American Revolutionary War Leaders: A Biographical Dictionary

American Revolutionary War Leaders

ALSO

BY

BUD HANNINGS MCFARLAND

AND FROM

Chronolog y of the American Revolution: Military and Political Actions Day by Day (2008) The Korean War: An Exhaustive Chronolog y (2007) Forts of the United States: An Historical Dictionary, 16th through 19th Centuries (2006)

American Revolutionary War Leaders A Biographical Dictionary BUD HANNINGS

McFarland & Company, Inc., Publishers Jefferson, North Carolina, and London

LIBRARY

OF

CONGRESS CATALOGUING-IN-PUBLICATION DATA

Hannings, Bud. American Revolutionary War leaders : a biographical dictionary / Bud Hannings. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-0-7864-4379-6 illustrated case binding : 50# alkaline paper 1. United States — History — Revolution, 1775–1783 — Biography — Dictionaries. I. Title. E206.H266 2009 973.3092' 2 — dc22 [B] 2009022306 British Library cataloguing data are available ©2009 Bud Hannings. All rights reserved No part of this book may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying or recording, or by any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher. On the cover: Charles Willson Peale painting, George Washington, 1776 ©2008 Pictures Now Manufactured in the United States of America

McFarland & Company, Inc., Publishers Box 611, Jefferson, North Carolina 28640 www.mcfarlandpub.com

Contents Preface 1 Introduction 3

The Biographies 5 Signers of the Declaration of Independence and Signers and Framers of the U.S. Constitution 507 Bibliography 509 Index 517

v

This page intentionally left blank

Preface The primary purpose of this work is to provide for today’s readers and for posterity military and political biographies of the leaders who were responsible for the birth of the United States of America. Whenever possible, the biographies cover their lives from birth to death, and relate many anecdotes that open doorways into their personal lives, including their wives and children and, at times, their parents. The work includes not only the famous but also the unknowns whose experiences have been extricated from the shadows of obscurity thanks to the persistent efforts of reference librarians all across the thirteen original states. Over the course of completing other works, including Forts of the United States (2006) and Chronolog y of the American Revolution (2008), and researching other works in progress, it became apparent that facts relating to the leaders of the American Revolution were not centrally located. Biographies written in the nineteenth century were usually about the general officers of the Continental Army. Acquiring information on general officers of state militia was much more difficult as was tracking down information on legislators: details regarding the more prominent names were more readily available, while the less known required a series of searches. Here readers will find biographies of the Continental Army generals, state militia generals, and other officers of the Continental Army, as well as some Marine, Continental Navy, and state militia officers. Also included are biographies of the men who signed the Declaration of Independence and the men who framed and signed the U.S. Constitution, various diplomats, and war governors. Some of the leaders were doctors; one, Josiah Bartlett, a signer of the Declaration of Independence, found a cure for throat distemper that ended an epidemic that was ravaging New England and killing large numbers of children under the age of ten. The work, however, is not all inclusive. For the duration of the project, it was not uncommon to discover the name of an obscure general for whom a methodical search turned up no details. It seems that there must still remain some general officers (militia) who have truly been lost to history at least for now; there is the possibility that they will be discovered and brought back to the forefront to take their place alongside their fellow patriots in a place of honor for their selfless sacrifices.

The wives of the leaders played an equally important role in the building of the nation, but their deeds were seldom recorded. Therefore this work includes from that scarce supply of information a glance at their experiences and some of their contributions that brought victory and independence to the nation. The wives were one common thread: regardless of the status of the individual, whether an affluent planter in the South, an affluent shipping owner in the North, a prosperous or moderate farmer, a lawyer or soldier, no one appeared to have had a wife who did not fully support his endeavors, no matter the hardships. It is both fair and accurate to describe the wives of the leaders as the unsung heroes of the American Revolution. Through their unwavering support, ordinary men were able to conceal whatever fears they might have held and perform extraordinary tasks against all odds, while faced with nearly every conceivable disadvantage, to prevail in a conflict that raged for about eight years. With the help of reference librarians, historical societies, the National Archives, the National Park Service and the Armed Forces historical divisions, as well as other sources, including state archives, the work unravels some of the conflicting information that in some instances has been handed down since the nineteenth century. The use of the Internet, including the Web and e-mail, along with the use of the fax machine, made the task of confirming facts or invalidating erroneous information through considerable cross checking and research possible. In addition, Internet search engines provided a gateway to many original papers, family Bible records, last wills and testaments, and nineteenth century works on the leaders of the Revolutionary War period. The Internet also provided access to various universities and historical societies where many of the original papers have been preserved. The speed of e-mail and the timely responses from librarians and other historians greatly reduced the time required to acquire answers and fill in blanks. That communication was paramount when conflicting information was uncovered, and it clarified many uncertain items, including mixups in marriages, names and numbers of children, dates of births and deaths, and, at times, even where and when a particular person served or where they were interred. The depth of the individual biographies depended greatly

1

Preface upon the amount of information available. Often, particularly with the less well known officers and legislators, the amount of information that was preserved was scattered, with a piece of the puzzle held where the subject was born and other pieces held where the subject relocated or served. Even more difficult was discovering information on the wives and families of the subjects, due to the lack of documentation. Sometimes even the Bibles of a man’s family did not provide the name of his wife. These problems were overcome through the efforts of the many librarians and historians. It would not be an exaggeration to state that librarians in nearly every county in which one of the men included here was born has helped bring to light factual and accurate depictions of the individual military and political leaders of the American Revolution. Many of the names, such as George Washington, Thomas Jefferson, Benjamin Franklin, John Hancock, Alexnder Hamilton and Patrick Henry, will be recognizable to most readers, and of those, countless volumes have been written and more will follow. In this work, the biographies of the more famous are not meant to be as comprehensive as a full book, but the details will provide the reader with a complete picture of the career of the individual. In contrast, there are those, such as Generals Seth Pomeroy, Daniel Roberdeau, Joshua Babcock, John Glover, Peleg Wadsworth and Nathaniel Freeman (who fathered twenty children), who are much less likely to be recognized, yet they too

2 and many others pledged their “lives, fortunes and sacred honor” to the cause of independence and suffered the same deprivations and sacrifices during that turbulent period in our nation’s history. Many of the experiences of the subjects are well known, and yet many others might surprise readers. Examples include General Palmer, who because of a bet with a friend caused his daughter to become fearful of even a thunderstorm for the rest of her life. And another about General Winds, who, through his eccentricities, caused his favorite niece to crippled for life. And yet another about General Roberdeau, who was fearful of no man, yet had trouble with cats and even drew his sword when one blocked his passage. Then there is General Glover, whose regiment of maritime soldiers three times ferried George Washington’s army out of harm’s way or carried the army to victory, and General Nathanael Greene, whose remains were lost for about seventy-five years. Genealogy was not initially intended to play a large part in the work; however, again, thanks to so many librarians and historians, historical societies, special collections and archives, and modern research methods, much more often than not, there is a complete listing of each subject’s parents, siblings, wife or wives and children, and whenever possible, their ancestors, but only when reliable sources were available.

Introduction Over the course of researching the military history of the United States, from its inception, several obstacles impeded progress, and one of those was a constant occurrence: the mention of a name of a high ranking officer with no details and often no first name provided. That sparked curiosity about who the leader was and where he came from, which in turn caused more interest in what type of life he led prior to becoming a soldier or diplomat and whether he had a family. Answers to those questions were reasonably easy to find for the more famous individuals, but for the more obscure individuals, it became a daunting task. Nevertheless, it also became a worthwhile challenge, one that would help complete the history of the American Revolution by placing the individuals responsible for the birth of the nation upon a pedestal of honor. After the quest was initiated, other surprises emerged, but the unexpected revelations seemed to make the challenge more worthwhile. A similarity between the individuals developed almost immediately. As the deeds, skills and virtues of the leaders surfaced, it became apparent that only a small number were professional soldiers. Most were family men leading ordinary civilian lives until they found their families and their liberty at risk. After completing research on a nominal number of the subjects was complete another similarity emerged. Epitaphs and eulogies gave brief biographical sketches and recounted accomplishments. And usually, a eulogy, epitaph and gravestone would state that the actions of the individual in the cause of his country would never be forgotten and that his name would be forever remembered in posterity. In some cases, that was true, but in many others, within a few years after the death of the individual, the place of burial was forgotten and he passed into obscurity, where he remained in solitary exile. In this work, an attempt was made to remove the cobwebs from the tombstones, uncover the long forgotten contributions of those patriots, and honor them for laying the foundation of the nation beginning with the Declaration of Independence and following the framing of the U.S. Constitution. The heroes of the American Revolution profiled here shared many characteristics, including a fervent desire for independence and a noble determination to achieve justice for their families and posterity; however, over and above their

gallantry and heroism, whether by actions in the field of war or in the legislature, most were devoted Christians who held their faith above all earthly treasures. Those same leaders, despite the ravages of the fighting and prolonged absences from home, were able to maintain their responsibilities as husbands and fathers. The fresh glance into the past to experience the sacrifices, trials, and tribulations of the heroic wives of the men who founded the nation adds to the laurels of the founding families, who exceeded the bounds of endurance to prevail and leave a legacy worthy of honor. Those families paid an extraordinary price for their liberty, and it was the wives, the unsung heroes of the American Revolution, who stood behind the patriots, encouraging them in the darkest hours under the dark clouds of war. Their lives speak for themselves and will give readers an introduction to the patriots who risked all to create the United States of America. Some of those most probably would not have been remembered if they had not signed the Declaration of Independence or the Constitution, and others stand out as the nation’s founders, and yet others have been forgotten. The latter is that group that readers can only imagine — the individual infantryman and cavalryman, the crewmen of the warships, the wagoneers, the drummers and fifers, the cannoneers, the farmers, the blacksmiths, the men who rowed the boats, the men who dug the trenches, the cooks, the men who manufactured the powder and ammunition, and the men in the medical field who tended the wounded, and last, but not least, the courageous chaplains who accompanied the troops into battle. Without their untiring efforts and undaunted faith, Congress would have folded soon after it convened, and the American dream as we know it would have been exactly that, a dream, out of reach and never attained. Destiny, however, turned out different than anticipated by the British. Consequently, without the great generation of the Revolutionary War period, no American generations would have been able to carry the legacy forward. This work was written to continue to carry the torch in memory of those long-departed Americans who fought for neither fame nor glory; rather for the preservation of liberty, and to reinstate the intent of those who engraved the tombstones with the words, to paraphrase, “His deeds will never be forgotten and his name will live forever.”

3

This page intentionally left blank

THE BIOGRAPHIES

Adams, John (Continental Congress, Signer of the Declaration of Independence, President of the United States)

war and to restrict other freedoms. That year, John Adams, Sr., succumbed. Susanna later remarried, to become the wife of John Hall. In England during 1764, Parliament passed legislation that prohibited the colonies from issuing paper money that was legal tender. In March Parliament passed the Stamp Act and made it effective 1 November. Another act that incited the colonists was the Quartering Act. John Adams became one of the initial patriots to raise public opposition. He penned “Es- John Adams (Biographical Sketches of say on the Canon and Feudal the Signers of the Declaration of InLaw Writs” during 1765, dependence, Benson J. Lossing 1854) which essentially focused on the importance of educating the people to prevent tyranny. Other early pieces were penned by Adams under the pseudonym Humphrey Ploughjogger. In addition to his focus on the British actions, John had become interested in Abigail Smith (daughter of the Rev. William and Elizabeth Quincy Smith), whom he married on 25 October 1764. Abigail was one of four children. She had two sisters, Mary and Elizabeth, and one brother, William. John and Abigail had six children, four of whom would reach adulthood. They were: Abigail “Nabby” (1765–1813), John Quincy (1767–1848), Charles (1770–1800) and Thomas Boylston (1772–1832). The other children were Susanna, born December 1768 and died February 1770, and Elizabeth, stillborn in 1777. There was a constant exchange of letters between John and Abigail Adams. Abigail had often been in poor health as a child, and her parents arranged for her to be educated at home. Sensitive as an adult for her lack of mastering writing, particularly punctuation, she remained determined to increase her skills and to learn to speak French. She was extremely intelligent and greatly enjoyed reading. Despite her family’s involvement with high society, Abigail remained unpretentious. In 1768, John and Abigail left their farm in Braintree for a new residence on Brattle Square in Boston. The home became known as the White House. By that time, John found himself more strongly aligned with those in opposition to the king and his policies. That allegiance, combined with his superior skills as a lawyer, propelled him to a position of prominence within the growing numbers of the patriots in Boston. Meanwhile, word of Adams’ reputation had traveled to England,

John Adams was born in Braintree (later Quincy), Massachusetts, on 30 October 1735. His great-grandfather, Henry Adams, a Puritan, emigrated from Devonshire, England (according to the inscription on his tomb, which was written by President John Adams), and arrived in America during 1636. Two of Henry’s grandsons, Joseph of Braintree and John Adams (sea captain) of Boston, were the grandparents of John and Samuel Adams respectively. The Adams family initially settled at Mount Wollaston (Braintree). John’s grandfather was also named Henry; John’s parents were John (Sr.) and Susanna Boylston Adams. There were two other children, both boys, Peter Boylston (1738–1823) and Elihu (1741–1776). John’s early education included attending class in a one-room log cabin school operated by a woman known as Dame Belcher. During his mid-teens, he was accepted at Harvard College, from where he graduated in 1755. John’s consideration of becoming a minister was short-lived, and although he did work on the family farm, the labor in the fields did not entice him to be a farmer. During 1755, still with no particular profession charted, John became master of the grammar school at Worcester, but apparently life as a schoolteacher did not capture his imagination either. By 1756, John began leaning toward the law profession. He began to study law in Worcester under James Putnam. By 1758, through a combination of much studying and persistence, John was prepared to open a law practice. He was introduced to the bar by Jeremiah Gridley (leader of the bar in Boston) and, on 6 November 1758, John was admitted. By that time, he had become accustomed to maintaining a diary, a practice he continued (with some interruption) until 1777. By the early 1760s, his law practice was growing. At about the same time, the throne in England sustained a transition when King George II succumbed and was succeeded by his grandson, King George III, on 25 October 1760. John Adams would become one of the first future American leaders to contest the king’s radical policies that were thrust upon the colonies. Although John was a fervent patriot, he seemed paranoid in his youth due to his perception that his neighbors wished him failure, but he acknowledged his negative traits and in one instance was quoted: “Vanity, I am sensible, is my cardinal vice and cardinal folly.” Meanwhile, complications had developed during the ongoing conflict between Britain and France. Spain declared war against Britain during December 1761, followed by Britain reciprocating during January 1762. To further complicate the crisis, Portugal sided with Britain. Nevertheless, the conflict ended with Britain prevailing and France losing most of her possessions in North America. Britain afterward chose to place excessive taxes on the colonies to help pay the cost of the

5

ADAMS and it was thought erroneously that he would become a valuable asset to the crown. Adams, shortly after he was in his new quarters, was offered the position of advocate general (Court of the Admiralty), by Jonathan Sewall (attorney general); however, John was able to see beyond the offer to discern the motives. He declined the appointment. Sewall, on the business of the crown, to eliminate Adams’ agitation, refused to accept John’s negative response. Nonetheless, a second visit had the same resulted: Adams again declined the position. The British remained determined to prevail in the colonies. In October 1768, two British regiments arrived in Boston, marched to the square and commandeered the public buildings. British presence did little to win the hearts of the citizens, but the Adams family became especially annoyed. The parade drilling and other activity of the British troops continued to harass the Adams family for about two years incessantly. In an attempt to negate some of the problems, the Sons of Liberty would arrive at the Adams home during the evening to serenade them in place of the constant daytime blare of British military music. The dangerous situation in the square finally culminated in violence with the Boston Massacre on 5 March 1770. In the meantime, in 1769, through some unfortunate circumstances, Adams found himself heading for the Massachusetts House of Representatives. James Otis, a member of the House, was badly beaten and incapacitated. John Adams was chosen during 1770 to replace him. Adams became involved with the controversial Boston Massacre. He was of the opinion that the British troops that had been charged with firing upon a mob and inflicting casualties (three dead and five wounded) should have proper representation. Adams, along with Josiah Quincy, represented the eight soldiers that had been charged. The prosecution was handled by Robert Treat Paine. Six soldiers, including Captain Preston, were acquitted at the end of the trial (October 24–30) and the remaining two men received minor sentences. Rumors spread that John Adams had accepted a bribe to represent the defendants. John responded in his diary, in which he had been keeping notations since about 1755, that his compensation for handling the case amounted to twenty guineas. The presence of the British in Boston continued to inflame the citizens, and as time passed the intimidation increased steadily, but it only succeeded in galvanizing the opposition. Meanwhile, by the latter part of 1770, John’s health had deteriorated, prompting him to move back to Braintree the following spring. John’s departure prevented him from representing his former Boston constituents in the general court. He later recovered from his poor health, and during fall of 1772, he and his family moved back to Boston and resided in a home on Queen Street near the court house. Determined to remain out of public life, John made a pledge to himself “to meddle not with public affairs of town or province. I am determined my own life and the welfare of my own family, which is much dearer to me, are too great sacrifices for me to make.” On 17 June 1774, the Massachusetts General Court selected five people to represent the colony at the First Continental Congress in what was a memorable meeting; the final vote was 117 yeas and 12 nays terminating the final provincial assembly under royal authority. John Adams, his cousin, Samuel Adams, James Bowdoin (declined), Thomas Cushing and Robert Treat Paine had been chosen. An infuriated governor, General Thomas Gage, sped to the courthouse and adjourned the session. John was stunned by the results, as he had been absent at Faneuil Hall on other business. He became quite concerned that the task was too great, and he made several entries in his diary that detailed his thoughts. One, penned several days after the vote, said: “We have not men fit for the times. We are deficient in genius, in education, in travel, in fortune, in everything. I feel unutterable anxiety. God grant us wisdom and fortitude! Should the opposition be suppressed, should this country submit, what infamy and ruin! God forbid! Death in any form is less terrible.”

6 Nonetheless, the delegates traveled to Philadelphia, where Congress convened from 5 September through 26 October. Just prior to entering the city, a party from the Sons of Liberty intercepted their coach and informed them that word had spread that the delegates were opportunists; the men cautioned Adams and the others about mentioning “independence” because in Pennsylvania and the southern colonies, the word was despised as much as the Stamp Act. The delegates from the respective colonies had no genuine authority to take action, but the Continental Congress did provide the opportunity for the delegates to galvanize. John had come down with a severe fever during spring of 1775 and he was still quite ill when he departed Massachusetts, but he arrived on the day Congress convened. On 10 May 1775, the Second Continental Congress met, again in Philadelphia. In line with the crisis, Congress took time to promote a day of prayer and fasting. John Adams was among those chosen to create a resolution, with the selected day being 20 July 1775. By that time, the conflict had already begun in earnest with the incidents at Lexington and Concord during the previous April. On 8 June, Adams was placed on a committee to examine papers that had been seized from a British major, Philip Skene, the commander at Ticonderoga and Crown Point. On 10 June, John Adams proposed a Continental Army, a follow-up to his call for an American navy during 1755. (He wrote, “It looks likely to me, if we can remove the turbulent Gallics, our people, according to the exactest computation, will, in another century, become more numerous than England herself. Should this be the case, since we have, I may say, all the naval stores of the nation in our hands, it will be easy to obtain the mastery of the seas and then the united force of all Europe will not be able to subdue us.”) Congress adopted Adams’ resolution on 14 June 1775. Patriotism permeated the city and the militia proudly exhibited its skills. The scenes to Adams were both captivating and contagious. After Adams observed the troops and General George Washington in uniform in Congress, he became overcome with enthusiasm, noting: “Oh that I were a soldier! I will be. I am reading military books. Everyone must, and will and shall be a soldier.” Soon after, when he realistically thought of his age and health, he simmered down and found himself where it was that he should be, in Congress. During the Congress, John Dickinson pressed for another attempt at reconciliation. He prevailed by a small margin against John Adams and others, bringing about the “Olive Branch” petition. John Adams’ sentiments about reconciliation were well known. His thoughts were that “powder and artillery are the most efficacious, sure, and infallible conciliatory measures we can adopt.” The debate turned nasty between Dickinson and John Adams, and it continued outside the hall, where Dickinson, uncharacteristically, began yelling some offensive words, which prompted Adams to retort. The two men from that day never again spoke to each other in private, only during debates on the floor. Adams was appointed to many committees; one of those was delegated to arm vessels for the defense of the colonies against the British navy. On 15 June, George Washington was selected as commander-inchief of the Continental Army. He was nominated by John Adams, who took to the floor and made the proposal. The move by Adams was a masterstroke that stunned Congress, but it was planned that way. The motion placed Congress in a position from where it had to be for or against. The idea of Washington, a Virginian, as commander of an army composed primarily of New Englanders, including officers, caused some shock. Those who were reluctant to take action found themselves checked after the formal proposal by Thomas Johnson of Maryland. John Hancock himself had some thoughts of becoming the commander-in-chief, but he, too, voted yea in what became a unanimous vote. During the remainder of 1775 and the first half of 1776, work was exhaustive for Congress, as they discussed and debated all aspects of

7 what the nation might face. During the August recess, John returned to Massachusetts, but the reprieve was not enjoyable. An epidemic of dysentery spread through the Boston region. His brother, Elihu, died from it, and his wife and three children came down with severe cases. In the following September, Abigail’s mother died from the disease. Afterward, on 9 December 1775, John returned to Massachusetts for a short visit. He conferred with General Washington and he ( John) agreed to accept the post of chief justice of Massachusetts, provided that he did not have to be on the bench, except for something extreme. Later on 24 January 1776, John, along with Elbridge Gerry, returned to Philadelphia. John continued to be disgusted with the wavering delegates from the South and with some representatives of the middle states. However, John became invigorated once he discovered that Virginia was prepared to swing toward independence. John wrote to Abigail on 29 May explaining that Maryland had “passed a few eccentric resolves, but these are only flashes which will soon expire.” On 5 June 1776 the subject before Congress was espionage, and John Adams was appointed to the Committee on Spies, which had earlier (November 1775) been delegated to revise the Articles of War due to the rules containing no heavy measures to deal with treason. Soon after, on 7 June, a motion was made by Richard Henry Lee “that these united colonies are, and of right, ought to be free and independent states; that they are absolved from all allegiance to the British crown and that all political connection between them and the state of Great Britain is, and ought to be, totally dissolved.” The motion was seconded by John Adams and the vote postponed until the following day. Nevertheless, on 11 June, Adams, along with Benjamin Franklin, Thomas Jefferson, Robert Livingston and Roger Sherman were commissioned to draw up a Declaration of Independence. The document upon completion was presented to Congress on 28 June. Afterward, subsequent to some modification by Franklin and John Adams, the motion (Declaration of Independence) was voted upon and passed on 2 July, with one abstention (New York). Adams, also on 28 June, was appointed to the Committee on Correspondence, developed to acquire alliances with foreign nations in the upcoming struggle with Britain. On the day following the vote, 3 July, John Adams wrote to his wife: “Yesterday the greatest Question was decided (Independence from Great Britain), which ever was debated in America, and a greater perhaps, never was or will be decided among Men.” Adams had great concerns for the new republic, but soon after independence was declared, he received distressing news from back home. Due to an outbreak of smallpox, Abigail and his children had to get inoculated. Adams wrote on 16 July: “It is not possible for me to describe, nor for you to conceive my Feelings upon this occasion. Nothing, but the critical state of our Affairs should prevent me from flying to Boston, to your Assistance.... I shall feel like a Savage to be here while my whole family is sick at Boston.” None of his family was struck with the disease. In September of 1776, Adams was one of three men sent to meet with British General William Hull on Staten Island, but no positive results came from the conference. From there, Adams finally got an opportunity to travel home to visit with his family. Meanwhile, during mid–December 1776, Congress was compelled to evacuate Philadelphia and reconvene in Baltimore. It reconvened in Philadelphia March of 1777, subsequent to the British threat having been eliminated by General Washington, who stunned the British with his victory at Trenton on 26 December. The victory at Trenton provided encouragement to the army, which until that time had not fared well against the seasoned British army. In August 1777, Adams was appointed to the committee to investigate the abandonment of Ticonderoga and Fort (Mount) Independence. By the following month, Congress was again compelled to flee Philadelphia. After a short stay in Lancaster, it reconvened in York. At York on 28 November, 1777, Congress appointed John Adams to

ADAMS replace Silas Deane as American agent in France. He and his son John Quincy embarked from Nantucket Roads aboard the Boston on 15 February 1778. During the initial part of the voyage, a terrible storm was encountered and the ship was nearly lost. One of the lightning bolts struck the captain of the mast with a fatal blow that burned a hole into his head. Later, on 11 March, the lookouts spotted a British warship, the Martha, which the Boston captured. Adams arrived in France on 1 April and soon after, on the 8th, his party entered Paris. During May, Adams met with John Paul Jones at L’Orient and reviewed the Marine complement of the Bonhomme Richard. Adams expected to return to the States aboard the Alliance, captained by the Frenchman Pierre Landais, but instead he learned that the Alliance was to join with Jones. Subsequently, during the summer of 1780, Adams departed France for the Netherlands to seek a loan from the Dutch, but although the Dutch would favor the downfall of Britain, they were not anxious to lend the United States money. John arrived back at Boston on 2 August 1779. On 29 December, Congress authorized Adams to negotiate a Treaty of Amity and Commerce with the United Provinces of the low countries. He remained there for about two years, but his efforts finally persuaded the Netherlands to officially acknowledge the United States as a nation in spring 1782. The treaty between the United States and the Netherlands was signed on 8 October 1782. In conjunction, Adams was dispatched to the Netherlands after the first emissary, Henry Laurens, had been seized by the British while he was en route and afterward detained in the Tower of London. After consummating the treaty with the Dutch, Adams returned to Paris. At Paris on 30 November 1782, John Adams, Benjamin Franklin and John Jay signed a preparatory peace treaty with Britain; the representative signing on behalf of Britain was Richard Oswald. The official treaty (Treaty of Paris) terminating the war was consummated by the same American ministers on 3 September 1783. The British representative was David Hartley. By that time John was anxious to return home, and on 4 December of that year he submitted his resignation, with a stipulation that if he was not notified within a “reasonable” time, he would return without authorization. Nonetheless, by spring John realized it would not be practical to depart before autumn. At the time, he had become severely ill from fever and required a long recuperation period in Paris. Afterward, he was appointed minister to Great Britain, further delaying his return to America. By that time his wife, Abigail, had arrived in France. Aboard the vessel Active on her first voyage, she remained seasick for most of the trip, but was relieved after arriving in London on 23 July 1784. John met with King George III during February 1785. The encounter was not too cordial because the king had still not been able to adjust to the loss of his colonies. Adams and the king were unable to come to amicable terms regarding the Treaty of Paris. Adams also encountered a representative from Tripoli who attempted blackmail to permit safe passage of American vessels through the Mediterranean Sea. Adams declined the extortion, but the U.S. was not equipped to actually defend itself at that time. During the summer of 1785, a vessel, the Maris, was seized and the ship and crew were freed after ransom was paid. Adams also worked to settle the matter of English troops remaining in the Great Lakes region, but the king refused to relent. Finally, during November 1794, the Jay Treaty was consummated, but it did not terminate the tension between the English and the Americans; rather it only postponed further conflict. Finally, on 20 April 1794, John and Abigail Adams embarked for the United States. On 30 September 1787, the U.S. Constitution was born. After ratification by nine states it became effective. New Hampshire had been the ninth state to ratify the Constitution on 21 June 1788. Rhode Island entered the union on 29 May to become the thirteenth. George Washington was inaugurated on 30 April 1789 as the first president and John Adams served as his vice president, giving the first presi-

ADAMS dency to the Federalists. Adams, afterward, retained a dislike for Alexander Hamilton, the latter having engaged in holding down the vote for Adams. The mutual dislike between Adams and Hamilton continued to intensify. At the time, the vote was not specifically for vice president, but it was already concluded that Washington would be unanimously elected president. Washington and Adams served a second term, and during the campaign for the latter, the anti–Federalists selected George Clinton as their candidate. Adams received 77 votes and Clinton 50, to make Adams vice president. At the time, the candidate with the most votes became president and the candidate with the second highest number became vice president, with no individual distinction. On 4 March 1797, John Adams was inaugurated as the second president of the United States. Abigail was in Massachusetts taking care of John’s mother, who was seriously ill, unable to attend the inauguration. Nevertheless, she later joined her husband to become the initial First Lady to live in the White House, which at the time did not have many conveniences. The house was not complete, and although in the midst of woods for miles around, there was little firewood. Abigail is known to have mentioned in one of her letters that you couldn’t “see the wood through the forest.” The Federalist party leader, Alexander Hamilton, urged all Federalist votes be cast for Adams, or a lost vote could lose the election. Hamilton’s strategy proved correct, but buried in the plan was a covert operation that would have made Adams again vice president and Thomas Pinckney president. Adams received one more vote than was necessary for the majority (71 for Adams, 68 for Jefferson) and Thomas Jefferson received only three votes less than Adams, leaving Pinckney out of the equation and Thomas Jefferson as Adams’ vice president. Some of the southern voters went for Pinckney rather than Adams, and some New Englanders voted for Adams rather than Pinckney. When news of Adams’ victory reached France, the French Directory showed its disappointment by issuing even more harsh decrees against American maritime commerce. During May, the U.S. Navy, which had disbanded at the end of the American Revolution, was reinitiated with the launching of the United States. By the following month Congress prepared for a possible war with France and called for an army of 89,000 troops. During July 1797, President Adams approved of Marine complements aboard each of five new vessels. Simultaneously, the president authorized the Revenue Cutters (later U.S. Coast Guard). All the while, Congress and the president also focused upon the Barbary pirates that had been ravaging shipping in the Mediterranean. By spring 1798, President Adams authorized the sinking or capturing of French vessels that interfered with American shipping, and by July, the crisis had accelerated to the point where George Washington was recalled as commander-in-chief of the American forces. In the meantime, France essentially had ignored the American ministers and had attempted unsuccessfully to use Elbridge Gerry, one of the ministers, as a pawn. In addition, a clandestine operation known as the XYZ affair, a scheme of the French minister Charles Maurice de Talleyrand, was exposed. Conflict between American and French ships was occurring on the high seas, but war was never declared by either France or the United States. Nevertheless, a rift emerged in the Federalist Party, after Adams decided at a cabinet meeting during October 1799 to send a mission to France. The party departed on 5 November that year, but the rift became unsalvageable and ensured the failure of the Federalist Party in the succeeding election. The aggressions by France remained confined to the sea and the Undeclared War (Quasi War with France) terminated on 30 September 1800, with the Treaty of Morfontaine (Convention of 1800). Also that year, Congress relocated to Washington, D.C. A plan by Hamilton during the succeeding election cycle was exposed when Aaron Burr received a copy of it, sealing the fate of the Federalists, who remained di-

8 vided. Thomas Jefferson and Aaron Burr, both Democrats, each received 73 votes, while John Adams garnered only 65, with Pinckney receiving 64. A more galvanized Federalist party might have otherwise assured re-election for Adams. On 4 March, 1801, Thomas Jefferson was inaugurated as the third president of the United States. After leaving office, John returned to his residence at Quincy (formerly Braintree), where he and Abigail lived out of the public eye. Abigail, like John, lived pragmatically during their years out of public life, but their true devotion to each other remained strong. In a letter of 26 October 1814 from Abigail to one of her grandchildren, she exclaimed: “Yesterday, completes half a century since I entered the marriage state, then just your age.... The greatest source of unhappiness I have known in that period has arisen from the long and cruel separations which I was called, in a time of war, and with a young family around me to submit to.” Abigail was struck by fever and succumbed on 28 October 1818, leaving John without his most loyal and trusted friend. At the time of her death, after 54 years of marriage, John was about 83 years old. During his remaining years, he was able to witness his son, John Quincy Adams, inaugurated as the 6th president of the United States on 4 March 1825. John Adams died on 4 July 1826, on the fiftieth anniversary of the Declaration of Independence, and on that exact day, Thomas Jefferson also succumbed. John was interred near Abigail in Quincy (Norfolk County) at the First Parish Church (later First Unitarian Church). John Quincy Adams and his wife, Louisa Catherine Johnson Adams, were interred in the same cemetery in 1848 and 1852 respectively. Toward the latter part of his life, through the efforts of some friends, including Benjamin Rush, John Adams and Alexander Hamilton again began to correspond. Also, Adams was responsible for establishing the Marine Corps Band during 1798. The band, known as the President’s Own, made its debut at the White House on New Year’s Day and later at President Thomas Jefferson’s inauguration (1803). The Marine Corps Band has played at every subsequent inauguration and remains active, making it the oldest continuous musical organization in the country. John Quincy Adams had broken away form the Federalist party prior to his election, and his father had also become extremely close with Thomas Jefferson and supported his policies. John Q. Adams picked up one particular trait of his father. He began a diary while he was young and maintained it until 1848.

Adams, Samuel (Signer of the Declaration of Independence) Samuel Adams, one of twelve children, was born in Boston, Massachusetts, at noon on 16 September 1722. Samuel Adams’ father, also named Samuel, was the son of John Adams (great uncle of President John Adams), a sea captain who operated out of the port of Boston. His mother was Mary Fifield. Samuel and Mary invested in an estate on Purchase Street that contained waterfront property along the harbor. Samuel and Mary, both devout Puritans, had twelve children, including Samuel, Jr., but only three reached adulthood: Samuel (1722), Mary (1717) and Joseph (1728). The others, as listed in the Samuel Adams family Bible, were Richard (b. January 1715 or 1716, d. June 1716); Hannah (b. 13 January 1720, date of death unknown); John (b. 4 September 1724, d. 9 August 1725); John II (b. 28 October 1726, d. 15 June 1727); Abigail (b. 20 July 1730, d. 29 August 1730); Thomas (b. 22 December, 1731, d. 16 August 1733); Sarah (b. 18 November 1733, d. 28 February, 1735); Abigail II (b. 22 October, 1735, d. 3 March 1736) and Mehetable (b. 12 April 1740, d. 11 June 1740). Samuel, Sr., was for a while a justice of the peace and for a time a deacon in the Old North Church. In addition, he was a member of the colonial legislature. Samuel, Jr., entered Boston Latin School and then attended Harvard and received a bachelor of arts degree, followed by a master of arts degree in 1743. His thesis was “Whether it be Lawful

9 to Resist the Supreme Magistrate, If the Commonwealth Cannot Otherwise be Preserved.” Samuel lost interest in studying theology and instead studied law, to the disappointment of his mother. His entrance into the business world began with a firm owned by Thomas Cushing, Sr., but he remained there only a short time, having no interest in the business of trading. His father later backed him financially to permit him to establish his own business; however, that endeavor also was unsuccessful. In addition, he made a loan to a friend from the money he received from his father, but the loan was never repaid. Samuel was then made a partner with his father in a malt house established on the family estate. On 8 March 1747, Samuel’s father succumbed and Samuel inherited one third of the estate, which had been divided between himself, his brother and his sister. During the following year, Samuel and some friend established a newspaper, the Public Advertiser. The publication was conspicuously critical of British policies and played a part in planting thoughts of independence into the minds of the colonists. The columnists, known for probing articles, remained anonymous during the year the newspaper remained in circulation. Other types of agitation evolved and, seemingly, Samuel was always at or near the center of the storm. The initial patriots who raised opposition against the crown were forerunners of the Sons of Liberty, who crashed upon the scene soon after the introduction of the Stamp Act of 1765. The organizations included a secret society that became known as the Whipping Post Club, which had been engaged in newspaper attacks, the Caucus Club and another known as Loyal Nine. Adams was attached to each, along with the Sons of Liberty. On 17 October 1749, Samuel married Elizabeth Checkley, the daughter of the Rev. Samuel and Elizabeth Rolfe Checkley. Elizabeth’s father performed the marriage ceremony. Samuel and Elizabeth had five children, but only two, Samuel II and Hannah, survived to adulthood. The others were Samuel I (b. 14 September 1750, d. 2 October 1750) and Mary (b. 23 June 1754, d. 3 October 1754). A third child, an unnamed boy, was stillborn on 6 July 1757. Elizabeth’s mother had barely escaped capture or worse when she was a child at Haverhill. During 1708, the Indians raided the town, scalping and killing the inhabitants. Elizabeth’s mother was hidden in a cellar, along with her sister, Mary, but their father, the Rev. Benjamin Rolfe, was killed. About ten years after his marriage Samuel was confronted with a major problem. The government, without notifying him, set his estate up for public auction due to previous activity of his father, known as the “Land Bank Scheme,” which had occurred about seven years prior to Samuel Sr.’s death. The sheriff arrived at Samuel’s estate, but the sale never occurred due to the opposition of Adams. His various positions included checking chimneys, inspecting to ensure smallpox didn’t spread, and during 1756, he was elected as one of the tax collectors, a position to which he was repeatedly re-elected annually through 1764. By that time his hair began to show signs of graying, but his ability to show a gregarious personality or when necessary a piercing stare had not been Sam Adams (Biographical Sketches of lost with his approach to midthe Signers of the Declaration of Inde- dle age. The Tories tried to blemish pendence, Benson J. Lossing 1854)

ADAMS Adams’ record and impugn his integrity when, due to the financial condition of the citizens, the taxes were in arrears. The circumstances permitted the Tories to lodge charges of mishandling funds against him. Nevertheless, his record and reputation was known to be sterling, but his service as a tax collector was poor, because he was not willing to confiscate from the poor for the purpose of gaining tax revenue. Samuel had a difficult year during 1757. His wife, Elizabeth, died on July 25, soon after the stillbirth of their fifth child on July 6. Samuel noted in his family Bible, “God was pleased to support her under great weakness and continue her life till Lord’s Day.” He also stated that Elizabeth had been “as sincere a friend as she was a faithful wife.” Later in the same entry, he stated: “God grant they [children] may inherit her graces.” Samuel was left to the job of raising their two children. Like his cousin, John Adams, Samuel did not serve in the French and Indian War. During June 1764, two months after the Sugar Act was passed, Adams opposed it as part of a draft he prepared for the General Court of Boston, of which he was a member. His statement included: “For if our Trade may be taxed, why not our Lands, the Produce of our lands, and in short everything we possess or make use of?” He further stated in the same document that taxes without representation would transform “the Character of free Subjects to the miserable State of tributary Slaves.” Adams’ draft was written about one year prior to the “Resolutions” proclaimed by Patrick Henry in Virginia. On 6 December (1764), Samuel married for a second time, and his new wife, Elizabeth Wells, apparently came on the scene in time to maintain much of Samuel’s personal business to keep the family afloat. Samuel was known as an excellent politician and inexhaustible with regard to the nation’s affairs, but he was also known as bordering on incompetence with in his personal business and the welfare of his family. Elizabeth, similarly to his first wife, ignored Samuel’s shortcomings and took command of their personal business without complaint. She was presented with a slave named Surry in 1765 or 1766; however, Elizabeth immediately gave Surry her freedom. Nevertheless, Surry remained with the Adams family for about fifty years. By 1765, when British Parliament passed the Stamp Act, Adams was a member of the Massachusetts House of Representatives. The action by Britain infuriated the colonists, and in August in Boston, the assembly resolved to hang the designated stamp distributor, Andrew Oliver, in effigy. A meeting of the assembly was scheduled for the latter part of September 1765. Samuel Adams, a representative of Boston (and clerk of House of Representatives), was assigned the task of drawing up instructions for the “Boston seat.” He, along with his cousin, John Adams, who was occupied with a similar task for Braintree, worked on the separately, and after the document was completed, it spread rapidly. Due in great part to the overwhelming opposition in the colonies, the Stamp Act was repealed. Word of the action arrived at Boston on 16 May 1766 when a vessel, the brigantine Harrison, arrived in the harbor. Nonetheless, Adams continued to oppose Britain’s treatment of the colonies. Adams was in the forefront of the opposition during 1768, when the British naval fleet arrived at Boston and it was he, during May 1769, who wrote the remonstrance to Governor Francis Bernard demanding that British troops be withdrawn from Boston. After Governor Bernard was recalled to England, Samuel Adams renewed his opposition with Bernard’s successor, Governor Thomas Hutchinson. Again, Adams was out in front when a large British fleet and accompanying troops arrived at Boston during August 1771 on the pretense of possible war with Spain. The ruse was not successful; the patriots realized the British were there to suppress the American cause. Adams was also in the center of the activity when the patriots launched the Boston Tea Party during December 1773. The cargoes of tea aboard three ships (Dartmouth, Eleanor and the Beaver) were thrown overboard. Later, when the delegates from Massachusetts were selected

ADAMS to attend the First Continental Congress, Samuel Adams was among them, along with his younger cousin, John Adams. The governor during 1774, after succeeding Hutchinson, General Thomas Gage, attempted to persuade Samuel Adams to quit the patriot cause and to cease “further displeasure of the king.” After hearing the proposal from an emissary, Adams responded: “Sir, I trust I have long made my peace with the King of kings. No personal consideration shall induce me to abandon the righteous cause of my country. Tell Governor Gage it is the advice of Samuel Adams to him no longer to insult the feelings of an exasperated people.” In Philadelphia, on 6 September 1774, the second day in session for Congress, a resolution was passed that mandated that a prayer by a minister, Jacob Duche, be said at the beginning of the next day’s session. The Reverend Duche, nominated by Samuel Adams, was appointed as the first chaplain of the U.S. Congress. Prior to his departure for Philadelphia in August, Samuel’s wardrobe was so deplorable that friends of his moved quickly to provide him with new clothes to ensure that he would be presentable. That same group of friends replaced his dilapidated barn and seriously repaired his worn down house. They even included a new wig, shoes, and silk hose, and one of the men, assuming correctly that he was not holding much currency, convinced Samuel to accept a purse with some money in it to hold him over in Philadelphia. During October 1774, Adams was appointed to the committee designated to draw up a letter to General Gage regarding the “opposition to oppressive acts of parliament, calculated to deprive us of our most sacred rights and privileges.” By spring of the following year, Samuel Adams had been listed as one of the top enemies of the British in Boston. The British also despised another in the Adams family, Sam’s dog, named Queue. The dog had acquired a definite dislike for uniformed British troops and the English on more than one occasion had close encounters with their four-legged nemesis. Apparently, the dog frequently antagonized and bit British troops, and when he died, there were many scars (cuts and a few bullet wounds) to attest to the accuracy of the reports. On 18 April 1775 in Massachusetts, Paul Revere, William Dawes and Doctor Samuel Prescott rode to warn of the British advance against Concord. Revere was intercepted by the British, but he had already warned Samuel Adams, John Hancock and others. Hancock and Adams had been two primary targets during that excursion. Word spread about the British movements and most of the men — including Samuel Adams, Benjamin Lincoln, John Glover and John Hancock — had departed prior to the raid. Nevertheless, Azor Orne, Elbridge Gerry and Colonel Jeremiah Lee of the Massachusetts militia were staying overnight at the Black Horse Tavern. After being roused from their sleep from the noise of the approaching cavalry during the night (18th–19th), they sped to the back of the tavern and fled through the rear door to conceal themselves in a cornfield. None were properly dressed when they fled in their nightclothes. Colonel Lee, having become sick due to the chill while in the field, died not long afterward. In the meantime, while some who lived nearby had gone to their homes, John Hancock made his way to Lexington. The patriots moved to defend against the advance and the two sides clashed at Lexington and Concord. That was followed by the Battle of Bunker Hill during June. Adams grieved greatly when informed of the death of Doctor (General) Joseph Warren at Bunker Hill. He had admired him and they had been close friends. Samuel’s son, also named Samuel, studied medicine under Warren and served with the Continental Army. General Gage declared martial law on 12 June 1775 and offered pardons to all, except Samuel Adams and John Hancock, who would lay their arms down. Shortly thereafter, during the Battle of Breed’s Hill, Samuel wrote to his wife informing her of his concern for the family, being so close

10 to the fighting at Charlestown: “I pray God to cover the heads of our countrymen in every day of battle and over to protect you from Injury in these distracted times.” Meanwhile, the Second Continental Congress remained in session in Philadelphia, and Samuel Adams was one of the delegates who selected George Washington as commander-in-chief. The motion was made by John Adams and seconded by Samuel. Samuel returned to Massachusetts during the August recess and participated in the general assembly. During that session, the body elected Samuel secretary of state. At the time, Elizabeth had already departed Boston and along with her daughter and was living in Cambridge in her father’s house. On 12 September, Samuel departed Massachusetts to return to Philadelphia. He rode on a horse that he borrowed from his cousin, John Adams. In November 1775, Adams was appointed to the Committee of Correspondence (later, Committee of Secret Correspondence), which was the initial foreign intelligence organization. The work of the committee included putting out propaganda, creating secret codes and ciphers, and if deemed necessary, opening private mail. During 1777, when certain patriots moved to oust General Washington, Sam Adams was among Washington’s detractors. The incident is known as “Conway Cabal.” The plot intended to make General Horatio Gates commander-in-chief failed. Adams departed Congress during 1781. Samuel opposed the establishment of a war department and a foreign office as well as a secretary of finance. Nonetheless, he signed his name in acceptance of the Articles of Confederation on 1 March 1781, and that same month, he took leave and returned to Massachusetts. While he was gone, his wife and Hannah kept the house going, despite Elizabeth’s concern of sometimes being “low on cash,” by their sewing and the spectacular quality of Hannah’s embroidery. Samuel was later a prominent member of the Massachusetts convention that formed the state’s constitution. After the war, Samuel Adams became lieutenant governor of Massachusetts (1789), the year after his son, Doctor Samuel Adams, succumbed at about age 37. Samuel, Jr., had served in the war as a surgeon and it is thought that those years played a great part in his demise. Governor Samuel Adams took the loss with great difficulty. During 1793, upon the death of Governor John Hancock, Samuel became governor and remained in that post until 1797, when poor health compelled him to retire. During each of his elections for governor, he was strongly opposed by the Federalists. In the interim, after the war concluded, Adams sided with those who refused to forgive the Tories, whom he said had been traitors. Adams, acting on the authority of the city of Boston, instructed the Committee of Correspondence, Inspection and Safety to resist any attempt to restore the right of those who had participated in “so wicked a conspiracy against these rights and liberties by certain ingrates, most of them natives of these States....” Samuel also opposed the Jay Treaty in alignment with James Madison and others, but in opposition to Alexander Hamilton and other Federalists. During 1797, due to a deterioration of his health, Adams resigned from his governorship at the age of seventy-five. Adams’ skills as a businessman were poor, and he also lacked the credentials to properly perform the duties of a tax collector, but his rhetoric was extraordinary and his mind keen. Adams’ actions against the British oppression played an important role throughout the conflict. He is known to have remained quite religious all his life and frequently attended church. During his public service and afterward, he never acquired wealth. At the time of his death, Samuel would have been in genuine poverty, except for a bequest from his son. The old estate had been sold and he and his wife Elizabeth were living in a house on Winter Street, with his daughter and her children. The old statesman received a pleasant surprise during 1800 while watching a parade pass his home. The governor, Caleb Strong, halted the parade after he noticed Sam Adams watching through a window.

