kÈ 'he sorked') a pâi lii !ò kpâlai tá é tii ké 'ti lì à so!-kâu 'ti mâna! yá, 'ti iili'ü òii
'he rent to his faÌm and woÌked (/ to vork) 'he's going to go lo his larn ând woÍk' fiey took money and bought cassavaând cookedand ãte it'
In infomal nârrâtive,especiâllyin Íolk úori€s, the sameconstructionmay also be us€dto refeÌ to the first action in the seÌiesas well as lat€. actions;the ÌefeF eDceis assuhedto ìe to pâsttine. In â seriesincìüdiíg selerâÌâctions,â sentencete.minal tause mây occur,ald the nqt constructìonmay still be a consecutive. Kpelle hãs quite i distinct constrüctioí,ând â peculiârone ìy com!âÌison pith other construchonsin tÌ'e languag€,to expressaÍ acüon simültaneous vith one previouslymeltioned. The logical '\ubject" ol tìe BimuÌtaneous acüon is .apresed âs the object or the vê.b /ké/ in its stêm(: singulaÌimperativ€)Iom; elserhere,trânsitilely, this verì meâns 'do' or 'frâke'. Thb is folÌowedby the main verb, with low tonê replacingúen tone. E-g., è ÌÈ yéhì 'he was Ìaugìing ; è kÈ srlôi he was cÍying i è kè yÉlêì kÉ wJâ he was Ìâughingand crying (at the sametime)' 'ti 6á mìi they ate'; kú tii kÈ'{€worked':'ti 6ámìi,kúkÉ tii kè 'th€y âte and se vorked' cI. 11.5),it has heennot€d úat ln expressìons of locatjon(inciudingpossêssion; the verb ikÉl is used (iotraneitively) with relerence to alythiÍg other than the preseDt. In the simultaleouscolstruction alole, tÌris js rellaced by the verb /6ó/, whôserânge Õt freâning elsewher€includes'âppêâr'. E.g.,
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íâ! káâ nãa 'my tather is lìere i úâÌl è kÈ naa ny Íâiher was thcÌe : 'ti lì'pÉrêi nü, íâÌl k; Êò nãa 'they *ent into the house.ond my father t e káa ìyéo 'he ìas â chicken'i téê è kÈ nyéeì 'he hâd a chicken: nÉú tònõè sìye'pÉr€inü, téekÉ6Òòyéeì 'a womancameout otthe house carryingâ chicken ln using construct'oDslike the KpeÌle consecutiveand simultaneous,it is most imloúanl lo note thât th€re is nothing like â ronjünctìonjoining !e.bs or senteíces.Nounsmay be conjoin€d,olten in Nays simìlarto Engìislì(cÍ. 10.22), but it is .aÌe to find a languagein which v€rbs a.e conjoin€d;the constructions themseìvesindicai€ a folìowingor simultan€ousactjon. SimuÌtaneous conúructions do not ãppearto be widesl.ead in Niger-CongoÌanguages. but consecutive coústructionsâre hequently toundi in some laneuâges,consecutiveand simultaneousâctiod âÌe not grammaticaìlydistinguished,ând the labcÌ "consecutjve" may be tâken âs referringsinply to consecuti!€verbs in a scntcncc,trot neccs sarily to coDsecutive actionsin time. with the constructionmârker /-kâ-/ ând tLe sullix Swahilihas a consecutive primârily used though not eÍcÌusilely *ith the tiFt verb in the past. E.9., /-ai, nilikw€ndasokoni,nikanünua (cf.: nilinunuandizi
'l went to the mâ.ket and bought ba-
I
The sameconstructionmaÌÌer i-ka-/ may alsobe usedwiih the sutiix /-€/, which with no consÍüction tuarker lorms the hortatile, This combinâtionexpresses pDrpose.E.9., nitakwendasokoni.nikânunuc ndizi
l'm going to go to lhe markci to (i.nd) buy bananas'
In both KpeÌle and Swahili,a subject pronouìÌú Ìequiredwiih tle consecutive even if the two or more actionsare perlomed by the samesubject, This is not trüe jn all languag€s.ID Igbo. tìe consecutive sith thc sâmesubjectconsistsol ã verb basewith lovd sultix (\'ith ihe üsuãl allomo.tls, includingzero, thât ha!€ beenmentionedin severaÌother coniextt, wiih no subjectpronoun. E.g-, ó bà.à n'úlò nécié úzò
'he $ent in the house ãnd s}ut the door'
If a new subjectis int.oduccdlor ân actionâtter the first, it may consistoI a subject pronounwith Ios tone. Ir it is a noun subj.ct, lhe verb hâs â prelix /à-/ 0t /è-/ (dependingon vowel ha.nony); if hish tone rollo$s,the tone ot the prctix has the aÌternantdownstep-hjghafte. high. ActjonsÌeúorned ìy dìtterentsúbjects, aDd so expre$ed,mây be simullâneoús.E.è-,
366
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L^NGúÁGE SrRUcruREs
'wewenthomeand I took a bath' ânyÍlàÍàúlò,nl sáá áhìr (cr.:á sàràú àhú 'I took 'wewenthone andOkoyecooked(food)' ànyi ÌàÌà(rlò,ÔkóyèèsÍê 'OkoyecoÕked) (cf.: Okóyè si.i úri ànyi ÌàE úÌ0, ínà ú 'áúpá 'we went home and my íâther ó'rú yá, ìné ú 'ésió eot ât his work, my mother ú ri, Ìh dééák{ú}wó cooked,and I wrote a Ìette.' (cf.: únà ú rÈwàràórú yá 'hy íâther got ât his work'; iné 'ú sirì nÌi 'my motheÌ cooked'r é dèrè È ákwúkwó 'I wrote a lette.') The auxinâry v€rb /nái is usedin the stãtive,tollowedìy â verbâl noun, to lom the incompletive. The consecutive may be used with /ná/ and a verbal noun to expres simultaneous actiors with an incomtletive reference; e.g., há nà èÍi n'ri, ná À!ú ú,nányá, ná àkpá Íkàú
(cr.:há nà ànúúmányá
'Th€y are (/sere) eâting âÍd drinkirg ând chatting'
theyaredrinking(booze);
they are cônveming') há nà àkpá lkàtá nìnú nÀ Àkwádéìéú,ri, Ôkóyè I'm getüng food Ìeády, ând Okoyeis getting out dishes' àíá èwépütá éléré (ci.: Okóyènà èwépütáêléré 'Okoyeis getting out dishes') The consecutiveis nôt o.dinâ.iÌy used after ân imperãtiveimore thãn one imThe consecütive is Dsedin someother constÌucleEtive may appearin sequence. tions oi a subordinât€nature,wìich a.e not .elevantto the presentdiscussion. In âddition to the consecutiv€,ISbo has sequentiaÌconstructionswhich will be distingüishedând discused in the foÌlosing section. 12.14. Commonto a lârge ntrmberôf W€st Àfricàn lânguâgesis â syntactic phenomenongêneraÌly knosn as 'te.iaÌization," sometimes .€fered to as 'te.ial veÌbs," ând Ìâthe. naively calledby sone Ì?lit verbs." The uss of consecutive constructionsas descnbedin the !Ìeceding ection ãre not instancesof serializâtion in the lroper senseol the wo.d. Some languagesdistinguish two types oÍ verb sequenc€,one of üm using a consecutiveas dGcribed above for verbs âlter the first, and tÌ'e othe! using someother construction in at l@st $me commay be calìed'ihebinations. Speciâltoms usedìn the secondtyte ol sequence gôod, quentiaÌ"i 'terjalization" is â disìinctivetâhel for the entirê seqúence. SeriaÌizationhas attrâcted the attentiod ol â nDmberol gmduâte students in linguisticsin Ìecent years,and seveÌalunpublishedpapershave beenwritten on the subject Íron the viewpoint ol trânsformaüonãl-genemüve gÌmmâr. AÌÌ of the writers agrêê thài ãn adeqÌãte treatment is düIicuÌt and pe.haps imposibÌe sithin the ÍEÍrework of cunelt g.anmatical models. Noneol the wrii€Ìs has beenentirely sâtisfiedwith his osn t.eatmentot the subject. I wiu not prestrmeto suggesta comleting treãtúent, but *ill only outline the datâ frcm some languagesin as cìêârand systematica way as losible.
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IÍerely defininglhe problen, ôr stâtingthe circuústâncesunderwhichse.ialiation appea.s,i. diÍlicult enough. An cxânple írom IBbowill b€ nsedas a stârtitrg point: ó bü lbú àgá á hyá
'he'scarryingâ Ìoadto market'
The ÍiBt ve.b foÌm in this sentenceis /bü/, the stative of the verb /Íbú/, which Ìtasthe basicmeaning hâve on oneÌ heâd . The secondvoò iÕrn is /àgái, the verbal noun of /i'gá/ 'go'. The enti.e sentencemay be.€p.esent€dby he hâs â Ìoad on his head going to mãrk€t. The questionis, what is distinciive âbout â sentencelike this as opposedto a sentencein $hich the consecutiveis used? Fo. Igbo, il nây be an âdequãtedelinition to sây thât the âbove type oÍ constructionis used,.athê. thân an inmnpletive ând â mnsêcutive,if the first veÌb is one or those ve.bs that nomãlly appeaÌs in üe stâtive with reference to presenttime. Efik, however,ãlso has two dilfeÍent constructions,and an exãminÀtionof a largê body ol dâtâ reaealsdifierencesin usageor meaú.g that are strikingly simil.r to the dillerencesi! the Igbo constructions;yet EÍik hás no speciatsubcÌâs oI v€rbs with â distinctiveúse âpârt from these sequeÍces. Ânother Êuggestion tìât may be mâde is that the actiors in this câseâre iúelitably simultâÍeous.Thât may be t ue,but it doesnot seenÌto be distinctive. In both IÉbo and EIik, the consecutive may reler to a sìmultan€ous ãcüon, and the inevitâbility of the simuÌtatreity is a rather tenuous notion. It has rrequentlybeen obsqved that serial costrucüonsseemto be used foÌ actions thât ârê prúicuÌârly clôseÌy related to êãch Õther. Indêed, in manv câsês, âs the ãbove eumpÌe iÌlustrates. the serialized veÌbs mây be trânslat€d by a singÌeEnglishveÌb ând â preposition,and in somecasessimply by a single vdb. The close interrelàüonship ol the actions ent€rs into my own cârlier descriptionsoI suchsequencesin both Igbo (seeWelmersandWeÌDe6l96Eb,pp. 161(see 1968a, pp. ô8-84). I haveneve.beenenti.el] sâtisfied Etik Weìmers 64) and with thos dêsc.iptions, howêver; âgâin, close inter€lâtionship âppêârs to be â Ìâther teÍuous concept. Perhapsa moÍe satislactoÌyapproâchwould be in t€rms ot the subject or subjectsinvoÌved. It a consecutiveis used.it mây oi couse ìâve the smê subject (whethcr exp.€ssedor not, dependingon the Ìanguâge)âs the lirst verb. if it i!, the A new subject,hovever,Írây als be intrcdücedwith â ôonsecutive; relâüonshiphetweenthê actionsis not seriouslyaltered. For exâmple,â consecutive wôold be üsedin lgbo in the equivâl€dtol eiúer 'he .€ttrrnèdhome ând cooked'or 'he retumed ìone and I cooked';in either câse,therewas â retuÍnìng hoÌne and then a cooking,and the identity or nonid€ílity ol the sübjech is inci dental to the sequenceoÍ the two âctions (or even their simDltaneityin other sert€nces).On the otìer hâ.d, â sêquentialmust be üsed id the equivâledtÒI 'he is caÌrying a load to market , âs illust.atedabove;ifone personhasa load on his h€adand ãnotheÌgo€sto market, the situâtion desdibedis totâììy difiêrentthe loâd neve. gets to nârket. SeriaÌization, in short, seemsto involve actions tlat canìe asociated with eachother onìy iÍ they are pe.Io.med by the sane subject.
368
AmrcN LdcuÀcE SnucÌuREs
In Igbo, as noted above. it is âlso tIúê that tìe fi.st verb must be selected f.om the subclas for which the stâtire is üsedto dpres preeent time. Two bâsic types oí serializâtion nuú be distinguhhed. In the IiNt, ve.bs âltêr the liNt âÌe in the verbal noun foÌm. NoÌmâìly, if thê iìrst verb is in the úative, the refê.€rue is to !Ìes€nt tine; il the lirst verb is in the incompletive, tìe relerence is to cìrstoma.y action. In one conmon cônbination, howeve., the fiÌst v€rò is in th€ stâtive ând the refeÌeDceis nevertìeless to customâry âction. Sone ÊlqkeN ale use the tirst verb in the Íuture in this type of se.iaÌizãtion, with referencetó Íuture actioni àn ìnstan@ of tìis js inclüd€d in the exan!Ìes below. with an ãst€Ììsk tô iídicate tÀat it is Dot universally acce?ted. ExampÌes oI this tirst type of seriâÌizâtion aÌe âs folÌows, with pareÍthesized glose Ìellectitrg the stÌucture ib more há nò D'ócéàk!á úkàtá 'they'Ìe sitting ând chattiDg' ('they sit on chaiN holding conve.stion') ó jì úcà àsáá'ká 'heì waÊhinghis hândswith soap' ( he hãs soapwashinghãnds') glni kà t jì úÍnà ú èmé 'what â.e you doing with my knife?' ( whât is it you havemy kÍile doing?) 'wìere âre you drirn'g to?' éòé 'óÌé kà i nyà úgbóàgá ( which placeis it you propelvehiclegoing?) 'hê ridesâ bicycleto ìis farÌn' ó nà ányà igwèàgá ú gbó yá ('he prcpelsircn eoing-to his fam ) 'he seÀrs â câp ât wôrk' ó nà é'kpú ,ókpú àrú ó'ú ( he w€arscâp doing work ) ó nâ éji ánú èté óÍè ,tóÌó útó hhe coôksdeliciousmeât soup' ('she hâs meat cookingsoup which is deücious') '{hÀt do you usêthât íor?' Éi'ní kà i nÀ éjì ìkè áhü èmé ( {hat is it yÕu hâve thât thing doiÍg?') agÍni kà i gà éji ìkè áhü èné 'whât a.e you goingto do sith that?' ('whãt is it you wiÌl have thãt thidg doing?r) The exceptionâÌ usge in which the stative sith the first verb reÍêN to customary rath€r than presentaction is in dp.esions ol manneri thes€wilÌ be tÌeated in chapter14 in anothercontext. Th€ second type ot se.iaÌ construction uses the con*cutive foÌm fo. verbs after the first-' It is thus like the ordina.y use of the consecuüve alter ânother veÌb, âs describedin the preceding secüon. With the Íirst veÌb, the stãtive refeÉ to past time; in somediâlects, a special foÌm lor these vêrbs, specüicàlÌy relening ! we have,ho (weìmex and Ì'elnds 1e63b)ro.osÌized rhc ve.b altemativc IoÌ the consecütivc. Thts ndy be dcccptâble lor s ther thk rpÌdent3 ân eror in ou. early tn.soiptlonri beeus. ol lh. phonêtlc rêdlratlon oi vo{el &quencé, lbê Dr6encè ol thè vovel snllix cha.acte.istlc ol tlìe con.êcuttw k oltên dlitlcuL to detecr lnd i.dscd, ir rs âpparénuy not srde,y used.
VERBÀL CoNsrÂucrroNs N NrcER-CoNGo
36C
to pâst time, may be used. Other.onstrúotionsare obviousnr reir reference, Examplesâre: há nÒn ócékpáá úkàtá 'they sât ând chàtleÍl' ('they sit on châi.sand-holdconversation) ó bü ibú gáá á hyá 'he caüied a load io nìârket' ('he Ìtâson-heâdload and-goes-to mâ.ket ) há sò anyigáá ,Ábá 'they went to Aba with us' ( they âccompanyus and'go-ioÀbr') ó yì üwé'máráú'má gááóméré'sle woreâ prelly dre$ to lhu pãrly' ('she weãÌs dresswhich is bcatrlìlul and-goentopaúv') 'you won t be abìè to fir thrt i eághièÌlwéIké i ji óshi (irh ã \ri.^ nezF ,lkèáhü ('yotr wiÌl-not have strengthto-lÌaveslick âtrd-fi! tl)âi ) kâ ó nyàá ú,gbóú gáá Ábá 'he shouìddrire my câr to A!â' ( he shouÌdpro[,eìny vehicleând go,tÕAba ) he didn't drive here' ò nyághìúgbó byá ('he didn't-propelvehicleand-come') 12.12 The stituation in EÍik is quite siDìlar to l.hat ir Igbo, includnìglhc Iact thât the verb lórm usedas a sequentialin otrr lIpe of s.riâìizâlionis aho Ísed âs a con*cütive. Five typesol sc.iâlizationmnst òe distinguish€d. Firsl, imperativesor horiâlivcs mat be used in sequencewith no special squentiâl foúns. E.g., dá ikwâ di 'brnrg a hrìt" ( take kniie conc ) 'brild x râbl,' nrrn okpokorÒ dr ('lift tâblc come) dá ikçà imi sibéúnàm 'c{t ihe mert *ith this knife' ('take knile this cut nìeãt ) nám úlóm ínl n5 mi do this wofk lof nre' ( do work this sne me ) ádâ Édl 'he sìroultlbrn,g it' ( he$hould-tâkche{lìould-conÌc) úyòm ánâm útón inó ti 'I waDt ìrirDio work lor Iou' ('l-want he$ould-do work hGsì)oulÍl-give voü ) Second,after ân inlinilive (Nhich has the infiÌritjve prefiÌ /ídi-i), lerìrs irÌ se.ieshâveã prelix /àt. E.9., 'try ro ìfidg nÌoney' dómó údidá òkúk ìdi ('t.y to-toke mon€y and-coÌne) rlyòn ídináDì útóm ìnò fi I w,nt 10 sork lìr yon' ('l-want to-do work and-giveyou') ídwàk údidúk mótò ìkà 'I intend io go ly câr ( I-intend to-ente. car and-go')
370
AFRTCN L^Ncu^cE SÍRUcÍuREs
The thi.d type ol s€quential is us€d âIter À verb in the present oÌ past cont.astive construction witÌr the contrasted item pÌeceding the verb (or, iÍ the cãse of â lew qDeúionsords Õnly,opüonâllytolÌowingthe verb). AfteÌ such a veÌb, the sequentiâlconsistsol the subjectproÍoon .epeatedand the verbal bas. By way of @nt.ast rith othe. sequentiâls,it shouìdhe noted thât in this one the subject prÕnoudshâve rheh úem tone, ahich is high in somecase and low in others, aDd tÌ'e verb base âìso hâs its Ìeicâl ton€; further. there is no dôwnst€D âfter the pronóun, Exâmplesof this type áre: 'wìÕ brcught thesebanaÍâs?' ( wlo took bananathis he-come ?) nsòútòm Ì(é àká'Dámònòè9é 'what kind oI work did you do fo. him?' ('whât wôrk is-il yoú-did you-givehin?') ìsò ké édáédi 'vhat are they bri.ging' ('what is-it th€y-a.Ètãkingthey-6me?) ànyè áká dá úbò.ó Éhi Édi
The Iourth type of sequentiali6 usedolly afte. the iuture contEstive @Dstruction. In the ÍiBt peNon singulâ..the sequentialhâs thê prelix /À-/, inteÌpreted âs the li6t peNon subj€ctprcnounwith Ìúw replacingstm tone. In all other persons,the more commonusageappearsto be that the seqüenüalhasthe pÍelix /ì-/; alterÍatively, however,the awrop.iate 6ubjectpÌoloun may be ued, wìth low replacingsten tone. In addiüon, thc ve.bâl bâsein this sequentiaÌhâs thê tonesìighìow, wìich are alsochaÌacteristicof the luture cont.astivewhich precedes.Exanpl€s ol this type aÌe: ikwâ Émìkpót ké ídidâ itkâ this kniie is aÌl I'm ('knife this only it is I-wiÌìlâke l-go') 'whãtk h€ goingto hring?' iìsò kè Édidà ,di (- . . . Edi) ('whât is-it he-wilÌ-tâkesubj.-come?) The third sequentiâlabove is also used after the generalpresentâíd pãsi n€gâtiveconsÍüctions,ând the loürih âfter the generalfuture negative. These negatives a.e. in foÌm. derived Írcm tìe contrastive constÌuctions wìich requüe Tìe tifth type of s€quentiaÌis usedalter other verbal @nstructioN. Th€se incÌudè the noncontnstive @nstructions.and the presentând pâst cort astive with the cont.asted item (otle! tÌran a queúion word) lollosing the verb. Àlter these.the seqúentiâÌhâs â subjêctlronoün sith high tone replãcingstem tone, followed by dornstep (Ìealiz€d only beroÌe high totre, or couÌse). For â pÌonoun whosestem tone is high and a verb whos€òâsetone is low oÌ ÌÕ*hi8h, üis sequentiaÌis the saDeas a sequenüaÌof the third type; bút in otheÌ câses,the two diffe. in the tone ol the pronounioÌ in the p.esenceoI downúep,or bolh. ExampÌesor this type are: ákádàòkúk ídi ('hÈtook money h€-cúne')
VERB^L CoNsrRUcÌroNs'N N'cER-CoNco
371
ìyé'dépúnàm i'sók Íi we re goingtÕ buy meat ior your ('wê will büy hêât wadelìveFto you') 'he s wo.king ior ne ánàm útóm órà ni ('he-ìs-doing work he-give n€ ) yotr re wolking tor me ànàmútóm ónòmi ('you-aÌe-doingwoÌk you-giveme') Ìn the light of úis lâst sequentiâlconst.üction,it is clear that the neutrâì paú constructionis itseli a sequential,though âppãrentlyvith a slight inegul aÌity. The first verb is undoubtedlylrom the root /hà/ 'fullill, accomplish',and its low tôúe appeâNâlter a p.onounwith Ìow tone. Alter a p.onounwìth high tone. howeve.,it hâs the €xc€ltionaltone downsteFhigh,appârentlyby âsinìiÌâtion to úe prêcedingând fonówinghigh tones. Thus: iÌnà i'di ú,má ú'di
I came
( we-accomplish ve cone') ( I-âcconplishl-come)
A speciaÌvariety oÍ the ìast threeot the typ€sol s€quentials desc.ibedabove involvesactionsin vhich coning or goingis involred. The tirst verb È olten but not necesarjìyâ lerb of ftotion. ln the sequentiallorn. in the conúrüctionnârkêr position,/di/ (fÌom the ve.b 'come) is Dsedit the actioninvolvescoming,and /kV/ (sith ã hârmonizingvôvel, but lrom the verb /kà/ 'go') is usediÍ the âciion involvesSoin8. OtheNise, ihe three seqüenÍâìsa.e as describedabove, vith one ex@ption:tìe foúÍth tyPe, trsedaÍter the Íuture contrastiveand luture neSative,does nôt hâve the expectedhigÌ'ìov tone sequenceâlld the pronôün, but rathe. high roìlowedby the lexical tone ol the bâse. Àn exampleol eachoI the three seqüenúaìsin questio! is as foÌlows;the lâú, using the neutrâl pâsi, wouÌd proòablynot be acceptableto â speker oI Efik in the contextoI the pre, ceding questions,but it is peúectly appropriateâs an ânswerto the queúion ànyè ákákà üNà ÉÌédépüdyá 'who went to ihe nârkêt ând bôrght lood?' ( who we.rto narket he go büy roodt') ànyè Édikâürvà ìkédépüdyá 'who\ going to go to the market and buy food?' á má ákã üNà Ékèdép üdyí 'he went to the Da.ket and bouehtfood' This ãll stâ.ted vith the observationthat there are two types oi v..b se, qüencein Efik. Aìl of the âbôvêilluúrate onÌy one oI them: seriãlization.Althougì the equivaìentsot someofthe exâmpÌesabovewouldhaveto be expresed by a consecutive in lgbo, they âll fit pretty weu into the delinitionof se.iaÌization given in the pÍecedingsectio!; they ìnvolveactionswhich cân be ásÕciaredwilh eâch other ônly if they aÌe Irerfomed by the sânè subject- lt is lrightluìly enbârhssing not to ìe able to mâke ân airtight câselór this point in connêction wìth the EÍik dâtã; unfortunâtely,I do not seêmto have in my mateÌialsany examplesoI expressions lor süccessive or simultâneous actionswith differentsubiecrs. I an reásonably certain, how€veÌ, that they woüld tit generalìy into the
372
ÀFÀrcÀNLa{cuacE SrRUcruÂEs
secondkìnd ol verb s€quencewhich can now be desc.ibed. What is certãin is that, in this kind of sequence, tÌ,e âctionsarefarmoÌe independentof eachothe.; semântically,the kind ol situaüon desGiòedis such tìat a chângeoÍ subject sould not be suÌpÌising. In tÌ'is secondkind ol s€quence, which nay be calÌed "consecütive"altÌ,oügh sinultâneity ol action úay be included,the íiÌst veú cân be ií âny constructionotheÌ than ihe impemüÌe, hoÌtâtivê, or iníiútivethat is, any cônstrucüôn tâking the thi.d, fólrth, or filth type of sequentiâl as d€scÌibed above.  verb alt€. the ÍiFt has a fom identical with the fifth type of sequential;thât is, âs in Igbo, the consecutive ând sequentiãlaÍe Íot disünguishable in some in lact. most ca$s. What is signiricant,howeveÌ,is that ttìey must )e dìstinguished with certain colstructions. IÍ the íiÌât or the rollowi!8 examples, the second verb has the sane Íorm as if the construction were *ÌiaÌization: in the second.hôvever. the consecútiveis distinctive: á,máákpòrìi$rJ, É,yétòlò! ànyè ókókpòÌi isòrJ.é yét òlàÌl
'he sept the flooÌ and washedthe clothe' sho swept tÌre tloor and washed the clothes?
ln this consecutive construction,the secondve.b, al*ays folìowedby a third, is fÌcquentÌy i9ü!/, nhich Ìrasthe ratheÌ n.usual meaniDg'do somethingin adlor example,can be so expânded: dition'. The lirst ot the abovesenteDces, á'ná ikpàrì isò[, óÍü! Éyét òfò[
'he swept the íloor ând âÌso did thê
Ìndep€ndentfoÌm of /tü!/ cân âÌsobe us€d,íoÌlowedby â @nsecutile!è.9., 'and I would have goDetheÌe , I would aÌúkÉ,kóyü{ Ì)kà dó so hâve gone thêre ('I-wouÌd-hâle-done{omething-in-âddition l-go One of the nosi delightÍnl ânecdotesin the ânnâìsoí AJricânìângüagestudies' centerson just suchâ setrtence as this. The lâte Idâ C. WâÍd. Ìike ânyoneelsein the lield of Aftican languages, was oÍtèn âsked,"AÌen't thoseAÍri(án lânguages yoú work o! teüibly primitive?" Her gentÌe but €ffectile reply was, "W€ll, in one West Airican languageI couldgive you the plupe.lectsubjuncüveof tbe ve.b 'and l" tsy the sametoken,itmightbe added,Efik ìas anotherve.b m€âning 'âbout, stiìl ânothermeâning 'to (â person)' or 'towârd (â plãce)', andlike vütually every oihq Weú Af.icãn Ìanguagra veÌb neâning 'than . The ãppeârconnÕnìy atter the first verb iú â se.iâl constúctioÍ. There ãre a Ifl mi.o. iÌregulaÌitiG in tl'is area of EIik syntaÍ thât have not beenjicludedj tle lo.ego'Dgisjudged suffioent to iÌlDstratethe oveÌâÌÌstruc12.13. Akan (with exampleshere Írom Fante) is one oÍ the very feÌJlâneuâges in which â kind oÍ verbal and clâusâlcoordinatingconjunctionis found. Nouns nây be conjoin€dby inàl or /únà / 'and. rhe sameconjünctionis âl$ usedb& J Rcpodcd to ne by Miss Mdta.èr A. Bryan.
VEÂB^L ColsrÂucloNs
d N,cÉR-CoNco
373
tween verbs and clauses,sometimestransÌatãbleas 'and' but lrequentìy re quiring the transletjon 'but'. (ln úill another use, /nà/ frequentÌyintroduces questions.)There â.e alsomnjunctive phrases,incìuding/nà ú bóm/ 'but even, but yet' and /nà sü/ 'and also,and yet'; jn other environments.'also'is /sú/ with high tone. Verbs oÌ clâusesso conjoined€xlressquite independentâctions,ând a new subjectmal be introducedalter the first. The referencemay be to €ithe. or simuÌtâneous consecuüve actions. Alter a verb referrjngto a presentsituation oÌ action (and pe.haps aÌso â iutu.e in sme @$t, âi explicitìy lâter âction is êxpresed by â verìâl constructionvith ihe marker /-aí. This construction is not usedindependently;one is tempted io câìì it ã consecútive,but perhaps this Ìâbêl shouldbe âvoidedin the light ot its usealso in seriâlconstructionsas discusedbeÌov. Sone examplesÕfverbâl ând claüsalcoíjunction are: sìüà dürúbá nú nà Iàn
'thÍead the needleand mend the
ìtúÌh kìnkán nà kyhÉs
'can you read ând write Fânte?
mìnl wú bákó,nà nìpè déà mldÍdi wié mèésüáòlànti òti é'blèn, nà sü nìntúh Àkásà mi,núá kúr tì Iié. nà kúr nú sú tì nkìàn mü.úkò hó nà nààbá
'I'ìl go sitì you, bút Ì waÍt to eat lirst 'I've stüdied Fànte lor two yeá.s, but I stilÌ cân't speâk(it)' 'one ol my brothersÌives ât home,and the othe. ( the one aÌso) lives in Accrã' 'Im going there, a.d Ill be right bâck
In addition tô ând apâú frcm the âbove,seriâlizâtionis erceedinglycomnon in Fânte. As in othe. languages. it may be notedthat, in s€rialconstructions, the actionsor situationsseeÍnto be nore closelyreìated. Again, ho{ever, the significântfeatüreseds tÕ be thât it h impÕsibleto idhodú.e a new sübject. Two types oI se.ializatìonmay be distinguished,dependiDgon whethe. or not ã stâtive ve.b is included in the se.ies. lf a ve.bs in â seriesâre active.there is constÌuctionâgreementthrougìout the seÌieFâ paú followsâ paú and so Òn. 'Ih€ agreeingcÕnstÍúctionfor â íirst verb Ìeferringto a presentsituation or action usesthe marker /-à-/, ând this is occasionallyfound âlteÌ â tuture âlso. Subject!.onouns ã.e soDetimes.epeated, especially vith foms with /-â-/, sith no obvious ralionaÌe lor their inclusion or omission, In sentenc€s.ele..ing to mÕtion,v€Ìòs âltê. tìê fiÌst mãy also be maÌked by derivatiÌes oÍ /kó/ 'go' oÌ ibál 'come' (deírâtives of the ìâtter âìso cotrstituteã luture constructionmarker). Examplesof serializationwith active ve.bs are as foÌlows; veÌb roots are set apart by hyphens to show the construction
mill-l àkìrànbà-àhá ( I Ìeft Acc.a camehere')
'l cameherefmrn Àcc.À'
374
ÂFRrcìN LrNcuÁcE SrÃucnrÀF.!
mì-nÀltÍwì pá-À!l ,dánhú 'I walkedpait hi! howe' ('I-watLed pa!€ed-byhtuhousê'sbody') èlryt Dú ôkçìÀ tìn hâ ,dtu 'the Ìiver Ílow! pâst oüÌ hoü!ê' ('Ìiver tÌÌe it-cüt! go€!-aÌoDgouI hou!€) :í-!àrEà nì 'he praysloÌ me' ('he-prayssivc, ne') mà yéú-ki íkibü Ìet 3 go switming' ('give rêshoüld-go shoüld-go-swiÍÌ') àá bó.ttà ÀdìÉúbá 'he cane herc to do lonê shopping' 'bàì ('hÈcameheE @nÈbought rhbgs') mhlúntìw À-kònl ,fié 'Ì'n wâlkiÌg to hb place' ('Ie-wãÌking ed{o-to hft hone') nìbikó màÀkíbúr 'l'm goiúg to go s$drnmiDg' ('I-win-go l-!nd{o*im') Orc rccoded s€ntauc€with a supeúicialy sinilaÌ strrcturÊ do€5noi lhor coúdrüction âgÌe€mcút.Thb mây be intêÍpÌeted âs âú inrtsÀc€ol apo@pltio! Ethq ràar siaìizstior, lrcm eEethilg üke 'I eDjoyedthê Iact that I ha€ stlyêd hêE'. Thé vdbs are! Bpectivery, past ed @hpretive: m!pé+ mÀá-üú $ò há
'I ajoyed st{yirg herc'
Steüvevob. eppsr in tàèir rcot Íom in siel @NtructioD!; time and othor comtmction rderêDcesarÊ€xprss€doúry by ar ÃctiveveÌb ir the lerteüc€, Thè conmonelt stativ€! uled i! r€Íiâl crústÍuctioú! aÌc /*ò/ 'be Iocatedât' aÍt€t aD active verb, and /dì/ 'iâke, úsê'bêfoÌe âÍ âctive aeÌb. Iú th€ impeÉtiv€, hoF tâüve, and n€gativë, the activ€ verb /rÀ/ 'tsle'is wd in placeoí /dì/; d€Ìivâtiv€s of it msy bè pElixed to the loüowiDgvâb. In âdditioa /í/ 'cone fton, go from, Ìeavê',u!€d as ân actiw v€rb iÍ th€ Íirst of the âboveexâmpÌ€o, i! ür€d as a stsüve ÍIteÌ aüothervèrb, ExâmpÌesol s€rializatiorwitÌr itâtiv€s (ard /Ià/) wÍtàD èdìÌlÁnwò hi
'they s€ll food ther€'
('th€y+êÌl
lood be{t rüft) mt-yÉà è{FúDá wà àkìIÀn ('l-did wo.k bát Accra')
'I wo*ed
in AccE'
yÈl€ kúr wò bìíbláú hó 'sreagÌ€edÂboute\€rythine' ('wÈwft one b6ai werytìiüg'Ê body') !dÌ sl'kán kìvíá{ nám nú 'he cut th€ mêât with a Lníe' ('hÈtsÌè Lnile cut mat the') nÀrÍ rtdl yè lbÈ! àdt 'whât i! thtu usêdror?' ('Q thi! they-tákedo what tìiDg?') 3Èììì kèté'ké n tákàúdt 'ü you t t€ a trair Imn í-kà ükH! à lkwtà mü Tekondi to Al)m, you prss wò kübií;á!Í
rhhugh
Ku6i'
E l nrl nL
.L
d.L
dnLLl Lr
VEnE^r CoNsrÂucrÌoNsN NrcER{oNGo
3?5
('if you-tsketrain Ìerve TrloÌádi going-toÀcm crrA, you-cutinside b@t Kú$i')
fÀ lgüi nú fé-stpúDnú
'put the chai! at thê túÌe'
('t!t€ cháiÌ thê tskeput trble the its vicinity') fá brH 'bÌiÍg it' ('tske c"me') bìn-!I n-ütuhò-fá h-bá 'I ean't bíng it' ('I-qm-!ot not-€bl€not-tekenot-come') The verb! ikyìn/ and /3ìn/ 'surpals' ar€ appaEndy ako Ned âl stâtiver eÌtd âtroth.r vüb; my Ì€eÌò happento incìudeonly sânple! in q,hichân aÈ tive ãrd a stâtive verb would have the sme Íom, but ny ÍnemoÍy,thoüghíalÌibÌe, teÌb me the mt woüld be üed in âÌl combinations.SorÌewhat3inilâdy, a fcw other invaÌiabl€ Íolms mü .oBtruction markeE are üed, indepddêntÌy oÍ the @Ntruction of tìê p@diDg v€.b. ThereincÌude/kêpìm/ 'go up to, until' ('so-Ìêach'),ând /bêyÉ/'approximately' ('win-b€). E.s., mú hõ yè dìn kyìn nü 'I'm stmngd than he is' ('Íìy body ü 8tÌongaürpasshin') mìbêtÌDáhó képìmbtò 'I'm goüg to ÂtâytheÍe üntil tomonoÌr' ('t-win-!t{y th€I! eo{eâchtonorÌow') he'! beengonesbout a week' ìú-kì bÉyédàptu ('hFhas-gorcÍ'iü-be week') FDh the poiDtoÍ vi* of thê usaSêoÍ suiâl @nstructiont it i! ìeorth noting that apEssioN Í€feEitrgto ãbüty áE sidiaüoN in Fâúte; Dotethe seütenc€ 8lo$€d 'I csn't bring it' above. Thi! is not coÍnmonh otàd lânguag6. !2.1ê. Coútruction egÌtdent ir s€Ìializâtionb mt lound Ío aü lânguages. h Yorubâ ând Nupe, for €xampÌe,â crnstruction marker app€áBovêúty only oncr id a letul constÌuction. There is evidênc€,holfeveÌ, tlÌat constÌusiior agÌt,n€lt i! not flr beÌowrÌle suúace. I! Yodb&, the veÍb 'cone' b /r,ái in most constructìoB,but h8 tìè suppÌetiveÍortn /bòi in the pÌÊ!ênt. In â sêrial coNtÍuction, tne httrÌ, though without the pr€s€ntconstrucüonmarkd, is e quired aft€r  pÌe!êd. CornpaÌeüê íonoÌriúg: ó mú òbç 'he picked up s krile'i ó wá 'he cme': ô mú Òbçwá 'he brought â knire' ó Ír nú ôbç ìe'Ê picking up a krife'; ó ú bÒ 'he's coning': ó ú Í|ú túç bò 'he's bÌinging â kniíe' The Nupe€quivalentoÍ the last s€ntenc4end. Í,ith â verb whoseroot i! /bêl 'cofte'. In th$ s€ltence,hoq,€ver,tüis veú undeÌgoestoúì altemationand hâs the íomt /bè/. Thi! t ml âÌt€Ìnâtionis DoÌmalaÍter low toDe,but the prcceding tore h€rci! mt low. Th€aÌtemationcar bst be*plain€d by pGìtilg the pr€sêÌt
E l nrl nL
.L
d.L
dnLLl Lr
376
AFRrc^N L^NGú^GE SrRúcÍúREs
conúruction marker, ahich do€shâve lo$ 1Òne,in the undeÌlyingstructure;it is deìetedonÌy âlter triggeringthe tonaÌ aÌteÌnation.. The senicnceisl 'Ojo is bungings knrle OtheNise,seriaÌizâtion iúYorubâ ând Nupeconsistssimptyof ú.inging verbs one âIter ânother. Fixceptin one combjnationnot€d beìow.only the Íi.st verb is narÌed íiI at ãll) Io. conúruction. The râriôüs s€riâlconst.uctionsthât o@uÌ seemto rellect a puzzÌingvâÌiety oI underlyingst.uctures,but the süúacemani festâtionsârefairly straightfoNard. Onesignjlicãntdetâil,however,is thât there aÌe someverbs which âre used only in se.ial const.uctions,not independtntly. Oneof th€seis /Íi/, with â neãning Ìike 'take, use' in the combinâtionsin which it occDrs,lsed belore anothe. ve.b. In the same usâgeÈ /bá/ 'âccompany'. Another suchverb is hi/, usedaIte. ã lerb of motion,or âlter iÍil. with a meaning like arrive at. SincetheseÌerbs ãnd the noun phrâseswhich follow them are comnonly üansìâtedby Engìisht.epositionalphrases.theseverbsar€ lr€qúenaÌy câlÌed prepositions."Another such bound ve.b is itún/ do somethjngagâin', usedbelore ânotherverb to expre$ repeatedaction. Sincetìis is generâlÌyrellect€d in trânslaüonby again'. it is írcquenrlycalledân "âdverb." Even when tso independeniv€rìs âre usedin a seriesbut are transÌatedby a singìeverb (as /mú . . . wá/ 'bring' in examplesâbove,thereis rêÌüctânceto recognizethat each is a verb in its o$n .ight; suchcombinationsaÌe l.equently câUed'3plit !eròs," and thcir âììegedunitâ.y nature is triumplantly pointed out when ihe object ôf the tirst is pretosed in a topicâlizedconslruction,leãÌidg ìhe t{o verbs in immediat€sequence âs il tÕpicâlizationwe.e primary rather than derived. AlÌ of Ìhis may sey sonethingâlout th€ grammârãnd lexiconoI English,but it does not pemit juúice to be done to the structure of Yorubâ. The.e is, to be sure,somethinguÍusüâl âboüt the uságeot the abôve-n€ntioned /tún/. It it is imnediâteìylolloeed by a verb with Doobject,any construcüon mârker other than that or the p.esentprecedes/tún/ as expected,but th€ lreseít constructionmaÌke. exccptionâìlypÌecedesthe iÕlloving verb ralheÍ thân /tún/. Further, jl /tún/ n usedìelore a ve.b-objectcombination,the order oi verb and object is Ìcvemed;actüâlly, this fraJ be altehatively explainedby sayingtlìaL Lhenoür phúsê becofresthe object oI /tún/, ând thai anotherverb tolìôwssitì the sameobject in the unde.lyingsiructu.€, deÌetedin the suÌlâcê siructDre. The.e is thus only onè unusuaìdetaiì âbout /tún/, ând there âre no counterexamples usingotheÌ tÒms which would gìverqson to call /tún/ anything sôhe typical €xamtlesor serializationin Yoruba âre given below. There is no (or a zerc)constÌüctionmaÌker in the lâctative (trâdsÌatedâs ã !âú in these r For this abaìyís ahd .xâmp êorse (pnvâre cÕnnÌbiD üoÌ), {hosc nati's lân8uâ8ei áltemation inrolvcd hc.c ts nôre despÌed thanrhh exanpì€ snggêsts,ard hây requitu orh.r
VEru^L CoNsÌRUcÌ'wrs d NrcrB-CoNGo
cases),büt ÌnarkeG for other constuctiÒdswould appearbelôre the Íirst verb onÌy, exceptlor the onecasenrentionedaboveand inclDdedhere. Othêr probl.ms oI deepstructurewilÌ be lelt Io. othersto wo.k out. {ón s€ iÈujç 'they coôkedtâfr ãnd ate it' ( they cookedyâm eât ) *óD ti mú owó wá they hare brought money' ('th.y hâve tak€n money cone') ó ú li òbç ge ilu he\ cutting the _\'am{ìth a knit€ ('he is using knife cut yãm') ó Í fi òbç s ibè 'he\ putting tIe kniÍe thcre' ('he is tâking/usjngknile âniv€ et there') ó bá ni lq 'he went with hc' ('he accompaniedme go ) 'he hâs goneto mârket again ó ti tún 19s'ójà ( he hâs repeatedgo adv€ at marÌ.t ) he\ gonlg agâin ó tún í lq ('he repeatis eoing'l) ó í tún Emumü he\ drinking (bÒoze)àgaii' ('he is Ìepeatiíg âlcoholic-ì.veragcdrink') ó ú tún- te 'he\ doiDgit again' ('he is repeâting-itdo') ' th c ) a t€ u l ì a l l th e )rm'
('lhey âte yam be-gone';cl.: ó ti tán
ìtt allgone )
hâsbeenofritted i! the above,becâusè Oneimtoúant type ot rerb seqüence it hâs a signili.antly ditlerentstructur€. This u*s â torm /si/.vhich appearsonly in sequences, and which mây possiblt be analtzed as â conjunctionÌather than a v€rb. Ìt is nôt precededby conúruction na.ke6, but it is precededbt a sub ject, which may be the sDe subject rep€atedor a nes subject. The first lerb foÌlowing isì/ is precededbt a constructionmark€r (€xceptlor the lactatile, or couNe). This is the Yorubâ formâtionfoÌ i'Ìtroducingân additionâlâction. con*cutive or sinultaneous,asoplosedto relemingto sctiorsNhich r€quirethe sanìe actor (seriâlization,âs above). E.9.,
ó ti s'isdrt tán. ó sì ti
'he has linishedhis {ork,
('he has done-work-his be-don€,he aÌsohas csten thing') ' I m w u rk i n S. u n d O j o i \ râl nU ' nÌo ú Àisé,Ojó si jc-un 'i Pârticulârly jn the light of the yo.uba veÌbs shich âre used only in se.ial coDsiruclions.onc mây wonder it thè constructionmarÌen oi Yoruba (lìke /ti/ and /í/ in the aboveexâmplet may not aho }e considcredverbs used initially in ã se.ial constÌuction. Suchân ânaÌysisis parliculâdy tempting irÌ the csseof /í/ (cl 11.4,wherea sússestionol a verbal d€Ìivation of this marker is nade). For oth€r constructionmarkers,ther€ doesnot appearto be any convincìngerj-
378
AFRrcÀN LÀNcu^cE SÍRUcÌuREs
dencefor such an interpretation. It would be â moÌe attÌactiv€ hypothesisiI construciion markers themsehes appeâred in â rumbe. of seÌiâl conbinatiotrs, but suchcombinãtionsa.e at best highly restÌictediind@d, â speciâlúâtus lor /íi mây be r€inloÌcedìy the Íact that it actuaìlydoesappearali€Ì ãnotho con12.15. SimilaÌ manifeststionsor sriâlization couÌd be cited from sevenl other languages; JukuD,Íor exâmple,seemsto be paÌticularÌyenthusiasticâbout strirging veÌbs one âfte. ânotheÌ,in much rhe sâne wây âs is donein Yoruba. A representatveselectiônhas by now beentresented,howeve.,oI the ways in wÌ'ich distinctionsare nade betweenactionsnecessarily àsociÀtedwith a singÌ€ subjectand actionswÌ'ich may be ?eúomed by differ€ntsubjects.But the subject oI serializationmüsì lot be droppedvithout olserving thât Gilbeú Àn!Íeì cavcâthãs not beenove.lookedGeeAnse 1966,pp. 29-32)- He notes.âs oth€B hâd beloÍehim, thât s.rjalizâtionin Ewèúsuâllyinlolves constructionagÌement, as in Fante (t2.13 above),but that such agr€ementis not preent ror aÌl ol the presunedverbs invoÌÌed in serialization.To accountlor thê exceptions,he setr up a morpìêmecÌas of 'rverbids"-morpheneswhichhâppento be homophonous with ve.b roots (in âlÌ casesexceptone, lor whicì there is no paÍalÌelverb, but shich night be interp.et€das a coDjunctio.in any care),but which do lot lollow the usuâl ruÌes in sÌiâl coDstructions,He citesân appa.entlycompâEblesituation iD Akan, {ith .eierelce only to /wò/ be locatedst , though he might have incÌudeda tev othes. The occurencejn Yorüba of toms aúaÌyzedas ve.bs,hut which appearonly in serialconstructions, mìght seemto st.engthenthe caseíor suchsn anâlysis. Ì will not prêsumeto re-anãlyzethe Ewe dâta withoüt â mÌch deeperconpetencein the languagethan I have eve. had, but would point out thât the Akan ând Yoruba dâtã caú be sâtislâctÕrilyexplâinedwithout rêmuBe to such a device. In Akan, the verls in questionare attestedas ststive Ìâther than active verbs on other grounds,ând the ânâlysispresentedabove detin€r their specialusein serialconstructionson thât basis, In Yo.uba, the Ìecognition of a iew bound verbs app€arsto be âdequat€;they hav€ no speciâlusesin contrast with othe. v€rbsin seriãÌconstrücüons.Is it po$ible that tle "verbids" i! questionin Eve mãy also be a speciaÌclas oI verbs with distiÍctive us$ €hewhere,on the basisof which thei. apparentlyatypical usein seíâl conúrüctions could be explained? It not it they are uniqÌe only in this usâge theD Anee wouìd seemto hâve mâde a most p€rceptivèobservaüonfor Ewq which miSht possiblyãpply to other languagesâs well, though it doesnot *em necê$aÌy for Akan or Yoruba. or lor the other languages tÌrat ìave beentr€atedhere. 12.16. Iú the lor€eoingsurvey ôl vêrbál cônúrucüônsin Nig€.-CoDgo, an effort has been made to assignmeaningiul ÌabeÌsto rerbal consü{ctioru, reflecting their meaningând use,.ather thàn simply to tâke oveÌ the laDiliâÌ but ofien inaccu.ateand misleadinglabelsoi English,Latin, and Grêek. The inad.quacyof t âdiiionaÌÌabelshâsnot escapedthe noiiceol othere,and â woÌd about àlternâtive tÍêâtúeúts is in order-
VEÂB^! CoNsnlcÌlors
rN NrcER-CoNco
379
Somewriters have,for at Ìeastsomeverbal constructions, useda distinctive môÍphênesuchâs the cônstructiônmârkêÍ âs a labeÌ. Thus Ashton (1944)relers to ceÍtain S\Ã'âhilicoÍstructionsâs the -ME- tense" (coDpletive), 'the -TÀtense" (ftrture),"the -NGE tênse"(presenthypotheticâl),and so on. The.e is a cô.tain âdmirable $lhistication âbout thus âvoiding questiônãble oÌ obscure in this practice. Unlessoíe alreadykDows ìabels,but thereare aÌsodisadvantâges SwaÌrililai.ly weu, ìt is not easyto find inioÌmation in Ashtons gnmma. abort how sometypè or time Õl âctioú,sucì as conditionalor pãst, is expressed.One cân onÌy pagethrcugh the vâriousdiscusionsoi the "tenses"nntil one hâppens qpoú the desiredone. In other languages, this labellingtechniquemay be compìicâtedby tone, pârticuìarlyif (asis by no meânsunconnoú) two construction, dillêr ônly in tone; in lecturingor languâgeteâching,it is âwkwárdio introduce tÕnal distinctionsin ã ph.asethãi is mostly EngÌjsÌ'. Ând finâÌ\, in maúy languagesdistinctiveno.phemeswhich can be cited are not aÌwâysso readily identifiabÌe. For soúe cônstuctioDsin lgbo, ìvard (1936)usesa simjÌarlabelìilg device. To her credit, shechoos€s this devicespecificâllylor t*o ôonstructions for which Ío well-kíôwn lâbelswould be accurat€. Oneis "the Nd-iom", which hâs olten unoitically b@Í cslÌed p.esent",and whìch Ì'as ìeen called inconrpÌetive"in loregoingreferences to Igboi /Dà/ is an auxiliary in the stative construction,followed by â veÌòâl noun. The secondconstructiÕn in questionis Ward\ "the Ra(Suflix) Io.m", often uncriticaìÌycalled "past", fo. which I have usedthe te.m "factative". Ward's label in this caseis lesselegaútias she herselfpoiíts out, the sullix consistsof /ri plus a Ìepeiiüon oI the precedingvowel; she doesnot ilclude in he. desfiiptio! oI tle construction.thoughsheindicatesin her examples,the distinctivetone ol th€ construction. FoÍ Etik, wâÌd (1933,esp.pp. 6l-69) Ìargely continesherseltto traditional lâbels;lorlúnâtely, móst ôf them âÌe Ìeasonâblysâtislâctoryló. Efik, but tìere is oneglaÌing exception. Ward foÌÌowsan earlier studentor Elik, Hugh GoÌdie, in speâkingof "the Aorist." To begin vith, fe{ studentsor Àtrican languâges today have the vâguestnotion oI what thât te.íi is supposedto Dean-and fo. that matte., it is pretty meãningìes to many students of GÌeek. Whât is worse, however,is tÌ'at Goldie had used the i€m lo. any constructionthat inciudes nothingmore. segmentãlly,thãn a subj€ctpronoünand â verb base;he did not iecognizetone in EIik, whic! is somewhatcompambl€to not recógnizingnoun cas€sin Lãtin or GÌeek- Wârd unloúunately perp€tuatestìe term, in spite of the fâct tìât she .ecognizes a numbe. of "tone variâtions"and pÌoceedsto list Iive toÍálly dillerent pàrádigns(and shemissedâ sixth) tó yhich shegivessuboÍdinate labelsÌike "Narrative" and "Conditional"whicì, aÌtlough not âll âs âccu.ate as they might be, ât leãst representân eíoú to say somethingmeÀningful-nd noneol which is in âny senseÌike â Grêekâorist. lt is r€grettablethat Wa.d did not simpÌy scraptle tern "aorist," oÌ at most .elegateGoldieì coníusion to a footnote. One stiÌÌ gets the ãbominâble imp.esion lrom Wardt treatmentthat tonâl distinctionsare somehowsecondaryto consonantãnd vowel
380
A.RrcÁN Ldcu^cE
SnucruEs
distinctions. Actually, six minimâlly diffe.ent tone sequene occur with â subject pronounãnd ã verb baseü the inherenttonesof both are othe. thãn lowi iÍ inher€nt low tones a.e involv€d, the.e is neutmlizationbetweensomêpaiÊ of sequences.For the third personsingulârpronôunând the verb meaning 'buy" the construcüotrs a.e as foÌÌows: Presnt contÌastive ior something preceding the veÍb; also sequential afte. sone constuctions (the íhird typè dscribed in 12.12
édèp :
SequentiaÌ aft€Ì nost coDstructions (th€ füth iype desdihed ií 12.12 âbove); also complêtive for third pe.són prcnouN only Present contraúive foÌ someihiÍg Iouosing the verb, or neutFÌ Í the context do€s noi pêmit contrast Condiüonal
Édêp : Scquential Àtter luture contmstive ând negãtivê (âlternâtively /idèp/ íoÌ all persols othe. tlan lirst sin$la.i the Iourtb type d* c.ibed in 12.12above) (Since tone is not maÌked in EÍik o.thography, and since the vowels /€/ and /ei âre not distinguished, the sp€lling ed?preprsents no Ìes than twenty phonoÌogicãlly dillêrêni torms; the foÌm itrtendêd is predictâble lrom the con&xt in only a linited numbe. ol €ses.) 12.17. Sone matteF have beeú omitted or have received oDÌy passing bention in the foregoingdiscussion.One of theseis Íegâtives;little moÌe has heen said than to note thât negâtive systms rarely larâllel âllimâtive syúêns fúlly, and that in nany Ìanguag$ sone aftimative constructionsdo not have any conespondiíg íegãtivê in th€ basic verbâl norpholog/. Exmptes of these phÈ nomena silì be given in conn€ction with a t @tlnent of the totãl verb.l systems oI some speciíìc languâgesin the lollowing chapter. ÀnotheÌ mâtter thât hâs received niniÌnal âttention is Bübj€ct pronoüÍs-or concordsin the cãseof troun cÌas languages. In fact, the inpresion hasundoubtedly ìeen given tìat such Íoms a.e !a.t of the predi@te oÍ a sentence,âlthough it sould be extected that they should be treted in a ngid syntâctic analysi! s part of the subject noun phrase. There ar€ good pÌacticâl Ìeãsons, however Íor considering thm under the heading oI verbal constructions. In most NigeÍa subjectpronôunoÍ concordis nquired evenÀfte.ân expwd Congolanguaees, roun subject. FuÌther, subj€ct p.onouns and followiDg colstruction mâÌkers âÌe frequently combined âs singlê syÌlãbÌes by morphophonmic mÌesì in m.ny ladguages,a construction marker Ìnây be a tonal replacive opeÌâting on the subject pÌoDoun. By and Ìârge, it is âimplest to treat subject pronouns or coícôrds with verbal constructions, ând thên to note th€ circumstãn@sând ways in which such norphemes Ínay be omitted. TheiÌ omission or ãpparent omission in somê languagesmay be bÌieIly noted.