11 The governor graciously moved to the house while the bands remained silent. While the governor clasped Samuel’s hand, the soldiers in the parade presented arms. In the meantime, everyone else in the parade had removed their hats and in total silence stared in the direction of Sam Adams and the governor. It was a moving moment for the great patriot, a Republican, being so honored by the Federalist governor. Samuel’s final years brought a continued deterioration of his health. During the early morning hours of Sunday, 2 October 1803, Samuel Adams, the Father of the American Revolution, succumbed. The people of Boston quickly became aware of their loss when the church bells began to ring to signal his death. Nonetheless, due to politics, there was some confusion regarding his funeral train, but the confusion was eliminated and Samuel’s escort was impressive. He was interred at the Granary Burial Ground in close proximity to where victims of the Boston Massacre had been interred. Two other men who had signed the Declaration of Independence are also buried there, John Hancock and Robert Treat Paine. Another prominent patriot of the American Revolution, Paul Revere, was also interred there, and yet another patriot leader, James Otis. Hannah, the daughter of Samuel Adams, married Captain Thomas Wells, a younger brother of her stepmother. Elizabeth Wells Adams, his second wife, survived Samuel by about five years.

Alexander, Major General William (Lord Stirling) William was born in New York City in 1726 to James and Mary “Polly” Spratt Provoost (widow of David Provoost). James had arrived in America from Scotland during August 1715, after having supported the Stuarts in a failed attempt to regain the throne from the House of Brunswick. He was a surveyor and he practiced law. Mary at the time of her marriage to James in June 1721 had two children, John and David, from her previous marriage. That same year, the Alexanders had a child, Mary (Polly), and her birth was followed by the birth of their oldest son, James, during 1723. Mary would later marry Van Brugh Livingston. James, Jr., was struck by fever during 1731 and soon after died from the disease. The other children born to Polly and James Alexander were Elizabeth (Betsy), Catherine (Kitty), Anne and Susanna. During 1746, the family sustained another loss when Anne, only fourteen years old, succumbed. The region was again struck by an epidemic of fever again the next year; this one took the life of William’s cousin, Doctor William Alexander. His death left the title of Stirling to fall upon James Alexander. Correspondence between William’s father and the authorities in Scotland concluded with a confirmation that James was the rightful heir. During the following year, William married Sarah, known as Sally, Livingston, the sister of Van Brugh and the daughter of Philip (Lord of Livingston Manor) on 29 February 1748. William and Sarah had three children, Catherine, Mary and William. Soon after William’s marriage, his sisters, Betsy and Kitty, got married on the same day to John Stephens and Elisha Parker respectively. William and his mother worked together in the business initially begun by her first husband. This led to contracts with the army, and the association caused the commandeer-in-chief, General WilWilliam Alexander (Pictorial Field liam Shirley, to become Book of the Revolution, Benson J. Los- acquainted with William Alexander. His association with sing, 1860)

ALEXANDER General Shirley brought about military experience, which would later enable him to handle responsibility as a general officer. General Shirley appointed him as aide-de-camp and as his personal secretary. In 1755, William, with a commission as major, traveled to Albany with General Shirley, and that year journeyed to Virginia, where he began a long-lasting friendship with George Washington. Alexander and his mother entered into a business partnership in January 1756 with John Erving, Jr., Lewis Morris, Jr., and his brotherin-law, Van Brugh Livingston. They established the partnership to supply the expeditionary force that was to be sent against Niagara and later to supply the forces in Virginia. The enterprise was opposed by Lt. Governor James DeLancey, who expected the contract to be awarded to his brother Oliver, but General Shirley overruled Delancey. During April 1756, James, a member of council, had been ill from the gout, but he ignored his illness and attended a session. The outing caused him to come down with a miserable cold that essentially cost him his life. He succumbed on 2 April 1756. The New York Mercury on 5 April noted his passing with a long obituary: “To the unspeakable loss of our family and to the public, on Friday evening last, died the Honorable James Alexander, Esq., in the sixty-fourth year of his life...” James had, as one of his final requests, urged his son William to travel to Scotland to pursue his rightful claim to the earldom of Stirling. Also in 1756, General Shirley was recalled to England and William, at that time a major, accompanied the general, who had been recalled and replaced. William vouched for the character and leadership of General Shirley, who had been accused of “incompetency and mismanagement.” Alexander’s testimony played a key part in Shirley’s exoneration on all charges. William, while in England, traveled to Scotland to pursue his quest to gain the earldom of Stirling. He was able to verify his claim to the earldom by proving he was a descendant of John Gogar. William was seated in the House and was able to cast votes. He received the title 6th Earl of Stirling, Viscount Canada etc., and after completing his business in Scotland, he returned to London. Nonetheless, England never finalized his claim, despite the fact that there were no other claimants. While in London, he had his portrait drawn as a gift to his mother; however, she passed away before he returned home. Mary Alexander, known as the last of the Dutch matrons (she was of Dutch extraction and spoke English and Dutch fluently) succumbed on 18 April 1760. She was interred at Trinity Church in Albany alongside her husband and other family members. William returned to New York in 1761. For a while he lived in the house in New York in which his parents had lived, but he set his sights on other property in New Jersey that had also been inherited from his father. After transforming his summer house at New Jersey into his permanent residence about 1768, he became a member of the Provincial Council, a position he held until the war erupted. During the years that the French and Indian War consumed the colonies until to the outbreak of the Revolution, William had become friendly with many prominent Englishmen. In a letter from Lt. Colonel William Amherst during 1763, William was addressed as Lord Stirling, and later correspondence from Lt. General Thomas Gage, his title, Lord Stirling, had also been used. Nonetheless, by 1764, Lord Stirling joined with other prominent Americans to oppose the Stamp Act and the oppressive policies of Britain against the colonies. By September 1775, the governor of New Jersey, William Franklin (son of Benjamin Franklin), was less than pleased when he was informed that Lord Stirling had accepted an appointment as colonel of a patriot militia regiment and summoned Lord Stirling to attend a meeting. Lord Stirling responded by telling Franklin that he was suffering from gout and wouldn’t be able to attend, but he did inform Franklin that he had accepted the appointment. Heated letters were exchanged, but Lord Stirling brushed off Franklin’s arrogance. Lord Stirling, referred to as the “rebellious colonel” by Franklin, began to

ALEXANDER organize his unit immediately. On 18 October, the regiment received orders to shape up for a general review and muster, scheduled for 6 November. In the meantime, Lord Stirling’s plans were interrupted. Prior to the day he established for the review of his regiment, he received word that he had been given command of two regiments of the Continental Army. On November 7, Congress appointed field officers for the two New Jersey battalions. Lord Stirling and William Winds were elected as colonel and lieutenant colonel respectively of the 1st Battalion. Some of the officers and enlisted men from Alexander’s militia regiment joined the regulars to serve with him. After receiving his orders from Congress, he traveled from Philadelphia to nearby Burlington, New Jersey, to arrange for his regiments to receive arms from the New Jersey Committee of Safety. From there he moved to other towns acquire more items for his troops and during the course of the endeavor, more men joined his force. However, there was great apprehension due to the threat of the British arriving in New Jersey. While at Elizabeth, Lord Stirling was asked to provide protection from British incursions. His recruiting efforts had been impeded by local magistrates who were sending out warrants for some of his troops for minor infractions. Lord Stirling corresponded with Congress requesting help on the latter, and he informed the body that unless he was otherwise ordered, he would provide the necessary protection against the British. The communications also requested arms and ammunition. His letter to John Hancock, written on 18 December 1775, received a prompt response. It was read in Congress on 26 December. Congress took action by resolution: “Therefore, That it be recommended to the several legislatures in these colonies, whether assemblies or conventions, to pass acts or ordinances, prohibiting the arrest of continental soldiers for small debts; and in order that the same rule may pervade all the colonies, that no such soldier be arrested at the suit of any of his creditors, unless the said creditor makes oath, that the said soldier is justly indebted to him in the sum of thirty five dollars over and above all discounts....” Hancock also authorized Lord Stirling to confiscate any enemy gunpowder and arms that he could and to maintain it until further orders arrived from Congress. Colonel Lord Stirling seemed well fit for the position Congress awarded him, and his instincts often proved valuable. On 6 January, he dispatched a detachment to intercept what he thought would be enemy intelligence; the mission succeeded. A dispatch rider en route to New York was apprehended and packets intended for the Earl of Dartmouth were confiscated. In addition, letters for General Thomas Gage were also confiscated. More importantly, it was concluded that Governor Franklin was about to flee the colony. Troops were dispatched to his residence and guards were posted there. Eventually, Franklin was transported to Connecticut, where he was held until the hostilities terminated. On 8 January, a frustrated and disgruntled William Franklin, who was being detained, complained by letter to his guard that he had only done his duty as a “faithful servant of the crown.” On the 9th, in another letter he demanded that the guard be removed. Lt. Colonel Winds responded, “So I say, touching the sentinels placed at your gate, I have done nothing, but what was my duty to do as a faithful officer of the Congress.” On 10 January 1776, General Washington wrote to Lord Stirling informing him that General Gates was in the process of moving to New York to fortify the defenses and that he expected to get assistance from Lord Stirling’s command. On 22 January, Lord Stirling mounted a daring raid. His force, including regulars and volunteers, departed Elizabeth aboard a pilot vessel and a few other boats, then embarked for the New York Harbor, where the raiders succeeded in capturing a transport called the Blue Mountain Valley that held supplies intended for the British at Boston, off Sandy Hook.

12 Colonel Lord Stirling wrote to Washington on 24 January informing him of the raid and that the prize was being taken to Amboy, New Jersey. Soon after, orders arrived for Colonel Maxwell to repair to New Albany, and afterward Colonel Lord Stirling also received orders to march to New York. On 1 March, Lord Stirling was among six officers promoted to the rank of brigadier general by Congress. The others were John Armstrong, William Thompson, Andrew Lewis, James Moore and Robert Howe. By that time, General Charles Lee’s orders to move to Canada had been cancelled and he was assigned command in the Department of the South, which left the Middle Department under the command of Lord Stirling. Intelligence dispatched by General Washington reached General Alexander (Lord Stirling) on the 13th of March. The message stated that British forces had embarked from Boston and were most probably en route to New York. Meanwhile, on 10 March, General Alexander wrote to Major General Philip Schuyler informing him that General Charles Lee had departed for the South and that he (Alexander) would require 8,000 troops to prepare to defend New York and Long Island. General Thompson arrived from Philadelphia on the 20th and took command. General Alexander then prepared to return to New Jersey. Nevertheless, General William Thompson received orders instructing him to journey to Canada, which caused Alexander to return to assume command at New York. The Americans continued to build the defenses and by mid–July, the British arrived at Staten Island. On 27 August, General Alexander was cornered during fierce fighting (Battle of Long Island). He surrendered to General De Heister. General Washington, aware of the loss of Alexander, moved to exchange a Tory general, Donald McDonald, for him, but British general Howe declined. However, Howe did accept an exchange of Alexander for Governor Montford Brown of Florida. While Washington was retreating through New Jersey, General Alexander rejoined the Continental Army. Afterward, General Alexander intercepted a large force of British troops en route from Amboy to disperse Washington’s encampment at Morristown and succeeded in foiling the plan. On 19 February 1777, Brigadier General Alexander was promoted to major general. Later, when General William Howe ordered troops from Staten Island to attack Washington, General Alexander again moved to intercept the column, while Washington moved to the vicinity of Middlebrook, New Jersey. Howe forced Alexander to fall back, but the stiff resistance forced Howe to halt the advance and return to Staten Island. General Alexander participated in the fighting south of Philadelphia in 1777 and at the Battle of Germantown in present-day Philadelphia. Afterward, Alexander moved with Washington to Valley Forge, where the winter encampment (1777–1778) was established. General Alexander continued to Reading, Pennsylvania. During June 1778, following the fighting at Monmouth, New Jersey, General Charles Lee requested a court-martial. General Alexander presided and Lee, after the facts had been presented, was suspended from the service. At the time, the British had been heading for New York after evacuating Philadelphia. General Alexander moved to White Plains and established camp. Later, on 15 October, he moved back to New Jersey and established headquarters at Elizabethtown. Spring of 1779 brought orders for General Alexander to advance to Pompton Plains, and from there to cover the area to the Hudson to shadow British movement. During that period and throughout the summer, General Alexander continued to send a constant flow of messages regarding the British to Congress. On 24 September 1779, Congress, subsequent to the successful mission against Paulus Hook, New Jersey, expressed thanks to General Washington for ordering the attack and to Major General Lord Stirling for his strategic part in the operation. Later, while the Continental Army remained at its winter quarters at Morristown, General Alexander on 14 January 1780 attacked the British at Staten Island.

13 The British, however, had been reinforced and Alexander was compelled to retreat. After arriving at Albany, Alexander assumed command of the Northern Department on 15 October 1781. He succeeded General John Stark and held the position until 21 November 1781. During that time, General Alexander was faced with a threatening force under General St. Leger. Alexander deployed a formidable defensive force at Saratoga and on 1 November the defenses were completely prepared, but word of Lord Cornwallis’ surrender at Yorktown reached Alexander and the battle never erupted. The British retired. Subsequent to the surrender of Cornwallis at Yorktown in October 1781, General Alexander returned to Baskenridge. During January 1782, he moved to Philadelphia, which was included in his department, and established winter headquarters there. On 29 August, 1782, General Alexander again succeeded General Stark and resumed command of the Northern Department to become its final commander. General Alexander retained the post until 15 January 1783, the day of his death. He was interred in a crypt located in the Dutch church at Albany that held the ancestors of his wife. His wife, Sarah, lived until March 1805. William was later re-interred in a family crypt with his father and other family members in the cemetery at the Episcopal Trinity Church in Manhattan, to which he had belonged.

Allen, Ethan Ethan, named after his paternal grandfather, the son of Joseph and Mary Baker Allen of Coventry, Tolland County, Connecticut, was born on 10 January 1738 (some sources say 21 January). Ethan’s parents relocated at Litchfield subsequent to their marriage during 1736 and settled on a farm near the Housatonic River just outside of the town of Ellsworth. It was there that the family began to grow by seven additional children: Heman, Lydia, Heber, Levi, Lucy, Zimri and Ira. Around 1772 or 1773, Ethan moved to nearby Bennington, Vermont. Ethan had married Mary Brownson, with whom he had five children: Loraine (b. 1763, died at age 20); Joseph (b. 1765, died of smallpox, 1777); Lucy Caroline (b. 1768); Mary Ann (b. 1772, died at about age 18); and Pamela (b. 1779). The marriage was apparently less than perfect due in great part to Ethan’s traits; he was cantankerous, an excessive drinker and not untypically for a frontiersman, he was frequently away from the family for prolonged periods of time. During the early 1770s, New York was claiming the New Hampshire Grants, and at Bennington, resistance was quickly raised. Ethan Allen and Seth Warner led the opposition against Governor William Tryon. The group, which opposed the attachment to New York, became known as the “Green Mountain Boys.” In 1771 an Order of Council made Vermont part of New York and the people of Vermont were adamantly opposed to the action. A military organization was later decided upon; Ethan Allen was selected as colonel-commandant. Captains were also appointed: Remember Baker, Robert Cochran, Gideon Warner and Seth Warner. The reaction by Governor William Tryon of New York was swift. He placed a price on their heads, offering a reward for Ethan Allen and the others. Once word arrived of the price of one hundred and fifty pounds for the arrest of Allen and fifty pounds for the others, the Vermonters responded. They offered a reward of five pounds to anyone who would seize and deliver the attorney general of New York to the “Green Mountain Boys.” The dispute continued, and there was no resolution, as those in Vermont refused to submit to New York. By 1774, the imminent conflict with Britain began to overshadow the attempt by New York to dominate Vermont, but still the tension was high. On 13 March, a confrontation occurred at the courthouse when a group of armed men ordered the people to disperse. Later that day, at about midnight, shots were fired, and from that point forward, the Green Mountain Boys received help from many other towns. By

ALLEN the 14th, the leader of the Tories, Squire Patterson, was arrested and held for the murder of William French on the 13th. The ongoing dispute between the Vermonters and New York slipped to the shadows as the greater problem with Britain came to the forefront with the clash that occurred at Lexington and Concord during April 1775. Word of the confrontation with the British at Lexington spread rapidly. The Green Mountain Boys were among the first to react. Allen received orders from the Connecticut Committee of Safety to capture Fort Ticonderoga, New York. On 7 May, a contingent of men under Edward Mott and Noah Phelps, numbering about 250 men, moved through Connecticut en route to Pittsfield, where they were joined by Allen and his contingent. Allen, his Green Mountain Boys and the other patriots reached Castleton, Vermont, within striking distance of the objective on the opposite bank of the lake during the evening of 9 May. The first wave crossed Lake Champlain and afterward, the rear guard under Seth Warner was ferried across. Allen took the objective effortlessly and when asked by the commander, Captain de Place, in whose authority he demanded the surrender, he responded: “In the name of the Great Jehovah and the Continental Congress.” Allen’s contingent, which included a separate group under Benedict Arnold that joined with Allen on the 8th, also secured Crown Point, with its garrison of less than fifteen troops. The fall of the two posts and a sloop, the only naval presence on the lake, gave the Green Mountain Boys domination of the lake. Allen, while at Fort Ticonderoga, although not commissioned by Congress, accompanied General Richard Montgomery on the Canadian Expedition during fall of 1775. On 30 June 1775, the Green Mountain Boys, unwilling to serve under commanders except their own, received permission from Congress to form their own companies and select their own officers. The troops were drawn from the Hampshire Grants (modern-day Vermont) to form seven companies and select their own officers. The Vermonters would not accept officers from outside Vermont. Seth Warner, however, was appointed colonel and Ethan Allen was appointed lieutenant colonel. During the Canadian Campaign, Allen was captured on 25 September 1775 by the British under General Guy Carleton. On 20 November, while still in Canada, Benedict Arnold wrote to General Montgomery and noted that Ethan Allen had been caged and sent to England. He spent about six weeks in leg irons aboard the vessel HMS Gaspee. Allen remained in England until January 1776, when he was transported to Halifax. He was held there until being transferred to New York during October of that same year in the sloop on which he had been held (a floating prison) at Halifax. Allen was paroled during the latter part of November 1776. He was restricted to New York, but later (26 August 1777) he was again imprisoned. While in New York, he was witness to much of the brutality of the British, particularly that doled out by the Hessian troops. Allen noted how the churches were full of starving and dying prisoners who pleaded in vain for food, and how some prisoners were hacked to death. On 2 March 1778, Congress authorized General William Heath to permit Lieutenant Colonel Anstruther, of the 62nd British Regiment, and Lord Napier, lieutenant of the 31st Regiment, to go on his parole to Rhode Island to attempt to bring about an exchange for Colonel Ethan Allen, if the latter had not already been exchanged. Congress learned of Allen’s capture on 2 December 1775 and immediately directed General Washington to contact British General William Howe to attempt to win his freedom through a prisoner exchange. Meanwhile, on 27 December, Allen, the sole American officer seized at Montreal, was transferred to the HMS Solebay, which then transported him and thirty-three other Americans to Boston. From there he was taken to England. On 3 January 1777, the effort to gain freedom for Ethan Allen continued. Congress authorized General Washington to propose exchanging a German officer for him, but no results were forthcoming.

ARMAND Allen was finally exchanged for Colonel Archibald Campbell on 6 May 1778. After his release, he traveled to Valley Forge to meet with General Washington and from there he accompanied the force of General Gates to Fishkill, New York. On 14 May, he was promoted to the rank of brevet colonel by Congress. Allen arrived back at Bennington on 31 May, to the great jubilation of the citizens. He was rewarded by the Vermonters with an appointment as major general of the militia, but his poor health prevented any active participation. Congress, on 24 September 1778, resolved “that 75 dollars per month be allowed to Colonel E. Allen, from the date of his brevet, during the pleasure of Congress, or until he shall be called into actual service.” During the following year, 1779, Allen and other associates received a land grant from the Republic of Vermont. The land known as Two Heroes was later divided into North Hero and South Hero. South Hero was itself divided to create Middle Hero. At North Hero, the British fortified a blockhouse known as Dutchman’s Point (later Blockhouse Point), and when the War for Independence ended, they refused to abandon it. Ethan Allen remained active in politics. During 1780, there was a period of turbulence between Vermont and the United States, regarding Vermont’s quest for independence. Allen informed the U.S. Congress that he would fight for the independence of Vermont with the vigor as that of the U.S. against Britain. Great Britain attempted to interfere and create a wedge between the two parties. The dilemma nearly caused civil war. In 1783–1784, Allen commanded the Vermont military. He called out the militia to quell disturbances in Windham County and proclaimed that he would “make the town as desolate as were the cities of Sodom and Gomorrah” if the citizens of Guilford did not “submit to the authority of Vermont.” Allen’s forces commenced fire on the “Yorkers” and afterward several skirmishes occurred before Allen declared martial law. Ethan also became troubled with a personal family problem. His brother, Levi, sided with the Loyalists and headed for Canada. Ethan moved to confiscate his brother’s property. Levi challenged Ethan to a duel, which Ethan rejected, claiming “it would be disgraceful to fight a tory.” Allen, after the war, lived at Bennington, Tinmouth and Arlington, and finally settled outside of Bennington with his second wife, Fanny Buchanan, whom he married in 1784. Ethan and Fanny had three children: Fanny Margaret (b. 1784); Hannibal (b. about 1785–1786) and Ethan (b. 1787). Ethan’s property was located near the Winooski River. His first wife, Mary, died at her daughter Lucy’s home in Vermont in 1783. During his lifetime, Allen penned “Oracle of Reason” and an account of his time in captivity by the British. Allen assumed there was no revelation and argued against the Christian Revelation as well as against the Old Testament. Allen succumbed on 12 February 1789. At his grave site near Winooski, a marble store was set with the inscription: “The Corporeal Part of General Ethan Allen Rests beneath this stone, the 12th day of February, 1789 Aged 52 years. His spirit tried the mercies of God, In whom he believed, and strongly trusted.”

Armand, Brigadier General Tuffin Charles Marquis de la Rouarie Charles’ actual surname had been Tuffin, but upon his arrival in America, he modified his name due to his perception that his aristocratic birth would prove detrimental to his success in his new land. Sources vary on the exact date of his birth; however, Colonel Charles Armand, as he came to be known, according to the National Park Service, was born during 1750. Little information is available regarding his early life, but he was described as a French gentleman in a sketch written in 1898 by T.G. Lenotre in the Pennsylvania Magazine of History: “Armand de la Rouerie was the complete personification of a gentleman of the ancien regime

14 of the old school of France. He had alike their faults and their virtues, easy morals, carelessness, bravery, pride, imprudence, chivalric heroism, and an absolute contempt of death.” Although the name of Colonel Armand is not very well known and his achievements during the Revolution have been often overlooked, he was considered one of the founders of the United States Cavalry. While still a boy, Charles was accepted into the elite unit (Garde de Corps) that protected the king and served with it for about ten years. The members of the unit were known as the royal household troops. Charles, after a while, found a way to exit from the corps. He engaged in a duel with the Comte de Bourbon Besset and wounded his opponent, who coincidentally was a cousin to the king. The cost of prevailing in the duel was high. It terminated his military career in the French service. For a while after the incident, Charles is thought to have sought refuge in a monastery. Subsequently, he made it to America and once there he moved to reinitiate his service in the military by gaining a commission in the Continental Army. He arrived in America with a literal splash during April 1777, following an uneventful two-month journey. When the vessel carrying Charles and his party (several servants) approached shore, it was intercepted by a British warship that opened fire and sank the ship. Charles and his servants survived and swam to shore, but they lost all of their possessions. On 10 May 1777, Congress resolved that Monsieur Armand receive a commission “with the rank and pay of a major or colonel, and that he be directed to repair to General Washington.” Colonel Armand was authorized to raise a legion of volunteers; however, the effort proved less than successful, but Armand remained undaunted. He made contact with a Swiss officer who had already formed a legion and persuaded the officer to sell him the legion. The volunteers became known as Armand’s Legion. Armand’s contingent participated with Washington in the Northern Theater, including the battles of Brandywine (11 September 1777) and Germantown (4 October 1777) while the British advanced from the Chesapeake to seize Philadelphia. Armand had authorization to act independently and his legion under his leadership played key parts in the northern campaign by launching stinging raids. Similarly to Francis Marion, the Swamp Fox, except for the swamps, Armand’s raiders continued to move about and strike the enemy when they were least expected. On 3 February 1778, Congress, after receiving a report from the Board of War, accepted the resignation of Colonel Armand. However, after considering another report regarding Armand, it resolved on 25 May “that the independent corps raised by Colonel Armand, in consequence of General Washington’s permission, be taken into continental pay; the pay to commence from the time of the respective inlistments of the non-commissioned officers and privates engaged in the same: That General Washington be authorized to officer this corps with such foreign and other officers of merit as at present hold commissions, and who are not already and cannot be annexed to other corps on the proposed arrangement of the army....” Colonel Armand, after being commissioned, worked to gain promotion to brigadier. His first official attempt at promotion was rejected by Congress on 4 February 1779. On 5 February, after considering yet another letter from Armand, in which he requested permission to return to France, Congress resolved that it “extends its thanks for his service and accepts his resignation.” Colonel Armand apparently never left the service. Shortly after his resignation was accepted, Congress, during a Friday session on 12 February, received a letter and a report that dealt with the corps of Armand and Count Casimir Pulaski directing “that the same be returned, and that the Board of War be informed that Congress only means that the infantry of Count Pulaski and Colonel Armand’s corps be recruited to their original establishment, and that the Board be directed to report

15 accordingly.” On the following day, Congress authorized a payment of “$94,000 to the paymaster of the Board of War and Ordnance for Colonel Armand to use in recruiting his corps.” Later, on 6 November 1779, Colonel Armand, while at Peekskill, New York, led an infantry-cavalry contingent to Kingsbridge and succeeded in seizing six British prisoners, including Major Bearmore. During the first part of the following year, Congress received yet another request regarding promotion from Colonel Armand. On 19 January 1780, Congress received a letter from the Board of War dealing with Armand’s request, but no action was taken. On 21 January, Congress referred the matter of Armand’s request to General Washington to seek his counsel. Meanwhile, Colonel Armand took another course of action; rather than offering his resignation, he requested a leave of absence to return to France. On 10 February, Congress took a letter from Armand, dated 9 February, under consideration and afterward resolved “that Congress entertain a high sense of the merit and services of Colonel Armand, and that his application for leave of absence for six months after the end of the next campaign be complied with.” Yet again, Colonel Armand, moved to get a promotion. On 23 February, 1780, Congress received a report from the Board of War regarding the request with a recommendation that his request be rejected because other colonels had collected more time in the service. However, Congress resolved “that the remains of the legion of the late Count Pulaski be incorporated with the corps of Colonel Armand, Marquis de la Rouerie, in such manner as the commander in chief of the southern army shall think proper: the united corps to be formed into a legion to be commanded by Colonel Armand; provided, however, that General Lincoln has not already entered into measures for complying with the resolution of Congress of December 29th, 1779.” After the death of Count Pulaski, who was mortally wounded on 9 October 1779, while defending Savannah, Colonel Armand received command of Pulaski’s Legion. On 16 August 1780, Colonel Armand’s corps participated at the Battle of Camden, where General Gates sustained the defeat that terminated his military career. Armand’s Legion sustained severe casualties during the contest. However, Armand’s corps performed with distinction and, soon after, Congress acknowledged the effort. On 14 October 1780, Congress resolved “that the thanks of Congress be given to Generals Smallwood and Gist, and to the officers and soldiers of the Maryland and Delaware lines; the different corps of artillery; Colonel Porterfield’s and Major Armstrong’s corps of light infantry, and Colonel Armand’s cavalry; for their bravery and good conduct, displayed in the action of the 16th of August last, near Camden....” During the following year on 2 January, Congress, after considering a letter from Colonel Armand, resolved “that General Washington be informed, that Congress consent to his permitting Colonel Armand to take from the line of infantry in the army of the United States, when the state and strength thereof will admit, a sufficient number of volunteers to complete his partizan corps for the next campaign, provided he be not allowed to take more than six men from a regiment.” That same month, on the 23rd, Congress authorized Colonel Armand to travel to France to acquire clothing and equipment for his corps on his personal credit. Congress advanced the money with the stipulation that it get repaid in four years with interest (5 percent per annum). Colonel Armand completed the voyage and returned to America in time to participate in the Yorktown Campaign. Once back in the country, he repaired to Virginia to rejoin his legion, which had earlier been dispatched there. Colonel Armand participated in the fighting against Redoubt 10 and afterward, in appreciation of his contribution, General Washington added fifty volunteers to further augment Armand’s striking power. Subsequent to the defeat and surrender of Lord Charles Cornwallis at Yorktown in October 1781, Colonel Armand was dispatched farther south to support General Nathanael Greene during the campaign

ARMAND to eliminate the remaining forces in the South; however, the tour was short-lived. Armand and his legion were back in the tranquil northern theater by Christmas 1781. Colonel Armand remained in the army for the duration. During 1783, on 23 March, Colonel Armand finally achieved his original goal. His exploits and exemplary service during the war were recognized by Congress, which promoted him to the rank of brigadier general. General Armand retired from the army during November 1783, and afterward embarked for France. Prior to his departure, General Armand became a member of the Society of Cincinnati. When he first arrived in America, he landed with no possessions due to the loss of the vessel that transported him from France, and upon his arrival back in France, he carried with him a huge debt from expenditures accumulated for the upkeep of the legion. An American officer, Major George Shaffner, previously with the German Battalion and a friend of General Armand, accompanied Armand back to France. Congress paid tribute to the French cavalry commander who had served America heroically during the struggle for independence. A resolution of 27 February 1784 said: Whereas, the United States in Congress assembled are well informed, and entertain a just sense of the great bravery, intelligence, zeal and activity manifested during the cause of the late war with Great Britain, by Brigadier General Armand, Marquis de Roueire, in the service of the United States, and, whereas, it also appears by a letter from the late commander-in-chief, dated at Philadelphia, 15th December, 1783, addressed to the said General Armand, that superadded to general merit for good conduct, vigilance, and bravery, General Armand has, in a variety of instances, particularly signalized himself as an excellent officer and great partisan, and frequently rendered the United States very valuable services. Resolved, that the President write a letter to General Armand, Marquis de la Roueire, expressive of the high sense Congress are impressed with, of the services he has rendered the United States in the course of the late war with Great Britain, and of the entire approbation the United States in Congress assembled entertain of his bravery, activity, and zeal so often evidenced in the cause of America.

During 1785 General Armand married an affluent woman; however, the marriage was short lived. His wife succumbed during 1786. After returning to his homeland, General Armand, having become known as a hero for his exploits in America, retired to a quiet life, which he maintained until 1788. At that time, he was one of a group of elected deputies (Ffrom Brittany) charged with persuading King Louis XVI to continue to allow the privileges that his province had enjoyed. The king’s response was less than enthusiastic, and Armand’s efforts caused him to be detained for a short period in the Bastille. After being released several weeks later, he headed back to Brittany. During that period, the peasants were becoming the pawns of instigators that were conspiring to oust the monarchy. Armand was among those who rejected the revolutionaries; he became incensed when the revolutionaries began to liquidate Catholic priests and nuns, while working to eradicate Catholicism and the monarchy. During the latter part of 1791, Armand received official command of the Breton association from the exiled princes, brothers of King Louis XVI. The objective was to advance against Paris to oust the assembly, extricate the royal family from imprisonment and restore the monarchy. A huge number of muskets had been acquired in England and Armand’s chateau became the base of operations. Armand’s force, composed of peasants and aristocrats, was to be bolstered by the Duke of Brunswick, who committed his army to the cause. The plan called for Armand, with about 10,000 men, to strike from the west, while the Duke attacked from the north. The attack to regain Paris by the royalists was scheduled to occur in March 1793. In the meantime, Armand maintained headquarters at his chateau and continued to increase his numbers. However, one of his trusted men, Valentine Chevetel, had been a spy

ARMSTRONG for the republicans and maintained continuous communications with the convention to keep the revolutionaries appraised of Armand’s progress. The convention dispatched troops to seize Armand, but the mission failed and Armand was able to remain concealed by rapidly moving from one sanctuary to another, often finding sleeping quarters in a cave or on open ground. Armand also used disguises, including an eye patch, while he hid at Rennes, a republican stronghold. Although Armand succeeded in evading capture, the Brittany insurrection never materialized. The king, Louis XVI, was executed by guillotine on 21 January 1793. On 30 January, General Armand succumbed from a fatal illness while he was at the castle La Guyomarais. Later that year, the queen, Marie Antoinette, suffered the same fate as her husband, decapitation by guillotine. Following the death of the king an d the leader of the Royalist rebellion, General Armand, the Revolution continued to flourish and the nation was ravaged. Royalist and Catholic clergy were specifically targeted for extinction as the period known as the Reign of Terror emerged to nearly destroy France. The cathedral of Notre Dame was taken over by the convention, stripped of its name and dedication to the Blessed Mother and rededicated as the “Temple of Enlightenment.” General Armand was buried by his supporters, but the spies, Valentine Chevetel and another man, who prevented the planned rebellion, informed the revolutionaries where his body was buried. The two spies arrived at the chateau to arrest the friends and associates of Armand and the family who sheltered Armand during his final illness. Those seized were carried to Paris and executed. The spies, having given away the location of Armand’s burial site on the grounds of the chateau, caused more grief even after the general died. His body was extricated and his head was severed and attached to a stake to mortify and intimidate others. At the time of his death, his friends buried his death certificate in the vicinity of an oak tree. The document was discovered in 1835 and preserved.

Armstrong, Major General John John was born in Northern Ireland about 1717–1720. In the 1740s (About 1745–1748), he emigrated to America and took up residence in Pennsylvania on the frontier where he continued his work as a surveyor. John, the son of James Armstrong, prior to departing for America, according to the papers of John Armstong at Dickinson College in Carlisle, married Rebecca Lyon, the daughter of James Lyon of Enniskillen, County Fermanagh. John settled in the Kittatinny Valley in the area west of the Susquehanna River, where he and Rebecca raised three children — John, Jr., James, and Margaret Rebecca. After a group of settlers from Connecticut acquired land in Pennsylvania from Indians, an agreement deemed illegal by Pennsylvania, Armstrong was dispatched in 1754 to Connecticut to attempt to settle the dispute with the Susquehanna Company. During the following year, Armstrong received another precarious assignment when he was selected to survey roads leading from Carlisle to the town of Confluence and to the town of Will’s Creek in an effort to expedite the transportation of supplies to General Edward Braddock’s army, which was involved with the expedition to seize Fort Duquesne from the French. The English under Braddock sustained a severe defeat, and afterward the frontier was transformed into an inferno as many of the Indians that had been friendly to the English switched their allegiance to the French. John set his surveyor’s equipment to the side and joined the militia as a private, but by January 1756 he was appointed captain and assumed command of a company in the Second Battalion (Provincial troops). Shortly thereafter, he began to rise rapidly in rank. On 11 May, he was promoted to lieutenant colonel. Armstrong’s strategy after taking command was to bolster the defenses against Indian attack by erecting a series of spaced blockhouses that stretched from the Susquehanna River to the border with Maryland. His strategy was linked to offen-

16 sive moves to eradicate the pernicious raids originating in Kittanning, an Indian stronghold that had been unmolested. All the while, the Indians were crossing the mountains and descending upon the settlements in the Juniata and Cumberland Valleys, wreaking havoc and instilling fear into the settlers. Armstrong, after conferring with Governor Morris, assembled a force of about three hundred men at Fort Shirley at Shirleysburg (Huntington County). The region also had been suffering from John Armstrong (Pictorial Field Book a lack of ammunition due to of the Revolution, Benson J. Lossing, the raids, including two 1860) against Fort Granville, which surrendered during early August after being assured of protection by the French, but the French permitted the Indians to massacre the garrison. Colonel Armstrong’s brother was among the troops killed there. The force assembled during late August and marched out of the post on 30 August to spring the surprise raid. The column reached the village by traveling the Kittanning Road without being discovered and devastated the Indians, inflicting many casualties, including Chief Jacobs. The victory by Armstrong brought eventual peace to the area when the Treaty of Eaton was signed the following year. Armstrong, promoted to colonel on 27 May 1758, led a division in General John Forbes’ army that succeeded that same year in wresting Fort Duquesne from the French when the French garrison abandoned the post during November. During the expedition, Colonel George Washington commanded troops from Virginia and Maryland, and during the operation the two men became friends. Colonel Armstrong again faced a hostile enemy during 1763 (Pontiac’s War). At that time, again using Fort Shirley as a base, his forces marched out to attack Indian strongholds at Great Island and Myanquie along the west branch of the Susquehanna. The attack was successful, but only in destruction. Both villages were devastated, but the Indians had abandoned them upon the approach of the column. Following the conclusion of the hostilities with the Indians, John reinitiated his work as a surveyor (he had been appointed deputy-surveyor in Cumberland County in 1762 and he was also a justice of the peace). His office in Carlisle was ruined by fire in 1766. By that time, Britain had initiated the Stamp Act of 1765. Throughout the colonies, the patriots were reacting with opposition of varying degrees. It seems as if John’s initial participation in the opposition to the policies of the king and Parliament began during 1774 when he, along with another prominent patriot, James Wilson (a future signer of the Declaration of Independence), was appointed to the Cumberland County committee of correspondence and that was followed by his later military service. Prior to Congress proclaiming the Declaration of Independence, the citizens of Cumberland County offered to raise a battalion of troops for the Continental Army. On 1 March 1776, Colonel Armstrong, who had become friendly with General Washington during the French and Indian War, was appointed brigadier general in the Continental Army. He was the first of six men selected that day. After the selections, Congress resolved “that General Armstrong be directed to repair to South Carolina, General Andrew Lewis and General (Robert) Howe to Virginia, and General James Moore to North Carolina, there respectively to take the command of the forces until they receive further orders from Congress or a superior officer.”

17 Armstrong arrived in Charleston during April and was there with Colonel William Moultrie when the British fleet appeared off the coast on 31 May, but he relinquished command on 4 June, upon the arrival of General Charles Lee, commander of the Department of the South. Nonetheless, Armstrong remained in the city and commanded the defenses on Haddrell’s Point when the British attacked on 28 June. The fort, which until that time had no official name, became Fort Moultrie in honor of Colonel Moultrie’s heroic actions in defense of Charleston. On 21 December 1776, Congress proclaimed its concurrence with General Washington’s decisions to dispatch General Armstrong from Philadelphia to select a secure location to store the magazines and work on increasing enlistments. Congress, which was in session in Baltimore after fleeing Philadelphia, on 31 January directed the Board of War to meet with General Armstrong, who was in Baltimore on other business. Subsequently, during 1777, General Armstrong resigned his commission (4 April) in the Continental Army; however, Pennsylvania appointed him “first brigadier general” of the state on 5 April. On 5 June he was promoted to the rank of major general and the Supreme Executive Council of Pennsylvania, at the same time, placed him in command of all Pennsylvania forces. General Armstrong was not an armchair general. While in Philadelphia, he oversaw the work at the forts along the Delaware River, including Fort Mifflin, Fort Billings and Fort Mercer. He commanded troops at Brandywine in September 1777, but his unit was not directly involved in the fighting due to where they were deployed, a point below Chadd’s Ford. After the American loss and during the retreat, Armstrong’s forces were employed in strengthening the defenses along the Schuylkill River. On 18 September 1777, Congress, in Philadelphia for its final session prior to evacuating due to the British thrust to take the city, resolved that “Major General Armstrong be directed, forthwith, to cause all the printing presses and types in this city and Germantown, forthwith to be removed to secure places in the country, excepting Mr. Bradford’s press in this city, with English types.” In October, Armstrong’s force was committed at the Battle of Germantown (present-day Philadelphia) and was directed to command the defenses at Philadelphia to meet the anticipated invasion. In addition, General Armstrong was elected by the Pennsylvania General Assembly on 20 November 1778 as a member of the Continental Congress for the years 1778–1779. After the close of hostilities, Armstrong again served in Congress (1787–1788). He was a Presbyterian and was involved with the other members of his congregation in establishing the initial church in Carlisle during 1757. He succumbed in Carlisle; however, there is some confusion regarding the time of his death. Most sources specify March 1795, and those sources include Dickinson College, which holds many of Armstrong’s papers. However, the date of John’s death marked on his tombstone in the “Old Graveyard” in Carlisle is 8 March 1793. The same gravestone states that his wife, Rebecca (born May 1719), survived him until 16 November 1797. Their three children, John, Jr., James (became a doctor), and Rebecca Margaret (married the Rev. George Duffield, formerly DuField) also survived him. Some years prior to his death, during 1779, troops under Colonel Stephen Bayard established a fort in Kittanning named Fort Armstrong in his honor. Initially, the fort was to be named Fort Brodhead, but General Brodhead forbid the action. General Armstrong’s son John served in the Continental Army as an officer and rose to the rank of brigadier general during the War of 1812. In 1813, John Armstrong, Jr., was appointed secretary of war by President James Madison.

Arnold, Benedict Benedict was a descendent of one of the initial settlers of Rhode Island, and one of the proprietors, William Arnold, who had three sons, one of whom was named Benedict. The latter became the president of

ARNOLD the colony when he succeeded Roger Williams. The Arnold family expanded throughout the colony at places such as Newport. Around 1730, two brothers, Benedict and Oliver, chose to move from Newport to Norwich, with the former arriving there first, followed by Oliver later. In Norwich, Benedict engaged in commerce, but he was not highly thought of; his enterprises fared poorly and his integrity was not above repute. Nevertheless, he married a respectable widow, Hannah WaterBenedict Arnold (National Archives) man King. The Arnolds had six children, but of those only two survived to adulthood, Benedict and his sister Hannah. Benedict was born in Norwich, Connecticut, but historians differ on the date. Some reliable sources claim 3 January 1740, while others sources specify 14 January 1741. As a young boy he was able to attain a good education, as his father’s enterprises had done well since his marriage to Hannah. However, Benedict seemed not to acquire the fine disposition of his mother and was known to be cruel at times and indifferent to the feelings and opinions of others, but one peculiar trait that he had was to maim young birds after taking them from their nests. For a while, he was offered a position at a pharmacy in Norwich, operated by the Lathrop brothers (Daniel and Joshua), distant relatives of his mother. Later he operated a pharmacy and was a bookseller. Afterward, Arnold became involved in shipping, but the endeavor brought him to bankruptcy and with a tarnished reputation. During one incident, a sailor accused Arnold of smuggling. The man was beaten, and several days later, when the sailor reappeared, he was collared by Arnold and others and given forty lashes. By that time, Benedict had settled in New Haven and married Margaret Mansfield (1767). The Arnolds had three children, Benedict, Richard and Henry; however, Margaret succumbed at an early age during 1775. As a young boy of about fifteen, Benedict served for a short while with the militia, but entered his military life during April 1775 when he arrived at Cambridge with the New Haven Militia Company. Arnold presented a plan to seize Fort Ticonderoga; it was approved by the Committee of Safety. On 3 May he received a commission as colonel. The fort was seized on 10 May, but the attack was under the command of Ethan Allen, rather than Arnold, who lacked troops. Shortly thereafter, on 16 May, Arnold, selected during a recent war council, led a thirty-man force (Improvised Marines) from Ticonderoga to seize St. Johns, Canada. The contingent was followed by the captured schooner Liberty with other troops. The post was seized on the 18th and with it the sloop George III, which was renamed the Enterprise and gave Arnold domination of Lake Champlain. Although the fort was seized without casualties on either side, Arnold quickly abandoned it after becoming aware of British reinforcements en route. The Americans moved to Crown Point. On 27 June, Congress, convinced the Canadians would join the cause, authorized an invasion of Canada to intercept a large army being assembled there by General Guy Carleton. The ill-fated Quebec Campaign was initiated on August 28. By the end of the year, it turned into a devastating defeat at Quebec City. On 11 September, General Arnold received command of an elite force, composed of more than 1,000 troops detached from the Main

ARNOLD Army with orders to reinforce Montgomery. Arnold reached the vicinity of Quebec during early November; however, the march was arduous due to snow, ice and high winds. The forces of Montgomery did not meet with Arnold until 3 December at Point aux Trembles. The attack to gain Quebec City on 30–31 December failed; General Montgomery was struck by a fatal wound and Brigadier General Arnold was seriously wounded. Arnold maintained a siege, but his force numbered only about 450 troops. On 5 January, from his bed in a convent hospital, Arnold sent a dispatch to General David Wooster with a request to send all deserters back to Quebec, but he also requested “four hundred pair of snowshoes, sugar for the Hospital and fifty light shovels.” Soon after, on 10 January, Congress promoted Colonel Arnold to the rank of brigadier general. The expected reinforcements from Montreal failed to arrive, although a small contingent did arrive during February. By that time it became inevitable that a retreat was necessary. Prior to withdrawing, Arnold dispatched a contingent, including Canadians loyal to the Americans, to intercept a force of Canadian Loyalists, but the enemy offered little resistance and surrendered on 25 March. By the end of March, Arnold’s force, never more than 700 men since the beginning of the year, was further ravaged by sickness. Arnold notified Silas Deane that the men from New England were of no value due to smallpox, and he informed Deane that the snow stood at about five feet deep. On 31 March the Americans launched an attack against Quebec City. It failed and the contingent was captured. Another attack was launched after reinforcements under General Wooster arrived during April, but it too failed. The Americans suffered another loss at the Ceddars during mid–May. By June, lacking supplies, food and able-bodied troops, the Americans initiated a retreat. Arnold departed Montreal on the 13th. Soon after, he noted the story of how he dealt with his horse that had, as he described, been so loyal upon the approach of the British, stating that he “stripped the poor mare of her saddle and bridle, and then with my own hand shot her, rather than have her fall into the hands of the enemy.” After returning to New York, Arnold on 30 July sent a flotilla down Lake Champlain under a flag to deliver a copy of the Declaration of Independence to British general Sir Guy Carleton. The British responded by preparing to advance. Arnold was ordered by General Horatio Gates on 7 August to use his diminutive fleet to intercept the British on the lake. Arnold’s flotilla sailed on the 24th. The British embarked from St. Johns on the 4th of October. The two fleets clash on the 11th and, despite the massive advantage, the British were unable to destroy Arnold’s fleet. The battered American fleet slipped past the British fleet during the night. On the following day, Arnold continued the struggle despite the loss of several vessels, including the Washington, commanded by General David Waterbury, until forced to abandon the fight. He ordered his ship, the Congress, to be run aground. Nonetheless, the British were stalled long enough to prevent the 13,000 reinforcements from joining with General William Howe. Arnold succeeded in halting the advance. Carleton reached Crown Point, but then withdrew to Canada, sparing Ticonderoga. Having eliminated the threat against Ticonderoga, on the 20th of November, Generals Gates, Schuyler and Arnold decided to let the troops return to their homes for the winter. Arnold returned to Connecticut. During the following spring, he engaged the British at Ridgefield on 27 April and escaped unharmed, although his horse had been hit nine times during the same volley. General David Wooster at that time received a fatal wound. While Arnold was on the ground near his horse, a British soldier attempted to capture him, but Arnold, using his pistol, eliminated him. On 2 May 1777, Congress promoted Arnold to major general. It

18 awarded him a horse on the 20th as a gift for “his gallant conduct in the action against the enemy in their late enterprize to Danbury, in which General Arnold had one horse killed under him, and another wounded.” During the following month, on the 10th, Arnold was directed by Congress to proceed to Trenton and upon arrival to “conduct himself agreeable to the orders of the commander in chief.” Shortly thereafter, on the 14th of June, Congress directed Arnold to assume command of all militia troops in Bristol, Pennsylvania, and “on every other part of the river to the eastward of Philadelphia, which have been called forth into service by a requisition of the twenty-fourth day of April last.” By August 1777, General Arnold volunteered to lead reinforcements to lift the siege of Fort Stanwix (August 3–22). Using a ruse executed by a captured Loyalist in trade for his life, Arnold sent a false message of a large force en route to the fort. It worked, and the Indians had also abandoned St. Leger, the British commander. In the meantime, news of the defeat of British Major General John Burgoyne’s forces at Bennington arrived, prompting St. Leger to abandon the siege on 22 August. The British during their retreat were ambushed by the Indians who had just abandoned them, leaving the Redcoat officers without baggage or supplies. Afterward, using British bayonets, they killed the ambushed troops and stragglers who were unable to maintain the rapid pace. During the following month, under the overall command of General Horatio Gates, General Arnold and Colonel Daniel Morgan engaged Burgoyne at the First Battle of Saratoga. After the battle, Arnold found himself without a command, and it remained so when the Second Battle of Saratoga erupted on 7 October. Arnold, despite having no command, left General Gates’ headquarters for the field. Attempts by Gates to intercept him failed. Joining with Colonel Morgan, Arnold rallied the troops. Meanwhile, Gates and Arnold exchanged words at headquarters, but Arnold ignored Gates and returned to the field, despite Gates saying: “I have nothing for you to do. You have no business here.” On the 17th Arnold and Morgan had outwitted the British, which compelled Burgoyne to surrender his force of just under 6,000 men. Earlier, during 1775, Burgoyne at Boston had boasted: “What, ten thousand peasants keep five thousand king’s troops shut up! Well, let us get in and we’ll soon find elbow room.” During June 1778, General Arnold, renowned for his heroism on the field, arrived at Philadelphia. While recuperating from a wound sustained at Saratoga, he married Peggy Shippen, the daughter of Edward Shippen. He began living well above his means, and soon after, he began his espionage to betray the nation. For a while, he attempted to engage in privateering, but when the endeavor failed, he began to communicate with an agent of Great Britain, which led to Arnold selling himself to the British Crown. On 10 May 1779, Benedict Arnold initiated talks with General Sir Henry Clinton, the British commander in New York. Intelligence was passed from Arnold to Clinton and by 1 June, based on the information, Clinton initiated an offensive to seize West Point; however, the attack failed. While still undiscovered, Arnold received a court-martial regarding charges made against him by Pennsylvania. On 20 January, the court acquitted him of all serious charges, leaving him to receive only a reprimand from General Washington. During the summer of 1780 Arnold remained undiscovered and a trusted officer of Washington, the latter appointing him as commander of West Point (Department of the Highlands) on 3 August. By that time, Arnold had agreed to accept a commission in the British army and cash for his actions to assist the English seizure of West Point. Earlier during 1776, a Prussian officer, Colonel Zedwitz, had commanded the Point and he, too, tried to help the British seize it, but the plan was foiled and Zedwitz was imprisoned. The plot unfolded on 21 September when the HMS Vulture, transporting Major John Andre, arrived at Haverstraw Bay about five miles below King’s Ferry. On the

ASHE

19 22nd, Andre and Arnold met at the residence of Joshua Smith and completed the details of the plan. Afterward, Arnold presented Andre with an authorized pass with the alias of Anderson. Nevertheless, later on that same day, Andre was unable to re-board the ship due to American artillery that compelled it to retire. He escaped the scrutiny of sentinels near King’s Ferry, but they insisted that he not travel further at night. On the following day, Arnold’s conspiracy blew up when other militia were less cordial. Andre, still in civilian clothes, was stopped and at first elated when be believed the troops to be Loyalists, but to his surprise, after he identified himself as a British officer, he was seized, along with his secret documents. Andre attempted unsuccessfully to bribe the three troops ( John Paulding, Isaac Van Wart and David Williams). If not for the absolute integrity of those three soldiers, who were willing to turn down a high ransom, the fate of the nation might have turned out much differently; however, they could not be bought at any price and together foiled the grand scheme of Howe and Arnold. The prisoner was taken to the nearest military installation, North Castle, but astonishingly, the commanding officer, Lt. Colonel John Jameson, decided to deliver Andre to Arnold at West Point. However, he also sped a rider to inform General Washington about the treachery of Arnold. Meanwhile, another officer, Major Benjamin Tallmadge, convinced Jameson to hold Andre, but unexplicably he sent a messenger to inform Arnold, giving him time to escape. On the 25th, Arnold, while in conversation with Washington’s advance party at the Robinson House, was informed of Andre’s capture. Before the officers were appraised, he, leaving his wife at his quarters, escaped to the Vulture. Washington arrived shortly after his flight. Arnold later dispatched a letter to Washington claiming that his wife had been totally innocent. Meanwhile, Major Andre, wearing his regimental uniform, was hanged as a spy on 2 October. He had requested a firing squad. Arnold, by December, began to ravage the nation that he had been defending. He led a command that landed in Virginia at Hampton Roads on 30 December, on a mission to seize Richmond. On 3 January, Arnold was aboard one of the boats debarked at Jamestown, but the diminutive force at the battery (Hood’s Point) there withdrew. On the 4th, Arnold reached Westover, about 25 miles outside of Richmond, and entered the capital on the following day. Against nominal opposition at best, due in great part to large numbers of Virginians attached to George Rogers Clark on the frontier, Arnold moved to Portsmouth by the 20th, inflicting much damage along the way. However, the primary goal, capturing Governor Thomas Jefferson, failed, as he escaped. Arnold remained at Portsmouth unscathed and was reinforced on the 6th of March by about 2,000 crack troops under General William Phillips. Upon his arrival, Phillips assumed command of all British troops. In the meantime, General Washington had directed troops from the Northern Theater to move to intercept Arnold. On 18 April, a British force moved up the James River from Portsmouth to wreak more havoc as far as Williamsburg, City Point and Petersburg. Between the 25th and the 28th, the devastation continued without stiff resistance, and on the 27th, the Patriots battled the British at Osborne’s Landing, where the skirmishing continued into the following day. Other towns struck included Manchester and Bermuda Hundred. Finally, General Marquis de Lafayette arrived at Richmond aboard a French warship on the 25th to neutralize the British and if possible seize Arnold. Lafayette anticipated arriving earlier, but the French aborted the voyage. The British lost General Phillips to fever on 25 May, but Arnold resumed command. Nevertheless, shortly after the death of Phillips, Arnold abandoned Virginia for New York, which saved him from being snagged with Cornwallis at Yorktown. From his base in New York, Arnold swept into Connecticut during September and again spread

destruction, striking New London on the 6th. The town was burned, but the 23-man garrison at unfinished Fort Trumbull escaped capture. Another force on that same day massacred many of the garrison, including wounded, at Fort Griswold after the fort was surrendered. In the meantime, General Washington permitted Peggy Shippen Arnold to travel with her baggage to New York. Arnold showed thanks by declaring the Declaration of Independence treasonable, claiming that the rebels were attempting to “enslave the people” and that the American troops were being duped by the French. Subsequent to the end of hostilities, Benedict Arnold publicized his reasons for treason, blaming it on the French, a Catholic monarchy joining the American cause. Although he was considered a hero by many in England, not all Englishmen held that sentiment. One man, Lord Lauderdale, upon noticing Arnold being seated close to King George III at his immediate right, proclaimed, “His majesty is supported by a traitor.” Another, Lord Surry, was preparing to speak in the House of Commons, but upon spotting Arnold, he retook his seat, saying: “I will not speak while that man is in the House.” Back in America, word of Arnold’s treachery spread quickly to Philadelphia. People constructed a life-size effigy of him, with the devil at his side, and had the cart pulled through the streets to exhibit their evil pair with a huge sign that spelled out only two words in capital letters: “TRAITOR ARNOLD.” Benedict Arnold succumbed in 1801 on 14 June, the date set aside as the birthday of the U.S. Army in 1775 and the date he assumed command of all troops at Bristol, Pennsylvania in 1777. Few remember Arnold on that date, but it is grand day in the United States when the nation celebrates Flag Day.

Ashe, General John John was born in England during 1721, but when he was about six years old, his parents, John Baptiste and Elizabeth Swann Ashe, emigrated to America and settled in North Carolina along the Cape Fear River. Elizabeth was the daughter of Major Alexander Lillington and the widow of Samuel Swann. Prior to his departure, he had been a friend of Lord Craven, and it was through the support of the latter that enabled John Baptiste to head for the colonies. After his arrival, John Baptiste served on the council (1733) while Governor George Burrington was the royal governor. John Baptiste and Elizabeth had two other children, Mary (1723) and Samuel 1725). Later, the younger John married his cousin Rebecca Moore, the daughter of Colonel Maurice Moore. With his marriage to Rebecca, he became the brother-in-law of General James Moore and Judge Maurice Moore. Later, John, like his father, entered politics. He was elected to the colonial assembly, where he was speaker from 1762 to 1765. During that same year, parliament passed the Stamp Act, which was staunchly opposed by the patriots, but the North Carolinians also became aggravated due to their mistrust of the government officials. John was one of the patriots who opposed the Stamp Act of 1765, but several years later, he opposed one group, the Regulators, formed during 1768. Nonetheless, as the relations with Britain deteriorated further, John became one of the leaders of the patriots in North Carolina. By 1771, Regulators had included violence in their opposition, ignited because of the taxes and their belief that the officials were embezzling. Governor William Tryon led a militia force, which included John Ashe, during May of 1771, against the settlers, most of whom had no weapons. The settlers lost a few hundred men, killed or wounded. Of the captured, 12 men were tried and convicted of treason and sentenced to death, but only six were executed. The militia force, composed of more than 1,000 men, sustained about 70 casualties. The Regulators by 1771 had become more violent and had intended to terminate all public officers and kill every lawyer. In May 1775, word of the clash at Lexington and Concord reached North Carolina. Patriots gathered in Mecklenburg County and during

ASHLEY the convention, proclaimed independence from the British crown. The resolution (five resolutions) became known as the Mecklenburg Declaration of Independence. Soon other patriots at Charlotte concurred with those at Mecklenburg, which signaled danger for the royal governor who had replaced Governor Tryon. He was Josiah Martin, who on 31 May 1775 fled New Bern aboard the HMS Cruzier and headed for Fort Johnston, but soon his sanctuary was lost. On 18 July, a group of patriots led by Colonel (later general) Robert Howe and Colonel John Ashe moved to seize the governor, but again, he escaped aboard the British warship. On the following day, from his position on the Cape Fear River, Martin observed Fort Johnston as it burned. The action against the fort and the royal governor was considered treasonous by the British; however, the patriots were not concerned. Their aggressive move terminated the line of royal governors. After Martin absconded, Cornelius Harnett, Jr., became president of the Council of Safety (government of the province). John was appointed colonel of the New Hanover County militia. The next April he was promoted to brigadier general (Wilmington District). The assembly that promoted Ashe at the same time promoted Richard Caswell to brigadier general (New Bern District). During February 1779, General Ashe, in command of about 1,500 militia troops, moved toward the positions of General Williamson’s force that was opposite Augusta and arrived there on the evening of the 13th. Upon the arrival of Ashe, the British prepared to abandon the city. Ashe was later directed by General Benjamin Lincoln to intercept the retreating columns at Briar (Brier) Creek, Georgia. Ashe arrived at Briar Creek on the 27th and traveled to Twin Sisters to confer with General Lincoln, while Generals Bryan and Elbert deployed at the creek, where they discovered a destroyed bridge. Ashe returned to camp on 2 March and the bridge had still not been repaired. On the following day, British reinforcements under Lt. Colonel James M. Prevost, the brother of British General Augustine Prevost, arrived in the rear of the Americans to bolster Colonel Archibald Campbell. American cavalry returned to camp as British infantry moved to the area and, during the afternoon, the Battle of Briar Creek ignited. General Ashe, lacking confidence after spotting about 500 Redcoats, directed General Samuel Elbert to attack: “Sir, you had better advance and engage them.” Meanwhile, Ashe and his force remained in place and made no attempt to support the Georgians. Elbert’s force, composed of barely 100 Georgians, advanced, while Ashe’s North Carolinians fled. Consequently, the Georgians were surrounded. The Americans lost about 350 men killed or captured, with many of the men drowning while trying to cross the Savannah River. General Elbert was among the captured. The loss gave the British control of Georgia, while costing General Lincoln a large portion of his army. On that same day, General Ashe, at Matthew’s Bluff, after leaving the scene, reported to General Lincoln: “Sir — I am sorry to inform you that at 3 o’clock p.m., the enemy came down upon us in force, what number, I know not. The troops did not stand fire five minutes; many fled without discharging their pieces. I went with the fugitives half a mile, and finding it impossible to rally the troops, I made my escape into the river swamp....” On 9 March, General Lincoln ordered a court-martial at the request of General Ashe. The court was held March 13–16, 1779 and included General William Moultrie as president and General Griffith Rutherford. It ruled “that General Ashe did not take all the necessary precautions to secure his camp, and to obtain timely approach of the enemy,” but the court acquitted him of all imputations as to want of personal courage, and ruled that he remained on the field “as long as prudence and duty required.” Subsequent to the court-martial, Ashe returned to his residence near Wilmington, North Carolina, which at the time was controlled by a British force under Major James Craig. Afterward, one of his servants

20 divulged his presence and location to the British. He was arrested and imprisoned and treated quite harshly. While detained, he came down with smallpox, prompting the British to grant him parole; however, shortly thereafter, her succumbed from the disease in October 1781. General Ashe’s son, Samuel, served for a while as a captain of Light Horse and later resigned, but he then served in the state militia. General Ashe’s brother, Samuel, born in 1725, also served throughout the war in a series of capacities, including military and civilian, and later became the governor of North Carolina. In addition, Samuel’s sons, Colonels John Baptiste and Samuel Ashe also served, adding five officers to the American cause from the Ashe family. Colonel Maurice Moore (father-in-law of General Ashe) and his brothers Nathaniel and Roger, the sons of Governor James Moore, established Brunswick Town along the Cape Fear River. Maurice married Elizabeth Lillington, daughter of Major Alexander Lillington and widow of Colonel John Fendall and Samuel Swann. Maurice and Elizabeth had four daughters, Margaret (married Thomas Jones), Mary (married her cousin John Porter and afterward, her cousin Maurice Moore, son of her uncle Nathaniel Moore), Elizabeth (married a Mr. Brown and afterward, George Minot), and one other daughter, Ann (mentioned in his last will and testament). Following the death of Elizabeth, Maurice married Elizabeth Porter, the daughter of John Porter. Through that marriage three children were born, Maurice (judge), James (general) and Rebecca (Mrs. John Ashe).

Ashley, Major General John John, the only son of Judge John and Hannah Hogaboom Ashley, was born in Sheffield, Massachusetts, on 26 September 1736. Like his father, John entered Yale, graduating in 1756. His father graduated in 1730. John settled in Sheffield and established himself as a merchant. He also served in the General Court and the militia. John married Louisa Ward on 20 May 1782. They had two children, Louisa (b. March 1763) and John (b. January 1767). Two years later, on 2 April 1769, Louisa died, leaving John with two young children. He took Mary Ballantine as his second wife on 17 October. Mary was the daughter of the Rev. John Ballantine (Bollentine) of Westfield, Massachusetts. John and Mary’s children were Ballantine (Bollentine, b. December 1770); William (b. January 1773); Roger (b. March 1775, died young and unmarried); Samuel (b. November 1778, died young and unmarried); Mary (b. March 1781); Hannah (b. September 1782); Jane (b. March 1784) and Ashley (b. November 1788). John was commissioned colonel of the 1st Berkshire Regiment on 4 April 1777. He succeeded Colonel Mark Hopkins, who led the regiment until his death in October 1776. John led his regiment to bolster the forces along the Hudson during July, subsequent to the abandonment of Ticonderoga and Mount Independence. The regiment also arrived at Bennington during the campaign that halted British General John Burgoyne’s advance toward Albany. Subsequent to the close of hostilities, Colonel Ashley participated in the suppression of Shay’s Rebellion (1786–1787), and during the campaign, Ashley’s force engaged the insurrectionists on 27 February 1787 and dispersed them in short order. Prior to the action, Colonel Ashley spoke to his troops and made it clear that he did not want any cowards or weak men in his ranks, then he continued, saying, “I am going to see who are the brave men, and who are the cowards among you. I wish you to give me your attention. When I give the word, shoulder arms, let every brave man bring his musket promptly to his shoulder, and let every coward slink back out of the ranks.” After a brief pause, he added as he drew his sword from its scabbard: “But, remember that I’ll run the first man through the body that leaves the ranks!” He gave his order, “Shoulder arms.” The muskets were snapped into place with no one breaking ranks. During the following year, Colonel Ashley was commissioned as a brigadier general. He was promoted to major general during 1789 and

BAILEY

21 at that time he assumed command of the Massachusetts 9th Division (militia). General Ashley, in addition to serving in the military, was in the Massachusetts legislature subsequent to the close of hostilities with Britain. He died unexpectedly on 5 November 1799.

Babcock, Major General (Doctor) Joshua Joshua Babcock was born in Westerly, Rhode Island, on 17 May 1707. His grandparents had arrived there with the initial settlers. Joshua, the son of James and Elizabeth Babbett Babcock, was raised on the family plantation located on the old country road in Westerly, about one mile from Pawcatuck village. Joshua received an excellent education, which included graduation from Yale during 1724. Subsequent to completion of his studies at Yale, Joshua began to study medicine, including surgery in Boston, and in 1730, he journeyed to England to increase his medical skills in London. Upon his return to the colonies, about 1734, Joshua initiated his medical practice in Westerly, but he also became a merchant by opening a country store. During the following year, Joshua married Hannah Stanton. Joshua owned a vast plantation slightly more than 25 miles west of Newport. From their marriage, nine children were born, four sons and five daughters: Henry (1736, also known as Harry), Luke (1738), Adam (1740), Hannah (about 1741 or 1742), Frances (1745, married), Paul (1748), Amelia (1751), Sally (1753) and Harriet (1756). Later, Joshua entered politics and the judiciary, as well as serving in the military. Joshua’s commercial endeavors brought about financial success, and his participation in the affairs of the colony expanded his reputation throughout the colony and beyond. Joshua’s entry into politics can be traced to his election to the Rhode Island Assembly during 1740. He continued to serve in that body intermittently (including 1747–1749, 1752, and 1758–1759). Before the revolution, Joshua served several terms as a justice of the Rhode Island Supreme Court (1747–1749, 1750–1751, and from August 1763 to May 1764). During those terms, twice he sat as chief justice. Joshua did not serve in the French and Indian War, but the Babcock family was represented by his son, Henry (later colonel). Henry Babcock had graduated from Yale in 1752, the same year that Joshua’s step-brother James graduated from the institution. As the relationship between the colonies and Britain began to deteriorate, Joshua stood firmly on the side of the patriots and by that time had become quite friendly with Benjamin Franklin, the latter being a frequent visitor at the Babcocks’ home during his annual visits to Boston. Joshua is known to have personally contributed financially to the cause. During 1774, when the English pressure caused severe hardships to the citizens in Boston, he donated about $100. In addition, he is known to have been involved in acquiring arms, and he also provided cash to be used as bounties for the troops at Westerly. On a larger scale, Joshua lent substantial amounts of money to the state. By April of the following year, conflict was ignited by the clash at Lexington and Concord. During a session of the Rhode Island Assembly (May 1775), a resolution authorizing the raising of an “army of observation” passed, and it was Joshua who carried a copy of it to the Connecticut assembly and requested that the Connecticut assembly forward its “proceedings and transactions” to Rhode Island. Joshua traveled to Massachusetts the following month and while there visited with his step-brother, James, an officer of the Massachusetts militia. His primary purpose of going to Cambridge was to deliver a message from Governor Nicholas Cooke of Rhode Island to the headquarters of the American Army. Joshua also carried an introduction message for General Washington, which read: “This letter waits on you by Joshua Babcock, Esq. He is a gentleman of a genteel fortune, a member of our General Assembly, and hath highly distinguished himself in the glorious cause in which America is embarked.”

Upon his return to Rhode Island, Joshua, although having reached his senior years, remained active. During the following year, the assembly selected Joshua as major general of the “Colony’s Brigade,” which most probably was received as quite an honor to the doctor who was about 70 years old at the time (May 1776). As major general, he commanded the ten regiments designated as the defenders of the state. During September, Joshua and two others traveled to New York to confer with General Washington on the strategy needed to defend Rhode Island. On 13 September 1776, the party arrived at General Putnam’s headquarters (No. 1 Broadway), where they received quarters, and by the following day, the conference began. On 15 September, General Babcock inadvertently became a primary observer of the scene when the city was abandoned that day. Arriving back in Rhode Island, Joshua resumed his military responsibilities. During the following month, the Rhode Island assembly renewed Joshua’s rank as major general. Despite his age, Joshua served in more than a ceremonial role. During December 1776, the situation in Rhode Island changed drastically when the British seized control of Newport. General Babcock was appointed to the state council of war. On 31 December, Joshua, in a letter to General Putnam at New York, stated: “Our small but, in the cause of liberty, loyal colony, approachable by vessels of war by its extent of sea coasts, within twenty miles of any port, have now enlisted, and are spiritedly enlisting above half its militia, and one-fourth the remainder on the Alarm List bound to hold themselves in readiness for action on an emergence of Minute men.” Joshua made known his need for ammunition and included the following: “In nowise do we despair; for as Providence has signally smiled on our attempts, we hope from the justice of our cause, the issue will be crowned with success. Joshua remained on the Board of War through 1778, then during 1779, he became a member of the House of Assistants (assistant to the governor, actually upper house). Joshua’s wife, Hannah, at about age 65, succumbed on 19 September 1778 while on a visit to Greenwich, Connecticut. Joshua later married Anna Maxson. Subsequently, on 1 April 1783, Doctor (and major general) Joshua Babcock succumbed. He was survived by his sons Adam (married Abigail Smith and later Martha Hubbard) and Colonel Henry (also known as Harry, married Mary Stanton, daughter of Robert and Anna Stanton of Stonington), and three daughters, Hannah (married John Bours of Newport), Harriet (married Gilbert Saltonstall, the brother of Commodore Dudley Saltonstall) and Frances (married Commodore Dudley Saltonstall, the son of General Gurdon Saltonstall). Luke, the son who became a minister, was halted by rebels, and when they inquired whether he owed allegiance to the king, he responded in the affirmative, which prompted the interrogators to detain him. His imprisonment took a severe toll on his health. After about four months of confinement, he was released and succumbed at Philipse Manor on the Hudson. The dates of the deaths of Joshua’s other children were not discovered by the author. The epitaph on Joshua’s gravestone read, in part: “The public records of his country testify, as do all who knew him, that as a physician, he was eminent in his profession, As A Christian exemplary, As a gentleman, polite and engaging, As a husband and father, a master and friend, worthy of imitation.” The Babcock House, known later as the Babcock-Smith House, at 124 Granite St., in Westerly has been preserved. The mansion, which was built during the 1730s, contains a museum that is open to the public.

Bailey (Bayley), Brigadier General Jacob Jacob Bailey, the son of Joshua and Sarah Coffin Bailey, was born in Newbury, Massachusetts, in July 1726 (some sources including Appleton’s Encyclopedia and the Bailey genealogy of nineteenth century, state 2 July 1726. Others, including History of Newbury, Vermont by F.P. Wells, 1902, state 19 July). Jacob’s mother was the daughter of Stephen

BAILEY and Sarah Atkinson Coffin. Jacob’s parents had eight other children: Stephen (b. 1708); Joshua (b. 1712); Abner (b. 1715); Enoch (b. 1719), Sarah (b. 1721); Judith a twin to Abigail (b. 1724); Abigail (b. 1724) and John (b. 1729). As a boy, Jacob is thought to have had only a fundamental education. On 15 October 1745 at age 19, Jacob married Prudence Noyes, the daughter of Ephraim and Prudence Stickney Noyes. Jacob and Prudence established residence at Timberland (formerly part of Haverhill, Massachusetts) about 1747. The Timberland part of Haverhill and a sector of Amesbury were involved with the drawing of a state line during 1741, which placed them in New Hampshire. On 12 January 1749, Timberland and that previously mentioned sector of Amesbury became Hampstead, New Hampshire. Jacob and Prudence had a large family that included the following children: Ephraim (b. October 1746, died young); Abigail (b. January 1749, died young); Noyes (b. February 1751, died young); Joshua (b. June 1753, married Anna Fowler, rose to the rank of colonel during the Revolutionary War); Jacob (b. October 1755–56, married Ruth Bedell, daughter of General Timothy Bedell and later married Mary Ladd, daughter of Ezekiel and Mary Hutchens Ladd); James (b. October 1757, twin brother to Ephraim); Ephraim b. October 1757 — twin brother of James) According to church records, Ephraim also married a woman named Anna Fowler and afterward he married Lucy Hodges; Amherst (b. January 1760, married Sally Stevens); Abner (b. December 1762–63, died 1788); John (b. May 1765, married Betsy Bailey and later Hannah Ladd); and Isaac (b. 1767, married Betsey Johnson, daughter of Thomas Johnson). Jacob became a prominent man in the town and he was involved with its governing process. He was among those who constructed the town’s first church (1752), in which he and two others, Jacob Kent and James Abbott, became the church’s initial deacons; he held the position until his death. Later, when war broke out with the French, he was appointed a lieutenant in Captain Alcott’s militia company. During 1756, the same year Joshua served with Alcott, he raised a separate company and was elected as its captain. The unit was attached to a regiment commanded by Colonel Meserve. Jacob’s company was active at Lake George and was part of the defending force at Fort William Henry when it was attacked on 4 August 1757 and forced to capitulate on 9 August. Despite assurances from the French General Montcalm that the garrison would be protected, after the English surrendered their arms, the Indians began to slaughter the garrison, including women and children. At the time, between 3,000 and 4,000 troops were at Fort Edward, but the commander, General Daniel Webb, refused to send help. Some, including Israel Putnam, escaped torture or death. Jacob broke away when the Indians attacked the column on the 10th while it was under French protection. He outdistanced his pursuers and made it to Fort Edward. Afterward, Jacob remained in the militia for most of the remainder of the conflict. He participated in General Jeffrey Amherst’s campaign that began after he replaced General James Abercrombie, who sustained a devastating defeat at Ticonderoga during July 1758. Jacob was at Montreal during September 1760, when the French surrendered to end the war and terminate France’s hold on North America. At that time General Amherst signed the surrender document on behalf of the British. Jacob had served as a lieutenant colonel in Colonel John Goff ’s regiment, until he was promoted to colonel and assumed command of the regiment when he succeeded Goff. While the men in the army were returning to their homes, a small party ( Jacob, Timothy Bedel, John Hazen and Jacob Kent) passed through a tract (later Newbury, Vermont) in the Connecticut Valley that the Abenaki (Abenaqui) Indians called “Co-os,” which translated meant “pines.” Upon their arrival back in Massachusetts, the men immediately set a plan in motion to acquire the land and establish two towns, Newbury and Haverhill, on opposite sides (east and west) of the

22 Connecticut River. In an effort to expedite the complicated endeavor, two others were sought out for help, General Moses Hazen, the brother of John Hazen and Colonel Moses Little, who was Jacob’s brother-inlaw (married Jacob’s sister, Abigail). Through the cooperation of Governor Benning Wentworth, charters for the towns of Newbury and Haverhill were issued on 18 May 1763. Jacob Bailey, Timothy Bedel, John Hazen, Jacob Kent and more than seventy others received the charter for Newbury. John Hazen and a group of about equal size received the charter for Haverhill, Vermont. Jacob relocated his family in Vermont and by the following year, 1765, the colonies were about to be burdened by the Stamp Act, followed by other taxes that ignited opposition to the crown’s policies, perceived by the colonists to overtax them to pay for the costs of the late war. Although the war with France had ended, the region remained turbulent due to difficulties with the Indians. The newly settled towns wasted no time establishing militia units, which remained in service until the opening of hostilities with Britain. At the time the charters were issued, the colonists had not given much thought to the location of their towns, which stood as a gateway between Massachusetts and Canada, but later, it became apparent that any invasion by the British from Canada would place them in jeopardy. During the transition period between the end of the late war and the ignition of the Revolution, additional colonists continued to move into the region. Among those were Scotsmen who settled at a place called Ryegate, but they too were staunchly committed to the Patriot cause rather than that of the Loyalists. During 1766, the New York Assembly appointed Jacob as justice of the peace and quorum (New Hampshire Grants). Later, during 1772, he was appointed as a judge of the Court of Common Pleas, a position he retained until 1777. In the meantime, as the colonies steadily moved away from the mother country and slipped closer to open hostilities, Jacob remained a staunch Patriot. Following the outbreak of hostilities, Jacob was again in the forefront as a leader. During 1775, he was elected as a delegate to the New York Congress, and in May of the following year he was nominated to receive a commission as brigadier general (militia of Cumberland and Gloucester counties). On 1 August 1776, he was commissioned brigadier by the New York Provincial Congress. While Jacob was at Boston, after deliberation with General George Washington on the ill-fated Canadian Campaign, he suggested and Washington authorized cutting a road to expedite the flow of reinforcements to cover the retreat of the American expeditionary force and shorten the distance of the arduous route. The mission was given to Captain Thomas Johnson and others from Newbury, Jacob Bailey, Frye Bailey ( Jacob’s nephew), and the Chamberlain brothers, Abial and Silas. The party was also accompanied by an Indian guide as they hacked their way forward, marking trees as they advanced to St. John’s, Canada, a journey of more than 90 miles that began on 26 March 1776 and ended on 1 April. Bailey’s route, as Washington had hoped, cut the distance by about 73 miles. From Boston to St. John’s on the new route through Newbury, the distance was 237 miles, while from Boston to Charlestown and Crown Point to St. John’s it was about 310 miles. The route was afterward used by reinforcements speeding to aid the beleaguered force; their journey was cut by about ten days, despite the necessity of using snowshoes through the wilderness. By spring of 1776, when the inclement weather ended, surveyors moved to begin establishing a road from Newbury to St. John’s, and as planned General Bailey led a large force to construct the highway. The British interfered with the project by moving down from Canada to destroy the markings along the route. Scouts returned to camp and informed General Bailey that a formidable force of British troops were en route to terminate the construction and they were following the route earlier marked on the trees. General Bailey’s progress by that

23 time had advanced beyond Peacham, but the enemy compelled him to order an expeditious retreat. Subsequently, the highway (Bailey-Hazen Military Road) was completed by Colonel (later general) Moses Hazen. The next year, General Bailey was one of a group of delegates appointed to deliver a remonstrance and petition from Vermont to the Continental Congress. On 2–8 July 1777, General Bailey was a delegate at the Windsor Convention, which drew up the state constitution. He was appointed to the Vermont Council of Safety. Also in 1777, he was also appointed as an agent to the Continental Congress. Despite the accumulation of various responsibilities that give the appearance of non-eventful duty, the general was often in danger, and the enemy had a price on his head. Although General Bailey is not among the more famous leaders who served the country during the war, at the time, he was well known by the British, particularly those in Canada, who were anxious to nab him for his repeated acts of sending spies to monitor British movements across the border. The British sent scouts, Tories and Indians to capture or kill the general, but despite several close calls, General Bailey was able to evade his enemies, preventing them from being awarded the 500 guineas offered for his capture or death. During the campaign in New York against General John Burgoyne, General Bailey was a participant as both commissary general of the Northern Department and as the commander of a militia brigade, in which several of his sons served. Once the supplies had been attended and distributed, General Bailey took command of the troops from western New Hampshire and eastern Vermont. During that time, General Bailey contributed much of his personal funds to the cause to support the campaign, and by the end of the conflict, Jacob had lost his fortune. Another of General Bailey’s notable accomplishments was his ability to befriend the St. Francis Indians and consummate a treaty of friendship. Their trust in Bailey persuaded them to support the Patriots against the French. During June of 1782, the British again attempted to snatch General Bailey. On the 17th of that month, only the timely message on a paper dropped off in front of the general at his residence prevented him from being captured. The succinct message from Colonel Thomas Johnson (on parole as a prisoner of the British) penned the letter after being informed by British spies and gave it to his brother-in-law, Dudley Carleton. Johnson was sworn by the parole not to inform of any British contact. Nevertheless, he instructed Carleton to inconspicuously drop the letter without saying a word. The message, “The Philistines be upon thee, Sampson,” was warning enough from his friend to allow Jacob to make a hurried exit. General Bailey slipped away and made it across the river to Haverhill. Seven guards, including Captain Frye Bailey, were on duty at his house, but they were too few to engage the enemy. They scattered into the woods, with one man being wounded, while Mrs. Bailey took cover in a concealed place under their noses in the garden, hoping the darkness would prevent the British from discovering her. Meanwhile, a servant, Sarah Fowler, remained in the home with one of the children in her arms. She annoyed the British intruders and even extinguished the candle several times to infuriate the search party. She was threatened with certain death if she persisted, prompting her not to again interrupt their candlelight, but the British inflicted no harm to her and to their dismay missed catching the general. The raiding party returned to Canada empty-handed and while on the property, they were not able to even intimidate the lone defender, Sarah, who ignored their loaded weapons and threats to prevail and be there to greet the guards when they returned. General Bailey was also involved in government. He was a member of the first state council (1778), and he served as a member during 1779 and yet again from 1784 to 1794. Nevertheless, the financial burden of General Bailey could not be overcome after the conclusion of the war.

BALDWIN His appeals to General Washington, with whom he remained friends after the war, had no effect upon Congress, and his applications to Congress for reimbursement were never approved. Consequently, what General Bailey still had as his estate had to be liquidated to pay his debts, causing him to live out his last years in poverty; however, he was not an isolated case. Congress often fell short of its responsibilities to the warriors who preserved their institution. General Bailey retained his faculties until the moment of his death, which occurred on 1 March 1816, while he was living with Isaac, one of his sons. General Bailey’s wife, Prudence, had succumbed on 1 June 1808.

Baldwin, Abraham (Signer of the U.S. Constitution) Abraham Baldwin, the son of Michael and Lucy Dudley Baldwin, was born in Guilford, Connecticut, on 23 November 1754. His family was not affluent or prominent. His father was a blacksmith, but despite his position in life regarding wealth, he was acutely aware of the necessity of receiving a good education to get ahead in the world. Consequently, Abraham’s father committed his total efforts to assure that Abraham attended college. Abraham entered and graduated from Yale through the resourcefulness and determination of his father, who went deeply into debt to borrow the money needed to pay the college expenses. During 1772, Abraham re-entered as a graduate student to further his education and prepare himself for life as a minister. By 1775, after the three additional years at Yale, he received a license to preach. Nevertheless, full time duty as a minister was postponed while he accepted a position as a tutor at Yale. Although in his early twenties, he was an accredited minister and due to the heavy emphasis on faith in the military, it was not unusual that he also served as a chaplain for Connecticut forces. Yale was considered a major source of chaplains for the army, and a high number of graduates scheduled for the ministry joined the army with the blessing and encouragement of the institution. At the time, patriotism was considered a natural part of the curriculum and the college’s reputation for producing Christian ministers was renowned. Initially, Baldwin’s commitment as a chaplain was on a part-time basis, but by 1779, as the Reverend Baldwin, he succeeded the Rev. Timothy Dwight as a brigade chaplain in General Samuel Holden Parsons’ brigade. The Reverend Baldwin held the post as chaplain until 1783, when the army was essentially disbanded, except for one artillery unit and one infantry unit. By the time Baldwin succeeded Dwight, the major fighting in the northern states had ended. Consequently, he was not present at any major battles; however, his task as spiritual director of the brigade remained heavy and constant while the brigade was deployed at West Point and other places along the Hudson River to deter the British from attempting a major advance from New York. The Reverend Baldwin, similarly to the other chaplains, also tended to the personal needs of the troops. He played a part in maintaining their understanding of morality, during and after his sermons. While serving as a chaplain, Baldwin began to study law, and prior to being released from the army, he gained admittance to the Connecticut bar, which permitted him to practice law. Duty in the Northern Department for the Connecticut brigades was often tedious and boring, but their mission was of great importance and defended Albany and the frontier from the British. Plans were set to launch an attack against the British in New York and the brigades practiced for the anticipated amphibious invasion; however, circumstances changed in the South, making the invasion unnecessary. General Lord Cornwallis had departed the Carolinas for Virginia, but he was outfoxed by General George Washington, who had successfully moved the main body of his army from the north, and from Philadelphia, the force was transported to join with Lafayette, who led the vanguard to oppose the British in Virginia. In October 1781, Cornwallis surrendered his entire army at Yorktown.

BARNEY Although the Reverend Baldwin’s participation was centered around spirituality, he became acquainted with many of the military leaders and he shared their devotion to the nation. The new relationships that he developed played a part in his life after the war and increased his awareness of new opportunities. After his separation from the service, Baldwin declined an offer accept the post at Yale as professor of divinity. He remained in Connecticut for a short while, and then he relocated in Georgia, where he established his law practice. Baldwin was apparently drawn to Georgia from separate directions. He had become familiar with General Nathanael Greene during the war and it was common conversation that Greene was working to get other retired officers to make the move to Georgia, where he intended to relocate. But also, Governor Lyman Hall (signer of the Declaration of Independence and a Yale graduate) had been interested in expanding the educational opportunities in Georgia, and he was in search of a man to take responsibility for the oversight of the program. As a Yale graduate, he sought counsel with Ezra Stiles, the president of Yale, and it was Stiles who spoke with Baldwin about the position and convinced him it would be a great opportunity. Consequently, Baldwin operated his law practice outside of Augusta, and he worked with the governor to improve education in the state. While in Georgia, Alexander was elected to the state legislature during 1794 and held the seat until 1789. He immediately injected his weight into the education agenda and succeeded in getting approval of a detailed plan that he had authored to advance the secondary educational system, but the plan also included institutions of higher education. He also proposed making land available for Franklin College (later University of Georgia). Although the execution was not immediate, it was carried out over prolonged period of time. His service in the legislature was a launching pad for utilizing his abilities as a minister and a lawyer. Abraham’s skills allowed him to accomplish more for education in the state, and he was elevated to chairman on a series of committees. The gentleman from Connecticut mixed well with the adventuresome frontiersman and a mutual respect grew between them. Alexander was an example of a colonial boy who moved from rags to riches while retaining his roots, his character and his piety. By 1785, he had become well known and his accomplishments in the legislature paid dividends when he was elected to the Continental Congress. Two years later, Baldwin was selected as a delegate from Georgia to attend the Constitutional Convention in Philadelphia for the purpose of restructuring the government. He initially supported the proposal that representation would be distributed in relationship with property, but that idea had great opposition, particularly from the smaller states. After considering the opposition’s position and becoming aware that some states would not cooperate with such a proposal, Alexander shifted his stance and supported the proposal that passed, a House of Representatives with representation based on population and the U.S. Senate that gave each state equal representation regardless of size. During the deliberations, Baldwin’s vote, after changing his opinion, threw the vote into a tie, which interrupted the momentum that had been behind the original proposal. Afterward, the item was handed to a committee, which led to what became known as the “Great Compromise.” Had the former been adopted, small states among the original thirteen—like Delaware, Connecticut and Rhode Island — would have been left in the dust. Legislation would have been tilted toward the bigger states like New York and Pennsylvania. Alexander Baldwin was instrumental in drawing up the compromise, and he considered it as “his most important public service.” The U.S. Constitution was adopted in Philadelphia on 17 September 1787. Following adoption by nine of the thirteen states, the Constitution became effective. That occurred on 21 June 1788 when New Hampshire became the 9th state to ratify the Constitution.

24 Baldwin had completed his service in the Continental Congress when the Constitution took effect; however, his service was not terminated. Under the Constitution he was elected to the House of Representatives and served there for five terms. Afterward, he was elected to the U.S. Senate for two terms. During his service in the Senate he was president pro tem. While in Congress, Alexander aligned himself with the Democratic-Republicans (present-day Democrats). Alexander Baldwin died while serving in the Senate on 4 March 1807. His funeral was held two days after the Senate adjourned; however, many of his colleagues remained in town to attend his interment. He was interred in the Congressional burying ground next to one of his close friends, General James Jackson, who had died the previous year while serving in the Senate. Baldwin never married. His father, who died during 1787, left six orphaned children from the marriage with his second wife. Alexander is known to have greatly aided his half brother and half sisters after the death of his father. The children were all well educated and Alexander cared for them as if they were his own children. Also, through his philanthropic activities, he often provided financial aid to help young men receive an education.