VEBB^L CoNsnucÌroNs N NrcER-CoNGo
3El
In AÌân, subiectp.onounsarê omitted âfter a nouú sDbjectunl€ssthe noun subjectis topicãlized.Tolicálizãtionmây be signalledby nothingmore thân the useorã noun suhject,btrt the conjunctive/nà/is lrequentlyâlsousediíitiâuy iq In Jükún, â sübjectprcnoun an€. a noun subject úay brand usuauyis {mittêd in âll constÌDctions exceptihe hoÌtâüve. The hortâtiveis markedby high tone rellâcing stm tonê with the subject pronoun, ând a third person proúoun with this high tone is .equiredafter an expr€ssednoun suhject. E.9., ÁÌlCJúsâ lini ÁÌJgyúkú sa üni
'Â!gyu shouldlinish it'
In Igbo, a sulject lronoun must be omitted aft€r a noun subjectexceptin a hypoüeticâl (interrogative) construct oD. In the hypÒtheücâì, lów tore ÌepÌâcesstem tonewith a pÌonoun,includingthe pluraÌ independentpronounsused as subjectâ,and a third personproÍouD \{ith lo{ tone is requiredafte. â noun subject. E.g., 'he did it 'okoye did it' 'did hê do it ?' 'did Okoyedo it? This is by no meansall tì'ere is to the situatìonin lgbo, however. In some @trstructions,there is a vowel p.efix berorethe ve.b baseaner a noün subject, includingthe pÌurâl ind€pendentprcnouni which docsnot appeârâtter â singulâr pronounsubiect. Thê prefix is /á í ór /ê -/ in the nesâtive,ând /Àt ôr /è, (with thè ãlternants/ á-/, /,é, b€tweentwo high tones)in the comlletive and cotrsecutive. SiÍgulaÍ pronouns have lov tone in the negãtive ând consecutive, but high tone foìlowedby downstepin the conpìetive. E.g.,
ò byá'ghi há á'byághi ôkóyèèmééláyá ànyi'émééláyá In Yoruba, one is likely to get tÌre impresion rrom the o.thographyand fÌom oldêr treâtmentsof the lÀnguagethat subj€ctp.onounsâre omitted alt€r Íoun subjecti. Unlessdeletedor absoÌbedby somethingelsein the envirormeút, howeleÌ, a üoun süòjêctnust be loìlosed by a high tone,with no lengtheningof the linaÌ vowel of th€ noun subject. This higlì tone must ceúainly be inter!Ìeted as a manilestationof the third peNon singularsubjectprcnouD/ó/. E.g.,
342
AFÂrc^N L^Ncu^cE SmucúREs
This ììgh tone doesnot âppearoveÌUy iÍ the noun subjectendswith high mâÍker /ú/ follows;in th€s eses itmãy tone, or if the incompìêüvecÕnstruction ìe considered to be absorbedby the adjacenthi8h tone. No. doesâ high tone app€aÌ belore the negative morpheme /kò/ precisely wh€re thê thiÌd pênon singuìar pmnoun has â zero ãllomoÌphIn veÌy Ìecent discusions oI Yoruòâ, this high tone refìex ÕÍ ã subject pÌc noun hâs unfortunâtely been descÌibedby sone students ãs indimting lrconcord." This Íepresents â gross niflndeÍstanding ol wÌ,ât is ordiDâ.ily ment by "concord." Cônco.dimtliês a choicêbetweentwo or nore (usuaÌlyÍnany moÌe) Íoms conditioned by the paÌticuÌa. noun clâs refened to. Thus /â-/ is th€ sübject côncordlór Clis I in Svâhili, /u-/ Ior Class3, /ki-/ for Cla$ 7, and so on. There is no sDchchoice in Yo.ubâ and theÌe ãre no fünctionâÌ noun cÌasses. In Íact, yorüba does not even requi.e â concordiaÌchoice betweeÍ singuÌar ãnd plu.al afte. a Íoun subject. TÌre sme high tone is usedDot onÌy afteÌ âll nouns, ìut ãIteÌ independentlronouns of aÌl peÌsonsand both numbe$. This stiu reflects the third pe6on singular pronoun /ó/, since that pronoun can be used in construcüons süch as Íelatives with relerence to any nouD o. indetendent prcnouí, With ÌeÍerenceto the surtâceshuctúre, this high toíê iÍ Yorubâ mày be called'tubject high tone"; in the unde.lyingstructureit is the pronoun/ó/, which by deiiniüon is non-concordial. Finally, â word about word oider ând olject pronouÍs. In the MândeÌanguagesând in ât least tho* Gur latrgDãgswith which I m acquâinted,the reguÌaÌ nontopicaÌized order in simple sentenceswith a subject and ân object is subject-object-verb.In other Niger-Congolanguqges,the usüal ôrder is subject-verb-object. I! most cases,the o.de. is the $me wheth$ the object is a noun or â pronoun. In the Bãntu languãges,howeveÌ, ân object concoÌd âppeÂrs as â p.eÍix immediatelybeÍorethe ve.b base,aÍter constructionma.keB. In Swahili. íôr exmple, compãre the foüowing: nili-ki-taiuta
'I ÌookedfoÌ it (7)'
Unfoúunately, object concordsin this losition have lrequenuy been mie labeled"infixes". Subiectcôn6.ds in iíitiâl poútioú are obviouslypr€fixes,and constructión mâ.keÊ âfter them hâvè unhesitatinsly been caÌed prefixes âs wel, presumauy be@usethey a.e obÌigãtory in the constructions in which th€y âÌé used,and do âppearbeforethe verb bâse. ÀppaÌentlythe optionalu* of an object con@rd in place ol (or even in additioD to) â noìrÍ object is thought oí as "insertion,"and this is then confusedwith "iniiÍãtion." The term "infix" shouldbe rcstricted to â morphème which ãppeB within thè bounds ol and intenuptiÍg the segmental sequen@of, atrotheÌ norpheme. Its use with Ìelerence to â morpheúe "inserted" oÌ âppeâringoptionâìlybetweenmorphúes within a *oÌd is In conclusion,Alricân languâgestudieshave too commonly and sometimes still are cÌrarãctenzed by ân urcntical aÍd often naive imposiüon of cllsicaÌ
VEÂB^L CoNsraucüoNs rN NrcEÂ-coNco
363
gnmnaticál cát€goÌi€sând tirminology in stÌucturês to which th€y aÌe quito loreigE Io borh d€@iptior ard lâb€liug,it is pâEttiÍtê to bÍing thê eÍâ ôf ÌiDguislic impeÌialismto an end, and múe a moÌe consistenteÍfort to capturewhat i! náÌÌy SpingoDin ÀJÌicanlanguagg. This is not t say,of courlq that the oúly acceptble gÌÊlmâticlr têninolog/ is thât süggertedor apFovedby the Fes€rt suthor, who b entnely prêparedto us€the t€ÍminoÌogyof other s.holar6ând even non+p€ciâlist!if such teÌÌninoÌog' is âppÌopÌiately mernirgfüI, but lfho tu not about t caÌl somethinga "subjunctiv€t nse"q,henit is rcither subiunctivenoÌ
È êmênlssousd,ols d àulêur
Vgrbal Systems 13.1. À nuftber ol detailsiÍ the verìâl syúemsot sev€ráìspecificìanguages have b€€ntreatedin variouscontextsin pÌecedingchâpteF. In connectionwith tonaÌ systms, functionsof tône,subjêctând ôbjectpronoünsor concords,and the deri râtion ol âdjectivals.problemsand pÌocedu.esin anaÌysisand descripüonhâve beer discussedshich mây ãppÌy to âÌdôst any pâú of â languâge\ gÌâDÍlarr its verbal systemincluded. With a mor€specilicfocuson predicáiionsin the làst two chatters. theÍe has been â djsctrssionof nonve.baland mârginaÌlyverbaÌ predicâtions.the derivationoI verbal bases.and the kinds ot constructionsinto whichverbalbases€nter. Itis the purposeof this chãpterto illustratesomemanifestationsol innectionin verbâÌ systens,and to sìov hÒwthe vâ.ioús st uctrral phenomenàthât hâw€beên disclssed!p tÒ this pôint âr. reôlizedin thê tôtaì verbâl systumor a ler selectedìanguages. It was not€d in the prcceding chalte. thât â verb base in Svahili and the sameis true lor the Bantu lânguagesin geneml has ã suílix /-âl in nany constÌuctions,but â sulrix /+/ in sofrei â süIfix /-i/ abo appea.sin 6nstructions not Dentioned!p tó this point. In addition, in a great nany Bantu lâÍgüages(e.g. Lucandâi cf. 12.3)the.e is a sulÍix shich in many casescombines*ith the Íinal consonântof th€ baseâccoÍdinstó môrphophon€mic rul.s which, Íor sme languages,a.e qúite compÌex. This suÍlix, wìich is côúmonly úsedin a compÌetivê const.uction,and in somelânguagesin â Íew other constructionssuchâs â recent past, se€úsíor Bantu as â whole to have the und€rÌyinglorm +i-ilel.l The combinâtion oi a base with this suffix has been refeÌred to by such terms âs the moditied úem" and the perlect stem,' terms which are qtrite apprôpriâteif, as s frequentÌyhâppens,the boundâryòetweenthe bâseand the suffix È ob scu.edby norphophonemiccombinatioús.In most câses.however,the derivation oI the .€suÌtâ.t foÌDs fÌôm à definahle base and sDlfix cân be stâted in terms of reãsonahÌy ú.ãi8htfoNã.d .ules. The situâtion in SeTssana wiu be taken âs r This loÌnation n cômprercl, r€gurd in xcRcd.
I1 gtves â siâ|l{e lore to v.Ìb5 witì in-
sen a 'beene ãgcd': se. iÌe cj-a 'bccone sì{trkd': aj-rk juvÈ. ã'beene nduE (or a naÌc)': juvcF e nub a 'l)3cone nâlure (of â icnâle)': bubììe â scTs{anâ data talen lÌom cok 1955. I use /o/ and /o/ ror bh ? nd ó pspecttleìy. Thê dt8ms lor thè vaÌtous consttucttons, sh,le thè ÍoÌns glven hè
385 After a ve.b root with no extension.the completivesulfix has the regular lorm /-il./ in most circumstances.It hâs ân rltêrnant /-nê/ âfrd a roor linsl inl. There âre a few ve.b .oots consistingoI only a singleconsonantor cluster; aÍte. such, the fom of the süflix is not cofrpìeteÌyprediclabìe,and the cômbinâtion nust be úâted foÌ eâch. E.e-.
'give'
:
Í-ilÉ
' dì e ' AIter deriled baseswith the durative extension /-ay, 0r /-y1, the sãme regulâr lom /-ile/ is used, bDt th€ /y/ oI the extensjon ls elided. (Án alternation betw€e. /a/ and /€/ as the last vowel ol th€ base }as to do $ith the bâse itseu and is ür€ìerâni to ih€ occunence oÍ the suÍÍix.) E.9..
Áfter dêrivedbâs€ssith nóst other extensions-aith the nnpo.tant ex..ptions oI th€ causativeand passivÈCoÌe r€cognizes eìat he desoibesas a tontEcted" rom or the completivesullix, {ith the aÌternantsi-yel, i-lel, ând /-e/. As the data appeârto Íne, it wo'rld seemprelerâbÌelo recognizctwo distinct forÌns: /-yê/ or /-ye/ (th€ loÍel âlternâtiond€ternin€d by regulardissimilation rüÌ€t sjtì som€extensions, and /-ei$ith orhers. The Íorm iye/ appearsclea.b aft€Ì the.€ciprócâlextènsiôn/-ân-/. LessÕb'iously.but by regularmorphophoneÍnicÌüles, /-yô/ or /-ye/ appearsatter extensionsendins in /-i-i (i'ÌcÌudinethe applicâtiveand relersive); +/ìt/ .eguÌarly becones/ts1. Thus loms vith i-yel
lhe forn /-el ol th€ cofrpleti\e sullix clear\ àppeàrsâlrd l,hc positionâl eÌteÍsion /-am-/. It app€aÉalso alter the contactiveextension/-âr-/, lhe vowcÌ of {hich then hâs the âlternânt /ê/. E.g., khubân-â paÌân-â tshwar-â fular-â
'kneeì' 'clinb, ride 'gnsp, câLì 'turn around'
386
AFÀrcÁN LNGU^CE
SÍRUcÍuREs
Âlte. the câusativeextension(whichitselfÌrasseveÌalsurlãcemaniÍestations, derivâblefrom two alte.nants/-ie/ and -y-/). the coDpletivesuffix ìas the loÌm /-itso/,vhich CoÌeanaÌyzesâs a combinâtionol filo/ ând the alternânt /-y-l of witì'/-iÌye/ becoming/-itso/. Thereare thus two manithe causativeexteDsion, i€stationsot the @uetive extensionìn completivefoms. This analysisalso stonglJ süggests shat onemight hâve guesed from the b€ginning,that /-il€/ is itsÌI â combination of tvo suilixes, /'iÌ-/ Ànd /-Éi, neither of which appeaN without tle otheÌ, but which Inay be separâted by ânother suffix. ln the causative bâsebelore/-its€/, tinãÌ /s/ and /tsh/ are reteinedwithout alternationilinaÌ /ts/ usuallyìas the âlternânt /d/ but is sometimesretained;finâl /ny/ combineswith ihe suffix to yield /nts€/. 8.8.. tell' 'Íri8hten'
Till' 'kindÌe
grh-itse
By phonoÌogicanalogywith completivelorms Irom basesdeÌived by verbal extensions,a few verb roots âlsousethe compleüÌesnÍIix aÌternãnts/-y€l oÌ /-ye/, /-ei, and i-üsE/.ather than the regulari-ilol.  caseof this is: cole âho lists â numbeÌ ol iÌregular fo.ms, which he saysen be explàined on the basisoI the hi$to.icaÌphonologyol the laígdâge,though thê €Íplânãtions âre tÕoinvolled lo bê in.Ìuded in his grânmar. For the most pârt, the ine€ular forms do not seemto iDvolvehighly unexpectednorphophoneúicâlterdâtions. Their v€fy plesen.e,however,may be of considerâble inter€stin the liSht of the vhicÌì will be conside.ed. situatioDi. somenon Bantu lâneuâgês doesnot The rasive verbalextension.unlike alì the otìer verbal extensións, various lofrs in a aplea. beÍo.e the compl€üvesuiiix. but combineswith its passive wáy parâllel to the fôrmâtiôn of /-itsê/ âs desc.ibedâbov.. The i-w, appeaÌsbelorethe iinâl vowel of th€ completivesuiiix, âddingioÌce to the analysìsol the Ìatter as itsell €omposite.Bdore i-w-/, its/ hasthe aÌteÌnânt/tl/, Ànd /mi hasthe alternânt in8l. Exâmplesor pasive completivesarel
gã8otl-w-E
gâgol-a 'help
387 In the Bânlu languagesin general,lerb bâses{jthoul the compÌetivesuttix âre úsuallypre.ededby â consr.uctionnark€r; in sotÌì€cascs,zcro or a zcro al ìomorphof à constructionmârkermày be in.luded. Cômpletivefôrms. hosever, are usuauynot p.ecededby a constructionDa.ker. Subjectconco.ds,however, nây include one or lso aìternânrsthât do not âppeârin ôther conslructions. The ÌestÌiction of süch specialiorms to only a tew cases.and the nature ot the to.ms theDseÌves,mâke it unâttrâctiveto analyzethem as tortmanteau Iorús including â .omptetivô constructionmarker; they âr. nore reâdily des$ibed simply as @nditionedby the useof the completivesÌIfix. 13.2. In nosl non-BântuNigercongo lânguâg€s, th€.e âppeàrsto be nothing pâmüeìidgthis wid€spreadBantuphenomcnon ol âd inllectionaìsultix other tìan à vowel. The Senufolânguáges, hoveveÌ,do havea distinctionbetweentwÕ stem foms of verbs,and at least in Suppirethe.e are sometantalizingsimilaritiesin tom. Tìe morphologicâlsitüâtionis Iãr mo.e cohplicàtedthan in Bantu; one can only list ã numb€Ìol classes ol ve.bs-€lêvenplus somen.egularsin Suppi.ê in te.frs ôt the relâtionshipoI the tvo lorms to eâchother. 'Ihe usageis also diflerent; the derired forD is used in the presentrather than the conpletive, and also (at Ìeastin Sena.i:I have no relevanteÌidencetor Suppire)in ihe imp€râtive. Still, shen one finds the commonestpatte.n in SuppireiÌlustrâtedbl pai.s suchas /di.e/ and idirili/ 'pull on', or /tüeo/ ând /tügòÌi/ 'ca..y and sees somewhatsiúilar patte.nsin /pi/ and /pini/ solten and in ipèi/ and hèri/ become lat vell, one has to wonder. Verb lÒrmsusedin conshuctiônsôther thân the presentand impeÍàtiveapp@r in most @sesto be mononro.phemic roots,and lor most cla$esoÍ verbsthe pÍesenìis lormed by suffixâtion. ln one clâs, hosever, the root ând p.esent foÌms â.e tie same,and in somecla$es the endingoi the pÌesentreplacesthe linâl pe.t ot the other to.m, sugg€úiDgthat thc latter mal also,tor thcseverbs. be a Íoot plus suftix. A numbe. oI individüal verbs show lexicaul conditioned frorphophonemic âlternátionin whât precedes the pr€sentsuffix. Ànd in â smâìl numberoI verbs. the presentfom al$ has a preÍix consislingof a homorganic nasal. Except ior a len lerbs vhich muú be speciâllyìisl€d. the iones ot the pÌesenttorfr âr€ predictâblelróú the tonesof the Ìoot. À iev examplesof eâch No pÌesentsrllix (but nasalpreÍix in a few ca*s): 'look at' wii wii ttri irri count' tyìrì ì-tyìrì káá
kááìi küú Ìi
388
AFRTCN LaNcuÀoE SrRucrsnEs
Pr€sentrith suffii i-ni/: nltri m tyê tyi-ni tyì-Dr tj/i PÌ€sentúth !úfix Èri/: kúó koÌi tà-tai
kúó-í koo-Ìi tÀ-Ìi
(choiceol vwel generâuypÌ€dictâblo: Ptwnt with suÍÍü /{e - -ge- -ga/ bèÉ bààge 'becomelholt' ny' nylgê becomeSood Ìyê ÌyÀ-gë 'becomeoÌd' PMat Ì,/ith /{è/ (â!d pÍobâbly otheÍ âltânant!) ÌepÌaciús/+i/ oÌ /-rê/; orly the folowing âre Ecord€d: 'becomehot' ryeí ry&gé kÁ-Ìí Í-kÈgÉ ?o' tyêI{ í-tÉgÉ 'becomesúâll' Ptent with /-rv/ EpÌacing /{Y/; ody rhe ronowi4: du€o ü{i
í-tt-í
Preleot with /-rui/ repÌacins/-so/: go uP
du{o mú-gó
Pt@nt with only o. Íioâl vos,el ol Ìoot Ìepeâted â3 súlix:
'ert (mert)'
t-kú-ú Ple*rt
'diê'
with ÍiÌst voweÌ of rcot Ìep€ât€d, replscing a diffeEnt vowl ir a vowel bbìà Luâ ryuo
bbìì kuu n-ryüu
Pt@Dt with /i/ ÌeplÁciDglirÀl vwer féfi ÍìdÌe lldÌi
tyüügo
tyüügr
dyie
dvi pp0â
'dÌink' 'fiDtuh' 'l.IÌ, drcp'
'do8'
IrÌ€gulaÍ: ppu
lie'
Pa
È êmênlssousd,ols d àulêur
389 The pÌesentconstructionin Suppireusesa constructionnârkcÌ /náJ bcfore the lresent torm. Àn oìject come6betseen the conslruci.ionnìarke. and the v€rb, which undergoesmorphotonenÌic aÌte.natio. in man"\rcases.E.g..
kótà : pi ná {kó?àÌi wyÊri: ku ná wyÉgÊ nyà : hi ná bâgânyáà
'he'sgetting fat' 'it's getling hot'
A constrüctionmârlìer /á/ (beforelow or hish ton€, /ã/ betoremid) is used bêlorethê v€Ìb rcot in ã .onpÌetile constrtrction.E.g., liu á tvügò
'it is (hàs becon€) deep
So nuch of the òrief period oi work on Súppirewâs devÒtedlo the codpÌ.xities ol morphotonologtând moÌpìology that littÌe mor€oI the v€rbaìsystêm 19asrecorded. It is known, ìowev€r, that there ã.e seve.almajor constructio.s siniÌar to the conpletive,with a constructionInârker belorethe lerb root. Negativeswer€reco.d€dior someconstrucÌions, ú eâchcas€vith /mÉ/atterthc !erb. verbaÌ systemis the derir€d cleãrly. the significant l€atuÌe of the Suppire Quite lorhs us€din the present. 43.3. SenaÌiis .aiher clos€ÌyreÌatedto Suppire;thoe is excelÌ€ntevidcnce tìât anc.stnì torns oflhe t*o sere entirelymutüâlly intelligibìe,il nÕtidenticà1, as .ec€ntlyas six hundredyeaN âgo. Senariaìsohâsa la.iety of Íomations used in the pres€ntard imperativeverbaÌ constructions.For someverbs,the iormations â.e cìeârly pârâll€ìto thoselound in Suppire. lhe renârkrbì. thing, however,isìow divese th€ two syúemsare- Sedâridoesnot hâveâ refìexof lh€ con monestpÌesentsuftix ol SDppire,/-li/. On the óth€. hsnd, SenÍri hâs â nuÌnber ot verbs whosep.€seDtis foÌmed by a tonal repìacive.The nasalt.erix iound occãsionallJ witlÌ presentlormsin Suppireis missingin Senâri. And nost strikingIy, no cìâssol verbs in eithe. languageseemsto be mâde üp predominântlyoÍ cognatesfrom a singìeclássin the olher; in mâny câses,indiriduâl lerbs seemto haÌe gonetheir own p€rversèwáysin the two languages.NoÌ doeseilherlânguàge appearto reflectin its p.es€ntsystema historìcâlpÌocessoI Ì€gulaÌizationor simplilìcatiôn. A survey oI the types o{ presentlomation in SeDariis as louows: Rôot ând presetrtidenticall kpúmá kpúmó tyóró tyó.ó Ìugo Ìugo
hit' count Gn)
Low-high replâcinglowìow, or hjgh replãcinglo$, dèftÈ dèmÉ kürü küú lì ìi
in present: help bend' 'eat
390
A'rRrcÀxLrNouacE Smucn REs
Low-mid replâcingÌoÌílow sòÌò tyèÈ dyié
oÌ high-hiehid p'€!€üt : sòlô pas tyère dyiê 'enter'
Prcs€rt with o!Ìy or fin"Ì vowel of rcot rcpeat€dat!úIix; high toDerèpÌaciúg low: dÍé díé+ 'sâ3h' kÀ kúá '*t (nêât)' kú-ú kü 'diê' HigheÌ voÌrel replacinglow€r vowel in pÌ$ent, and ÌÊpêatcda3 súrüi ìigh pé s]ìr íã
pH 3yo-o fó{
'sY/eeêp 'buy'
HigheÍ vowelÍepÌacingloìr,eÌvoìrel i! pÌ€rê!t; finâÌ high tone replacingÌow: dyâ dyê 'shatt€I' kòlògú 'mÌl' Lòlògò .á!Sá sálJgi do' Pr€rent with suÍÍix /-gV/ (too few qmpls to è.tlbü3h e ruìè for choicéoI nya tú tJ
nya{r tú0-gú rrt{{ó
'Ìook at' lieht 'ctos€,bury'
Presentwith súrix /-rv/i tlE lolowirg are the onÌy c!s.s MÌded: íã-Ìi íã 'build' kó kóÌi 'dÌav (*rt€Ì)' kú kú-ú ch*' Pt@nt úth /-rv/ reptâciÍg /{v/ or i-wl; hish tonê replscinglow: go up lú-gu Ìú-ú tì-8ì tÍ-Íi ?o down' so-tô so{i 'cook' Im{ulâÌ: Pá kárl
'go
Pi Thê p€sent foÍm i! üsedby itreÌf â3 a lingulâr ilnperâüvq oÌ may be precededby /tál or i a/, *hich are uniqueforn. ií they aÌe sìrbjectpÌoíoüns. A pr noun /]ã/ ir usedin the pÌurâl iÌnp€rative. E.9., kü.ü : nya :
ü Lüú ya kp4l tryâ8i
'bendit íri-class)' look (pL) at the housè'
E!nr!ntsrou d.L
d nLL!Lr
391 Th€ pr€scntform is usedâftüsubject concordswìthoui a constructionma.keÌ (nnÌikeSuppirê)in thê pr*ènt cÒnsr.üction.E.g., tyàtrà : dyié |
s'men€ tyàná pe rànì dyiéè
'they'rewashingcìothes'
A constructionmarker consisiingoi s syUâbicnâsâl hofrorgâdicwith the fouowing consonant,with low tone, is usedin â cÕNlructionshich includesá comtleüvemeaning,ìut which in at Ìeastsomecasesseemsto rele. to the r€cent pâst; it is reco.dedin ones€ntence with the wo.d foÌ yesterday'. The verb Ìoot is usedin this constÌuctiotr.II the subjectis li.st or secondpersonsingula..tlìe colst.uction marke. may ottionally be omittedi this r€sultsin identity with the pÌesentonly tor Ìe.bs which have identicaÌroot and p.esentfo.ns (and there is somêsuspicionoi a tonal ditlerencewith the pronoun,which was not recorded). E.E, pe À Ìôgì kpâ
'l côüghed/ I'n coughing' 'Ìhey hale drunk tne water'
wiìhü wi l.Ì kári tyà ?ànü À more remotepast constructionüsesthe mârker /mà/ with the verb rcoL This constructionmay also be usedwith the word for 'yesterday'iwhât dilferencetheÍe may be in meaningbetweenthis ând the lãst exâmpleâboveis not is aÌwâysusedwhenthe known. Ìt is €úãblished,howeler,that thh constructiÕn past reIeretrceis to a more remote event. E.g-,
ThÌeeconst uctionma.ke.saÌeÌecorded,usedwiih ihe verb root, with iuture reference:/à/, /dyà/, ând /yà/. Tìe disìiíctions in r€ierenceâúÕns ìh€sethree a.e not known, thoughth€Ìe is someevidencethat /à/ indicatesan üDmediate future. Any of theseconstructiónmârkersfrây be fôllo{€d by /kó/i the modìfication that this givesto the meaningis âÌsoúnknovn. Dislinctionsrelâtingto probaòility o. desire,as welÌ ãs to de8reesol luturity, may be involved. Other morlhemes,which may be conúructionmarkes orauxiìiâry vcrbs,aÌe similârly usedto form a hortative,and to expressâbility and desire. Âgâin, úy reco.d6are fragmentary. À conditionalconstructionmark€r /gá/, usedwith the verb not, is âttested. A lew sequences oI verbs were r€corded,suggesting a consecutiveor a form of s€riâlizâtion.UÍfÒrtunàtely,the only câs€srecÕrdedhappento be wilh veìbs lor which the root ând tle preseDtare identìcal,so tìat tbe choìceor termissible sequences ol lórms âÌe unknown- No prcnounis rsed, however,tor verbsalter tne fiÌst iÍ a sequence iI the subjectis the same.
392
ÀFRrcN LL\cuÀcE SrRucrwes
In spite of tìe paucity oI nâte.ìaÌ eÌicited, Senâriprcvidesâ goodüDstmüon ol rhe way in sìich negrtive systehs do .ot peÌlectly fritch âllìrhàtive syst€ms. ÀÌl r€cordedn€eativeshave a negativemorthemeiil at tòe end oÍ the sentence not merely âlter the verb. but also alter an adverbiâÌcomtlement. (l would not, howev€!,sant to bêt on the sâne /i/ app4ring in a n€gaúvehoÌíâtive.) A presentnegativealsohas /ò/ (FüeÌ than .othind in the construction naÌke. position betore the present lÕrm Õl ihe verì. A paú negâtive, ãppaÌeDtly including tle referencesoi both of the alfimative constructions desc.ibed âbove, with â sylÌàbicnâsâlând with /mà/, hás /gál in úe constructionmârkeÍ positioí. FutuÌe n€gatives are recoÌded wìth the sãme const.uction markeF as in the at fiÍÍnatives. E.g.. káí: ml ò syéi mi gá kâri tyàtànü i DÌ à kári i ftÌ yà kári nyì?Ènai
I'm lot goiDg' 'I didd't gÕyesterdây' 'l'm not goingto go' 'I m not goingto go tomorrow'
It may bemoreimpresiveto someone who hashad expe.ien@tith a number ol Ahicâú lânguâgesthan to ã novic€,but the úniÍicânt lhing âbout the foregoingis thât, in spite of the seriouslimitãtionsôf the dátâ. everythingpoints to ã typicaÌ NigeÌ-CongovêrbâÌ system. Tìe conúrüclìon markersâÌe just where ther belong,and indicatea unidimensional systen of constructions.Thereis not much by sây ôf diÍter€ntiationol afiixeswith the veÌb báse,but the presentÍorn sullixation and morphophonemic âÌternâtionsmây òe att.ibutable to earlierBur fixes; the paraÌleÌism (one can hârdly sây cÕgnâüon,of course)üth the one fom jn Bâútu lmguâg€swhich has a suflix consistingof more ìhan â singlelowel i3 striking. SomethingÌike a conscutive or seÌializationis present,and thêreis tle typicat Ìack of paÌãÌlelism between âItimaüves ãnd n€gatives. In tle shoú tÌhe avâilâbìe,the ânslysiswasby no meanscoDpleted,but it sâs clearÌyofÍ und ÌDnning in the Ìight direction, 13.4. Some âspectsor the vèrbal morphologyot Ba.iba-particulâú the stâtus or e.dings and tone in foms ot the veÌb, and the occunenceoÍ Ìather irregularstâti!€ toús lor sómeverbs-hâre âlr€âdyben discused(cf. 5.23,12.7). A verb mây ha!e, apâú from the stativê,as many as sev€ndiflêrent lorms, used in dilferent constructions. though tor most ÌeÌìs the torDs usedid twÕ Õr more constructionsâre the sâme. The recÒgniz€d vâriâblespemit tsentyjive lermutâtions, and tw€nty-tlree düIe.ent cla$€s oI verbs a.e attested. ÀÌthough the âlÌomôrphicsand Do.photonemicalteÌnationsare quite coÍnplex,any Ìe.b fo.m can uÌúnâtely be analyzedâs à root pl{s a suïix. This is an unusuauyextensile useol sulfixesin a ve.bal system,particúÌa.ìyin light of th€ tâct that, with a Ieú frârk€d by other hìghÌy restrictedexceptiÕns, eâchcônstructionis unambiguously obligãtoÌy mo.phemes,so that the suttixes and the resuÌtant proÌilerâtion oí veÌb loms are actuãlly redundant, Subjcctlronouds (first ând secordlersons)ând concoÌdsro. au nour cìâses have the samclorns in all vêròaì constructionsexcêDton€.th€ hoúaüve. which
393 servesâls .s â consecútive.In the latter constrúctiod,â setôt pronohs and conmÌds is usedwìich diíf€rs in âll câses€xc€ptth€ secondpe.sonforms. In this set, the subjectconco.dstor noun cla$esg€nerallyend in /ü/. The e€neralsubj€ct pronounsand concordsall havehigh tone. The tvo setsare ãs lollows:
rpl 2Pl v-pl Y-PÌ
vc-
ga
yr
Jr
cü
Six prjmâry affirmatire constructionsare recognized.Theseare iÌlustrated beìowior a verb whicì has the maxinlm numbe. oI distinct rroms, and in an oÌde. rellectingthe orderoi desc.iptivestatemenisrequiredto definethoseiorms úost efticientìy. Prcblens of coDmxnication$ith infonants made it difficült io deternineihe pr€cjseneâning ot sne constructions.\vhât is h€recaìled"€xperiential'may quite posibly be a compleiive. The intonants' desoìptionoi circunúãnc€sinshich this.onúruction Nould beúsed,giveúin Yorubâ ând lhed giveninì.oken French,suggested trânslateditrto English.o. sometimes a m€ani.g like I have often done it', and I originaÌÌyìabelledtìe conúruciion "freqxentati!e." Ìt seemsunlsual to have an experi€ntialamongthe ?riDary constructions and a .onplcÌiÌc in â deriveds€l, bnt thât is th. beí anaÌysispossibleât pr€*nt. The primary afiimatite constructionsâre: Ho.tative I Pâsi : Incompletive: Custom{ry : ExperientialI Iúperâtive :
su tasu dúúÌë nâ tâsu düúrã na tâsu duurú nó ná rà tasú düürè na tasu dúú.ú rê a tasu dnúrüõ
let's plant yams 'I plãnredt'âms' I am llànting lsms' I plânr yâms 'I have (olten)plantedlrms '!lânt yâms Gg-)'
It wilì b€ nÕtedthât only the cuslomârJhas ã norphemein th€ üsuaÌconstÍüction markeÌ positionithe tvo top ton€sin this exampleand in otheÌshelo$ âre regüla. aÌternationsof Ì'igh belo.e loq, Tso oi the other constructionshâve anothermo.phemeàfte. the verb,Iike ân âddiriônâlsutfix. The pâú is Ír€quently foìlowedìy a norph€me/kò/, tìc lorc€ ol which is not known. Thêreare negatilesconesponding to tì€ lirst live ól the âbôve;the negâtire hortative in the s€@ndpeÌsonis usedin pÌaceot a ne€âtiveimperative. There is a speciaÌve.b tom in tì€ !âú negativeonìy tÌ'€ seÌenthoi thê possibledir feÌ€ni foms. Thereis âlsóâ negâtivecônsìtuctiônhârker. but ìt is not th€ sanìe foÌ âll foms; it is /kú/ for the hortative,/kü/ ioÌ the clstomarr, ànd /à/ loÌ lhe !âst, inconpÌ€rive,ând exp€rientiãI. Th€ primary negâtiveconstructions:ìrei
394
ÀFR'CÁN LBc!ÁcE
Hortâtit€ : Pâst : Incomlletiver Clstomary : Itxpenential;
su kú tâsu dúúra ná n tâsu düürê ná lÌ tasu duurü m:t Dá kü rà ta6ú düürè ná n tasu dúú.ú ra
SmlcÌoREs
'l€t s not llânt yâús' 'I didn t llant yams' I m not pÌântingyms 'I don t plant yâns' I haveneverplanted yams
Bâ.iba is oneof the few NìgeFcongolanguages known to me which may be bidimensìonal-and in Iact said to hale a a tri-dimensional-systemoI veÌbâÌ constructiors.Any of the abovemay be moditiedby the âdditionof a mor?heme /rã/, with an ãllomôrph/dà/ after a nasal,which must b€ the last móÌphemebetorê the (ôbject ând) v€Ìb. With sone constrüctions,this morphenè sems to .€fer to ?ast time. with the past, there is some evidence of a completive lorce, but âgâinjt wâs inposible to pin-point the Deaning. In othú câses,particularly the hortative and imperative,it was iDpossibleto determiúe*hether the tr€senceof tìis morpÌremerellect€dany modilicationin meanirg at âll. lnformants readilt ãccept€dits us€,hovev€r,with eachoI the aboveãllirmâtia€ând negâtile constructions.Exanples Io. which the semanticdistinctionsseembst (and someóf tlese Day not be entireÌy accuÌate)aÍe: estabÌished na rã tasu duurü frj ná n dà tasu duurü nó ná .à rà !âsú düürè ná kü rà rã tasú düürè nâ rà tâstr dúúrn ra ná ì dã tâsu dúúrú rè
'I 'I I 'I I 'I
sas plantingyams wasnt plantiÍg yams' üsedto pìânt yâns' didn't often tlant yâns olten usedio plãnt yam6 neverusedto pìant yaús'
Ánother set oI consi.uctionsbas€don ihe abóve.both sithout and with /rã/ is a set or conditionaÌs.No conditionalvould be exp€ctedco.responding -/dã/, to th€ hÒrtâtiveor ifrpe.âtive.bxt âÌÌ ol theothemarc recorded,ln conditionals, Ìow tone r€pÌacesth€ high tone oI the subjectp.onoun,and this is inm€diâteÌy followcdby â constructionmarker,/à/ in th€ aliirmâtiveand /kü/ (ìDplaceoi th€ non-côndiiionâlú€gativefro.phene) in the negâüÌe. E.g., Pâst
: ü ìr tasu dúúrã ü kü tâsDdiúrè Incompletive: ü lÌ tasu duuru mó ü kü tâsü duurü mó
'iÍ he (has)llanted yâhs 'if he didn't plânt yams' 'if he h pÌantingyâms' 'it he isn t planting yans
À future is conspicuouü absentl.om the p.imary conslructionsdesc.ibed up tÒ this pôidt. Futüre actiÒnis expr€sed by an âüxiliary constrrctioúusing .€quiÌed. with sme specialsìâtemeDts /ko/ pÌusa hortativein its co.s€cuiiveuse. B€iore /ko/, a lirst or secondpersonsingularp.onoünÍây be omitted; the pronôun b€fo.ethe tollo*ing cod*cütive is sufiicientto indicatethe person. Ane. oth€r pdmnal pronounsand /Lo/, th€ pronoun b€forethe @n8ecütiveIÒú is omitted in tÌìe first and secondpe.$n pluraÌ, and /ü/ appeârein placeof /bü/ i! the third personpluÍâI. Fôr nôn-púsnâl noüns.subjeci concordsare usedreguÌaÌly. Futureswith p€rsonalsubjectsâÌe:
395 (na) ko n di 'you (€.) âre goiúgto catr ukôüdi 'yoü (pl.) âre goingto eât'
Desi.e, abiÌity,andprobabÌy sômeotherideâs arealsoe\pressed by âüxiìiarjes with â hoúâtile,aithout the irr€gulaÌìties in lronounusâge foúndiú the Íüture. E.9.,
with no constructionmarkerand nothingaiter the ve.b ìn Statiles are 'ìsedwith the afiirmãtive, and /n/ narkidg the negative. FoÍ verbs haviúg statives usedin ãn incompìetileneâning, the incompÌetiveseemsto b€ rareìy used,but seemsto have â kind ol custoúâry meâniúg,vhich may or mây not be dillerent rÌom the Íorceof the ordinãry customâry. E.9., Pâst
: ú dúiã
Incompletive: u duiÀnó u nâà mó undò u sisi u ì sisi
'hê cones(íôw ând theÍ ?)'
'he'scoming(on his way)
Perhapsthe veÌy unceúainty ol the precis€semanlicrcferenc€s ot sone ol ìhe Bâriba Ìerbal constructions-the .€sult ol too short a iime lor analysis, with intorfrants who were unimp€achablycoole.ativ€, ch€erful,and intelligent.but sith whom it vâs difficult to communicâteat $e lêvêl oI lrecise defìnition will underscoretle Ìange oÍ po$ibilities that nust be consider€d,and the caution which muú b€ exercisedin linguisticlield work. 13.5. Ïhe Kpelle verbâì systd shôws substantialsuperficialdillerence6 from evencloseìyr€Ìâtedlanguáges, but cÌôsetypologicâlsimilaritiesto systems thÌôughoutNiger-Congo.The lirst stepis to islâte the lrimâry conú.ucüonF thosewhich do not incÌúdean auxiliary or an âdverbialcompìement.Theseare illustrat€dby tìe followingsentences, usingthe samesubjectând the sameverb Ìoot in so rar as po$ible:
kulâ
Stative
'Get out l'
'he s seted'(impe.i see)
396
ÁqrcÀN
LlNGuÀcE
SqlcFREs
à küla à kula
Experiential
èi kúla
'heìas goneout (ândis out)' '(ir only)ìe wouldgo out
'Ía kúla 'têi küla
'(it only)hewouldnt go out
Past N€gItort. Neg. Stat. NegC!st. Neg. Desid.N€9.