Barney, Joshua Joshua Barney was born in Baltimore, Maryland, on 6 July 1759. He received experience on the sea while still a teenager, and by the time hostilities broke out with Britain, Joshua sided with the Patriots. He became a crew member of the Hornet and participated in the mission of invading New Providence during February–March 1776, when Marines landed and confiscated military stores. Later, on his birthday, 6 July, he was appointed a lieutenant in the Continental Navy, following his actions while engaged against the British in Delaware Bay. He became executive officer on the captured vessel Sachem (formerly HMS Edward ). In spring 1777 he was stationed on the Andrew Doria, one of the vessels assigned to defending Philadelphia. He sailed on 23 October, en route to St. Eustatius to pick up military supplies, and on the return trip, the Andrew Doria seized the 12-gun HMS Racehorse and a British snow, the Thomas. Barney was placed aboard the Thomas as prize master, but it never reached port. The British recaptured it on 4 January 1777. After being exchanged (October 20, 1777), Barney transferred to the Virginia, but almost immediately he was captured for the second time when the vessel ran aground in Chesapeake Bay near Annapolis on March 30–31, 1778. The captain of the Virginia, James Nicholson, abandoned the ship so fast that he left his trousers behind. Joshua Barney attempted to control the ship and maintain order among the crew, but many of them had become inebriated and Barney was overpowered by them before the ship was seized. Nicholson actually returned to the captured vessel under a white flag to request that his trousers be returned. During August, Barney was again exchanged. Undaunted, he again went to sea, but yet again, while serving on a privateer in 1779, he became a temporary guest of the British. After being exchanged during that same year, he resumed his naval career. He served aboard the Saratoga, which was launched in 1780. During that tour of duty, while in charge of a prize, Barney had the dubious honor of being captured for yet a fourth time; however, in retrospect, serving in a British prison saved his life. The Saratoga disappeared without a trace at some point beyond 18 March 1781. The British, after seizing Barney, chose no exchange. He was transported to New York and for a while received good treatment, including being permitted to venture ashore with the stipulation that he had to return to the Ardent at night. But the British officer responsible for his fair treatment was transferred, leaving Barney to a different fate. He, seventy other officers and some enlisted men were squeezed aboard the Yarmouth during December 1780 and taken to England. During the voyage the officers were held in dungeon-like conditions, cramped in

25 a space with a height of only three feet, and given putrid water and terrible food. No doctors were permitted to check on them, and before the ship reached England, following fifty-three days at sea, eleven officers had perished after losing their senses. One of the officers who survived along with Barney was Silas Talbot. And for the others, the conditions were equally deplorable. The British informed them that they were to be hanged. About eleven men died en route to Mill prison in Plymouth. Nonetheless, the young and agile naval officer began to plan a daring escape. The British suspected Barney as a high risk and for some time he was placed in solitary confinement, but rather than break his spirit, he became more determined to break out, despite a double wall and high security. Barney faked an injury and began to use crutches to lessen the scrutiny placed upon him. His ruse worked to perfection. While he hobbled about, he detailed in his mind how the security worked and in the process, by some luck, he encountered a British guard who had earlier been a captive of the Americans and, having been treated well, he naturally reciprocated, giving Barney the opportunity to befriend him. The guard condoned the escape and with the help of a few other Americans, the escape plan unfolded on 18 March 1781, while the guard had duty at the spot between the double wall. The guard signaled “Dinner,” meaning the jailers would be at dinner at 1300, leaving only sentinels on guard. While a few prisoners distracted the other guards in the yard, Barney passed by the friendly guard, then bolted upon a very tall American at the wall and catapulted to the top and from there landed to begin the great escape in the clothes of a British officer. An Englishman, known to be an American sympathizer, was stunned to answer a knock at his door and discover a British officer, and he was more startled when he found out the Barney was an American escapee, knowing that harboring a prisoner could have gotten him hanged. Nevertheless, arrangements were made to conceal him temporarily, and then Barney was hurried to the man’s father, a minister and friend of the Americans. All the while, the British had not yet discovered that Barney had been gone for a second day. Under the pretense of being a fisherman, Barney was put aboard a vessel and still no alarm had been sounded as the craft moved past the British fleet. However, after the vessel reached the open sea, a privateer pulled alongside to question the men on the fishing boat. Barney discarded his fishing attire, donned his British uniform and met the officer from the privateer with great authority, demanding that the privateer let him pass due to a secret mission that could not be interrupted without great peril. The astute officer required proof and Barney continued his rant, exclaiming that he could not expose the mission, but he would be glad to head back to Admiral Digby for him to explain. The officer was not too keen about that idea for fear the British Navy would press some of his crew in to service. Nonetheless, the officer insisted that they return to Plymouth. Still showing no signs of stress and continuing his impersonation of a British officer, Barney agreed, and both vessels moved toward Joshua Barney (Pictorial Field Book of port, reaching shore on the the Revolution, Benson J. Lossing, following morning. With Barney remaining aboard, still 1860)

BARNEY thought to be a British officer on a secret mission, the officer headed for Admiral Digby’s fleet. In the meantime, Barney was able to grab a rope and slide down the vessel and into a boat, injuring himself in the process, but he made it to shore and after a precarious encounter with a British customs officer made it safely back to the house of the minister, where he met two other former prisoners (Colonel Richardson and Doctor Hindman). At about that time, Barney’s ruse was discovered and the alarm was sounded. Barney remained at the minister’s home without being discovered for several days, and from there he was again given assistance. Having changed his appearance and dress, his coach was permitted to pass through the gate of the town and proceed to Exeter. From there, Barney continued his escape by riding a public stagecoach to Bristol and, still without being discovered, he was able to travel to London, bid it a fond farewell and sailed to France. From there he went to Holland and boarded the privateer South Carolina. After a turbulent voyage, Barney and some others boarded the privateer Cicero, out of Beverly, Massachusetts. Finally, Barney completed his bold escape and reached America. At Boston, he met other Americans who had also escaped from Mill prison. After his return to the U.S., Barney married (1781) Ann Bedford (sister of Gunning Bedford). Barney declined offers to command a privateer and traveled to Philadelphia where he took command of the 16gun Hydor Alley (armed by Pennsylvania) during March 1782. Although Lord Cornwallis had surrendered at Yorktown, Virginia, during the previous October and the major fighting in the North had ended, Pennsylvania was concentrating on terminating the British privateers that had been operating on the Delaware River. On 8 April Barney vanquished the HMS General Monk (formerly the George Washington) in Delaware Bay following a brief but tenacious battle that compelled the British to strike the colors. An accompanying privateer, the Fair American, offered no assistance to the General Monk. Lieutenant Barney was promoted to captain by Congress following the victory. The General Monk, operating in the vicinity of the Delaware Capes since 1780, had devastated or captured about sixty vessels while under command of Captain Rogers, until Barney knocked her from the British service. Barney became the commander of the prize, renamed the General Washington, and sailed for France during November 1782. Upon his return, he carried dispatches from Benjamin Franklin indicating the imminent termination of hostilities, following the recent signing of preliminary peace terms. Nonetheless, Barney seemed unable to lose his propensity for capture. During 1793, he again spent some time in captivity after being seized by the British on charges of piracy. Subsequently, Barney served as a captain in the service of France, coincidentally during the Quasi War with France, but he returned to the United States during 1800. When war again erupted with England in 1812, Joshua Barney spent time as a privateer. His exploits in the Rossie, beginning on 15 July 1812 when he sailed from Chesapeake Bay, resulted in the seizure of eighteen vessels; one was the HMS Princess Amelia. The successful cruise ended on the 21 November 1812. Barney, after becoming aware of the British warships in the Chesapeake, proposed (4 July 1813) constructing a small fleet of gunboats that could be flexible enough to take on the Royal Navy’s blockade of Chesapeake Bay. His blueprint included gunboats that could also be rowed, to permit his men to navigate the rivers and outmaneuver the large warships. His blueprint was approved by William Jones, the secretary of the navy, making Barney’s fleet a temporary part of the U.S. Navy. Consequently, Barney, who had retired after the War for Independence, was reactivated. He received the rank of commodore. A naval battery at St. Leonard’s Creek, Maryland, was established to provide protection of the gunboats on the Patuxent River. The fleet was constructed and was activated at Baltimore during May 1814. The following month, Barney’s squadron of eighteen light-draft gunboats

BARNWELL engaged the British, but soon after, the outmatched Americans disengaged and broke for the Patuxent River. On 8–10 June, the British, having failed to destroy Barney’s squadron on Chesapeake Bay, moved to destroy it at Leonard’s Creek. Despite the unyielding pounding, Barney’s squadron refused to capitulate and the British once again failed to eliminate the threat. Barney broke through the blockade and headed farther up the Patuxent River. At Pig’s Point on 22 August, Barney ordered the squadron (16 gunboats and 13 schooners, including Barney’s sloop Scorpion) destroyed to prevent capture by the British. Barney afterward moved with his force to the defense of Bladensburg, where the British were pressing toward Washington. At Bladensburg, the British introduced a new and mysterious weapon — rockets — that caused panic among the American defenders, most of whom were fresh troops with no experience. The Americans, numbering about 6,000 men against 2,600 of the enemy, deserted their positions and headed back to Washington, but without pause they kept moving into Virginia, leaving the capital without defense except for one battalion of U.S. Marines, who held their ground at Bladensburg, and the contingent of sailors under Captain Joshua Barney, which also was prepared to fight. As it turned out, the British had not introduced a pernicious weapon; rather, they had catapulted pyrotechnics (fireworks) that exploded in midair, but caused no harm. The ruse had not fooled either the Marines or Barney’s men. The British attempted to overrun the thin line of Americans, but Captain Samuel Miller USMC and his force held the line and inflicted more than 225 casualties upon the British. Finally, after two hours of preventing passage, the Marines and Barney’s force withdrew. However, the time bought allowed President James Madison to get back to the White House and get his wife to safety. British General Robert Ross was able to move into Washington, but he failed to nab the president. During the attack at Bladensburg, Captain Barney was wounded in the thigh, making it difficult to escape. He once again became a reluctant guest of the British, but he was soon after released. The fighting at Bladensburg ended Captain Barney’s service in the field; however, following his recuperation, Barney again took command of his squadron during October of 1814 and retained it until October of 1815, when it was deactivated. Although the British took Washington in the War of 1812 and burned parts of it, they were driven from the town, not by the American army; rather by a tremendous storm that terrified the British as much as their rockets had scared the Americans. Captain Barney carried the ball that struck him in the thigh until his death. During 1815, he traveled to Europe, but he was compelled to cut his mission short due to his health. During 1818, Captain Barney had been in the process of relocating from Elkridge, Maryland, to Kentucky, but while traveling, he became seriously ill at Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. He succumbed there on 1 December 1818.

Barnwell, Brigadier General John John Barnwell, the son of Nathaniel and Mary Gibbes Barnwell, was born in Charleston, South Carolina, during July 1748. He was one of ten children. John’s mother was the daughter of Colonel John and Mary Woodward Gibbes and the granddaughter of Governor Robert Gibbes. John’s father was the son of Colonel John Barnwell, known as “Tuscarora” from his exploits against the Indians. The other children of Nathaniel and Mary were Nathaniel (b. August 1739); John (b. May 1741, died October 1748); Anne (b. September 1743, married Colonel Thomas Middleton to become his second wife, afterward married Colonel (later General) Stephen Bull of Sheldon); Mary (b. April 1745, married William Elliott); Nathaniel (b. February 1746); Robert (b. August 1749, died September 1749); Bridget (b. October 1750, died May 1751); Robert (b. March 1752, died July 1752); Elizabeth (b. 1753, married Richard Gough); Richard (b. January 1755, died October 1766);

26 Edward (b. November 1757, died 1808); Robert Gibbes (b. 1761, died 1814) and Sarah (b. 1764, married James Hazzard Cuthbert). At about age eighteen, John married Elizabeth Fenwick, the only child of Edward and Martha Izard Fenwick, during early 1766. Elizabeth succumbed that same year. By that time, Elizabeth’s mother had succumbed and her father had remarried in 1753 to Mary Drayton, the daughter of Thomas Drayton. Elizabeth’s father and her step-mother had a large family, including Edward, John, Martha, Mary and Sarah. Following Elizabeth’s death, John remained a widower for about ten years before he remarried, taking Ann Hutson, the daughter of the Rev. William Hutson, as his second wife. In the meantime, the colonies remained on a collision course with Britain. Soon after the clash at Lexington and Concord during April 1775, John was among those in Charleston who took up arms to support the Patriots’ cause. On 17 June 1775, he received his commission as captain of the 1st South Carolina Regiment. As the conflict was unfolding on a larger scale, the South Carolina Secret Committee, informed of the imminent arrival of an English transport laden with powder, sprang into action. The committee expeditiously communicated with Patriots in Georgia and armed a vessel to intercept the armed escort sent out by Governor James Wright. The two colonies coordinated, and the Georgia provincial government commissioned an armed schooner. Two Georgians, Captains Oliver Bowen and Joseph Habersham, along with Captain John Barnwell and Captain John Joyner, both South Carolinians, led the mission. The vessel embarked in timely fashion and Wright’s vessel chose not to fight. It took flight, leaving the hefty cargo on the transport to its fate. The munitions were taken and divided in such fashion that a fair portion was sent to Massachusetts. The vessel and cargo were taken to North Edisto Inlet, where the Georgians re-packed a liberal supply of the gunpowder, then camouflaged it by covering the powder with sacks of rice. Barnwell’s initial mission in the conflict ended with spectacular success, although it was not generally known at the time. The floating powder keg embarked and safely reached its destination. The cargo was desperately needed and was jubilantly welcomed upon its arrival subsequent to the Battle of Bunker Hill. Unknown to John Barnwell and the others aboard the ship that seized the powder, their daring raid enabled the Patriots at Boston to maintain the siege and their captured powder paved the way for the invasion of Canada. Later that same year, John resigned his commission (December 1775), but afterward he served first as captain in Colonel Benjamin Garden’s regiment (Granville County militia) and then as major. On 3 February 1779, a British contingent of about 200 troops under Major Gardener clashed with Colonel William Moultrie’s forces at Beaufort (Battle of Port Royal). The British dispatched by General Augustine Prevost were repelled and driven back to Georgia. John Barnwell participated in the action and two other prominent leaders also fought in the battle, Captains Thomas Heyward and Edward Rutledge (both were signers of the Declaration of Independence). The victory by Moultrie’s militia deterred Prevost from initiating any further action into South Carolina for a long time. The militia afterward focused on defending Charleston. John Barnwell also participated in the defense of Charleston during 1780. He and his brothers Edward and Robert were among the thousands captured when the city fell on 12 May 1780. The British restricted their hospitality for Major Barnwell and his brothers to the prison ship PackHorse. During that period, the British, without justification, executed Colonel Isaac Hayne, and the action caused General Nathanael Greene to retaliate. At Charleston, John Barnwell and his two brothers were informed they could be among other prisoners to be executed if Greene carried out his threat. In reaction, John, Edward and Robert as well as other captives signed a message to Greene (that was forwarded to the general)

27 that they should not interfere with his actions and that “they were ready to die in the cause of their country.” Greene’s intent was taken seriously and no harm came to the Barnwells. John’s release occurred during June of the following year as part of a large prisoner exchange. Soon after his exchange, Barnwell was appointed brigadier general by Governor John Rutledge, and with his appointment he received command of a recently raised militia brigade (4th). After the close of hostilities, General Barnwell was promoted to major general with command of the 2nd South Carolina Division. Rutledge selected Barnwell over another officer, Colonel William Harden. General Barnwell also served in the South Carolina Senate. John Barnwell succumbed during August 1800 and was interred at St. Helena’s Episcopal Church in Beaufort, S.C. General Barnwell and his second wife, Anne Hutson, had eight children: John Gibbes Barnwell (b. February 1778, died 1828); Nathaniel (b. May 1779, died 1795); Mary Hutson (b. 1781, married Robert Means); Anne Middleton (b. December 1783, married John Habersham); Elizabeth (b. March 1786, married James Cuthbery); Sarah (b. April 1788, died unmarried); Esther Wigg (b. 1790, died in infancy) and William Washington (b. 1793, died in infancy).

Barry, Commodore John John Barry was born in Ballysampson in County Wexford, Northern Ireland, about 1746 and was raised in Rostoonstown, parish of Tachmshin, Barony of Forth, Leinster Province. Barry’s father was also named John. His mother, Catherine, married twice more during her lifetime; however, her marriage to John Barry, Sr., resulted in the births of three other children, Peter, Thomas and Catherine. During 1760, John immigrated to America. He settled in Philadelphia, where he initially lived with Thomas Willing (a merchant), and afterward, General John Cadwalader, prior to acquiring his own residence, where he settled with his first wife (name uncertain), who died during the war. He remarried in 1777, but neither marriage brought about children. Barry’s second wife was Sarah Austin, a Protestant who converted to Catholicism during 1779. One of Sarah’s two brothers, William Austin, became a Loyalist and was renounced as a traitor. By the time Barry arrived in America he had already acquired experience on the seas as a captain of a merchant ship. One of the vessels under his command was the Barbadoes, and after relinquishing command in 1771, he commanded the schooner Patty and Polly. Others included the schooner Industry, the Frugality, the Peggy and, during 1774, the Black Prince (later the Alfred ), the latter owned by John Nixon. During the initial days of the conflict with Britain, prior to the Declaration of Independence, Congress appointed Barry as commander of the first ship of the Continental Navy, the Wild Duck, an armed brigantine that had arrived at Maryland with a cargo of gunpowder. The ship, acquired by Congress, was renamed the Lexington, and on 13 March 1776, Barry received command. He actually received his commission on 7 December 1775, two weeks prior to the formal organization of the Continental Navy. The move was unusual for the time and a testament to Barry’s skills. On 28 March, Congress John Barry (Pictorial Field Book of the took action to bolster Barry, who had been assigned duty Revolution, Benson J. Lossing, 1860)

BARRY on the Delaware River, by resolving “that the Marine Committee be empowered to purchase, on the most reasonable terms, for the use of the continent, the ship, Molly [renamed the Reprisal and commanded by Lambert Wickes], and to fit her out, with all possible expedition, to join Captain Barry, on his cruize along the coast, between New York and Virginia.” Off the coast of Cape Charles, Virginia, on 7 April, Barry engaged and seized the HMS Edward, tender to the HMS Liverpool. Congress was elated with Barry’s success and awarded him (6 June) the yet unfinished Effingham, named in honor of Lord Effingham, who resigned his commission in the British army rather than take up arms against the Americans. However, the Effingham was never completed and the Americans destroyed it in May 1778. In the meantime, the Edward, renamed the Sachem, began its service in the Continental Navy by accompanying the Lexington. On the 9th of April 1776, while at Egg Harbor, New Jersey, Barry was directed to move to Cape May to rendezvous with the sloop Betsy and accompany it to France for the purpose of transporting Silas Deane, the American minister, to the French court. Upon arrival, Barry found that the Betsy had sailed alone. Following some action along the Delaware, he returned to Philadelphia aboard the Lexington on the 26th of September, and at that time, relinquished his command of the Lexington. During December 1777, Barry was summoned to appear before Congress at York, Pennsylvania, to respond to charges of disrespect to a member (Francis Hopkinson) of the Navy Board at Bordentown, New Jersey. On 29 January 1778, Congress resolved that “Captain Barry be not employed on the expedition assigned to his conduct by the Marine Committee, till further orders of Congress.” In February 1778, Barry, using boats, descended the Delaware to harass the British at Philadelphia and destroy their vessels. The mission succeeded and in addition, Barry’s party aided General Anthony Wayne’s army by ferrying contingents across from Delaware and aiding them during a cattle roundup to provide food for the troops at Valley Forge. Wayne, like Barry, was a member of the Friendly Sons of Saint Patrick. Apparently, General George Washington, although not a member, had good feelings for the saint. On St. Patrick’s Day 1778, Washington proclaimed: “I too, am a lover of St. Patrick.” He authorized distribution of extra grog as a friendly gesture to the Irish in response to the ones responsible for constructing a “Stuffed Paddy.” During March of 1778, Barry encountered British warships. In the meantime, the Marine Committee, on 21 February, reported that “Captain Barry hath treated the said board [navy], in the person Mr. Hopkinson, one of that board, with indecency and disrespect, and that he ought, within twenty days after this resolve shall have been notified to him by the said board, make such acknowledgment as shall be satisfactory to them.” On the 7th of March, Barry, still operating south of Philadelphia, captured three British vessels, but two days later, more British warships arrived, and during an attempt to escape, one of the captured vessels was not fast enough, compelling Barry to beach it. Barry and his contingent escaped capture, but they were forced to remain in Delaware until May. During September 1778, Barry, having never gained command of the Effingham due to the British occupation of Philadelphia and the selfdestruction of the warship, received command of the Raleigh at Boston on 25 September. Part of Barry’s crew was composed of fifty British captives who served as Marines. During the Raleigh’s first day at sea it encountered warships, the 50-gun HMS Experiment and the 22-gun Unicorn, off the coast of Maine. On the 26th, after having evaded the two stronger ships on the previous day, contact was again made. During the battle the Raleigh grounded near the mouth of the Penobscot River and came under bombardment by both British ships. Barry and the crew, following nine hours of combat, made it to dry land, but the ship was not destroyed as ordered. Just as the British begin the bombardment at dawn on the 26th, Midshipman Jeacocks,

BARTLETT in defiance of orders, struck the colors and failed to burn the ship. The British dispatched a boat under a white flag and took possession of the Raleigh and the crew members who had not yet made it to the mainland. On 10 November 1778, Congress authorized an expedition to seize East Florida and, as part of the resolution, officers of the Continental Army who served until the seizure of St. Augustine were to receive land grants. Congress also selected Captain John Barry to command all vessels involved with the expedition, “pursuant to the orders of General Washington.” Barry was not jubilant about his selection; however, the expedition never occurred. Barry, without a command, took command of a privateer, the Delaware, with a commission from Congress of February 15, 1779. During August 1780, the Frenchman, Captain Pierre Landais, serving in the Continental Navy, was forcefully removed from the Alliance after it arrived back from France. Captain John Barry was appointed the Alliance’s new commander. Landais, accused of being insane, received a court-martial and was dismissed from the service. In February 1781 the Alliance departed for France with passengers Colonel John Laurens, Thomas Paine and the Viscount de Noailles (Lafayette’s cousin). On the 4th of March it seized a British privateer, the Alert. After delivering the passengers, Barry embarked for the United States on 29 March. A mutiny was planned by some of the British crew members soon after the Alliance departed, but Barry was informed and was able to quickly suppress it. Soon after, on 2 April, the Alliance, accompanied by a French warship, the Marquis de la Lafayette, spotted two British warships and the British chose to fight rather than run. Both vessels were captured, but the French captain disobeyed Barry’s orders and sailed the prizes (Mars and Minerva) to France rather than Philadelphia. In the latter part of March, the Alliance encountered the British vessels Atlanta and Trepassy off Nova Scotia, but prior to reaching Boston, the Atlanta was recaptured by the British. The Alliance reached port at Boston on 6 June. During December 1781, Captain Barry left Boston aboard the Alliance en route to France to deliver the Marquis de Lafayette, returning to the United States on 16 March with dispatches from Benjamin Franklin. The voyage remained uneventful until it reached the Delaware Capes on the 10th of May. After spotting British warships, Barry took a circuitous route to avoid a contest with the more powerful squadron and arrived at New London instead of Philadelphia on the 13th of May. Three days later, a mutiny occurred, due to orders forbidding liberty, but Barry returned to the ship and it was subdued. The Alliance once again departed on 4 August, en route to Bermuda in search of prizes. From there the vessel moved to Newfoundland and arrived on 10 September. From there, Barry sailed to France and remained there until 13 January 1783, when he embarked for Havana, Cuba. He arrived there on 31 January, but his orders were changed and he was stuck there until the 6 March. En route to the United States, the Alliance and the Duc de Luzon encountered the HMS Alarm, the HMS Sybil and the HMS Tobago in the Straits of Florida. Within a short while another vessel arrived, but it was French. The Alliance and the Sybil pounded each other, but the other British ships failed to enter the fight. The Sybil then disengaged and headed north while the Alliance continued to sail toward Philadelphia. Upon discovering a British squadron there, Barry switched course and sailed to Rhode Island, reaching it on 20 March. On the 31st, Barry and the crew were informed that the war had ended. Consequently, the Alliance had engaged in the final naval confrontation of the conflict. En route to Philadelphia, the Alliance paused at New York and Barry had a cordial visit with the captain of the Sybil. During the Constitutional Convention of 1787 in Philadelphia, Barry became involved with some who were attempting to delay action on forming the new government. The body lacked a quorum. Consequently, Barry and others sought out those who tried to cause the delay and compelled them to attend the meeting at the State House (In-

28 dependence Hall). Action was pending against Barry, but nothing came of it. Captain Barry sailed to China as captain of a merchant ship, the Asia, during January 1788. Then, on 5 June, 1794, in conjunction with the re-establishment of the U.S. Navy, John Barry was appointed the first captain, followed by Samuel Nicholson, Silas Talbot, Joshua Barney, Richard Dale and Thomas Truxton. Barry, who was the first to receive command of a ship during the Revolution, was also the first to get command of a ship in the new navy. Barry commanded the United States at a time when war with France seemed inevitable. John Barry succumbed at Philadelphia on 30 September 1803 and was interred in the cemetery at St. Mary’s Roman Catholic Church. The name of his first wife is uncertain and records are unclear; however, on 31 October 1767, a marriage license, according to the Pennsylvania Archives, was issued to a John Barry and Mary Farrell. On 10 October 1777, a marriage license was issued to a John Barry and Mary Cleary. Nonetheless, a relative of Barry claimed he married Mary Burns. The exact date of the death of his first wife is also uncertain, and the markings on the grave site are missing a number, but it is thought that the year 1774, supplied by the Sons of St. Patrick, is accurate. Captain Barry’s second wife, and his widow, Sarah, converted to Catholicism during 1779. Both of his wives were interred at St. Mary’s. The Alliance was sold after the close of hostilities, but her total destruction did not occur until 1901, when the American Dredging Company destroyed the ruins of the ship to widen the channel at Petty’s Island, across the Delaware from Philadelphia.

Bartlett, Josiah (Signer of the Declaration of Independence) Josiah Bartlett was born in Massachusetts on 21 November 1729. His parents were Stephen and Hannah Webster Bartlett, who settled in the town of Amesbury (Essex County). The Bartletts had four other sons and one daughter: Joseph, Stephen, Simon, Levi and Hannah. As a youngster, Josiah, having been blessed with a superior mind and an excellent memory, effortlessly mastered several languages in addition to English. He became fluent in Greek and Latin, which seemed to place him on a path toward medicine. At about age sixteen, Josiah’s interest in medicine became serious; however, he did not enter college. Rather, he studied medicine in Amesbury under the tutorship of a relative, Doctor James Ordway. The doctor had married Tirzah Titcomb Bartlett, the widow of Thomas Bartlett. By the time Josiah reached his twentyfirst birthday, he had initiated his own medical practice in Kingston, New Hampshire. He resided with a cleric, the Rev. Joseph Secumbe. During 1752, Josiah was struck down with fever and the medications he received from his doctor apparently caused his condition to worsen. For a while, the prognosis suggested Josiah’s sickness was fatal. Nevertheless, from his deathbed, Josiah startled the two men who had been keeping vigil with him through the night, when he sent them to acquire cider and further directed them to follow his instructions in feeding the cider to him in increments. Surprisingly, to the astonishment of all, the cider broke the fever and by dawn, Bartlett was in the process of making a remarkable recovery. Josiah Bartlett (Biographical Sketches After his brush with death, of the Signers of the Declaration of Bartlett found his practice Independence, Benson J. Lossing, 1854)

29 expanding, and at about the same time, he was moving closer to ending his bachelorhood. Josiah Bartlett married a cousin, Mary Bartlett, the daughter of his father’s brother, Joseph Bartlett of Newton, during 1754. Josiah and Mary had a large family. As listed in “Forefathers and Defendants of Willard and Genevieve Bartlett” (by Genevieve W. Bartlett, 1952) eight of their children survived infancy. They were Levi (b. 15 September 15 1763, d. 1828), Josiah II (b. 29 August 1768, d. 1838), Ezra (b. 13 September 1770, d. 1848), Mary (b. 2 December 1754), Miriam (b. 19 June 1758), Rhoda (b. 22 May 1760), Sarah (b. 29 July 1773) and Lois (b. 2 June, 1756). In the same years that Josiah and Sarah were born, Josiah Sr. lost his mother (1768) and father (1773). In the meantime, Josiah’s practice continued to flourish. All the while, he continued his investigative work and later his perseverance paid a huge dividend. A reappearance (1754–1755) of an epidemic known as “throat distemper” was rapidly wiping out children under ten years of age, and there was no cure. After one of Doctor Bartlett’s own children came down with the disease and known remedies failed to cure his child, he discovered an antidote using Peruvian bark. Josiah, a skilled physician, was held in high esteem in the province, both as a physician and as a leader. He was called upon to command a regiment (militia) as tensions grew between the colonists and the English. Having been elected as a selectman in 1757, Josiah entered politics on a higher scale during 1765, when he was elected as the Kingston delegate to the provincial legislature, during the term of Governor Benning Wentworth, the latter being succeeded by his nephew, John Wentworth, two years later. John Wentworth attempted to bring Bartlett into his circle; however, Doctor Bartlett, despite his appointment as magistrate (1767), was not fooled nor swayed by the attempts to gain his sympathies. He remained adamantly opposed to the practices of the royal governors, who had favored their friends with grants and other perks. The royal governors also favored the Episcopal Church (Church of England), while many of the inhabitants, including Bartlett were Calvinists. The tension between Britain and the colonies intensified. By spring of 1774, the gap was rapidly widening and reaching a point from where there was no path left to lead toward reconciliation. The New Hampshire legislature assembled and established a committee of correspondence, of which Josiah became a member. The action incited the governor, prompting him to resort to swift retaliation. He dissolved the body, but to no avail. The patriots ignored the governor and his directives. They defiantly assembled at Exeter on 21 July to chart their destiny. With eighty-one patriots in attendance, Josiah Bartlett and John Pickering were selected as delegates to the Continental Congress in Philadelphia. However, Pickering declined the appointment, and Bartlett had just lost his home to fire, prompting him to also decline. The fire followed coercion by the governor and some Loyalists to compel Josiah to stop his activity with the patriots. Their actions, however, intensified Josiah’s opposition and increased the fire in his heart. In their stead, Nathaniel Folsom and John Sullivan were appointed. Bartlett’s public career came to a halt during 1775, when he was notified that the governor rescinded his commission and he lost his position as justice of the peace (magistrate). Following the loss of their home, Mary encouraged Josiah to press forward. She and the children sought temporary shelter and then removed to their small farm, which she tended while Josiah tended to the patriots’ cause. Other American patriots were tossed out of the militia. On 11 July 1774, the governor suspended the legislature until September, but afterward, he postponed it until the following April, in what became his final act as royal governor. At the time of the governor’s action, he had already fled to a British warship in Portsmouth Harbor and from there, he moved to the Island of Shoals. Shortly after the governor’s hurried departure, a provincial congress assembled, with Matthew Thornton

BARTLETT sitting as president. Without delay, a new government was established and as part of its formation, each member was required to take an oath of allegiance. This permanently terminated the governing of New Hampshire by royal governors, who had been in place for about ninety years. In the meantime, other Patriots across the land had been assembling in reaction to the skirmishes at Lexington, Concord and Bunker Hill, essentially severing any remaining chances of reconciliation with Britain. Bartlett was appointed as a delegate to the Continental Congress (August 1775) in place of John Sullivan, who by that time had become a general officer in the Continental Army. Soon after, during September, Bartlett was back with military duty after being appointed colonel of a militia regiment by the New Hampshire Provincial Congress. Bartlett, however, had no available time to serve in the field. He arrived in Philadelphia to represent New Hampshire on 16 September 1775. During January 1776, Bartlett again was elected as a delegate to the Continental Congress, along with John Langdon and William Whipple; however, Langdon, due to another appointment, although a strong proponent of independence, had to decline to accept the position as naval agent. As the major break became more imminent, Bartlett, on February 19, noted in a letter to his family: “We have nothing to expect from Britain but war and bloodshed.... Indeed it seems very hard that Britain is seizing all American vessels, and the Americans are not permitted to return the compliment.” On July 2, upon agreement that the northernmost colony was to begin the vote, New Hampshire was the first called upon to finalize the break. The first New Hampshire delegate to vote was Doctor Bartlett, who voted “Yea and Amen!” His vote started the tumultuous and unanimous decision to declare independence. During that stressful year, Bartlett’s health began to deteriorate, and although he was re-elected to Congress on Christmas Eve 1776, he was compelled to return to his home prior to the end of 1777 and was unable to return to Congress until 1778, after being elected yet again on 14 March 1778, along with John Wentworth, a son of the former lieutenant governor also named John. Soon after arriving at York, Pennsylvania, where Congress was in session, John again became ill. He was forced to return to his home and family, ending his congressional service. Although Bartlett was absent when the Articles of Confederation were adopted on 15 November 1777, he did support and later sign them. Each of the states later ratified the articles, and the confederation became effective on 1 March 1781. On that day, the Congressional Journal listed the signers. When the articles were adopted in 1777, the Congress was meeting in York because the British controlled Philadelphia. Following the British evacuation, Congress returned to Philadelphia in groups rather than as a whole body, and by that time Bartlett had arrived in York. En route to Philadelphia, he traveled only with a servant, and at a stop along the way, he was warned of the dangers due to robbers. Josiah was warned that the bandits had recently held up a paymaster who was transporting Continental currency (paper) to General George Washington, but the paymaster successfully posed as a “poor Quaker” and was allowed to continue his journey. Josiah disregarded the danger and after a short pause continued his journey, which he completed without harm. After his arrival in Philadelphia, Josiah noted in his letters home that the state house (Independence Hall) had been left in uninhabitable condition and that the British had also destroyed many of the finer homes in the city. In August 1778, Bartlett yet again was elected to Congress, but his contribution to the American cause had cost him a great deal in his private affairs and carried his family close to financial ruin. He was compelled to return home to attend to his affairs. He took a leave of absence, departed Congress on 31 October 1778, and never returned. Doctor Bartlett remained active in New Hampshire and was quite aware of the dire circumstances of the army and of the citizens. In his state, prices skyrocketed, troops were in short supply and Loyalists and

BARTLETT others were circulating counterfeit money. Bartlett’s emotions were clearly stated in a letter written on 13 March 1779: “I grow perfectly weary of the war; it is enough to make one sick of human nature, to think mankind should be such fools as to distress, wound, maim, kill, and destroy one another, for no other reason but to gratify the will and pleasure of tyrants, who will take care to remain in a whole skin themselves.” During that same year, 1779, Doctor Bartlett was appointed chief justice in the Court of Common Pleas, and during the following year, he was appointed muster-master of the troops being raised in New Hampshire. In 1782 Bartlett was raised to a justice of the Superior Court to succeed Judge Matthew Thornton and later, during 1788, he became chief justice of New Hampshire. He was one of the prominent men of New Hampshire who attended the convention in New Hampshire at Concord to ratify the Constitution on 21 June 1788 and cause New Hampshire to become the ninth state in the union. Nevertheless, Doctor Bartlett’s contribution to the nation did not end with ratification of the Constitution. He was selected as a member of the U.S. Senate (1789), but his poor health at the age of sixty years compelled him to decline the position. His wife, Mary, died that year, increasing the burden he was carrying. Mary hardly had time to enjoy her new house, which had finally been constructed. During the following year, 1790, Josiah was selected as the president of New Hampshire, a post he accepted and retained until June 1793, when he was elected governor just as the post was renamed from president to governor. That same year, Dartmouth awarded Bartlett an honorary doctor of medicine degree. In 1794 Bartlett persuaded the legislature to grant a charter for the New Hampshire Medical Society, of which he became its initial president. Despite his eagerness to serve, his health continued to deteriorate and on the 29 January 1794, he resigned his office as governor. His resignation letter to the legislature said: “After having served the public for a number of years, to the best of my ability, in the various offices to which I have had the honour to be appointed, I think it proper, before your adjournment, to signify to you, and through you to my fellow citizens at large, that I now find myself so far advanced in age, that it will be expedient for me, at the close of the session, to retire from the cares and fatigue of public business, to the repose of a private life.” Doctor Josiah Bartlett, who had been among that select few who formally declared independence on the Fourth of July, 1776, and offered their lives, fortunes and sacred honor, succumbed at the age of 66 on 19 May 1795. He was interred at the Plains Cemetery in Kingston, alongside his wife, Mary. A statue dedicated to Bartlett was later erected in the town square of Kingston. Josiah was survived by six of his children, including his three sons, Levi (married Sarah Hook, November 1781, and Abigail Stevens, April 1807), Josiah (married Miss E. Wingate in 1792 and Hannah Weeks during 1812), and Ezra (married Hannah Gale in April 1796). In addition, he was survived by his daughters Mary (married Jonathan Greeley, March 1780), a widow since the death of her husband during 1789, Sarah (married Doctor Amos Gale, April 1796) and Lois (unmarried, date of death uncertain). His daughters, Rhoda (married Reuben True, February 1789) and Miriam (married Joseph Calef, June 1781), predeceased him, succumbing during 1784 and 1785 respectively. Hannah had died prior to reaching maturity. At the time of his death, Doctor Josiah Bartlett was also survived by five grandchildren, Polly and Josiah Greeley, Josiah and Miriam Calef and Josiah Bartlett True. The “Josiah Bartlett House” in Kingston was designated a National Historic Landmark during 1971.

Bartlett, Brigadier General Thomas Thomas Bartlett, the son of Israel and Love Hall Bartlett, was born in Nottingham, New Hampshire, on 22 October 1745. Israel and Love had five other children: Joseph Hall (named after Love’s father); Sarah (b. November 1741); Israel (b. 1748); Mary (b. August 1751) and Josiah

30 (b. March 1753). Thomas later married Sarah, a daughter of General Joseph Cilley. Together, Thomas and Sarah had the following children: Israel (married a sister of General Butler of Deerfield); Joseph; Thomas of Nottingham; Jonathan of Mt. Vernon; Bradbury of Nottingham (later New Hampshire senator and representative and brigadier general of militia) and Josiah of Lee (served as U.S. Army officer during War of 1812). Thomas served during the revolution and rose to the rank of colonel by 1778, when he participated in the Rhode Island Campaign. During that same year, Colonel Bartlett served on the New Hampshire Committee of Safety. In 1780, Colonel Bartlett and his regiment were deployed at West Point. After the war Colonel Bartlett became a major general of militia and succeeded his father-in-law, Major General Joseph Cilley. During 1790, Thomas was appointed as a judge on the Court of Common Pleas, a position he retained until his death in 1805. Thomas’ son, Bradbury, also became a judge of the Court of Common Pleas.

Bassett, Richard The son of Arnold and Judith Thompson Bassett, Richard Bassett was born in Cecil County, Maryland, on 2 April 1745. Richard’s early life became complicated after his father, who was a farmer and the operator of a tavern, abandoned the family. Richard fared well because of the generosity of a relative, Peter Lawson, who ensured that the family was not further damaged. Through the support of Lawson, Richard received an excellent education, and upon the death of his benefactor, he inherited his estate, “Bohemia Manor.” By 1770, Richard had completed his studies and gained admittance to the bar at Dover, Delaware. (At that time the state of Delaware was considered the lower part of Pennsylvania.) Richard’s law practice continued to grow, which elevated him to a position of prominence. As his law practice prospered, he acquired more land in the vicinity of Dover and at Wilmington, Delaware. Richard also engaged in farming, but while accumulating his wealth, he possessed philanthropic tendencies and frequently helped others in need. Bassett served in the militia during the Revolutionary War, but his service was confined to Delaware. With the rank of captain, he commanded a contingent of cavalry (Dover militia) and was a member of the Delaware Committee of Safety. Nevertheless, through his military service, Captain Bassett gained valuable experience; the perils of the war actually affected his lifestyle. He became much more conservative with his spending and his days of entertaining were curtailed. The severity of the crisis that overcame the nation transformed Bassett into a much more serious man. His military service focused primarily on mobilizing troops and logistics to maintain the units that were in the field. He was involved in communicating with the other nearby militias and civil leaders in Maryland and Pennsylvania. In addition, he was often in communication with the Continental Army, particularly during that dark period, the summer of 1777, when the British landed at the Head of the Elk and advanced toward Philadelphia. Regarding travels, he would be considered as a recluse, with only infrequent trips out of Delaware. The experiences of the war and as a lawyer-farmer further Richard Bassett (National Archives)

BAXTER

31 expanded his abilities. Following the close of the war he became a political leader, concerned about the state and the nation. During 1786, Bartlett was a delegate representing Delaware at the Annapolis Convention, which convened during September to discuss interstate trade and navigation on the Potomac River. Representatives from all states were invited, but only delegates from Delaware, New Jersey, New York, Pennsylvania and Virginia attended. It was agreed that a convention in Philadelphia during the following year would be held to design a blueprint for a new government in place of that which was operating under the Articles of Confederation. Bartlett was selected as one of the three delegates from Delaware, along with John Dickinson and Jacob Broom. At the convention, remembered as “The Miracle in Philadelphia,” Bartlett, aligned with John Dickinson and others, considered maintaining equality for Delaware and other small states paramount, to prevent the larger states from gaining advantage. Richard was not among the orators who took to the floor to press for their agendas to gain acceptance; however, he was diligent in his efforts to come up with an outstanding blueprint for the infant republic. A compromise intended to level the field proposed by John Dickinson and his supporters to guarantee equal status for the smaller states prevailed. It was agreed that the national government would consist of a House of Representatives in which population of the respective states would dictate the number of representatives, but that inequality was to be offset by the Senate, which was to consist of two senators per state regardless of population. The compromise assured states like Delaware and Rhode Island that they would not be overpowered by states such as New York and Pennsylvania. The U.S. Constitution was adopted on 17 September 1787, to take effect upon ratification by nine states. New Hampshire became the ninth state to ratify on 21 June 1778. Objections by some, including delegates who voted yea and others who voted nay, were later addressed in the Bill of Rights, which was ratified by Congress on 15 December 1791 with the creation of the original ten amendments. Richard Bassett, while low key during the convention, exerted all of his energy upon his return to Delaware to assure ratification by his home state. His efforts proved successful in a short span of time. Delaware unanimously ratified the Constitution on 7 December 1787, to become the first state in the union. Afterward, Bassett was elected to the first United States Senate and served from 1789 to 1793. While in the Senate, he supported President George Washington and his executive powers within the executive branch of the government, but his insistence on states’ rights placed him as an opponent of expanding the powers of the president too much, such as Alexander Hamilton, the secretary of the treasury, advocated. Another of Hamilton’s proposals, that the federal government have the authority to assume state debts, was adamantly opposed by Bassett. As a Federalist, Bassett was aligned with John Adams and, although a firm believer in a strong, effective federal government, he was especially anxious to remove the capital to neutral ground, outside the boundaries of both New York and Pennsylvania. Land was donated from Maryland and Virginia to accommodate the seat of government on federal ground, unaffiliated with any state. That land donation included a stipulation that it remain under the jurisdiction of the federal government and at such time that those circumstance would change, that the land would revert back to the respective states. The caveat ensured that the land could never become a state, nor could it have representation in the House of Representatives or the U.S. Senate. Richard Bassett became the first senator to cast the vote to relocate the capital to the tracts along the Potomac River that became Washington, D.C. While Richard served in the Senate, he also remained close to the affairs of Delaware. He was involved with others in the state government, including John Dickinson, in establishing a new state constitution. Subsequent to his service in the Senate, Richard returned to

Delaware. He was elected to the Court Of Common Pleas during 1793 to become its initial chief justice, a post he held for six years. Meanwhile, during 1796, he was selected as a member of the Electoral College when John Adams, a Federalist, was elected president. In 1799, Bassett was elected governor of Delaware. His prior service in Congress and before that in the military became solid assets as he took the reins of the state government. Bassett, as governor, became commander-in-chief of the state’s militia. He retained a close association with the militia and maintained good communications with the neighboring states. His term as governor ended during 1801. That year, President John Adams appointed Bassett as a justice to the U.S. Circuit Court in what was known as Adams’ “Midnight Appointments” during the waning days of his term. Richard got caught between the animosity that arose between two old allies, Adams and Jefferson. Adams refused to attend the inauguration. Once in office, Jefferson, a Democratic-Republican (present-day Democrat), invalidated some of the last-minute appointments, which had been authorized by the Federalist majority in Congress with passage of a rushed Judiciary Act. Richard Bassett was one of those affected. His judgeship was eliminated by the Jefferson Democratic-Republicans. Another appointment, that of John Marshall, escaped elimination. Marshall moved on to become a prominent Supreme Court judge. In his private life, Richard Bassett had married twice, first to Ann Ennals, and from that marriage four children were born. Afterward, he married Betsey Garnett, but no children were born during the second marriage. Bassett was a practicing Methodist and the church at Bohemia Manor was a recipient of his philanthropy. The governor also held prayer meetings at the manor. Through his relationship with Joshua Clayton (later the first president/governor of Delaware), the two combined to expand Bohemia Manor to about 20,000 acres spread across the Maryland-Delaware state line slightly northwest of Middletown, Delaware. Joshua Clayton also served during the war, but he was a doctor and it is thought that he was with General George Washington at the time of the Battle of Brandywine (September 1777) in his capacity as a surgeon. About 1765, Joshua married Rachael McCleary, the adopted daughter of Governor Bassett, and they settled at Bohemia Manor on the Delaware sector of the estate in a section known as Locust Grove Farm. Richard Bassett died in 1815 and was interred on the grounds of the Wilmington and Brandywine Cemetery in Wilmington, Delaware.

Baxter, Captain Seth Seth Baxter, the son of John and Mehitable Willard Baxter, was born in Braintree (later Quincy), Massachusetts, in 1732. In addition to Seth, his parents had eleven other children. He married Elenor (daughter of Jonathan Allen) on 26 October 1758 and together they had three children. Subsequently, he married Mary Saunders on 20 December 1767, and from that marriage, four children were born. After the Revolutionary War began, Seth, during 1776, joined the Marines. He was commissioned a captain on 10 October 1776; however, he was in Boston and unattached to a ship until late 1776 or early 1777, when he was appointed as senior Marine officer aboard the Hancock (commanded by Captain John Manley), launched in June 1776 and commissioned on 23 June 1777. In the meantime, the Hancock left Boston with the frigate Boston during May 1777. Later, while off Nova Scotia, they ran across a British warship, the HMS Fox, and seized it on 7 June. While sailing toward Massachusetts, the Hancock, Boston and the prize encountered a British squadron — HMS Rainbow, HMS Flora and HMS Victor— on 7 July. The American squadron fled, each moving in separate directions, and by the following day, the Boston had safely escaped, but the captured Fox was seized by the Flora, while the

BAYLOR Hancock was intercepted by the Rainbow and forced to lower the colors. Captain Baxter was captured along with the remainder of the crew and sent to Halifax, where he was held until exchanged on 9 November for a British officer, Captain John Aire. During February 1779, Captain Baxter was attached to the frigate Boston, commanded by Captain John Tucker. Baxter succeeded Richard Palmes as captain of Marines aboard the Boston. Details of Captain Baxter’s service in the Marines beyond his service on the Boston remains unknown. Captain Baxter, at age 74, died on 8 August 1805.

Baylor, Brigadier General George George Baylor, the second son of Colonel John and Frances (Lucy) Walker Baylor, was born in Newmarket, Virginia, on 12 January 1752. George’s father was the 3rd John in line from John Baylor (Elder) of Tiverton. John the Elder had a son also named John (b. 1650) who immigrated to America. Afterward, John the Elder, by then in his later years, followed and resided in Virginia too. John (2) married Lucy Todd O’Brien and they had two children; however, the name of only one, John (3), George’s grandfather, who was born during May 1705, remains known. George Baylor’s parents married on 2 January 1744 in Yorktown, Virginia. On that same day and in the same place, Lucy’s sister married John Norton of London. John and Frances (Lucy) had twelve children: John (b. August 1744, died that same year); Elizabeth (b. October 1745, twin of Frances, died that year); Frances (twin of Elizabeth, b. October 1745, died that year); Lucy (b. October 1746, married John Armistead and became the mother of Colonel George Armistead, who received fame at Fort McHenry during the War of 1812); John (4) (b. September 1750); George Walker (b. January 1752); Robert A. (b. January 1754); Frances Courtenay (b. July 1756); Courtenay (b. April 1758); Bernard (b. June 1759, died that year); Walker Keith (b. October 1762) and Elizabeth (b. December 1766). George’s father, Colonel John Baylor, served in the militia with George Washington and was a member of the House of Burgesses for a long time, thought to have been from about 1740 through 1760. About 1726, John relocated to Newmarket, where George and his older brother John (4) were born. George later married Lucy Page, the daughter of Mann Page and his second wife, Anne Corbin Tayloe. The relationship between Colonel John Baylor and Colonel George Washington most probably had been influential in George Baylor becoming an aide to Washington during those first trying days of the revolution. George’s military service began when he was appointed aide-de-camp to General George Washington during 1775. Baylor remained with Washington through the days leading up to the eviction of the British from Boston and from there he served alongside Washington through the desperate campaigns in New York and New Jersey, when the British forced Washington to move across the Delaware River into Pennsylvania. At the time, Congress was preparing to abandon Philadelphia, as the British under General William Howe were threatening the capital. However, General Washington outmaneuvered the British, prevented annihilation of his army and when least expected, re-crossed the Delaware on Christmas night 1776, then surprised the British at Trenton on the following day. It was a turning point for the Continental Army, but for George Baylor, it was also a day of jubilation. Washington chose Baylor to carry a captured flag and word about the success at Trenton to Congress, which was prompted to celebrate the victory. There was no longer any necessity to abandon the city, because of the victory, which would soon be followed by another stunning victory over the British at Princeton on 3 January 1777. On 1 January, after hearing from Baylor, Congress presented him with a horse and a promotion. He was also promoted to the rank of colonel and given command of the 3rd Continental Dragoons on 9 January. Colonel Baylor’s good fortune ended the following year when his forces were deployed in the vicinity of Tappan (Bergen County,

32 New Jersey) during the latter part of the summer. At about midnight on 17 September 1778, while the main body of the Continental Army was at Fredericksburg (New York) slightly more than 25 miles from West Point, a British force under General Charles Grey launched a raid and caught one contingent, that under Colonel Baylor, by total surprise. Baylor had moved from Paramus, New Jersey, on the 27th to River Vale the vicinity of Tappan, where General Anthony Wayne’s militia was deployed. Lord Cornwallis and Patrick Ferguson moved against the militia, while Baylor at Harrington (Herrington), later River Vale in Bergen County, New Jersey, was the objective of General Grey. At Baylor’s positions, the Redcoats unleashed their bayonets and the regiment was devastated. Sixty-seven troopers were killed, wounded or missing, and Baylor, who sustained a bayonet wound, was among the captured. The incident is remembered as the Baylor Massacre. A marker stands at Rivervale Road and Red Oak Drive in River Vale to commemorate the incident. Command of Baylor’s regiment was afterward assumed by Colonel William Washington. While under Baylor’s command, the dragoons were depended upon by General Washington to escort and defend his wife while moving from place to place. The unit was sometimes referred to as “Lady Washington’s Guards.” After taking a letter dated 2 December from General Washington under consideration, Congress resolved on 6 December that “General Washington be informed that Congress approve of Colonel Baylor’s regiment of dragoons, at present commanded by Lieutenant Colonel Washington, being sent to South Carolina, and that the Board of War order them to proceed immediately to join Major General Lincoln.” Colonel Baylor was later exchanged and afterward he rejoined the army and served for the duration; however, he had sustained a severe bayonet wound to the lungs when his command was attacked, and he never fully recovered. On 9 November 1782, Baylor’s regiment was merged with the 1st Continental Dragoons and he commanded it for the duration. On 30 September 1783, Colonel Baylor was promoted to the rank of brevet brigadier general. That year he also sailed to the West Indies in an attempt to improve his health, but to no avail. He succumbed while there during March of 1784. His widow, Lucy Page Baylor, later married Colonel Nathaniel Burwell. During the 20th century, when municipal plans in New Jersey were underway to construct housing in the area where the Baylor Massacre occurred, a move was started to suspend the project until the area could be examined, due to the handed-down story of American troops being buried there by Bergen County militia. In 1967, based on the tales that had remained fresh in the memories of some, a man named Thomas Demarest was convinced he knew where the soldiers were interred. His instincts were correct and the remains of a soldier were discovered, followed by the discovery of others, and the searchers found artifacts of the period. In 1970 the burial site was transformed into a memorial park and afterward, in spring of 1973, the fallen soldiers were re-interred. Some nineteenth century sources indicate that General George Baylor and his wife Lucy had more than one child; however, according to the records of the accounting offices of the treasury (1832), while attempting to settle his affairs, the action was listed as follows: “Be it enacted, That the accounting officers of the Treasury be, and they hereby are, authorized, directed, and required to settle the account of Ann D. Baylor, widow of John Walker Baylor, Esq., deceased, who was only son and heir at law of Colonel George Baylor, late of the army of the United States in the revolutionary war, deceased, for all such loan office certificates as were issued from the loan office of the United States, in Virginia, in the name of the said George Baylor, payable to him, and now remain on the books of the Treasury outstanding and unpaid, and not transferred to any other person by him; and that they pay to her, the said Ann D. Baylor, as trustee for the heirs at law and

33 distributees of the said John Walker Baylor....” Ann D. Baylor was entitled to “five years’ full pay as a colonel of cavalry in the war of the Revolution, together with such interest as would have accrued on said five years’ full pay, if a certificate for that amount had been issued by the United States on the fifteenth of November, seventeen hundred and eighty-three.”

Beall, Brigadier General Rezin (Reazin) Rezin Beall, the son of William and Elizabeth Stockett Beall, was born in the vicinity of Frederick, Maryland, in 1723. Rezin married Amelia Beall in 1763; she was the daughter of Colonel Joshua and Elinor Greenfield Beall and about age fifteen at the time of their marriage. Rezin and Amelia had the following children: Aletha Elizabeth (b. 1764); Eleanor (b. 1766); Rezin (b. 1768); Thomas (b. 1778); Elinor (b. 1770); John (b. 1772); Elizabeth (b. 1772); Martha Jane (b. 1774); Mary (b. 1774); Elinor (b. 1776); Althea (b. 1776); Rachel (b. 1778); Charles (b. 1780) and Ellen (b. 1782). After the outbreak of war with Britain, Beall was appointed captain of a Maryland militia company on 14 January 1776. On 16 August, he was appointed brigadier general of the 1st Maryland Battalion section of the Flying Camp, a position he held until 1 December that year. Charles G. Griffith was appointed colonel of Beall’s battalion of the Flying Camp and Henry Shrycock was appointed lieutenant colonel. General Beall commanded his forces in the campaign of 1776 and participated in the battle of Long Island and White Plains. His forces, while in Maryland, defended the region near Drum’s Point in Calvert County at the convergence of the Patuxent River and the Chesapeake. General Beall was credited with preventing a British landing there, and he was credited with Maryland being spared from a major battle during the Revolution. General Beall succumbed during October 1809. One of his sons, also named Rezin, became a brigadier general during the War of 1812 era.

Bedel, Brigadier General Timothy The son of Robert and Anna Carr Bedel, Timothy Bedel was born in Amesbury, Massachusetts, on 21 July 1724, but by 1757, according to tax records, Timothy was a resident of Salem, New Hampshire. He served in the militia as early as 1745, when he participated in the mission under Captain (later Colonel) John Goff that scouted terrain along the Connecticut and Merrimack Rivers. Also that year, Bedel served with Colonel Joseph Blanchard’s regiment, which was part of General Benjamin Bellows’ command. Early in the French and Indian War, Bedel was attached to General Johnson’s command during the campaign against Crown Point. Afterward, during 1756, Bedel was attached to a ranger company led by William Stark during a second operation against Crown Point. His service during the French and Indian War also included participation with Colonel Nathaniel Meserve when the English moved against Halifax (1757), with General Jeffrey Amherst on the campaign that seized Louisbourg. Bedel also participated as a lieutenant in the campaign of General James Wolfe, in which the general lost his life, but Quebec was seized, which led to the surrender of the French at Montreal during September 1760. At that time Bedel was attached to Captain John Hazen’s company (Goff ’s regiment). In 1762, Bedel was commissioned as captain by the provincial governor, Benning Wentworth. That same year, he participated in the British invasion of Havana, Cuba, where the occupation force sustained heavy losses from sickness, which forced them to abandon the island of Cuba. During his return home from Canada, Bedel was accompanying a small group that included Colonel Hazen and Jacob Bailey. The men paused in the vicinity of present-day Newbury, Vermont, and after returning home, they acquired grants that led to new settlements there

BEDFORD (Newbury and Haverhill during 1763) along the Connecticut River (see also, Bailey [Bayley], Brigadier General Jacob). Subsequent to the close of hostilities with France, Britain started to implement policies that the colonists saw as an overburden of taxes and restrictions. They objected, but their petitions were ignored until eventually, the calls for independence rang from town to town. During 1766, John Wentworth became the final royal governor of New Hampshire. In 1775, Bedel participated in the Provincial Congress held at Exeter. During May of that year, following the clashes at Lexington and Concord, he was appointed captain and soon colonel of a regiment of rangers. Colonel Bedel’s rangers participated in the Canadian Campaign. On 15 May 1776, a British force of about 600, commanded by Captain George Foster, moved against American positions near Montreal. Major Isaac Butterfield, the commander in the absence of Colonel Bedel, surrendered without a fight. Reports regarding Bedel’s absence vary between sickness including smallpox and that he moved to Montreal to get reinforcements. Other nineteenth century sources place him at a parley with friendly Indians at Caughnawaga to seek their support. A relief force under Major Henry Sherburne was dispatched from Montreal by Benedict Arnold, but Bedel was not among the contingent. The British-Indian force ambushed the reinforcements, overwhelmed it and afterward, once disarmed, Indians, using tomahawks and knives, mutilated about twenty soldiers. Subsequent to the capitulation of Butterfield and the massacre, Colonel Bedel and Major Butterfield each received a court-martial and both were dismissed from the service. Colonel Bedel was later reinstated. Despite being dismissed from service, Bedel continued to support the cause, without rank, while back in Haverhill. Later, during 1777, Timothy Bedel, with a rank of lieutenant, joined a company under Colonel Joseph Hutchins (who served as a captain) that served with General John Stark’s force during the Saratoga Campaign. Bedel was again commissioned as a colonel on November 10. It was reported that he was appointed brigadier general later; however, no official reports on this promotion exist. After rejoining the military, Colonel Bedel participated in the defense of the frontier, and his command assisted in the construction of the Bailey-Hazen Military Road. On 13 April 1781, Timothy was appointed to the Vermont Board of War along with Captain Ebenezer Brewster. After the war, Bedel served in the New Hampshire House of Representatives (1784). General Bedel succumbed during February 1787. He was interred in Haverhill. Colonel Bedel married Elizabeth Merrill, and after her death in August 1779 he married Mary Johnson, the daughter of Captain James and Susanna Johnson. Timothy and Elizabeth had seven children: Cyrus, Moody (later lieutenant colonel, 11th U.S. Infantry, and brigadier general, Vermont militia), Ruth, Anna, Mary and two other daughters who died young. Timothy and his second wife, Susanna, had two children, Hazen and Abigail. Susanna succumbed during 1789.

Bedford, Gunning, Jr. (Signer of the U.S. Constitution) Gunning Bedford, the son of Gunning and Susanna Jacquett Bedford, was born in Philadelphia during 1747, but the exact date is unknown. Gunning’s father and grandfather were also named Gunning; however, Gunning, the subject usually preferred Jr., due to having a cousin also named Gunning Bedford who lived in the same state at the same time, served in the Revolution, reaching the rank of colonel and later became governor of Delaware. In addition, their wives are often confused. It was Colonel Gunning Bedford (the son of William Bedford, a farmer) who married Mary Read, the sister of George Read (signer of the Declaration of Independence), not Gunning Bedford, Jr. Gunning, Sr., and Susanna also had the following children: Mary

BEDFORD Ann (b. 1744, married John Young); Susannah; William; Catherine; Elizabeth (b. April 1744, married Jacob Bankson) Ann (sometimes erroneously listed as marrying Commodore Joshua Barney); Peter (b. 1759); Joseph (b. 1766); Martha (b. 1766, married John Stricker); and Benoi (died young). Gunning received an excellent education, including graduation from the College of New Jersey (later Princeton) during 1771 in the days just prior to the Revolutionary War. He was valedictorian of his class. While he attended college, other future prominent leaders of the American cause were enrolled there. The school was known for graduating many to the ministry promoting the military through its strong sense of patriotism. One of Bedford’s friends and classmates was James Madison, a future president of the United States. Following graduation, Bedford pursued a career as a lawyer by studying under yet another prominent Patriot, Joseph Read, a general during the war, who also became the president (governor) of Pennsylvania during the conflict. The details of Bedford’s early life have not been well preserved until his post-college days. He established his law practice in Dover, Delaware, about 1779. In the meantime, Gunning married Jane Ballaroux Parker, the daughter of James Parker (editor of a New York publication, the Post Boy). Bedford’s father-in-law was also a friend of Benjamin Franklin and the two men worked together as printers in Boston. Gunning, Jr., and Jane had two children, Gunning James and Henrietta Jane. Their son Gunning James never advanced mentally and spent his entire life with that disability. Gunning, Jr., quickly tired of Dover and became anxious to leave the city, primarily because he was not fond of the climate there. He later relocated in Wilmington, Delaware, at 606 Market Street. He continued to expand his practice and became interested in entering politics. Following the close of hostilities, during 1783, Bedford was elected to the Delaware state legislature; however, he retained his seat only for a short while due to being elected to the Continental Congress in 1783. He served in Congress until 1785, but during his final term, he was appointed (1784) as the attorney general, and for the duration of his congressional term, he served concurrently in both offices. Then from 1785 through 1789, he held the post of state attorney general. In the meantime, a meeting was called requesting delegates to converge on Annapolis to discuss navigation and interstate commerce, but only Delaware, New Jersey, New York, Pennsylvania and Virginia sent delegates. Bedford, who was appointed as a delegate, did not attend any sessions. General George Washington, although not a delegate, did attend the convention. The convention’s primary achievement was the decision to call for a constitutional convention to be held during the following year to form a new government from the existing government that operated under the Articles of Confederation. The convention was held May through September 1787 in Philadelphia and 59 delegates attended, but some frequently missed sessions, some because of dual responsibilities with other posts. Of the attendees, thirty-nine members, including Gunning Bedford, signed the Constitution upon its adoption on 17 September 1787. Bedford was a supporter of the new federal government, but he cautiously followed the procedures with a focus on working to prevent the central government from acquiring too much power and authority, which would lead to a weakening of state’s rights. And he remained concerned about equal treatment and authority for the smaller states, of which Delaware led the list. As negotiations and debates stalled progress, Bedford leaned toward the “Great Compromise,” bringing population representation into a House of Representatives and equal representation into the Senate, with the latter mandating two senators per state regardless of size or other measures that had been previously discussed, such as the amount of representatives being apportioned according to wealth. It was not unusual for Bedford to have strong disagreements with

34 other members, including James Madison and Alexander Hamilton. Initially he was prepared to merely modify the Articles of Confederation to strengthen them, but as the blueprint of a new Constitution emerged in place of the articles, Bedford altered some of his positions. He participated as a member of the committee that drew up the “Great Compromise.” Consequently, with adoption of the plan (New Jersey plan), Delaware and the other small states like Rhode Island and Connecticut could not be overshadowed by states like Pennsylvania or New York. Another opinion of Bedford’s was unabashedly presented to the delegates when he informed the convention of a possibility that the smaller states could face alternatives such as seeking out foreign assistance to ensure their protection. Bedford was not shy about speaking his mind, nor did he participate without taking the floor; rather, he was among those who made speeches to impress upon the other delegates which ideas he believed to be the best for the nation. The Constitution was adopted on 17 September 1787 and required ratification by nine states to become effective. Gunning Bedford was also a delegate to the Delaware state convention. His efforts to achieve ratification were bolstered by John Dickinson, a Patriot who as a delegate to the Continental Congress refused to support the Declaration of Independence, but immediately thereafter resolved to fight for the cause. Other delegates, Richard Bassett and Jacob Broom, both signers of the Constitution, also strongly supported ratification, which brought about quick results. Before the end of the year, on 7 December, 1787, Delaware ratified the Constitution to become the first state in the union. Bedford is known for remarking that he believed that “ratification was legal emancipation,” as he proclaimed that “as the foundation is laid so must the superstructure be built.” On 21 June 1778, New Hampshire ratified the Constitution to become the ninth state in the union. Also in 1788, Bedford was elected to the state council (New Castle County) and he held that post for one year. Afterward, he became a presidential elector and was among those who elected George Washington as the first president by unanimous vote. Washington was inaugurated on 1 April 1789. Four years later Bedford again became a presidential elector and cast his vote once again for President Washington, who was re-elected unanimously. In September 1789, Washington appointed Gunning Bedford as a federal judge (Delaware district), a post that Bedford held for the remainder of his life. In addition to his professional career, Bedford also devoted time to his belief in education by working to improve the state’s educational system, particularly in Wilmington. He served as president of the Board of Trustees of Wilmington Academy and when it was transformed into Wilmington College, he became its first president. Gunning Bedford, Jr., succumbed on 30 March 1812 in Wilmington. He was interred in the cemetery of the First Presbyterian Church in Wilmington, but later, he was in re-interred in Christiana Hundred at the cemetery of the Masonic Home. Some sources list Commodore Joshua Barney as the husband of a daughter (Ann) of Gunning Bedford, Jr., but as noted above, Gunning, Jr., only had two children. Joshua Barney married Ann Bedford, the sister of Gunning Bedford, Jr., making Joshua the brother-in-law of Gunning, not his son-in-law. Gunning’s daughter later directed the erection of a marble monument over his grave, which stated in part: “In hope of a joyful resurrection through faith in Jesus Christ, here rests the mortal part of gunning bedford. Born in Philadelphia, A.D. 1747. Graduated at Nassau Hall, New Jersey. A.D. 1771, with great distinction.” His widow, Jane Bedford, lived until 1831, about nineteen years as a widow, and for about her final three years she was blind. Her son, Gunning James, lived until 1845. Daughter Henrietta succumbed in 1871. In her last will and testament, she stipulated that a portrait of her father was to be given to the

BIDDLE

35 capital to hang near that of her father’s classmate and roommate, President James Madison, and it did occur. She will also bequeathed a pair of “pocket pistols” to be given to the Smithsonian Institution or, if that wasn’t possible, to the Delaware Historical Society; they were given to the latter. The will detailed the origin of the pistols as follows: “During the Revolutionary war General Washington, desiring my father to go from Trenton to New York on some important secret embassy at night, and fearing that he was not sufficiently armed with the pistols in his holsters, presented him with a pair of pocket-pistols with a view to his protection and greater security.” There is no precise evidence to validate Gunning Bedford’s service in the army during the war, but it is thought that he might have served for a time as an aide to General Washington, but most probably if he did, it would have been while he was still a resident of Pennsylvania. Bedford did not arrive in Delaware until about 1779.

Bellows, Brigadier General Benjamin Benjamin Bellows (3), the son of Colonel Benjamin (2) and Abigail Stearns Bellows, was born in Walpole, Cheshire County, New Hampshire, on 6 October 1740. Benjamin’s (2) grandfather, Benjamin (1), was the son of John and Mary Wood Bellows of Concord and later Marlborough. John Bellows was the first of the family to arrive in the colonies from Britain; he was aboard the Hopewell during 1635. In 1655 he married Mary. Together they had ten children, one of whom was Benjamin (1), the grandfather of the subject. Benjamin (1) married Dorcas Cutler Willard, the widow of Henry Willard, who had been a son of Major Simon Willard. Benjamin (1) and Dorcas had one son (Benjamin 2) and three daughters; however, Dorcas had one son, Colonel Josiah Willard, from her first marriage. Benjamin (2), the subject’s father, was born in Lancaster in May 1712 and later became well known in the colony, particularly in Lunenburg, Massachusetts, as Colonel Benjamin Bellows. In 1752, Benjamin (2) and his wife Abigail, whom he married during 1735, relocated in Walpole, New Hampshire, the town he founded. Colonel Bellows and Abigail had four other children: Abigail (b. December 1736); Peter (b. January 1739); John (b. November 1743); and Joseph (b. June 6, 1744). Abigail, the daughter of John and Abigail Fiske Stearns, succumbed during November 1757 when the future brigadier general was seventeen years old. Benjamin’s mother became the first person to be interred in the old burial ground in Walpole. Colonel Bellows remarried by spring of the following year, taking Mary Hubbard Jennison, the widow of John Jennison, as his second wife during April 1758. She was the daughter of Major Jonathan and Rebecca Brown Hubbard. Mary Jennison, at the time of her first husband’s death, had six children, four girls and two boys ( John and Jonathan Jennison), all of whom were taken into the family of Colonel Bellows. After the marriage, Colonel Bellows and Mary had five additional children: Abigail, Theodore; Mary; Thomas and Josiah. Benjamin (3) later married Phoebe Strong, the sister of Governor Caleb Strong of Northampton, Massachusetts. Benjamin and Phoebe had five children: Caleb (b. July 1767, married Maria Hartwell); Phebe (b. August 1770); Mary (b. April 1774); Esther (b. December 1775); and George (b. October 1779). During 1759, Benjamin, having succeeded his father, became the town clerk of Walpole prior to his 20th birthday, and he held the position for about seventeen years, relinquishing the post at about the same time the country was declaring independence from Britain. Benjamin Bellows initially served in the militia as a corporal, and he, like thousands of others, sped toward Boston as soon as he received news of the clashes at Lexington and Concord on 19 April 1775. Corporal Bellows advanced to the rank of colonel. During October Colonel Bellows moved his regiment to Ticonderoga, but only for a short time, remaining there for about 25 days. He again moved to Ticonderoga during June 1776, but after another short stay, his command was

sent to Saratoga during September of that year to bolster the forces under General Horatio Gates against British General John Burgoyne. During that campaign, while Burgoyne was attempting to retreat, his passage to the Hudson was blocked by New Hampshire militia, including the regiments under Colonels Bellows and John Ashley. On 9 November, General Gates dispatched a congratulatory letter to Ashley and Bellows for the actions of their respective regiments and dismissed them from duty at Saratoga. Later, during 1780, Benjamin Bellows was appointed as a brigadier general. Bellows spent little time in the field as a general officer and devoted most of his service to recruiting. In addition, he served in the colonial and state legislatures. In 1781 he was elected to the Continental Congress but declined the post. Following his military career, the townspeople always referred to Bellows as “the general.” He was highly respected and a man of high standards. Once, a man in town who had only one cow, was losing it to a sheriff ’s sale. General Bellows bid highest on the cow and after accepting it, he gave it back to the owner. General Bellows also had a low tolerance for ungentlemanly behavior and, upon his approach, any such activity usually halted immediately. General Bellows was a delegate to the state convention during 1788 in which the federal Constitution was ratified. Afterward, he served as the president of the New Hampshire for the Electoral College that selected George Washington as president of the United States. General Benjamin Bellows succumbed on 4 June 1802. His father, according to his great-grandson, the Rev. Henry W. Bellows, recorded in his “Memorial Monograph” that Colonel Benjamin (2) Bellows departed Lunenburg hurriedly with the sheriff in pursuit. Henry Bellows described the incident as follows: “The immediate cause of my great-grandfather’s leaving Lunenburg was that he had become embarrassed in pecuniary matters, by being bound for others, and, in the great scarcity of money, was unable to meet the demands of his credits. That he was pursued by the sheriff to the state line, and, once fairly over it, stopped and held a parley with the sheriff, stating that he had no disposition to avoid his obligations, but that a jail was a poor place to find means to pay debts; that he would soon return and liquidate all his obligations.” It is most certain that Benjamin (2) lived up to his word, for he soon returned to Lunenburg.

Biddle, Captain Nicholas Nicholas Biddle, a descendant of William Biddle of New Jersey, was born in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, on 10 September 1750. His maternal grandfather was Nicholas Scull (surveyor-general of Pennsylvania). Nicholas received a fine education, but his goal was to go to sea. Prior to his fifteenth birthday, Nicholas ventured on his initial voyage, which took him to Quebec, and afterward, during 1765, he sailed to Jamaica and the Bay of Honduras. Later Nicholas sailed from the Bay of Honduras toward Antigua and encountered a horrific storm that brought the vessel to the brink of destruction on 2 January 1766 at the Northern Triangles shoal. Only the skill of the crew preserved their lives. After spending about three days in the precarious reef in Nicholas Biddle (Pictorial Field Book the shattered vessel, the men of the Revolution, Benson J. Lossing, made it to shore. They lacked 1860)

BIDDLE proper amounts of food and supplies after being marooned. Due to having only a yawl, and after drawing lots, Nicholas and three others remained on the deserted island while the others attempted to return to England and then back for a rescue. Biddle and the others were stranded for about two months and nearly perished while awaiting rescue; however, finally, a ship arrived and they were saved. Despite the life-threatening experience, Nicholas lost none of his love for the sea. He later made voyages to Europe. In 1770 he sailed to London in an attempt to join the Royal Navy, which at the time was preparing for a possible conflict with Spain over the Falkland Islands off Argentina. Nicholas sought out Captain Sterling, the brother-inlaw of Thomas Willing of Philadelphia. The introductory letter from Willing succeeded in helping Biddle acquire his goal. He was accepted as a midshipman. The Falkland Islands mission was aborted when the dispute was settled amicably. Instead, Biddle served as a coxswain on a mission by the HMS Carcase (Carcass) to attempt to find the Northwest Passage; however, it was without Sterling’s permission, because he wanted to keep Biddle with his ship. Nevertheless, Biddle, without mentioning his officer status, went aboard as a seaman. The mission carried them to a point within nine degrees (about 1,150 miles) of the North Pole. The Carcase and Racehorse reached 81° 39" (Eighty-one degrees and thirtynine minutes) north latitude. Coincidentally, during this tour, Biddle was with another young officer, Horatio Nelson, who also sailed as a coxswain. Nelson, later a renowned British naval officer, spent the years during the American Revolution in Jamaica preparing to defend against an invasion from the French, which never materialized. Meanwhile, Biddle, who had already suffered the hardships of being marooned, soon discovered the cruelty of sailing northward. At times the vessels in the squadron were caught within a ring of icebergs from which they were unable to break out for about five days. While on the dangerous voyage, they reached a northward point where the sun never set, yet the temperatures remained frigid. Nonetheless, the squadron, commanded by Captain Phipps (later Lord Musgrave) survived its frequent brushes with death and returned safely to England. Biddle’s service in the Royal Navy soon terminated, as the tension continued to rise between the Crown and the colonies. Biddle’s patriotism remained with the Americans. He arrived back in Philadelphia during 1775. Shortly after he returned home, he was appointed by Pennsylvania to command a galley, the Camden, as part of the defensive area to protect the city, which was the provisional capital. Biddle, however, sought a larger role than operating on a river. His quest was soon achieved. Congress, on Friday, 13 October 1775, resolved that “a swift sailing vessel, to carry ten carriage guns, and a proportionable number of swivels, with eighty men, be fitted, with all possible despatch, for a cruize of three months, and that the commander be instructed to cruize eastward, for intercepting such transports as may be laden with warlike stores and other supplies for our enemies, and for such other purposes as the Congress shall direct.” And another in line with the first: “Resolved, That another vessel be fitted out for the same purposes, and that the said committee report their opinion of a proper vessel, and also an estimate of the expence.” Congress also authorized the purchase of five ships from merchants, to be transformed into warships. One of those, the Andrew Doria, formerly the transport Defiance, a brigantine, would be commanded by Biddle. Congress appointed him on 22 December that year. Without waiting for spring, a daring operation was executed. Esek Hopkins was acting under secret orders from Congress to attack the British at a target of opportunity in Virginia, the Carolinas or the Bahamas. Hopkins departed from the vicinity of Henlopen Bay for the Bahamas on 14 February 1776. He issued orders to Nicholas Biddle on the Andrew Doria that if separated from the Alfred, wait four days and then head for Great Abaca Island (Bahamas) to await the main body.

36 The squadron, composed of eight ships that were the initial element of the U.S. Navy, entered the Atlantic Ocean. After two days out at sea a storm caused some trepidation and two of the ships, the Fly and the Hornet, collided and all sight of them vanished. They were thought lost for a while, but both had safely returned to port. Later, the Wasp rejoined the squadron in the Bahamas. In the interim, Hopkins’ main body seized two vessels, which prevented the British at New Providence from becoming aware of the approaching fleet. On 1 March, the American fleet debarked Marines and sailors who seized Fort Montagu without opposition, then the remainder of New Providence. Governor Monfort Browne was captured and the military stores were seized. Captain Biddle had participated in the operation in which the American flag was for the first time unfurled in a foreign land, and it was the mission that internationalized the war. The invasion succeeded, but the fleet had embarked during winter weather. By the time of the attack, the troops found themselves suffering under a tropical sun, and outbreaks of smallpox and fever overshadowed the fact that no casualties occurred in the victory. The crew aboard the Andrew Doria, nearly all from Philadelphia, had been inoculated against the smallpox, but the others, from New England, were susceptible. Captain Biddle took many of the sick sailors aboard his vessel and even abandoned his bed, which he gave to one of the sick men, but by the time the departure, many of Biddle’s crew also became sick. By 16 March 1776, the loading of supplies and ammunition ended. The fleet departed on the 17th. Two days later, Captain Biddle’s Andrew Doria and the Cabot embarked on a one-month cruise. The Andrew Doria, which carried only 12 Marines under Lieutenant Isaac Craig, received Lt. Trevett and 17 additional Marines drawn from the Alfred. Shortly after the two ships departed, the frigate HMS Cerberus spotted and chased the Andrew Doria, but Biddle evaded it. On the 20th, he sailed toward Nantucket Island. On 21 March, Biddle’s crew seized a sloop that was carrying a varied cargo including desperately needed salt. Afterward, Biddle cruised toward Halifax, and on the 29th of May, south of Boston, the Andrew Doria spotted two British transports, neither being armed and each carrying British troops to Halifax. Both vessels, the Crawford, transporting about 100 men (42nd Royal Highlanders) and the Oxford, transporting an equal number, attached to the British 71st Regiment, were seized. Biddle had a genuine problem, having a small contingent of Marines to deal with the large number of prisoners. He examined his options and came up with what could be described as one of the earliest examples of American naval ingenuity. He ordered the British arms transferred to the Andrew Doria to eliminate one problem, and then he ordered all officers, Navy and Army, to be confined on the Crawford, leaving the troops to the custody of the Americans on the Oxford. The segregation worked well as the three ships sailed for Providence. In the meantime, on 6 June, Congress awarded Captain Biddle one of the new warships being built at Philadelphia, the Randolph, which was launched on the 10th; however, Biddle did not assume command of the ship until mid–October. On 11 June 1776, five British warships appeared at a point about sixty miles south of Martha’s Vineyard. The Andrew Doria was able to outrun the British, but the Oxford, which broke southward, was seized and later, the Crawford, which headed west, was recaptured. However, on the 19th, the Schuyler intercepted the British prior to making it to port at Long Island and the Crawford was yet again seized off Fire Island, saving the American prize crew from a British prison. In another extraordinary event, the Oxford headed for Virginia to join with the royal governor, John Murray, Earl of Dunmore, and after arriving unharmed on 20 June, the crew inquired as to the whereabouts of Dunmore. The men received erroneous directions that led them into a trap on the James River. Thanks to the earlier actions of Biddle,

37 the several hundred troops aboard the Oxford had no arms and no officers among them. During the following month, Biddle encountered a British merchant ship, the Nathaniel and Elizabeth, and seized it, then after an uneventful period, he returned to Newport and received the news that he was to command the frigate Randolph. By early August 1776, Biddle again initiated a cruise in company with the Columbus. Prior to departing, Biddle became ecstatic when his two lieutenants, John McDougal of the Navy and John Trevett, a Marine, rejoined the ship following their temporary capture while aboard the Oxford. The two ships separated after getting to sea and shortly thereafter, the Andrew Doria spotted and captured a British merchant vessel, the Molly, then it seized the Lawrence, also a brigantine, on the following day. Those captures were followed within twenty-four hours by two other seizures. En route to Philadelphia, the Andrew Doria on 17 September captured two ships on the Delaware River near Chester. Soon after, Captain Biddle sailed his ship to the Philadelphia Navy Yard for repairs and relinquished his command, then prepared to command the 32-gun Randolph. Congress added some incentive to increase Biddle’s crew on the 2nd of December when it resolved “that the Marine Committee be empowered to advance 20 dollars to each seaman who will enter to serve on board the Randolph, Captain Biddle, the same to be deducted out of their share of the prize money.” Nonetheless, the Randolph did not leave port until February 1777, and at that time the crew was composed primarily of captured British seamen, which had been authorized by Congress during December 1776. Congress also authorized Captain Biddle to use imprisoned American sailors as part of his crew. Congress remained pressed with the major problems facing the Continental Army and the emerging navy. But all the while, Philadelphia remained a precarious place for the cause. On 12 December, Congress directed Captain Biddle to keep the Randolph prepared to defend the city; the same directive included the sloop Hornet. Ships were ordered to the Delaware Capes to intercept the British, but Biddle was ordered to remain on the Delaware and defend as long as possible, but to destroy the ship if near capture. For the feat, Congress resolved to make a payment of $10,000 to Captain Biddle and his crew if they were captured. On 14 December, the Randolph was ordered to break out of the Delaware Capes and search for enemy transports en route to New York, but on the 15th, Biddle was advised to hold at Chester due to a British blockade. Meanwhile, at Philadelphia the situation had become more desperate, but all that changed after Washington executed the stunning victory at Trenton on 26 December, which postponed British plans to seize the city. On 3 February 1777, Captain Biddle finally sailed, with the company of the Raleigh on its initial cruise in escort of a merchant convoy. On 15 February the convoy separated, with the Randolph staying with the vessels sailing to France. It later separated in search of the HMS Milford, but due to a storm, which inflicted heavy damage to the mainmast and foremast, the Randolph was compelled to head for South Carolina. En route, problems developed when fever erupted among the crew and that was followed by a mutiny by the British crew members. Biddle’s complement of Marines quickly terminated the mutiny, permitting the voyage to continue. The ship arrived at Charleston on 11 March, accompanied by the Polly, which the Randolph seized on 4 March when it strayed from a British convoy. Subsequently, on 3–4 September, the Randolph intercepted a convoy that scattered, but Biddle ordered pursuit and the Randolph seized the privateer True Briton. After firing only one warning shot, the crew saw the British colors being lowered. Afterward, Captain Biddle reinitiated pursuit and seized three more vessels from the convoy. One of the captured ships had been the Severn, earlier captured by the British. Two others, the Charming Peggy and L’Assumption,

BLAIR both brigantines, had also been earlier seized by the True Briton. The Randolph returned to Charleston for repairs. During December 1777, John Rutledge, the president of South Carolina, persuaded Biddle to lead a squadron to break the blockade of Charleston by two British frigates (24-gun Perseus and 16-gun Hinchinbrook) and a privateer. The fleet sailed on 12 February 1778; however, no blockade ships were encountered. On the 14th, Biddle, unable to discover the British warships, changed plans and sailed to the West Indies. The squadron — composed of the Randolph, General Moultrie (Captain Philip Sullivan), Fair American (Captain Morgan), Notre Dame (Captain Hall) and the Polly (Captain Anthony)— encountered the mammoth double-decked 64-gun HMS Yarmouth on 7 March at a point about 120 miles east of Barbados just before dark. The Yarmouth, out of Antigua, had been ordered to locate and destroy Biddle’s squadron, however, the British were unaware of their discovery until Captain Biddle ordered the flag hoisted after the Yarmouth demanded identification. At about the same time, Captain Biddle ordered a broadside be delivered to the monstrous warship to ignite a ferocious contest, which quickly rolled into close-quartered fighting, which permitted both ides to lob hand grenades. The outgunned Americans leveled the field by extraordinary marksmanship. They bludgeoned the Yarmouth, tearing away its topmast, and destroyed its rigging, while the Marines and elements of the 1st South Carolina Regiment, serving aboard as Marines, maintained incessant fire to prevent effective return fire. Within fifteen minutes of the tenacious exchange, both ships had sustained damage and Captain Biddle suffered a severe leg wound, but Biddle refused to leave the deck. Initially, word began to spread that Captain Biddle had been killed, but the rumor was soon quelled as Biddle, despite his condition, remained in command. He ordered the crew to provide him with a chair from which he could continue to lead. Shortly thereafter, while the crew continued to pummel the British vessel with cannon fire and the Marines plastered both decks. The Yarmouth found the battle more difficult than anticipated. The General Moultrie was able to provide some support, but its fire also struck the Randolph. And then, suddenly, the raging battle came to an unexpected and succinct end as the magazine on the Randolph exploded with devastating effects. It and the Yarmouth were so close that some believed it had been the Yarmouth that sustained the fatal blow. Soon after, it was clear. Captain Biddle and nearly the entire complement of sailors and Marines were killed in the explosion. Only four seamen of the crew of 315 men survived. The shock was not confined to the Randolph due to the positioning of the ships and the fiery debris that descended with equal fury upon the sail and atop the decks of the Yarmouth. All hands were forced to fight the fires or face the same fate as the Randolph, which bought time for the four South Carolina vessels to escape unscathed. The survivors, hanging on a section of the ship’s debris, were rescued several days later. It is thought that the explosion was caused by a spark in the magazine; however, the exact cause was never determined. Captain Nicholas Biddle was not married; however, prior to departure from Charleston, he had become engaged. He had been known as a fervent Christian with an excellent disposition as a man and as an officer in the United States Navy. His reputation was such that even though he died at the young age of twenty-seven, he had been well respected by his men and throughout his career, his leadership was considered superlative.

Blair, John Dan of Jenifer (Signer of the U.S. Constitution) John Blair, the son of John (member of the Virginia Council and, for a while, acting royal governor) and Mary Munro Blair was born in Virginia at Williamsburg during 1732. Having been born into an influential family, he was assured of an excellent education. He attended and graduated from William and Mary, the institution founded

BLOUNT by his great uncle, James Blair. After graduating from college, John was sent overseas to England to further his studies in London at the Middle Temple. After completing his studies, he embarked for home, prepared to gain admittance to the bar and pursue a career as a lawyer. During 1766, the year the Stamp Act was repealed, Blair entered politics as a member of the House of Burgesses and served there until 1770. By that time he was aligned with the Patriots’ cause, but his opposition to the Crown and Parliament because of their oppressive actions against the colonies was much less aggressive than some of the more radical opponents such as Patrick Henry. At the end of his term in the House of Burgesses during 1770, Blair was appointed clerk to the upper house (Royal Governor’s Council). During 1770 and afterward, during 1774, he aligned himself with the more radical Patriots in support of the non-importation agreements, the pacts created in the colonies to refuse to import British goods until tax relief was gained. Nevertheless, Parliament snapped back into aggressive activity during 1774 when it passed the Intolerable Acts, further accelerating the dissension in the colonies. One piece of legislation, the Port Act, closed the port of Boston and isolated the Bostonians, but that galvanized the other colonies. Throughout the nation groups met to find ways to support Massachusetts and devise ways to get needed supplies into the beleaguered city. Blair was in his forties when hostilities erupted at Lexington and Concord on 19 April 1775. He did not enter the military; however, he was a major participant in the resistance as leader in the Virginia government. In 1776, John was on the committee that created the state constitution, and he was a member of the Committee of Twenty-eight, which designed the blueprint for the provincial government and the state’s Declaration of Rights. That same year, subsequent to the Declaration of Independence and the selection of Patrick Henry as governor, Blair was appointed to the Privy Council, which was formed as an advisory group to the governor. As the war continued and the situation in Virginia remained grave, Blair continued to be involved in the state. In 1780, the legislature appointed him to a judicial position, the High Court of Chancery, where he served with George Wythe (signer of the Declaration of Independence). Another Virginian, Thomas Jefferson, was a member of a committee charged with revising the laws of the Commonwealth, and upon his departure from the committee during 1786, the Virginia legislature appointed Blair as his replacement. When Virginia agreed to send delegates to the Constitutional Convention to be held in Philadelphia during 1787, John Blair was appointed along with George Washington (president of the convention) and James Madison (future president of the U.S.). Blair remained aligned with Washington and Madison during the convention. The Constitution was adopted on 17 September 1787 and became effective on 21 June 1778 when New Hampshire became the ninth state to ratify it. Four days later, on 25 June, Virginia ratified the Constitution to become the tenth state in the union. Nonetheless, there was heated opposition to the Constitution, but John Blair staunchly supported ratification. He and the other proponents prevailed. SubseJohn Blair (National Archives)

38 quently, Blair served on the Court of Appeals in Virginia and was elevated by presidential appointment to the United States Supreme Court during 1789. He remained on the court until 1796. Blair was a Federalist who was described as a “strict constructionist.” In addition, he held the opinion that the federal government “had precedence over the governments of the states.” An example of his position was displayed when his opinion stated that the federal circuit courts had authority to overrule decisions that were made by the state maritime courts. John Blair died in Williamsburg on 31 August 1800. He was interred in the cemetery of the of the Bruton Parish church in Williamsburg. John’s wife, Jean Balfour Blair, predeceased him. She succumbed during 1792.