A subjectpronounis obÌigatoryin an âilimative verbãl constuction, even atter a noun phrâseIunctioningâs the subje.t of the *ntence. The âppãreDtab*nce ol â subj€ctp.onounin the singula.impeÌâtivemay be inte.p.etedes â zúo subjectp.onou; inde€d,lhere is ân optional-though not fÍequentlyused sin, gula. imperatile shich doesus€ãn Õ!eú subjectpÍonotrn. The root loms ol the subi4t Dronounsare: I : you (se.):
Ìlá i (-6é)
That these,rather than someotheÌ set oI Ioms d€soibedbelow.â.e ind€edthe root foms of the sDbj€ctpronoúnssiÌl be evidênt shen thosefoÍns âÌe intuodtrced. Twô roots úust b. recognizedlor ihe secondpersonsingulâr,thorgh in sne dialectsonÌy the lÍst, /Íi, âlpeaN. I! Dost oI tìre Êouthwgt€.nKpeÌl€ areâ,the Íirst combin€swith cotâin iollowing morphmes, ând the second,/6ê/, with othe6. The secondis alsothe foÌm usedoptionally$ough inlreqlentÌy as the subj€ctof a sirÌgularimperatjve,witì mid replâcingsìm tonê. The Íi.sl ald the root lorms fo. the other persns. allear by th€nseÌvesonly in the pâst aflirmâtive construction. In mostveÌbâl constrDctions, the subjectpronounis íollowedoraccompanied by a constructionmârker, with fai.Ìy siDpÌe no.phophonmic ruìe6goveÌning the cofrbjnations. The !â.joDs .onbinâtions üât occur mây bê sunned üp in â chart: the tirú columnlisis the Ìoots. and eachor the other columnsis h@ded bv â r€Dresentâtion of rhê constructionmaÌker: RooI
E
M
lsr 2s:
!á i
!á i
(6e)
lpÌr 2pt: 3pÌ:
kú ká ti
kú ká ti
hâ
-d -d r]à [a 6a 6à aàââèi kwa kwà kâ kâ 'ta 'tà
-oti tlâà 6aâ
-i .tâi ii
kwaâ kââ 'taâ
kììi kâi 'tli
397 ln the last four oI the selen columns,it is inmediâtely appârentthât âll the toms €nd in tle sâm€{sy; s}ate'c. the recurrcntpâ.rialsart, they úay clearly ìe inieÌp.etedãs mo.phenes,and the combinedio.ms aÌe obviouslr lot the root Íoms oI the pronouns.The recondcoÌümndilÍers lrom th€ first only in the tone ol tbe third personsingülârlorm. AppÌyjng ure !Ìinciple of Daxifruft diflerentiation,the foms in the tirú úlDmn, which show â gfeátervâriety (in tone) a.e taken as the Ìoot foms rather than thosein the second.The Ioms in th€ second columnaÌe derivedby repìacingthe tone of the root with hth tÕne. This Ì€placementhas a z€ro €ilect in tile of the six cases,but is identili€d as p.€snt on the basiÊoI the third p€ren singularlorm. Similarly, in the third column, the tonc ol the root is repìac€dby mid tonei thesetvo s€condpersontorms âre usedonÌy in the inperative. In the lirst, second,and Ìast columns,the first foÍn oÍ the s€condpeson singuÌârroÕtis üsed;in thc renâining columns.the second Iom is used. In the last coÌumn,the constructionm.rkeris â vowelsuffix added to the root with no changein the Ìooi. In the precedìngthre columns,the Íinal ma.ker. iu/ oí the rirsr lerson pìurâl ióót becomes/w/ belóre the cÒnst.üctiÕn Conparably,a rule not elident in Ìhe su.tâceiorms úât.s that â tinaì /i/ becomes iyl betorethe sâne consfuctionnârkds. Thjs rule is negâtedin the third person pltrral loms because*/ty/ i6 not â lermissibleclust€r,as /kw/ is. The rule does apply in diâle.ts çhich üseonìy the fiÌst fom of the secondpersonsirguìâr rool; the corÌespondins lorms âre/yâ/, iyà/, ând /l àâ/. Fi.àì /âi ând /€i in the renâinids pÌonoun roots âre droppedbelo.e theseconúrucüon markeN. ln spitcol thelâbel, it cannotbe saidthat eacì const uctionmarkerunjqüely marks a singleconstruction.The marker /'ai is uscdin the p.esent,the stative. ând the customâry;the mârke. /-à/ is u$edin both the conditionâìand the exterieltial. Each oI thesemight, of course,be considdcdâ sct ot homophonous const.uctionma.kes, but in any câsethe cÒnìrâstsbetwe€nth€ cÕnstructions alsoinvoÌvemorthemesaccompan_\'ing the followinglcÌb root. Belor€ discussingverb roots ând their âfijxes, it should be noted thãt ãd object noxn phrase,including a pronoun object, frày occu. b.tsccn lhc con stnction mârk€r and the yerb. Certãinadve.biâlsóf time mat ãlsôôccurin this positiÒn,ând beÍo.ethe object il there is one. For examplel 'he is getting out â knife 'he js getting them out 'he is now gettiDgout â knile Par€nthetically,it may bc obser!€dhere thât nany ve.bsin Kpelle are used êitìer intransitively oÌ transitileÌy. The !Úb usedjn lhe âbove examples,iÍ int.ansitivense,hâsthe basic meaning 'exit', inclüding both go out' ând 'come out - In trânsitiv€ use, it means 'remove': 'teke oul, bring out, puÌÌ out, put out', €tc. Ev€n â !€rb vhich woúÌd seeDto be nece$arilyt.ansitive,like 'cut', mây ha!ê an intansitile u*; a ropemey 'g€t cut by lrictiÕn,*ithout ân ãctive
398
ÀÊntcaN LÁNGUÀGE SmucreREs
agent. Somesmanüc rangesare undpected; one verb used int ânsitiveÌy meâns 'jump', and transitively'thrcw' the covêrdêlinitiod is'Doveo. causto move f.on one placeto âqothe.without toüching the surÍâcêbêtween'. Other verbs, however,are necessarilytÌansitivei the veÌbs for 'eat', 'drink', '6oL', kew', 'see',and mãny oÌhds requte ân object, though thei. English @uterpârt! do nÕt. Still other verbs! üke 'come', 'go', tle€p', 'laugh', are alvays used inIn the list of constructions iìÌustrated ãbove, it úÌl be noted that what âppers to be the verb rcot occurs sith fouÌ different tone mârks (incÌüding the âbsenceof ã mârk). ând in â fe* câseswith a suffix. In some conslÌuctionÈ specificâÌlyúosê illustratedwith the loms /küla/ and /külâ/-âìl vdbs in the languageaÌe idenücalin tone. In most oI the rmâining constructionÊ, howeve., ã verb mãy hâve one ot tour tones,detending on the identity ot the verb root. FoÌ example,in the coÌnpletilefour lexical tones âpp@r in contrast: High throughout: Mid throughout : High-lÕ{ : Mid-fall :
aâ piÌi aâ kuÌâ ââ pôlât aâ tuâ!
'he hasgotten doçn 'he hasmovedovd'
To iÌlust.ãte the id€ntity ôf iones in some ôther cônstructions, the coneslonding è pìli è pèlâ! The low tone lound in the past constDction i6 thus cÌeâÌly a chamcteÌistic ol the conúrDctionitseü,sinceit is idenücãlfor âÌì vúbs The varioÌs toDeslound ií the completive,on the otheÌ hand, âÌe cha.acteri6ticoÍ individual vdb róots. TÌ'ese nay be caÌled the "root ton$" oi the verb8 in question. No two veÌb ÌÕots difle. ninimâlly ií their root tones. (In noúheâstdn diâÌects,{here /r/ ând /I/ havemergedas /Ì/, thse is oneinstânceol âDiDiúâl pâiri the $uthwesteÌn fons are /yilii 'cooh'âíd i/ri/ 'tie'.) Thus, in constructionslike the pqst, iq which alì verbs âÌe identical in tone. all verbs .eDain in contrast with each other. The Ìe{icâì tônes,€âchônê ân intêgraìlart ol someve.b root tone6a.e nevertheless The segmentâìshapeof a verb root is CV, CVV,CVCV,or any of thesepluB â linâÌ h/. CV(ì) roots cãn have only one of the fist two tones,high oÌ mid; CV Ìoots are all high with one excettio., and moreCVÌl .ootÊa.e ìigh than mid. For othê. s€gmeítâIshâpes,veròs with high or bid íone tar outnumbeÌthosè with ìighlow or nid Íall. A very high proportion oi root6 with highlow and midjaìl have linâl /Ìl/, lor no Õbviousreâson.A Íew rep.esentativ€examplesof verb roots with eâch root tone âÍe as folloss:
399
Ìó 6ó!
'sting'
láa pili
j*p'
YéÌê
'laugh'
ktâarj
'bebusy'
leli
'begof'
ïry' 'IÌv' sÉkt
'hsng'
Someof the tonâì vâriety nôted id the vâriousverbal constructionscan, as has been suggested, be att.ibut€d to cha.actensticsor pa.ticular constru.tions. Thus, Íor exampìe, foÍms have been cited to show thât the completive us€s the verb rcot with its root tone,whilê the pasl h{s â Ìôw tone repÌâcingthe Ìoot tone of the verb. There aÌe ãlso,however,inúancesof norlhotonemic âìternâtions vhich mâkethe datâ seemsonewÌratmo.e complicatedthan it actuâllyis. First, by no meâns nstricted to the verbal úorphology but perfectly ÌeguÌar in the Ìanguage, Ìow tone hasthe aÌte.nanthighìow afte. mid (cf. 5.5). This aìternâtion app€sÍsin a Dumb€roI verbal consiructions;e.9., è küÌa
But:
è kâli küla è kôni kúÌâ
In the illustrations ol verbal constructions at the b€ginniúg oI this section, âll of ìhe casesin vhich th€ forn ikúlâ/ âppeaNare inúâncesof this samemorphotonemicãlte.Dâtion;in eâchcase,a nid tone ?recedes,and it a tone oth€r than mid prÊcedpdthe lom would be /kulâ/. E.g.
But:
'ia küÌa â talê{ küla 'fa núu nyirJküla
'hedoesn'text.actteeth'
A similâr morphotonemic âlternaüon, similar in that the sequencenidìo* doesnot occur,is íound in verbswith nid tonewhenfoÌlowedby a suiÍiÍ, the tone of which is los. The tones of the verb Ìoot (nid) plus sulfix (low) âre mid-highÌow; adding the sÌIlix to a verì with the totres mid-faÌl yields the sãme tones. a kuÌâi a tisôi
he is goingout 'he is sneezing'
But v€rbswith other root tÕnesãdd the sullix with no alternationin toDe. Thè secondof the folÌowingexatnplesincltrdesân âdditionâÌmorphophonmic Àlter-
400
AFÂrca
L^Ncu^cE SrÂucruREs
nâtìon. For âny verb wilh â iinâl h/ in the rÕot,the tinâÌ h/ hâs the alterlant /n/ beroÌethe sürrix /-ì/, and tìe sürrix appearswitÌì a doubtelowel. Thusl pili pêlarì
'junp' : 'get dowtr' ;
a piìii a têladii
he is jumping' 'he is getüng down'
One lurtheÌ morpìotonemic alternation makes it necessaryto subdivide verò rcots with mid tonê idto tsô eroups(ct. 5.9). A verb rcot is initiâlly identifìed as haviDgmid tone on the basisoÍ 6uchIorms as the singüÌaÌifrlerative (wheÌe nothing precedesthè veÍb) o. the completivewitìÕut ân object (whêrelow tone pÌecedet. In the pâú DegatiÌe.aÌl verb Ìoots with mid tone appearwith thât tone únaltered;thus the past negativeis âlsodiâgíostic for idenülying the tone oI a veÌb Ìoot as mid, But in other const.uctions-the imperátive,hortative, experientiãI,and complêtivÈâÌl lerb rootswith nid toneappeaÌwith that tone ünâìteredonìy if the precedingtoneis lo* - or il, as jn the inperãtive sitlout an object, nothing pr€cedes.In the same.onúrüctions.howeve..if the tone p.ecs ding the verb is nid or high. onÌy someleÌbs with mjd root tone-âbÕut â third oi the totaÌ retain that mid tone unaltered.Therenâiningverbswith mid toneoDly in the tour consttu.tionslisted, ând only arteÌ nid or hÈh-hav€ high tone âs ân alternant oI mid- The following exâmplesuse two mid-toneverbs,/kula/ 'exit, renÒÌe', ánd /kp€te/'get Ìich, Íix ; the limt ol thêseshowsthe aÌte.nqtion in oueúion. but the sêconddo€snot:
ThesemorphotonemicstâtementshâÌ€ now reducedthe s@ingly Iormi dâble va.iety oI foms which nãy lôìlov â subject pÌonoun ând construction ma.keÌ to only four types. One of thew is the verb root by itsêÌi, with its ÌÕot tone and no suffix (in the inperàtive, r'oúâtive, expe.iential,comlletive,and past Degative).The secondis the lerb root vith low tone .epÌac'ng.oot tone (ìn the pàst,customary,conditiooal,desiderative, hortative negátive.custoDaryn€gative aúd desideratile negative). The thiÌd is the verb root sith a suffix /-i/ (in úe presentaúd presentúegâtive). The louúh is the ve.b root with â suffix i-nì/ (jn the stâtive and stâtiv€ .egative). ÀdditionaÌ morph€me6Iound only in negative const.uctionsviìl bê discúsed in the lolÌowingsection. In both âfiimâtive and Íegâtiïê constructions, howeve\ low tÕner€pìâcingÌoot tone, the 6üfix gÌôuped tosetheÌas one setof verbaÌâÍÍixês. Just and the sutrix nay be i-il, /-nì/ as the sulject l)Ìonou! roôt by itself nây be consideÍedlo hâve a ze.o constÌuc_ tiôn nârke. loìloving it, so the veÌb .oot by itself may be consideredto hâve a zerc allix. TÌrìs makes it possibÌe to state the fornâtion oI aÍIiÌmatÌve verbal in 12.1: P-C-v-À, in which either C o. A, const uctionsin the iorDula suggêsted but not both, ftây be zeÌo. in K?eÌle, included in the 13.6. ÀlÌ of the primary n€gâtiveconstructiÕns list at úe beginningof the precedingsection,sìa.e a norPheme/lél. By anâÌogy in 11.5./fél nust be ânâÌyz€das a veÌb iD tle uldeF with us€soI /káa/ discussed
401 Ìying 6tructure,and alÌ oI tle negatìveve.bal constrüctionsaÌe bâsicallyâuxiliary constÌtrctions.Àpart frcm Dseswith verbs, cÕmpàr€the following: 'fé nãa 'fé íyéeì úóÌl fó Èà
'he isn't ther€' 'l don t ìave it' I have nÒchild'
Whât precedes/té/ in the âbore and aìso in negatileverbal constructionsis fo.mally an object. But just âs the verbâllunclion ol /káâ/ hâsbeenshownto be fosilized (in tÌtât th€ pluÌâl pronounof an jmp€râtile ìs noi usedvhen âddressing nore than on€p€rson),so the verbaÌfunctionoÍ /ié/ aho iosiliz€d. This is thê 's mo.e trüe in tìât /íé/ .ônbines with someof the rerbâl cÒnsfuctiónmarkers Íôund alsôin allirmaüve constructions.Furth€Ì, tìere is ã detail of in€guÌârily in objectpronouDs in tlÌe lânguage. ?receding/fê/{hich js notpaÌaÌlel€d€lsewhere The íirst personsingulârobj€ct pÌonounhâs a zeroalìoDorph.so that the fom /lé/ by itself impìjesâ iirst peNon singuÌârobje.l; the expecledforft js */úIé/ (úvél). In noÌtìeast€rndialects,lhe lirst personsingularobj.cl pÍonou js as expect€d,but the secondpe$on singulârhas â zero aÌìÕnorph-s râth€Ì unusualopporjuniryÍor inrerdiâìc.lâì mi:undeìrârding. Althongh all oI the prjnâry negstiveconstÌuctionsuse/lé/, th€y do not perlectly pâraÌlelthe alfimative constructionsin either Eriety or lom. Firsl, âs Ia. as laÌiôty is concerned, there is nô negàriveimperàtir€;â negâtiÌecommand is expreskd by â negátivelo.rative in tìe secondperrcn- Negatilescorresponding to the êxp€rientialand compìetiveare expansions oi the past negatiÌe by the additìonol adÌerbs{hich âppearels€wìereonly ìn queíions. E.g.,
'té tá kulâ ni
'hc hasn'i eÌer goneout' 'he hàsnt goneÕutyet'
A súânti.âlly negattueconditiolal is an expansionof an âIli.mâtive construction by the inseúionôf a morpheme/wàla -là/. It usesthe constuction nâ.ke. /-à/ which appearsalsoin tÌÌe âtfimative condiiionaÌ. The verb root may haÌe low lone replâcingróot tone, as in tle afiirmatile .ondiiionâI,or âlternarivelyit Day Ìtave its root tonc; in lhe ìâ11€rcàse,the combinationiD queúion hrs the fÕm of ãn expândede\periential,but it s€ehslrele.âble to cãll il ân expâúded conditionalwith the statment thal the tonâl repÌâci!. is optìonâlaiter /{àÌa ìà/. Thus a seúânticâllythoughnot loÌmally n€gatile conditionâìis; wàla küÌâ à wàla kula -à à là küla à là külâ -
In foÌD, the construclionmarker(conìined with /Ié/) and lerbal allix of afti.mativ€ conúructionsaÌe lound in paÌall€Ìn€3atile constructionsonly in the cDstonaryãnd desiderâtive.ln the pr€sentand stãtive n€gâtiles,uìe construcüon narke. i-âlÕltìe aiíirmative doesnot appeârithis may ìe consid€r€d a case of ã zerc constructionmaÌker, or âlteÌnâtivelya deletionof / a/ in the presence ot the uDambiguous verbal suffix. ln the hortative, the verb root hâs the low
402
AFRrcÀN LÀNcu^cE SÍRUcÍ(ÌÀEs
tone replacivein the negãtiÌe,in contrastsith root tonèin the affirnâtive. ConveGely,in the last the v€rb Ìoot hasits Ìoot tonein tie negative,in contÌÀstvith th€ low tone replacivein thê âÍÍimative, bnt an additionâÌnorpheme/nÍ/ occÌrrs âItèr lhe lerbi ihis mây be cônsidered â suffix, though writted as a sepâÌâte In the p.imâry negatile conúructiÕns, then, ãn object with /fó/ Ìepla@s rhe subjectol affirnativesi an objectpronounisnot usedafteÌ â nounobject. Beyond this, however, n€gaüves cannot ìe dèrived trom affúmâtives by ã simpÌe trâne iormâtionâÌ rüÌ€. Râther, n€.gâtivesindependentìy show the samefo.huìâic structu.e ãs affimatives: Ìhe .emainde. ol each is a @nstruction maÌker Ànd a veÌb The occuning p€rmutationsoÍ conú.ucüon ma.keÌs ând verbal ãIfüa aÌe summaÌized in the accohpanying chaÍt. Horizôntal rows indicâte the occurences ol €âchonúruction mârker:veúical coÌumnsindicàtethe occuúences of eachverbâl affix. Àfter putting together â construction lrom this chârt, oÍ course,the le].i câl toíeol the lerb seìectêd musl.be introduced.ân objectând/or ân âdveÌbmây be addedbelÕreth€ verb,and then the moÌphotonemicãnd othe. morphophonemic ÌuÌes sumnarizedin the forcgoingdiscDsion must b€ ãpplied in order to anive at tle surlacestructúre. Loq Ìêpr'.jk
/-t. /-hv
HdL N€s. I sbt. N€s.
13.7. Usesof the KpêlÌe horÌâiive as â consecuüÌewere discused and illústated in 12.10. Àn auxiliary constructioúexp.$sing siúultâneoüsâctionwas alsodiscu$edin that section;it uks the impe.ativelom of the veÌb /kÉ/,transi tively 'do, make', with an object, follow€d by the v€rb Ìoot with low ton€ Ìe-
,103 pìâcingrool tone. À sequedc€ ot conditiónãls*ãs noled in 12.!ì,€lprcssirÌgâ ìow degreeol exp€ctaDiliryrell€ctedÍÌ rÌanslalionbf il i l,helirsl conditionaliÌ lhe squencc is /à kÈ/. Thcseusesâdd coúslrucliodsârc nôledàgàìnhereior ihc sake All other verbâl .onsi.uctìÕúsâre ol lhe auÍiliârv 1.Xpe,in which the naiú verb has the suffix /'ì/ ot the presentor ]-ni/ ol the úâii!c- The inte.pretation oI i-ìl as lorming a kiúd ot Ìocâtile verbal noün çâs discu$edin 11.5;/-nìl mây be considered to have a similariüDction. As noted there.ihe nnpe.ativeform of lhc verb /káâ/ see'with ân object is usedas an aúiil'â.y to lorm ân opriÒúâlalternatile to the tresent and stative. Ì'o extre$ continuingaction or state *ith Ìele.€nceto oth€r thân tresent tinÌe, /ki/ (Nith â sübjerr)is üsedin à vâriety óf pÌinâ.y const.uctionsas an auxiliary. In the simuÌtaneoNconstruclion,theauütìary is /6ô/. ln 12.5,il wasnotedlhât lhe !e.b /pá/ is usedjn the pÍesent.before the main veÌb vith th€ sullix /-ì/. to lo.or a Iutu.e. Theseauxìliaryconstructions are iìlustratedin the folìowing:
è kÈ kulài 'iI he is goingout . . . kÉ 60 kulâi
'. . . aúd he wâsSoingout
a pâì kulâi (-'káâ pâi kulâi) ln âddiüon tô these,â lerb rôot with thê sullix /-ì/ is usedâIier . leN othe. auxiliâri.s. One of theseis the verb /pâÌii be
tâ pári kÊi
it'
{ pòri kii Theonìy othersüchcodslrucliodI cânrecallüsesthelerb /l€Ei 'slay, renâiú' (transìtiveÌ)''ieave') as an auxiliary to expres âciion still goìDgon. ln s€leÌaÌ primâr)' constructons, this seemsio be a r€âsonablystrâightfor*ard combinâtion. OneôIitsuscs,however,is ratherunusuali/1.ê/n usedas aDauxiliart belore a future to expressactionNhichis orwasstill goingto takeplace,and\'ìrich the.e(âlter a pâst, tor€ hàs or hâd nol yet taÌen place. Using /ìôê/ in the cônsecutivè foÌ exaDtle) indicatesthat $mething hãppenedând that somethingelsewas still goingto hãppen.and theretorehad not y€t happ€n€dithis is the standardrvâyol saying that one thing lìappenedbefore smetling elsehappened.llxamples of
40,
À!8rcN LrNcúÀcE SruucruREs ô lÈotii kii à !âi Ieli tii kÊi è Ià pâi kÌlâi
é lÉepâi kulâi a pài Ìlà tii Ìélee kêi nâ't é lÉepâi s€rli à ÍJi tii kéleekÈ
'he will stilì be working' 'h. hâdn't goú€out yet' ('he was still goingto go out') 'he did all hiswork belorehewent out' ( . . . and he sas stiÌì goingto go out') 'he ll do alÌ his work belorehis father gels there'('. . . âúd his fâtheÍ *ill stiu be goingto adve theÌe') 'if hedoesalÌhiswork befoÌeyou get the.e'
É.a. Th€ atfiÌnâtive verbal constructioÍsoÍ Igbo ìave b@n ad€qüately treated in ra.ious contextsin precedingchaptes. A b.i€f summary ot them, usingonly monosylÌabicbas€swith higì tone in order to avoid prcblemsin noÌphophonemics which hâÌe beentÌeâted, will seNe as an introductiontothe subject of ncgâtion.First, the followingdâmlles ôl primâ.y consttuctioíseiÌÌ seÍve to iÌlNt.ate their ingredients,which i.clude p.€fixes,ional replâcives,ând sulÍixes; foÌ someconstructions,Ioms with singularsubj€ct p.onounsand loms vith noun subjectsúust Ie distinguished: i'ri to eât (objectobÌgâlory) rìé írÍ à eãt this food bÈ íí 'it is food' ó ó .iri íÌÍ 'he Àt.' '{hen/if he eâts' ó Íiê i'tí 'he retumedhomeand ate' ó làrà úìò Ìié ú.i ó làrà úÌò Ìh Ìié ú ri he r€türíed homeand I ate ó làrà úÌò, òkóyè èÍ1éú,ri 'he r€túrned homê ând Okoye
ó riéÌáú,ri ôkóyè èÌiélá í rr in the stâtive, ã cÕnsfurctiónrelerring to past tine may be Iactative; it dilfers frofr the taclÀtive cited above in that the
ó biiÌì Àbá
'h€ Ìived (!sed to Ìive) in Aìa'
Thc bortative is formally ãn expànsionot lhe conditio.al; it consistsol a morpheme /kà/ plüs the cÕnditionaÌ. 8.9.. kà ó Ìié ó'í
.105 'lhe incompletiveaDd lutüre a.e auxiliary conúruciionsusnìg ihe stative of the vêrbs /i'ná/ (otheNisc unrttestcd)ând /i/sá/ rso' r.spcclivelr, rollÒ{edbt a verbât noun. E.g..
Negativesin Igbo are remarkâblJrestrict€d in torm, though enti.elv sdequale in úsâge. Thereis no negativeiDlinitire or consecutile.Cor€spondingto âll ol the other allirmative constructions,t{o n€gâtiveconstructionsand tqo auxiliary constructionsdo all ot thc vork. Firsr, there is ã unique negàiiveimp.râtive,lorúed bl' a vo*el prelix with high tone loÌloNedby downstet,and a suÍtix /-lâ/ wiih the sane tone as the linal tone or the lerb bak. 8.e.,
Second,there is a general n€€ativecorespondirgÌo eitlÌer the statire or ìhe lâctâtive. Th€ incompÌetileand Íuture affìrmatiles usean auxilìary in th€ stative; the corrcspondingneeâtiv.ssinÌpìy use this g.nerâl negativci!ìtìr tìre auxiliâry. 'Ih€ generalnegativeusessinguÌarsubjectpronouns{ìth lox todc, ôr a vowel prelix with high tonc foÌloç€d by downíep aller â noun subject. There is alsoâ sufiix, s€gmentaÌlyi-ghi/, whoseton€ is conditionedby precedingtones. E.g.,
ò húghiìtè ò rÍ ehíírÍ Okóyèó righi íri Ò ná ghi è.Í ú ri ò gá ghi èri í ri
'he isn't goingto eat
'Ìhe compÌelivcis negatedì]y a perl€ctly regulargeDe.alnegatirc,!ul $irll somethingaddedto thc verb bâse. Ant !e.b òâseis compoundedçiih ihe root of/ibè/, which s€emsto bethelerb mcaning'cut', âlihoughthesmântic rclatìoÌship is nÕt €ntircly.leari it is possiblethat the sylìablelbè/ shonìdbe analJzed as a baselomative. especialÌysinceit mâI occuralter other bas ionnâtilcs. In any câseispeâkersor Igbo (unÌe$ ihey hale beenbrâÍrwâshd bl the linguhlic impcrjâlisfr ot the schooÌsystem)unqnestioningllr€coenizethe syllabÌejbè/ as !aú oI the leÌb base.not pâú ot a regativesuítix. Ihus:
A semânticalÌynegativeconditionãlis expresedbÌ lhe aftirnrativecondiriotrãl conúructìonió búrú/ il it js', followedby the cônjünclive/nàl 'thât' and a generalnegativeconúÌuction. E-9.,
106
AFRrcÁN LÀNcuÀcE SrRUcrGEs
ò .i'gìriúí ò nághi èri ú ri búrú nà ò ribègÌrìúri ó tin!ìlìy, â semânti.allyneeâtilehoÌtâtive is expre$edby a tomâìly âfiirmative lÌortâtile oi a rcÌb /ighà.à/,which is aÌsous€din other constnctionsând has à fr€aning soúethingllke r€f.âin irom, âvoid', folìo*ed by âí intinitive or oG casionallyby â con*cltive. E.9., kà ó ghàÌá i'ri íri (- kà ó ehà.á úè í ri)
'he shouldnt et'('he
shouldrÈ
13.9. ln bolh Kpelle ând Igbo, as noied in the foregoings€ctions.there is somethingunusualabout the negãtioí ol inperâtivesâúd hortâtives. lhe sâme is trtreìn mân) onrerlangMges,ând strikingiysoin EIik. Ânothe.unusualieature oi the EIik lerbal systemhâs beedhinted ât betore.particulârÌyin 12.12in connection{ith thc vâriely ot sequentiallorms, FoÌ a part of tì€ v€.balsystem,thoe is a bidnn€nsìonâlgrid ôl conshrctions,in which distinctionsbetreen "neut.al" ând "contrâslivc"intêÌsectotheÌ distinctions. Iheset€attrrêsjustily â sunmâry o{ the Dlik rerbâl syst ú, to bring togetherall of what hâs b€en.€fened to in other contcxtsÀndto add â feN details. FiÌú, the constructionsfor whicn th€r€ is no neütrâl{ontrâúile distinction mày be listcd. Ihe root /déÌ/ buy'will b€ u*d in iuustratiônsôl indêPeÍdent constructions,and /sik/ 'delive. lô' tor s€qleDtials.Botìì Ìequire an object. 'l hê inlinitive is tomed with â p.elix /ídi-/; the sequentialinlinitive is Íorned silh a preiix /iÌ-/. Thcre is no negativeintinitiÍe. E.g-. n!.m ndrdépmLòÍunsjk Íi
'I want to buy bananaslor yoü
'rhe ìmpdarilc is ihe verb root with no prónôunin LhesingulaÌ,but with tìe regülarsulrjêclpronÕun/è'/ in the ?luraÌ. Imperatiyesmay be Dsedin squence. The.€ is no negativeimp€râlile; negâtivecommandsare ex!Ìessedby th€ negative hortatire. E.g.,
buy (tl.) b.nânâsror me' The aflnlnatle hortative is nâÌked by high low tone r€pÌacingthe ìe-\icaÌ hortatiÌes mây be used in sequence The tone oI thc lerb bas€. ^Irimative the stem toneoI subjectpÍoby Ìow ione re.pÌacing negativehoÌtative is marked v€rb hasits leicÀl tone. This mark€. th€ base nouns.âúd a construction /-kü-/; is unlike âny othe. degâtivelomation in Efik. A sequentialIôr the nêgâtive hôrtâiilc hâsÌhe samepronounàdd verb bâseforDs, btrt onits the construction maÌk€r. Withoüt à sübjcctp.onoun,the negâtivehortâtive functionsâs a n€€ative impmrtive singularithe secondpemonpluÌal lon lünctions as a negativè the secondÌ]€rsonsingulai subject pronoun is imperattueplurâI. ln sequence, /ü / râthe. than th€ usuàÌbâmonizine vowel *ith Ìow tone. E.9.,
407
òküdét Ìhbòróòúk Di küdép rìbòró üsiikmi
'he shouìdbuy brnânasior me 'lre slìouldnt buf, baDanas for me 'don't buJ bsnsnasfoÌ me'
The conditionâÌis mârked by lo{ ionc repìâcingúen tode with sü[ject pÍonounsithe verb bâsêhâs its lexicâl tone. l'his is the sameâs the sequential lor â nêgal.ivehorlativ.. I hrve no evideücclor â squ.ntiâl wìt[ â cdndilionãI, ìut I world be astonished ii it is not identical:seÍtueDtials tlt icalÌlhâvetlìc saDc pronounand verb bâ* Iormsas th€ p.ecedingrerÌr,but ómit a constructionmarke. if there is one. In tlìe examplebdoç, th€ li.st v€rb is known to be correct, and I wilÌ íick mv n€ckooi âs far âs the secondh concerned.SincethÈ ìow tone retlacire with pronounsÌesultsin idcnritybetweensecondand th'fd pcson forms, an indepe.d€ntpronounnây be usedto spcciiythe poson- A Degatilccondition is expre$edby a Ì€laiire constNctionwhich doesDot bcloneììcrein thc ouiìiììe of the verbal system. An allirmativeconditionis: itè Èdephbòrô Ssjk !nì
'iÍ ììc buysbá,,âraslor Inc
The complet'Ìe occupi€sihe positìoDaììong ihe remain'Dgconslrüctions which onewonld €xpext to be occupiedby a neutral preseni. This is lrüe id respectto fonn, ând alsô in lhe lighr ÕI orh.r cônsidcrutions.Like oth€r neut.al past and luture, the compÌetìveis charâcicdzedby doçnsi.p preconstructions, cedirg the veÌb bas (only after a high tone aDdiI the veÌb basetonc is alsohig}, ot couree). If contrastmusl bc cxprcscd âs is heqúently true in ans{€. to â queúion in lhe complclive tììc constructionswhich olherçis. .el.r lo prcsnl. time areused. Further,thereis no neutrâl-conlrâstit distinctionin the negati!€, and one negativeservesIor both coDtletive ând presentrer€reDcei ii it is ncces àdverb/ká!ái '(not)yet', usedonlv with sa.y to slecify a completiv€refereDce,ân negatives,is added,usuaÌìyat the end ôl the sentence.For presentrelcÌence, the constructionwhich fonÌally is contrâstiretor sómethingfoììo{ing the !€.b is âlsousedin â neutrâÌ sense-i.e., when it is úol nec€ssâry 10 rxlress contrast. Th€Ìemây at onetime hãvebeeDa distinctiontìctveena completireanda neutral present,sincethe completile is some{hat ir.egülrr, ât leastin the diaì€ctunder mnsid€rationh€.€,and appea.sto r€Ilecta Dixed paradigm. In the lirst and second persoDs,singulaÌ and plural, there is a constructionma.ke. consistingoI /n/ pÌus â húnodring voçeì (for details see2.2) wiih h'gh ione. DoNnstepfolÌowsthis constructionmãrlier,prcccdingthe rorb base,it thr subjectpronounis fiÌst p€r$n singula.(whichhashigh tone)or secondpersonphÌal(shichhas loN). Th€reis no downstepiI the subjectpronounis secondpersonsingularor iÍsl teF @n plu.al (bothoI whicì havelow tone). In the thi.d persons,singülàr.rd llnrâl, thereis no consl.nctiormarker;the fonns consistol a subjectpronoun(shich has h€h to!€) loÌloved by downstepand the verb b.se. TlÌr verb baschâs its bast tone,which ol couNeinvoÌles the deletionol the p.€cedinedo$níep iI thât todc is Ìow or loç-high. E-g.,
408
AFnÌclN
L^NGUAGE
SmucrBls
'I haveboughtbananas' 'you(pl.)hâvêboughrbânânãs' 'you (se.)há'€ bôqht banânâsr 'hehasboughtbananas' The compÌetilecânnow bècônsidered, at leastfornally, âmongtheconstruclionswhich showa neutral-contrastive distinction.andwill be tÌeatedasifitwer€ simplyã neütralpresent.Theseconstnctions,alongwith negatives, areiÌlustEted prcnoDns. in the châú that âppcas ìelop, sith three ditlerent sDbjeci Themnstnrctionsare divided into thr€. gÌoDpsdependingon th. fom of the s€quentiâl appropÌiâtetoeàrhi â núúberassignedto eachgrÒuprelersto thetypeol squ€ntial describcdin 12.12.The terú "Contr.-pre"r€f€rsto constructionswhich indicâte thât somethingprecedingthe verb, or jn a lew ca*s ã queúion wÕrd loìlÕ{ing it. is contrasted, The teÌm "Cont.. post".€iers to constructionswhich iúdicâtethat somethingfolloçing the !erb, otìÌer than ã questionword, ìs con-
As notcd in 12,12,the neutral Dastis a serial constructionithe secondwo.d is a s€qüential,\!ith the exceptionsnoted abÕv€,the neutraÌ constÌlctionsand the sequdúìâlapprop.iateto tìem are characterized by do{nstep precedingthe lerb brse. lhe contr.-pôstconstnctions lÕr past and pr€*nt âre cha.Âct€rized by low tone Ìeplâcingthe basetone oI the verbi these,hovever,uôethe sames€quentiâÌas thc neuúâl onúructiontsthe only instâncein vhich the tone of the basein the sequentialdiflerslrcú thatin the tirstverb. ln th€ contr.-preconstructions Íor presentâ.d p.esentn€gâtive,the ve.b basehãs its basetone, without a precedingdownúep. This statementcan be ext€ndcdto includethe last and its negativeby analyzingthe downst€pin the Ìatter âs beingpart of the paÊtcont.astive maÌker /-kÍ / (with hârmonizing!owel). The sequ.ntiâÌtor this grcup
l()9
ot conúructionsalsohasbâsetonewithoui dornstep. The tulu.e contÌâstireand negâtire hâve highlô* rone r€plâcingbâsetône sith th€ ve.b; the sequentiãÌ alsodoes,but hasÌow tone ÌepÌacingthe úem tone oÍ subjectp.onouns.Th€reis â speciâlset ol subjectlronÒunstor n€gâtives;oth€Nise the negativesare iden ticãl with the contr.-preand future contrastiveconstructionsul to the ncgâtive Ás alsonoted in 12.12,there is a conrcxtile constructionid€nticaÌ{iur ihe íifth type Õf s€quentiaÌ,the üse or *hich h not confinedto the saDe group oi Thereare two othexsetsof coníruciions, deriled lron th. âborc !y the ãddition oI a morpheme.A presentand past hypothetical,usiÌìeikpv J aftcr the subjectpronoun,$as descrìbedin 12.E. There are als customaryconstructions corresponding lo úôú iI nÒt âìl ôl lhe âbove. lhese are lormed by adding /-si-/ imm€dialelybetoleihe v€rb lâse. È.g., '*e used to bDy bananas' 'sc re beer buyine bànanâs
AÌl in âlÌ, during ihc four ând â hâll turnths *e spent in Elik-speâkingterritory, therewasa brisk trade in bananas. 13.10- Jukun olsohas a unique negàiivefo.mãtion fo. the hortatile; in addition. other negâtilesshowân unusuaÌtomation. Five prinn.l âttirmâtire constrúctionsâre recorded;soDe oi the labeÌsusedhere hare not preÌio{sly bccn usedfor.IukDn. The fo.ÍDationof theseconstÌuctionsis fairll simple,ând sìould be obviousfron the tollowinecaânples (lrom Diyi): Fâclative : InconpÌelile: Potentjâl : Conditional : Hortativ€ :
ku bi litr ri bi kwá bi ku bá bi ku mâ bi kú bi
Thât th€ iirst of the aboveis a factative rather than a past is cvid.dl |rôm the fact that it expresespr.scnt tifr€, il not modified.tor veÌbs ref€rringto situation rather than action. Thc i'Ìconpleiive úaJ rcler to pâst âs weUas Ìrresent time, and at leqstÍor the verbs 'cone' and 'go' may includea neârfuture. The tso toms of the polentiâl frây diller in meaning,but no difierenceis known. There is ã minor leculiaÌity about the conditionaÌ;thc lirst and secondpe.son singulârsubjectpronÒuns,ordinarily /nÌi and /üi, combinewith thc coNfuctioí marker to lom imai and /sâ/ resp€ctiÌelJ,which diller only in tone irom the saDeproDounswith the /-á/ oi thc potertial. The secóndpe*ón singulariorms oí the hoÌtâtive âre usedas imperatives;the subjectpÌonounnây ìre oÌnitted in At Ìeaú lhe iirst lour of theseconstructionsnal ìc modifiedby ihe ãddirion of a moÌpheme/ra/ âtter the verb ând its ol,ject (ir anr). This is by all oddsmost
,ll0
AFÂrc^N L^Nu!^c!
SÍÂucruÁEs
conmon with ihe lactâtive, and the combinatiúnexpreses completedactiÕn. The force of /Ìa/ afte. thc othÚ constructiônshâs not beenaccuratelydefinedj vith the incompÌetive,it mal convey the idea of 'already'. The lact that /.a/ may b€ separat€d lroD the lerb by an objectsuggests thatitjs not gramDatically as closelyâssociâted with the verb ãs it would be iI it wcrèa suffix. Iis usemight be contared fith seriâlizatioD.HoweÌ€r, no indêpêndentword in the lângdage hasinitiâl /ri. Therêâre alsoother dìiliculti€swith tlis interpretâtionwhich wiÌl be pointed out in connectionritìì a negâtiveconstrúctiod.Whâleler the origin or úâtüs ol /râ/mâÌ be. its useis illust.âtedin the ioÌlowing: 'he hãswâshedthe clothes' 'the cÌothesare clean' 'he is (âlreàdy?)cofring' 'when hc com.s (gershere?)' Á vcr) rcw sentences areâlsoreco.ded{ith amo.pheme/rè/ or /rü/(apparentÌy allomorphsof onemorphenccondilioncdby lìc preccdingvoweÌ)immediâtely âltêr rhe verb. It js possitJl€ thai this jndietcs an action pcrlom€d only once; ho$ever, I Nâs unable to constructadditional acceptableutteranc€switì any .oi\irenn. Fpcordpd examphsinrìüderh. tolìo$inB: ku zè .è zo ku {u rü
he lookedup' (lit. 'he picked up eyes) he died
The n€gntivehorlàtive, like ih€ altiÍnâtive, hâs high tone replàcingstêú tonc çil[ subjcct pronouns. lÌÌ âddition. thcrc is a constÌuctionmaÌker /ká/ beloreth€ ve.b, ând at the very end of the clausea lorm which È ustrâliy/àná/ but occãsionâllJiúbá/. E.g., kú ká bi àná 'hc shouldn'twashthe clothes' (lther negatilesusuaìlyhave /nbá/, but sonetimes/àná/, at the end ot the clause. In âddition to this, the.e is nothìng precedìngthe vcrb Íelevânt to negãtion, btrt immediât€ìyalter th€ v€Ìb there is a secondpronóunlom recâpitulâting the subject. This Ì]ronountom Ì'âs high tone replacingstem tone, ând lhe ihird persontom is /á/ râihÚ thân *ikúJ; theseâre thus not to be identilied {ith the subjectpÌonounsof the ìortative. Examplesot suchnegâtivesâre:
'lhey didn't comehe.e 'h. didn t wâshthe clothes
.11Ì ku ri tu á iukpa mìá
'hc isd't wâshidglhe clothes'
bá dJitò bé püká t'ikyú
'they wilÌ not deleattìe IìeopÌeoÍ
'lhe clothcs aRÌn t clean
Althoügh such.ecapitulâiingpronounsâre obligâtoryin negâtire cÒdstructions otltcr than the hoúâtive, their useis not confinedto negatives. Ihey are soDetimesoptjonâllyusedin âtõrDâtiÍ. sent€ncês, aptarently sentcnces ôl onÌy â tev lypes. One ol theseis s€nteDces with /Ìa/ as desoib€dabove. Another 's sentences with /ki/. which hâsâ locatir. torcc. lh€re is no ãpparentmodilicâtiôn in Ìnerningrssociàtedwith the use oI recapitulatingp.onouDin suchsentencês. D.g., 'Goodbye'(ìit.'l m goDe') ku kàsõ bi á bâ bá
'he came bàck (rcturicd canre) tÕ his âitâi.s ât hÕne
'Ih. compârisonol /rai with â lerb in à serialconst.uctiónr'âs frentior.d âbove. lt \'ôüld be deligh ul tô be able tô analyze/ki/ as a Ìerb m€aning'be locatcdât . It would th.n be âdlisâbh, ìowever, to anaìyc ih. ncgâtivemor phemes/mbá/and /àná/ as verbsãlso. But /ki/ and /mbá/{oüld then be the only exceplionslo the statementthat a verb may have onìy mìd or low tone, âdd /àná/ *ould be the only verb vith an initial vovel. further, regularsubjectpronounsarc sonetimesüsedbetorea Ìerb âtte. thè lirst in â s.úes.bul. tìr.y ârc not üsedbetorethe lorms in questionhere. The recapituiatingpronouns,which óây b€ sepâràl€dfron thes€morthenes by other ph.ases,do not stand in anything like a subjectr€tationshipto them. The ânâlysismust rest as âbo!e: .€e?ìtulá1ingÍrrÒnouns are obligato.yin negativeconstructionsothe. than tìehoúãtive, and optionâÌin someatlirnâti!. constructions. 13.11. IÌr al.l.aú son. ìângüâges ot thè Kru group,ncgâtion âl ìeâstsome 'n A iew hunconst.lctionsinvolveso ch.nse in {ord order irom thc affiÌmative. dred slips,Nith wo.ds,phÌases.and shoÌt scntences transc.ibedìn pencil,are the only souvenì ÒI a f€s days of work on Kwaa (populârlyknown âs Be'lleh)in 1947,with an intormânl whoseEngìishând Kp.lÌe werc barcìv Ìninimal. Tlìis is appa.entlyth€ only No.k doneon Kçâa until a IeN monthsp.ior to {riting these wo.ds; datâ from lhe cDr.enlwork is nÕtyel avaiìâble,ì]ut it is knovn that the negâlivefomâtion in questionhas beeDlerified, 'rhe morpheDictompôsitioü of tìe releventscnt.nfusis not entúcly dc.r. Dillcr.ncesin tonc Dây Ì€presênt lhe tresenceor absenceof a negatnr morphem€. lf, ho{er€r, the tonal dilt€Ê €ncesbetweenthe atfiÌlratiles ãnd th€ negativesshouÌdtü.n out to be onÌy morphoton.mi. alternãtionsand not mornhemic,then the onÌy frorpheÌnicdistinclion òeiweenthe t{o {ould be $oÌd order. The afiiÌmativeshare the order subjccrvob-objectr the nêgativ€slÌav€ the order strbjeclobj€ct-verb. Ì!Íy tÌânsdiptions (and I âm not su.e shcthcr I jntendeilthe alsenceoI a ton€ mârk lo r€pÌesentthe p.€cedinglow continuedor a Ìowermid) are âs lollows:
ÀFRrctN LÀNcuÂcESmucruREs
412
'I hit hiú': 'I didn't hit him' 'l didn't buy bananas (Actnâlly, I much preÍer pjneapples,but the voÌd is usualÌyân âwkwãrd comIn Krahn (Gbâisn diâlect),iher€ is âlsoâ ÌeveNâloI soÌd ordeÌ in the negâtive,but in addition th€reis â negãtileDorpheme/sé/.r(l ân slrÕnglysuspicioDsoi Ìhe pìonemic statusoI lwl in what js h€Ìe t.ãnscribedÍebwl; I wouÌd not ìre ât aìl sürprisediI I couldnot evendet€cta bilabialglide.) E.9.,
Ì sékwã bli
'it is black ('it black is ): 'it is not black ('it not is black') 'I haveÌice' ( I haveÌice ): 'I don't have Ìice' ('I not Ìice hãve')
It is inter€stingboa mucÌ' can som€timesìe ext.âctediÌom dãta âs highly restict€d âs the above. À comparhonof the tvo paiÌs of sent€nces rev€ãÌsthât the lorns iÌanslãted'is' and the foms iransìâted'havc' ârêgÌannaticâÌly quite dillerent. ln tìe âffirmative sentenc€s,'js' touôws the reDaind€roI the predi cate, but 'hâ!e' pÌecedcs. Furthcr. 'is' do.s not begin Nith ã consonant;ny meÍnory of â f€w dâys Òt work on tsâsã, rhich is quite closely .elated, in 19,18, is that {ords jn mâjoÍ torm clâss€sâre âÌl consonânrjnitiâI. Àlmost beyonda doübt, 'be (d6c.ibed at in K.ahn is not a verb; 'have p.obably is. 13.12. TìÌoughout theBantu languagestheÌe aÌe ampleadditìonalexân!ìes ol nâny ol thc pìenonenâ thâÌ have beên noted in the foÌ%oing s€ctiotrs,i!cluding the imp€rfectDatch of n€gâtiveand affiÍnative constructions, â unique n€gatite iornation foÌ tìe hortative, and auxiliary constructions. A summâry oÍ the Srahili verbâl sJstem\Â''ìlilìüstrâle suchph€nomena. NÕt pãúicularll Ìelelant to the primâry pD.poscof this discusion,but impôrranl ii tlre lolal rerbal morphology,js tì€ statusoI the .elativ€ly Íew verbs whorc rooisconsistor a singleconsonaDt, and alsothe roots /-eÍ!d-/'go and /-ish1 'Iinish . Th€ iniinitive Íorns of son€ of ih€set€rls arel
Ìu-j-ã 'give' In somebut not all verbâl constructions,the intinitiv€ forms ôf iheseverbs are trsedwìrereonly th€ rcot woDldìe €xpected.A fulÌ lisüng of the two setsot const.uctionsis not given ìe.e, but exan?Ìesa.el I xrâhn dâtâ hon John Duttshân, peronâì co!ìnunicatìo',
,ll3 But:
âli-kuj'a
he is coming
For ihe most paÌt, the moryhenÌiccoDpositionof uÌê prinÌârI âlfirmalile conúructionsis appaÌentirom the examplesbelo$. A tew dclâils, ho$cver,ÌequiÌe explanation.ln ure customaÌy,there is â constructionmârker i â-/, which coÍrbineswith the Clâs 1 subject concordto yi€Ìd /a-/r comtare the coúbinâtion ol the Íi6t pe$oD plural /tu-/ with ihis constructionnârker: /tw'â-/. Th. conshuctionmãrker /-japo'/ is norphemicaÌlycomplex. The leÌb usedin thesc cxanplesis oneoI a very lev io. which an inegular singülâ.iúperâúvc is üsually used;the reguÌâ.Io.m is gilen in larenth€ses.\\ith an objecl concord,ihc im perâtile süfiix js regDlârìy/-e/i the pluÌaÌ also usesihe sulfix i-el. tollosed by tìe pluml nârli€Ì /-nii. Apârt lrom ure úâiiÌc, which requiressepâ.âtei.eâr ment, the l.imary âffj.nâtive constrüciionsare as lollo{s: 'h€'sbringinga knìie'
'he will bring à lnilè 'he hasìrought a Ìnile' 'and he broughtã knile
(let-â kisu), let e
'thouglì}c bringsa knìie' 'thoughh€ veÌe to hrnlg â knifc' 'if he shouldbring a Ìnite 'he shouldbrìng a knìie' 'ìring a knife'
The stative,discusedin 12.7,is not inllectedfor peÌsonrit hasâ prdìx /hu-/ ând the coÌnmonsulljx /-âl. Ìhere âre also rwo comtÌ€r conslructions.One is â consecutive Ìrortattue,with the cons€cutive constÌuctionmarker /-Ìa-/ ând thÈ hortâti!€ sDtfix/-ei. Thc other is a pâsl ììypothelicâì,vith a conúructionmarker i-ngâli / $Ìich âppeaÌsto ìe composcdoI tle concesile / nea-/ (or possiblythe hylothetìcâl /-nge-/)ând ure pâst /-li /; the Ì'Jpoihetìcalconstructìonlistedsbôre is oll€n usedvilh pâs. as well âs non-paslrefe.ence,ând Ìhe speciiicallypast hvúotheticâlis not connonlÌ nsedat âlÌ. Thesetwo constructions are: 'and ne shouldbring â knife' 'jl he had lrought a kdfc A negativelomation commonto many of tlìe abole constructionsusesa noÌpheme /hâ-i ât th€ b€ginningot the Ìerb fom, trec€dingeven the subjeci pÌonoun. This comìines vith the Class1 subject concordia-l to rom /ha1, and with tÌ'e s€condle6on singularpronoun iu-/ to rom /hu-/. Á suppletivc
411
AFÂrcN L^NcuÀcE SÍÂr'cÌ!ÂEs
ronn /si-/ is usedin pÌaceof the combinationol /hâ-/with the li6t lerson singulãr pÌonoun/ni-/. Apart from this which sevqal .egatiles havein conmon,however, speciâlstatemenlsmust be madeioÌ eâchnegativeconstrnction. The p.esent, customâry, ãnd stâtive âr€ not distinguished in the negaüve, The negâtivefor all ol them has no cÕnúructionmarkeÌ, but usesthe suffi! /-iiE.9., General : halet-j kisu 'he\ not bringingâ knüe' 'lhe paú âüd compÌ€livetrs. constÌüctionmarkeB in the tregãtivewhich âre quite diiierent lrom th€ âllirmâtive cônstrüctionmarkeN:/'ku-i in plâceof /-li/, and i-jâ-lii plâ.e ol/-ne'/. Theruture n€gative.howeve..usesihe sãmecÕnstruG tiôn maÌker âs the lutnre allimative. Theseconstructionsare: : ha-kulet-a kisü : hâla lera kisu I ha-jalet-â kisu
'he didn't bring â knile he isn't going to b.ing a kDile' he hâsn't brought a knüe'
The lìoúâiilc uscsa dillerent negatirenrarker; it is /-si-/, usedin the constructionmaÌÌe. positionãIter a subjectpronoun. 'lhe sofiix is /-el as in the âfIifmatirc, Thc ncgâtiwehortativ. luncrìonsÊlsoâs a n€eativeIo. the impeÌâtivê (with no subjêcrprodounin the singuÌât, and ror the co.secütive;a De.ge. of th€seconstructioíshâs beennobd h othêr lànguagesas well, E.g., 'he slrouldn'tbring a knife TlÌe conditionàljs üsuâìlJnegâtedby usinga conjunction/kama/ 'iI'{ith thê generâlnegâtive.Thereis anotheÌnegativeroÌm, however,{hich usesã morphenicalÌy conplex conú.uctionnarker /-sito-/. the first parLol shicb is the same as the negatìvemórfhene in lhe hortative. This constructìonhas a speciaÌized Conditiônâl : kâmâ ha Ìet-i kisu a-sipolet-a kisü
'iI he doesnt ìring â knitê 'unl€$ he bringsa knile
The hypotheticalis Degatedin eithe. of the two ways desc.ibed$ rar, by mâÌkor (tÌrepreier.edusage)by the cÕnstructiÕn /ha-/ belorethesubjectprÒnoun o / si-/ ãfte. the subjectpÌonoun;in both typês.the constÌDctionmãrker of the âflirnâtile is âìsous€d. This loÌnation xpplies aÌsoto the complexpast hwothetical. E.g., 'if he Nere not to bÌing ã knife' Ilypotheticâl: ha-ngeìeta kisu. a-si-ngelet-âkisu 'lhe conc.silc and supposiüonaìare negâiedby auxiliary constructions. The auxiliarr-re.b is /kü{â/ be'i it eppeaF in tìe appÍopriâteâItinative consubject. Tìe immediàt€@unsltucrion. comnronly$ith a Clâsss (nonpcrsonal) teÌpart ol the constuctionslisted aboveusesthe generãÌn€gativeol the nain verb, bul otho negatiÌes(to say nothingoI other aliirmatives)mây ãlsobe used. E.9.,
415 i-nga-wâhâleli kisu i jatô kuwâ hâ lct i kisu
'thougìheis not brìngingâ kniÍe 'thoughhc nry nôt bringa knife'
'Ihe aboveâre onÌy two exaÌnplcsoi a vârietv of âuxiliârl conslruclionsin Swahili. The a€rb /kuwâ/ 'be' is not usedwith Ìelerenceto the present,but in âny constructìonnot.efcniDg to the preseni. It appeâBin â variety ot conúructions as an auxiliary, {ith the main lerb alsoin a numberor di{rer€ntconstmctions. Sobe eiâmplesare: ali'kuw-a a-neìet-a kisu aìi-Ìuw-a a-nâìet-a Ìisu a-tã-kuw-a a-meìet-â kisu a-ki-Naa-nslera kisú â-kâ-wââ-nâìe!â kisu i-nga-waâ-helet-â kisu
'ìrelìad alreadl brcught a knjle' 'he Nas bringinga knile 'he {ill hale broughta knife' 'it he is b.ingingâ kniie' 'and then he broughta knite' 'thoughhe hâsbrought â Ìnife
Thereare alsoother auxiìiâries,n]ost of theÍn re.guìar!e.bs, jncludingsuch expect.d verbs as /kuweza/'lre able'(loÌlosed by an iniiìritive) and /kutaka/ 'went'(foiloved by an infinitive lor the sâmèaclo., o. bl, { ho.t.tive lor â dilfereú! âctor). In âddition.ikuja/ tone' is usedas an auxiÌiaÌt belo.etìrefuture, hoúatiÌe, oÌ inlìnitive to conveythe ideaoI then or 'later' in the future, Similarly, /kwendâ/ go'is usedbefor eiÌher ihe inlinitire or tle bâscvithout prefix but nith the sullix /-al (the inlinitire $ith its trelix Ílropped,ji one Ì,relere), to conveythe idea of 'just no\r'in the cômpìelive,or 'then'in the pâst. And /kwjshã/ 'Iinish'is üsed,alsobeforethe inlinitive vith orNithout pÌeti:..to convey the idea ol 'aheady. rhe ve.b /kupâiâ/ 'ger' is sinilarìy used,lo indi.âle.bility or oppoúnnitl. A delectiveve.b /'xgaÌi/ Still be , pÌ€cededoDly b) a sìbj€ct prcnoun,conveysUre id€ ol action still going on; with Ìeleren.eto the past or ÍutuÍe it is folìoved by ân inlinilivè, bur refurenceto the prcsnt it js loÌloçed by the conditional(refeningto simultaneity)or by the completiveól â verb with inceptiveneâning. Aìl oi theseâuxiliâry consrructionscân luruÌcr paúicipâie in Ia.gêrauxiliary constructionswith /kü*a/, or in sone caseswith €achother-semantic probâbjÌity seemsto deteminc tìe tossible combinations.Just a Iew exampl€soI theseauxiliariesàre: a-tâ-küj-aaìâìet-â kisu a-ta-kuj-a kulet-a tisu (ku-)let-akisü a-me-kwish-â ã-ta-kuw-aa-me-kwish-a (kü-)ì€t-â kisu ni'na-tãk-a aìet-e kisu aìi-kuw-â a-ngaÌikulet-a s-ngalì e-ki-let-ã visu You'd think he d get tired ot it
'thcn he Nill bring a kDile' hc ìrasalr€adyLrroughta knife 'ìe {ill alreadyhâve broughl â knife I úant him to ÌrÌing â knile' 'ìe {as stiÌl bringingknìles' 'he is stiìl b.inging knives
Ouestions, Relatives, Subordination 14.1. English Íoids like '{ho', 'what', 'where', 'wh€n', 'w}y', and 'hov' haÌe two distìnct grammâticaÌtunctions. lirst, thcy mây ìc queúion {ords, âs in What did he do? Unles the questionwo.d is uìe subject,suchqu€stionsrequire an âuxiliary or a modÀI,ând the o.deÌ oI tìe subjectand the auxiliâry or ftodal iú a d€clarativesentence is in!€rted in the question, In AmeÌicanEnglish, suchquestionshave the sameintonationâs declaÌativesenterces,not the intonâtion typicaì of questiónstó vhich the answer ry€sior 'nor is âppropriate. Second,theseNordsmay hâvea relâiivc tünciion, às in 'l don't knowwhâtìe did . Ìn this use,the cìàuscswhich they introdücear€ gmmnat,cally nominal. Learne6 ot an Alricân language,haling leârnedan equivâl€nrol 'Whât did ìe dot', recognize somethingin it as . questionword. btrt thcn oftcn assumcthât they can usethe sameword to constructan equivalentof 'I don t know wìat he did': they âre aÌmoú inrariâbly wrong what th.y are sayingis the inpossiblê 'I don't know xhat did he do? . In almost âlÌ cas€s,equiralentsoI cÌauseslike 'shãi hè did'ârè nôninâl ând includeâ .elàtive clauseas in English;but they are nominalby virtue oI beginning{ith an extlicit Dour {hic} is then modiried by â relâiive dâúse,as 'l don't kdo{ the ìhing (thãt) he did . Córrespónding 1ô question wo.ds in nouns most many languagesare ordina.y like 'peNn', 'thing', 'pÌace', 'tin.', 'reasonr!ârd nânreri, shich may be modiliêd by reìâtivê In languageswhich have a distinctivequestionintonation lor yes-noques tions,superimposed on or apâ.t from tone.qu6tion-wo.d qu€stionstypicaÌly have tlìe sameintonationas declarativesentences, as in English. This is true, foÌ €xample,in the Mandelângüâges and in Swahjli- Questionintonàüônnay be úsed {ith qu.stion-wordquesüons,but onÌy with the implicationthat sonethiDgpÌs vioüsly said was noi undeFtoodor was consideredincredible;this alsopamììeìs English usage. In my trânscÌìptionsot AfÌicaD languages,I do not use a que$ qu€stionjá queúion nârk is Ìeservedlor tion mârk ãt th€ end ol à qúestion-word indicâting rn intenogâtir. intÕnâtionif such exists. lt sas posibly the Ìedundant useot questioDmarks {ith question-wordquestionsin Súâ}ili that led the fiÍst two o. ihree iúfornants wilh whÒn I *orked on the lâdgüâgelo t€achne to usequestionintonationwÌ'e.e it wâs actually inatprop.iate. From tìrc viewpoint of anâlysis,and èven more loÌ purpo*s of Ìanguage pedagogy,it is coDvenieDt to tÌeat question-wo.dqu€stionsand tìe conesponding nominaÌstogether. Á pattern oi topicalization(treated for sône Ìânguâgesin Chapter11; note particularly 11.5)often âppeaÌsin the questions,and a patteú of relativizãtionin thc nomìnâls.Topicalizâtionis semânli€lly natuEl to qu€e
QuEsl o Ns, R€L\ Ì ' v E s , S u Bo n D ' N ^ Ì!o N
4t7
tion words;when w€ sÀy 'lt is Ìicc h. bought.',3e are contrâsting'ricc' with âlì othêr possibilities,and in the sâmeway, vh€n $c ask 'What did he buy?', we ãre asking 'what?' in contrastüth all other possibilities.Iror relativizationtoo, Õt couFe,ãpplicâtionsol the pattcrn or patterns eÌsewh€rc h the ladguâgcmuú also be noted. In treating sucn qüestionsând nominalstogether,occâsionaÌexceptionsto the lredominant latterns, requíing specialtreatm€nt, \'ill also be Ofall the qDesüonçords, in Englishand jn ìhe Alrican lângüâgesunderconsiderationhere,only who? and whât? aÌe commonlï us€das Ìe.hâl suljects, !s in \vho did ii? ând 'What happened?'. OlÌrc6 âDoDgtle Dominâlsmây occssionaÌlyoccuÌ as subjects.as iD Why Ì,e did it is a myúe.y. , but thesecan be erpectedto follow the anaìÕg)ôl Whât hâppenedjs â mystery. . lhe other quesüonsoÌds, Ior ure most Iì8rt, iunction âs objectsor adverbialcomllcments. The constructionof relatiles $itÌ' antecedent$'bj€ct and Nith antecedentobject or complementmust trequ€ntlybe caretuÌly distingujsìed. Àpart froD the questioDsords cited above.aneqünal€nt of 'hoN manJl' is úsuâlly â sinelequesiionword tun.tjoning Ìike â nuneraì; tle conestondìngnominaÌ oÍten difle.s f.om the olh€Ì roDinals. SimilarÌy.an attÌibutive 'Nhich?' may be a simpÌequesiionsord, but tìe noditied Íoun nay âtpear âlonein the corespondingnoninaÌ. On urc othcr hand, equi\'llcnis ol 'lÌoa much?', how Íar?'. 'ìoy ìea!y?', 'how big?' and th€ Ìike aÌe rarely simpìeqüestion$ords, ând usualÌy presentprobldsj tor ihe mosl pâú, Alrican langnâgesdô not hâre abúrâct gen€Ìâl temÌs foÌ 'anount. 'distance'. h€ìgÌ,t'. kize'. and so on, ând do not âsk qucstionsabout them, $ill be surveled in selectOncemor€,the constructionsünd€. consideratiotr ed larguages,with siniìaÌit'es and dilre.encesroted. Fo. many oI the Iangüages on wìich Ì have done somcwork, ìnsufficienttime $as arailâbl€ to coler thc topic ot qucstionsând reÌatireslull-v. ln alDost all of them, ho{ever. a Ie{ p€rtident qúestionsànd sentences werc cìiciled. and patterns sinilar to thosc dc soibed in the toÌlôwingse.tionsbegânto em€Ìee.lt isonlr relâtireìyreccntlytìrât the signiiicânceof hândlingtlese syíematìcâlly as â Ft vas realized. lor thrce languages in $hich ml p.esent.oúpetenceis inàdequâte,eqni\'âlentsof the sâme sei ol EngÌishquestionsand nomjnalswe.e prolided bI lìng{isticaul sophisticated i.tomsnis lor puÌposesoi tìis chapter.and th€ anallsisrvasdiscu$edsith 14.2- In Kp€tle,âs notedin 11.5,qucstion$ords l}'licaÌly aur€ar in a topicalized construction,sìth recâtitulâtiÒnlâter in the senr€n.e. In quesiionsoI nidifrâl Ìength, tso questionçords ând oDe inr.rrogâlile phrasemay appear without topicaÌizationitheseare noted as aìternativesjn the dâtã bclo*. One questionword, /léÌl/ 'ho$?', is ncld lopicâìizcd;thc samen true for the coÈ Ìespondingquestionword in AÌan. /dÉn/,$hich is aerr p.obâbl) ã .ognâlc. The 1 The reìrvan! data tor Yoruba seÌ. prorìded b! ìh. LlÌingíon \YâlÌNimbì!lors{ahili by rIÌ. Frtd Longan in conÍ'l
ll8
ÀrRrc^N l,ÀNGUÁcn SrRucrutsÈs
relevanttypes oI qüestionsin Kpelle are as lolìows;ìn the ii.st two. the úsuauy Ìequüed rccâpitulâtingsubjcctpronoundocsnol appeârin the past:
'kpêè6ó è'kàa. lé 6é è'kÈ. -èìékà.
/Êl€ 6é è li Ìà. è kÈlé-mènimà. è kÈléÌ.1. li 6òâ 6ó è ì)à. lé-6òâ+ii 6ó ò òIà. mrlô! páiy€ÉÌu 6é è lÌyà.
'wìro did he se (hin)?' '$hat did he do (it)? ('He ahat did?') 'Which onedid he buy (ii)?' 'Nhere did he go (there)? ('Hc sent shere? ) 'When did he go (with it)?' 'whJ did he do it (on it)?' ( IIe did it on whât maÌt€r? ) 'Ho{ many knivesdid ìe buy (it)? Which knife did he buy (it)? 'Whal kind of kniÍe did he buy (it)? 'HoN nâdy pints of rice did he buy (it)?' (I.e., 'How much rice did he buy?)
For selerâl ot lhe abo\e, Ìhe siructu.e is obviousilor sone, additionalcomm€ntswilì be ìrclplul. ln a wheD?'questionth. recâpitulâüngpâúiclc /Ìà/substitutes ior a maÌked complementintroducedby /à/, which is one of two constrrctions lor. tcnporâl conplement. In â 'whtÌ' quesfion.ihe qresiion word /ìé/ 'shâtÌ' is compoundedwith the noun /m€ni/, which h oft€n transÌât€bleas 'thing'. not in the s€nseol â úàteriâl obiect, büt rather'event, tÒpic, âffâir, matte.'. Thus /lé-mèni/is 'shât matter?, {hat .eason?'. $ith the relâtional nouninà/ 3uúace,.dse , /lé mènimà/js'onshatmâtter? or'rorvhatreâson?'. Àny noun nây be.ompounded with /meni/ and lÍnlowed by /nà/ to exp.ess ol..., to. th. sâk€ol..., aboul...'. In queúionsâsking 'Nhich?' 'becâuse and 'shat kind of?', /lê/ 'whst'is compoundedwith any appropriatenoun; in 'vhât k'nd of? , thc Ìâst memberoÍ the compoundis /sii/ 't.ibe, type'. 'How mnch?'is erpÍessedonÌy in terms ot â number ot âppropÌiatemeasures.Since ih€re are no meâsuresÍor djstance,{eìght. o. size,th€re â.e no .eaÌ equivalents tor'how iar? atrd the like; ode usüâlly asks Is it târ?', ând âny ânsweris naturâllI rather imp.ecise.But then, distânceis pÌetty nuch a relative matter in a tre-westeÌnìzed Al.ican societyitherewas a time wh€n€ighteenúil€s didn'f seen ãn ündüly long wâìk lor me. but it Noúld seen endl€sstoday. A te{ ttpes oÍ queúionivord questionsare not incltrdedin thê abo\'e. Fi6t, iyôelu De/by jtself means IIow many (units ol cunency)is it?, or'Ho* óuch is it?'. 'What's tìrc prìce?'. \ïhen âskingth€ price of â specilicitem, a non-tôpicalizeddesc.ittiveexpressionis üsed. E.g-, mrÌr,l pá, lrn, kâ. à yEÉlú.
'How muchis onepint oI rice?'
QuEsrroxs, REL^rrvEs, SuBonDrtrlrroN
419
Second,the qúesiionsord /nênê/ which one?'may be usedin the minimâÌ qDêstiôn/nin. 6./ 'whic! onc h it?'. To ask whirh of severalân it€m is,lìe appropriatenoun pìÌase is foÌlowedby thc topicalizingmorpheme/6é/comirìned with a Donverbalpredicativemorpheme/à/ ahjcì is elsewheÌe ultêdonìy in short lollowed expressions of location, by /nênÊ/. E.9.. !ò [,érei6à nêno. (.1.: Suno à íáâ.
'Which is his ho8e ? 'Sumo is tì€re, )
'lhird, thc qucstionvôrd /Ìó/ '*hât?'hây be us€d lor 'why?' ii there is noìhing in thè remâinderof the question thâtcouìd be interlÌeted as a.ecapitulating element. E.9., 'Why arent they working today? And touÍth, wÌ'en âskingabout the ÌocationoI a leNon or thing,.athe. thãn a desrinâtionor the ìocaÌionof ân action, theÌc is a uniqueinleúogstile expre$ sion. Whàt âppeâ6to be the inpentive torú ot ã !€rtì /kô./is usedalter ã noun (phrase)or pronoun,the latter fornalll its obj€ct.in th€ m€aning'vh€rc is - . . ?'. 8.9., \ïheÌe is your iathe.? In nomìnalsconespondings to most questionwords,ordinarynounsare used, modiliedby â relativeclause.The nounsmost commonlyso nsed,jn their Wecilic rórns with thei. roots gn'en in psrentheses, arc âs lollows: núui nr€nji 'sÉ! selei tâii 'pe.€i
(núu) (mênj) (s€Ì.ì) (yele) (tâi) (per€)
'the pe6on' (for '{ho?') (for'vhal? .nd'why?) thethiüg(nonphysicâl) 'the thins (physical)'(lor 'vhal.?'and 'qhich one?') the day, the time', or no* morecommonly: 'thc tim.'(Ior 'vh€n?') 'the way'(io. 'how?')
Anong the âbove,the adoptedword /lâi/ 'line'js not pre.edcdby lrelix€d loa tone ir Ìhe specificfoÌmi this is uNal for {ords adoptedhom DnglÈh. The sameis true, howere., lô.a lorm coúespondingto sh€reÌ'; the sFecilicsultix is usedwith the adv€rbial/6Él 'h€Ìe' to yield /oÉii,which ÍunctioDsexactly like the nounslisted âbor.. With â relãtitè clâuse,this refersto locàtionin gederâ|. not specificaÌÌylo â placenearby;in fact, il is ÌccâpitulatcdÌ,y /nãa/ tìrere. In nominâlscon€spóndingto /lé/ coúpoundedwith a noun, the noun itsell is upd, in ìts specificiorm. Iolìowedby a relativeclause. The onÌy exc€ptìonto this lâttern is in the nomi.âl conespondingto 'how many?'. In this case,/yeoÌu 6é/ is used,âfter the nodiljed norn. in the noninal as welÌ as in the questiod. The râtionâlelor this may bc lhat /yêelu/js not inheÌently ã question*oÌd at all, but a numerâlmeaning'an unsleciliedDUúb€rôf .
420
AFRrcÁ! L^NúuÀcE SrRUcruÂEs
Then a sentencelike 'A! unspeciriedlunrber oÍ kniÌes it is he bought.'is inleÌpÌeted âs expeclinga responsespecityingthe nuúber. A Ìelative clauseis a completesentencenominaÌizedby the addition ot the specilicsulfia /-i-'i/to the entirc scntence.'fhesenlenceso nominaìizedis itselÍ conpÌeteby vÌtue oI includinga subjectpronoun,an object pronoun,o. a compìefrent shich retes bâck to (recapiluÌatet lhe antecedentnoún. If the antecedentnouDis the objectôf the main veÌb in the *ntence, it p.ecedes the ÌeÌb as belos, the two usual,âúd ttìe r.latiÌe clâuselolÌowsthe verb. In the sentences noDinals *ith /y€€lu/ unspeciliednuhber' do not fit this latteÌD. The ÌeÌb Ì,as the ôl,j.ct 'it' in thcsetso, and ihe noninaÌ toìlowsthe verb, in âpposition vith 'it'and lollowrd by the ropicslizitrg/ôé/ ând úen the relâlive clâus. (lÍrelevant 1o lÌìc structuÌe under discüsion,the verb /LóÌ.!/ 'know âpp€aÌsin â constructionunioue to it ând one other !erb. nót incìudedin the heâtmeút of thc Kpelle lerbal syst€min chapter13,with a stativemeanine.)Thesesentencês pa.allel the questionscited above,with twÕ âdded to illuslrate the diflerence betweeninÊni/ 'thins (nonphysical)'ând isÊÌl/ üins (physicãl). one proíoun is chang€dto avoid amhiguity; 'the pe.sonhe saw'and ithe pe.sonwho saw hin' would be identical. In the psr.nthesizedglosses,lhc s.parale word the' rep.escntsthe linal von€|, tle specificsullix, in eachs€ntenceìthe position Õl 'the' in the glossindicâhs the b€ginningof tìe claüsevhich is nominaÌizedby tè ìúui kóÌrÌl è 'kèi. 'I don t know who did ii. ('l not t}Èpeson know th. he it did.') I don't know vhat hatì)cned.' fè dÌânii kólrÌl è kÈi. ('I-not the-thingknow the it happ€ned-') ié sErlkóìorJè iòoi. I don t know $ìat fell.' ('l'not tle-thing know the f€ll.') 'I 'tdont'know who sâw th.m.' f ! nú ü i k rl J Ì e h k a â i . ('t-not ú€-pe6on knowthe h€ them sâw.') lé Ìn.Dii kób{ è kèi. 'l don t kno$ ehat h€ did. ('l-not the-thing know the he it-did. ) 'l don t know shat (whichon€) Íó'*ÌJ Ìilr! è lÌyar-. ('l-not the-thing krow the he it-bought.') he boúghr. 'I don't know wìere he w€nt.'
( I-nÕt the-plâcêknow tlte ìe went there.) 'I don t know nheÍ he went. fe tâii krlr! è I lái. ('l-not th+tinê know the ì€ went with-it. ) Íé fionii káÌr{ è'kà Ìhàt. 'I don t know why ìe did it.' ('I-not th€-thing k.ow the he it-did on-it.') 'I don't l<nowhoç he did it. Íe'pereikrb0 è'k€ lài. ('r-noi the-way know the he itdjd with it. ) té 'kób! 6óa y€€lu ôé è òyài. 'l don't knov hov mãny knives boughl. ( I-not it-know knife indefinite-numbeÌit-is the he ìÒüght. )
QuEsÌ'oNs, RELÁrNEs, s!BoRD'NAloN
421
'l don t knowwhichkniÍehe boughl. ( I - not r l' €- k n i Íc k n o $ th c h c rt-b o u g h t.' )
'ldon tknowshâtkindoiknifehcbought.' Ía rìòâ{ii kjlJl i òtâi. ('I-not tle-knife-kind kno* the he it-bought.') lé'kólõ! nôloÌl pâiyeêlu 6é ò nyài. I don'tknoN howÌr.ny pints of (: how much)Ìice hc bouglt. ( I-not it know ricc pint iDd€finitenumb€r it-is the he it-bought.') R€ìativecìauses,ot cou$e. hare many usesother than the above. A laiÌÌy oì.tvious€xaDple,in rhich the relative modiliesthe subject of a sentence,is as núui è *éÉ pàr'è pà Ìlónôsâa. 'Thc p.rsoDwho cameycúcrda) came againtodat. ( The-p€rsoD the h€ yesterdaycaDehe cameagainto Thre€ of the nounsmodified}l relâtive cÌausesilluúrrled âbove l.hoser€lering lo plâce,iinte, ând manner-âre ãlsôuscdljke subordinàtêcÌâuses:there are no subordinatingconjunctions,and uÌe constructionsin questionremãin no thing more thân noun phrâsesfunctiÕningas ádrerbiâìcobpl€m€ntsin kntenceinitial ratÌ'er than tìe usualsentenc€Ji.alposjtio.. An €xampleof eachis: DÉiè li nãai. 6iâ má! 6a póri lii. 'lvhere he went, you can go too. ( Th€-placerh€ he went there.you also you .ân go.') tâii Ìá pà là 6éi,fé 'káa ni. 'When I câmeh€r€, I didn't seehin.' ('The-timethe I câne with-il he.e, l-not Itim-sw.') 'pereia tii kêi làt, 'Íè pâi'kp€êi sáa. 'the way ìe's sorking, h. NÕn't tinjsh it todry.' ('The-Nâr thê h€is wo.k doìDg$ith-it, he-not-b comingiuinishing today.') The secondoI the abovecan be usedonly vith .ef€reDce to pâí time. EquivâÌents ol ôther 'wben' clâusesare expressedby the condiú,nâl construction (cf. 12.9). The Dseof ân âdÕpt.dvord, the speciticform Õl /úi/ line , in suchâ commonconstÍuctionis hardly ìÌhât one would expecii yet, Írom a number oÍ difieÌent inlormântswith whom I woìk.d, and ìn â nuch grealer numberof iílornãl conrêreations with peopleof aÌl ãges,I heârdno alternativclo Ìhis lor al' most all oithe lirst two yearsoI sork on the language.No onecouldtellne {hat migÌÌt hale beenus€dbeÍorethe word cameinto the Ìânguage,which was almost c€Ìtainlywithin the liietiDe oI elderlypeoplestill living ât the time, I tri€d using /ieleii 'the day', büt it was not acceptedexceptwith rderenceto a specificday. Finally, alter alDost two years,the mystery was solved. I spenta Íew hour listening to coüri casesòrought belore the djstrict commjssion€Ì, in {hich êveryyas thing sâid in Kp€lle trânslaiedinto English. Onc pârticipant,nàrrâting his Nith a reìãtiveclâuse{ith nô noun sideoI the casebeingh€ard,begana sentence
122
ÀFRrc^N L^Ncu^cE SrÂlcÌlsEs
ântecedent,ând nothing ÌêcapituÌâtingan inpìicit antecedent;it was tmnslâtêd by an EnglishpâsttempoÍalclause.This tu.ned out to be â univêNlly acceptâble usage,and no onesemed to noticewhen I adoptedii. AppâreÍtly /tâìt 'the time' is consideredobligâtory when speakingto someonewhose native laÍguâge is presúmâblyltnglish, though it is also very lrequently usedunder othêr circünstanc€s.This is an exc€lÌeDtilÌust.âtionot the lact thât, no mâtter how eÍIicient ând eltecìivesìructúredelicitationof languagedata may be, there ar€ âÌwãys ìikely to be somedetaiÌsshich cânbe discovered o.ìy by overhea.ingspe€chwhich is not add.esed to the ìnvestigator.Thê sentenc€in question,an altemative to the secondabove.was: 'When I cane her€,I didn't seehin.' An expre$ionoI nãnner like thát in the third exampleabôveÌnay alsohave the lo.ce oI tince' or 'inasmuchas', especiallywith anotherrefer.nceto the mânner ìD the mâin clauseÕt the sentence.E.9., 'perei t kp:,t là mài, 'perei ná 6é !â pni kprnli là üà. 'Sincehe helpedme, l'm going to help him.' ( The-{ay he helped with-it on-me, the-way only it-is l-Àm coming helping with-it on-hiD.') Equivaientsor DngÌishrelatìvesvith -e!e. a.e expresed by a nonspecüic noÌn ÍolÌowedby ikélee/'all'andthena.elatiÌe clâuse,which stillhãs the speciíic suffix. The form /6Éi/,which haÊthe specificsullix but is not derived from À noun,is usedin {he.ev€r'. E.g.,
After the noun ãntecedentof â reÌâtivêclâuse,ând iúúediateìy belorethe rclâtive.laDseiÍ a verb inrenenes, a morphem€nIíi or ,yii/ máy opüonallybe us€d.apparentlymost connonly iÍ the anteced€ntis nonsp€ciÍic.One mi8ht be Ìernptedto câlì tlÌis a r€ìativeproÍoun. ihough it seemsa little straÍge to dmg surh â categortinlo the grâmnârwh.n th€ oneword to which it appÌiesis never obligatory. A pr€ferâbleinteÍpretationjs that it is an independêntindefinite demonst.âlive,'à one', in âppositionwith the precedingnoun and lunctioning as the immediateantec€dentoI tÌ'e relãüveclause. This is reinlorcedby its similarity in form to th€ independentd€Íinite denonstraliveslike /nyi!i/ 'lhis one' (cl. hi/ 'this' aftributir€). wÌrichnay be analyzedas d€rivedhom /nyii/. Exampl€sot the optionrl useol /nyii/ âr.: ÌJáìúúi kàa nyii è'kÈi. sê! nyii kél€e'káâ úyêeii
'I sawthe peNonwho did it.' 'whãteverI heve'
Although the te.6 "relative clâuse"has sometimesb€en us€d in the Íoregoing discusion, it should be .emmber€d thât $e âre deâlingsimpÌy with nominalizedsntences çhich stand jn aptosition {ith a precediÍgnoun, nôt wiìh
Q ! E sÌ ' oN s,
FEL Ar'\Es,
423
S! BoFD' N^Ì ' oN
strbordinationìn the usualsenseoi the rord. Further, the equì\'alentsoÍ clauscs ol llace, tim€, and mannera.È not subordnurccìàúsês[nl lrânsposc{lsdvcrbial complements which ã.e nounphrases.À leÌbaÌ constructionsuclìas â conditionâÌ is by deti.ition subordinate,er€n though it is not introducedby any kind ot subordinatingconjunctioú. Àpâú hom suchinherentsubordinâtion,there is no clear-cutcâs. of clausalsubordinâtionin Kpelle. A fes other expressiôns which might seemto invohe $'bo.dinationmust, howcver,bc considcred. A lnrase /kpÉnilêii can r€gulârly be iranslatedby 'because'.In st.ucturc, however,it is â completesentencein ils oNn right. The lirst Nord must be analyzêd as â noún, vith a meaningsomethinglike 'somethingdonelor norhingo. in vai! . TÌ'e secondword is tììe usual negat'retÌedicatoÌ tÌanslâtableâs 'ii is not'; compare/pérÊtai/'itis notâ house'. ln speech,/ kpÉnifêi/ is al$ u)s p.eceded pâuse.(ln wrilten Kpelle,ii begnBâ new senand followedby scnlcncc-terminâl tence,prcperly,but is lollowedby â commaia periodworld tecìrDicalÌybe pÌderable.) An exáúple of jts usc is: Íá pà 6É. kpÉnitêi. i káã ôÉ. 'I cameh€rebecâüscIou âre hd..' r€ason. Yo{ are lìer€.)
( I calrc here. It is not withoul
Dircct quotâtion is introdüc€dby ã íôrn /'yêê/, oÌ nore commonly/-yêêi/, apparentlywith tìe specificsuffix, pr€cededb) $ìrat may be either the objectot â !€rb o. the poscsor ot a relâtionâl norn. It is perhapsthe impemtiveoi a verbj wjtì a tÌrìrd personsingularobject, it wonìd mean sonethingÌike 'quote him'. It is sonetines but not aÌwys pr€ccdedìy sentencc-teminalpause;it usuâlly ìas the intonationoÍ a lonteminal cÌause,r€presentedin t anscrittion by a comma. In ãny câse,it appcaN10 be âr inú.ncc of pârâlasismtheÌ than subordinãtion.Àn exampleol its useìs: 'He sâid0t). 'l m comins".' IDdirectquolation is introddcedby â ph.asc /À 'ké./, t.ânsÌâtâbleâs 'thÊt . Tbe sâne pnrâseis usedwith â hortitive âflo il, wilh thc loÌcc 'iÌÌ order thât . The phraseìtsell appearsto be a marked complenent oI the type in $hich an adjectivalis used.which ordinarilyhasan adve.biâìtorce(ct. !.2). The âdjecli\âl nust be derivedfronì â \€rb /k!/, vhich hâslr€qucntlt beencitcd astú.ansitilel) 'hâppen and trânsiÌively 'do, makc ; intransitileÌy. {ithout an indication ol wlto is addÌessed ãndwithout any other complement,it is alsousediú the heaning 'sây , The parallelismin the trseof marked complcmentsseems1o tìe rhaL fo! dâmple, jüst âs one can do sôúethins '$ell' 0à nilÉÉ/),so dre can sry somcthine sãyine 0à'ké€i). What iolloss /à 'kê/ then s€emsto be in atpositional ÌelationshiDto it. ExamDì€sof ìts use âÌe: è Ìhò à 'kÉeã pâi 'kÊi. è Ìì nãa à 'kÉêé tÍi kiri. è lèonãa à'kÉo tá 'ióli.
'He sâid (it) that he NouÌd (,' {ilÌ) do it. 'Hc went tìoe in o.dcr to look for wo.k. He slayed there so I would câll ìin.
12!
AFRTCN LNcu^cE
SÍRocrusEs
Other lÍânde Ìânguages, €Ìen thoscnost distanìly relâtedto Kpelle, app€a. to be g.amfrâticâlly sinilaÌ in Ìespectto noú oi the usgcs describèdin the Ioregoing. ln particulaÌ,conjunctivesubordinationseemsìo be hà.einal at best. Suchsubordinationdoesexist ìn nâny other Nig.r-Côngoìânguâges, but at most it is restÌictedto â lew types. Sfuuctrresstrikingly similar to tlat ol KpeÌÌe in many detâih are widespred. 14.3. In lgbo,theÌeaÌe t{o typesof queúionsâskinglor su}stântiveans\rers. Only Õneof thesetypeswill be treatedât this point; the otherwill be notedalieÌ questionsrâther similar a discüsion oI .€latNes. The tirst type is question-word to tlose found ìn mâny other Ìangüâges.Questionsords aÌe nornauy topicâÌized (cf. 11.3)jan ottional alteÌnativeis found only in a very short questionsuch
si ni büáhÀsi. - áhàsi ò bÈglni.
'Whàt is Jou. náme?' ('Your name is it what?')
Il a questionword is ihe subjectoÍ â seútence, it alpea.s in the nomal suìj€ct position,and theÌe is no evidenceon the suíâce thât it is to be conside.ed topicâlized. It mây. how.!er, be precededby the phÍâse/ò bü/ 'is jt?' (the declarativeIorm oi $hich is /ó bÈ/ 'it ìs'), which signalstopicalizationof a subject. II a queúion word is oiher thân the subject,it is followedby /kà/, vhich marks topicalizatjonin such cas€s. It mây be, but usuaÌlyis not, precedèdìy /ò ìü/. Questions parâUeling those given for Kpelle in the preceding section are as foÌ-
ei ni mèrè. eini kà ó mèrè. ìgbó ólé kà ó gàrà, màkà gi ni kà ó sì mèé yá.
màÌàei ni. mèrè si'n!
Ìí má úké ólé kÀ ó zürü. üdi ú'Dá iké'ólé kà ó zürü. òsikápá há ôtú óìékà ó zÌrü.
'WÌrat did ìe do?' 'Which onedid ìe buy? 'Wheredid he go?' '\rhen did he go? 'Why did he do it?'('For wÌtat iÈit he u*d and-did it? ) ( He did it lor what? ) ('Nìat hâppenedwhich-Ì'eusedaDddid ft?) 'Uow did he do it? ('Manne.which isit he u*d ãnd-did it? ) 'lIow many k.ives did he buy?' 'Wìich knife did he buy?' 'wìât kiíd ol Lnúe did he òuy?' 'How mucì rice did he buy? ( Rice which-equâlsânount shich is-it he bought?)
QuEsrrôNs,R€r.^rrvEs,suBoRDrNaÌroN
42í
The questionword /ònIé/ '*ho?' is â uniqüe fon in lgbo. It is deÌived frôm /ónyé/ 'p€rson';the replaceinênr of úe liftr toneby lov is parallcledbI low tone sith subiectp.onounsin a hypotheticaÌconúructionshich lunctionsas a question. It is ïrecificâlly singula..though the ânsser unknown lo the questione., âtter âÌl-úây ìe plurâl- À spe.iticallyplural questionaskine'whoC.ll)?' cannot be askedwith this type of question. A núÌnberof the questionsaboveuw a iorm oI a queúion word /òlé/ afl.er a noún. The word /òlé/ nây be usedeither as a nuDeral, 'how nany?, or as a noun in an asocìâtiv€const.uctionmeâning which ? ('the how-Dany-eth?'). In the 'hos many?'queúion above./òló/ ìs unâúbigúôüslr ã numeraÌbecause there is no tonaÌ alteÍrâtion. ln the vhich one?' and 'ahen?'queúions, it is unâmbiguousìy a noun be.âusethe phrâseshâvethe tonesoI the asociative construcüon: by thenselves,/ikè/ 'thing'and /ìlgbè/ 'tinè'end with ìow tone. In the 'which?' and 'what kind of?' questions,/ilkô/ is actuaìly redundant,and /òÌé/ vo!Ìd unamliguousÌybe a noun Nithout itì after a noun cndingwith high tone, howeve.,the use oI /Ìkè/ .esolvesan ambiguily becausea nume.âl ind a nôün wÕuldund€rgothe sâfte tonâl àlternaüon,thoDghIor dilfeÌent reasonsin tle udeÌlying stÌucture. In th€ 'ahere?' ând 'ho$ ?' qúestions,the stâtüs ol /t)Ìé/is ambiguousin th€ surfacestructure,but /ébó/ 'place'and /óiúi 'mânner' ãre noDnsnot normally coüntcd,ând Urephrãs€sare âsum€d to be a$ociative. In the 'how?'questionand two foms of tÌre '$lrl ?' qucstiÕn,tle ìâsl pârt or the questioDus€sâ seriaÌverb conúruclion (cI. 12.11).The li.st rerb, rrom a jn the meaning use'i eÌsewhere, root /st/, is coúnon in seriâl cónstruôtions the sameoÌ a honophonous!êrb meâns come ftom, stâú from'. The importãnt point is that, in lgbo, one must a {ây of dojng somethingin ordd to do it. (This is â ÌemarkâblycÌosepârãlìelsith the Dseof a markedcomllement /là/ 'with it in Kpelle in dpresions retening lo tinc ánd mânner-) The secondlon ot the '*hy?'question ahove doesnot usea serialverb construcüon. It seemsratÌrerto be â paratâcticconúrüction:'He did it -lor whât?'. The word /nàkà/ is óúè ól the words in lgbo thât cãn xith somejustilication bc calledprepositionr.Ìisrângeof meãningincludes'lor the pu.poseoI' ând 'âbout', but alqays with ure implicationof interestor invoh.ment in whât folìoçs. ìhe thiÌd fom of thê 'why?' qnesiionâppearsro ask about the causeol something mther than its puÌposeithis distinctionin neaning. hower€Ì,is by no meansrigidly obseNed,ând the lirsl ând third loms oI the questìoDare considered interchângeâUe.With ãppropÌiâtelime rèleren.êsin the .emâinderol th€ question, it is âlso pôssibleto òegin with /g ini nà èmé/ 'whât is haprcnins?' o. /gi ni gà èmé/ what wilì hâppen?. In the 'how much?' question,the noun gÌoss€d'âmounl' is iòtü/ for some speâkeÌs,and the phÌaseis /òtú úlé/. Âiter the relative form ol tìc lreceding verb, this Day have the aÌternant/ótú/ as trãnscribedabovelor othc. speakeN, ând the word becom€sindistinguisnâble lrom /ótú/ 'mãnner',ând is indeednot fttôgnizedãs beingof difierento.jgin, ÁlUroughtÌÌis type ot questionis gencrâlly acceptable,questionsusing tems Io. m€asu.es(irÌ the caseol ricc, /ikó/ cup ,
426
ArÂrcÀN LaNcuÀGDSrRUcruREs
/óbà/ caÌabâsh, oÌ /àkpà/ 'bag would be âpp.op.ìâte)ãre pmbably morê.ommon. E.9., r Lú o s rk d p i ' o l e Ìrá o z ru .
' É l o$ mánt cups^i ri c€drd h€ buy ?'