Blount, Major General William (Signer of the U.S. Constitution) William Blount, the son of Colonel Jacob and Barbara Gray Blount, was born on 6 April 1749 in Bertie County, North Carolina, at Rosefield. William’s father, the son of Thomas and Elizabeth Reading Blount, was a prominent merchant, assuring William an excellent education. William was a descendant of Sir Walter Blount. Three of Walter’s sons arrived in America about 1669. One of his sons, Thomas, and another son, James, both left Virginia and settled in North Carolina. Subsequent to the death of William’s mother, his father, Jacob, remarried, taking Hannah Baker, the daughter of Edward Salten, as his second wife, and from that marriage, five children were born. Of the thirteen children, nine, including William, reached adulthood. The others were Anne (married James Harvey); John Gray; Louisa (married Richard Blackledge); Reading; Thomas; Jacob; Willie (later governor of Tennessee) and Sharpe. William was tutored privately. When North Carolina was rocked by a group of anti-government men known as Regulators, William along with many other men who later became Patriots joined with the governor, William Tryon, to suppress the insurrection. The Regulators initially opposed the royal government peaceably, but their movement escalated into violence in reaction to oppressive taxes, bribery and government corruption. During May 1771, Tryon, in command of a disciplined force, engaged the Regulators in a confrontation known as the Battle of Alamance. As later events unfolded, Tryon was sent to New York to become royal governor there, while Josiah Martin succeeded him as governor of North Carolina. Subsequently, various acts passed by Parliament increased opposition among the colonists on a steep path that began during 1765 with passage of the Stamp Act, which was repealed during the following year but replaced with more oppressive legislation as time passed. By 1775, all chances of reconciliation were lost when the British clashed with the Minute Men at Lexington and Concord on 19 April 1775. During the first year of the war, in December, Blount became paymaster of the 3rd North Carolina Regiment. As paymaster, he did not hold official rank in the Continen- William Blount (Life and Services of tal Army; however, his pay William Blount, Marcus J. Wright, grade was equal to that of a 1884)

39 commissioned captain. In early 1776, the Patriots intercepted a large force of Highlanders en route to Cape Fear to join with a British invasion force. The plan got aborted after the Highlanders were thrashed at Moore’s Creek bridge. Afterward, the British, unable to meet with the loyalists, sailed from North Carolina to attempt a landing at Charleston, but there, too, the British were repelled during June 1776. Meanwhile, the Moore’s Creek and the area remained tranquil for several years. During 1777, Blount accompanied the 3rd North Carolina when it moved north to bolster General Washington in the defense of Philadelphia. At the Battle of Germantown, the North Carolinians were a reserve force that acted as a cover when confusion during the battle forced the Americans to retreat. Afterward, Washington established winter quarters at Valley Forge. The North Carolinians, however, had been greatly reduced in numbers due to sickness and returned to their home state. Upon his return home, Blount was appointed paymaster general for the state. He also became involved in recruiting and logistics. Later, following the collapse of the defenders at Charleston on 12 May 1780, again North Carolina forces were thinned when those defending at Charleston were surrendered by General Benjamin Lincoln. During the summer of 1780, Blount participated in the field under General Horatio Gates at the disastrous Battle of Camden. The defeat cost Gates his military career. He was succeeded by General Nathanael Greene. Blount retired from the military following the debacle at Camden, but his pubic service was not terminated. That year, he was elected to the lower house and served there from 1780 through 1784. During 1781, General Lord Cornwallis abandoned the Carolinas and moved to Virginia, where he was engaged by troops under Lafayette and later by Washington and the French, who moved south to entrap Cornwallis. The campaign ended with the siege of Yorktown, where Cornwallis surrendered his army in October 1781. Some skirmishing continued in the Carolinas, but hostilities continued with Indians on the frontier, including Kentucky and Tennessee. Meanwhile, Blount had become more adventurous and interested in land on the frontier, but his intent of acquiring land did not interfere with his public service. He remained in North Carolina and during 1782, he was elected to the Continental Congress. He served as a congressman until 1784, but later, during 1786, he was re-elected and served until the following year. He was also selected in 1787 as a delegate to the Constitutional Convention that convened in Philadelphia for the purpose of establishing a new government with an effective central (federal) government. Blount missed some of the convention due to commitments in Congress that dealt with his home state, but he arrived, and although he was not overly supportive of the Constitution, he did sign it to assure unanimity. Following debate and a compromise of enormous proportion, remembered as the “Great Compromise”— which assured the smaller states equal representation through the Senate, and the House of Representatives with delegates based upon population—all parties agreed with the move. The United States Constitution was adopted on 17 September 1787, effective upon ratification by nine states. On 21 June 1788, New Hampshire became the ninth state. In North Carolina, the Constitution was ratified on 21 November 1789, to become the twelfth state. William Blount, who essentially was a passive delegate during the Constitutional Convention, fully supported ratification by his state. His tireless efforts made him the indefatigable engine behind the ratification movement in North Carolina. In the meantime, Blount was elected to the state Senate during 1788. He held the seat until 1790. In 1790, William was propelled into a governorship by presidential appointment. President Washington named Blount the territorial governor of the region referred to as the Territory Southwest of the River Ohio (Northwest Territory). President Washington also commissioned Blount as a brigadier general, and during the following year,

BLOUNT again by presidential authority, Blount was commissioned as a major general. It was at that time that Governor Blount’s life took a drastic change, including much more than just his lifestyle. The territory (Kentucky and Tennessee) was still the wilderness, but in addition to unending Indian attacks, the situation became more dire due to interference from the English and French as well as the Spanish. The Indians were incited by the foreign powers, and at the same time, the Spanish blocked passage of the Mississippi River to American vessels attempting to get their produce to market. Blount was so involved with those and other problems, he had little time to dwell on the fact that in his past, he lived in a world of luxury and for the immediate future there would be none. The intrigues of the foreigners prompted some to form a country separate from the United States by carving out some of Tennessee and joining with the Spaniards. In December 1784, John Sevier, a leader of the short-lived state of Franklin, tried to terminate the problem existing between Franklin and North Carolina, stating: “Our grievances are redressed, and we have nothing more to complain of; my advice is to cease all efforts to separate from North Carolina, but remain firm and faithful to her laws.” However, his words were ignored. Nevertheless, when Blount became governor, Sevier for a time was arrested and held by North Carolina, but soon after he was freed. Meanwhile the ravaging raids by the Indians continued and the settlers were infuriated because neither Blount nor the U.S. Army came to their aid. Eventually, the Tennesseans took action on their own and the Indian raids were terminated. The Cherokee Indians were compelled to agree to the Treaty of Holston in July 1791. Although the treaty was ratified during November 1781 by the Senate, the frontier did not become tranquil. In present-day Indiana, the Indians inflicted a defeat upon Governor (General) Arthur St. Clair on 4 November 1791, which became the worst defeat ever sustained by the United States Army. In addition to the catastrophic losses, the Indians seized the artillery. At the time the frontier settlements were imperiled due to a shortage of troops. The terror across the frontier was finally terminated when General Anthony Wayne led a seasoned army against the Indians during 1794 and vanquished them at the Battle of Fallen Timbers, bringing peace to the region, but not permanently. Later, on 1 June 1796, Tennessee became the 16th state due in great part to the efforts of Governor Blount (for more details on the period of turbulence, see Brigadier General James Robertson and Brigadier General John Sevier). Afterward, Blount was a member and chairman of the state’s constitutional convention. He was also elected to the United States Senate during 1796, and he took his seat during December of that year. During the following year, 1797, Blount became snarled in personal troubles that multiplied after a letter written by him found itself in the possession of President John Adams. The letter implicated Blount (in his own handwriting) in a scheme involving a British agent ( James Carey) in a plan that included Indians, to seize Spanish possessions in Louisiana and Florida. Blount was shown a copy of the letter and asked if he wrote it, then Blount responded that he had written to Carey, but couldn’t immediately state if that was the letter. Adams transferred the letter to Congress and shortly thereafter, Blount was officially accused of being “guilty of high misdemeanor.” The Senate, on 8 July, five days after receiving the letter from President Adams, passed the following resolution: “Resolved, That William Blount, Esq., one of the Senators of the United States, having been guilty of a high misdemeanor, entirely inconsistent with his public trust and duty as a Senator, be, and he hereby is, expelled from the Senate of the United States.” The vote to expel Senator Blount was 25 to 1, with the sole dissenter being Senator Littleton Waller Tazewell of Virginia. Back in Tennessee, the people were unfazed by the proceeding against their senator by the Congress. Blount remained highly regarded throughout the state and his character and reputation remained

BOONE unscathed. On 5 July, Blount, while in Philadelphia, penned a letter to the citizens of Tennessee stating: “In a few days you will see published by order of Congress a letter said to have been written by me to James Carey. It makes quite a fuss here. The people upon the Western waters will see nothing but good in it, for so I intended it, especially for Tennessee.” The issue never was settled definitively and no evidence other than the letter ever surfaced. A newspaper item published upon his arrival stated: On Saturday last returned to this town the Hon. William Blount. As soon as his approach was made known the volunteer troop of cavalry, commanded by John Lavender, Esq., and a large concourse of citizens, hastened to receive him, and met him eight miles from this place, where, after refreshments, he was conducted into town in the following order, viz: A detachment of the troop of cavalry. The Hon. Wm. Blountt accompanied by General White and the Hon. William Stuartt late Speaker of the House of Representatives; the troop of cavalry; citizens in files. We are happy to say that Mr. Blount has received on his journey through this State the most flattering and hearty welcome from every description of citizens, a welcome justly due from a grateful people to the father, friend, and protector of their State.

Another letter was not so complimentary: “In the new State his influence was overwhelming. On his return to Tennessee, so far from being shunned as a disgraced man, he was received with triumph; was elected to the State Senate, it is said, and made Speaker thereof, and was only prevented by his sudden death from mounting, as if in defiance to the Federal Government, the gubernatorial chair.” Blount was elected to the Tennessee Senate during 1798 and served diligently as speaker with an unblemished record. His term ended when he died in the capital, Knoxville, on 1 March 1800. He was interred in the cemetery of the First Presbyterian Church. His wife, Mary Grainger Blount, and six children survived him. Mary died on 7 October 1802 and was buried alongside her husband. The children were Ann (married Henry I. Toole and afterward Mr. Hadley of North Carolina); Louisa (married Pleasant M. Miller, who was elected to Congress and later expelled; Louisa became the mother of nine children including Major Albert S. Miller of the U.S. Army, General William B. Miller, and a daughter, Dorthula, who married General Alexander B. Bradford); William Grainger (died unmarried); Richard Blackledge, married Catherine Miner); Barbara (married Major General Edmund Gaines) and Eliza (married Doctor Edward Wyatt, a surgeon in the U.S. Army). Also, William’s father served during the war as a member of the War Council of 1775 and 1776. He died in 1789 at his estate, Blount Hall. Williams’ brothers Thomas, Reading and John Gray also participated in the service during the war. Thomas was captured by the British during the initial part of the conflict, shipped to England and confined for a prolonged period of time. Subsequently, Thomas was elected to the U.S. Congress and served there until his death during 1812. Willie later followed his brother and became the governor of Tennessee. The state of Tennessee honored the memory of Governor Blount by naming Blount County and the town of Blountville after him. In addition, Maryville, Tennessee, and Grainger County were named in honor of Mary Grainger Blount.

Boone, Daniel Daniel Boone, the son of Squire and Sarah Morgan Boone, was born in Pennsylvania on 2 November 1734. The family initially lived in Gwynedd Township, but later, prior to the birth of Daniel, relocated to Oley, above Exeter and less than ten miles below Reading, Pennsylvania. Daniel’s paternal grandparents, both Quakers, were George and Mary Maugridge Boone. Daniel’s grandparents emigrated from Devonshire, England. George and Mary had nine children, each born in England: George, Sarah, Squire (Daniel’s father), Mary, John, Joseph, Benjamin, James, and Samuel. In addition to Daniel, Squire and Sarah

40 had the following children: Sarah (b. 1724), Israel (b. 1726), Samuel (b. 1728), Jonathan (b. 1730), Elizabeth (b. 1732), Mary (b. 1736), George (b. 1739), Edward (b. 1744), Squire (birth date unknown) and Hannah (birth date unknown). As a youth, Daniel received no formal education; however, he worked the farm. At the time, the location of the farm was considered to be the wilderness, which brought the family into constant contact with local Indians, giving Daniel an additional ed- Daniel Boone (Pictorial Field Book of ucation regarding the ways of the Revolution, Benson J. Lossing, 1860) the Indians, a knowledge that later paid him great dividends. Daniel also became an expert with a rifle, another trait that was helpful as he later ventured farther into the wilderness as an explorer and hunter. When Daniel was about fourteen, he was fortunate in being taught the fundamentals by his sister-in-law, Sarah Day, the wife of his brother Samuel. Sarah was a well educated Quaker, somewhat unusual for Quaker women of the period, and she was a welcome addition to the family. Nevertheless, Daniel’s brother Israel and his sister Sarah both married outside the Quaker faith and both were expelled from the community. Their father, Squire, who supported Israel’s marriage, which occurred after Sarah’s, was also expelled during 1748. By 1750, the Boone family, except for some who had gotten married and lived elsewhere, began a trek to the Yadkin Valley, about 500 miles from their residence in Pennsylvania. The party set out with Daniel as their hunter to secure food en route. They traveled to Harpers Ferry and from there moved through the Shenandoah Valley into Kentucky, but the final leg of the journey did not begin for a while, as the party halted at Linville Creek and remained there until autumn of 1751. During the French and Indian war, Daniel Boone participated as a “wagoneer.” He was with the illfated Braddock expedition during 1755 and it is thought that he also participated with General Forbes during 1758 when Fort Du Quesne was seized. Following his time in the service, Daniel returned to the settlement. He then married Rebecca, the daughter of Joseph Bryan, a Pennsylvanian (after having emigrated from Ireland) who relocated in Virginia. Daniel and Rebecca had the following children: James (b. 1757, killed by Indians); Israel (b. 1759, killed by Indians); Susannah (b. 1760); Jemima (b. 1762); Lavinia (b. 1766); Rebecca (b. 1768), Daniel Morgan (b. 1769); John (b. 1773) and Nathan (1780). Daniel’s daughters each got married and settled in Kentucky. Daniel Morgan and Nathan relocated to Missouri. In 1764, Daniel and Samuel Calloway entered Tennessee on a short exploratory trip, but Boone returned later, during 1771. Later that same year, Daniel and others, a party of eight, rode into Florida to explore it, but the trek was difficult and at times they had no food. A band of friendly Seminoles came to their aid and provided them with food to forestall starvation. The expedition to examine the land between St. Augustine and Pensacola did not persuade them to leave Kentucky. And if Daniel did think about it, Rebecca Boone quashed the idea, stating that she did not want to move where there was no game. During May 1769, Daniel Boone and several other frontiersmen, including John Finlay (Findley), William Cooley, Joseph Holden, James Mooney and John Stuart, ventured farther into the wilderness.

41 During the trip, the hunters worked usually in pairs and at the end of the day, gathered their pelts and skins together at the camp site. During December, Boone and John Stuart were intercepted by Shawnee, and they were forced to lead the Indians to their camp. Afterward, the Shawnee took all their pelts and warned them not to return to the Indian hunting lands. The party except Stuart and Boone were prepared to head for home, but neither Boone nor Stuart wanted to let the Indians keep their property. The two men soon after concealed themselves and prepared to retrieve some of their horses, which were carrying their pelts and skins. They succeeded in regaining some of their property, but the Indians gave pursuit, and within two days they were again intercepted and captured. They were not treated harshly, and after about a week of being in captivity, both escaped and eventually caught up with the others. In addition, Daniel encountered his brother Squire, who had remained behind to tend the crops before joining the party. Squire Boone had brought fresh horses and a supply of ammunition. Daniel once again decided that he wanted his pelts. John Stuart, Squire and another, Alexander Neely, remained, while the rest continued to head for the settlement. About the end of January or early February 1770, Boone’s partner got separated and did not return to camp that night. On the following day, Boone found a camp fire, but John Stuart was not in sight. Five years later, Daniel came across the bones of someone in a hollow sycamore tree along the Rockcastle River. Daniel knew he found his friend because he also found a powder horn that had Stuart’s name inscribed on it. The cause of his death was never discovered. Upon learning of the death of Stuart, Alexander Neely chose to depart for home, but Daniel and his brother Squire remained. When the supplies were nearly exhausted, Squire set out to get fresh supplies, leaving Daniel by himself. Squire returned and the hunt resumed. During their trip, they encountered a group of long hunters and spent time with them. After being away for about two years, Daniel and his brother separated from the long hunters and headed back to the Yadkin Valley, anxious to exchange their pelts and skins to settle their debts. However, once again, they encountered Indians in Powell’s Valley. The war party (Northern Indians) seized them and their pelts and skins. They did however, escape with their lives. During 1773, Boone led a party from the upper Yadkin to the southwest frontier on the Yadkin and was to meet another party (Bryan’s) in Powell’s Valley. Boone encountered also another party, that of William Russell, who was heading for Kentucky. Warnings of hostile Indians were heard and the Russell party halted at the Clinch River, but Russell’s son Henry went ahead with Boone to scout the region where the Russells intended to relocate in Kentucky. Boone’s party was attacked after it advanced about forty miles from Castle Woods on the Clinch. William’s son Henry was killed and one of Daniel Boone’s sons (Israel) was also killed. During March 1775, Daniel, Colonel Richard Henderson and others met with Cherokee chiefs and persuaded the Cherokee to sell them the tract lying between the Cumberland, Kentucky and Ohio rivers, a massive amount of land encompassing about 15 million acres. The pact is known as the “Transylvania Purchase, brought about by the Treaty of Sycamore Shoals.” Richard Henderson and others formed the Transylvania Company to complete the transaction, but it was later ruled invalid by Virginia, which had claims on the Cumberland Valley. During that period, Boone and his party carved out what became known as the “Wilderness Road,” which terminated where Boone founded Boonesborough, Kentucky. In early 1776, Daniel and his brother Squire were hired by surveyors of the Transylvania Company to handle the hunting for the party. By spring large numbers of settlers arrived in the area from various places, including Virginia and Pennsylvania. At about that same time, the British were inciting the Cherokees in the south and the Shawnees

BOONE and Mingos in the north to initiate open hostilities against the settlers. Meanwhile, in Kentucky, Harrodsburg sent delegates to Virginia to make Kentucky a county of Virginia, in direct opposition what Henderson and the proprietors wanted. On the Fourth of July, 1776, Congress declared independence. By autumn, Harrodsburg settlers got their way when the Virginia legislature declared Kentucky a county and authorized the forming of a government. David Robinson was appointed county lieutenant, while John Bowman was appointed colonel. Other officers included George Rogers Clark as a major and Daniel Boone and James Harrod as lieutenants. By that time, the Kentuckians had become aware of an Indian war that had been ongoing. Colonel William Russell, commandant of the southwestern Virginia militia, urged abandonment of Kentucky, but few were anxious to leave. On 17 July, Indians raided Boonesborough and intercepted a canoe in which three teenage girls were paddling. One of the girls was Jemima Boone, about fourteen at the time, and the other two were sisters, Betsey and Fanny Calloway. The current in the stream caused the girls to be swept toward shore where five Shawnee were posted in the brush. The girls began to scream, alerting the settlers. The Indians carried all three of the girls away, but Boone, Calloway and others gave chase, with Calloway’s force mounted and Boone’s force on foot. The settlers decided the Indians would head for the Licking River. The girls, however, had the presence of mind to mark their route by dropping pieces of clothing and fragments of broken limbs. The chase succeeded and two days later, Boone’s party caught up with the captors and rescued all three of the girls about thirty-five miles from the settlement of Boonesborough. Two of the Indians were killed and the others vanished in the woods. During the latter part of 1777, the government of Virginia delivered some salt boiling kettles to the Kentucky settlements for the various militia units as well as the settlers charged with making salt in sufficient amounts to last the settlements for about one year. Daniel Boone led the first party to Lower Blue Licks during early January. During that month, some of the salt was carried back to the settlement, while the contingent continued to make more, waiting for a relief unit. On 7 February, while Daniel was returning to camp with buffalo meat and beaver skins, he was surprised by a group of four Shawnee braves who seized him after he first attempted to break for safety. Daniel was taken to their camp, where he encountered about 120 other braves under Chief Black Fish and two reprobates, the brothers of Simon Girty, James and George. Daniel also was greeted by some familiar Indians, those who had captured him earlier. Daniel was greeted as an old friend and as they called him brother, they also informed Daniel that they were about to attack Boonesborough. With that intelligence, he initiated his ruse to gain their confidence. The Indians then requested that Daniel lead the attack. Daniel was also told that he would have to get the rest of his men to surrender. Daniel agreed in order to buy time and find a way to warn the settlement after gaining the confidence of the Shawnee. He was also aware that the palisade at the fort had not yet been completed. The other men in his party were persuaded to surrender and they were then taken to the Shawnee territory beyond the Ohio. Boone had convinced the Indians to suspend the attack until spring, buying more time for the settlers to complete the fort. The plan nearly failed completely when the Indians voted upon whether to kill the prisoners or show mercy. By one vote, their lives were spared. After a grueling trip though harsh winter weather, the prisoners arrived at the Shawnee towns on the Little Chillicothe (present-day Xenia, Ohio). Boone and sixteen of the others were adopted, with Boone being adopted by Black Fish. He received the Indian name of Sheltowee (Big Turtle). Black Fish and his squaw accepted Daniel as their own son and, Daniel, aware of Indian habits, realized that once

BOONE they had full confidence in him, their eyes would not be watching him closely. Meanwhile, his family at Boonesborough believed Daniel to be dead and Rebecca and the children returned to Virginia. Black Fish led a large group to Detroit to meet with Governor Henry Hamilton (derisively called The Hairbuyer) to collect a bounty of the men that had been captured. Daniel accompanied him on the trip. Hamilton was anxious to see Boone. And Boone was prepared for the encounter. He continued his ruse by pulling his old captain’s commission, which had been signed by Lord Dunmore, then brashly informed Hamilton that he would persuade Boonesborough to surrender and move to Detroit to come under his (Hamilton’s) protection. Hamilton was so impressed he tried to buy Daniel from Black Fish, but the latter claimed he loved Daniel too much to be parted. Nonetheless, thanks in part to Lord Dunmore, Hamilton gave Boone a pony, saddle and other items with his compliments and a reminder to maintain his loyalty to the king. Upon Boone’s return to the Shawnee towns, more Indians had arrived. The time of the spring attack was imminent and apparently it was to be rushes, as one of the captives, who feigned being an idiot, escaped and was able to forewarn the Kentuckians and alert them of the locations of the Indian strongholds. On 16 June, Boone made his escape while a pack of wild turkeys distracted Black Fish and the other Indians. He traveled about 160 miles in four days and had only one meal during that time. On 7 September, the Indians, about four hundred warriors, were at the gates of the fort. About forty Frenchmen accompanied the Indians and Black Fish commanded all, including the Cherokee, Delawares and Wyandots who bolstered the Shawnee. The encounter between the chief and his adopted son was less than joyful. Black Fish cried from disappointment and he was not cheered up when he was told the Kentuckians would fight to the last man. Talks occurred, but Black Fish was unable to persuade the fort’s defenders to capitulate or make a treaty. At the final talks, guns commenced firing and the Indians began slashing with their tomahawks. Daniel and his brother Squire were wounded, but all of those involved in the talks got back into the fort. The siege lasted from the eighth until the 17th of September, when the Indians abandoned the siege. After the siege was lifted, Boone came under fire for his action at and after the time of his capture. Charges were lodged by Colonel Calloway, but Boone defended himself at his court-martial held in Logan’s Fort and was acquitted of any wrongdoing. He was promoted to the rank of major. Afterward, Boone returned to the Yadkin and rejoined his startled wife at Bryan’s settlement. In October 1779, Daniel returned to Kentucky, but he only stayed in Boonesborough for a short while. He moved to a new location and established Boone’s Station (Fayette County) on the other side of the Kentucky River about five miles northwest of his initial settlement. After Kentucky was divided his station was located in Athens, Fayette County. John Todd became colonel and Boone was appointed lieutenant colonel of the county. By 1780, the number of settlers in Tennessee had been reduced to slightly more than 125, due to the incessant Indian raids. They were short of ammunition and food, prompting parties to speed to Kentucky to get ammunition. At Harrod’s Station, there was none to spare; however, Daniel Boone was able to supply the Tennesseans with some powder. During October 1780, Daniel and his brother Edward were at Grassy Lick boiling salt when they were attacked by a band of Indians. Edward was killed, but Daniel returned fire and killed one of the attackers before trying to evade capture. The Indians pursued Boone, but he killed another during the chase and made it back to the fort. He gathered a force and chased after the foe, but the Indians made their escape. Later, during April 1781, Boone arrived in Richmond as one of the initial representatives from Fayette County to sit in the legislature. Richmond

42 became jeopardized by British General Lord Cornwallis. The small American force under Lafayette at Richmond retired and the legislature reconvened at Charlottesville. But there, the British also threatened, and a force under Colonel Banastre Tarleton arrived and was intent on seizing Governor Thomas Jefferson and others. Jefferson was not seized, but Daniel Boone was among the few legislators captured when the cavalry arrived on 4 June. Boone and the others were taken to Cornwallis’ camp, but within a few days they were paroled. The legislature afterward reconvened at Staunton, but Boone’s name was not listed among those attending, indicating that his parole probably prevented his attendance. After his parole Boone is thought to have returned to Kentucky. In September 1781, Daniel traveled to Pittsburgh and from there headed back to his original hometown in Pennsylvania to visit relatives and some of his old friends and acquaintances. By that time, Cornwallis had been defeated and forced to capitulate at Yorktown in October 1781. Following his journey to Pennsylvania, Boone returned to Virginia and resumed his service in the Virginia legislature. After the close of hostilities, Kentucky still suffered much from hostile Indians. A preliminary treaty of peace between the United States and Britain was signed during November 1782 and the official end to hostilities occurred during the following year with the Treaty of Paris. Boone, having learned the profession of a surveyor during his youth, by that time was the deputy surveyor and held the posts of sheriff (Fayette County) and lieutenant of the county. Later, about 1786, Boone relocated at Maysville (Limestone). He operated a tavern and his wife, Rebecca, operated a small store. Daniel also continued as a surveyor and he had never given up his hunting, which supplemented his income. Daniel and his sons, using pack horses, moved eastward to sell their pelts and furs. During that period, the Mississippi was still controlled by the Spanish and the entire region remained a danger zone due to the constant interference of the British, still holding posts in the northwest, who continued to incite the Indians. Congress paid little attention to the problems in Kentucky and Tennessee and there were no troops available to be sent to the frontier. All the while, the region suffered from internal squabbles, with some willing to separate from the United States and join with a foreign power, while others wanted Kentucky to be a free and independent state. Daniel had acquired large tracts of land, but he never covered himself with proper registration. Consequently, much of his lands were lost to swindlers who took advantage of his lack of proper registration. By autumn of 1788, Boone moved form Kentucky and for a while resettled in western Virginia at Point Pleasant near the convergence of the Great Kanawha and Ohio Rivers. Daniel opened a small store at Point Pleasant and maintained it until he later moved to Charleston, where he again acted as a surveyor and was involved with calling out the militia when the town was threatened by hostile Indians. In addition, he continued his hunting trips, when he ventured across the Ohio into Indian territory, but despite some harrowing incidents, he escaped harm and capture. During 1789, Boone was appointed lieutenant colonel of Kanawha County. The next year he represented Kanawha County in the Virginia legislature when it convened during October 1780 and remained in session until 20 December. Subsequently, during 1794, General Anthony Wayne finally ended the Indian hostilities when his force was victorious on 20 August at the Battle of Fallen Timbers in the Northwest Territory. Afterward, the Treaty of Greenville (summer 1795) officially brought peace to the frontier. Daniel Boone resumed his hunting trips without fear of attack. He also had a few remaining claims on his land in Kentucky, but each case was decided against him and Boone lost everything, rendering him unable to leave anything to his children. Those that he still had were lost to sheriffs’ sales for taxes. By 1798, his final tract in Kentucky was gone.

43 In the meantime, during 1796, Daniel Morgan Boone, his son, traveled to eastern Missouri to St. Charles County and acquired land from the Spanish lieutenant governor of Upper Louisiana, Charles Dehault Delassus. Daniel Morgan and the other four families that accompanied him settled near the Femme Osage Creek slightly more than five miles from where it converged with the Missouri River. During the spring of the following year, Daniel, his wife Rebecca and the younger children joined him. Although the government gave him no support in saving his land, people from all over the region converged on Charleston to say goodbye to the family. Boone’s reputation had preceded him in the west and he was well known for his many exploits. At a stop in Ohio, he was asked why he was again heading for a frontier at his advanced age and Boone, always a kind hearted gentleman, responded: “It’s too crowded. I want more elbow room.” The Spanish government had given Boone a small parcel of land next to that of his son, Daniel Morgan. He built a small log cabin and lived there in Missouri (at the time, Louisiana Territory) until his death during 1820.

Boudinot, Elias Elias Boudinot, the son of Elias, Sr., and Catherine Williams Boudinot, was born in Philadelphia during 1740. Elias was a descendant of French Huguenots that fled the country following the revocation of the Edict of Nantes during 1685. Elias’s parents got married in Antigua, where their first child, John, was born. Elias, Sr., and Catherine had the following children: John (b. in Antigua in January 1734, married Catherine Van Norden); Tobias; Jane; Annis (b. July 1736, married Richard Stockton, signer Declaration of Independence); and Julia (married Doctor Benjamin Rush, Signer of Declaration of Independence). Elias received an excellent education, which was classical, but he did not travel to Europe to further his studies. Instead he turned to the study of law. He studied under Richard Stockton (later a signer of the Declaration of Independence) and, after being admitted to the bar, he established his practice in New Jersey. Elias married Hannah Stockton, the sister of Richard Stockton. In turn, Richard married Annis, the sister of Elias. Elias was aligned with the Patriots, but his military service was minimal. During 1777, Boudinot, by congressional appointment, was made commissary general of prisoners of war, a post he retained until 20 April 1778. It included the pay equal to that of a colonel. Also that year, Boudinot was elected to the Continental Congress as a representative of New Jersey. Congress, pursuant to consideration of a letter dated 18 April from General George Washington regarding British peace commissioners, acted with the following resolution: “Resolved, That Congress approve of the conduct of Colonel Grayson, Lieutenant Colonel Harrison, and Lieutenant Colonel Hamilton, and Elias Boudinot, Esqr. commissioners appointed by General Washington to meet the commissioners appointed by General Sir William Howe, and with them to confer, determine and agree upon a treaty and convention for the exchange of prisoners of war, and for all matters whatsoever which may be properly contained therein, in the several meetings held at Germantown and Newton, with the commissioners of General Howe.” On 24 October, subsequent to the surrender of General Lord Charles Cornwallis at Yorktown on 19 October 1781, Congress appointed a committee to draw up a proper way of communicating “the thanks of the United States in Congress assembled, to General Washington, Count de Rochambeau and Count de Grasse, for their effectual exertions in accomplishing this illustrious work; and of paying respect to the merit of Lieutenant Colonel Tilghman, aid-de-camp of General Washington, and the bearer of his despatches announcing this happy event.” Boudinot was appointed to the committee along with

BRAXTON Edmund Randolph, James Mitchell Varnum and Daniel Carroll. In November of 1782, Boudinot was elected president of the Continental Congress. He held the post from 4 November 1782 until 2 November 1783. He succeeded John Hanson and was succeeded by Thomas Mifflin. Subsequent to his service as president of Congress, Elias Boudinot re-established his law practice. After the U.S. Constitution was adopted on 17 September 1777 and ratified by nine states, Boudinot was again elected to Congress, the U.S. Congress, which operated under the authority of the Constitution. He was president of the Continental Congress in 1782–1783. In 1796, by presidential appointment, he was made director of the U.S. mint in Philadelphia, succeeding David Rittenhouse. During 1805, Elias retired from public life and focused afterward on his personal affairs. Much of his time was spent studying the Bible and on other endeavors, including philanthropic causes. In addition, Boudinot became a trustee of Princeton. In 1812, he was elected a member of the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions. Boudinot was instrumental during 1816 in the founding of the American Bible Society and was elected as its initial president. Elias also entered into the literary world when, also in 1816, he published Star in the West, a work in which he proposed that the Indians were the lost tribe of Israel. The Bible Society was one of his philanthropic interests, prompting Elias to donate $10,000 to the organization. Elias Boudinot died on 24 October 1821. On his deathbed, Elias’ last prayer was recorded as “Lord Jesus, receive my spirit.” Elias’ wife, Hannah Stockton Boudinot, predeceased him in 1808. Elias and Hannah had two children, Maria and Susan, but Maria died very young. Elias’s surviving daughter, Susan Boudinot Bradford, the widow of Colonel William Bradford (Continental Army and U.S. attorney general during President Washington’s administration) received a large part of Elias’ estate, including his residence and other property; however, he also left gifts for others: “Four thousand acres of land were left to the Society for the Benefit of the Jews, five thousand dollars to the General Assembly of the Presbyterian Church, four thousand and eighty acres for theological students at Princeton, four thousand acres to the college of New Jersey for the establishment of fellowships, three thousand two hundred and seventy acres to the Hospital of Philadelphia, thirteen thousand acres to the mayor and corporation of Philadelphia for the supply of the poor with wood.” Susan continued to reside on the estate and became a prominent woman in the area. Her closest friends included Elizabeth Hamilton, the widow of Alexander Hamilton, and Dolley Madison, the wife of President James Madison.

Braxton, Carter (Signer of the Declaration of Independence) Carter Braxton was born into a wealthy family on 10 September 1736. His parents were George and Mary Carter Braxton; however, Mary succumbed soon after the birth of Carter, her second child, leaving George to raise Carter and his older brother George, the latter being about two years old. Carter lived on the family plantation (Newington Plantation) along the Mattaponi River in King and Queen County, Virginia. Carter’s father was a member of the House of Burgesses during 1748. His mother was the daughter of Robert Carter, a prominent Virginian and a member of the king’s council, who during 1726 had also been president of the council. Carter and his brother George each inherited a large fortune that included parcels of land, some money, and slaves, but the exact date of their father’s death remains unknown. Carter received his college education at William and Mary in Williamsburg, Virginia At the age of nineteen, Braxton married, taking Judith Robinson as his wife. Judith Robinson Braxton was the daughter of another plantation owner, Christopher Robinson of Middlesex County, who was a descendant of Colonel Christopher Robinson of Hewick, the latter having arrived in Virginia during 1666. After receiving his inheritance,

BRAXTON Braxton built a mansion (Elsin Green) along the Pamonkey River and later, he built another mansion at Chericoke, which was also located along the Pamonkey. Carter and Judith had two children, both daughters, Mary and Judith. In a tragic irony, similarly to Carter’s mother, Judith succumbed during birth of their second child on 13 December 1757. At the time, Judith was only 21 years old. Subsequent to the death of his wife, Carter embarked for England, while his brother, George, managed Carter’s affairs until his return to Virginia during 1760. In 1761, Carter married Elizabeth Corbin, the daughter of Richard and Elizabeth Tayloe Corbin. Carter and Elizabeth had sixteen children, and of those, six died while infants. Prior to the American Revolution, Braxton had been affluent, which allowed him to build his two mansions, but the one at Chericko was destroyed by fire. The loss of the mansion also included the destruction of nearly all of Braxton’s personal documents. He entered the political life, but the exact time remains uncertain; however, it is thought that he became a member of the House of Burgesses soon after his arrival back from England during 1761, as recorded in The History of the Colony and Ancient Dominion of Virginia (1860). He was in attendance during 1765, when the Virginia Resolutions were brought to the floor by Patrick Henry in response to the Stamp Act and adopted, making it clear to all Virginians and the crown that there was great dissatisfaction with Parliament’s actions regarding taxation. On 16 May 1769, the House of Burgesses, of which Braxton was a member, declared that only the House of Burgesses held the right to tax the colony, and at that same time, the House denounced the practice of Britain seizing Patriots accused of treason and carrying them off to London. When word of the Virginians’ action reached the new governor, Lord Botetourt, he dissolved the House on 17 May. The Patriots considered Botetourt’s retaliation insignificant. The delegates switched their meeting place to Williamsburg. Carter Braxton, Patrick Henry, Thomas Jefferson, Peyton Randolph, George Washington and other Patriots met at the new location in secret, and at the meeting, the Patriots adopted the Non-importation Agreements. From that point forward, although there were attempts to bring about reconciliation with the Crown, the difference continued to widen, surely leading to conflict. During 1771, Governor Dunmore, who succeeded Botetourt after his death, dissolved the assembly on 11 October 1771; writs were published for a new assembly, which convened in February 1772. At that time, Braxton held a position as high county sheriff, a post which made him ineligible to be a member. During 1774, Dunmore abolished the assembly on 27 May. Nonetheless, the Patriots, numbering eighty-nine members, established an association immediately following the governor’s action. When the body convened in Williamsburg on 1 August of that year, Braxton was a member as a representative of King William County. He and the other delegates cast a vote to proclaim that they held a common cause with the people in Boston. Seven members were selected as delegates to the First Continental Congress. Later, during March 1775, the same convention met again, at Richmond. Governor Dunmore, on 20 April, incited the Virginians when he confiscated the powder in the magazine at Williamsburg and ordered it loaded upon a British vessel moored on the James River at Burwell’s Ferry. Most of the Virginians at Williamsburg were prepared for violence to regain the powder, but Dunmore’s fraudulent explanation — that it was moved for security purposes due to rumors of a rebellion by the slaves—was believed by some leaders, postponing a fight. Nonetheless, others like Patrick Henry were adamantly against non-violence and insisted that action was required to reclaim the powder. On 3 May, Patrick Henry led about 150 men toward Williamsburg. In the meantime, Dunmore acquired about forty Royal marines from the HMS Fowey to defend his governor’s mansion. To bolster his cause, the captain of the warship proclaimed that if an attack commenced, he

44 would bombard Yorktown. Although the British threat did not deter the Patriots, violence was avoided. Carter Braxton’s intervention succeeded in persuading Henry to halt the assault. Patrick Henry, at Doncastle’s Tavern, about sixteen miles from Williamsburg, refused to disband his force unless he received either the powder or its equivalent in cash. Braxton negotiated and acquired the money from his father-in-law, Richard Corbin, the receiver-general for the royal government at Williamsburg. The payment Carter Braxton (Virginia and Virginiprompted Henry to suspend ans, Vol. 2, R.A. Brock, 1888) the attack. In two days, Patrick Henry and others were denounced by Dunmore for “extortion.” On the night of the 7th–8th, Dunmore fled from Williamsburg. He boarded the HMS Fowey. Meanwhile, during July, Carter Braxton and others, following the abdication of the governor, met in general convention at Richmond until August 26. Afterward, the convention again met at Richmond on 1 December 1775, but it adjourned and moved to back Williamsburg. At that time, Carter Braxton was elected to represent Virginia at the Continental Congress in place of Peyton Randolph, who had unexpectedly died while in Philadelphia. Braxton at the time was unaware that he would soon be among that select group of 56 men who mutually pledged their “lives, fortunes and sacred honor” as they voted unanimously to adopt the Declaration of Independence. Meanwhile, back in Virginia, the convention, on the 26th of June, decided to cut their delegates to the Continental Congress from seven to five. Consequently, Carter Braxton and Benjamin Harrison were eliminated. Later, Braxton returned to Virginia and was elected to the first Virginia legislature. During October 1776, the Virginia convention paid tribute to Carter Braxton and Thomas Jefferson. Both received the unanimous approbation of the body in appreciation of their service in the Continental Congress. Braxton was appointed chairman of the Committee on Religion. He served during 1777, 1779, 1780, 1781, 1783 and 1785. When the conflict began, Carter Braxton was still able to afford a high style of living for his family, and he was able to contribute a large sum of his personal money to the cause. However, as the war continued, his fortunes changed. Various commercial endeavors failed. His finances were ruined and all the ships he had sent to sea were captured. He eventually lost his personal property to the sheriff and much of his vast land holdings had been sold to support his wartime ventures. Despite all his personal problems, he remained solidly behind the American cause. The lands he had not sold off were mortgaged in an attempt to repay his creditors, but he was never able to extricate himself from ruin. He was able to convince some friends to assist him, but their support was unable to save him from financial disaster. Consequently, Carter was never again in a position to compensate them for their losses. During his final year in the Virginia legislature, Carter Braxton was one of those responsible for the act, signed by Governor Thomas Jefferson, that guaranteed religious freedom in the state. Another strong proponent was Alexander Hamilton. During 1786, Braxton was appointed as a member of the privy council (Council of State), a position he retained until March 1791. Subsequently, after moving to

45 Richmond, Carter was elected by the citizens of Henrico as a member of the House of Delegates. During 1793 (Winter session), the General Assembly elected him into the executive council, a position he assumed on 31 May 1794 and retained until 6 October 1797, four days prior to his death, caused by a second attack of paralysis. Carter Braxton succumbed in Richmond, but he was interred in the family cemetery near Chericoke. His widow, Elizabeth, was able to salvage enough of his estate to exist without being in poverty. Elizabeth succumbed during 1814. Of the ten children of Carter and Elizabeth Corbin Braxton who survived to adulthood, the author could only verify eight names, with the primary source being the History of the Blair, Banister and Braxton Families (by Frederick Horner, 1898). They are Fitzhugh (married Elizabeth Wallace Ewing, widow of William Ewing, of Philadelphia); George (1762–1801, married Mary Carter; they were the parents of General Corbin Braxton); Carter (1765–1809, married Miss Moore); Taylor (died in Richmond fire of 1811, along with his wife Anna); Nancy (unmarried); Elizabeth (married Samuel Griffin of Williamsburg); Carter (3rd son of Carter, Sr.); and William Fitzhugh (1783–1820).

Brearly (Brearley), David (Signer of the U.S. Constitution) David Brearly, the son of David and Mary Clark Brearly, was born on 11 June 1745 in Spring Grove, New Jersey. David’s ancestors originated in England and immigrated to America during 1680. David’s parents also had the following children: Joseph (later general of militia, married Rachael McClarey); Esther (died unmarried); Abijah (died unmarried) and Jerusha (married a Mr. Pierson). David received an education that included attendance at the College of New Jersey (later Princeton), but he left school prior to graduation. Afterward, he studied law and was admitted to the bar. Brearly established himself in Allentown, New Jersey, in Monmouth County. He married Elizabeth Mullen about 1767. In 1783, following the death of Elizabeth, David remarried, taking Elizabeth Higbee, the daughter of Joseph and Rachel Higbee, as his second wife. From David’s second marriage, the following children were born: David (died unmarried); George (died young); and Joseph (died during 1805 at about age 20). Allentown, at the time of the outbreak of war, was not far from a direct line of march from New York to the Philadelphia area, and it was near Trenton, which later became a turning point during the early days of the Revolution. By the time the war erupted, Brearly was about thirty years old, but he was a conspicuous Patriot, and he was known to the royal governor, William Franklin, the son of Benjamin Franklin, because of his outspokenness regarding the policies of the Crown and the king that the Patriots saw as oppressive. During 1776, Brearly’s voice continued to ring out opposition to the British, and he fully supported independence, infuriating Franklin, who had already tried to coerce Brearly with threats of arresting him on charges of treason against the Crown. He was detained for a short while, but other Patriots, armed with various weapons including clubs, rescued him. Meanwhile, William Franklin got a taste of his own tactics. He was arrested, detained, then sent to Connecticut, ending the rule of royal governors, just prior to the Declaration of Independence. Despite his unpopularity with the governor, Brearly had risen to a position of prominence among his Monmouth County neighbors and had gained their respect. He was appointed colonel in the Monmouth County militia, but the appointment was made by fellow Patriots, not a provisional government. Brearly initiated action to build up the militia through recruiting, and he operated in conjunction with the Committee of Safety. Once his force was molded and armed, he began to seek out and disarm Loyalists in the region during the uncertain period when the royal government still held some power. Farther north, in New York, a British armada confidently sailed into New York harbor, fully ware that the rebels had no navy and only some

BREARLY rag-tag farmers and peasants standing by to oppose them. Having been embarrassed in Boston and forced to abandon the city on 17 March 1776, the Redcoats and their Hessian allies were anxious to regain their honor by extinguishing the fires in New York, then marching through New Jersey to snag the leaders in Philadelphia. The British landed about ten thousand men on Staten Island on 2 July, two days before the Continental Congress officially declared independence (4 July 1776). Colonel Brearly, attached to the regiment of Colonel Philip Van Cortlandt’s regiment, had been deployed along the coast of New Jersey, but the emerging crisis caused Van Cortlandt to repair to New York to bolster Washington’s forces. The militia afterward fought to preserve New York, but without success. Several major clashes occurred, including the Battles of Long Island in August; however, during September, the English controlled New York. Afterward, another major clash occurred at White Plains and from there, the British forced Washington to take flight to preserve what remained in his army, while the other states continued to build forces to bolster Washington. Meanwhile, Colonel Brearly was commissioned as a lieutenant colonel by congressional action and served with the 4th New Jersey Regiment; however, shortly thereafter, he was transferred to the 1st New Jersey Regiment, a seasoned but beleaguered unit commanded by Colonel Matthias Ogden that had only recently completed a one-year tour as a participant in the ill-fated Canadian Campaign. After victorious Battles of Trenton and Princeton on 26 December 1776 and 3 January 1777 respectively, Ogden and Brearly were compelled to focus on rebuilding the regiment, which required not only recruits but also arms and equipment. Patrols remained constant in the areas around Amboy and New Brunswick. During spring of 1777, the New Jersey brigade, under command of Lord Stirling (Major General William Alexander, captured at Long Island and exchanged) hooked up with General Washington’s main body, but at the time, it was unclear whether the British would launch an offensive against Albany or try again to seize Philadelphia. Actually, the British launched a three-pronged attack. General William Howe sailed to the Chesapeake, then advanced north to Philadelphia. Meanwhile, another army under General John Burgoyne would advance from Canada toward Albany, while British General Henry Clinton moved from New York toward Albany to link up with Burgoyne. Colonel Brearly’s regiment participated in the defense of Philadelphia, including the Battle of Brandywine (September 1777). The New Jersey Brigade was involved in covering the retreat of the Continental Army as the British seized Philadelphia. Later Brearly participated at the Battle of Germantown (October 1777); however the New Jersey brigade was held in reserve. The battles of Brandywine and Germantown were essentially defeats; however, at the latter victory was at hand until fog caused an American unit to fire upon friendly troops (Nathanael Greene’s column). Due to the confusion, the Americans were compelled to retire. Nevertheless, it was a pivotal battle and when linked with the Battles of Saratoga and the surrender of Burgoyne’s army as well as the inability of Clinton to break through to Albany, the campaigns were successful. The British, although holding Philadelphia, were not able to dominate the entire Delaware River, which forced them to abandon Philadelphia during June of 1778, with the Continental Army at Valley Forge in pursuit of the columns as they headed back to New York. Colonel Brearly’s regiment encamped at Valley Forge during that grueling winter (1777–1778) and the brigade participated in the Battle of Monmouth, the final major contest in the northern states. With New Jersey then considered safe, changes were made and officers were offered an opportunity to retire. Colonel Brearly retired from the Continental Army in August 1779. Although he resumed his private life and again concentrated on his law practice, David retained

BREARLY his command (2nd Regiment, Monmouth County militia). Also in 1779, David was appointed successor to Robert Morris as chief justice of New Jersey, a post he held until 1789. Yale, the college from which he dropped out before graduation, awarded him an honorary degree during 1780. Brearly was a delegate representing New Jersey at the Constitutional Convention in Philadelphia when the U.S. Constitution, later referred to as the “Miracle in Philadelphia,” was adopted on 17 September 1787. Brearly favored the concept of a central (federal) government, but he was strongly in favor of equality for the states regardless of population. That stumbling block, to protect small states against overwhelming power of the larger states, led to the “Great Compromise.” It provided equal representation in the Senate with each state receiving two senators, while in the House of Representatives, representation was to be according to population. At the conclusion of the convention, David returned to his home and added an effort to get the Constitution ratified to his other responsibilities. When the New Jersey state convention met to debate ratification, Brearly chaired the convention. The Constitution had to be ratified by nine of the thirteen states to become effective. On 21 June 1778, New Hampshire ratified the Constitution to become the ninth state. New Jersey had ratified the Constitution at Trenton on 18 December 1787 to become the third state in the union. Subsequently, Brearly was named a member of the Electoral College and was among the men who elected George Washington as the first president by a unanimous vote. Afterward, President Washington appointed David Brearly to a position of federal district judge (New Jersey). David Brearly’s career as a federal judge lasted less than one year. He died on 16 August 1790 and was interred in the cemetery of St. Michael’s Episcopal church in Trenton. In addition to his military, judicial and legal profession endeavors, David was also deeply involved with his church and was considered a devout Christian. He participated in the Episcopal General Conference that convened during 1786 and contributed to the writing of the church’s prayer book. He also became a member of the Society of the Cincinnati, formed by former Continental Army officers, and served as vice president.