Ìn frost nomjnâlscoúespondinglo úe ãboveqú€stións,there is a loun modilied by â relative clause. Sev€ralof the Dounsso uwd hâve aÌreadyâppêâred in the questions,modilied by the num€ricalor nonÌinalintemgative /òlé/. For 'peBôn', thing', 'plâce',ând 'time', Igbo hâs ân interesüígdistinctioí between generâlityand paúicülarity, shownin the first rouÌ pairsofthe toÌloving .eÌevânt 'peopÌe'(eencral,speciiicâlÌypluraÌ) 'peBon (pãúicuÌa.,speciticallysingulâr) 'thin8 GenerâÌ.nonphlsical or physical) 'thiug' (particular,physicaÌand singular) 'place,spot' (paÌticular; not u*d by sDe) 'time, occasìon'(pârticulâr) tnanner' Gee elterDativebelov)
In Dominalsr€reÌriDgto reason,/ihé/ 'thiDg'is us€d,but the seriaÌconstruction ìn the Iollowing.elative claüserestrictsthe meaningto reâson. ln nofrinâls r€t ..nìÍj to nunb€r ('how many'), tìê intêr.ogãtive/òlé/ is usedalte. the nounanoth€ÌstÌiking parallelto Kp€lle, in which this is aÌ$ the only casein Ìthich â qrestion ând the corr€sponding noninal both usea questionword. In nominah relcniug to '{hich', agÀinas in Klelle, the appropriatenoun is directly modified only allirmaìive relativesIor For rhe immcdiâlet!.posc of tììis discussion, the statire and lactativeconúruclìônsaiÌlbe codsidúcd;âcl.uâlly,mrny sp.rkers oi lgbo go to consideÌâblelengthsto ãvoid úsing âny orher ÌelâÌive, Wilh this .cstriction,thêÌe âre tço sharply distinguisìedtypes of r€lati\e claüs€. Ìn the lirst, the subjectol thereìâtiveclâúseìs the sane ãs the ântecedentnoun. There is nolhing cÕmparâble to â r€lâtilc t.onouD; r€lativizationis Da.k€d excÌusiïely by tone. À Íinâl lo* lone iú the ântec.dcntnoun is Ìeplâccdby downstep-high. Fo. nost types of verb bases,the absolutestative and lactâtive hâve low tone throughÕul:id tle relàtive,Ìhe fi|í toneot the Ìe.b lom is.eplacedby downstephigÌì, and âny additionalsylÌabl€scontinueon the samehigh level. É'oronetype ot lerb base,there is nÒ stâtile, but the âbsoÌutctactâtive hâs downstep-ìigh lollowedbÌ two or more low tones;in the relatile, tìe lirst syllableof the aerb ntrm remáinsdó*núep-high,but the s€condhâs anothcÌdownstep-Ì'igh, and any additional syllâbÌescontinue on tle samehigh level (or, in sone dialects,tle secondsyÌìableis lo\í ând âìl renâining syllâbÌcshigh). 8.9.,
427
QúEsrroNs, RELÀrÌvEs, suBoRDNÂrroN
{wáànyìbyàrà Ìlsáànyi,byárá twáànyìhápüÌ\ì
'thewomânwhocâme' 'the *ofrân whô {ent ôüt'
ld the secondtype ot relâtìvedâuse,the subjectÈ diflerent lrom the antecedeDtnoun; tÌre antecedentis the objector â complenentitÌ the underlyingsentencewhich is relativizèd. Agâin there is nothing conparâblèto â relative tronoun, ând in fact in â greât mâny câsesthere is no Õ!eú ol reÌãtivi 'ndicâlion zâtion exceptth. çoÌd order (which is true also of the EngÌish the wonan he sâw'). In .est icted ci.cumstances. th€.e is tonâl .eplacementin th€ subj€ctof the Ìelative clâuse.A singleinitial lorv ton€ (ioÌloa€d by high) is replacedby high âtt€r higì, ând â linâÌ ìÕwtone is Íepìâcedby downst€p-high(or sinply high âtt€r low, of couse). BoÌh of these replacivesâppea. in a form iike lhe ?roper nâme /Ókóyè/,which as the subject of a relâtile clausc,otter high tone, is /Okó'yé/. E.g.,
ó hÈrÈlwáànyì lwáânyió hüÌü èsú Okó'yéhürÈ
'the womanhe saw' 'the goat Okoyesaw'
lô the qüedionsciied Using such .elâtive cìâüses,nÕninâlscÒr.€spônding abôaeâppêarin the foìlowing: à úá gh; ú ónyé fréréyá. 'ldon'tknow{hodidit.' 'I don'i know who all did it.' à má ghi ú údi 'nèré yá. à má ghi ú ihé mé.é. 'I don t kDowwhat haptened.' à má ghí ú ónyé ó ìürÈ. 'I don't know who he saw.' 'I don't know who âìt he sâw.' à má gììi !í údi ó hìrÈ. à má ghi ú ihé ó mèrè. 'I don t know whal he did.' ú à ná'ghi ihé ó zÈrÈ. 'l doDt knov what ne bought.' 'I don't know which ore he ì]oDght. â má ghi ÌiÌ òkè ó zurÈ. à ná,ghi ú ébéó gàrà'l don't know whereh€ wênt. à Dá thi ú ógèó gàÌà. 'I don't know (just) when he went.' à ná ghi ó ihé ó si néé yá, 'l don't know why he did il. ó si méé'yá. à ná,chiú ihé méré à má ghi íì ôtú ó si nèé yá. 'Idon'tknowhowhedidit.' (seebelow) ghi yá. à má ú kà ó si méé à má ghi riì rnmà òlt 0 zürÈ. I don t know how many knives he bougÌtt.' à ná'ghiú úmà ó zürÈ. 'I don t know whichknile he boüght.' à ná'ghi ú údi úmà ó zÈ.ü. 'I don't kno{ vhal kind oÍ kniÍe he bought. 'l dÕn't knÕwhow müch rice he à má'gh! ú ótú ósikápáó zürú hà. bought.'
428
AFRrc^NLNcu^cE SÍRUcÌuÀÉs
In th€ 'when' nominal above.the pârti.ulár /ógè/is used. The impìiqtion is that I kDowtÌ'at he went, buÌ I don't know thê pâúiculâr tihe, In otheÌ coniexts or qith anotherimplicâtiÕn,/ìJgbè/can be used;in somesituaüonsth€ distinctiôn is not rigidly maintained. Speakers who usethe pâúicuÌar /tgà/ 'pìace' might well useit in the 'sheÌe' noninâl âbo!è. The aÌteÌnâtiveol the 'how nominal usesthe word /kà/ in plâceof the noun iótú/ ú.nner'. The.e is every reasonto beìieve,howeve.,that /kà/ its€Ìf is not a nouni a iurther comm€ntin @nnectionwith conjunctiônâppeâ.sbelov. No distinctionoI m@ning,sucì as betweeD8€neÌaÌityand paÌticulãrity,hâsbeena$ sociated{ilh the choicebet{een theie two, and !o lu.ther explanationol /kà/ In lhe howóuch' notuinâI,the cónstructiônis 'l doq'tknoq amount(shicì) rice (which) he bought equals'. TìÌe phrâsewhoseindepêndenííÕrm souÌd be /òsikápáó zÈrü/ 'the rice wlich h€ bought',itseÌI a noun with a Ìelaüve cÌause nrodifieÌ,is the subjectoÍ the stâtive /hà/ 'be equâlio'. As such.its initiàl singl€ ìow tone ìs Ìeplâcedby high âlter high, ând its linâl lôw toíe by hth, âs in the s.nÌenm cìted. (For those*ho say /Òtü/ 'aDoünt', the initial low tole of /òsikápá/ remainsÌow.) TÌris is a Ìâther conplicai€d ând âskwâÌd construction,and oncemore a .eferenceto á nnmbêrol neâsú.esis Drobâblvconnoner. âs: à ná ghi ú ikó,óslkápá,ólé
'I don't knô* how nâny cüpsoÍ Ìice
Now thc secondtype ol question,an optionâl alternativeÍor âny ôI those cit€d abolc, nây b€ intrcduced. No onemn be exposedto Igbo lor v€rylongleIore hearingthe NoÍd /kèdú/. By itselt it ìs the conmon greetingto ónepe$on. A comnon r€sponse to it is /ó di ú má/ itisfine'. Suchãn exchange is frequently folìô{ed by somethinglike the louowing,which is cleârlya qüestion:/kèdú ràkà ídrbé gi/ how aìout yoü. tâmily? , in which /màkà/ seemsto be a faiÌÌy clo* eqüivalêntol âòout'- Thús ikèdú/ in theseúsagesseensto m€ânsomethinglike 'ho*rs everything?'. But it nây aÌsobe usedb€íoÌeã noDn,and if a sp€âkerol tgbois ásÌ(edlo lránslãlêoul oÍ .onlpxl thp quGtion,kpdúákwúkwo'gt. which askssomethingabout ryôÌr bôókr, he is nôú likely to strggest'wherêis yoDr book?'as an €quìvalent.The samequestion,however.cân be âskedif thê book in questionis obviouslyin sight,and in sucha ese it miShtbe ansìÍeredby giving its price,teìling Íhere it sas purchasêd,sâyingthai itì a fine book, or with ãÌmost any otheÌ infomation about it. ÀctuaÌly, /kèdú/ beloreã Dounhasthe exceedìnglygenerálmeâningof 'hÕv âbout?'; it âsksfor whâteveÌinlo.maüoÍ the peFon addresed consideF the most appropriâte. No*, vben on€ asks 'how âbout?'with reicrenceto a plÀceor time, for exampÌe,the ânsweris obvio'rsÌy extect€dto specifya tlace oÌ time. ODthis bâsis,âny of the nounsmodifi€dhy relative clausesillustÌâted âhove can be used âIter /kèdú/. aÍd the Eult is a specilicqu€stion. Any such queúion is simply /kédú/ 'how about?'followêdby â noun phrâsejin êâchof the s€ntences cited above,/kèdú/ can be substitut€d gìi (with iôr /à má ú/ 'I dôn t knÕw' â les r€gulâÌ morphotonemic clalges) to
QúESrroNs,RELÀrrvEs,süBoRD,NÀTloN
129
producôâ questionwith the samemeaningasone of the questjon-wo.dquestions prewiouslycitcd- Suchâ qucstiôncân ask 'wìo?'with specilìcreler€nceto mo.e thân one peÌsoniit was noted abovethat tììere is no quesüonword vith suclÌa 'Who-all did it? kèdú idi 'mé.éyá. ('Whât aìoüi the peopÌewho did it?') Again, Ìelaiive clausesâ.e nâtürãlly lound in other uses,ând nounsretedng to place and time. modiÍiedìy a relative clâuse,may be used às preposd âd lunctioninglilie subôrdinálecÌâüses.E.g-. veÌbial complements úmà ó zÈ.üdìú'Dá. éìè ó gàm, i lwèkwàrà iké
Ícá.
ìgbèú byàràébéà, à ìú'ghi ú yá.
']he knite he bought is finc. 'Where he went, Joü cân gó tÕo. ( Placewhich-hewent,you havealso stre.gth io-go.' '\-hen he cameheÌe, I didn t seehin.'
À locative compìeÍn€nt of thê lpe /n'ébé ó úÒi at the plâce shere he is' has an interestingsecondarymeaning. It the relerenceot the main cÌauseof the sentenceexcÌudesa locativeidea,such â conpìementfteâns âs lâ. as he is conSo faÌ the only rclâtires thâl haÌe beendiscusedaÌe basedoD the factative and the stative; the latter inclüdethe deriÌed in.oúplelive ând tutuÌe const uctiôns. Th€ only other constructionsfor which .elatìvizationis reìevâdtare thc conpleìiÌe ând tle g€neElnegative.Thesehavea somewhâtdifierentlormation. À reÌatire whosesubject is the saúe .s the ântecedentnoun is introduc€dby l!á/, ãnd the foÌlosing veÌb lom has a ?refix whoseunderlyingloÌn is prob âbly /à/ oÌ /è/, but which ìas an aÌternantwith high ton€ by regulârmôrphotonenic aÌte.nation. This is like an incompÌetiverelàtiveií fo.n: the slâtive auxiliãry olthe incompletrveis also/ ná/ in the relative,ând tìe lollowingverbâÌnoun beeinsin the sane way. Yet thereis no clearjustitìcâtionfor associatiÍgthe completive and negativereiativ€s$ith the incornpletive.ExâmpÌesâre: ídi ná á byáChi ídi ná á nághiàìyá
'thosewho didn't cone 'thosewho âren't coming,thosewho
,idi'ná á'gághiàbyá
'thosewho areDtgoingto come' 'thosewho havên't (yet) come' 'thoscwho have come(al.eâdy)' 'those$ìo a.e coming'
údi'ná á'byálá
Conpletive and negâtiverelâti!€s with â subjectdiller€nt Ircm the ân1€cedent notrnìãvê beênrêcordedso rãr€ly tÌrãt th€Ìe is somedoubt âboüt ihe tÌâne oiltior ol tone ãnd about homogeneityof diaÌect. A negativeÌelative hâs been traíscribed with /ná/ (without downstep) after the súbject. A completive re-
,$0
AmrcÀN LÀlcu^GE SrRUduREs
Ìaüve alsouses/ná/, berorea secondo. third pereonsingula.protrounbut afteÌ ady other subjectithe secondor third pè$on sjDguÌa.subj€ct,or vowel prefix in othe! cases,and the entireverb lorm, havelow tone. Many speâkersusea fâctâtive rêlâtivein placeof â coftpletive. Eaaóplesrecordedare:
ídr ú náá húshi 'the work he hâs done 'the work I have done' A rew DorphemesDay be consideredsubordinatingconjunctions,thoügh the urcs oi someof them seemto be developments trom const.uctioDsthãt aÌe rot basicallysübordinating.The clea.estcaseis /nà/ 'tlat'follow€d by any declaÌâ'He told me he would come. ó gwàÌà ú nà ó gà âbyá. Thereis a noun /ihì/ reÀsonwhich is comnonly usedin the phrã* /n'rhi à/ 'Ío. thÈ reason,the.€foÌe';what is t.ansc.ib€din'l is a so.t of prelositioÍ with a generalÌocative reference.The conjunction /nà/ ap?eaF in the combination in'ihi nà/ 'for the r€ssonthat to meaí because'.E.g., 'I cãmeherebêcâuse you âre á byàrà Ìh ébéà, n'ihi nà The conjünction/úà/, *hen rollowedby a declarativesentence,i6 coordinating, virh the neaning bDt . When Íoìlowed by â hypotheticalconstruction which requiresa Ìow tone pronoun! ând which by itsell functions as â yesno qustion, it ìas the meaning '{hether'. Thus the €quivalentor 'I don't know whethe. )re $ill come' seemsto ìave the structure 'I don't know, but pdhãps isi Ì'e will come. The seDtence á mâ ghíh mà ô gà ab)a. A úoÍpheúe i kà/, tollowedòy the incoúpletive construction,hasthe force o|while' or 'as'. The sâmesyllâbleis usd altêr the verb /i,dii 'be desqibed âs' ând belorêâ noün,with iìe meáning 'iike'; /kài alsosúbstitÌtesfor ihe nôún /ótúi manner'befo.ea .elative clause,introducesthe hortative const.uction,ând úarks lonsubject topicâlizaüon. Now nâny dillerent .norphenesaÍe involved in theselive us€sis imtosible to det€minej a cas€might be mâdeIo. semanüc similarity whe.ethe.efe.enc€sa.e to wÌ'ile, as , like , ând 'manne., and moÌe subtly roÍ ure useol /kà/ int.oducingthe hÕrtative,büt hardìy lor topicãlizâtion. The usage.eÌevantat this point is illustratedby the Íouowingl kà ó nà àbyá,ftmi'ri bìdòrò
Âs he was colniDg,it beganto rain.'
kà i nà àsáéfêré,á còròm '\Yhile you washúe dishes,1wânt áhú. to take a bath. isá 'l sãs hin (whiÌehe was) working.' á hüÌÈ Ìh yà kà ó nÀ arú ó'rú. In the lâsl.of these,thè objêcl pronoDn/yà/ may be omitted.
QuEsnoNs, RELÁrNEs, suBouD,NÁr,oN
4il1
with an obligâtorysubject À morpheme/tútú/, followedby the consecütive (ewênif it is the sàfre âs the subjêctoI the pr€cedingclause)hss thc mcaning 'before or 'until . There is no oblious inte.pr€tatiotrof tlÌis as anything other than a conjunction,but someotìe. derivationmay be lurking jn the shádô*s. Itìs usuaÌlyp.ecededby a pâuse,Àndmarksthe b€ginningoiâ nea seriesoi to!âl tenaces(i.e.,its pitch is highe.thân or the sameâs the Ìaú precedinghigh ton€)i pêrhãpsit shouldbe interpretedâs bcginninga new independentsentence.ExâmpÌesoÍ ils use âre: ó sàÌà àhú, tútú ò rié Í ri. á gÀÌh àhú ,yá. tútú ò rló
'He took a bath beforehe at€.' 'l'lì seehim betorc hc eâts.'
ò mécighiúzÒ,túú Ìnmi.i 'ébidóizÒ.
'He didn't closcuìe dooÌ until it began
(No, làhú/ in the fiÌst two oI the aboveis not the sameword- In the rirst it is a noun meaning body -batlilg is washingthe ìody. In the second.it is the vêrbal noun oI oI the verb /i'húi t€e'.) T*o significani dilferencesin the shu.ture ÕI questionsand r€lativesin KpelÌeãnd lgbo may be noted. li6t, in Kp€Ìle anythingpreposedin a sentence, incÌudingquestionwords and the ant€cedents of .elatives,must be recâpituÌated in what ÍolìowsjIgbo sho{s noth'ngot this. Secord,â Ìelâtivein KpeÌìeis a s€ntencenóninâìizedby â súfiìÍ *hich is âls. úsedvilh nouns;in Igbo,relativesare markedby tone with a sharpdistinctionbetweenthosewhosesubjectis ihe sâme ãs the ântecedentnoun and those shose subject is difierent. Oth€Nise, th€ generaÌ6tructure and usageol question-wordquestionsand related relalivcs. âs{€Ìl âsthe reúri.ted oÌ er€n maginâl charâcterol othertypesoI subo.dination, aÌe .emaÌkably similâ. in the two languâges. althoughthey âr. eltrem€ly dis144. The relâtionshipof queúion-wordqüestionsand pârallelÌelativeswill not be outlinedin as tulÌ a way íor Elik; suUiceil to say that the situation is closelysimilarto that in Kpelle and lgbo. Questionwordsare typicaUy(but not inva.iably) prepowdand topicalized,and parallelnominaÌslor the Dost part use ordilary wo.ds lor 'peÌson', 'place', 'tiúe' and the like, modilied by ÌeÌative cìâuses;such noninals foÌ pÌâceând time a.e âlso üsed âs prepo*d âdverbiâÌ complemcntslunctioning like subordinateclauses.Among th. noninâls there is one nniqueÍom, Ìefening to a thing, /sé/. This can hardly be ânalyzedâs a noun; it wôrld b€ the only noun thÀt doesnot have â voweÌor nasâìpretix. Nor is theÌe any reasonto call it À relâtivepronouni the cliuse thrt lolÌowsb fully ma.ked as .eÌativein itselÍ. Its stãtus 6eemsto be more Ìike that oI the KpeÌle indefinite denonstrâtile /nyii/, Õr thê IgbÒikà/ substitutingto. th€ noün /ótú/ The structtrÌeând gramma.of .elativesìn Eljk, ho{evc., deseNesseDa.ate treâtment. FiNt, an ânt€cedentnoun is âlmost âlways foÌloaed òy â demonstrâtive. If it i, deÍinite,the demonstraüveis /Émii,which elseilheremeans'this
432
AFRTCN LÀNcu^cE SrÂumGEs
but has no referenceto proximatelocationwith â r€lative. Il th. antecedentis indelinit€,the demonstrativeis /ékè/,which eÌsewhere Ìetem to posession,âs in /Ékèìtin/ ours'. Second,as in KpeÌle but not Igbo, â.elative clau* in Efik whosesubjectis tÀc sme âs thê ântê@dentnoun must hâve a subjectprcnoún. II this deates an âmbiguity, âs between 'the mau who saw (it impüed f.om pÌe viousmention)'and'the man he sav', the Ìatte. isint.oducedby aú independent pronoun Íorm to iÍdicate that the subject of the .eÌative cÌauseis diffeÌent frcm the antecedentnoun. Thes points, ãpart irom the maÌking of Ìelãtivizâtionâs such.aÌe ilìústmted in the foÌlowing: ówó Émiékó,didé the pemonvhÕ câme' (cf.: ówó Émì 'this peBon) '$meone who câme ôwó ÉÌèÉkédidé ówó ifrì ÈÍéókó'kútdé 'th€ persoúhè sâw Ailirmative and DegativerelâtivizationaÌe quite diÍIerent;there is a second type oÍ alfirDative r€lativizationsimila. to negativerelativization,but it has a specialreferenceto time relâtionships.Th€ usuaÌ affiÌmative Ìelativization is úárked by ã sufiix vith the verb of thê relâtive cÌáu*, *hich is not necesârily at the eúd of the cìâüse. II there is úôre thân one verb in the Íeìâtivê cìáuse(lâtêÌ lerbs being consôcutiveor s€quentiaÌ),the Ìelâiive sufiix âppsÌs with the iirst verb Õnly. The foÌn olthesüffúis /-déior /-dè/;in somecâs6 the choi@b€tween thek is phonologicalÌyconditioned,but unde. r€stÌictedci.cumstãnc€s the two are in contrast,as $ill âppearpÍesently. MeítiÕn has beenmade in severâlconteÍts of the diúen@ in Elik ol two in ãddiiion to neutnl coústÍúctions.OÍe contypes ol contrastiveconst.uctiôns, something preceding tÍastive relersto the verb, ând other to somethingfollo{ing the verb. Neutrâl .onúrucüons do not âppearin relaüve clâuses.Furth€Ì, the distinctionbetweenthe tso contÉstivesis largeÌybrcken dowu in relatives. In absôluteverbâl forms, the tvo ârc distinguishedin thê past ând pÌesêniby th€ ìone oi the verb bãs€,which is basetône ü somcthinglrecedingthê veÌb is contrâstèd. ând low tone il sonethingfolloving tle ve.b È cortrasted. (Oí couNe, thes€ two aÌe identical in any case iI the lexical tone of the bas is low.) In reìâtiles, only basetone is usd with onemino. êxcettion. It is in the light of this that the tore ol the relâtive sutfix can be discused. Alter a basewith high tone, úe ielâti'e süIlir âlwayshas high tÕnê. After a iuture contrastive,in which the basehas the tonal replâcivehighlos, the ÍÈ lative suffix ãlwals hàs ìov tone. Afte. â bâsewith Ìow or Ìow-high tone (in the past or prcsent),tÌreÌelatire sulÍix hasÌ'igh tone iI it is in rcntence-rinâl posiüon. Àfter a ba* with low or ìo{-h,eh tone, howêver, if sonêthing folÌows the veÌb with its reÌative suffix, both high and Ìow tone aÌe Ìecorded with the n€gativ€ sufiix; iI the sulIix hâslow tone,â basewith low-hightoneis low thrcughout, This contrast strongly sugg€ststhat, in this reshict€d circümstance, â difference betw€en somethingpr€c€dingând somethingfollowing the verb being contEâted is now signalled by the tone ol the ÌelatÌve 6uÍfix: hieh to contrãst what prec€des
QuEsrroNs, RELÀrrvÉs, SUBoRD'NÀarox
433
(which is requi.ed if nothine lolÌows),ând ÌoN to contrasi shat ioìlows. This qu€stionwiu be tãken up âgain lâtêr; lo. úe present,the follo$ing sentences illustmte Ìelativè clauses in which the tone oI the sulfix is obligâtorily high or óvó Émiéké'dldé únàm ént iké,dèpdéòfin únàm ÉmììdidêpdèÌìIin
'the peÌsonwho came 'the meat we bought today' 'the Íheat se'U buy today' 'tlle meal.you cook.d 'the tree he cut dovn
Whetherthe tone of the relativesuliix aíter low o.low-high wlìen som€thing folÌowsis m€reìyoptional,o.vhetne. it doessignala diilerencebetseencontrasting what !Ìecedesand whât foÌlors, is difficult to ânswer. At beú, ihe usàgeof the Etik neutraÌ ând contrastive constru ctions are Ìikely to seemstrbtle to a sÌreaker oI English. À majo. reasonio. this apparentsubtlety is the fact that ve so otten expr€sscompaÌabledistinctionsin Englishby dillerencesin intonationând by confuâstivestresÈwhich we do nol.repnsent in w.itten Englisl. nor reâdily contÌol in an artilicial translationsìtuation. This is Iurther complicatedby the fact that Englishas taught and learnedby speake$oi Efik alnostrotâÌly ignor€s theseimtoúant aspectsoI spokenEnglish,so that it js exceedinglydiilic!Ìt to discüssthe distiÍctiÕnsol côntraú in either Efik or Engljsh in iems thât alÌ partiesconceÌnedcan unde.stand. In Ìelative clàusesìn pârticular,the lÒcúsof contmst is olten irrelevânt to the grammar ot the main cÌâuse,aDd it is lik€ìy to be the úâin cìâuseon {hich the speaker'sattention is conccnt.ated.It seems âÌmostceúain that a dillerencein cont.ast focus dependingon the tone or the reÌâtivesüIfix is th€ historicãlorigin of thê prcsenlsituâtion. Th. extcnt io wìÌich sucha distinctionis Ìecognizedat preknt is dilficult to determine;it is quite po$ below is cônhâsliveâs trânsìâted,büt $bÌe that tìe IiÉt oI the two sentences ihât tÌre secondis neDtmÌ. In âny câse,it would certâinlyseema pitl iI a language weÌe to Ìosea deÌightfulcontrastlike the lolloving, lor whateverit's {orth: ìkpó! ékénèméti éti. òkpi't
'lhê nPdr JÕu.ooled )ÊslerdâJ*á, delicious.' (Oi cours, the lesssaidabout the tDrnips,the better.) 'The meât tou cooked y.rlerddg was dpliciou. (\o\ lhal hiìgp$e ìad lndr\ sas soneihing eÌseâgairÌ.)
RelãtiveclâusesinËtik à.e usedin nuch the sâmewaysas in oth€rlangueges, òüt there is âlsoone unusuaìüsage. Efik ìâs a conditionalconstruction,which is usedto expr€ssconditionslike wlen he con€s,il he .oDes', jn which the out6me is still in doübt. lhere âre âlso leÌitiâbÌe conditionssuchas 'iÍ he is here, ifhe came', Th€seareex9Ìessedby a {ord /Èdyékè/folìowedby â reÌâtiÌe cìaüse; /Èdyékè/is pÌobably bestinterpretedas a singìe$ord in contenporâryElik, sine the secondvowel does nôt hâvê the promincncethât is typicaÌ oi word initiaÌ
43.1
ÀF8rcN LdcuÀcE
SmlceREs
vovels,but itis ündoubtedlyde.ivedl.om a notrnphrâse/àdiÉkè/,ú€aÍing sonething like 'the indetinitecircumstâDce',Exânples ôf suchconditionra.e:
èdyékèidididè,...
'ir he is conins (now),Í hê hâscome' 'if hê came(in the past)' 'if he is going to come (accordingtÕ â plan aheâdy estãblished)'
Th€Ìe is anotìer construction,sith quitê a dille.ent foÌmatiotr,which must alsobe considered a relatìvebecâuseit is usedalter the sme types ol noniíals. This constructionhasan âtrxiliary/má/,sith ãlÌ sübjectpronoúdshâving low tone; after the auxilia.y. the verb Íom is ìike a contrÀsüveío. what prêcêdesthe !erb, vith no relative sullix, but uniqtrelywith downstepprecedingthe subject lronoun (ovcúly prcsent.of couÌse.only beforepronounswhich havehigh tonè). This second relâtive ÌeleÉ to something côspleted betore the time relerence oí the nâin !€Ìì of the sentence. Th€ contrast between the two iypes ol reÌâtive is iÌìüshâtedid the lirst tçÕ Õtthe exâmpìesb.low; in bolh cases,the nounmodüied is /ìni/ 'tim€ , p.ecededby ã cont.âctedÍom of a prepositionlike mo.pheme/ké/, vhich .efe.s to generallocationin placeor time. The secondr€lative may also folÌo{ /ké/ dir€ctly; this ând other usesâre illustrâtedãlt€Ì thê li6t teó óf the ókjtì{ò ídikà úfàk ìwèt,
'He úaúed att€nding schooÌ when he
ókótò!òódikà úròk ìwèt, k lni àná ,Ékè,dimi. hé àná'Ékésìmdó, édim á'má ó'tótô údidèp
'He started attending school alter he camehere.' 'Alter he aÌrived there, it 'He câfre to whe.e I had bêen
This second.elative lo.mation is tÌre besisfoÌ aìl nêgativereìãtives,rhich, however,do not hale the sâne implicationof prior tim€. The auxiliary is fÕllowedby a Ìegularnegativeform of a v€rb, againp.ecededby dÕwnú€pandwithout â Íeìâtivesuüir. ]'h€ ruliliâry with its negaüvesubjectp.onounsis, hos ever, some$hatirr€gülaÌ- The fnst personsingüìãrÍom is /nìmé/ instmd oi the expectêdr/Ìhmá/; the s€condpeNonsingularform is /drmú/ inst€adof the elpect€d ./üná/ or./ünú/i the lom for âll other p.rsonsis /úmj/ insteâdof the expected */ìúái or */imi/. Suchâ relativeis usedaite. /èdyékè/to expressa negàtiveconditional; the relâtive by its€lI, vith no ante.€dent,is ân opüonal aÌteÌnatÌve. Exâmplesot negâtivereìâtivesâre: úmè ówó énì ümi iké'digé èdiwàkíkpó énì òmé'úkólyòkké útyòkÌé úrík Émìèté ìrDi ,1ké,drgé.
'úos€ who didn't come 'mâny things I didn't know' 'I don't know why he didn t
43Í
QuEsrroNs, REL^r'vEs, SuBonDrN^ÍrôN
útóm Émìàfò Ìhmú'úkú náDÌé (èdyékè)Èmé ídlgé, . . . (Èdyékè) à9étrmi'ikpódügó
'the work yoü (sg.)didn't do'
(Èdyékê) è9éÌnmi ikpé ké'dlgé, 14.5. The pâiterning oI queúion-wordqu€stionsand paralÌel nonÌinaÌsin Yoruba is againsinila. to tìat in the otheÌ languâges d.âli Nith up to this point, vith onemajoÌ exceptio.: Yorubã haswhât nây Ìeâsonâblybe caììeda relâtive p.onounvhich intrcducesa normâl rcntenceto torm a relâtive clause. Qu€stion words are preposedand topicalizôd:the markeÌ of topicâlizaliônis /ni/, sith the mÍtrâction /l'/ belorevo$els other thãn /i/. Questionslike thos€cited Io. othe.
kÍÌó!e'lè. kilóte. 'which one did he buy?' n ibo l'ó Ìo. ki Ì ó jé k'ó ae'. ( What is-it it pe.mitted thât Ie do it?') ( How is-it he did did it?') {o l'ó gbà Èe'. ( Whât way is-it he took did it?') òdà 'Ho8 many knivesdid he buy? òbeDéló l'ô rà. 'Which knife did he buy?' òbç {õ t'ó rà. jÌú òbç wõ Ì ó.à. 'What kind ol knite did he buy?' (báwoni) iresi t'ó rà'ti 'How nuch rice did hê büy?' (re) kpò tó. Ge. betow) 'Ihree ol tì€ qüestioúwordsin the âbovèãre fairÌy obvìousr/ta/ 'who?', /ki/ 'what? , and the attributiv€ /méÌó/ 'how màny? . In nost of the ôthe.s,theÌe is a syllâbl€ /wo/, or a derivâtiveol ìt, from ân und€rlliDg tornÌ /èwo/ '"hich?'. The deletionofthe pÌelix vowel of /èwo/,with its low tone,Ìesultsin the Ìemainjng syuâblehâvinglowe.edmid tone alte. high or mid, as in the pb.ases/eléwò/ 'which oncr' ãnd /òbewõ/ 'wlìich knife?'; this is not distinctiveaIt€r low tone, âs in /ònà wo/ 'which road?, which wây?'and /n'igbà wo/ 'at vhich time?, when?'. The.e is luúhe. contÌactioniD two foÌms, without loseÌcd mid tone as expected.A noun /ibi/ 'place'contÌactswith ièwo/ in th€ lorn /n ibo/ at vhich pÌâce?,whe.e?'. The íoÌm /báwo/ 'hos? shoss â similar conlraction;the lirst norpheúq though it can haÌdly be analyzedâs â noun, functionslike a noun (conparethe strikingly 6imilarstatusof the Igbo /kà/, 14.3above).
436
AFRrcÀN L^NGUÁGE SnlcnÂEs
ln the 'wh€r€? ãnd 'when?' questionsabove,the initial moÌlh€mq /tri/ in iis tulì fom. witì a pretosiiionìike function relenÌng to genenì tocâtion in plac€or time. is oltionaÌ. It is .equir€d,hoseveÌ. in nonpreposed coÌnpÌ€Ìnents. In the two 'how?' qu€stions,â serial verb consüuctionis requi.ed. WhateveÌ ibális, one'dÕes'itintheprocesoi doiDgsofreting eise. In the alt€Ínâtive qu€stioncited,/ònà/i$ th€ r€guÌârsord tor 'road.lath', with theextendedmening 'way, mãnner';tìe verb /gbà/ is üe ÌeguÌarverb for 'taÌe, foÌÌov'vith ÍeIerenceto â road. One tâkes â Ìoâd in doing som€thing. This is the clearet â ?aÌaÌlelto which ìâs been exmplê of the.ationaÌeoi thú type ol consrrtrction, Once more. the 'how nuch?' questiongives the greatestdillicuÌty. The mo.pheDe/ti/ is ìônôphonoussith the narker ot the
[email protected], but it is dülicDlt to inte.p.et it as the samemoÌphe'Ìe. lt appeârsto includean interÌogâtivêforce.sinc theÌe is notling €he intenogativein üe qu€süonif the optional (ãnd âppa.entlyredundant)/báwo ni/ 'ìow È it?'is omìtted; there is other evid€nce that ii is iDdeedintenogative. The precedinghigh tone indicãtrng a v€rbaÌ subjectharks /ti/ âs the beginningot the pÌedicate,so that /ti/ iteÌf may be â verb with án inte.rcgatiÌe meaning. 'be how?', âppearingh€re in a seriaÌconstÌDction.The qu€stionthus appearsto ìave üe stÌuctur€ '(How is it) .ice which he bought is-hos (does)is-plenüíulieenough?'. A Ìma.kable pârâlleì to /ti/ as àn intemgative verb will be noted in LUGânda prêsently. In the parâlleì nÕninãls, â Ìoìn is typicalìy modiÍied by a reÌative clause, shich is int.oduced by /ti/, contracted to /tJ beÍore â vow€Ì. FoÌ the most pârt, the identity ând natuÌe of the .ouns vill b€ cleãr frcm the lollosing dâmples; conmentsfollow lor oth€rs: 'I do!'t know (!eÉon) who did it.'
n kò ma nÀkânt ó lç 'lê, 'I don t Ìnow (thirg) wlat happered.' tr kò ma ohünt'ô lç 'lê. ,I don't kíos who he sâs'.' tr kò Dq nnkan tó le. 'I don't Ì{nôwwhât he did.' n kò mo ohun t'ó Àe. -' 'I don t kDow (this-one)which he bought. n kò fr9 ibi t'ó lq. 'I dÕn't know (place)wher€he went.' n kò mo ighà t'ô Ìo. I don't know (tim€)when he went.' 'I don t knos (ÌeÀson) why he (u8ed) n kò mo tdi t'ó fi !ô'. dtd it. 'I dôn't knôw hôw he did it.' ('I don t know way whichhe took did n kò no òtràt'ó 8bà !e'. ú.) n kô ma iye òbç (néló) t'ó 'I don't know (lunber-oo kniver (howmany) whicì he bought.
QuEsrroNs, REL^rrvEs, SUBoRDTNÁrroN
437
'I don'l know which knile ìe boueìt.' n kò m! òbç sõ t'ó rÀ. n kò nq inlLobe t'ó rà. n kò mo bi iÍçsi t'ó rà ti (!e) kpÒtó-
'I don'tknow whâtkind ol knife he ìought.' 'I don't know ho\Í much ricehe boüghl-'
There aÌe tso nounsio. 'thing'. /nòkan/ and /ohur/. TheseâÌe generãÌly consideredto be iDterchâDgeable. Ìt seemsìikely. ho*ever, thât tlere wâs originâUya distinctionbetween thing (generâi,physicalor nonphysicâl)'and thing (specili.,physicâI,singulâr), ãs in lgbo. lf so, the nore gen€râlwoÌd wàs úndouìtêdly /oìrun/. In talking about wlrich one'. tìe independentdemonstrative /èyi/ 'thi, one'is used,Ìather thân eitherword for 'thine'. or /eÌé/asin the qursOncemo.e, one ius€sia ressonin doing $mething, and onc 'takes' â say. The fiÌst altemative for Ìefening to manner, hovever. is dilfercnt in construction. The morph€me/bi/ js not noninal nor even pseudononinaÌ, sinceit is not rollowedby â relativeclause. It appearsto be a type oi suboÌdinatingconjunÈ tio!, and Dây òe Ìelatedto the /bá/ in how? questions.tt appearsalsoin .ereÌÌing to 'how mucì'; tle rmâinder of the Iâú senten.eâboÍe is lü€ the paralìel In rerer.ingto hoç many' in botÌÌ Kpeìle and lgbo, ii sas noted that the intemgative word for 'how many?' wâs usedalsoin the pâ.âlÌeÌnominaÌ. Yoruba hasa noun /iy€/ 'number'which Dakes/méló/ redundant;y€t /méÌò/nay orrtionally be inclüdedbelorethe relative clau*. In taÌking about 'rhicì', tle jnterrogative /(è)so/ Ìnay aÌso optiolalÌy be inchded, altlroughit too h redundant. Fornany ot the questionscitedâhove,th€reâre lulÌe. âlternâtiveswhich can now be und€Ìúood in the light of the pârâÌl€lnomjnâls. 'lhe tÒlìÕwing âre som€
ki ni idi-rè t'ô fi sê'
'Who did it?' ('\ïhô is the p€son {üo did it? ) 'Whât did he do?' ('What is th€ thing wlich ne did? ) 'Why did he do it? ("\\hat is his ftãson he usd did it?') 'How many kniv€s did Ììe buy? ('Numb€Ì-ol linives which is-it ìe bouCht?')
Without going into detâil here, il may be âdded thât, in Yorubâ as in the other languages discusedin the fo.egoiÍg,th€Ìe ãrerery lew norphemesthat cân cle!.ly be anâlyzedãs subordinatingconjunctions.As in tle other lânguages, subordinateexpÌessioÍs.ef€rrin8to llace and time are preposedãdverbialcompl€mentsconsisütr9of â noun and a relaüve clause. E.9.,
,138
AFRrcaN LaÍcú/|cE
SÍRUcrmEs
n iSbàt ó to, n'ibi fó lo, . 14,6. There aÌe similaritiêsalso òêtweentlìe Bântu lãnguágesând the lanSuagesalr€ãdy discussedin Ìespectto questio!-wordqu€siionsaíd paralÌelÍeIâtives. À najo. supeÌIicial difierence is tìât üe classconcoÌd system is involved in relativizãtion,and also in some question words. The same phenonenonis ãttested,as might be expected,iq noun clâss Iânguag€sin the Gnr bÌanch oÍ Niger-Congo;with vârying d€greêsol restriction,it is probabÌycharacterbticoI classlanguagesin generâI. A moÌe signifi.ant dittêreD@is that, ãt leâst in the Bântu ìãnguagesloÌ which convenientdata aÌe availalle, mâny questionwo.ds 'fh€ lolÌoring are LUGãndâequivaÌentslor the samequ€suonsthat have bê€n citêd in otheÌ languages;majoÌ morphemebounda.ie within wo.ds (but nÕt the linal /-a/ ol most ve.b loms) are indi@tedby hyphens: àni é-y-à-ki-kòlá. ky-á-há kÍ.tyá. - kì-Ìi é-ky-á-bááwô. y-àìábá áni. kì-ki ky-è y-à-gúìà.
'Wìo did it? 'Whât hâppened?'('It-hâptened itis-how?') ( What happ€n€d-there ?)
'which one (-what?)
(7) did he
buv?' lv-á-ki y-à-ki-kòlá. 'How did he do it?' ('He-did-it y-à-gúlà ò-bw-àmbè bü-mèká. k-àmbèkl k-è y-à-gúlà. k-àmhé k-á ngé.i ki k-è y-à-8úlà. y'à-gúlà ò-mü-céèré8w-énkátrá
'How Dány krives did he buy ?' 'WhicÌì kfliÍe did he buy?' 'What kind of knile did he buy'? 'How much Ìice did he buy? ( He bought rice, it measÌreswherc? )
Again, son€ of th€ queúion words âre lairly obvious,but commentsâre ÌequiÌed for others. In the secondqüe.stion,the subject of eâch of the two vdòs is a clÀs 7 conco.d,rer€rÌing implicitly to â noün such âÊ/è-ki-ntú/ 'thing'. The Ìoot of the s€condverb, apâú lrom tone, is /ty-/ or */ti-/; the ãpp€ârãn@of a ve.b itil jn Yoruba, not€d above,with ihe sam€unusÌãl intermgâtivemeâning, is nothing short oÍ exciting. (This nay al$ hãve somethingto do, ultiÌnâtely, with the fact that the Kpelle /ìéÌJ/ând Àkân /déí/ how? âre the oDly qu$tion wo.ds in those languags which are neve. topicalized; there nay be a seÍiâì vêrb beneâththe surfâ@.) const.uctionsomewüere
QúÊsrrôNs, RELÁrrvEs, SuBoÀDrNÁrroN
439
ln the âlt€Ìnâtive torm of the secondqu6tion, /kikj/ is a cÌas-marked nominâlfoÌm of an int€nogãtiv€meâning'whât?, whicl?'. This lorm is in rla$ 7; there âre other fobs with the prdix€s of alÌ othe. approp.iatenoDnclasses. The foÌm /ki/, without indicâtion ot clâss,âppeârsin severalotìer quesüons âlter â verb 0r (somewhatunexpectedly)ãttributileìy âfl$ a noun. Nominal fo.ms oI /ki/, o. a mD foÌloved by /kl/, âppearin initiâl position,and. ii tlìey function âs other thâD the subjectoI tìe question,are topicalized.Topicalizãnon is markedby a concordwith the no.pheme /-èi: /ky è/ ror class7, /k-ò/ for cÌass12, thê latter iÍ tro oÍ the aboÌe quêsüonsrelerring to the clâss12 noun In the why?' qu6tion, /ki/ âppearsin an assciative constructìonwith a cÌas 11 @ncordand the associaüvemÕÌpheme/-á/. This poüld âppeârtó rereÌ to an unexpressêd class11 nôun meâning rreâsonr,but informantsa$ociate Ìh€ semânticreÍerenceof /Ìw-á-kiiwith a classI noun, /è-nsóngá/-Th€reis âctüauy no identifiabl€noun to whjch the classl1 concordcan reÍerr one can onÌy say that class11 in such a questionreÍe.saÌbitmrily to the reson âskcdâbout. À similâr phenomenonwill be nôted belo* in connecüonwith relaüve6. Anoth€r iústâlce oÍ the assciative is Íound in the 'what kind of?' queúionrhe.€ /ngéri/ 'kind is cl€arly âsociâtedvith thè class12 /k-ânbé/. ând it âIrpeaÌsin aÌl ap'Hor many?'is siúply â.oot /-mèká/appearingin concordwith any plüral noun
440
ÀFutcÀN LNGUIGE
si-Dányi hy-á-bááwô. si-nányl gw-èy-à-lábàsi-mányiky-è y-à-kólà. simányi ky-è y-à-gìilà.
'l 'I 'I 'I 'I
SrÃúc@REs
dôr't knôç sho did it.' don't know whãt happened.' don t know who he saw. don t knoç what he did.' don t knowwhichone(- what) (7)
si-mányig/-è y à'gêndá. simányi s-è y-à-géndèrá. d si'mányi lw-è y-à-gèndá. si-mányiky-è y-à-vá á-kÍ-kÒlá. si-mányibw-è y-à-ki-kòlá. ti-mányi mü-wêndó gw-à brànbé bw-éy-á-gúlà. si-mányi k-àmbé k-é y-á-gúÌà-
'l don't know vheÌe he went.' 'I don't know shen he went.' (r€fers to *hat day ) 'l don't know why lìe did it.' 'I don t know how he did it. 'I don t ktrow how many kniv€s he
si-mánylmü-céèróg*è y-à-gúlà hw-è gv-ènkánà.
'I don't know how much ri@ he bought.
'I don'tknow {hich (-*hat kind ot
The object.eìative/ev-è/ may be cìas l, 'vho', o. class3, in wìich caseit is what with .eference to a noun ol thât clâ$. Br itseu, it rêf€s onÌy to cÌâss I, and the implied antecedentis /ò-mú-Ítú/ 'peFon'. Ii it w€.e to RfeÌ to c|8s 3, ân antecedentnoun would be obligatory unlesscleâr from the jDnediateÌy The object.eÌative iky-è/ is cÌass7, and is ãsumed to.ele. to /ekintú/ 'thing'. It alpeãrs in the abovenot only obviousÌyãs 'whât', but âls in the 'why' relâtive; the lâtteÌ *nlencè has the structure 'I-don't-know what h€started-from he-did-it'. SiÍnilar constructions have been noted in othe. Ìanguageswith ref€ÍencetÕ either Íeâsodor manúer;ole üsesor takesor startefÍom a reasonor monnerin doing something. The object relaüle /gy-è/,rele..ing to place,is class23. Th€re is no noun inh€ÌentlyÌrelongingto tÌris cÌassto vhich the ÌeÌative ca! implicitÌy rereÍ, but Ìhe cÌâs is itseìtìocâìive;noünsin otherclasescânbe nâdê locaìiveby preposing The oìj€ct ÌeÌâtive iw-è/, Ìelenìng to time, is sjmilâr in stnctuÌe to the othêr object relatives,but d@s not beÌongio any or th€ Ìecognizedclâsses.À lerb usedâft€Ì it must have the appÌicatiÌeve.bãl extension;this is âlsoattest€din otìer sentences sith tenporal .oftpÌeÍnents. In the aÌt€ÍÍâtive Ì€ìative of time, /Ìw-èi is cÌass11, ând is asumed to r€f€Ì to /ôlü náküi day; the appljcative extensionis not usd in this case. The object rêlatile /bw-è/, relening to nânner, is clãs 14. Th€.eis no identiliabìe noun to which it Day r€ier; the a6sociatio.of tìis cla8swith hânner ìs compÌetelyarbihary. The cìâssincìudesmâny âbstÌactnoüns. Thê sânê relaíive appea.sin the ìast sentenceabove,which ìas the structuÌe 'I-don't-Ìnow Ìice wìich he-ìousht how it-measur.s'.
QuEsfl oNs. RELÀr'vss, SUBoFD'N\rroN
441
The s€ntences r€f€dng to numberand choiceusereìâtivecìãúsesnodifying sp€cilicnoúns,which mãy be in any clâss. The strúcturesare: 'Ì-don t-know numb€rasrociâied-withknive, which hÈbought' ând 'Ì-don t know knile rvhich h€-ìought'. 14t. A mãjor point that ìas beennãde in the io.egoings€ctionsis thât, in thelanguâges discuswd,questionwordsdo not ordinârilyiunctionâìsoâsrelativ.s, âs they dô iú English. There hav€ been occãsionalexceptions,particularly in the caseof thê ãttributive 'how nâny(?)', büt ihe gênerâÌpâtte.n is thât the equivalentsoI EngÌishrelatiÌcs a.e nounsmodilied by relãtire claus€sor, as in Lucandâ, relative ctauseswith ân unambiguousnoun-cla$Ìete.ence.Lucanda is complet€Ìyconsisìentin èxcìüdingqueúion {ords frÕn reìative ussge. ld S{ahiÌi, on the otheÍ hând, three questionwoÌds including 'hos many?'-are regulârlyusedâlso in reìâtives,ànd oihêrs mry be. The S{âhiìi eqúivâlentsol the questionscited lor othe. languâgesaÌe given belowi the int€ÌrogatiÌewo.ds or phraseswhich âre not subjectsãppearìere alter the ve.b, but they may o!tionâlly occur in initiâl posilion. nani âìi-i-Iânya. kitu gani ki-De-tokea.
Who did it? 'What happened?'('Thing what-kind-of jrhaehappen€d?) ('It-hâs-happenedwhat?') -ki-me-tok€ânini. ( Irhâ$hâppenedshat? ) kime tokeâ nini. aìi-mw-oDanani. Who did he see(him)? ali-fanya nini. 'Whât did he do?' alinunuâ ki-pi. 'Which one(7) did h€ buy? aìi-k{enda wa-pi. Wheredid he go? alikwenda lini. 'When did he go?' ali-i-fanyâ kwa nini. 'Why did he do it?' 'How did he do it? aìi-ifantâ vipiGeebelÕ{) - aìi-fânyâ-j€ l i-ngapi.'How manykniv€sdid he buy? âìi Dünuâw'-su âli-nunuà ki-sü kipi. 'whi.h kdile did he buy? gaDi. aìi nunuaki'su 'What kind oi knite did he buy?' âìinunuâ nchele kiasi 'Ìtow much rice did he buy? gani. ('He-boughtricemeasurewhaÌ-kind-oÍ?) In the equi!âÌentof Who did he see?',i-hw-/ is the clâs 1 objecl @ncord. Objectconcordsarerequir€dwith Ìeter€nceto cla$esI and 2 only, eveniI â nÒún object (oÌ /nani/ 'sho?'in ihis.a*) is expressed. 'lhe questiônwô.ds theúselvesa.ê âlúost coúpletely trãnspârentfrom the aboveexamples.-A..oot i pi/ hãsthe mmning 'vhich ?', and is usedwith conco.ds of âll classes.CIa$ 8, /vi-/, in additionto being a plural clâss,relersto manner; it forns âdv€rbsol ftânnèr lrôm adjectiv€úens, but is so usedaho with some noun stenÌs. In /wa-!i/ 'where'?, the preÍix doesnot belonsto any recognized nounclas, but compâreth€ Lucanda /sá/ 'where?'; which ones?'with refe.ence
442
AFRrcÁN Ldcu^üE
SÍRUduREs
to the pesonal plurãl cìâs 2, woúld be expected to hav€ the sú)e loh,
bút js ir-
The ph.ãse/kwâ njnì/ 'why?' is ân adverbialÕt â type to be dhcuÈsed in the Iollowingchâpter:an àssociative ÌefeniDgto cÌâs 15,the inlinitive clâss. lt Day be repr€wntedìy '(âction)âsociatedsith whât?', 'r€ason'i6 implied. ]'h€ seDtence /aìi-lanya-je/ is actually no.e ot an equivaÌentol 'How did he do?'or 'Ho{ did he get along?',r€feÌ.ingto âny acüon undeÌ discussion.This pâÌticular vêrb doesnot tâke aú object if the sulrix /-je/ 'how?' is Ds€d.Àn object is requiÌed,ho{ever, rith a ve.b referirg io â more speciÍicaction. 8.e., 'How did he fú it?' 'Whaí kind of? is erpresed by the invaÍiable form /gani/ alter a noun. Às in alÌ tlìe otheÌ lenguages discusedin precedingsections,'how much?' is dp.errcd iDdi.ectly.in the caseoÍ Swahili by âskingshât kind ol m€âsurêor âÁÍter ân expression suchas /sijüi/ 'I don't knor', all oI the âbovequestions seen io be âcceptablewithout chaúgein contemporarySwâìili, as if tìey were Íelatives. It is consideredlosible that this usag€,which seemstotally loreign to Nig€r-Congolânguâges, lirst developedâmongpeople*ho spôkeËúgüshfiuêntly, in light of th€ duãl intenogãtivea.d relativetrsageoI tìe Englishwo.ds in qüesÍon. Granúâücâl adaptâtionoÍ this soú is ceÍtaiúÌy not common,büt it È conceivâble;the usageseemsto bê weÌl eúâblishedin Swâhili. Prclon€nts of nypothesesof Ìânguagenixture nave little reÀsonto teel smugabout this detâili they wôuìd dô betler to erpÌâin why this sôrt of thing doesúot báppenfâr more Swahiìidoes.however.aÌsohave a .elative lo.mation íor alÌ but oDeof the paÌaÌl€ÌnominaÌs. À nominalÌefenirg to rêâsondos nÕt us â reÌâtive,but is jdenticaìwith the questioncited above. R€lative clausesare Íormed by using .eÌâtile conco.ds,vhich cÕnsistof ihe âpprop.iat€concordiaÌ!Ìefixes ând â noÌlheme /-o/, exce?tthat th€ r€lativefor clâs 1 is commonÌy/y-€iratìe. than /y-o/. Ìn the past constructionused he.e, either a subj€ct or a non{ubj€ct Íelative concô.dâppcas immediat€ìyâtt€. the .onúrucìion mâÌker. Thê qúestionword iranì/ 'who?'as subject,ând a noun with one of the ãttribìrtivequesiionwords oÍ rê /gâni/ 'what kind of?'ând /-ngâpi/ 'ho{ many?', are üsedas ântecedènts laüves. In other cases,the clas Ìele.enceol the .elaiive is sutticientto indicate the semãnticref€r€nce."Sutficient" seehs â stânge wôrd in ligtlt oÍ ihe lâct that, as cited b€low, one Ìelative is completely âmbi8uousi it may ìe interpreted âs releridg tô eithèr plãceor tiúe. A comneÍt ÍÒìlo{s the damples. The nominak paÌaÌlelingthe questionscitôd abÕveappeã.in the followinSr si-jui nàdi eliy-e-i-f Myâ. sÈjui ki-li-cì-o-toÌea. si-jui âli-y-e-mw{nâ.
'l 'I 'I 'I
dôn't kno* who did it,' don t know shat happened.' don't know who he sâw.' don't knov vhat he did.'
443
Q!EsrroNs. RELArrvEs, SUBoFD'NÀrroN
si-jui âli-ch-o-núnua.
'I don t know shich one (- what) (7) he
si-jui âli-p-o kwenda. si-jui kwa nini âli'i-fânya. si-jui aìi-Ìy-o-i-ranya. sijüi vi-su vi-ngapiaìi-vy-o-
'I 'I 'l 'I
don t know whe.€/whenhe w€nt. don't know why he did it.' don t know hos he did it.' don't know how many knives he bought. sijui kisú âlich-ô-úunui. 'I don t kno* shich knile he bought.' si-jui ki su gâni âli'ch-o-nunuâ. 'I don't know what kind of kn'fe he bought.' si-jui mcheleki-asi ali-ch-o'l don't know how much Ìice he bought.'
In the secondsentenceabove,the class7 relatilr concord/cì-o/ is usedfor 'whât': in thè foürth senrence. the classI conmÌd is usedwith the sâmôref€rence. Either is lernissible with refer€nceto a non-phFical thing, and the cÌass5 /l-o/ nâv ãìsobe üsd. The concordu*d with refeenceto plâc. ôr timc is .lâs 16, /p{/. r'his is otheMise a locative clas, relerringto â speciiicplace, The ãhbiguousr€lative is normaÌ usãge. Il il is feìt ne@sâry io specilyeither placeor time, however. À noun can be used. Tìe noun io. 'place'is /mahali/,which is th€ only noun inherently b€longingto class16, even though it doesnot hare thè prefix /pâr. The noun lor 'tine' js /wakati/, id clâsslli nevertheìe$,whenil is usedâs an ântecedentof â relatìve,it takestle clas 16 relative concord. Specilicreierences to pÌâceâúd ìime âre thus: si-júi mahali ali-p-o-kNendasi-jui w-âkâti ali-?-o-kwenda.
'I dod't know shere he went.' 'Ì don't know whenìe seút.'
Relâtiveconcordsappearin the positioúillúsbâtedabóve,innediately alter the constructionmaÌker, only in the past, pres€nt,ãnd future constructions, and in a n€gâtivenotedb€low. The past and p.es€ntconstructionmarkers,/-li-/ and /'nâ, Ìespectively.a.e Ìegular. ln the lutur€, hovever,the constructionmaÌke. /-tâ, has ihe âlternant /-taka-/ belore a relative concord. (Àctualìy, i-tâkâ-/ is th€ underlyiDgfom l.om whicÌr/-ta-/is a derivative;it is undoubtedlythe verb meaning 'wânt'.) E.9., m-tu a-na-y{-kwenda fr lu â tâkâ-y-e-kvenda (cl.: âìa-kwêndâ hc will go')
vho is going'
With reÌativ€concordsin the sameposition,tÌ'e.e is a negativeconstruction not paralleledin non.€laüvecÌauses.It apparentlysubstitutesfor the negâtile or the customary. It usesa moIpìeÍne /-si-/, which ãppeârsaìsoin somèother n€gativ€s,in constructionmâÍker posiiion. E.g., 'althe peNonwho doesn'lr.âd'
144
AFRrcÀN LaNGUAGDSrRUcroREs
The allimative cüstÒnary,which in nonÍeÌâtivêclâusêshâs the constÌuction nârk€Ì /-ar, Ì'ãs no construction maÌker in a Ìelative cÌause. FuÌtle., the relâtjÌe concordâpp€âÌsâfte. thê verb âs â sulfix. E.9.,
'âlthepemoíwhoÌeâds' 'â bell (9) that Ìinss' 'ìelÌs(10)that Ìing' Nith aÌl otler verìâl mDstruclions,the relatìve concoÌd is suÍlix€d to a stem /amba-/. aDd ihe combinationaweâs beío.e the ve.b form. E.9., m-tu ânìâ-y-e â-he-kw.ndá m-tu aft bâ-y-ehâ-Ìu-kwenda
'a/the p€rsonsìo ìâs gone 'âithe peÌloÍ who didn't so'
lf a reÌatile cÌauseDodifies som€thingotherthan the subjectof the âentance, a noDnsubjectâpp€arsalt€r the leÌb ntheÌ than itr jts usuaìpositionbefoÌethe verb. À verb nây ìâke an object côncordiÍ âddiúôn to â rêlatiÌe concoÌdÌeÍeÌring to the obj€ct. E.9., ki-su ali-ch-o-ki-nutruÀHanisì Ìi-su ã-li-\y-o-vi-nunuãHamhi
'th€ knile rhicÌr Hanisi bought' thê knivesshich Hamisi bought'
CÌas 1 ând 2 r€ÌãtiveconcoÌdsã.ê al$ ü*d with Ìelerênceto íiÌst ãnd second persônjndependentpronorns. Thê âppropriâterirst ând sêcondpersonobject concordsaÌe usediÍ the r€lative claus€modiÍiesan indep€ndentlronou! as obj€ct. E.s., !€\e
nilts)+-ku-ona
'tou $hom Ì saw (]ou)'
14.8. Àlthough my notes on KiKongo are not sufficiently complete to provide ân outìide compârâbleto thosê given lor sevemlotheÍ laDguag€s, thqe is enough ìnlomation to make some signilicànt coments about qtrestion-word questiorsand .elativeFcommentswhich couldnot be madeon thebasisof tMtnents of the Ìanguageshich iglo.e tone. KiKongo is, ol couN€,a Bantu lang!âge. Th€re hâs beensom€los oÍ nóun clâsspÍdixes, but the cóncordsysten ôpêrâtes p.etty huch âs expected in âlmost èvery resp€ct. Tìere àre, how€ver, no concordiâlÌelâtive iorms. SeverâÌquestionwords and lhrâsB â.e recordedâs app€ârjngin initiâl position. A noun oìjectnãy ãls be p.epos.d. Imm€diãtelyãfteÌ êitho a question *ord or a noun obj€ct, a veÌb torm 'lehich els€wheÌehas the tonal *qqence highlow with the fiÌst two syÌlabÌes begins vith low-Ìrigh iDst€ad. InitiâÌ high tone with â \€rb h retãined,hoseler, ãlter a nôün sDbjecì,âfter â yes-noqu6üon marke.. and alte. ceúain mo.ph€mesthat aÌe pÌoìably ìest analyz€das conjúnctions. T husthe tonâl díIerenceis norphenic, and hjgh toÍewith tle second ratìer than the lirst sylìâble ol thê v€Íb lom quite cÌ€ârìy indicâtes topicâlization oi what prec€des. A veÌb lom witì initiâl low tone lnd€rgoeÊ no clang€, so tlat topicaÌization js not ovetly narked vith sucì a \crb lom. Exmpl€s oí suchtopicalizationare:
QuEsÍ'oNs, REL{ÌrvEs, SUBoFDTNÀr'oN
náni wamótra. (cr.: s'inona sé dyámi. masokáyanáta (cf.: yánatá masoká. masokábaDâta. (ct.: banátamâsoÌá.
'ïlhon did you see? 'You sâwmy fâther.') 'It wâs âxesÌ took. 'I took ax€s.) 'It was axesth€y took.' 'They took âxes.)
The sâmeshift of hightonefÍom the firú to the scond syllabÌeoi a lerb iorm, and merely *ord order if the v€rb lorm els€wlerebeginswith lon tone, marks relativizationjl the subjectol the Ìelative is dilierenì írom tìe ântccedentnoün. Thus the secondând lìird exanples ol topicaÌizationâbo!€ are identical{ith nouns Dodiiied by relativ€ clauses;the ìàtter wouÌd siúply be !âús ot longer sentences wjtÌ' tÌ'eir ovn main r€rÌrs. Anoth€Ì €xâhplê js: 'a/the hourc I built (cI:. yátuunganzo. A ÌeÌative shose subjectis the sameâs ihe antecedentnoun is also tonally ha.k€d, but in a djller€nt way, In most nonrelátìveverb foms thât .ân be so Ìelativized,the íiNt syllàbìeof th€ Ìerb ìâse hasìigh tonc, ând !Ìcceding tones, if any, ar€ Ìow. (Foms nith other tones can sureÌy be relativizedalso, but I happento }ave no examlles,so the statementmust ÌeDain incompìete.)In reìâtives,th€ lirsi syuabl€of the bâseot suchâ verb fom haslow tone râther thân high, ând the precedingsyllâbì€,il âny, hâshigh tone. This is tÌue âlsoif tìerc is no €xpresed aDtecedcnt.Thus: muuntu wákaÌâye báaúaboole (ct.: sakáìâ ye báanâbooì.. yáândi i ukúsadisj. (cl.r ukusádisi. muuntu sedisálukyi hbóte (cl.r sédisáÌukya mbóte. básuumbidizinkóombo (cl.: basúnnbidi zinkóombo.
â man {ho had t*o children' hâd two children.) 'He 'lt is he *ho bashelpedlôu.' He has heìpedyou.') 'ã Ían $ho hasdonegoodNÕrk' He has donegoodvo.k.') l.ìoseì!ìo hâ!€ boughrgoats' 'They bâve!ôúght gôâts'.)
Fante, like Igbo and KiKongo, âlso hâs ditlerenl lones Nith thè v€.b in reìâtive cìausefroD thoseol â mâin v€rb. In lante, however,this is châ.âct€È istic ot aÌl suòordjnateclâuses(cf. 9.4). ReÌariveclausesare introducedby shat can properlyìe caìledâ reìatlveconjunction,/áà/. Otler subordinatesxsing the $me subordinetetonesincludeclaus.siútrôducedby /dÉè/'thàt', and conditions. Conditionsrequir€a clâusejinalmoÌpheme/à/, and âre usuaÌlyinlroducedby â conditionâlconjunctioúâs welì-
Adverbials, ldeophones, Semantic Ranges 15.1. A gÌeat deal has alreadybeeúsaid about adverbìalcomplements,paÌticuìarly in connectionwith Íelâtivizationin the precedingchapter,but ãlsoin connection with âdj€ctivaÌs (cI. 9.2), denonstratives (cÍ. 10.8), and topicaÌization (ct. 11.5). The eútiÍe subject,however,has dot beendiscDssed in âny systemâtic wâv to provideâ lrâmesork intô which the detaih al.erdy t.@ted nây be fitted. It is tle purposeoI tle IiÉt9ãrt of this châpterto giveâ moregenerâlôveNiewol adverbiaÌs.FÌticularÌy in the NigeFcongolanguages. MostÌanguâges havea rarhêrlinit€d nunber of Õne-woÌdâdv€.biaÌsìef€ning to time and place.and evenlewerÌefening to nann€., meâns,o. othe. etego.ies. T€mporal adreÌbs sill be consideÌedli.st, and an outline of th€ situâtioí in Kp€ll. {ill seÌveâs the basislor commentson othe.languages.In Kpelle, there ar. tÀre. temporâl âdverbs *hich shâre certâin speciaÌcharâcteristics:/wÉo/ 'yestedây', /sââ/ todây'. and /tina/ 'tomorrow'. Like thef English couúteÌpãrts, thesenây hâve â noninal us€,paÌticula.ly âs the suìject oI ã sent€nce. They can ìâ.dly be Mid to be nonns,howeveriamongothêr things,th€y tâke no noun al{ixes,and are nevernodilied by a demonstÌativeo. adjective. They may b€ topicalized,ìüt the Ìest ol tÌ,e s€rtencedoesnot incÌüdethe Ìecapitulâting reÍerenceoth€Nise .cquhed with topicalizotions.In edverbiaÌurc, they alPeer tuost coDnonly alter the veÌbal constructionúark€r or auxiliâÌy but beforean object ând th€ ve.b. but th€y mãy also ottionally be usedin sentencejinalpo-
è wiÊtii kè Ì è tii kèwÉo I è sâapà à môlrÌJ I
'he$orkedyesterdây' 'h€broughtricetodãy'
ln âdditioÍ to these, th€re aÌ€ a few temporâì adv€rÀswhich ãre not att€sted in any nomiDaluseand arenottopicâlized,and vhicì geneÌallyappearin the pÌe verbal pôsition,mrely in rntencejinal position. All ol theseare mutualÌy êrcÌusile with the âboveând with eÀchothe.. Theseinclud€/nââ/ 'now, by now' (in speciÍiccontÉst vith the past;a nore geneElexpre$ionfor 'noq is À phrââe), ând /wóìo/ ìong âgo. at sometime'. Al$, /nii/ '(not) y€t and /rái '(ne)v€r'aÍ€ usedpre\êrbllly with the past n€gativeto lorm n€{ative counterpaÌtsof the compÌetive and expe.ientialconstruction6ÌespectiveÌy(cI 12.4):I ìave !o Ìecord or thesein oth€r uses,but theremây be sDch. Examplesof theseân:
AD ! E nB ! {Ls,
447
IDEo PHorEs ,
â nâa'ké
à ìvilr 'kÉ 'fé nii 'kÉ ni
ïé tá'kÉ
'he ìas doneit by nos 'ìe did it Ìong ago' 'he hasdoneit at sometime 'h€ hâsnt dod€it y€t' 'he hâsft cver doneit'
The adveÍb/!ónô/ 'âgain'(with negativesalso (not) anyfrore') is notstrictly speâkingt€mpoÌal,but is conveni€ntlytÌeated in this connection.It may appear iÍ either the pre-leÌìâì or sentencejinaìposition shownabovc. It nây also be usedin âdditiÕnto oneof ihe adverbscited above. \\ilh anótherâdverbin pr€verbal position,/!lónr/ usuaìlyappea.sin sentenceJinal tosìtion, but may Íollow the other âdverb imóediàteìy. lt üsüallt precedesbut úây lollow iNÉê/,/sâai, position. ln this variety of possiblepositions,hónr/ oÌ /tina/ in sentence-final mây be âddêdto àlúôst âdy sentenceôl the iypes illushâted âbov., or mây be usedby itself. Wilh a n€gâtile. ône êxânple ôf ân âdlerb /Ìââ/ is rêcorded,in preverbsl positio!. appârentlywith the siDilar meaning âny rìore'or'atalÌ ; trnlortunâtely,the sentenceis grammâticallyobscureiú other respecis. It cânnot be expected,ol couNe,thât Õtherlanguâges will have €lrctly thc sameinventory ol root adverbs,ìut compaÌablerestrictionssecmto b€ rathe. typicâì ol the Niger-CongoÌanguages.In someÌangua€es, €ven the distinctiôn betwee. 'yest€.dáy'ând 'tomormw' missing;in alnoí every câse,or couNe, 's the v€rb hâsâ pasl of luture rciercncein sucha distinctionis r€dündântb€câus€ itseli, and a singl€lom can se.vefoÌ the day âdjacentto today . This is true in majoÌ (but not all) dialectsoI Iglo. vh€Ìe the word is /écii. Alter an expression Ìike hè sâidh€ woúìd dÕit , {hich doesnot Íeshicl thc retercnccof /éci/ unambigúouslyto eitheÌ 'yesterday'or 'tomonow'. /éci/ may be modiliedby a relâtive claus€to sDecifvDastor luture referen.€. Thus:
ó sirì nà yá gààbyá éci'gáráágá ó sirì nàlá gà abyá
'he will comêtônônow' 'he sãidh€ (sameterson) would cone yesterday ('the /écj/ wìich 'he saidhe {ouÌd cometonorrca ('the iécilvhich is comine)
On the otlÌc.hând, sômêlânguages hâvesingleaords tor suchtiDe references as 'day betoreyeúerdây', dây âfÌeÌ tomorow'. ând evendâystarthe..emov€d rroó today. Swahilì has the roms /jana/ 'yesteÍday',/leo/ 'todây', /kesho/ 'tomonow, then â phrase/k€shokutwa/ 'dây âttÚ iomoroç', bui â singleword /mtondo/ 'th.ee days rÌom today'. There is aÌsoa roÌm /jüzi/ 'within the pnst few dâys', often tâken to m€ân specifically'day beforeyeúerdâr'. Oútsideol Nig€r-Congo,Hausâcan coverân entire weekwith six sinele{ords ând Õnìyone
444
ÀFRrcN LÂNcuÂcE SrRúcruREs
shéká.ànjiyà 'day beroreyesterday';tnen: jiyà jlbi two dáyslrom today )€sterday' 'today yâu gÁtà 'thÍee dayslÌon today' gòbá 'tomono{' città four dâysfrom today' Kpelle ìâs â l€* temporâladverbialswith uniquestÌuctureswhich Én most conleniently ìe treated along with the adverbscited above. Àmong theseis iwóbwrlr/. a redupÌicatedfom ol the Ìoot /wólâ/. lt is usedonly in sentenceIinaì position. With referenceto the past. it means aÌwâys'or, like the DnredupÌìcatedlo.m. long !8o'. With .eferenceto tìe futur€, it meâns 'âlsays, fore!è!. It is nodified by â deúônúrâtiae in the phÍase /wálowrlôti süi 'long, long ago' ('in rhat long-âgo'). Ànother uniqu€âdverbiaÌìs /tüâ ìinâ/ 'dây after tomorrow'; the li.st word Day be the ve.b .oot /tua/ pas tÌte day', but its use in tlis thras€ is not ve.bal. À thi.d inúânce is the ph.âs. /lunii nà/ 'right now', ref€úing to the iúfrediat€ past or fütu.e, The secordso.d in this phrâseappeaÌsto be the reìâtionâlnoun meaning \úúàce, edge',ôlteú pÚânel€dby ôn' in English, but the lirst word is not attestedin any other combination,and is tonãlly unìikê ãnything êls€in tìê Ìâ.güage. SomewÌ'atsimiÌâ. uniquefomâtions aÌe toünd in other languâgesalso. The ISbo expresion lor 'now'is /ügbú à/; Ìhis âppeaÌsto be â nôun {iìh the demonsrrâtivê this , but /ügbú/ doesnot exist apaú trcIn this phrase. The positionot odverbsin â sentencein Kp€ll€ is not so typical of NigerCongoÌânguagesin geneml. It is not connon tÕ lind â ftmporâl or any other àdv€rbbetNeentìe subjectand predicâteol â senÌence.For the most paÌt, adposition,or àt leàstâlter the mâjor pâÉ oÍ the preverbsâppeâriú sentedc€-finâì dicaL, the verb Òr the verb ând its object. Adverbsnâr âìsoâppeârin sent€nceinitiaÌ ?osition,e\€n without beingtopicalized.In this position,they aÌe usuÀÌly loììowedbJ à pause,and call attention to the lifre ftterRd ro, pârticuìârlywhen the subj.ct is chângedlrôn ànothertime. Kpelìehas threelocativ€adverbssitÀ sinilâr uses:/6é/ 'here'./náâ/ 'lhere', ând /úána/ 'over ther€,the otheÌ way'i the lâst óf theseis fâr l.ss cómmodlyúsed thân the other two, and mây primârily r€ler to â moreÌemote locãtion,ând peF hâps to a placementionedbeloÌe anothê. placeaçay from th€ speak€r. Thes€ aÌe the onÌy one-wo.dlocativeadrerbswhich nãJ be topicâlized.Uith th€ pos sihleoccasional exceptiÕnof /nãâ/,th€sea.e noi u*d as verbal subjects;instead, a 8en€.alwo.d for'plâc€', /k{ââ/, is used with â demonst.ative:/'kwaai ti/ 'rÌris place'. /'kvaai ú/ 'thãt place'. A speciaÌuseoI /ôÉ/was d€scÍibedin 14.2; with the specificsüIfú /-l/, but {ithoür the prelixedìow tonewhich a nounvould have in a similar use,it is modifi€dby a relativeclauseto lorm â nominalreferring ro a plàce,without specilicrefeÌ€ncêto proximÀtelocation, One would expecr /'k*aai/ 'the place' in this usage,Iüt it doesnot occuÌ, Aìl thÍee of these locatiÌe adverbsaÌe lrcquently compoundedwith the noun /pee/ 'pâth, ÍÕâd, *ây'; the compoundsare noüns,but thèy mây âlsobe usedas Àdve.biâÌcomplÈ ments,olten with no deiinabl€difie.enc€i! m€ãninglronÌ the adverbsby then-
ADVERBTÀIS, IDEopHoNÉs, SÉMANrxi ItÀNGEs
449
sehes,but sonetimeswith the specificmeaningoi 'in this direction'etc. Lnlike têmpôrâlâdverbs,ìocativeedlerbs âre not usedìn p.€leÌbâl position- Thet appearimmediar€lyarter th€ verb. b€toreâ temporaladverb or any othef comrÌemeDt. ExamDÌesol tlÌ€ir usea.e as lolìows:
è lì nãa èpà6é 'I sâç his iâther ihe.c' 'I sâF his lâther th€.e today
- !á sâânà{ kàânãâ
'he broughtrice heretodat'
- è sáa?à 6! à mõÌrÌl It was noted ãbole that tenporãl àdverbshay be lsed in sentenceiìritiál posiriÒnIolìowedby paus€. It is my impresìonthâi /nââ/is alsôsô usedoccasion aliy, but the derivedcompoundnounsare more commonin that use,lolìoved by a dcmonsl.âtiÌei /6êpèrei ti/ here, /nãa-pèreitii there , /náda p,:rcitii over OnÌy lÍo olher one-$ordIocatir€ adlerbs are record.d (oÌ.cÌìrÌnbercd by ne) in Kpelle. It is my inp.e$ion uìât thesÈ.rc nerer topicâìizedo. ukd in sentenc€-initiaÌ ?ositioni their posjtionis other{ise like thatol th€ thÌee Ìocatìvc adv.rbs âlreâdydiscussed, ifrmediateh alter the verb. Oncol tÌreseis âppârently a sìngl€morpheme,but hâsâ Íather atypical roneÌ scqrcncc:/siyâi/ 'toward the coâú Gouthwest), lsually cxpre$ed âs doNn' in Liberiãn English. the other is i7€Ìêii up. up$ârds', is tle noun/yeÌe/ 's!y, dâJ' with the íâirìy uncôíts "hich mon locatite suffix /-i/. This sDttiaoccürs$ith a f€{ oth€r nouns.but doesnot Ínakethem adlerbs: Io. its âppârenttrsewith verb roots also,seeI1.5. Although 'úp' is the oppositeof 'down' in Engljsh, I dô not recaÌlthat /yelêt n ere. used in the meânidg'â*ay frcm the coast,inlând', althotrehol cotrNethe terâin riscs in that direction:I associate /yeÌêii onll Nith lerticâl height or âscenton a lairìv steepìilì. Detâils ol the usageoI it€ms in smsll norphologicalclâ$cs likc ihis are th€ sort of thing one olt€n neglectsto .ecordluìll, but nï imp..ssiónis that thesetso adverbsâre us€donly {it} verbsof notion. Ceúainìya bird or rn airplãne,and God, arc locâtedât lòel€i sn/ 'in tìe sÌJ'(the stru.tu.e oI $ÌÌich niÌl be not€din the tollowingsection),but onesays/'tÉ yelêi/ 'lilt it up.lìÍt it highcr'. and âlson€taplorically /i aóo tÉyelêi/ 'raiseyour loice, steak louder'. lgbo has no locâlivêâdverbsat âll. Even 'here' and 'th€Ìe' a.e expressed by noun phrases,which in compleÌn€nlpositionare precededby the prepositionlike form transc.ib€das /rfj ìelore vosels: /n'ébé à/ 'at this place'and /n'ébé áhÌ'/ 'ât that place' reTectively. EIik, like mâny Niger-Coneo(and otheÌ) languages,has a three-{a) contrâst in locatir€ adve.bs. Th€ lhree lorms âre .ìeárly relâtedto denronstraliÍs $hich ìâtp bôrh noDinaland alrributjvpuses.Thc pâi6 ap:
ó0
AarcÂN LÁNGUÀGEScucÌmEs Di dó kó
'herê' : énì 'this' there (neÌ the heârêr) : órò 'thât (sâmè) th€Íe (away from th€ heare. ) : ókò tìat (same)
In the Bantu lsngtrâges,as outlined iully for Swahili in 10.8,conpdâbÌe locativesare commonÌydemonstrãlivesin the locative clâs*s 1ô, 17, aÍd 18. cenerâl locâtiÕn,specilicìocation,âdd Ìocâtioninside âre distinguishedby the conco.dialmorphemesfoÌ the thÌee cÌases; the altixes witÌt then distinguish n€ar location..emote location, Ànd locâtion pÌeviousìyÌeÍened to. Without a modiliednoun, suchroms are nominal;it is only in comtteDentpositionãft€Ì â predicâte,âs côdplements,thât theJ can be câÌled adverbiaÌ. They may abo be ukd as verbaÌ subjectsand objects. Many Bântr lãnguâgêshàve âdve.biâh consisting of ã noün with a suffix in tìe followingsecüon- Othêrwis€,the lôregoingprobablycoveÍs /-nii, discüss€d Dost oI the types and restrìctionsof non-ph.asallocâtive adve.biaÌsin Nige.Congo.word o.derseemsto be similarin moú languages aswell; locative gene.âÌly precedetenpomls âÍtêr the predicâte. Other types oI one-word adverbs tend âlso to be restricted in numbeÍ, but there alwâysseemto be â lew ol them-âboui â halÍ dozenin K?eÌle. The ÍiBt to be notedis /frá!/ 'als', which Day be usedãIter i nouú ór â temporâlÒrtocativ€ âdlcrb (with a t€mporaì,only iú sentenejinâl position),but not alter â verb, and nowhe.eehe that I recâÌI. IÍ usedeÍter an independentprcnounfom (whichis nomiDal),the phraseis in appositionúth a subjectpronoun. If a second âction is mention€d,as in 'I washedtìe clothesand (âlso)cookêdlôôd', the consecutiveconstru.tionis u*d, o. the constructionior simultaneous action,whicherer isapp.opriaie(cf. 12.10,13.7);thereisnowây ot eDpÌ'asizing that the *cond actionis additionaÌexceptby âddingan expÌânãtorycommentlike 'I did a se@nd thing slsó', shich js râÌêÌy lelt to be necessary.UsesoI /náÌl/ âre iìtustrâtedin
'his father àlso bôught ncê
rJán.lo! yâ, íyá má! ÌJá môlâ! yâ wéemá!
'I bought Ìice yesteÌday too
Àdverbswith sinilâr üsesare loudd in mâny lânguages, but thúe are alsú 'also otherrays oI exp.€ssìng . Etikhasân adv€.ì /t'kó/ ÀÌso'withusessimilãÌ to thosêór the Kpelle /má!/. As noted in 12.12,hoveveÌ, EIik alsôhâs â vdb meaning'do in addition', usedin the consecutivebelorearother consecutive ÌÈ Iening to tÌ'e added actioD. In Igbo, the.e is a verbal extension /-kwa/, with the tône of the precedingsyllable,to exp.es the ide oI 'aÌso'i it may iefer tô a nominâl in the s€ntence,or to an âdverbiâlcomDÌeÍneút, oÍ to the veÌb itseÌI, but not to â subjector oòj€ct pronouniits reference is usualÌycìeârírom the context. ThN in thè lolloÍing sentence,depending on whât hâd beeí said b€foÌe,
À D v ÈB briLs, lDÉo prô NEs, SLNÁNr r L t ì ^Nc Ls
451
the r€l€rencemay bc to 'alsony Íather', 'âlso yâms, 'also yesterday, or even 'aÌsoate (e.e-,in addiÌion to cooking);note that the rclerenceoi also or 'too' in the wÌitten EngÌish€quivalentis equally ambiguousapart l.om context, but in spokenEnglishis indicatedby contrastiveúress,lor wìich thereis no laÌâÌlel in ISbo: (cL: únàúÌirìjiéci
fry lâther âteyâns yesterdâytoo 'my lâther âteyamsyest€Ìdey')
'rhe KpelÌe âdverb/nói 'only, juú is üsedimmediâi€lybelor€a lerb or the topicaÌizingmor?h€me/6é/ with relerenceto what precèdes, or jónediat€ly ãfter the ve.b vith .eferên.cio what folìovs. 'l o exp.es cxclusiÍerelerenceto â verbâl subject,which n.werinmedirtcly píecedesthe !erb, the subjecimust be topicâl iz€d. ExclusivereleÌenceto tle lerb itfll is êxpresedby /nó/ âtter the ÌeÌb only jI nothirg lollowsin the sane clalsei the clausemust be lollosed bJ ânÒtber,with the verb in the consecutive.This has the specialmeannÌgshownin the Ìâú exto th€ verb iI the verb is lollowedby â compleamplebelow. ljxclusive .eterence ment can onìy be èrpressedby ân addedsentencesuchas /nyâ nó b./ 'ihâtì iì' ('it only it-is'). The lsual usesoI /nó/ aÌe ilìust.atedb) the foÌlowingl
ÌìôlôÌ.ìni 6é úâÌì è n_và úâ! è mãÌr! nóJà
'it s onìy my father wbÒbought rice' 'jt\ only rice my lather bought 'my iâthe. bought only rice 'h€ brought only rìce' 'he cameyesterdayonly 'h€ had no nore than comeshen he sarvtheD' ('he came onìy ând ìe
Anadverb/kpá/,withalindotúteüsiverìeâtringbeúrefÌ€ctedhyanEnglish êxclâmâtion,ollcn Nith $ords characterjsticof exclâtuãtions, is üsedimnediat.Ìy after a verb or predicâtiveadj€ctival. It releÌsto tle predicateiI nothinglouows oÍ otheraiseto whât foÌloss. E.!:.. Ìlu! a sôlii kpi Gi.r 4u{ìa sôÌii
'My Ììcadis spìittingI'
(ci.: nÉlosi ò'kà kpj à ÀÉlêÉ
'it\ Iine, itì alright') 'He reâlÌy did it weÌl !
An âdvôrb/kpaà/ aìnost is usedin ihesâmepre'!€rbalpositionâs temporal adve.bs. E.9., 'I've aÌmostIinishedit'
ExpresioÍsIo. âlnost iD ã numbeÌoI otherlangusges ar€ v€rbal;typicâloI útàkirii 'it remâinsâ littìe'rolÌowedby ã consecutive. suchis the lgbo /ó tòdi.,rÈ E.g.,
1í2
ÀFRrcd
ó fòdürüútàkiriórl
LNGUÀGE
SrRUcruRÈs
'tìre fôod is âlmostgône'
A Kpelle adverb /sôla/ 'about. âpproximâtely'is used âltèr expressions incÌudinga ref€renceto numbeÌ oÌ quantity. E.g.,
Àgâin, e\pressionsroÍ the sane idea in other languag€sare not necesarily ãd' ve.bs. In Igbo, the noun /ihéi 'thing (general)'isDsêd,rÕdified ìy the relative /'di kà/ 'which is like'; conpã.ethe English tomething like' in the m€âning'approximately'. E.9.,
The KpelÌewo.d /kpéDi/sas describedin 14.2as â nounvith â m€âÍi.g something like soDethingdonefo. rothing o. in vãin'. It âlsohâsân ãdve.biâlüse, âi the end ol a sentence, but a .edüllicãtedlon oI it, /kpÉnikp€ni/,is morecom, mon in this usage,with tÌ'e samem€aning. E.9.. 'he did it l.ee, Ìre did it in vain There is thus a gooddeal ot vâriâtion âmongÌânguãg€s in the specificideas expres€dby vords in a clas which may be câÌledadv€Ìbs. lt seenstypicãl of NjgeFcoígo, hoveve., thât suchâ clâssis Íeshìctêd.and t]ìat a numbeÌof ideâs we Dight ex!€ct to ìe expre$ed by simpÌe adveÌbs â.e expre$ed in quite dilADong the non-Bantulanguages. there se€msto be no laitern for foÌmiíg adverbs from vords in oth€. cìssses,coúpârâbÌe to the Engüsh strIlix trsd with adjectiv€sto tom adverbslike 'quicliìy'. In at leastsomeBaltu Ìatrguâges, howprefixes eve., oneo. t{o ol t}e noun clas nay have sucha function. In Swahiü, thê Cìâ$ 8 prefix, which normâlìylorns noun pìurâÌscoresponding10 singülaÌs in cìâss7, is Dsedwilh adjectiaestemsio lôrm adverbsot nanneÌ like /vi-züÌi/ 'welÌ, in good way'; of course, such forms ãre aÌso used adjectìvâÌÌy modiÌying .Ìass 8 nouns. 'Ihe clas 7 prefix is used sith somenoun stemã,paÉiculâÌÌy thoseÌelening to trib€s, peoples,ând pÌaces,to Iorm nouns{ìich may ale be üsed âdverbialÌy,relening tú the manne. o. custom associatedwith the noun stem. UnÌes the.ontert ercludessuchân ìnterpretation,suchtoms referto the languageo. dialectoI a tribe, peopl€,or lÌace. Thus in the broadestsen8e/kiSwahiÌi/is '(in) the SwâhiÌimanner', but it generaltyrefeF speciÍicâlÌyto 'the SwahiÌilanguage'. Other tsântu languageshâve similar adveÌ)ial fomations with nouÌ-cÌass prelixes,but not âlì of th€m sith the sâmeclas references.Classs 14 and 11 ã.e amongthoseusedto lo.m adve.bialsin solneother languâges. 15.2. Along vith adverìs in the ãdverbiaÌ phrãses must be very considered.In English,a commontype or adv€Ììial com!Ìementis a preposiiion iollowed by a noun phmse. In Nige.-Congo Ìanguages, theÌe are very lew words which can properly be caìÌed prepositiôns; in somè ìânguagesther€
ÀDviBrals.