Brearly (Brearley and Brierly), General Joseph Joseph Brearly, the son of David and Mary Clark Brearly, was born in New Jersey. He was the brother of Colonel David Brearly, a signer of the U.S. Constitution. Joseph joined the Continental Army and served as captain of the 2nd New Jersey Regiment from 20 November 1775 until 5 February 1777, when he resigned from the service. While in the service, he participated in the Canadian Campaign during the latter part, subsequent to the disastrous defeat of the American expeditionary force at Quebec on 31 December 1775. Afterward he served as major of the 1st Hunterdon Regiment (militia). Some nineteenth century sources say Joseph attained the rank of general (militia) in the post-war era, but no documentation of a commission was discovered. Records indicate that he did not serve in the U.S. Army subsequent to the close of hostilities. Joseph married Rachael McClarey and together they had the following children: Charles; David (later served during the War of 1812 with General Winfield Scott); Joseph; Benjamin; and Eliza. Joseph died during 1805. (See also, Brearly [Brearley] David.)

Brickett, General James S. James (3) Brickett, the son of James and Susanna Pillsbury Brickett, was born in Newbury, Massachusetts, on 16 February 1738. James’ father engaged in farming; however, he apparently was also a skilled carpenter. James’ mother was the daughter of Moses and Abigail Rolf Pillsbury. James, Sr., and Abigail, according to The Descendants of Nathaniel Brickett by Claire and Richard Hubley, had ten other chil-

46 dren: Nathaniel (b. May 1731); James (2) (b. December 1733, died young); Abigail (b. October 1735, died young); John (b. March 1740); Moses (b. May 1742); Susanna (b. January 1745, died young); Susanna (2) (b. January 1747); Mary (b. August 1749); Barnard (b. July 1751) and Abigail (2 — b. July 1753). James attended Harvard, and after graduation, he became a physician and established a medical practice in Haverhill, Massachusetts. During 1759, while the French and Indian War was ongoing, Brickett served in Colonel Joseph Frye’s regiment, and during the following year, he participated in the fighting around Ticonderoga. In October 1760, James married Ednah Merrill, the daughter of Roger and Mary Hall Merrill. They had the following children: Daniel (b. August 1761); James (b. January 17663, d. September 1775); Mary (Polly, b. March 1765); Moses (b. November 1766); Sarah (b. December 1768, d. November 1775); Theodore (b. January 1771) and John (b. 1774). In summer 1774, an artillery company was formed in Haverhill. Brickett was appointed captain and Israel Bartlett was appointed lieutenant. Joshua B. Osgood served as ensign. By the following year, the British smashed the ongoing line that languished between passive resistance and open rebellion when they moved to confiscate powder, igniting confrontations at Lexington and Concord on 19 April 1775. At that time, James was attached to Colonel Frye’s regiment when it advanced from Haverhill with the companies of Captain James Sawyer, Captain Ebenezer Colby and Lieutenant Samuel Clement. The total strength numbered about 105 men; however, as the column moved toward Cambridge, others (one company) remained behind to defend the town if necessary. Two of the companies participated at the Battle of Breed’s Hill (Bunker Hill) on 17 June, and during that heated battle in which the British lost nearly twenty percent of their officer corps, Brickett, after being wounded in the leg, was among the American casualties. A story has been passed down from generation to generation that General Joseph Warren was at Bunker Hill and that he had no weapon, but after Brickett was wounded, he passed his weapon to Warren as he was being carried from the field. During the following month, Brickett was promoted to lieutenant colonel in an order signed by Joseph Warren and Samuel Freeman. Subsequently, during June of 1776, he was promoted to brigadier general of militia and afterward dispatched to Ticonderoga to bolster the forces there in conjunction with the retreat of the American expeditionary from Canada. The following year, General Brickett returned to New York during the campaign against General John Burgoyne. After the British under General John Burgoyne surrendered in October, General Brickett’s command escorted British prisoners back to Boston. After the war he returned home and resumed his medical practice. Although known as general, he was more often referred to as Doctor Brickett. He served several terms as a selectman, and at times was chairman of the body. He also was a delegate to the Constitutional Convention at Boston during 1780. James’ wife Ednah succumbed during September 1802. The following year, General Brickett remarried, taking Abigail Peaslee as his second wife. Two of General Brickett’s children, Daniel and John, also became doctors. He was interred in Haverhill at the Pentuckett Cemetery.

Broad, Major Hezekiah The son of Hezekiah and Rebecca Burrage Broad, Hezekiah Broad was born on 29 September 1746 in Grafton, Massachusetts. Afterward, when Hezekiah’s parents moved back to Natick, his birth was also recorded in Natick. Hezekiah and Rebecca also had a daughter, Rebecca, born in 1743. She later married Joseph Morse. Hezekiah’s grandfather, also named Hezekiah, born about 1675, immigrated to America and settled in Dedham. He and his wife, Abigail, (maiden name unknown) lived later in the vicinity of Broad’s Hill in Needham Leg (later Natick). In 1710, Hezekiah (1) was part of a group that petitioned

47 to have the town of Needham incorporated. Although a clothier by profession, this Hezekiah was also a surveyor. He acquired land in South Natick about 1733 and once there he purchased a sawmill and a dam from John Sawin. In addition, Hezekiah (1) acquired more land in the vicinity from Oliver Peabody. The sawmill and property was inherited by Hezekiah (2), and upon his death, the property was inherited by Major Broad, whose father died prior to 1755. Afterward, his mother, Rebecca, remarried to become the wife of Captain David Morse. During 1770, Hezekiah Broad married Lydia Bacon, and subsequent to her death, it is thought that he remarried, but his second wife’s name remains unknown and no children were born during either marriage. Much later in life, in December 1814, he married yet a third time; his bride was Miriam Sawin, a woman of about age 23. As the colonies began to separate from Britain, Broad remained loyal to the Patriots’ cause. During 1774, he was a member of the Provincial Congress and served in the militia. Broad first served as a sergeant in a company led by Captain Joseph Morse (Colonel Samuel Bullard’s regiment). He participated during the period surrounding the clashes at Lexington and Concord (April 1775) and later, during 1776, he served as captain of the 5th Company in Colonel Thatcher’s regiment. In 1777, Captain Hezekiah Broad was again attached to Bullard’s regiment. Afterward, with the rank of major, he served in Colonel Abner Perry’s regiment and then was attached to a regiment commanded by Colonel Samuel Denny in 1779. During 1780, Broad, serving again as major in Abner Perry’s regiment, participated in the Rhode Island campaign commanded by General John Sullivan. Broad has been referred to as colonel and brigadier general in some historical accounts, but the author was unable to discover any records of an appointment to either rank. After the close of hostilities, he returned to his home and resumed his personal life. During the conflict, Broad was a delegate to the convention that convened to draw up a state Constitution in 1779. He also was a delegate to the constitutional convention held in Massachusetts during 1787, and at that time, he voted against the adoption of the federal Constitution. Hezekiah Broad succumbed on 17 March 1824. He was interred in the South Natick Burial Ground. From his marriage to Miriam Sawin (1814), two children were born, Fannie ( January 1816, baptized February 1816) and Hezekiah (4) (born March 1817 and baptized May 1817). The Broad House still stands in Natick.

Brodhead, Brevet Brigadier General Daniel Daniel Brodhead was born in Marblestown, Ulster County, New York, during 1736. He was the great grandson of Captain Daniel Brodhead (Grenadiers) of Yorkshire, England, who arrived in America during 1664 as an officer with the expedition under Captain Richard Nicholson (later governor New York) that seized New Netherlands (New York) from the Dutch under Director-general Peter Stuyvesant. Captain Brodhead was appointed commander of the troops at Ulster by King Charles during 1665, and it was there that he settled. Daniel’s grandfather, Richard Brodhead, and his father, also named Daniel, and the latter’s wife, Hester, relocated to Danville in the vicinity of Brodhead’s Creek (near Stroudsburg, Monroe County, Pennsylvania) about 1737. It was there that Daniel and his brothers ( John, Charles and Garret) were raised. Later, the Brodheads had two additional children, Luke and Ann. Daniel Brodhead participated in the Borders Wars with the Indians that preceded the Revolution. His father died during the summer of 1755 and by that time other settlers had moved into the area. In November 1755, the settlement came under attack by Indians, but by that time Brodhead was about age nineteen and able to assist in the defense of the colonists. During 1774, when nine counties from Pennsylvania sent delegates to Philadelphia for the purpose of establishing a continental congress, Daniel represented Berks County, where he

BRODHEAD and his wife, Elizabeth Depue Brodhead, the daughter of Samuel Depue, had relocated during 1770 and established a grist mill on their farm. During 1776, he was appointed a lieutenant colonel by Pennsylvania. Initially he served in the vicinity of Philadelphia, but later that year he was taken into the Continental Army and headed north to meet the British threat at New York. Brodhead led his troops during the Battle of Long Island on 27–29 August 1776. His commanding officer, Samuel Miles, was captured, and he found himself in command of all the Pennsylvania troops. About 1,150 men, including General John Sullivan, were captured and another 500 were killed, but Colonel Brodhead was among those who were able to avoid capture and reach Manhattan on the night of the 29th. Colonel Brodhead had become commander of the 8th Pennsylvania Regiment following the death of its initial commander, Colonel Aeneas Mackey (MacKay), who succumbed unexpectedly en route to New York. Brodhead and his regiment, attached to General Anthony Wayne’s command, also participated at the fighting outside of Philadelphia at Brandywine and other places during the defense of the city, including the Battle of Germantown. He then headed to Valley Forge with General George Washington, who proposed Brodhead for the rank of colonel, which Congress approved. During the summer of 1778, Brodhead was ordered to frontier duty. The regiment arrived in September following several actions against Indians who had been raiding the settlers. As the column moved west, it paused at Carlisle, which was along the route to the distant outpost. Brodhead arrived at the time when General Lachlan McIntosh was replacing General Edward Hand as commander of the Western Department at Fort Pitt. Afterward, the regiment moved out with General McIntosh heading toward Detroit, but the expedition never reached its destination. During the expedition, Fort Laurens was built, the sole fort built in Ohio by the Continental Army during the Revolution. On 5 March 1779, Colonel Brodhead was appointed commander of the Western Department by General Washington. He succeeded General Lachlan McIntosh, leaving Brodhead with the task of maintaining the vast area under the fort’s jurisdiction. Fort Pitt stood at about 300 miles from Philadelphia, which caused a perpetual supply problem, hindering operations, particularly during inclement weather. The average time for a supply train to reach the fort from the capital ran nearly one month, and at times, the weather would bar passage through the mountains. Brodhead initiated a spring campaign at the same time Colonel George Rogers Clark was advancing against the British positions and the Indian strongholds north of the Ohio River. Colonel Brodhead departed Fort Pitt, Pennsylvania, to initiate a major offensive against the Indians in Ohio; however, the campaign did not result in any major actions. The Indians continued to launch attacks against the settlers and the troops. The devastating raids began to increase during March 1779. On 31 July 1779, Brodhead wrote to General Washington informing him of the loss of two troops from Fort Laurens who had been killed, and in the same message he mentioned two boys killed at Wheeling Creek and yet another two boys seized at Raccoon Creek from Wheeling also killed. Brodhead also said one man was wounded, one soldier killed and another wounded during an attack on the 30th at Fort McIntosh. During early summer that year, Colonel Stephen Bayard was dispatched by Brodhead pursuant to an order from General Washington to establish a fort at Kittanning. Bayard became somewhat upset when Colonel Brodhead refused his request to name the post Fort Brodhead. It was instead named in honor of General John Armstrong. During August 1779, Colonel Brodhead departed Fort Pitt to eliminate the hostile Indians (Mingo Seneca and Munsey Nations) that had been terrorizing his region (Allegheny River Expedition).

BROOKS On 8 November, Congress was advised by Colonel Brodhead that settlers had moved from Yoghiagania and Ohio counties (Virginia) and had advanced beyond the Ohio River into Indian territory, and that he had directed troops to take action to seize the settlers and destroy their quarters. By the following spring, Colonel Brodhead prepared to initiate an offensive to attack the British stronghold at Detroit, a position too strong for Colonel George Rogers Clark’s forces to reduce, but the attack never materialized. Meanwhile, the Indians initiated attacks against the settlers. On 18 April, Congress was informed of the atrocities, when a letter from Brodhead dated 18 March was read. Congress reacted by directing that Colonel Brodhead was to be given blank commissions, which he was to award to friendly Delaware Indians. In January 1781, orders arrived at Fort Pitt directing Colonel Brodhead to reinforce Colonel George Rogers Clark and his force of Virginians; however, Brodhead maintained his focus on Indians who continued to attack the settlements. At the same time, there was growing controversy between Virginia and Pennsylvania regarding the border between them, giving the Pennsylvania troops little enthusiasm for moving to aid the Virginians. Clark had only about 400 troops under his command, despite being promised reinforcements by Governor Thomas Jefferson during the previous year. Clark’s lack of troops compelled him to return to Fort Henry, where the column arrived during July. In the meantime, in April 1781, Colonel Brodhead departed Fort Henry at Wheeling and advanced toward the Indian stronghold at Coshoctonan. The village was destroyed. Also, another stronghold, Buckaloon, located near the mouth of Broken-straw Creek, was also attacked and after a siege was destroyed. Following the success, Brodhead returned to Fort Henry. In September of that year, Colonel Brodhead lost his command. He was initially relieved by Colonel John Gibson, the officer who accused him of misusing public money. While in command at Fort Pitt, Brodhead also negotiated a treaty with the Cherokee Nation that was consummated on 22 July 1779. Meanwhile, General William Irwine was appointed permanent commander of the Western Department in place of Colonel Brodhead, who had been relieved due to the charges lodged against him. General Irwine arrived in November and was appalled at what he saw. He could hardly believe the fort was defended by soldiers. He described in a letter to General Washington: “I never saw troops cut so truly deplorable, and at the same time despicable a figure. Indeed, when I arrived, no man would believe from their appearance that they were soldiers.” The post and others in the region were plagued by desertions. At Fort McIntosh, despite orders against it, some deserters were executed by a firing squad. In February 1782, Brodhead received a court-martial and was acquitted of all charges. He was then promoted to the rank of brevet brigadier general, with command of the 1st Pennsylvania Regiment until 1783, when it was disbanded. General Brodhead received several thousand acres of land in Pennsylvania for his service during the war; however, he acquired additional property in the same region (Western Pennsylvania) and other property farther out on the frontier in Virginia and Kentucky. Following his military service, Brodhead returned to civilian life. He was elected in 1787 to a two-year term in the state legislature. Earlier, during 1783, Brodhead had managed to become involved in commerce. He arranged for merchandise to be shipped from Philadelphia to Pittsburgh by wagon trains and from there he was able to transport the goods by flat boats down to Lexington, Kentucky, to sell to the settlers, who were quite stunned to see the goods, including wool hats, suddenly arriving by water. In 1789 he was appointed surveyor general of the state, a position he held until 1800. During that time he resided in Philadelphia and, while there, his wife, Elizabeth, died. He was married a second time during 1788, to Rebecca Edgehill Mifflin, the widow of Samuel Mifflin, the brother of General (later governor) Thomas Mifflin. Daniel and his

48 new wife departed Philadelphia and relocated in Milton, Pennsylvania, where he died on 18 November 1809. The initial grave site of General Brodhead remains unknown. In 1872, the citizens of Milford erected a monument in his honor at Milford Cemetery.

Brooks, Brigadier General John John Brooks, the son of Caleb and his second wife, Ruth Albree Brooks, was born in Medford, Massachusetts, during 1752. John’s father was first married to Mary Wyer, and together they had five sons and five daughters. Caleb and Ruth then had five children, including John. The others were: Theodore (b. January 1761); Joseph (birth date unknown, died as infant); Elizabeth (b. June 1757) and Hannah (b. February 1760). While still a young teenager of about fourteen, John began to think less of becoming a farmer like his father and began to study medicine under Doctor Simon Tufts. Upon completion of his studies, when he was about twenty-one, John Brooks established a practice in Reading, Massachusetts. His father died in 1766. In 1774, John married Lucy Smith, also of Reading. Despite his deep interest in becoming a doctor, Brooks also had a long-standing interest in the military. He became a commander of a militia company in 1774. The next year, Brooks was among the many Minute Men who were posted along the route from Concord to Boston to receive the British during their retirement following the clashes on 19 April at Lexington and Concord. At sunrise on that day, the Reverend Foster asked Brooks if the Minute Men were going to Concord. Brooks responded: “Immediately!” The men were hurriedly formed and advanced in time to harass the British as they returned to Boston. Brooks’ force was among those that shadowed the British all the way back to Charlestown. Afterward, Brooks received a commission as major (Colonel Bridges’ regiment from May 1775 to December 1775), and he participated in establishing the American defenses at Bunker Hill; however, he did not participate in the Battle of Bunker Hill. On 16 June, Colonel William Prescott dispatched Brooks to deliver communications to General Artemus Ward regarding the activity of the British. Nevertheless, Brooks participated in the siege of British-held Boston and remained with the army. On 1 January 1776, Brooks was promoted to major. The resolution of Congress said: “We, reposing special trust in your patriotism, valor, conduct and fidelity, do, by these presents, constitute and appoint you to be Major of the 19th regiment of foot, commanded by Col. Charles Webb. By order of Congress. Signed John Hancock.” Major Brooks participated with General George Washington’s forces at the Battle of Long Island and at the Battle of White Plains. On 1 November 1776, John was promoted to lieutenant colonel and attached to the 8th Massachusetts Regiment, known as “Jackson’s Regiment,” and it was dubbed the “Bloody 8th” due to its extraordinary heroism in the face of enemy fire. In addition, Brooks participated in several other actions in New York, including accompanying Benedict Arnold when he moved to lift the siege of Fort Stanwix (Fort Schuyler) during the Saratoga Campaign of 1777. The campaign succeeded in defeating General John Burgoyne’s forces at the first and second battles of Saratoga during September and October respectively, and compelled Burgoyne to surrender his entire army to General Horatio Gates during October 1777. Nineteenth century historians credit Brooks with playing a pivotal part in the fighting on 7 October when his regiment, operating on Arnold’s left, succeeded in overwhelming the Hessian reserve positions. As Brooks initiated the charge up the slope, he raised his sword and bellowed: “Follow your colonel at double quick.” Colonel Brooks was one of the conspicuous subjects in the famous painting of Burgoyne’s surrender done by John Trumbull, the renowned painter of early America. Following the victory at Saratoga, which occurred while the British controlled Philadelphia, the main

BROOM

49 army under George Washington was at Philadelphia preparing to establish winter quarters at Valley Forge. Colonel Brooks was selected by Washington to be a sub-inspector under Von Steuben and accepted the position. During June 1778, the British evacuated Philadelphia and retired toward New York with the Americans at Valley Forge in hot pursuit. Colonel Brooks was acting adjutant general when the major battle erupted at Monmouth, the final major battle in the northern states. During November 1778, on the 11th, John was promoted to lieutenant colonel commandant and attached to the 7th Massachusetts Regiment. During Colonel Brooks’ service he had also served as an assistant inspector under Baron von Steuben, and he became a trusted friend and confidant of General Washington. Washington made good use of Brooks’ abilities during spring of 1783, when mutiny was beginning to erupt at Newburg, New York. Colonel Brooks retired from the Continental Army on 12 June 1783; however, his military service did not terminate; rather it existed along with his medical practice, which he resumed while serving as a major general in the militia. General Brooks was a supporter of the federal Constitution, and his relationship with George Washington continued after the latter’s election to the presidency. Brooks was appointed a brigadier general in the United States Army on 11 April 1792, a position he held until honorably discharged on 1 November 1796. When war with Britain (War of 1812) again erupted, Governor Caleb Strong appointed Brooks adjutant general of Massachusetts. In 1816, General Brooks succeeded Strong as governor of Massachusetts. Governor Brooks declined re-election and brought his public life to a close in 1823. However, having succeeded in the field of medicine, in the military and in public service, he remained active and devoted time to the Massachusetts Medical Society until his death on 1 March 1825. Just prior to his death, General Brooks attended the funeral of his successor, Governor William Eustis. It is thought that General Brooks came down with an illness from the elements while attending the funeral and that was what caused his demise. General Brooks anticipated his fate and is known to have stated: “My case is beyond physicians. I have received my orders: I am ready to march.” His funeral was well attended and included an honor guard that numbered nearly 100 members of the Ancient and Honorable Artillery Company. Several of his swords were preserved. They included the sword he carried during the Battle of Saratoga. It was later presented to the Massachusetts Historical Society. General Brooks’ wife, Lucy, predeceased him on 26 September 1791. John and Lucy had three children, including two sons, Alexander (b. October 1781) and John (b. May 1783). Their daughter, Lucy, was born during June 1776. She later married the Rev. O’Kill Stuart. Son John was killed while in the service during the War of 1812 at the Battle of Lake Erie (September 1813). He was with Commodore Perry when he was hit by a British cannonball that literally severed his leg at the hip, inflicting a mortal wound. John succumbed within a few hours after being wounded. Alexander was killed during 1836 when a steamboat he was aboard exploded. Harvard University awarded Governor Brooks an honorary doctor of law degree in (1817). He received from Harvard an honorary M.D. degree during 1810 as well as an earlier master of arts degree (1787). General Brooks also received an honorary master of arts degree from Yale in 1781. Organizations to which General Brooks belonged included the Academy of Arts and Sciences, the Washington Monument Association and the Bunker Hill Monument Association. Still other organizations including the Bible Society of Massachusetts, and upon its re-establishment during 1786, he became a member of the Ancient Artillery Company, serving twice as its commander (1787 and 1784).

Broom, Jacob (Signer of the U.S. Constitution) Jacob Broom, the son of James and Esther Willis Broom (daughter of John and Mary Willis of Thombury, Chester County, Pennsylvania), was born in Delaware during 1752, but the exact date is unknown. Jacob’s father, a Quaker, was a blacksmith by profession; however, he also became a planter and that endeavor was successful, which turned his father into an affluent farmer. Jacob received his education at the “Old Academy” in Wilmington. Afterward, like his father, he pursued farming; however, Jacob had also become a surveyor, and he entered the business world. He too became prosperous due to his enterprises, which included importing and shipping, along with what apparently involved successful investments in real estate. Jacob and his father both rented property and they acted as lenders of gold and silver. Later, Jacob established a cotton mill, and he speculated in other ventures, including construction of canal that could be used by barges to transport goods along the Brandywine to the mouth of the river. Yet another business venture was a machine shop that specialized in manufacturing and repairing equipment used in the milling industry. One of his ventures was quite unsuccessful—his attempt to “mine bog iron ore.” The project, which occurred along the main branch of the Motherkill Creek (later Murderkill Creek) in Kent County was authorized by the Delaware legislature on 2 February 1793. Meanwhile, Broom was becoming a prominent citizen in Wilmington, which placed him in position to enter politics on a local level. He held several positions, including borough assessor and president of the “streets regulators,” which in modern-day terms would be equivalent to the Department of Public Works. Broom was also appointed a justice of the peace for New Castle County. In 1773, Jacob married Rachel Pierce, the daughter of Robert and Elizabeth Pierce of Christiana Hundred, and together they had eight children: Nicholas Way (baptized 1793); Jacob Pierce; James Madison (later a member of Congress); Ann (married John Littler); Elizabeth (married John Roberts); Sarah (married Jacob Brinton and later James Roberts); Rachel (married Samuel Henry); and Esther Willis (married Samuel Lyon). Due to Broom’s family ties to the Quaker faith, he faced a personal dilemma, although he was not of that faith. According to records, he waited about twelve years before his children were baptized. Initially, Broom received much of his religious teachings from Old Swedes Church, but he eventually became a member of the Episcopal Church. Broom did not join the armed forces when war erupted with Britain after the clashes at Lexington and Concord on 19 April 1775. However, he remained in government. During 1776, he served as assistant burgess (the vice-mayor or second burgess) of Wilmington. He was re-elected five other times, and of those, he served four times as chief burgess. During 1777, when the British were on the move en route to seize Philadelphia and quash the rebellion by capturing the rebel leaders, Broom’s surveying skills were offered to General George Washington. Without hesitation, Washington accepted Broom’s assistance, and the Continental Army received accurate maps of the region in and around Brandywine, where a major confrontation ignited during September 1777. In 1784, after hostilities had ceased, Broom was elected to the Delaware state legislature and held the seat until 1786 and again in 1788. Meanwhile, during 1786, he was appointed as a justice of the peace by “our President Captain, General and Commander in Chief, Nicholas Van Dyke, Esqr., April 12, 1786, being the l0th year of our Independence.” That same year, Broom, along with Richard Bassett (another signer of the Constitution), was selected as a delegate of Delaware at the Annapolis Convention, called to discuss navigation on the Potomac and to plan on a cohesive plan for interstate commerce. In 1787, Broom was a delegate to the Constitutional Convention

BRYAN that adopted the U.S. Constitution. Other delegates from Delaware were Richard Bassett, Gunning Bedford, John Dickinson and George Read. Broom’s initial interaction with politics on a national scale first occurred in Philadelphia during that historic convention, but by that time, he had acquired sufficient experience to ensure that his positions were clear. His intent was to support his belief that a strong effective government was required to ensure that the republic survived. Broom steadfastly remained aligned with those, including George Washington, who favored an effective constitution, and he frequently offered his opinions from the floor, but he did not take the floor to give speeches. Nevertheless, some of his opinions were not shared by a majority, including his opinion that a president “should hold office for life.” He was diligent in his attendance at the sessions, but he also left the speeches to those whom he considered more experienced in such matters. Subsequent to the close of the Constitutional Convention, upon adoption of the U.S. Constitution on 17 September 1787, Broom returned to Delaware and resumed his normal life with no thoughts of re-entering national politics. However, he did remain active locally. In 1795, using plans that he had drawn, Jacob had a mansion built just outside Wilmington along the Brandywine River. During 1790, he became postmaster at Wilmington and held that post until 1792. He also devoted time to the institution that educated him; he was involved with the reorganization of the “Old Academy,” which became the College of Wilmington. Broom was one of the first trustees appointed to the college’s board. He also remained a devout Christian throughout his life and his membership in the Old Swedes Church included his position as a lay leader. He was also known for his philanthropy in the secular world. Brooms was instrumental in the establishment Wilmington’s first library. Jacob Broom died while in Philadelphia on a business trip during 1810, but the exact date is unknown. He was interred at the Christ Church Burial Ground in Philadelphia. Other prominent Revolutionary War leaders buried there include Benjamin Franklin, George Ross, Joseph Hewes, James Wilson, Francis Hopkinson, Peyton Randolph and others.

Bryan, Brigadier General William William Bryan, the son of Hardy and Sarah Bonner Bryan, was born in Craven County, North Carolina, in the vicinity of Fort Barnwell, but his exact birth date is unknown. William’s ancestry goes back to ancient Ireland and Brian Born, who was the monarch of Ireland during the early part of the eleventh century. The original name underwent variations, including O’Brian and O’Bryan. In the latter part of the seventeenth century, five sons of John O’Bryan, subsequent to the death of their father, immigrated to America. His sons were Council, Edward, Hardy, John and William. Four of the brothers reached their destination; Council died at sea before the vessel reached North Carolina. William’s mother, Sarah, was the daughter of Sheriff Thomas Bonner. In 1775, William attended a council meeting at New Bern on 3–4 April, the first time that he appeared to become involved in politics. On the second day of the council, brigadier generals were appointed. They were Edward Vail (Edenton District); Allen Jones (Halifax District); John Ashe (Wilmington District); Griffith Rutherford (Salisbury District); Thomas Person (Hillsborough District); and William Bryan (New Bern District). Bryan was a representative of Craven County. Later that year, as a delegate from his county, William attended the assembly held at Hillsborough. The assembly, called by Samuel Johnson, dealt with the threat to the colony by the British following the battles of Lexington and Concord on 19 April 1775, and it focused on the defenses of North Carolina. On 9 September, William was commissioned as lieutenant colonel of the New Bern District.

50 Colonel Bryan’s command of North Carolina Minute Men participated in the Battle of Moore’s Creek Bridge on 27 February 1776. That skirmish foiled a major operation of the British and secured North Carolina from a British invasion. The Patriots intercepted a large force of Highlanders that were en route to join with the British at Cape Fear. The Americans under Colonel James Moore devastated the Highlanders. The British aborted their plan and sailed toward Charleston, where Patriots there repelled the attack. Meanwhile, the Loyalists in North Carolina, having sustained the loss by the Highlanders, were not able to raise organized resistance for a long time. Shortly thereafter, on 4 May 1776, William, by act of the Continental Congress, was commissioned as brigadier general of North Carolina militia (New Bern District). In the meantime, General Bryan, on 13 April 1776, as a member of the congress that convened at Halifax, was appointed to the committee charged with coming up with a draft for the state’s constitution. He was elected to the North Carolina House of Commons in 1780. He served through 1781, then was again elected and served during 1782–1783. During the conflict, General Bryan’s militia force frequently engaged British units when they raided Craven County. His plantation, located in the vicinity of Core Creek, was plundered and his family threatened, but British efforts to seize the general failed. A large British contingent overpowered Bryan’s militia, but he escaped capture and was concealed in the woods by one of his slaves, named York. York made frequent trips after dusk to bring him food, while Bryan was hiding on an obscure island near his plantation. The British searched in vain and, after not being able to find Bryan, they chased his family from the home before setting it afire. From tradition, York was pressed by the British to surrender General Bryan, first by bribe and afterward by threatening his life. York refused the bribe and when he life was threatened, he still refused to inform on Bryan. Afterward, York was a hero in the family and was an honored guest at Bryan’s home. In addition, York received a tract for life from the general, know as York Field. The British, after arriving in New Bern (1781), departed after a few days, but as they moved, they burned many homes. The Patriots retaliated. Forces under General Bryan and others moved about and destroyed the homes of the Loyalists. Although William Bryan seems to have been actively engaged during 1781, records indicate that he resigned his commission as brigadier general in 1779. Some accounts say he was killed at the Battle of Alamance during 1761 when Governor William Tryon defeated the Regulators, but he was not killed at that time. In addition to having served in the military and the legislature, General Bryan had accumulated a large amount of land, and he operated two successful grist mills. He was also active locally. He was appointed as one of the trustees of the schoolhouse ordered established in New Bern by the assembly during 1781. Other trustees included Richard Caswell and Abner Nash. William was also involved with his church and he was a warden (Episcopal Church) of Christ Parish. General Bryan died in 1791, but the exact date is unknown. His will was completed on 8 January 1791 and probated during March that year. William Bryan married three times during his life, to a Miss Green (daughter of Colonel James Green), Mrs. Repsas, and a Miss (or Mrs.) McKay. William’s children from those marriages were Holland (married a Mr. Mastin); Sarah (married a Mr. Green); Nancy (married twice); Elizabeth (married Frederick Lane); Green (married Nancy Blackledge); Hardy (married Mrs. Swan); Eleanor (married Mr. Wadsworth); Susan (married twice); Margaret (died unmarried) and John (married Elizabeth Oliver).

Buchanan, Brigadier General Andrew Andrew Buchanan, the son of Doctor George and Eleanor Rogers Buchanan, was born at Druid Hill on 22 October 1734. Andrew’s

51 parents were the great-grandparents of Admiral Franklin Buchanan (of the U.S. Navy and later Confederate Civil War hero). During July 1760, Andrew married Susan Lawson. He later became a prominent member of the Patriots in Baltimore when the colonies were joining together against the policies of the Crown. On 12 November 1774, the citizens of Baltimore appointed a popular committee, later referred to as the Revolutionary Fathers of Baltimore. The members were Andrew Buchanan, Robert Alexander, D. John Boyd, William Buchanan, Jeremiah Townly Chase, William Lux, John Moale, and Samuel Purviance, Jr. Prior to the establishment of the committee, the chosen men had been on the Baltimore Committee of Correspondence, which was formed during May of 1774. Andrew served during the Revolution as a brigadier general, and he was a member of the Committee of Observation; however, no major battles were fought in Maryland. Nevertheless, the militia stood ready and responded to a large number of threats that usually were erroneous. The enemy did on occasion stage small-scale raids on Maryland’s eastern shore, and they continued into 1780. One false threat occurred during 1779, when a French flotilla en route to Baltimore was detected as it arrived at the mouth of the Patuxent River and was misidentified as an enemy fleet. During November 1780, the Committee of Correspondence informed General Buchanan of concerns in Vienna, along the Nanticoke River, that the British would be launching raids against the town, which was undefended. The communication also expressed some urgency because of Loyalists in the region who would support the enemy. A raid was launched on 5 November 1780 when several enemy armed schooners proceeded up the Patuxent, set fire to two homes and seized several Negroes and carried them off. The militia responded by dispatching a contingent to prevent any further attacks in the area. General Buchanan succumbed on 12 March 1786. Letitia, the daughter of Thomas McKean, married Doctor George Buchanan, the son of General Andrew Buchanan, and Letitia’s sister Anne married Andrew Buchanan (April 1797), another son of the general. Anne succumbed during May 1804. Afterward, Andrew married Carolina Virginia Marylander Johnson, a niece of Thomas Johnson (first elected governor of Maryland) and the sister-in-law of John Quincy Adams, who married Louisa Catherine Johnson.

Bull, Brigadier General Stephen (of Sheldon) Stephen Bull, son of Stephen and Martha Godin Bull, was born about 1733 in South Carolina. He was a descendant of Stephen Bull, who arrived in America from England about 1669 or 1670. He settled in South Carolina as one of its initial colonists. The Bull and Barnwell families each became prominent resident families. Stephen (1) acquired land grants along the Ashley River and St. Helena and at the former he established the Ashley Hall Plantation. Stephen was also among the men who established Charleston. Stephen succumbed about 1706 and was interred at his plantation. His children, including William, John, and a third son, possibly name Burnaby after a relative who arrived in America with Stephen and his wife Catherine, survived him. His son William of Ashley Hall and of Sheldon served in the military and held public office. He married Mary Quintyne, the daughter of Richard and Elizabeth Quintyne. It was William who drew up the plan for the town of Savannah, Georgia. William overcame all obstacles, including the hostilities with the Indians and smallpox and yellow fever epidemics, and was able to raise sufficient forces to neutralize the Spanish raids. William inherited much property and increased his holdings to include the Sheldon plantation; however, he resided in a mansion in Charleston until his death during 1755. William and Mary had five children, including Stephen, the father of the subject. According to the church register of St. Andrew’s, the children were Stephen (1) (b. 18 March 1707) served in the military, participated in the campaign against the Spanish at St. Augustine, and

BULL served several terms in the Commons House of Assembly; William (2) (b. 24 September 1710); Elizabeth (b. 9 March 1712, married Thomas Drayton); Charlotte (b. 15 August 1719, married John Drayton); Mary Henrietta (b. 16 February, 1722, married Henry Middleton). During August 1731, Stephen married Martha Godin, the daughter of Benjamin Godin, a merchant who operated in Charleston. They had two children, William, who was born on 19 February 1731 and died shortly thereafter, and Stephen (2). Martha died and Stephen (1) again married, taking Judith Mayrant as his second wife in May 1747. They had one child, William, the half-brother of Stephen (2). William served in the House of Commons and as a Justice of the Peace. During 1774, he was a member of the royal council, but that same year, he was elected to the Provincial Congress and held that position until 1776. He remained staunchly on the side of the Patriots’ cause, but evidently he did not serve in the military. Upon the death of Lt. Governor William Bull, the uncle of Stephen (2) and William, the governor left the Ashley Plantation to William. During December 1755, Stephen (2), known as Stephen of Sheldon, married Elizabeth Woodward, who succumbed in June 1771. In May 1772 Stephen married Anne Barnwell Middleton, the daughter of Colonel Nathaniel and Mary Gibbes Barnwell and widow of Colonel Thomas Middleton. Elizabeth Bull had no children. However, Stephen and his second wife had three children, Charlotte, Mary and Sarah. Mary later married Nathaniel Barnwell. Sarah married John Barnwell and Charlotte never married. During Stephen Bull’s first marriage, he had entered politics and served in the South Carolina House of Commons for several years beginning in 1757. He was elected in 1774 to serve in the state’s Provincial Congress. During June 1775, on the 18th, Lord William Campbell arrived in Charleston and succeeded Lt. Governor William Bull (Stephen Bull’s uncle) as royal governor. Campbell’s arrival coincided with the Patriots’ actions under the provisional government, and he would become the final royal governor in the colony. Also that year, Bull again was elected to the Provincial Congress, and he was appointed as a colonel of militia (Granville County). Benjamin Garden was appointed lieutenant colonel and John Lewis Bourquin was appointed major. In August 1775, a vessel, the Commerce, was returning from Florida with a cargo of confiscated powder that had been seized from a British vessel, the Betsy. News arrived in Charleston that the Commerce was being chased by a British naval force. Colonel Bull’s regiment was ordered to speed to Beaufort to protect the ship and its precious cargo. The cargo arrived safely and no British warships arrived. During November 1775, the council convened on the 12th and decided to put a merchant ship, the Prosper, into service and fit it out with arms and a crew to neutralize British sloops in the area. Patriot militia was called upon to deal with the Loyalists in the backcountry. Militia units under Colonels Stephen Bull, Powell, Rothmaler and Roberts under Colonel (later brigadier general) Richard Richardson were ordered into action. The Prosper was captained by William H. Drayton, the recently appointed (16 November) president of the Council of Safety. A confrontation occurred on 22 December and the Loyalists scattered. By 25 December 1775, the militia, having accomplished its mission (Snow Campaign) against the Loyalists, returned to their homes. Many of the Loyalist leaders had been captured and taken to Charleston. The mission to disarm the Loyalists ended in February. During the following month, nearly all the Loyalists were offered amnesty. Also during March 1776, a report on a state government and constitution was presented by John Rutledge and adopted. Thomas Rutledge was elected president. Stephen was elected as a member of the legislative council along with others, including Charles Pinckney, Henry Middleton, Richard Richardson and Henry Laurens. The government began to function with complete disregard to the royal governor.

BURR During that same period, Colonel Bull, leading about 500 militia troops, was in Georgia supporting Patriots there. The British launched an operation during June 1776 to seize Charleston, but they were repelled by the extraordinary defenders under Colonel William Moultrie and compelled to return to New York. South Carolina remained relatively tranquil for several years afterward. Nevertheless, the Patriots had little time for rest. Defenses were strengthened and troops were sent into other areas, including Georgia, where the British and Loyalists made inroads. During March 1778, South Carolina’s militia was split into three brigades. At that time, Colonel Stephen Bull was appointed a brigadier general with command of one of the brigades. Andrew Richardson and Richard Richardson, Sr., became commanders of the other two regiments. Bull’s militia participated in the ill-fated Second Invasion of Florida as part of General Robert Howe’s expeditionary force. General Bull also participated in the Battle of Port Royal on 3 February 1779, the contest that slowed British General Prevost’s plans against Charleston; however, by early the following year, the British were moving once again to seize the city and gain domination of South Carolina. A force under General Henry Clinton and Lord Charles Cornwallis laid siege and the city fell on 12 May 1780. General Benjamin Lincoln and his entire force, including a naval squadron under Captain Abraham Whipple, capitulated. On 4 June, General Clinton at his headquarters in Charleston wrote to Lord Germain, exclaiming: “I may venture to assert that there are few men in South Carolina who are not either our prisoners or in arms with us.” Clinton’s communication was not an overstatement. The Continental Army officers, including William Moultrie and General Benjamin Lincoln, had been in custody at Haddrell’s Point, while troops were held on prison ships. General Richard Richardson had resigned from the service prior to the siege. General Bull had retired from the field and the militia was disbanded. One Continental Army officer, Francis Marion, had been sent out of the city, permitting him to escape capture to the later dismay of Cornwallis, who soon found Marion, the Swamp Fox, as his nemesis. While Congress worked to replace Lincoln and field a new army to oppose Cornwallis, Colonel Marion and his band along with some other militia were compelled to hold the line. General Bull, subsequent to the fall of Charleston, never returned to the field. After the war and a period of absence from the state, he returned to his plantation and re-entered public life, serving in the South Carolina legislature. He succumbed during 1800 and was interred at his plantation.

Burr, Aaron Aaron Burr, the son of the Reverend Aaron and Esther Edwards Burr, was born on 6 February 1756 at Newark, New Jersey. Aaron’s father was a graduate of Yale and the first president of Nassau Hall (later Princeton). Aaron’s mother was the daughter of Jonathan Edwards, the second president of Princeton. Aaron became an orphan when he was three years old. His father died of smallpox during August 1757, before Aaron had reached the age of two, and his mother died the following year at the age of twenty-six. Aaron had one sister, Sarah, who later married Judge Tappan Reeve. Upon the death of his father, Aaron inherited a substantial fortune. In 1760 he was taken to Philadelphia, where he was to be under the care of one of his aunts and Doctor Shippen. After a disagreement when he was only four years old, he ran away and was not located for about four days. During 1761, Aaron, still quite undisciplined, along with his sister Sarah, was sent to Stockbridge, Massachusetts, to be cared for by his uncle Timothy Edwards, the brother of his late mother. During the following year, Timothy relocated in Elizabeth, New Jersey. Aaron got an idea in his head to take a sea voyage, prompting him, at the age of

52 about ten, to ran away again. He found his way to New York and signed on as a cabin boy; however, his uncle Timothy was alerted and Aaron was caught before the ship sailed. Nevertheless, Aaron was not quite ready to surrender; rather, he climbed to the top-mast and refused to come down. Eventually, he did relent, but his attitude did not change. During 1769, Aaron entered Princeton and did quite Aaron Burr (Memoirs of Aaron Burr, well. He graduated during 1772 and afterward he inMatthew L. Davis, 1837) tended to pursue a career as a lawyer. The pan was altered when hostilities with Britain erupted. Aaron traveled to Cambridge and joined the Continental Army as a volunteer, just after the clash at Lexington and Concord on 19 April, 1775. During the Canadian Campaign, Aaron served as an aide to General Montgomery and he was with the latter when he was killed during the attack against Quebec City on 31 December, 1775. During the following year, Aaron was made aide-de-camp to General Israel Putnam on 22 June, a post he retained until 4 January 1777, when he was appointed as Lt. Colonel of Colonel William Malcolm’s regiment, one of the additional Continental Regiments. He later resigned from the service on 3 March, 1779, due to a deterioration of his health. During the time in the Continental Army, he had become part of General Washington’s military family, but prior to his promotion to Lt. Colonel, he was dismissed due to an unknown act of “immoral conduct” that infuriated General Washington. Washington was not alone is being less than impressed with Burr’s activities. Burr gained a reputation of being a woman chaser. Burr afterward resumed his pursuit of a law career and after completing his studies and gaining admittance to the bar, he established his law practice at Albany, New York during 1782. That same year, 1782, Aaron married Theodosia Prevost, the widow of a British officer, Colonel James Marcus Prevost. Colonel Prevost was the brother of British General Augustine Prevost, who seized Savannah during December 1779. James Prevost died in 1781 in the West Indies. Mrs. Prevost had known Burr since 1777, when he began to frequently visit the family near Paramus. At the time of their marriage, Theodosia had two children from her marriage with Colonel Prevost. Aaron Burr raised her two children as if they were his own. Theodosia was the daughter of Theodosius Bartow of Shrewsbury, New Jersey. Burr later relocated in New York and was able to expand his law practice, but he was known as an “expert in all the trickery of the courts.” In a dispute on ownership of a tract of land, Burr pulled out phony evidence that showed the deed of the other lawyer’s client was a forgery. Burr won the case; the wrong man got title to the land and lived until his death, but eventually, it was proven that the original owner was cheated and the land was returned to the rightful owner. Burr’s unscrupulous traits remained with him throughout his life. In 1789, Burr became attorney general of the state of New York. He was elected to the U.S. Senate, where he served from 1791 to 1797 as an anti–Federalist. Burr was a manipulator who nearly worked his way up to becoming the president of the United States. During 1800, Aaron received an equal amount of votes as those cast for Thomas Jefferson. At the time of the election there was turbulence within the Federalist Party, but Burr by that time had been despised by both parties and there was high tension and a possibility of civil war. Congress finally settled the election and Jefferson became the third president of the

BUTLER

53 United States after thirty-six ballots. Jefferson served from 1801 through 1809. Burr served as Jefferson’s vice president during his first term. Burr, always opposed to the Federalists, became a more fervent enemy. Aware that Alexander Hamilton was able to swing votes to Jefferson during the presidential election, he retained strong resentment. The ongoing political differences swelled over rhetoric and turned into deadly violence during 1804 when Burr attempted to gain the governorship of New York. Burr was again defeated through the efforts of Alexander Hamilton. Burr accused Hamilton of making derogatory remarks about him and challenged Hamilton to a duel. Burr had actually known Hamilton prior to the Revolutionary War, as they attended Princeton at the same time (another of their classmates was Jonathan Dayton, who like Hamilton was a signer of the U.S. Constitution). Hamilton and Burr met at Weehawken, New Jersey, on 11 July 1804. Hamilton fired in the air, but it was never discovered whether it was intentional or if the shot occurred after he was hit. Nevertheless, Hamilton sustained a fatal wound and died on the following day. New York later indicted Burr for the crime of murder. Burr had also planned a scheme to acquire land in the northwest. He borrowed money from Jonathan Dayton to acquire the Spanish lands west of the Mississippi. Dayton did not make the trip to the territory due to illness. Another co-conspirator was General James Wilkinson (acquitted). Burr at one point visualized himself as the president of a new nation, and he had plans for a possible invasion of Mexico. Burr and Dayton were later seized and charged with high treason. Jonathan Dayton, however, was never tried. Burr was tried during 1807 in Richmond, Virginia, and acquitted, thanks in great part to his lawyers, Edmund Randolph and Luther Martin (both framers of the Constitution). Burr was also to be tried for murder by New York state, but after his acquittal, he fled the country and the case never went to trial. In 1812, Burr returned to New York. It was Burr who cared for his former brilliant attorney, Luther Martin, after he had lost his fortune and some of his faculties. Martin died at Burr’s residence during 1826. Aaron Burr lived the remainder of his life in isolation, having never recovered from killing Alexander Hamilton. He died on 14 September 1836 on Staten Island, New York.