453
IDÉopdoNEs.SÉMAxrrc RÁNcEs
may be noneat ãÌ1,and it is difficult to lind moÌe than tvo in any one langúage. Eycn the I€w forms that onemiglt dccìdeto calÌ lrepÕsitionsmry hãv. â grammaticaÌÌyhârgiúâÌ stãtús. Iú 11.3-4,tor examlle, a cas€was madeIo. the hypothesisthat the Igbo/ná-nà - n'/andthe Yorubai.i- n" - ì"i, both relerrinCto Ìocâtionin â generatway, a.€ vêrbal in the und€üing structure,ultimately deÌivabìe lrom ve.bs meâning 'be locâtedat'. Yet in the ?Ìesentstructureof these languâges,at Ìeast tor practical purposesand without iniroducing a.y unnecessâry conlusion,th€s forms may w€ìl bc calledp.epositions. To a large extent, ideas expÌes€d by prepositionsrelening to úotion in EDglishaÌe dpressed in Niger-Congolanguagesby v€rbs, and ideãs exprèssed by p.etositio.s relening to Ìocationin Enelisì by nouDs. It really ought to be triviâI, but nay be impoúant in tìe ìight of the trâditionaÌismstìll p.elaìent in ÂJricanlânguâgestudi€s,to nole thal nâny things haÌc trequentlybccn lâbelled "prepositionJ'which cleaÌly are not. This is evecially true in the câseoI ÌanguageswhicÌ'have se.ialverb constructìonsiverbs with meaningsÌike take, use, 'stâú from', 'ãnivc at', 'give, do for', lrequently Dsedin seriaÌconúrucüons, aÌe conmonÌy trandatsble ìy. and thus lrequently but \Ìrongty anâÌyzedas, pÍepositiÕnsmêaning 'with', 'frÕn, tÒ', ànd '1or' respectivelJ. Siniìârll, reÌâtionaÌ nouns with locatire ncâning in the ìíande languagesa.e commonly thought to be n€Ìely or p.ìftarily prepositionìike,though they nây be càlÌed noun (cf. 8-5). ln other "postpositions"becâusethey occur after the possessing Ìângúages,the veròal or Doninal charâcierof .oníru.lions translâtableas adverbial complenentsintroducedby prepositiolsis perhapsmore conspicuols,but it is equâllydemonslrabìein the càseol s€riàl ând Ìelationâlnôuns. 'erìs In lgbo, 'from' js commonlyexpressed by tle stative oI the verb /i si/ 'be from, staÌt lrom . With tle hore specificfteâning beginningat', lhe consecü tive of tle sameverb root with tÌ'e baseÍomative /-tá - -té/. / i sjté/,is used.The s€qÌ
[email protected]... to... is expresedby the consecutives /sité... úé.../i consecutive is fÌon the verb The noun phrasesused the second /i'.ú/ 'arÌire at'. nay be either locativeor temlorâI. The lorms iú qu€s after thesecônsecutives tion aÌô often usedjust as oüer consecütilelerb lorms arc, but an ìnüsuaÌ use which is grafrmâtically more ?reposìtionìikeis aho te.missibl€: /sité/ may be *ith oÌ {ithout /rúé/ introducingthe desti ìrsedât the beginningoI a sentence, without â strbjèct, liÌ(e nâtion, a nominalreÍening to llace or tine. Typical uses
ó ksüsìri n'òbòdòni,ilé sité 'Ábá rúé llmüáhyÀ nürü ákwúkwó sité élékéré ó ,átó úé êléké.é isé sité éìékéré átó Íúé élékéré 'Ísé,á gà rtÌ ánò n úlò
'he úopped in erery town rrôn Aba 10 Lnuahiâ' 'he studied Ircm tìree o'cÌockto live o'cìock' 'frÒh three Õ'cÌockto live o clock, l'll be at ìone'
4í1
AFÀÌCÁNL^NcuÀdE SfrucruREs
'The conkcutive torm /bànyéré/lrom the verb /ibànyè/ 'go into'is usd ln the meaning about. conceÌning. The rorms /bàúrá/ rrom ilbàtà/ 'comeinto' and igbásárálIrom ii'gbásái 'pertâin to' are someümesusedin thê sâme$'ây. E.g., ó gwàÌà lh bànyéré'yá ó kwü.ü ôkvú bàny6é únà yá
'h. tâlked âbout his fâther'
Often subsütutabl€foÌ /bàryé.é/ etc.. but with a somêshâtdiffeÌent shade ÕI úsning in other contexts,is â forú /fràkà/. This woÌd implies an int€.est or in!Òhement in whât lolloss; it oftên meâns for the pu.poseof or 'Ior the sâÌe oi'. GrammaticalÌy.the.e seemsto ìe no aìternaÌiÌe to @lÌing this â preposition. A comnìonuseol it, iìlustraìedând discursedin 14.3,is in the phrase inàkà si n!/ foÌ whât?, why?'. The only other prepositionin Igbo is the one mentioned!Ìeviousty. with thc alternant lorms /nà/ bêIoreã consÕnant(shich is râr€) or belore ã syllabic nael with Ìow tone. /ná/ beforea syllabicnasãlwitÌr high tone, and /n / befoÌeâ voweì. This has a gene.aÌlocâtile meaning at', though trânsÌationssucà as 'on' âúd in' âre sometin€srequiredby Ìh€ context. It is usedbefoÌeâny íoun or noun ph.aser€tening to pÌaceor time. but is not requiÌedif sucha phÌaseapposition lolìowedbj ã pause. The lollowing noun may lears in sent€nce-iniüâl be â word lik€ 'house' or 'topn', a pìâce name, a noun Ìike 'inside', 'top', 'back', underneatì loììowedby ânother noun in an associâtiveconstruction, or an expressionot time. 8.9.,
ó nà àrú 0'rú n'imóúlò ó nà ârú ó'rú n'ébéáhü ó byàràn á'fó 'gáráágá ó byàrànà ìsbê áhÈ
'h€ worksat hone 'he wôrks ií Abâ' 'he works indooB' ('ât the in'he sorks tì€r. ( atthatplace') 'he c.úe then'( âl thât üme')
such adverbiâìcomplementsiÌrcludephrases{hich fill gâpsií the restricted repeÌtoir€ ot simple adve.bs in lgbHxpÌe$ions for 'heÌe, 'th€re', 'then', Rather unexpect€dly,suchlocâtivecomplementsâÌe usedâfter a Iêw veròs which s€emcìearìy to refer to motion, particulady /i'ìá/ 'retuÌn to'and /ibà/ 'enter'. Other verbs ÕI moüôn ãre fôllô{ed by noun phrâs€swithout a prepositioni as in Niger-Côngolânguâgesgenerally,it muú be emphâsizedthât such verbs hâve meaningsÌike 'go to'. 'b€ lrom, 'anive ât', and the like, âúd notling like a p.epositionis usedNith then. E.9., ó bàrà n úlò
ó eàràÀbá
he ente.edthe hoüse
ADVERBTÀLS. IDEo"HoNEs. SEM^NÌrc RNcEs
455
Complements Ìefening to duration in time are also noun phraseswithout a pÌeposition- There âre âlso â l€w noun ph.ases.efening to mannervhich ãre similaü üsed. Such phrâses are âdverbiaì simpÌy by virtue ot th€ir position iú ó nó n êbêáhü àbàliàró á nà Ìh àsú Ìgbò lwáítiáti ó mèrèyà òkè ómá ó di ú má ìlkè úkwú
'heslâyedü€re lh,eedâ)s (lit. 'three nights') 'I speakIgbo a ìittle' 'he djd it veìl'(lit. 'â goodone') 'it's very good' (lit. a big one)
Fo. Igbo as seÌl as sverâl othêr lâíguâges,âdverbiâl compÌenentscorrespondingto Englishsubordinâteclausesreferrìnglotime, plâce,manÍ€r,reâson, lengthin chapter14. Thesearetypicalty nouns etc.w€Ìediscusedât considerâble modíied ìy relativecÌauses.ÀÌong wilh whât hàs beensâidin this and the precedingsection,the types of adve.bialsin Iglo hãveb€en!Ìetty well @veÌed. A numb€roI other languag€s have clos€lysimilarpatternslor advcrbialcom pìenents. Yôrubâ âìsô hás ã preposition with a general locâtive reference,/ni ì'l, ând phEseswith and wjthout tlis prepositionhave usagescloselypan" Íâllel tó thosediscussedãbovefor lgbo. Elik als ìas a similaÌ p.eposition,/ké k'l wilh sifrilâr üsesândrestrictions-Jukun has acompãrãblypr€pôsition/ki/. Swahili also hâs a comparsblelorm {hich may justiliably be câUeda prctosition, /katikai. This appeaF to be deÍived lrom a noun ikati/ whosebasic meaningis 'middle', and which is used in an assciative coDstructionwith anothe. noun for '(in) th€ middle oi'; the de.ivation,however do€snot loÌlow any prcductivelattern in Swâhili. The basic meaningoi the p.epositionis in', but a spêcüicÌeler€nceto an ârea inside is lrequèntìysecoddaryto â Ìeterencedetemined by a ve.b o. something€Ìsein the context. With liteml locative reference,/katikai plus a noun h an alternativefor another Ìocativeformation; Ìocrtive âdve.biaÌsnay âÌsobe Íom€d by a sufiú /-ni/ with a noun,and suchadverbìâÌsâre usedúoÌe lreqüeddy thân pìrãses wifh ikâìikà/. Sône ot the realikiwekaendukuni 'he put it in the box' alikiwekakaüka sanduku 'he came trcú the Iâm' aìitokâ katika shânba iandika kâtika kaÌãtasihii 'Mite it on this pap€r' alikuwâkâtika kuilanya 'hewasin theactol doingiì'(with infinitive) ln Swãhili,unÌike lgbo, othe.locativerefe.enccs and tmpo.âl ÌeÍerences are not intmdDced by a prelosition. They ã.e simply noun pÌì.as€s. Ircâtive phÉses consistof a locâtivenoun ìn an associativeconstructìonwith anotherDounjthê locativenoun in the Ii6Ì oÍ the loÌlowingis /juu/ top. 8.C., aükiweka jüu yã nezi alikifanya mwaka jana
'he put it on the tâbÌe'
450
ÀFÂrcÀNL^Ncu^cE SrÃucrlREs
The phrãse/mwâkâ jânâ/ in the secondÕr lh€ abov€is peculiâÌ. The wo.d /mwaka/Deans 'yeaÌ', but ijana/ by itsell Deans 'yeste.day'.Ther€is a sinilâr phrâsewith i júzi/, which by itseìl neâns a tew days ago,day beforeyesterday'; /mvaka juzii is yea. beto.eÌaú'. In th€s€pì.ases,the two wo.ds appearto be in apposition. An alternâtivelormâtion is an a$ociative constrúction:/mvâka va jana/. iDwaka qa juzi/. In Kpelle, therêis no prepositionat aìl vith adverbìâlcomplements oÍ pìâce ând tjme. The phrasesin que6tionar€ adverbiãlsimply by vntue oi their position in the sentence.LocâìivècompÌements âre nounphrases,{hich ií otherpositions nay ìe veÌbâl subjectsô. objects. A plâcenãmemây be a conplenent by itself. OiheNise, a locative compÌementconsistsoI a locative r€lationalnoun with a posesor. Suchphrawsin KpêlÌeand othef Mand€languages are discnsêdmore IuUy in 8.5i the lollo$ing are illustÌative: è Ìi Dtrkó 'he {ent to Vonrcviâ Duk5. 'I sawhim in ÌÍonrovia' Ìlá'kàâ he went into town ( he went-to
'Ì sav him on the otìer sideoI town' A detaiÌsorth nothingin ihis coníectionis thât the phrâsei'pÉrêisü/,shich one would expectto mean 'the insideoÍ the house',.efersonly to the a.eaabovethe râfters;the âreâwhe.epeôpìeadd türnitu.e norÍnaìlyâreis /'píêi nüi, with /mü/ which othe$ise means'the uDder.eathpart'. Tefrpôrâl complements in Kpelle may be nouÍ phrâsesol the sãmetype, or they may b€ marÌed compl€mentFnoun phrases vithout a Ìocative reìationaÌ noun, but intÌoducedby a morpheDe/à/ which will be Dore Íully discussedin thc lollowingsection,but which is notânâlyzedas â prepÕsition.It is oÍ interest that expÌesiors like 'thât week' may reLr to either 'lâst 瀀k' o. 'next seek'; conpâre the lgbô /éci/ 'yeste.dãy,tomôúôN' noted in the prêcedings€ction. ExamplesoI th€ alte.nativefomatìons are as loÌloss:
'he silì coúe neat yeâr' a pâi tâi à kôra! ti è pà 'kóÌâ! !i sü
a kól€ìà tâìi !i è kÈà'káÌ€êtãii tl sü è kè à 'ktlgE à tãii ti -
'he sas sick ât that tine
Two othe. tempo.aÌadve.biaÌphrarcsrequirespeciâlt.eaünent. The phFse /yeÌe 'tâ/, ìiterally 'sone dây ór 'sohe days', is u6ed only in sentelce-initiaì
ADVEÀBÌÁLS, IDEopHoNEs, SDMANTTCRÀNcrs
457
posiiioD. With .eÍer€nceto customa.yãction, it mcâns 'som€timesi with oth€Ì it means'perhaps'. The phrâs. /yeìe támaa/ is us€dprimarily ii not reÍer€nces, exclusiveÌyin a marÌed complementiit litüâlly meâns 'man) dâ]s'. but is tìre usDaì€xpressionlor 'oftcn'. E-g., yeÌe 'ta a tli kÈôÉ
tometines lìe{orks here' p€Ììsps h€ wiÌl come'
ÀpaÍl f.oÍn locatiÌe and temporalcompìenenc,there is onevord in Kpeìle which DaJ be analyzedas a pr€tosition,thoüghit mây be usedb€Íorea predicative .ìâuse âs N€ÌLâs b.fore a noun. It is /yê./ 'ìiÌe', illustrated in thè follG
'ÌÉ yêe pereiÌa kè là 'káa yâe'tépâi pâi
'do it ÌìÌe (tle $ay) I do it ({ith il) 'iÌ looksasjI he isn't goingto come'
In English,we sleâk of goingto a placeoÌ goingto a personiusingthe same construction. Ì know ÕI no NigeÈCongolangüag€in {hich lhis is po$jbìe. One goesonly to a Ire6on\ plâc€or locatìo.. or $here a teBon is. In KpelÌe,lht relationâl noun /pó/ is usedfoÌ this purpos€,foìloved b) the adr€rÌ, /!ãa/ 'th€re'The sãm€noun wilhout /nãa/ is lsed aft€Ì a lev other reÌbs; all that can bc sâid is thât it âppearsto ref€r to ones lo.ation or dir€.tion. E.g.,
è lòno kàìo{ pj
he went to ih€ chiet' 'he 6ent (- gave) it to the chiel 'he spoke to the chiel
Âgain, the constructionsdiscussed in Chapte. 14, primarily nounsmodilied by relâlires,must be includêdwith adrerbial complements oi the ttp€s otrllined in this section. With natural vaÌiationsin diÍIerentÌãnguagcs. ih€ ove.alÌtleme is tlat ol a restriclednumberof simpl€adverbs.an eren mon restrictedrepeÈ roi.e or âdvêrbialsiDlroducedby ânythbg comparâblcto EÌglish Ìr.epos'tions, and a laÍge nuDber of noun phras€sshose adr€rbial Íunctionis markedonly by t5-3. Ássociati!€construcüoDsconstiluting noün nodiiìeB ììale be€n discussedi. seleraìcontextsÍÕr seleraìlanguâges; tahiìiârily vilh lhe situâtionin Bânlu, ás ôutlinedin 10.1,is assumedfor tlis s€ction. A specialusageoI the aÍ sociâtive/âi is commonlyfound in theBantü ìanguag€s {ith no antecedentnoun. The us!âl Bantu prelia íor iÍÍtriliv€s, clâ$ 15, js /Lu-/, and inlinitiles sharea numbe.oí usageswith noüns. Nith relerenceto ân âcljon. which is spec'tiedby â lerb in âny consúüction,the âsociatir€ /a/ with the concordfor the inlinitive, vith a followingnoun o. noün tìÌrâse, consÌilutesân adrÚbiâl conplem€nt. Several kinds of relerenceare invoh€d, incÌudingneâns, mate.iaÌ,nânn€Ì, caus€, ând tine. The Iollosing exaÌntlesírom SllâhiÌi are fairìy tlpical oÍ Bantu in
458
AÉRrdL\ LNcúÀcÈ SnúcruREs
'he madeit sith a knile 'he madeit out oI wood âlikifânyaksa ìarakâ mluÀ ilikunyâ kwâ siku nyrngt
'it râin.d for sev€râÌdays
Another âdverbiâìoÍ this type wâs not.d in 14-7in connectionwith â discusion oÍ qüestionwords in Swahili: Adverbialsof exactly the samero.m, but with nounsor concordsrereüilg to personsonly, refer io thê placcwh€rea personis; conpâ.e the note on going to a peBon in the precedingsection. Such adlerbjah are probably best interpreted as involving the locàtiv€class17 ràrh€r lhàn thê intinitive clas 15; the ãre identicàl in âny câse,âdd the two clâssesmây conco.dsIor the two ôlãss€s ultinâtely be d€rivedt.om one.thoughtìey â.e distingrish€din the light oI c€rtãin rs€s in someBânlu lânsuâsestodây. Thüs: 'he *ent to Hânisi('s)' alikwendakwã Bwânâtlâúisi 'he cane fÌom Hamisi(s) rìitokâ k\â Baana Hânisi yuko kwa Bwana Hamisi 'he is âl Br'ânâ Hânisiï I hale no eÌidencelor adr€.bìalsot a similâr type, ìâsed Õn ân â$ociâtive construction,in oth€. noud clâssìângDâges, though such adÌ€riãls may well exist outsideofBãntu. Ìn someof the Mandelanguáges, however,$hich showno trace of a functionalnoun ôlassand concordsystem,th€re is a remârkâbÌepârâlleì to lhe clâs 15âsociâiiveâdverbialsofBantu. Àmongthe Southw6te.nMânde languages, KpeÌle and Mendehave a môrphême/à/ shich is us€dâft€r â verb to âssociâlethe âciion with â folloping noninâl o. adjectilal expression;the combinâtion constituìesan âdv€rbial. Ev€n prior to any krowledgeol a Bantu languageor oi asociaüveconstructionsjnvolving cla$ concord,I felt thãÌ the mo.pheóe /à/ in Kpelle wâs in â speciâì€tegory, and I avoidedcalling it s preposition. A mâjor reâsonwâ, thât /à/ is üsednot only betorea noun,ìut alsobeÍore sn adjectivâìNith prefixedlov ioDe(cÍ.9.2); perhapssuchio.ms cân be included u.der noninals in a soplisticatedanalysis,but they âre not ÕnspicuouÜ noninal. Ì.'urther,the úorphee úârks severâlkinds ot Ìelationshipbetweenwhât p.ecedesand what ÍolÌows, On the basisof sucì facts, I choseto label constructions with /âi "nârk€d complements",and the Dorpheme /à/ iíself a "complem€ntDarker". lt later becameôlearthât, both in lornì ând in this trsàge,the pã.aÌlelismvith Bantn asociaüvesis too closeio be dismissedãs coincidence.t Someof the lollowing Kpelle exanpÌ€s are preciseeqnivãlentsol someÕl thê Swâhili exâmpl€sabove: lTh nh ãspe vio us ly beêndis c u
ADVERBTÀLS. IDEopHoNÈs. SEMÁNarc R^NcEs
è 'kpÈtêà 6óa
'he madeit with â knife' 'he mâd€it out of soôd'
tina è !ü à yeÌe-kü rimaa èpààôôa
'it râinedlor sêvèmìdâys he brougÌ't (câmewith) â knile 'he madeit into a mortar'
459
Às nÕtedin tìe precedingsection.this is oneol two âìiernâtiveconstrúctións tor adverlials reieüing tô time; the ôthèr, wìich is used also for adve.bialsof !Ìâc€, is an "unmãrk€d@m!Ìement" sith â poses€d lo.âtive relâtionaÌnoüú. norph€ne, usedin very much the sameway, ln Lomâ, th€ correspónding is /gà/. Sincethe divereenceor Kpelle, M€nde,ând Lomâ is Ìelatively recent, ând paÌticuÌarly sincethere is someevidencethãì Mendeand Lona are slightÌy mo.e closely.elated to eâchothe. than eitìe. is to Kp€lle,onewould hardly expect tlat /à/ in t{o oÍ theseÌanguages ând/gàiin the other would hâve difÍerent origins. LomÀ /g/, howeler, ordinâriìy corespondsto Mende/'lg/ ând Kpelle +/à/, the initial conso/y/. IÍ both loms a.e f.om a p.oto-Southwestern-Mand€ nânt in Lomâ cân only b€ explainedâs âú innovâtion;areunentscâú b€ âdduced bo$ lôr aíd âgâinstsücha hypothesis-lt is alsopo$ible,however,that the Lona ìâd two /gà/ comesÍrom an older lom /*kà/i ií so. proto-Southw€stern-\Íande which Fere usedas compleDentmarkeÌ!. An â$ociative alternâtivemorpÌremes /kâ/ is alsoattestedtn Bantu (cf. 10.1);il both €xistedjn tì. rãther re@nt protothe pâÌaìlelisnwith Bantu h eveúmore úriking tlìan the Southwestern-Mande, KpeÌleevidenceby itsêlI süggests-As notedin 10.3,an a$ociative/ká/ is attested alsoin NoúhwesternMânde,thóügh not in this usage. All ot tìis ìeâdsup to th€ obseÌ!âtionthât âdverbiâlsof thê types ilÌustrât€d âhove are forned with a morph€me/ká/ jn tìe Southernand Eastern Mande ìanSuages.The constructioÍ diÍf€rs,hÕweve.,ìn thãt /ká/ ãpp€a6 in linãl position in the complement.ratheí lhân in initiâl posilionâs thê Kpelle ând Mende /à/ and the Lonâ isàl. The tolÌo{jng iìlustrâtionstron Dân (Gio)are equivâlents oÍ fouÌ oI the illustrationslÌom Kpelle âbove: 'h€ mÀdeit with â knil€ 'he mâdeit out ol wood'
15.4. In virtuâlÌy every Niger'Congolanguage.as weÌl as typically in NiloSaharânlângüag€s aíd âì leâstin ìânguages ot the Chadicì.anch of Afrc-Asiatic, úot in languages, there is a fâirìy lárgegroupol woÌds but âpparently the Khoisâú nowgenerâÌlyknownâs"ideophones."Many of thesehâvesomekird ÕIadve.bial use,ând so shouldbe consideredh€Íe. UnÍortìrnateÌy,when it cones to tãÌking âbout ideophones,lor almost e!€ry úudent of ÀLican lãnguagetsincluding con-
4ô0
ÀFRrcÁN LÀNcu^GE SmucruREs
spicuousÌytle pr€snt author the "Pete. Principle" begi.s to epply: se âÌe Ìapidly ÌeacÌ'ingth€ level or our own incompetenc€. EveryoÍeseeDsto.ecognize words that som€ are ideophones, but no onefinds it easyto deÍineân id€ophone For on€ íot lâniliâr sith ideophónesin âÍ Alricân ìangüâg€,someobservâtions âbout some peculiaÌ words ìn Engìisì may s€N€ to Betthe stage. FiBt, we hâvea gmup ol wordsre?Ìesntativ€ ol cerÌain sounds.Th€seinclud€'bâng' or 'bâng-bâng, bow-wo*' or 'âú-âÍf, freôs , ând 'moo . At leâst sone of th€sehaÌe p€rlectly no.mál g.ammaücalus€sise speakoI the bang of a gun , ând se say 'the cat neowed ãnd 'I hêard a cow mooirg'. They ãrê àlsoüsêd, howev€r,in â uniquevay in *ntences like 'rh€ gun w€nt bang-bâng','the dog sent bow-wow',etc. lí suchs€ntences, ihe lÒrús in questiÕnúây bê preceded by a lau8e,aDdrây be pÍoíounc€dwith unrsüâlstressoraccompaniedbyspeciâl paraliíguistic vocâl etfúts. Thus 'm€o{ nay be pronoüncedwith a high-pitched nelody intendedto r€tresentthe actual sounda cat makes;'moo' may be IÌe longèd fâr hore thân âny nomd English syìlabl€,and prcnouncedwith a low falling pitcì and €itheÌ a "hushed" or a glottally inteúupted voice. Ií this use tìey rather resembìeinterj€ctions.ând ol coursesuchÍormsmây alsobe usedin isolãtiôn âs âctuâl idteÌjections. In qüile â difi€rent cât€gory,but also Ìather âíomâìÕúsin English,is â group ol partiauy ÌedutÌicâtedtoms. In one Epe, tl€ redupljcâtedpâú ol the lorn bêginswith â consonântor consonantclue ter diff€rent ftum th€ initiâl coÍsônânt; eaâmpìesâr€ 'willy'niììy', teenyweenyÌ, hDrdy-gurdy, nitty-grilty, hum-drun'. In anoth€Ìtype, tàe vowel lrlitr the ÍìÌst part is €choedby [eÌiÍ the secondiI cân think of ten of these,plús an €leÌenth wÌrich vas leÌìaps originalìy prónóhced sith [e] instead oÍ the
flimJlam pitteÌ-patter
fiddle-faddle
ritf-rafl zig-zaq dilly-dâlly
shiUy-shâlly
An inspectionoI tìese ÍedüplicatedÍoms revealsthat someoí them aÌe veÌbs, some nouns. and some adjective. A lew of them have ãn interj€ctiÕnlüe use, âs in 'pitte.-pâtier sent the râin', but most of them aÍe Íot syntâcticâlly unusual. W€ nay f€eltlat someof then are onomatopoeic, and all ot thm sm to Ìrãveá râtheÌ pictu.esqueconnôtâtion. lt wôuld not be diflicüÌt to inagile adlerbiaÌ üsês for compârâbÌe foms in other lânguages. For EnglÈh, perhaps phras€slike 'tit for tât' and 'spickând span' sìoüld be includ€diÍ this category. Another set oÍ *ords that might be mentioned ts â surp.isitrgÌy Ìarge number oI psendo-agentives of the type of saâsh-buctler','fôur-flusher',and 't*o-timei'; it is only foÌ a speciaÌhüDo.ous€fÍectthat s€ sFak of 'tìe nost saggeÌing pinte who ev€rbuckleda sNâsh'-ând â fun gâne cân beplây€dby mâkingup qustioDs like 'Do yoü hâle âny louÊ yoü'd like llushed?' Such Íorns âre phonologicâÌìy
ADVERBTÁLS. IDlopsoNES.
SEMÁNrrc RaNcEs
461
ând synlrctically normâI, bui leculiaÌ in that thciÌ spparent d€Ìivâtion is not valid; th€y also*cm to have a lictur€squeconnoiàLion. It is loms with chareci€riúicssom€whatlike thesethat a.e knotrn as "id€ ophones"in Àfricafl lângüages.Ií earÌierwork$ (prior to 1935)th€tr hâve âlso beengivenÌab€lssuchâs "interjectionJ',"desoripüle âdverbs","picture wordJ'. rionomatopoeicâdverbiâIs". Mâny-probably most Ahicãn ìângúâgèshâve hund.edsoÍ theúi WiÌliâft J. Sâftârin (pe6onâì coúnunicàtiôn) ìâs ã file ot over three thousandin Gbeya. At the sam€time, the repeúoiÌeand significance of ideophonesin specificlanguageshas, untiÌ Ìec€ntly, been apprecìatedby ã Ìelatively iew linguists,prjmanly thosewho havehad the opportunityto achieve a veÌy high level ol conpetencein a ìadguâge,ând whoserapport $ith native Òtthe Ìânguâg€in virtuaUy âìl Àspeclsot their culiure is urusualìygood. sp€akere EÌen though one Day be surethat the ldicon oI a paúicular laDguag€includes a great meny ideophones, they are extremeÌydirricult to elicit, and tley a.e oiten avoid€dby nâtive speakeÉwh€n speâkingto someone wlÌosecomìretence in their langüâgeis cleârlyat a low ìevel. lt is hârdly posible to predictlhe kindsol ideàs that mây be expressed by ideophones, and in many casesthe bâ.e denotatile con tent of vhat onewishesto say can be conveyedsithorìi the connotativecharâcteristicstypical oÍ ideophones.In th€ caseof Igbo, I d6cÌibed the üseoÍ English forms like meow to one iniormant, and alter someconsid€rationhe cited sentencesdesoipti!€ of nois€s,Ìâr8€ly trom the ânimaì kingdom, using sonethìng like thirty ideophones.À iemale missionaryor my acquaintancetranscribed in ârother ianguag€,wÌìich shehad overh€ardspoken twenty or moreideophones who vere by men apparentìytalking about her and who did nol .ealizethât sh€ undeFtoodquite â bit Òftheir langu.gejcheckingthem lâter{jth herinlomânts, she discÕv€redthat th€y âlÌ Ìefened to her physicâlcharacteristics many ol them highÌy amusiDgbecausethe local standardsof vhat constitutesIemale desirâbiìityaÍe in sonewhat le$ üan total âgreement{ith those mÕsi taìkrd about in our cuÌture, and the entir€ly admìrableand good-naturedwoman in queúion sdmitted to beingvisibly distinguìsìebleI.om the latest Holltsood sex symboÌ. Short of acquüingã high Ìevel of comp€tence ìn a languageand ìâboÌiously collectingideôphon€sfÌom conv€Ntion, narrative,ând vivid descripiion, âbout aÌÌ that can be done is to help aú inlormant to becomeconsciousoI such forÍns âs â speciâltype or st oi types, and have him study his own usageior âs úany dânples as he can think oI vhich is, of course,exâctly what I did lor EDglishas a basislor the prec€dingpaÌag.aph. Thè t€rm "jdeophone"seemsto have been IiFt suggêstedby C. NI. Dokei delined, or ât Ìeast desc.ib€d,ân ideophoneas "â vìvid Ìepresentâtionof ân he ideâ in sound. A wo.d, oÍten onomatopoeic, wÌ'ich desoibesa predicate,qualilimtive o. âdverb in respectto Dann€r, coÌou.. smelì,action. state o. intensity ' (Doke 1935,p. 118.). This seeústo suggestlhat ideophonesâre ã granúaticãì clâs oiwords, a type ofadverbial,but no lormal oiterion isgiven lordistinguishiÍg theú from ôther àdverbs. In the Bântu languages wiih whicl Doke was conhâs often beennoted, cerDed,the invariâbleor indeclidâblenâtúre ol id€ophon€s
462
AFRrcÀN LÀNcuÁcE SrRUcrüREg
in contrastwith adveÌbiâlslike thoselormedÍith the ÌocâtivècÌâ!! (16, 1Z 18) pÌdixé; but tìe languag€s in qu€.tionhaveat Ì€rrsta fcv,,oth.r irvsliâbl€ woÌd!, âuchB a tem lor 'today', which arc ârlo adveÌbiâlbut which ou€would hrÌdly onomaÌopoèic is qúte urdeF want to call ideophon$. CâIing lome ideophones vdid, but subjatire judgnert i! one! h.NüstsndaDl€ândin somcca$s perhaP8 ly involv€ì; /rüwÀtüwà/ nÀy{rd i! sid tF'Êound üke" th€ srack ol ! whip to a ,peâkeÍ of lgbo, but it doesn'tto n€, though I will Ìrádily rc&pt /üwúü 3imihr üíúü/ asgênuiD€lyinitâtive of tàê úy oÍ anowl In e @tegoÌysomèrchet to onomat po€iã,phona€3thenic-r appeâI! to play ! Ì?theÌ miroÌ ml€ in id€ophoresin AlÌican Ìaryuâges,üoügh it is âttêlt€d. (A phonâ€sthên€tu â rouúd oÌ s€quencêof sourd! r€cuÌring in â nuÌnb€! of woÌds associâtedir sornewry wità the sâmeidÊs; EÍglish /sn-i tu â phonaBth€neaisociatedwith th€ !oãê ir woÌdâlike 'soiíf, snifile, snúf, !noÌÊ, snickerrand perhàpsálso '.Dide,!rit', brt of coursênot 'snoq sD.Ìe'.) It hâs âko Dê€nnoted foÌ iome languagesthst idmphor€s att rÍ€quetrtly phonologicalÌyanomâÌous.Th€y msy eortsin phonemês not Íourd i! othor tlTài ândth€y mâybe abcIrantir Íripoct to ot words,or uniquêleqüeÍcr. oí phon€mês, the Ìü€3 oÍ tonè that .pply to them. Paul Nerman (rgôE, p. r07n) har spüy pointed out hoÌíder, thât "It shouldbe dph$ized tÀat üe phonoÌogicaldie ünstivs* of ideophorc!i! a pÍopeÍty of the !êt $ a whok ârd nol rcc€ssüy of esú memb€roí that *t." Thát is. somewoÌ& that oneìeoÌddlike to crtl id€ôphon€snay be phonoÌogicâllynoÌnal, ând a pâúicl âr word cÁn$t be identÍied ss an id€ôphonoon puÌ€ly phonologic$ounò iD aìl clses. Yet Nermstr vodd Ìil€ to defirc id€ophon$ ir Aftictr langüagë g€n€nÌty on the bl3i! oÍ phonological qnd sdánüc oitqiâ. FoÌ Hâu!â, he d€tire5 ideophonespuÊly phonG foÌ Terâ. KaÌ€! CouÉnay (1969,pp. 13&&l) bgi@ny, but h€ is Ìers succeÊsful sppli€sa phonoÌogicrÌdcfirÌition alsoto YoÌüba, ìn which lwèÌâÌ diff€Ient phonotâctic pattems úe p€4uliâÌto differ€nt !€ts of ideophon€!.ü luch a phorological derinition is po$ible for a paÌticulaÌ lÂnguagr,it shouldbe aÌ meâü be u3êd;it may weÌl Ì,e thÂt phonoloeicalanomali€snay be diagrGtic roÌ Ínâry or mostÌangu.gs, thoughof coulle the partìcuÌaÌÂnomali$witl vaÌy Íron hn$.ge to Ìanguage.SenanticcÌiteria wouÌdseú to b€ dtEmely düíiorlt if not inpo3libÌe to apply in âny sâtidâctorily í8id íâlhion, althoughwe m{y well hrve rn intuitivé impBion that ideophoresshaÍ€.omé llagÈêÌydêfinod@ântic châÌÌYiÌliâIr J. Sanârin (1965),on the othe! hand, maintâim that id€tphon.t nuÊt be ddiúed on a ÌaquÀgMpscilic basi!, iú t€rms of gÌammaticlr ImstioD. He cÌe{Ìly impliesthât idêophor$ @nstitute À morphologicâlclâts, which nay bê t ue foÍ iome of the lãnãuãgs with which he hÂ3çorked; thb do.s not seen to be the c{se, howwer, for ÂlÌ Ìangua€€5.Courl$sy (1969,p. 138) eipÌicitÌy saysthat "YoÌuba ideophonescan be sdverb!, âdj€"tiv$, or mu[s." G6oBê Forture (1962),whosephono!€mânticdcfinitioo or id€ophor€sin Shoúadoesnot of verbcir thÂt !ê€n as Ìigid â! onewoüld like, d€scriberthen â3â subcÂt-êgoi'J lánguage.
E l nrl nL
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dnLLl Lr
ÀDvERErÀ$,
IDEopHoNFr, SEtÀNuo
463
RÀxcEs
JudginefroÍÌ the ÌitarâtüÌ€ on idoophon€sand llom ny om experiencewhich is not intêMivè lor .ny onê Ìanguâfêbut incÌüds a !k.t hy lAúpüúg in a goodmâny-Ì wo d 8üggertthat, loÌ Âtritâr lenguãgees a whoÌe,botÌr phonologicrÌ ând grÂmmaticáÌcÌit€Ìia nìây be found nece$âry for ddiniÌg ideopÌrcr$. A phonologicáld6firition rhouÌd comeíiÌú Then the functiom of thê id€ophonBso deÍinedsÌÌoüÌdbe studied. If ât Ìes8t somêid6phon€. hâvê a lp€ciar gramnâticál íunction---€ucha3 sdveÌbiâÌ iÍ unique colocâüons úth panicular verbFit may theDbè poílible to add to thé cÌassother foÌns which úare tlÌe samegÌanmãticsÌ íunction but *hich coüldnot be includ€doÍ phonologic grouÍds. Other phonoÌogicarÌydefinedid€ophoÍesúây be foÍ €xampÌe Dornal noum ÍÌom a glamnâticât point of view; it Íoüld not be pGsibleto Âdd to 8uch. cÌassby applyinggÌmmaü@l cÌiteda, sincêany lom shariDgthe same Íunction i! lirÌply a phonoÌogic€üynormaÌnouú. BeÍoE goingfaÌthèr into the speciüBof idcophonein paÌticular Ìarguagés, it úoüld be addedthat a lpokcn ideophon€,pÂÌticulÂrlyol the iíteÍj€ctional typ€, nsy rÊ4ülarÌybe ÃccoÌnpadedby sone Âctivity, sucha! â g€snrÌÊ,whiú is not pÂrt of the linguiatic s)€ten ss !uch. tn lgbo, ihe ideophonè/kpáú-kpàdÌ/ iâ alwaysacaonpaniêdby t*o clapsoí tÌìe hân& in tirÌe with the pÌonunciation; ths pâlmsof rh€ h8rds m held vèr[icâlÌy, vith the right hand high€r thD the left, andthe cÌapsarc produc€din the pmcessof opposingverticd moyemeÍt! of the hândn like cymbabin a mârch rhythm. Let thesêctâpsb€ repÌ$ented by âstorbksir the Ioüowing:
ó 'gÌrllLÁ.kpáú-*kpÀdì à có'ehiú thé'óbr.iüà .Lpádì-*kpàrh
'it's al-Ì-l gorc; thercì not a rmidgin left' 'l don't want â cottor-pickin' thine'
A! ÌDight be sp€cted, suchparaliúgütuticpheúonenaa.€ noi v€Íy conristently Ìeport€d,though th€y aÌe probãbly lar nor€ conmon than üe avâilabÌ€ souÌc$ vouÌd sugge.t. Ii is reportedthât ShoÍa har an int4ÌjectioÌr us€da! m rude inluÌt, coüistüg oÍ the sylabÌe hól lccônpânied by ân urguì€r
E l nrl nL
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d.L
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464
ÀFRrc^N
LÀNGuÀcE
SrRUcrBEs
though they mây ÊeeÍnplausible if one listens to an €xp€Ìt story teÌl€. dÌanati@lly punctuate his nanative with seeDingly od tìo. phonoÌogicaÌly âtronâlous fom8. With possibleoccâsìonaÌ exceptions,ideophonesin any ÌanguâgeâÌe, üke other paÌt forms, ol the community-acc€pted l€xicon ol a.bitÌâry asociations b€twen 15.5. In Dany Bantu lenguages, onetype oI fom commonÌyincludedin the categorr of id€ophônesis derived ftun verb rools. There appeâÍs to be alDost totaÌ lreedom loÌ such fomationFviúualÌy âny ve.b may be thê $uÌce of such an ideophone. Such torms genemlly accofrpany ìhe verbs írom which they arê derived, ând hâve an âdverbìâÌ function. They aÌe frequentty reduplicâted or triplicâted. Samarin cites exaDples Ircm sev€ral languages; the lollowing frcm Mwera,{ith an intensiveor continuativemeâning,is typicalr to wâlk Íâr, to keepon wâlking' The juúiliability or classilyingsuchIorms as ideophones may b€ calÌedilto qnesìion. I tind no evidencethàt they âre phonôlogicallyânoúaloüs,aÊ other types oÍ ìdeophonesmmmonly ee. They ã.e, to be süê, disünctivein othe. ways. Mo.phologìcâlly, unlike âlmost all othe. words, they âre invariaue o. indeclinabÌê.SyntacücâÌly,theiÌ reduplicatedoÌ iriplicâted usageis unique. SeDanticalÌy. th€y seemto sharesomekind ot inten6iverefererce. I3 aU of this sülficientÌeasonto prt themin the specialcâtegoryol id€ophones, mtheÍthan sinply calÌing thèn adÌãòs d€riÌed trcn v€Ììs ? Il they âre to be câÌl€d ideophÕn€s, tÌ'ey would at Ìeastapp€r to be a derinabÌeÊubtype. A somewhãt simila. !ìenomenon is lound in Igòo, but the.e is no Ìeâson at ãll to call the forms in qtreúion ideophoresi they a.e simply nouns de.ived Ircm verbs. Süchâ noünis üsedas the objectof the lerb lrom which it is d€rived,ánd may be calleda 'cognâteobject." Not alÌ nounsdeÌived lrom verbs belongin thú category. The noun inÍl 'food is deÌived l.om tle veÌb wìose inÍiniüve is /i riJ '€ât ; it is lÍequeítÌy usedâs th. objectol the verb lrom whicÌìit is dêriv€d, âs in /i ri úú/ 'to eât' (Nithouì specifyingthe pâúiculãr lood eâten),but it is Dsed freü in many other combinations as well. The noun /ütó/, haviDg to do with goodtasteor d€sirâbility,is derivedlrom the v€rb iitól, which is not âttested€xc€pt vith the deÌivednoun as object,as in ió tòrò ütó/ it ìs delicious; the noun, howe{er,ma! alsÕbe usedâIter Ìhe leÌb /idii 'be desc.ibedas' with thê Êame m€aning. The derived cognate objectr in question are .€stÍicted to nouns with the pretix /àè-l- Their luúcüônshâïe nôt beenfulÌy ânâlyzed,but there is cleã.ly sonething speciâÌ âbout them. The íollosing exmlles sem to repr€sent òròmááìü cáá'ácá ó kòcÀrààkócá há cébì.ìdÌmiri 'ányi écébÌ
if thoseoraúg€s âreripe' 'theylinited ourwât€Ìsupply' ahì.an Ldnsuãs.studi.s. Inptx-
ÁDvEsr^Ls.
lDEopHoNEs. SEMÀNrrc RaNGES
465
The verb in the fi$t of the6e,/lcái, Íay âlsobe usedby itself, as in /ôÌòná áhü àcáálá/ 'tho* orangesar€ Ìipe (hâve ipcned)'. Thc use of the cognâleobjecr âpp€aÌsto in!Ìy â contrast. The stâtement/òrÒÌnááhü àcáálá/is neDtral;it merely observesthat tìe orângesâre .ipe, when on€ might âs eâsily have commented thãt they are Ìarge or expensive. The condition cited above, on tìe other hând. impliesâ concernãs to whetherthe o.âng€sâre ripe as opposedto unripe. In the caseoÍ tle secondexam!Ìe abovej the v€rb /i'kócái cân ìc usedwith â p€Ísonàlôbject, in the meaning'speakâbusivelyto or âìout', as in /ó kòcàÌà hà/ 'he curâedtheú'. If th€ târget ol lhe cuÌsingis not steciti€d,ihe cognateobject is Ìequired. ln the caseof thê thiÌd example,thè vè.b /i cébì/is not attested vithout the cognateobject. Another noun phrase,/rhmiri ányii 'oür water', appeas betweenth€ ve.b and the cognãteobj€ct, and the cognâteobject nây peÌhapsbe sâidto hâvean âdverbiaÌuse. It is defirÌiteÌya noun.lìowev€r;other obviousnounsaÌe Iound in the sametJpe oI constructiôn,âsin the tolÌowing: 'he hit him with â stick' Apârl frÒm the deverbâlforns usüâllyclâ$ified as ideophones in Bantü, as noted âbove.the samelanguâgesappeargenerallyto ìave â nünber of otheÌ characIoÌhs which can be treãtedtogetherin tems of their uniquephonological te.isücs,aDd which also have the kinds oi semanticpecüliâritieFhosevcr illdeiined tÌrey may bÈwhìcì suggeúed tìe t€rm idêôphone in the first place. The treatmentsoI ideolhonesthat s@m to be on the tirmest ground are those which b€gin{ith such a phonologicâldefinitioD. Àìthoügh CouÌlenâyconsid€Ìs jnconclüsive,she giÍes ân .ipÌicit jüstifiher discussionoI YoÌuba ideophones cation lor her âpproach a justilication which has very possiblyb€en subconsciouslyüsed by studentsof other languagesas â basisfor distinguishinga set of loÌms called ideophones, buìvhich is not otheNise overtly úâted. Courtenay (19ô9,pp. 14G41)mentionstnat there aÌe seveÌalphonologicâlstuctures unique to whât she calls ideophones. and then obserles,"IÍ one weÌe to incÌudethese uniquefomatives in the r€.guÌarmorphologicalclasses(i.e.,jn the clâs of nouns, conc€Ì.ingthe r€gula. verbs,etc.)it vouÌd be iÌnpossibleto Ìeveâlthe generaÌities stÌücture of these clases, ând thereby weakenthe desoiption oI geúeralphonoÌogicalprocesesin tle lânguage."As ân examtle, shecitesihe fact thât noÌmal YoÌuba nounshave,oÌ can be derivêdfron, ihe structureVCV(CV). Nouns suchâs /\êkêrè/'rattling musicalinstÌDment'and/kèlèìè/ 'tìroat-lhlegn' do not conÍormto this structure,and in addition have structural pecuÌiaritiesof their own: aÌl the vowelsare identicaÌ.and hâve the sâhe tonê. Suchforms a.e ideophones-in this câse,specificâìlyideophonicnouns. Àmong the phonoÌogical chaÌâcteÌisticsüniqueto ideophones, she also citestongersequen.esof segments ofvôweìsin other thân than a.e lound in regula.fomâtives. immediatesequences initial position,ideúticâìor regüÌârÌypatternedtone Mquences, and varioustypes ofreduplicâtionândtnplicâtion. TwelvestÌucturaltypesofideothonessre listed, showingone oÌ more of ihese characteristicsin vaÍous cohbinâtions. As hâs appea. been noted lo. ideothonesin other lânguages.someYoÌuba ideophones
466
ÀFRtcaN LÀNcu^cE SrÂucÌuREs
only in uniquecoÌlocations, ând in geneÍalthey seemto be semanticallypictures qüe. For sone types,.€duplicationis optionâI,ând has an intensivèforce. One typ€, .eprcsented by Iouú€en cited exanples, hãs thê specific semântic prôperty oi suggestingsornekind oI irregularity, oÍten òut not exclusively pejo.ative. These arè all s€gmèntâÌìyfulì reduplicatiÕns of t{o+yllâble sequedces, iü alÌ casesbut one with tìe samevov€Ì in eâch syllabÌe,ând vith the unique tone sequence hish-úidlôw-nid. Soúe ol thes âre: 'shâggy 'zigzag
jáüjàri
Forms like the âbove,ând nany other Yoruba ideophoDes as rell, would probably be immediateÌysuspectedoÍ being ideophon$ by a Btudentol otheÌ Àlrican ìâdguagesexposedto then lor the lirú time. Such .sdtrpìicationand sucha tone sequence, which seemsto be a kind of echo,sem to be €xceedingly widêspreadin ideóphônes, ât leâstin W€st ALicân Nig€rcongolângúâges.OtheÌ Yoruba ideophones, howeve..a.e definedâÊsuchbecause they are phonologi@lly anomalousin Yoruba, thougì conparableforDs might be peÍfectly noÍmâl in oth€. languages.ExampÌ€sol such ar€ /rúú/ luddenly', or /kiún/ a tiuy bit, or /tòò/, us€donly âlter the verb /kó/ lhôut . the cofrbinâtionneâning shout at the top ofthe lüngs . 'Ihe phonologicâldelinitionstor the varioustypes and sÌbtypes of YorubÀ ideophonesare lor the most part hignly specific. Each of one grÕupóI six, Ior example,has lour sylÌables$ith ideúticâlvo{els and aU lo{ tones;the first ând third .onsônântsâr€ lebiâl oÌ velaÌ (incìudingdoubly aÌticulatedstolt, the secondis /r/, ând the louúh is /t/ or /d/. 8.g., gbàÌàgàdà fêréeèdé
vide open b.oâd
bìÌìkìtì
Sbini
continuously' :
gbiirigbi
kì.ìbitì Ànother type has the structu.e CWCV, with identicál voseìs ând tones, ând with only /f/ as the secondconsonant;specificauythis type reduplicãtesìy sü|iixing only the lirst CV. E.g.,
Other CvvCV ideophones hâve identicaltones,but not nece$arilyidenticalvowels, ând â vâriety oÍ secondconsonantsjthesereduPlicâteby completerepetitüüÌü Gòrò)jééjé (le) kpééki
: tüülü tüülü 'pütfy '(speâk)sotrÌy ; (sò!ò)jédjdjédjé (tit) âccu.ateÌy': (ae)kpéékikpééki
A vârieìy of types of reduplicâtionmay be seenin the loUowing,someol vhich redDplicâtefuÌthe. by conpleteÌepetitionâs indicated;eâchof theseis only one
ÁDvErBrÀls.
IDEoPHoNES. SEüÁNrrc RÁNGES
kpéíkpé gbèìgbè kòkòrò !ókiíòki!óki kpÒtòkpótÒ lákáfìkì jàgidijàeã
4b?
smaÌl' : kpénkpékpénkpé : ebêngbêCbçngbç 'Ìarge 'insect' in ìittl€ drops : !óki!òkìsókiÈókisòkiló[i 'mud' thug-chug'(ôl train) : IákárìkiIákáfìki violent,violence'
Courtenaydoesnot specifywhetherrepeatedideophones are or may be separatedby psuse,âs suggestedby sord divisionvritten in someof the above. 11wonld se€ú likely thât theJ may. Sômeot the glossesgiven aboveare also undoubtedlyles than perlect. In âddition to ideophones with neânings such as small and 'large', thêre are phonologicaìly noÌmaÌloms {ith simila. m€an irgs; the ideophones ií all lrÌobability give a ôolo.fulimpÌessionto the nativespeãkinghea.e.,an impr€ssion wÌ1ichis diliiculi to isoÌateand e!€n moredifficult to rep.esentin transÌatio., In YoÌubâ ideophones, unlik€ thoseoI many otìe. lânguages. the.e seenstÕ be no us€ol soundsnot toündin ih€ rcú ol the language.Apart i.on the nunber and types ol syllablesas noted above,tbe only thonotactic peculiarìtyiound in id€opìonesis the permissibililyof non-tinâl nâsâlizedvowels. IdeophonesaÌe primarily distinguish€dby theú morpheneând wo.d structure. To her list of ideophones of varioustypes, Courtenayapp€ndsa set of 'testrictedâdverbs." ïhese âÌc regulârin thcú phonoìogicaì sÌÌuctu.e,büt Ìesenble a number oÍ ideophones in usage,âppeaÌingDnÌyin unique colìocâtions.These Iorms âre r€düplimtionsoI â singlesyllâble,as in ihe phrase/sq !ásá/ speak clearly'. The existenceof sucì a set of forms.which appearto sharethe Ìather yaguebut intuitiveÌy perceptiblesemanticqüalitiesoI ideophônes, suggeústhat in oth€Ì langtrâges âlsoth€ bordeÌlinebetw€enthe nomal lexiconand ideophones may not be shârplydelinedin all respects.Yet no one can quarrelwith giving speciâllreâtmenl to the types oI fo.ds descibed âbove. And the label "ideo phone," though not âs yet formâlly dciired lor Àfrican languâgesjn g€neÌal, seemsèntirely âpproprirte15.6. Ideophon€s a.e not continedto the Niger-Côngolanguages.N€*mân (1968,pp. 107-17)deiinesand desc.ibesideopìonesìn two Chadiclanguages. Hausa and Tera. In each case,he úarts wiur a phonologicaldelinition. For Hausa,this appea.sto be airtight: id€ophones are fôrms which hãïe linâì consonânts. For Tem, the detinitiondors not âppearto be as sâtisractoÌy.Someiniüal côúsônântslound €)sewherê in thê lâíguâge do not âppeârin ideophones, but thosewhich do appeerâ.e noÌmaÌ. Sone types oI ìdeophones sìow redupÌication or speciâlphoúotâctics,but oth€Í types âpp€arnot io aioìâte nomaÌ ?hÕnotactics. Th€re is "a ìigh incidenceof consonantsin wo.d linal position"-in tact, all oÍ the exâmplescitedhavefinâÌ consonants-butatleast sone linaÌ consonants appearin thc úornaÌ l€iicon as well. NewmânâÌsospeâksoi "expr€ssiveintonâtion," or "èxpresive tone ând sìress,"bút dÕesnot sÀy{heth€r this invariably
468
ÀFÂrc^N L^NcuÀcE SrÂucÍuÂEs
accompanies aÌl ideophonês.It would âppearÌhat sometyp€s oI ideopìonesen be unâmbiguouü delined in !ìonological tems, but NNmân may have incÌudedsomeother forms on the basisof their simjhnty in gÌâmmaücsÌÍunction oÌ perhâpstheir s€manücchaÌacteristics. Th€Ìe aÌe soDeinter€stingdilfeÌ€ncesìetween Hausaand T€.a in the gÌâmmá. ol ideophones.In Háusa,
[email protected] uniquecollocâüons; in T€Ìa, they âre usedmÕrelrêely, lisited only by the bounds of s€nantic coÌÌrtâtâbility. SomeHânsâideophones âre usedonÌy aÍter an adjective.ând seNe tÕ intênsiÍy the mmning of the ãdj€ctives. OtheB a.e used only aft€r Ì€Ìììs; these âr€ ol tso senâdtic typês, verbâI intensilieÌs ând dêsoiptiÌe âdvêrbs, shich âÌe âlso fômâìly distin8uishedby the Eng€ of ãyntacticconstuctìonsin which they mây occur. In T€ìa, id€ophon€s are eith€. adjectilesor adve.bs;the âdverbsar€ oí two synby the mngeof constÌuctionsin wìich thêy mãy occu.. tactic types.distinguished In addition, ideothonicadjectivesaDdadverbsin Te.a ar€ distilguishedby theit cânonicâlfoÌns. Adjectivesâre eitìer reduplicat€dlons of thê type CVC-CVC, oÌ trisyllâbic lorms with â reúrict€d seÌ€ctiônof linâl mnsônãntsând with identical aowelsin ât Ìeâst lh€ fiht.nd thiÌd syllâbles;âdverbshâle the srrtrctüre CVCVC,som€with and $me without r€duDlicâtion,or the structuÌe CVC. A numbeÌ of the T€ra ideophonicãdve.bsâre desc.iptiv€ol sound oÌ motion. Newmànappendstô his discussiônàn obseration and sugg$tion that c€rin otler languâges: tainly dercNe luúh€. stody in connectionwith ideophones "An importânt syntactic t€ature ol ideúpìonic descriptivê-adveÌbs shar€d by Hâusâand Tera is the tendencyto liDit thesewords to âIIümative declaÌâtive sertences. I {ouìd sDggestthat the reúricüon of â subsetof idêophonesto certâin basicsntence types is pÌobably â commonsyntacticleatuÌe oI ideopholesin aU AJricânÌãnguages."This is Ànotherexample,ãnd ãn exceÌlentone.oI the kitrd oÍ the teeungthat âlmoú âll stud€nts detâil that nay veìt üdderìie,sübconsciôusly, of Alrican Ìalguag€sÌtavehad concerningtÌre distinctivecharacterof ideophoDes. 157. My own sork on KpelÌe hâs nôver included â systenâtic Ânãlysis of ideophones, in spite of üe Íact thât my study ol tìe languagehas beenÍâirly thoroughin other respects, ând my compet€nce ât o!ê time extendedto compl€te eâsein môst conv€rsâtionâl situâtionsând in pubÌic speâking,ând to beinSmie tãken for â nãtive speak€ron a cloudy,Dóonlessni8ht, I haveh€ãÍdâ numberoí âppârêntid€ophoDes that I had no opportuDityto r€coÌd rt the time, but hav€ recordedrelatively f€s. At the time ol my fiBt nâjo. ço.k on the ÌÀnguage, I wasonÌy vaguelyasaÌe oI the existenceol suchlo.ms that might be investigated as a set, aíd it did no1occur to úe to try to dêïise â techniqueÍor discoveÌing ihem apârt lrom accidentâÌly rünniÍg into th€Ír. A Íew foms I would noq Ìike to call ideophon€sse.€ elicited ar equivâlertsol EngÌish adjectivesií ìimited situaüons; one tDm€d trp fi.st in a provêrb. The vêry limitâtion oí the avaüable datâ, howeler, makes it interesting to consideÌ the diÌection in which it app€ars Kpeue roots âre typicâlÌy or the structuÌes cv(!), cw(t), and CVCV({). The sttuctüÌes CWCV(!) and CVCW(Ì]), âÌthough uncommon, must Àpparently
ADVERBT^LS. IDEopHoNEs. SEMÂNrrc R^NcEs
4ôg
alsobe consid€.edparÌ ol ihe normâÌphonotâcticslor roots. Roots wiìh three or and loms showinglull reduplicationexceptfor moÌe syllâbl€-initiâlconsonants, âbenãnt. Fü.th€r study reveals,}osâ tinel /tl/, may te.tativ€ly be considered ever, thât viÉuâÌly all roots sith nore than two syllable-initìalconsonaútsar€ fÌee nouns,ând these show none Õf th€ s€nânüc leculiaÌities typicâl ol ideophonesin other languãges.Many oI these ar€ adoptedwords, as i ratkórâÌl/ 'papaya' and /'kamÉnâ/'oÌângê fron Golâ, or /só6eli/ 'shovel Írorn English. OtheÌ6are probâbly âlso âdÕptedsords, and someâre r€ry possibìyoriginaìly conpoundswìich cân no longerb€ anãlyzedas such. Quiteposiblt noneol them is an originaÌ Kp€lle rôôt. In the presentsiate of the lànguage,however,it is quite posibÌe to includetheselorms as hâving a normalphonotacticstructu.eror Apart Ircm these I.€e nouns,only one Ìecordedform $ith thÌee sylìabl€initial consonaDts r€mâinstÕ be consideÍed.lt is Íecordedin only two expres in both cases folìosed by â nouÌtiïith the ìoN tone replacivecharact€ristic sions, ol conpounds;in one of thesetwo expr€sions,it appeaFwith tüll Ìeduplication. kámelâ!-kpàÌee'wòo'l€.nèdKpeìle'(KpellecÌìâra.terizedby maÍy allusionsto tradition and l€gend,metãphors,etc., ditticult for young peopleto undeNtând,only rarely spokenby mysel0 kâmela{-kámela{-kpünr6eÌi misshapencocoyams'(if youplãntthem, you dig them, the proverbsâyt ln tÌ'e li.st ol the abDve.ikám€laÌl/ could .€adily be ânâlyzedâs â noun, exceptlor the lact that it is not attestedin âdy ind€pendentuse. In tle second expÌesion, the ÌedupÌicâtionis abnomal. I did not, ând do nol reóenber if l tried to, recordit in ã predicâtiveusâg€.SenânticâUy,it is a typical id€ophone. P€rìaps the.e may be other fo.ms similar ro this to conúitut€ onc type ol ideoTh€ rchâining âbúrânt Iorús, somewlat over thirty oI {hich are recorded, are ÍuU reduplicationsas Íar as th€ir s€gmentálstructureis concerncd.The two paÍh ol each lorm âre tonally independ€rt and in a les casesmay be incoF rectly trânscribed.'l'he tonal combinâtionsâppearto be Ìexicâllydetermined. few of thês€Ì€dupìicâtedlorns ân Ìedüpìicâtionsôt roots othenhe atiêúed in the sameo. a similaÌ m€âning. It might bc posibÌ€ io excludethesetrom the categoÍyof ideophones on this Do.phologicalgÌound. Most of thesea.e recorded afte.nouns,and aptea.to tüncìionasattributive ldjectivâls. TheÌasttsooIthe rollo ng ere usd âdv€ÌbiâlÌy. Thesearel 'oneôrafe{atâ lifre' trlryrlâ ttr.-túe IóÌã-Iólã tonltãnô
'old, ancient' 'the fiÌst' the vêry ÍiFt' oneby one
kpéni-kpÉni
470
ÀFRrcÀN LÀNGUÁGE SrRUoúREs
The r€mainingreduplicat€dtorms are not d€rìvedlrÕn stemsusedindependentìy. Th€secan òe calledideophones {ithout hesitation. S€veÌslof thesearè lree nouns, in.luding à nunb€Ì r€lernng to physicaÌdisoÌd€N ând iúsects a phenomenonnoted ior ideophonicnôuns in Yoruba and other languâgesaìso: ôola-6óla! kÉrê-kíê Ínêê-Ìnêê kpai-kag-kae ktili-kplli
'hernia' 'a mild fon of.ingwo.m' 'rainy seasonioot itch' (âppãrentry oI tungus origir) '.ingwormol ìhe scalp' 'bedbuSs' yeÌlow-jâcket(hee)' 'twÉi-twei 'I;'r5 'beeGp.)' kwèi-kwéi! bee(sp.)' Ìlina-Ìlina mosquito' 6órJ-6òrJ elf (o. similaÌ mischievoüsbeing) mÈìê-mÈìê she€tglâs, mirror' vála-wála'powe.,autho.ity,strength' kpòllkpòÌr'femaletribalinitiâte' A few similâ. Íorms â.e relâtionâlnoms: lowestrib (or that areâ) -p€yúpõ/. wólo-wòlo! ìcab' 'lunss' -làlô-l3lo 'corner ot edge -6ele-6éle! À thi.d type oI reduplicatedfom is represented by oíly eight rÈcordedexãmpÌes,hnt Ì would be very much suÍpris€dif th€re are not ã greãt many more in the lânguãge. Theseãre âìÌ chârâcterizedby having lov tone tìroughout, wlich is not a normal tone toÌ úems in Kpelle. The lirst oÍ the €xamplesb€Ìow È recordedâtl.ibutively âítêr â noun; it is nÕt kdown whetherâny or aìl of the othe.scan be so nsed,but it seemsEthe. lik€ly. All â.€ .ecord€din a const.uction indicâtingpredicâtion,hut unlike predicâtesinvolvingnouÍs orâdjectivâls. They âre nsd exactlyÌike lomtive adverbiâlsin exp.e$ionssimply statiDgthe Ìocâtion oI something.That is, a predicationlike i'káa ÌèyFli./ 'it is soft'is like /'káa nãã/ 'il is th€rc'. not Ìike / káa à ôóa/ it is a knite . ln the ÍolÌowingexampÌes. â glossÌike solt (of food) is not to be taken as meaningthat the form cannotbe usedIor any other substince,buf mer€lythát I recordedit only ií thât coÍtext. Theseid€opho.esare: 'soft (oÍ Iood)'
kàla-kàlâ
'smooth(oi wood suÌIâce) tmooth (of wood surface)' 'roügh (ôr sood süúace)' 'eit (fÌom being cooked ) 3câtteredaround haphazardly'
471
ÂDVERBÌ^LS. IDEopHoNEs. SEMÁNrÌc R^NcEs
I Ì'ãve not Ìecorded.but havc coiainÌy heard,ideophones ol the interjective typ€, particularly somewhich aÌc imitâtiweoÍ or rep.es€ntsFecificsounds, II the soundd€scribedis continuingoÌ rcpcâted(unlikeure single"bang" ol â eun), the ideophoneis 8ene.ãllyrepeât€dat leâst thr€e times,with a pauseaft€r €ach sonetines occurrence.I cânnotbe surc,but seemto r€call,thât suchideophones coútâinsegóentalsouúd$úot typical oi rhe reguÌarphonemicsyú€m. Thcy aE frequently accompaniedby unusuaÌlocal elrects,such as a Ì'üshedvoice, abnormaìly }igh !ìtch. or laÌsctto voice. There âre severaÌpoints in Íolk stories which I have recordedwhere I wouìd ratheÌ expectsuchân ideophone.An adequate rêasonIor it not to be includedis that the úori€s wcr. dictâtedsentenc€ by lâborioussentênce, not in the contexto. style ihat ÌendsitseÌÍ to the addiüon of optionâÌdramstic soundetfects. l5.4. I have not as yet detin€dideophones in Igbo to my own satislâction. VeÌb Ìoot moryhemes havethe structDreCV. Noun root morphemes a.e cómmonly the samestructurei a typical lull noun has the úructu.e VCV or NCV, with a prefi!. Ther€ are, however,msny nounswilh â prciix foììowedby two to iou. syllabÌes.The.e seemsto be no st.ong motivation foÌ including ãll of the* in a categoryof ideoplìones.As in Ktelle, the phonotacticsof noun rôôt stru.túre may ìe conside.edmore varied than thât ol !êrb rooi slructüre. Ther€ is some reâsonto beÌievethat somesuch noDnsa.e the Ìesult oI d€riÌational processes vhich probably cannotbe adequatelydelinedunles Ìelevant evid€ncetu.ns up iÍ relâtedìânguâges.Someothersof thesenounsâ.e cìearlyadoptedwords. Some tyles of redüplicâtionÕr €choinga.e loud, but Íoms ìike the foilo{ing cannot be nêâdy clâsiliêd or chârâcteriz€d, ând it is dubiouswheiheÌ they should be
ànyìnyà áúri úmümüwá.i
'norse' 'millipede' ÍirerÌy'
i)gbirigbá 'bell' ókpócó.ó
Somebird nmes ìelong in this câtegory.ând âre c€rtâinlyjnter€stingsounding. Àndevenononãtopoeic.Still, they cannotbe conciselyditf€rentiâtedlrom majo.ity of all other nouns,tbough r€düpìicãtionnuú be noted; a considerabÌe in qu€stion ãre: the bird names.€coÌdedare no.mal. Tìe Douns ikwighjkwighi
'owl'
òkóòkó lipálákúkú
'panot' pigeon
Somenounsoi â type describedin 9.6,ÌeÍening to qualitiesand hereglosed as if they wereâdjecÌives.showa pecuÌia.tyfe of redupÌication.À vCV seqüence (which in ônly onecãsealteâs âpârt lrom thes€lomt is lully rcdupìicatedsith a consonânt,/d/. /l/, or /n/. betweenthe tso !â.ts. ln onecas€,ân Ncv sequeúce i, sinilaú reduplicated,with /dá/ betweenthe t{o parts; in other cases,NCV sequen@s are simpÌy fuÌly .êduplicãt€d. The tones are all hieh. This type of desoipüve noun, ho$'ever.includesother memberswhich show no paúiculâr phonologicalpecuÌiâ.ity,though they happento ìave two-sylÌableroots. Yet
472
AFÂrcN L^Ncu^cE SÍÂucÌ',TB
the.e is somereasonto consideÌ the r€duplicated íoms a type oÍ ideophone,paúicula.ly in light of the three sinilar alternative lorDs of tlìe first listed b€low; some speâkers us€ two or âlÌ three of these treely, thoush the variaüon mây originâÌlyhave ìeen dialectal. Fo.ms oI this type aÌe: óbódóbó 'wide' (- úédibé, ábádíbá) ógólógó 'long,tâlÌ' (- ákánáká) úbádáúbá 'wide,fÌat'
úri-íti úklGÍkpó Íkérêtkéré
'â ìittle' 'sho.t of stâtu.e' 'thin, rine(not coâre,,
A rew expre$ioÍs ror colorsmay be conside.edideophonic.TheseshowÍull Ìeduplicationând â.e denÌed by specialtonaÌ ruÌes. They ârê: úhys,úhyé 'b.ight.ed (- 9ìàrà-òbàrà, in nortlem dialects) I can think oI only one form üât nìght be câlÌedân ideophonicâdverb;it is /gbüÌügbúrui in a circÌe,â.oundand aÌound. The noú seriousproblemin handìing the types ôf datâ nentioned so far is to woÌk out an adequatedeÍinition oÍ ideophonicnouÍs of otheÌ thao th€ des cnptive type. The candidatesfor such a câtôgoryincÌudea number ol nouns which àre in no wây sehânticálly unusuãI. FoÍ Ìgbo, it mãy be !ÍeleEble to state the recognizabÌeor apparent types of noun derivation, ând ìeâv€ everything els€ tô the phóÍotâcticsot nóun rcots. lhis suggests the pôsibiìiìy thàt the concept may have beenoveNorked in someother languagestudies. or ideophones Âpart lrom ihe above,lgbo hãs a number ol id€ophoDes of the inteÍjestive type. Almost aìl of the Ìecorded exâmplesâre imitativô or Ìepre*ntátivê ol sp& ciiic sounds. This doesnot Dean that there may not be mãny nore vith oüe. shântic r€ferenc€s; it Dày only ÍeÍlect tìe Íàct thât thes€w€Íe suppliedby âú iDlo.mant afte. I hàd asked about expÌesions compâRble to the EngÌish 'the gü went bang . Of ihe thiÌty oÌ so foms re@Ìded,onFand the Õnlyonem@Ìded p.ior tÕ thê deÌibêmt€âttêmpt to find suchideophones-husedâttribütileÌy âÍter a noün. It hâsgot to be my favoriteideophoü€in any AfricãnlâÍgüage. The noun /úebó/Ìef€6 ìroadly to any v€hiclein which (not on wìich) onecan dd€car, catt, train, canoe,steamer,pÌane,or ündoubtedlyspac€capsule.A vehicle usedon the wateÌ may be specilìedby the phrase/úgìó ú miÌi/. Soney@Ìs a8o, sÌow and eldeÌly sidê"wh€€l(o. we.e they ste.n-sheeÌ?) steneÌs us€d to ply the Njger .iver, ând they hâd to ìâbor pretty hârd to nov€ üpstrearn. Such â steâmeÌ sas /úgbóÌí niri ,túú-túú-t'iú/. Other interjectiv€ ideolhonês ãre usedalter a predicate. They are oft€n pÍ€@ded by â sìúht pâuse, shich mây be considereda phonoÌÕgicâìpecìdiarily dis tiÍguishiúg theseas a cla$ f.on au ôther*ords in the languag€;theph€nomelon mây be indicated in ìvriting by â colon. Those*ìich representcontinuingor
ADvERBÌaLs. IDEopHoNEs. SEMANTTCRaNcEs
473
rep€ãtedsoundsâÌe rep€âtedtvo to four times,ìviìh jnteNeningpauses.Several of them havea iinal syUâbic/m/, shich is aÌ$ fouDd,thouShmuclìlesscommonly, in othe. wo.ds which one would not want to classilyas ideophones.Many of theseideophones havep€culiar phonotactics,but the structuresdo not l€nd themeelvesto a simpl€ cÌâ$itication. Ther€ are no phonem€sotheÌ than tho* ol the regüÌd lhônêúic system, ând the ônìy viôìâüon ôl nomâÌ rul€s fôr immediate phon€micsequences is âbnomal dumtion. Wh€n I .ecoÌdedone fom, .€!resentâtile ol the soundol â cânnon,I transcíbed it as /kìrndì/; the iúlorhânt, who was watching ne fÌom acros the tâbl€, instructedme, "Prt one more to it." Someof thesêmây be accompanied by unusualvocaÌerlects,pâúiculârly hushed oÍ tensevoice. The fouowingaÌe the id@phonesoI this type record€d,in the sentencesas Siven to m€, with no indìcãtion oI possüÌe f.eedom in the pr€cedingpÌedicates;"X" is usedas a gÌos wherenecesary: úgòlô òmà !à èti | ÌJwòó,twòó. !wòó. 'À cÌow (ol a small va.iety) câll, ".aw, .âw, caw". áwò nà èti : wòó,wòó,wòó.
'A Ircg(?) caus"x, x, x".' àkirÍnàèti : tÈrútàá,tÈrútàá. 'A frcg câlb "X, X".' ikwìghikwighi Dà èti : üwúü. üwúü. 'An owl calls "who-o{, who Go".' úkÍtá ürì íkpú: húyì, húyi 'A dog called "x, X".' (Mây reter to barLine,but most dogsin lgboÌand bâ.k very litile.) {{á 'óló'gbótirì Ìlkpú : mìá !wú. ? kitten câlÌed"meow".' {wá é'vú tiÌi Íkpú : dÌmá'á.òmá'á. 'A young goat caued"ba-a-a.ba-a-a".' (AÌe of a sheep.) ìsbè òkúkò tìÌi : kwó kwó kwó ksó, úmü yá'kpákòrò. '\ÌÌren the hen clucked"kpõ kpô kpô kpo", h€r chi.ks gâthered.' òkúko tirì ikpú : kò kò kò kò tüá, ÌlgbèégbébyàÈ i bú !wá yá. 'Th€ hen crckled "X X X X X" when the kite câne lo cârry awây her chick. (Also ener Iayìng ãn egg.) ò!ü nà ékü: òiúkú tüú, tüú, tüú. 'À coucalcries(lit. 'bìoss ) "X X X X". òkúkò bèrè ákwá : òkü kóÌó òkôóò. 'The rcoste. c.owed (lit. 'cried') "cockadoodl€doo". èkpètè nà ádà : kpèghèÌìÌbú, kpèghèrhbú. 'A (variêty of single-headed) drum goes(lit. 'fâlls') "X X".' égbèáhü dà.À : cáká fòm. 'The gün (a musk€t in this case)w€nt "bang".' égbè áhü dàrà : kìdÌÌhÌh. 'The gun (a cannonin tìis ca*) went "boom".
474
AFRTCN LNcu^cE
Sm'rcrBEs
lMi í nà ádà : pèrh pènr pèÌh. 'The water is dnpping, "dÌip, dÌip, drip" nà àeá ijè : kòyi, kòyì, kòyì. ó 'He's walking "cÌonp, clomp, clomp".' (In leather sho€sor boots, âB lgbè ó p)àrà )à ülàrì,ó nà ódà | tüwà.Luwà. 'When he wÌtippedhin, it went "oack, c.âck".' Ìlkwú dàrà n'àÌà : didl. 'A bunch oI ?alm DutslelÌ on the gound, "X".' Òômá dàrà n àlà : kpìnr. 'Aú orâúgèfêlÌ on the ground, "X".' òkúkò nà àbó ábúbó : ékpékérékpàci. 'The chickenis scmtching,"X X".' òké ebàghà.irì n'óhyá : yághá yághá. 'The Ìat ran âÌoundin the bush : "X x".' (In dry Ìeave.) üdèÌèbéksàs,ri n'élú úlò : jàghàÌh. 'The vultu.e Ìandedon the mof, "X".' ínünü nà àgòá ó'só n ú,Ò : wéréwéré. 'À ìird is running down the .oad, "X".' (As whên â bicyclê cones sìong.) ágsó lgáIèrèn úzò : wéÌéré.é. 'The snakêsÌitlered acrossthe road, "X". ó gbàrà ósó n'lúé ú'mirl: tákpá tákpá. 'H€ En th.ough the water (â puddle),"splâsì splash".' égbèÍgwé zèrè: gbúüm. 'The thunder runbled, "X".' Thereis oneinstanceoÍ a normaÌshort sentencebeingusedas ân iít€rjective ideopìone;the situation is âfteÌ bush has beenbu.ned Io. ã lã.ml égbénà èti : nyé'ú ú né ú. 'The kite câlls,"Give me my rnother".' The.e are two instances of intqjecììvè ideophoúesrefeÌriúg to app€ârânc6; they are recorded as düIerent in tone, which I hope was not ã câseoI Íeglecting to linhh the mâÌking. Thee is âl$ oí€ instâncèrefèning to a situâtion. These ú má à cálÈrÈ: bárìdì. 'This knite is bright shiningnew.' àmünà 8büIü : báÌiú. 'The lightningfiashed,"X".' nòó : úséús ísé. 'Don't ìe meddlesone., 'Don t get involved. (/Dòé/is a! ihperaüve,
'srây.) Perhapsthis discú$ion cân be concìldedwith my own d€finition of ideophones:id€ophoDes âÌe thosewordsthat are suchfun tó üe.
ADVERBT^LS. IDEolEoNEs.
SEMÁNrrc RÁNGES
15.9. A disc!$ion oI semanticranges,the definiüonôI l€xicâÌ entries,cânnot in the nàture oi rhe câsebe syslemarjc,úd it mày seeü hivial ro one wirh sômesophisticâtionalout language. A lew examplesof unexpectedsemantic nnges Inay. ho{eaer, be instrüctiÍe to two types oi peoph-those who âre ar temptiúg to Ìeârnân Airicân lãnguagealter â ninimüm of technicaÌt.aining and who aÌe too easilysâtistiedwith â súpeúicìaÌèlpÌânâtion,and the new bÌeed oI âdvaned úudent who is imm€Bed in the compÌexities ot contemporary theoretiin their daiÌy üse. câl lingu'sticsbut learnslittle about the Ìealitiesof langDages Atìeãúa lew decâdes ãgo.but hopefulÌynot any more,Âmericanmissionaries in Libe.ia couÌdbe heardmakinga remarklike TheseKÌr€llepeopleãre so gEteIul that ve arehere. Wheneverse go throueh â viìlâgeor pâst { fâm, they telì rs Thalk you - And indeed,tribespeoplewìo speâkã little English use exactÌy thosewordsunder suchcircumstances,Wa.m and hospitableas the Kpelle peoplênày be, hoçèler, grâtiìudehâsnothing to do with the Desage intended. The EnglishexpÌesion 'Thank you'ìas uncritically b€enusedás a trâdslâtiôn of a Xlelle dpresiÕn /i seyé/(to ône peson; io nore ìhan one it is iká soyÊ/) in all of its va.ied usâges.The Kp€lle expressionis used,âmongôther things, ailer receivingâsisiance, a service,o. a gift ci.cumsianceslnder which we would commonìysay 'Thank you'. lt is âlsoused,ho{ever. âs âú expresionof congratulâtiontor \!ork {eÌl don€,to pârentswhen â bâby is born, or on the ocat work, or câsionol any pleasantevedt. Ànd it is usd âs â gftèting 1o someone rs a word of welcome.Thinking ot 'Thank you as ân apprcp.iatetranslation ünder âll ol thes circumstànces is â dhtoúion ôf Kpelle culiure. Thc rângc ol ideasconveyedby /i $yÊ/ in ure many sitüationsin vhich it is usedcãn lâr beÌtê. be .epresentedby Hey, tìis is greatl' Expresions with a compâ.âbleversâtility are common thÌoughout West Africa. It shouldbe expectedthat greetingsand daily aúenities iú slmost any lânguagemust be understoodin te.ms of the situationsin which they are used, râther thãn in teÌms of t.ânslâtion. (Ihe sâmejs ultimâtêly true, ol côurse,ol any word in âny languâge,bút in many câks transÌâtiongiv€sa Ì€âsonablyac cuÌate picture.) GreetingfoÌnalities rânge hon sifrple exchângescompârabìe to our "How â.e you?" "Fine." to ceremoni€s taking up to liÍte€n minutesand involving speciaÌposturesincludingkneelinganil elen lying prost ate. lt is unlÕrtunately iúpossible to representid vriling th€ intermidableexchanges.in Bâriba, oI monosyÌlables lik€ /f5i and /mD/, with sulrstantivewo.ds of greeting ând queúions âbout each other's well'beingsubstitütedfrom time to time, alÌ i! an inexorablemetÌonomicÌhJthmi a lìve-wo.dquestionhas to be coúpressed into the sametime as a singlè/Iò/. When vilÌ well-neaningindividuals,gr€€ting card companies,and ilouywood entretreneuNeler stop cauingme ând my col l€aguesto âsk how io say Hdìo' or 'Meny ChÌistnâs' or D€aÌ Sir'in eighteen Afrjcan languages?(Asuming, oi course,that they rcalizethat there are lân 8uâgesothcr uran SwahiÌi in ÀIriq, One Hollywood chârâcler,looki.g lor a titÌe lor a pÌannediilm, askedmehow to say"S€x l" in S{ahili, obvioüslythinking oi alì the connotationsof the English word; deâdpan,I read to him Irom my
476
AFRTCN
LNôu^cE
SÌÀucdREs
Engìish-Swâhili dictiona.y: "Sex: nqli üa kú&ã kiune atr /
ÂDvEMr^Ls.
IDEopHoNEs. SEM^Nrrc RÁNGES
177
rosesând other non-tDlips. In Kp€lÌe, â singlewo.d ikpolo/ $lÌich may, to be sure,!e Dodiliêd to speciÍynêmb€rs oI tìê cãt€eory mey by itsell .etcr to sâlt, soa! (a product olÌye and oil),lye, or bâking sodâ;the word cleâdymeanstodium', thoueh with Ío iÍnplúatiod that il originâÌ€dsith laboratoryqnâìysh. It shouldgo sithout $ying that this doesnot meanthat a Kpelle t.ib€snÌânsould be sâtisfiedio sprinklelye on h's rice. WhoeverÍì.st saidit, it shouldbe constântly rêmembe.edthat "soÌds do not €qualwords. It is ent Íely fitting that this work shouldconcìudesitìr a úriking exânpl€ süpportedby dÀtâ provided by ih€ gÌeât naster oÍ them all, J. G. Christâìler. In his nonDmentalDiclionatu of the Asanteand Fmle rdnsuage(1881,second edition 1933),six lulÌ double-columntages aÌe d€votedto tìe entry di, which jusi âbÒütâny spcâkerot Akân wiÌl tcÌl you meâns'eât'. Christallerdirides ils uss into twenty-six major cãtegoíes,with a tôtâl ol one hundredten subcategories. By wây ot inlrodüction,he givesân únderlyingneaúing to ktke (in lhe nandr)ând lo /ìandÌe.or,o use.mãkeuseof. enpby ,tô\hich hehâsiily addsthât it is used also, and id tact more.ôftmónlt, {irì âbsftàct nóuns1ô expressan abstrâctâctivity. I haÌe âttemptedto sum üp iis usesundcr the gencâldclinition 'paúake oÍ or participatein . It is iúdeedthe geneml$ord lor '€at', but vith oÌher obj€ctsit reiereamongother things to usingup oÌ saúing mone)',tsking âcceptingâ bribe,inheritinggôods, a day olt, havingsexuâlrelátjônsNithsôneÒne, winning â victory, deÍeatingan opponent,playing a game,holdi.g ân olÍice,enduÌing sulIe.ing,mãking a bargain,living in somespecili€dway. and so on at consid€rabl€ìength. A Ìãnguag€has not ìeen well studied until ure natu.e oI suchemantic rânges,if not àn exhâüstivèlist ôl âll recordablecollôcãtions,hâs
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471)
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È êmênlssousd,ols d àulêur
Index of Language Names Thie index irclud€s an nsnes oí AlÌic,n languqes, knguag. 8Ìoups,and languâgclanilies ÀllhougbtìeÌe ai€ ô.crsionâÌÌeÍertnces in lbe teal t0lhgulslicenlities Iún óthêrpú13ôi the vorld, th.y e not incìudedin the iìdex. BoÌtu larenaqenanes Fith clss prelix€s are !ìphaìer Th. clasíicâtronôr cacrìranguagris grvèh,u.uarìy0nryup r0 thr nâJoÌ bÌânchôl thê lúguágê Íanlìy 10 eÌìj.ì lt bel0ngs.Ìhe ìocârionoI eacììlÀÌClageis givenin
ib.ancb or Niso co.8o) 120, ?.1!, 1,tl AtriÌaâns(cemahici southAhlca) Lú (ísnily) !.1!' 118. 2.16, 3.4 ^Íro-Asieljc LA,4.A q!- C.& !.9, !!!, 1!.!, 15r À*ân (se ârsoÂsântê,Ìì.ire, Tvt (Keâr chtn ) L?4,4 2i!9,2lL 212, Al 3.!, 3.!L 319, 4.5, 4.1!. !.2, 5.!. sl5, í"r ?4 q{ 1q.1, {.!, 1!4 1!i!!, 112!1l11141fé.1].13j1].lt!2.1L !!z !!.9,154 Ânhâric (semitic!Erhiopia) 3-1! (Ëskn snd,nlc: Nilotic! sud$) a'u* A&bic (sentic; Egf,pt ând sudan io lto.oc ú) !!, a{ 0.1]l 0.14 c.!, alq 9.u Asa.re(dhlectotAkan, q,v.) ?-a Ârcs (E61cn sud,,ic: Niloric! Lsãndâ, (enyâ) 3,r2 Bâsa(sbup in Ì.srÂrhniì.;
si.râ Lrône)
Brea Koba (\ilesr Atlahtrc: Bagâ groupi sieÌr, Lmne) úr Brnbfa (diekcr or Mmdrkãn, q.w.! MgÌi, cü,nea) ?i!, 2-!!, 3-L 3!!fr E !, 3,5 Blnrlele (8roüpin Bântli cânercon) L?. 3l Bendi(dtarcctor M.bde,q v.; Lrbriâ) 4.!q 4.1Á 4l' BÁniu Gub-seup in Bcnu. co.go) LlL L0, 1ô L9, Llq L|L L?!, ?.L 25
?.9,?!5, ??t tt !14 !21, !2?, !!!, 4lZ 5À ã19, !!!, L]j?q Eô 9.1q 9.1?, 1!tl !02 {.!, 1Q.11-1L1- 1!Z 1!.& !j.15, 121, 12.l, !2& 124
7J.!Ã E l, 10.!, 1!,!, 1L9, lt !4 !4 !L!,
!.1À
1!.6, !1.& 1!.1, 1!3 1!.4 !!.1
BâÌlbâlcui! Dahonêy,Njserjâ) L1,2-1q 3l 3j- 423, 4.!1, 5.1, 52& 7.!. 9.! 1Lí 1L!, 1? 12r, 9q !S!q, {!!, 1!Ll,151 Bâ$â (1($âi r(ru ercup; Ltbsia) !]À 13-ú BâuìelKrâ: Âkâì sÌoup; Ivory coâsr) L?. 53 B.nüe-consolbrahch olÁ"ìsd.cohso) L2q 2.!, 2.16,ZLl 8.! Ílj Btnuc cÌôs Gdughly cqualsBenuecônsô *tììoür Bânlu) 1l erbü (bran.h ol ÁIú-Ásiâtic) L1!] lL !.q E.!q E 1l- ú,n Berê (Kvai Niee.ia) 1_1iÌ Bokyi (K{a lBèbne'consoa... to crênbcÌs.lj Nis.riâ) 3_xì Bulu (Bânru!caberoon) tZ 6r Bushhâì (lancuâcesib l{lìoÀú lânlly) 12! 3Á 4,rl Buàó! (Bânru;cohso) úl cììadic (bnnú ol aIÌo Âsiâlic) !.1& q4 !.4 qq c!! !!.!!, 15t chârl-Nll. (bmnch ol Nilo-sâharân) l-19 cíouìo (Pôrrns!êse'b'sêd cEols) l-l-1 Crc$-River Grotrp in Bcnnc-Con8o) 1-2O curhlr (bÌânchdÂhô.aìsric) !.]!. 1'Ì& 1,q !.4 {.4 34 !.q !!q 3-ü Dan lclo) (riandei Llberl., Ìvory coast)
?!- ?.0,1ál
Desêmâ(Kvar NiseÌü) j-11 Dho-Luo (charl-Nil€: Nilouci Kenyâl LZ 2.1Â !.!, tr! E!!, ú-Á Didinsa-MuÌle(sÌoup in Ee:ten sud.nic) 3ó 435
486
INDEX oF LNGUÀGE
Dinka (cbÌi Niìe: N dic! südm) 2r Dosdn (Hãb.) (Gür; rÍ,Ìi) 2_9 Duâh(Bahtu; câmeúon) Lr Dyinini (Gur: s.nuto sxoupj Iyory coasl)
4.!t ?Á
Haüsa ichadic:
NieÈia,
NMES
Niqer, ctcì
1!?,
?.4 ?.!! t4 !.ú, 4.?! 4!! !.4 C.!1!-?,1!13. 1!.1-ú!, 15i
Hèrd (Bdru; soürh*ét alriú) 1ol2 Hti (ch!dic; NisÈia) 3:l ríÈhdi (ssâìrli d spokdnby Indtús; Tm
Eâíern Slda.ic Gub-brâncb ol chaÌi-Nilè) Ìjdo (Bini) (Kwâ! N{.dâ) 219, !!!r 4,2e Eík (K{a lBenuÈconsoâe, to GÈenb*s.Ì; Nrsdü) ?.?,2.3.2.6.2.e.. ?.14
2.8 2.U- 2.]], q.L 3.1a 3J& !2q 3.244.5,:!!, !1, 1!q !!4 !?q 1!!q.2!,!?r ql ?ó qt 9.2 !4.4 4.!1!!t 1!.11-1!.!!, !!.1!, !!.1!, 1?Á 4.!, 4.!, 4.!, !2.U, 12.12!2]9, LL9,!!.4 15.Ll5r
EiÌrü (K{a: akm smDp; Ghânâ) 1,12 Esyplün (Àítu Âsiâric, earincr) L!À 8I Ehsênhl(Ks.jNlseÌ'e) úrr Etsâko(Kvâ: Èdo grcup;Nissria) 3l E{e (Kvd!Ghdâ) 2.1,2À 2L 2.19,!:1t llq 4E 4!1, !.!L 11ú 1L?, 11,!' 1215 Evondo (Bmìu, caneÌôôn) Lf Fante (di.ì, or Akân, q.v.) Lla
?!- 2.!,
?.s,?.9,z!9, 2.11-?12,?.11,41L ?& 1Z !.!, !4 q!, q.!!, 4.!, !3 $!,
?.4 q.l, 10.4, !0.?- l!l!L
1!.?! 1L2.
1r.4 12p,1?!ì 1?.1í 1!-&
Iüìr (\{ct Atlantic; honcôntleuous arès cuinêa ro canêmob) lil 44 ?!!, cÀ (Kva: Ghau) ?.1- ?Ê, 4é, \.1, 4rn Ì-üGmdã (Bântu; ueddal !lÀ ??3, 0é 43 4.!, 1L!, !.q 0.?- 0!4, 4!a Cba$n (Bstür côngô) ?-!l cbcya (adana{a-Ìj6tên; Cêh$âl Aiiican c. ez (senìtic,exthct; Êthtopia) 2Á Goìa(wesl Atlântic;Liberla) 1jú Gourúâ (Guri Upper volrâ) !.]- ?-13 Gnr (bra.cìì or Nistr co.so) !?q ?Á ?:2,
?.!q ?.!, ?!!, 9À !!.!E 11ô l2Jl,
"Haditic," "Hâúlro-Senulc" Lú Hatsa ((hoisanr Tm'oiã) 1-22
HôÌle ôr (lúeuâses in Khohln ílnily) t2t ÌseÌâ (KM; Niedia) 5-1 rgbo(K{ai Nigériâ) ?.1 4?,9,?.11,?.12, 2.!L ?.!5, 2tE 3?, 3.!!, !14 3.1!,
q.4, !!q 4ó !.!, 4.r, 4.!, 49 4.1q 4!?,4!! !!,5.16-19.!?q !?! !?!1 9.t Lt 7.11 9f, 9!- 9.4, 9.?, 1!.4, !!.!, !!.!, !!!q !9.?& 1a?!, !!.!L ltl !14 !L9, l!]q !L!L 1L14 \L1t U.L pa !2& rff, 12& 12& ulq 4J! uJa 1?.1!, 1?.11 13.!, 13.9,![3, 14.4 1!é 1!.t 1!,4 {.4 1!1, 1!.E 15-j Ijo (K{a; Nicc.ia) 1t?!,5-2á Irâqw (cushitic;ftrzânú) ún
JukÌb (Bennc-conÉo;NtÈia) ?!L 191 ?.rq !!- !.!, !!q 9.4, uq 4?4 4!q 5.?, i.!4 ?!! ?!& 1!.4 !!.!, 12,r !4c, !!!à !t.q taM!.1& !?.1!, 1?!f, lil! rükün (DìyD 3l !!q ?.4, 44 4!!,4?q í,11, C,!, 9 1!Á 1!lí 11,11,12ó 1?.!, 1iL1O rukun(wÀpã) ?:!1 lZ llq 3.!9,4,13-1e. 42q 43!- 5.1,1Mq!, 10L1 12-5 K.b!è (Gn.ì Togo, Dahoney) 2-t Kâkâ (Bmtu; cmêÌoon) 6l LiKaÌi li (Bmrü; conao) ?,ú Kêbu (Kçâj Toso) Lüì
I(ho'srn (famiry) t 1L 1.?l, ?.1Ê,Có, 4À &1, Q.t4 15,4 Kikuyu (B.ntu;Kenyr)5,10 KiKoheo (Banruj CÃnad) !19, 3:lL !:2, 4,1í O.?!,0é €,1€,!? 1?é 1!- (NiselKordolanih plúd Kônsd-srìran Nllo-s.raran supe.-lâhlly) 1-ú Kordolaniân Gection ol Nigcr-Kordolaian) llL !4),4 L2, ?.!L F4 pa Kpeììc(M.nde; Libe.iâ, cuhêâ) !t L& 2.1,
?A ?!' ?.1,?& ?& 2a\ ?.19'4 ?.L 3.4 ?.!-!.1?-!?q 1?a 4!q lit !.!, !Á !.t !.9, q.Ë, 0.14!.!!, ? qÊó,
447
INDEXoF LANGUÁGE NÂíEs 9.4 q4 lqq !!Á !!.?, !!.!l 1!!?, t!?!, !!.! !?!- 122. 12.4,l2.r 12-6, 4.?- 12.!, 1?.!, 1?!!, 1!.!' 11A,!!.7, !!!- 1!!! 14.2,4.q !!4 1!.!, 1!.!, 1i!- 1i.?, D.!, Et- E!, 15-e Kr.hn (Kva: Kru eroupjl-ibe.iâ) ,1]
Ì-o]Iongo: Íc LoNkündo MoÌó (cu.j UppÈ volra) Ljl rÍüÌìe (cha.i Nilc;sudan) 3,6 Mscrâ (M{èrâ) (Bântu; rânzaniâ) 1q!
Kno (EnslÈh bscd eolê;
N,|di (châri Nile: Niloti.; xêbyâ, usânda) 2l;Ì NdoF (Bènue'con8ojcâmêrcon) a4L 3l r-iNEara(uqnru; coneo) 6l Nsonbe (Bânlu; conso) ljú Nisd-cohso (sêctlonol Nlser-KordorârlâÍ)
sien
Leonr)
1à M, 1-15 Kru (Kwâ: KÌu tDup; Ltheria) ?-rÌ K.u smup (Kv,) LÀL 2Á ?!, ü-lr Kúrep (B.nu.-cdngô! Niscria) q:lq 1116 Ksr (brúch ol N,eêFconso) Laq 2.1!q ?.4 ?.!, Z.q ?lÀ 7.1!, 1!-1 Kvar (K{a: KÌu gNup; l-lberlâ) ?:1a Í111 Lrndum. (wat arlân1ic! sièrâ Lêonê) Lomâ (Mande! LibÈia, Guine) 1é ?,! !.L 4.1!, !!t O,l- ó!3, ?,2, !3 t5l LvÕ (cbâri-Nilè: Nlloricr Usandâ) ?i!A M8ta (MbusÌ) (cnshitic! Tanza'ia) LL L10 M.asâl (Chúi-Nlte: Nllollci Tahzúla) i,jL2 Mandc (b.snch or Nuerc.nso) LL L?q 2.!!,3.2, ô.! ?.! ?.2, ?!1, EZ E3 q.{ !Á 9.!, C.?, C.9, ú.!, 44 4.q, 4.1 qfa t 12- L!1, !!& !5,L 153 Mrnde, No.thveíeÌn g.jl?- 5-13 Mud., sôulh*.3t m !!, !!l- 1!! í.1!, Mlndekm Ge lho Banbr4 Mâ.ink) (Mahdêrsên.eaÌ,canbiâ! cuinèâ,MâÌi! rvo.y co6t, upper vo,!c) 1! 4:14 1Í119 .M.ndlngo (Mrndeìranìn LibeÌic, Sienq q,r.) !.!?, Mdhka (dlalêcrol Mândeìian, Mâno (Mândej Libeía, cülnêâ) ?!L 91 421
lrL?, 1Z!, 2.1-2.4,2í ?U, 2.9, 2J9, 2.11,2.10,ô4 3.0,3.!!, 3.1&32q 4?. 4.l10?q S?, 0.1À 7,L ?.2, ?À ? ?.10.7.1.r. El,9-L q?, 1!2, 1!.4. !q!!, 17.L 17tL 4j, 17.tt 12i, 12À t2Á !2 !?.!, 4.1!, 12!Z !!.L 13.3.13.4. 1!é 14.!, !4.!, !4.!- 1!.L 1!.?, 1!3 !!Á 1!Á ú,6 NìsêrKo.dolaniir (lan y) 1!17,1!?!, 4Z 4.1n 64 qlq ?À ?.?, ?.À ?.!, ?!!, ?.É, E0, q!, &9, 1!iL !0.?, !!.0, rtl "Niìo H,niiic"
(ãÌeged
nixed
ìa.gÌage
Nflo'sah.nn (Íâm'ìy) M uq ?.?.?.1r!.!l. 2.$. !t 4.4 4.1& 9.1,3!2, C.13, NiÌoric (ercup in bÌânchôr chaÌi-Nile) L?,2-l!,3-6 LoNkundo(Lôr,Iônsô)(Bdnrr'!cdnsô) 2.:!5. ?4 9.5, 9.11" 0.10, 0!?, 0l!, ?lt ql, 9.1rL!0I 1!,1, !À!, 12r Nsüneli (Benueconso; cànerôôn) 6-rn Ntrerlchr.i'Nilei Nllotic;srdan) l?. 3-rx Nupe (K*{r NieeÌja) 2M, ran1 Nyanealt (Bânlui Congo) ?,14 chiNyanja(Bãnru;Meìwi) L?, íã Nzena(K*â: Akân sÌoup;Ghanâ) al ,oÌke (Khotún, prcbâbryeÍtincr; sôurh P.ì âÌâ (Cu. I SsnÌlo sloüp ; Ivo.y co,sr) ã
MbE câd.moh) Ll '(Bantutcaneroon) ú Mbo (Bantu; uMbuhdu(BântujAngolâ) 6,n Mende(se alsoBandi) iMsnd.j siem Lcoft) 1Á 212.q ]!31' !.t !lÀ 9Á 1,í1 Moè. (cnshitic; Ethiopia) 42 Mondunga(Àdcn$r EãíeÌn! congo)
saho (cÌ,hiiici Erhiopiâ) 94 4.ì q.q, 3-9 sandawe(Khokan;T.ntânlâ) 1,22 sdpior (sèbd)(cb"rlNtìe' Nllooc:ue.nda) 5lq E1?.3-r3 "sènl-Bantu" (alÌe8edDixe{t lânguagc
488
INDEX or LÁNcu^cE NdE
scmilic (bBnch ol Âirc kiatic) 1l!, ?4 !.{ q.q !.1q 3-ú senâ.i (cu!: senulo brânú; Ivdry Côâ ) L12, 23 3.L 4.1! í]ì, L9,4 !.t U 9.!, 9.9, 19.É ú?q !.t !!q 1!?, 1;li senulo (8roüp in cnr! s.c ako Dyinini, se".i, snppr.e) 2L2.19,7A?&19 13,2 S.r.F (wr! {r)anlicrSênq.Ì) {2 xiserilc (sRãhiri as spokcnby and ro serì.Ê) ! shona (Banb! Rhod6ia) ü, !!, c.14 4!Z !?4 ql q,!, q!1,61511'?- u,& !L141L1!115-4 sónâri (cüshilìc: sonalia) 42 súpp'r ícur: s.nuro b.,rch; Mãli) q:l 3,4 !31 i.!, ZJ, ?.!,9:! 9.!, 9.q ür {2q 4é !.9,É.4
riv (Benueconso; Nis.nr) ?!L ?.2,9i!!, 4ó {.0, rllq 02?,0ô 0.]Ã ?.!rl ?l5!Q.1, 12.i "To3o Rcnnâbt L,n8ul8a,. "roso RéispÌâch.n" C.rm Íor Kqa l.nguas.. h Toso with .oun cls$ systenO ?-l.lì shirssa (Bâ.tn; Mozmbiqug !é !.1{ !.õ, !ô 4.!q !:!L 4-11 s.T8vda (Bmlu; B.kíena) qÁ a.!,1!.1 tiL KiTnba (lin3Ì. i.,nca Íom ot Kixolgo, q.w) Tnnrun (la.su.sc od srcuD in Ko.{roraniân; sudân) 1,jlQ Tvi (d'âìeci or Aks, c,v.) 4.1q ?.4 9-4
syahili (Bârtü; Tanz.nlr, Kenya, u$nda, conso) 1& Lq L4 1!!r ?é! ?!q !.?l !?q !?1l 4.4 0!L. 0ll 0.1!,
west aíenlic (b.och ol NiseFcorso) 112 !]9,42,7.1L \ì/oìot (w6t Atl.n.tc; sênèg.t) 1r
6lz qq qlq 4.L 4.!, 1sÁ 1s.!, 1!Jl- 1!.1!, Uô \.!!. 121- t2,Z D.n p.3, 12J,\2.p,12& p}\ p]\ 12413f, !L1Z t4.L tltL I!f,1lÀ 15Â rí9
T.nâzr8ht(BerberiMorocco) r.hien (Kv!: x.u srouDjLiberl,) 2-6 rènn. (weí Auantic; sisrâ r-sone) ?l4 1!2 rera(châdic;NiscÌiã) 341i41t0 Tlgohg (Mh.hbe) (BcnuÈconsoi NigeÌ'r)
1& 4ft 1-t2
TlgE (scmulc; EÌhiôplâ) 2-!r TisÌinu (senitic; Elhiopil) alo
ukde (Benuec.nso; Nì8erir) !?a 515 u.hobo (Kv,: Edo 3Ìoü!j N&ns) ?t!q !.?q 5l
xhoú (BantuisouthÂlrlca)rLlll 4.jl?,6-t ysl{ (Kva; Nidc.ia) 2.!!, 4.1!,4.!4 1_31 KiYúzi (Brntu; côngô) 2l Ìonbc (B.nruì Cohgo) :Lú (K*ai Nrgèria,Dâìon.y, Togo) 1.20.2.I.?!q 2.1!, ??q !Á q!!,9?q !4.L31, Lz Lt1, L1Z L?!,9f, Lt !.?- 9.!, !!,{ r0.9, r04 1!.4 1L!, ú.0.11.16.12?,12.5.12.3.1?!41?.1E 12i!?, ll5, !!.q 1!.4 15,4 15,!, rãr zulu (Bú1ü! sôúth ÂrÌis) Q.?,Q.1Q,1!l
1.3' {.!10ó