(b. April 1787); Samuel Abbot (b. July 1789); and Ward Cotton (b. January 1795). Henry and Isabella also had twins in June 1792; however, both died and either remained unnamed or the family records did not record their names. Following the close of hostilities with Britain, Captain Henry Butler was appointed major general of New Hampshire militia. General Butler also served as Nottingham’s first postmaster. Isabella Butler succumbed during January 1808. General Butler remarried, taking Ruth Parsons as his second wife in March 1810. About three years later, on 20 July 1813, General Butler succumbed. General Butler’s daughter, Elizabeth Butler Norris, succumbed during July 1908. Benjamin married Hannah Hilton. Ebenezer married Sarah Hersey of Sanbornton. Henry married Abigail Lord, and after her death, he married Nancy Hersey. Sarah Cotta married John Haley of Lee, New Hampshire, and the marriage lasted more than 63 years. Samuel served in a cavalry unit (Captain John Butler’s company) during the War of 1812 and was mortally wounded while engaged at Highgate, Vermont. Samuel, as part of a contingent of eighteen men, engaged smugglers who were moving cattle into Canada. Samuel refused to surrender and used his pistols to eliminate two enemy troops who moved to seize him. Despite the severity of his wound, Samuel declined help from a British surgeon and died of his wounds. Ward Cotton married Margaret Anderson and the couple relocated in Philadelphia. General Henry Butler’s family line linked him with several other prominent military leaders of later generations. Henry’s uncle, Zephaniah, was the grandfather of General Benjamin F. Butler (Civil War era). Zephaniah was also the grandfather of John Simpson, the soldier who fired (against orders) the first shot against the British at Breed’s Hill (Battle of Bunker Hill) on 17 June 1775. John’s brother, Robert Simpson, who also served in the military during the Revolution, was the grandfather of General (and president of the United States) Ulysses Simpson Grant, the latter being the son of Jesse and Hannah Simpson Grant. The Rev. Benjamin Butler was the grandfather of General James H. Butler (of Bangor, Maine) also of the Civil War era; James was the son of Henry Butler, Jr.

Butler, General Henry

John Butler, the son of Edmund and Frances Butler, was born in Virginia about 1727–1728 and lived with his family in Goochland County. Later, he married Anne Armstrong. John, like his brother William, relocated to North Carolina in Orange County; however, they took separate positions when an anti-government organization, the Regulators, emerged. John has been described occasionally as one of the Regulators, but he was aligned with the government of the time. Despite his brother’s membership in the group, he and William remained close. The Regulators formed initially during the late 1760s, had become incensed by the action of government officials and, for a while, had suspended activity. However, John Butler, sheriff of Orange County, urged the governor during 1770 to take action. By that time, the Regulators had plans to liquidate all government officials. During 1771, the level of violence was rapidly rising. Royal Governor William Tryon raised a force, drawn from Orange County and from forces raised by sheriffs in neighboring areas. Tryon’s forces ended the insurrection at the Battle of Alamance, which erupted on 16 May. The poorly armed Regulators were no match for the militia. Many prisoners and some leaders were seized. Most were later pardoned, but seven of the instigators were hanged. Subsequent to the devastation of the Regulators as an organized group, many fled from the colony. Meanwhile, John Butler was among those who sought leniency, and he even worked to broker pardons for those imprisoned. During the years following the insurrection, John’s loyalty to the Crown shifted with others who became staunch Patriots. During 1775, John was appointed to the Hillsborough district Committee of Safety. By that time,

Henry Butler, the son of the Rev. Benjamin and Dorcas Abbott Butler, was born on 27 November 1754 at Nottingham, New Hampshire. Henry’s father, originally from Windham, Connecticut, graduated from Harvard during 1752 and became the second minister of the Congressional Church in Nottingham in 1758. He resigned after serving about twelve years and afterward became a justice of the peace. Henry’s mother, Dorcas (b. May 1729, d. April 1790), was the daughter of Lieutenant Henry and Mary Platts Abbott and a descendant of George Abbott of Yorkshire, who arrived in the colonies about 1640. Benjamin and Dorcas had seven other children: Benjamin (b. February 1757, d. April 1757); Benjamin (2) (b. June 1758, d. August 1759); Mary (b. March 1760, married Abraham Brown of Epping, New Hampshire); Elizabeth (b. August 1762, d. October 1761) and then during October 1766, the family increased by three with the birth of triplets on 9 October, Dorcas, Jemima and James Platts. Dorcas married Jonathan Cilley and moved to Ohio. Jemima and James Platt both died on 19 October 1766. Henry, the oldest child, was born during the opening of the French and Indian War and reached maturity during the first days of the Revolution. Henry Butler entered the New Hampshire militia and served at West Point along the Hudson River. During 1776, Captain Butler married Isabella Fisk, the daughter of Doctor Ebenezer Fisk of Epping, New Hampshire. Together they had eight children: Isabella (b. July 1777, married William Norris); Benjamin (b. April 1779); Ebenezer (b. March 1781); Henry, Jr. (b. June 1783); Sarah Cotta (b. August 1785); Dorcas

Butler, Brigadier General John

BUTLER Governor Josiah Martin, successor to Governor Tryon, had lost control. Meanwhile, the Patriots escalated their work to increase defenses. The British plans included the arrival of the crack Highlanders at the Cape Fear River to link up with a British fleet that was transporting ground forces, and the latter was anticipating a second fleet which was en route from Ireland with a new force under Lord General Charles Cornwallis. John Butler was appointed lieutenant colonel during 1775 and promoted to colonel the next year. However, thanks to the actions of Colonel (later brigadier general) James Moore, Butler’s region remained tranquil for some time. During February 1776, the Highlanders moved toward Cape Fear, and at Moore’s Creek Bridge they encountered a blockage which they believed penetrable. Nevertheless, Colonel James Moore’s plan was unleashed flawlessly. Two of the leaders were instantly killed and the commanding general was captured. The Loyalists were unable after the devastating blow to raise any formidable forces. The British fleet was forced to sail off and a campaign in North Carolina was forestalled. The fleet was urgently requested by Virginia’s royal governor, Lord Dunmore, but the British instead sailed to Charleston, where General Henry Clinton was later joined by General Charles Cornwallis. In the meantime, John Butler was elected as a representative of Orange County to the congress set to convene at Halifax during April and again during November of 1776. Butler was to participate in the process of taking an inventory of the property seized from Loyalists. During the latter convention, the state constitution had been adopted prior to Butler taking his seat due to political problems. The convention proclaimed the election fraudulent and ordered a new election. Butler was elected and then took his seat. During 1777, Brigadier General Thomas Person (appointed 1776 for Hillsborough district) resigned and was succeeded by Colonel John Butler. A British army under General John Burgoyne was defeated at Saratoga, New York, during October, but by that time the British had occupied Philadelphia. At the same time, the British remained focused on the South. Philadelphia was abandoned by General Clinton during June 1778 and a major battle followed at Monmouth, New Jersey, toward the latter part of the month. It became the final major battle in the northern states. In the meantime, the commander in the south, Major General Robert Howe, was unable to offset the British strength, and pressure built in Congress to replace him. On 24 September 1778, Congress appointed General Benjamin Lincoln successor to Howe and directed him to repair to the Department of the South to assume command. In November 1778, Lincoln was in North Carolina en route to the department. Governor Richard Caswell had earlier directed General Butler to raise a force in his district and prepare to dispatch the contingent to bolster General Lincoln. Prior to the end of the year, a force under Anthony Lytle departed Hillsborough to join with Lincoln; Butler was scheduled to follow. Other North Carolina militia, about 2,000 strong under General John Ashe, also moved to augment Lincoln’s army. About 700 Loyalists departed North Carolina to aid the British in the defense of Augusta, Georgia. General Butler departed Charlotte with his column on 11 April 1779, unaware that General Ashe’s force had been routed at Briar Creek on 3 March. While Lincoln’s army moved against Augusta, the British abandoned the city. Ashe’s militia was ordered to intercept Augustine Prevost’s force on 2 March, but on the following day, the British attacked. Ashe, upon sight of the British, declined taking action and informed General Samuel Elbert to take on the British. The small contingent of Georgians became surrounded and still Ashe failed to move. Ashe fled and Elbert was captured. Butler joined with General Lincoln on 26 April and afterward, Lincoln was faced with a British threat against Charleston, forcing him to return to South Carolina, leaving Georgia to the British. Butler’s con-

54 tingent accompanied Lincoln’s column and the British in turn were compelled to abort the planned assault against Charleston. The Americans pursued the British, and a clash occurred at Stono Ferry on 20 June 1779. Butler’s militia and other North Carolinians under General Jethro Sumner performed meritoriously during the contest. Following the fighting at Stono River, the enlistments of Butler’s command were ending, and the militia on 15 July 1779 returned to North Carolina. By that time, the British returned to Georgia and combat in the region subsided due in great part to the torrid heat. Later that year, General Butler dispatched fresh troops to support General Lincoln, but he remained in North Carolina. During the following year, on 12 May 1780, Charleston fell to the British and North Carolina continentals and militia there became part of the massive army that surrendered. General Horatio Gates was sent south by Congress to replace Lincoln, who was captured at Charleston. Meanwhile, Richard Caswell, having ended his term as governor, became commander of North Carolina militia with the forces of Generals John Butler, Isaac Gregory and Griffith Rutherford as his commanders in the central, eastern and western sectors respectively. During August the combined forces converged at Caswell’s headquarters at Cheraw to join with Gates’ army. Gates, however, was too eager to attack, and he was advancing despite the lack of cavalry. On the 27th of July he had ordered an attack against General Charles Cornwallis at Camden. The British mauled Gates at Camden on 16 August. The North Carolina militia was advancing to the rear of the Virginia militia. The Virginians broke ranks and fled, with the North Carolinians close behind. General Gregory was among the captured, while he and a part of his brigade stood and fought well, alongside of Virginia continentals. General Gates’ left flank, held primarily by militia, collapsed within about fifteen minutes. The rout caused Gates’ military career to terminate. Subsequently, Congress named General Nathanael Greene as Gates’ successor, the latter having been overlooked for Gates despite Washington’s strong recommendation. General Butler, while heading back to North Carolina, was halted by renegade militia who suddenly became “friends of the victors” and relieved Butler of his sword, proclaiming: “You’ll have no further use of this.” Undaunted, General Butler, by the following month, was in the field with fresh militia and operating between Charlotte and Salisbury, with part of his responsibility being the guardian of provisions coming into the area from the Moravian settlements. Butler coordinated with General Sumner and together they patrolled along the Yadkin River. Butler’s militia acted with precision when it involved their enlistment commitments. But his militia disappeared at the minute their enlistments terminated, leaving Butler without a force. Butler again raised fresh militia. In the meantime, Cornwallis moved back into South Carolina following the Battle of Kings Mountain (7 October 1780), and during January, General Daniel Morgan thumped Cornwallis at Cowpens (17 January 1781), a totally unexpected setback for the British. By February 1781, General Butler was directed to move to the vicinity of Wilmington to observe the British who had taken the city on 29 January 1781. Cornwallis, jolted by his defeat at Cowpens, was in pursuit of Morgan. Butler was diverted from Wilmington to join with General Greene at Hillsborough. Butler’s militia and that of General Thomas Eaton formed the left sector of Greene’s line at Guilford Court House (15 March 1781), bolstered by Virginian militia to their immediate rear. Once the British commenced fire, the militia again collapsed. Butler attempted to halt the stampede, but to no avail. Most of the North Carolinians remained in motion until they reached their homes. Cornwallis claimed victory; however, General Greene was more than pleased with the performance of his force, which inflicted heavy casualties, about 25 percent of Cornwallis’ army made the casualty list. Cornwallis was unable to pursue Greene. Afterward, Cornwallis moved to Wilmington. Greene directed Butler

55 to deploy in the vicinity of Ramsey’s Mill, from where he could monitor enemy movements. By 11 April 1781, 240 of the men under Butler who ran at Guilford Court House had rejoined him. By 27 March, Cornwallis departed North Carolina for Virginia. During the campaign in North Carolina, Cornwallis destroyed General Butler’s plantation. Nineteenth century biographers believed that the name of Butler’s plantation might have been Mt. Pleasant, and the name continues to frequently be attributed to Butler. A British force under David Fanning planned to strike Butler’s encampment, but Butler was forewarned by Governor Thomas Burke. Meanwhile, Loyalists under Fanning moved against Hillsborough on 12 September 1781, killed fifteen defenders, wounding about 20 others and capturing Governor Burke. About 70 continental troops were captured in a church. The British were also able to rescue about thirty British troops (Loyalists and regulars). That same day, Fanning, marched about 200 prisoners (including officers) toward Wilmington, with Butler in pursuit. On the 13th, Butler’s brigade engaged the Loyalists at Lindsay’s Mill at Cane Creek. Butler’s militia held concealed positions and were able to surprise the Loyalist vanguard under Colonel Hector McNeal. Afterward, David Fanning secured the prisoners captured at Hillsborough and launched an attack which remained heated for about four hours before General Butler was compelled to retreat. Nonetheless, Fanning received a severe wound. He sent word to his main body about the clash and to inform them that he was incapacitated due to a wound to his arm that shattered several bones. The Loyalists lost eight killed, including Colonel McNeal, and they sustained sixty seriously wounded that had to be left behind. Another 30 troops were wounded but able to remain with the column. Butler was not rescued. Later, Butler fought minor engagements at Hammond’s Creek and at Brown Marsh, the latter at Bladen. General Butler remained in command of militia through 1782 and, despite the surrender of Cornwallis at Yorktown and eventual formal end of the war during 1783, friction between the Loyalists and Patriots continued for years in certain areas of North Carolina. During 1784 while a member of the General Assembly, Butler became chairman of the committee of grievances, which placed him in the forefront of the difficult task of re-establishing and stabilizing the state government. In November of that year, General Butler resigned his commission and was excused from attending future assembly sessions. General Butler was succeeded by Ambrose Ramsey, who was appointed brigadier general in his place. General Butler and his wife had no children. He succumbed during autumn 1786 and his will was probated during January 1787. His widow, Anne (Ann or Annie), afterward married Richard Christmas of Orange County, North Carolina.

Butler, Pierce (Signer of the U.S. Constitution) Pierce Butler, a son of Sir Richard Butler (5th Baronet of Cloughgrenan), was born in County Carlow, Ireland, on 11 July 1744 while his father was a member of the Irish Parliament. In accordance with an English custom of the period, although not mandatory, it was usual for the son of a British aristocrat to enter the king’s service in the military or in the ministry, which also was under the king since the breakaway from the Catholic Church during the reign of King Henry VIII, who brought about the establishment of the Anglican Church (known in America as the Episcopalian Church). Pierce followed in the tradition. His father acquired a commission and after purchasing it, Pierce joined the British 22d Regiment of Foot (later Cheshire Regiment). During the Seven Years’ War (known as French and Indian War in America), Butler arrived in America with his regiment during 1758 and participated in various campaigns, including the final one under General Jeffrey Amherst that brought about the surrender of the French and the conquest of Canada to terminate the war and leave Britain as

BUTLER the dominant force in North America. While still in America, Butler transferred to another regiment, the 29th Regiment of Foot. He remained in the country after the war until he returned to Ireland in 1762. In conjunction with Britain’s decision to deploy troops in the colonies against the will of the colonists (other than those considered to be Loyalists), Pierce returned to the colony during 1768, and it was his regiment that caused one of the first sparks that led to the open hostilities. During 1770, on 5 March, an altercation occurred in Boston between a contingent of the regiment and civilians. The incident, later called the Boston Massacre, caused civilian casualties after the British fired upon a mob that was harassing the troops. Butler was not involved in exchange. During the following year, Butler, a major in the army, married a woman from South Carolina, Mary Middleton, the daughter of Henry Middleton, the first president of the Continental Congress, and the sister of Arthur Middleton, signer of the Declaration of Independence. The period following the Boston Massacre remained turbulent as the anger of the colonists continued to intensify and the determination of the British to maintain their domination in the colonies remained steadfast. At the time, the colonists still considered themselves loyal subjects, but they also believed they were being treated unfairly by the Crown. During 1773, the British 29th Regiment finished its tour in America and received orders to return to England; however, by that time, Butler had decided to remain in America. He sold his commission for about fifteen thousand pounds and retired from the army, then relocated in South Carolina. He purchased a plantation and settled into the life of a southern gentleman. He soon after began to acquire more land and at some point invested in vessels which he utilized as a coastal fleet to transport his goods. As he became more acclimated to his new life as a planter-merchant, Butler was becoming a more prominent citizen. He also re-entered the military, but by that time, his Red Coat had been permanently retired. He became an officer in the South Carolina militia during 1775. As a former English officer, Butler brought upon himself additional problems by becoming a supporter of the Patriots’ cause, but only if he fell into the hands of the British. By the time he joined the forces of the Patriots, his health had deteriorated sufficiently to prevent him from actively performing in the field, but he was still able to rely upon his former military experience to contribute. In addition, Butler entered politics and was elected to the state assembly during 1776, a position he retained until 1789. During 1779, he concentrated on recruiting, but in addition, he was solicited by John Rutledge to become involved in bolstering the defenses of Charleston. Rutlege appointed Butler as adjutant general; however, Butler continued to refer to himself as a major. The British had attempted to take Charleston during June 1776, but failed. In December 1778, Savannah fell to the British, making Charleston again a primary objective. Nonetheless, on 12 May 1780, Charleston fell to the British, and with the loss of the city, the Americans also lost an entire army under General Benjamin Lincoln. Some of the leaders, including Governor John Rutledge, were not in the city when it fell. Butler was among the officers who escaped capture. He continued to work with the government in exile, while efforts were made to rebuild a force to evict the British. General Horatio Gates arrived in the south as successor to General Lincoln, who was among the captured. However, Gates discarded advice from the militia and attempted to launch an offensive, lacking artillery and sufficient food. Consequently, Gates sustained a disastrous defeat at the Battle of Camden during August 1780. Gates in turn lost his military career. Meanwhile, Butler continued to contribute to the war effort as adjutant general during that period when only militia stood between the British and their quest for total victory in South Carolina. Other

BUTLER leaders, such as Francis Marion and Thomas Sumter, worked to neutralize the British gains by harassing British columns and positions. Later, General Nathanael Greene arrived as successor to Gates. The Continental Army under Greene and General Daniel Morgan, bolstered by militia, eventually prevailed in the South. The British under Lt. Colonel Banastre Tarleton (Tarleton’s Legion) repeatedly launched attacks to destroy the militia and capture the leaders, but were unable to eliminate the Patriots. Nevertheless, the Patriots did sustain high losses while engaged against the British. In addition, the British, who controlled Charleston from May 1780 until December 1782, inflicted enormous damage to the property of various Patriots and of those, Pierce Butler’s estate had become a victim. He essentially lost his fortune before the war terminated, and the fleet that he had earlier built was lost, which cost him his ability to resume his trading business. Butler, apparently unable to acquire a loan in South Carolina, sailed to Europe in an attempt to find a source to acquire a loan. Upon his return to South Carolina during 1785, Butler worked with others of the same mind to bring about reconciliation with the Loyalists. He also expressed great interest for those who resided in the back county, far from the region that had been dominated by the Rice Kings prior to the Revolution, and he became an advocate for those to gain equality with the low country (essentially Charleston). Despite his empathy for the citizens in the back country and his advocacy for the poor, there remained great conflict in his position due to his support for slavery. Butler served in the Continental Congress during 1777–1778. He was selected as a delegate to represent South Carolina in Philadelphia at the Constitution Convention held during 1787. While in attendance at the convention, Butler remained a staunch advocate of a strong central government; however, he maintained positions that also were favorable to his home state, which clashed with his former position. Nevertheless, the U.S. Constitution was adopted on 17 September 1787 and Butler was among those who signed it. Other delegates from South Carolina who signed were John Rutledge (general and governor); Charles Coatesworth Pinckney (general) and another Charles Pinckney. During the convention, Pierce Butler often spoke from the floor regarding his positions on the various items up for discussion and debate. Some of the articles that Butler opposed included the election of a president by Congress, and he did not favor frequent elections of a president, favoring instead seven-year terms. He supported a president holding the power to declare war, and he favored state legislatures electing representatives to congress. He supported the two houses system (Senate and House of Representatives). Butler also held a position regarding senators that would not be popular during contemporary times: the concept that senators should serve without compensation. Others supported that too, including John Rutledge. Both South Carolina and Connecticut voted for the article. He also supported the concept “that the several States should be represented in the Senate in proportion to their wealth.” Butler held a similar position on the House, but he held yet another position that would be unacceptable during contemporary times. Butler believed that members of Congress should be restrained during their term in office, “excluding members of Congress from holding office during the term for which they were elected, and for one year afterwards.” Butler believed that the restrictions would eliminate someone who entered Congress to “obtain office for themselves or their friends.” South Carolina ratified the Constitution on 23 May 1788, to become the eighth state to join the union. However, Pierce Butler never attended the convention. Afterward, he was elected to the United States Senate, where he served three terms, but his positions continued to sometimes collide, as he was prone to change his mind and perplex his fellow senators. When Butler initially arrived in the Senate, he served as a Federal-

56 ist, but during 1795 (administration of John Adams), Butler switched allegiance to become aligned with the Democratic-Republicans (present day Democrats). Later, during the administration of James Madison, Butler again changed his affiliation and proclaimed that he was an independent. In addition, he and others raised adamant opposition to the Jay Treaty, negotiated by John Jay during the postwar period when Britain rejected demands that they abandon the forts on the frontier and the British still pressed Americans into Royal service. Others, including the president, George Washington, supported Senate ratification, which occurred during June 1795. Washington prevailed, but the treaty only postponed an inevitable conflict. During 1802, upon the death of John Ewing Calhoun, Butler was returned to the Senate to fill the unexpired term. He retired during 1805 and was succeeded by John Gaillard. Meanwhile, Butler had acquired a summer home in the vicinity of Philadelphia while he was a member of the Continental Army, but subsequent to the end of his political career, he relocated in Philadelphia, reportedly to be close to his daughter, who had married a doctor who practiced in Philadelphia. Pierce Butler, officer in the British Army and officer in the American militia, was described by some of his peers as an “eccentric.” He remained in Philadelphia for the remainder of his life and continued to expand his wealth. He died during 1822 and was interred there in the cemetery of Christ Church. Pierce Butler and is wife, Mary Middleton Butler, had several children, all daughters. Lacking a male heir to carry on the family name, Butler concocted a way to carry his name forward. His daughter who married a physician resided in Philadelphia. Pierce stipulated in his will that her children would assume their grandfather’s name (Butler), to ensure the family name would be carried forward through the generations. Pierce Butler was godfather, while Sarah Purcell stood as godmother, at the Baptism of the child of a family friend, Alexander Gillon, who was baptized on 21 May 1795. The Rev. Henry Purcell baptized the baby and also stood as his godfather.

Butler, Brigadier General Richard Richard Butler was the oldest son of Thomas and Eliner Butler. There is some confusion as to his place of birth. Richard’s parents were from Ireland and married there in 1742. Some nineteenth century historians, such as F.P. Blair, stated that three of Thomas’ children — Richard, William and Thomas—were born in Ireland prior to the family establishing residence in the vicinity of Carlisle, Pennsylvania. Another author of that time, the Rev. Doctor J.A. Murray, stated in the Historical Register of January 1883, “The Butlers of Cumberland Valley,” that all five brothers were born in America. The Reverend Murray, apparently referring to the family Bible, related that “Richard began taking up land near Conewago, May 17, 1743.” From there, according to the same author, the family moved to West Pennsboro, in Cumberland County, and each son was born in Pennsylvania: Richard (b. 1 April 1743); William (b. 6 January 1745); Thomas (b. 28 May 1748); Eleanor (b. about 1754); Percival (b. 6 April 1760) and Edward (b. 20 March 1762). About 1770, Richard and his Richard Butler (Hidden Phase of Amerbrother William established a ican History, Michael J. O’Brien 1919)

CADWALADER

57 trading business near Fort Pitt in present-day Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. During 1774, Virginia and Pennsylvania began to squabble over where the border was to be drawn, with the Virginia claiming territory that eventually remained as part of Pennsylvania. Lord Dunmore, governor of Virginia, claimed the region and actually seized Fort Pitt and renamed it Fort Dunmore. Richard Butler was among those Pennsylvanians who raised troops in opposition to a force of Virginians under John Connolly, who became temporary commandant of the fort. When war with Britain erupted, Richard’s experience with the Indians, gained by his years of trading among them, aided him as Indian commissioner and as captain of a Pennsylvania regiment. On 20 May 1776, Congress acknowledged his service and recognized the conflict of his position as commissioner with the following resolution: “Whereas Captain Richard Butler, by accepting the office of Agent in the Middle Department of Indians, has lost the opportunity of being appointed a Captain in the Continental service; Resolved, That Congress will, as soon as possible, compensate for that disappointment to him, by some promotion in their service.” Shortly thereafter, on 20 July, Congress, at the behest of the Pennsylvania convention, appointed Richard Butler as major of a battalion to be raised in western Pennsylvania for the defense of the frontier. On 12 March 1777 he was promoted to lieutenant colonel. Also in 1777, Butler served in Daniel Morgan’s rifle corps in New Jersey and afterward at Saratoga, the latter during the campaign against General John Burgoyne, who surrendered his army in October. During the following month, Butler was advanced to the rank of colonel and directed to repair to New Jersey. Afterward, he received command of the 9th Pennsylvania Regiment. Colonel Butler was with the army when General Anthony Wayne stormed Stony Point, and he was with Wayne when some instigators in the Pennsylvania Line caused a shortlived mutiny. Wayne was aided by Butler during the incident. Both officers were highly respected by the troops of the Pennsylvania Line. Colonel Butler also served in the 5th Pennsylvania Regiment (1781) and the 3rd Pennsylvania (1783). During the Yorktown Campaign, Colonel Butler was a participant, and after Cornwallis surrendered, a dispute developed when General Steuben was reluctant to be relieved by Lafayette’s division because Steuben wanted to plant the flag. George Washington and Lafayette, having decided that they would not raise the flag, gave the honor to a Pennsylvanian, Ebenezer Denny. At the appointed time, as the ensign moved to plant the flag, Steuben moved ahead and clasped the flag and planted it, to the dismay of Colonel Butler, who considered Steuben’s actions insulting to his Pennsylvania troops. The quarrel nearly turned into a duel, but intervention by Washington and others, the duel was prevented. Colonel Butler received the rank of brevet brigadier general during September 1783 in accordance with a resolution which directed that officers under the rank of major general, as of 1777, be advanced one rank by brevet. Subsequent to the close of hostilities, General Butler was appointed as a commissioner (one of six) charged with negotiating a treaty with some Indian tribes, including the Six Nations. Following that successful assignment, General Butler received another congressional appointment. He became superintendent of Indian Affairs (Northern District). The Pennsylvania government also made use of Butler’s skills. During 1788, the Supreme Executive Council selected him as lieutenant of Allegheny County. Later, General Butler was appointed a justice of the Court of Common Pleas (Allegheny County) and at that time, he resigned his post as lieutenant. During 1791, General Butler was recalled to federal service and awarded the rank of major general. He was selected as second in command to General St. Clair for the campaign against the Indians on the western frontier. General Butler was among the fatalities when Arthur St. Clair’s army was devastated on 4 November 1791 in the vicinity of Fort Recovery

in Ohio. General Butler was constantly at the forefront of the combat and led successive charges, but he became wounded multiple times while commanding the right wing of the army. General Butler took time to receive medical aid, but while he was being treated, an Indian closed upon him and crashed his head with a tomahawk. Butler was able to liquidate the attacker; however, the tomahawk inflicted a mortal blow. Another army under General Anthony Wayne moved against the Indians and terminated the threat. The Indians were thrashed at the Battle of Fallen Timbers, and the frontier became more tranquil. Years later, one of the chiefs at the battle visited General Butler’s widow and handed her a medal (Society of the Cincinnati) that was on General Butler when he was killed. The chief also informed Mrs. Butler that the general was neither scalped nor desecrated, despite stories to the contrary. The location of the general’s burial place remains unknown. Stories have been handed down that told of General Butler’s body being later identified, then removed to a location near Fort Recovery and interred there. All four of General Butler’s brothers — William, Thomas, Percival and Edward — served during the Revolution, with the youngest, Edward, bringing up the rear when he entered service during 1778 as an ensign in the 9th Pennsylvania Regiment. The five Butlers received high praises from General Washington and others for their meritorious service for their country. Thomas was studying law with James Wilson at the time war broke out, but he dropped his law books and picked up a sword. By war’s end he had risen to the rank of captain in command of a company. Thomas and Edward were both in St. Clair’s campaign of 1791, when Richard was killed. Thomas had his leg shattered, but still mounted his horse and led a charge. Edward narrowly escaped injury as he struggled to get his wounded brother off the field on that fateful day, 4 November 1791. Subsequently, Thomas commanded Fort Pitt during the time of the Whiskey Rebellion, and his leadership prevented the insurgents from gaining the fort. Lt. Colonel Thomas Butler was charged by enemies of wrongdoing and received a court-martial, but the charges were proven erroneous and he was acquitted, to keep the family honor sterling.

Cadwalader, Major General John John Cadwalader, the son of Doctor Thomas and Hannah Lambert Cadwalader, was born in Trenton, New Jersey, during 1742. John’s parents, who were married in Europe while Thomas was furthering his studies in medicine, had seven other children: Anne (died young); Martha; Lambert; Mary (married General Philemon Dickinson); Rebecca (became second wife of General Philemon Dickinson); Margaret; and Elizabeth. The Cadwaladers, originally from Philadelphia, moved to New Jersey about 1739 and remained there until John was about eight years old, then returned to Philadelphia. John attended Philadelphia Academy and College beginning in 1760, but according to the school (University of Pennsylvania), John did not graduate. He entered the importing business with his brother Lambert and in 1768 married Elizabeth Lloyd, the daughter of Colonel Edward Lloyd of Talbot, Maryland, an affluent Marylander and the son of the seventh royal governor of Maryland, Edward Lloyd. Shortly thereafter, the business was closed. John and Elizabeth resided in a home in the vicinity of 2nd and Spruce Streets, which was purchased by Elizabeth’s father. They had three children, Anne, Elizabeth and Maria. Shortly after the birth of her third child, Maria, in February 1776, Elizabeth succumbed. In the meantime, the colonies were challenged by policies of the Crown and Parliament, and the relationship had been on a rapid decline since the enactment of the Stamp Act and others that followed, including the Boston Port Act. By about 1774, Cadwalader had been in preparation for whatever course was taken by the colonies. He raised a unit, known by several names, including Philadelphia Troop, the “Greens” and the “Silk Stocking Company.” The company was built

CAMPBELL into a formidable unit of highly skilled troops that Cadwalader trained at his residence. The spark that ignited open rebellion occurred in battles at Lexington and Concord on 19 April 1775. Shortly after word reached Philadelphia, Cadwalader was appointed colonel of the 3rd Battalion of Volunteers (Philadelphia Associators). By that time, John had also, through his father-in-law, become a close friend of General George Washington. During January 1776, the Pennsylvania council directed Cadwalader to gather and distribute arms to the Marines with the fleet. On 29 October, Congress directed Colonels Cadwalader and Bayard to provide a military escort for a congressional committee charged with investigating an incident in Bristol in which secret papers were stolen. Later, on 16 November at the Battle of Fort Washington, a contingent of Colonel Cadwalader’s command was holding steadfastly against a Hessian force, but the overwhelming numbers of the enemy took the advantage and many of the Patriots were bayoneted, despite attempts to surrender. On 3 December 1776, the militia in Philadelphia was split into three battalions, with John Cadwalader in command of one of the battalions and the other two placed under the command of Colonels John Bayard and Lt. Colonel John Nixon. Two days later, Cadwalader advanced with the vanguard of his force to bolster General Washington, who at the time was being bulldozed in New Jersey and pressured to hurriedly march toward Pennsylvania to avoid destruction. On 7 December, a dispatch intercepted Cadwalader with orders from Washington that instructed Cadwalader to pause at Trenton to await the arrival of the trailing elements of his brigade. Afterward, Cadwalader dispatched a contingent to protect the crossing at Dunks Ferry and another unit was sent to Bordentown, New Jersey. By that time the British had repaired bridges that spanned the Delaware, and Washington was convinced the British were en route to seize Philadelphia. Cadwalader established headquarters at Bristol, Pennsylvania. While there, Washington sent word to Cadwalader requesting that Marines supporting him be dispatched back to Philadelphia to enable the Delaware to move to open seas. On Christmas Day, during the evening, Washington crossed the Delaware to surprise the British at Trenton, but some of his contributing forces (Cadwalader’s and James Ewing’s) failed to cross. Cadwalader made an attempt, but the chance of losing the artillery in the unruly river prompted him to pull back, but Ewing did not attempt to cross. Nevertheless, Washington scored a spectacular victory at Trenton and followed that with another success at Princeton on 3 January 1777. Meanwhile, Colonel Cadwalader was with Washington at the Second Battle of Trenton on 2 January, and he participated at Princeton. At the latter, Cadwalader’s force was composed of militia, Marines and Pennsylvania riflemen assigned the area along Quaker Road in the vicinity of a bridge that dominated the main route running from Trenton to Princeton. During February 1777, Cadwalader, who had been previously appointed brigadier general of militia, was one of ten men appointed by Congress as brigadier general; however, Cadwalader declined the appointment. He preferred to remain with his militia. General Cadwalader, as commander of Pennsylvania militia, participated in the defense of Philadelphia during 1777, including the Battle of Brandywine and others that occurred prior to the continental Army establishing winter headquarters at Valley Forge. During the following year, on 28 June, General Cadwalader participated in the Battle of Monmouth. On 10 September, General Cadwalader was again promoted by Congress, which resolved “that a commission be granted to John Cadwalader, Esq. appointing him brigadier and commander of the cavalry in the service of the United States.” Cadwalader, in a letter to Congress, dated 9 September, again declined the appointment, explaining that he thought the war would soon be terminated.

58 John’s brother, Lambert, also served during the war, but he was a colonel in the continental service. Nevertheless, when he offered his resignation on 22 January 1779, Congress accepted it. Earlier, in July 1778, General Cadwalader, who supported General Washington during the conspiracy (Conway Cabal) designed to replace him, engaged in a duel (4 July 1778) with General Thomas Conway and prevailed. Conway, believing he was near death, contacted Washington by letter to apologize for anything he (Conway) had “done, written or said any thing disagreeable to your excellency. My career will soon be over, therefore justice and truth prompt me to declare my last sentiments....” Subsequent to declining the appointment as brigadier general of cavalry, General Cadwalader essentially terminated his field duty. He again married, taking Williamina Bond as his wife, and from that marriage, three children were born, John, Thomas and Frances. General Cadwalader also moved to Maryland, where he served several terms in legislature. He died on 10 February 1786 after coming down with pneumonia while hunting in Shrewsbury, Maryland. Some sources list his death as 11 February, but most nineteenth century sources, including a Baltimore paper published just after his death, give the date as 10 February. A death notice was published in a Baltimore paper on the 24th described General Cadwalader’s character and what a terrible loss the community suffered at his passing. He was interred in Shrewsbury Cemetery (Kent County), Maryland. John’s widow and his two surviving children from his second marriage, Thomas and Frances, returned to Philadelphia. Also, Anne, a child from John’s first marriage, married Robert Kemble, and their only child married General William Sumner (Massachusetts). Elizabeth became the wife of Archibald McCall of Philadelphia. Their son, George, later became General George A. McCall. Maria, the youngest, married General Samuel Ringgold of Maryland. From John’s second marriage, his daughter Frances (Fanny) married David Montague, the son of Lord Erskine. Thomas later married Mary Biddle.

Campbell, Brigadier General William William Campbell, the son of Charles and Margaret Buchanan Campbell, was born in Augusta County (previously Orange County), Virginia, in 1745. William’s father, Charles Campbell, arrived in the colonies from Ireland with his father, John Campbell, about 1726. His mother was the daughter of John Buchanan, Sr. At the time, John Campbell, with a large family of about five boys and a few girls, settled in the vicinity of Lancaster, Pennsylvania, but later John and some members of his family relocated in Virginia. Among those who moved to Virginia were David, Patrick and Robert, with Patrick becoming the father of Charles, who in turn was the father of General William Campbell. William’s father died on 17 March 1767 and his will (dated August 1761) provided for his widow, his daughters and William, the latter receiving 1,000 acres along the Holston River. Charles’ daughters were: Elizabeth (married John Taylor); Jane (married Thomas Tate); Margaret (married her second cousin, Colonel Arthur Campbell) and Ann (married Richard Poston). Subsequent to the passing of Charles, his only son, William, and the family moved to the plantation on the river in Augusta County (later Washington County). Later, William married Elizabeth Henry, the sister of Patrick Henry. During 1774, William Campbell was a participant in the campaign against the Indians in the Ohio Valley that included the Battle of Point Pleasant, in which the militia prevailed without the help of Lord Dunmore, who never arrived to bolster General Andrew Lewis. Campbell commanded a company during the campaign, known as Dunmore’s War. Lord Dunmore was able to consummate a treaty (Treaty of Camp Charlotte) to end the hostilities. Lord Dunmore found himself without authority following the battles of Lexington and Concord during April 1775. Campbell was with the Patriot forces that prevailed at Great Bridge on 9 December 1775. With the rank of captain, he was involved that

59 year in raising the initial troops for the Virginia regulars. During 1776, Campbell was appointed lieutenant colonel of militia (Washington County). Later, Evan Shelby resigned and Campbell was promoted to colonel in his place. Colonel Campbell led a contingent (the Overmountain Men) which was part of the force under Colonel Isaac Shelby and Colonel Elijah Clark that sped to support General Nathanael Greene against Cornwallis. On September 30, 1780, the column arrived at Quaker Meadows (home of Charles McDowell’s brother Joseph) on the Catawba near Morgantown, North Carolina. The force of about 700 men and some additional militia participated at the Battle of Kings Mountain and at Guilford Court House. Shelby, Campbell and Clarke engaged the Loyalists under Major Patrick Ferguson at Kings Mountain on 7 October. Ferguson had recently issued an ultimatum to Shelby, threatening that if the Overmountain Men “did not desist to the opposition to the British arms, he would march his army over the mountains, hang their leaders, and lay their country to waste, with fire and sword.” Shelby and the others made the trip unnecessary, once they arrived at Kings Mountain, which is near the North Carolina and South Carolina border. The patriots gained a decisive victory and Ferguson (“Bull Dog”), who had described the mountain men as “mongrel back-water men,” was killed at the battle. The victory prevented General Lord Charles Cornwallis from launching an invasion into North Carolina. Ferguson, known for his trait of using a silver whistle, died while leaning against a tree, with his whistle dangling. The main American commanders in addition to Campbell were Colonels Isaac Shelby, John Sevier, Benjamin Cleveland, Charles McDowell, Joseph Winston, William Hill, Edward Lacey and Brigadier General James Williams. On 3 November 1780, Congress, having been informed of the victory at Kings Mountain, stated that it entertained “a high sense of the bravery spirited and good military conduct of Colonels Campbell, Shelby, Cleveland, Williams, Sevier and McDowell and Major Winston. Colonel Campbell and the officers and privates of the militia under their command, in the displayed action of the 7 of October, in which a compleat victory was obtained over superior numbers of the enemy, advantageously posted on King’s Mountain, in the State of North Carolina; and that this resolution be published by the commanding officer of the southern army, in general orders.” During the following month, the Virginia legislature, in recognition of the extraordinary actions of Colonel Campbell, promoted him to the rank of brigadier general of militia. Colonel Campbell was also given a horse, saddle, and a sword from the Virginia legislature. Nevertheless, Colonel Campbell resigned his commission on 20 March 1781. Afterward, for a short while, Campbell served in the House of Delegates representing Washington County. Later, due to the threat of Cornwallis in Virginia, General Campbell, greatly respected for his skill as a military officer, was recalled into the service to support the Marquis de Lafayette. Cornwallis was also respectful of Campbell’s abilities. Earlier, during the southern campaign, Cornwallis put a price on his head. General Campbell participated in the Yorktown Campaign, but for a short period. He became ill and was taken to Lafayette’s headquarters, where he died of natural causes on 22 August 1781. Lafayette announced Colonel Campbell’s death and stated that he was “an officer whose services must have endeared him to every citizen, and in particular to every American soldier. The glory which General Campbell acquired in the battles of King’s Mountain and Guilford Court House will do his memory an everlasting honor, and insure him a high rank among the defenders of liberty in the American cause.” General Campbell was initially interred at Rocky Mills in Hanover County, Virginia. In 1823, his remains were re-interred at the family plantation, Aspenvale. General Campbell was survived by his widow, Elizabeth, and their two children, Sarah Buchanan (b. 1778, married

CARROLL General Francis Preston) and Charles Henry (b. February 1780, d. October, 1785). Elizabeth Campbell remarried (General William Russell) during 1783.

Carroll, Charles of Carrollton (Signer of the Declaration of Independence) Charles Carroll was born at Annapolis, Maryland on 8 September 1737 (the date of birth is listed in a letter from Charles of Annapolis to his son, dated 10 October, 1753). Charles Carroll’s ancestors, initially O’Connor, originated in Ireland and formed part of the royalty that comprised the lords and princes of Ely and the kings of Munster. Charles’ ancestors also married into the prominent Irish Houses of Ormond and Desmond, as well as Argyll in Scotland. Carroll’s paternal grandfather, also named Charles, immigrated to Maryland in 1689, after William and Mary ascended to the throne to terminate the reign of James II. Charles departed England after having lost his property (Ballymacadam Castle) near the monastery of Leitir Luna. He arrived in the colonies during October that year and afterward prospered. Charles, known as Charles the immigrant or the settler, was the first attorney general of Maryland, commissioned by Lord Baltimore. However, afterward Maryland underwent a transformation. Puritans who were driven out of Virginia settled in Maryland and other Puritans from New England joined them. Consequently, by 1680, the Catholic population was outnumbered by Protestants by about thirty to one. The Puritans who had been driven to Maryland to avoid persecution gained power and began to persecute the Catholics. Charles (settler) married a twice widowed woman, Martha Ridgely Underwood (St. Mary’s County), who at the time of the marriage had become quite wealthy. Martha succumbed during November 1690 during childbirth and the baby died several days later. Charles married Mary Darnall, the young teenage daughter of Colonel Henry Darnall of Portland Manor on the Eastern Shore near St. Mary’s. Charles and Mary had ten children; five did not survive. During 1691 Charles was appointed as judge and as register of the land office as well as being Charles Calvert’s (3rd Lord Baltimore) agent, with authority to collect the rents. Charles (settler), again permitted to own land, received a grant known as Carroll’s Forest in Prince George County and later acquired another grant (Ely O’Connor) in Baltimore County during 1689. In addition, he received two other grants, Leitir Luna, also in Baltimore County, during 1695, and soon after, a large estate in Elk Ridge, Maryland (Anne Arundel County). Nonetheless, fortunes for the Carrolls and all the other Catholics in Maryland became bleak during 1689, when the Protestants overthrew Lord Baltimore’s government. During 1702, Charles (of Annapolis), the father of Charles of Carrollton, was born. He married a close relative, Elizabeth Brook (Brooke), the daughter Clement Brooke and Jane Sewall. Of the three sons, Henry, the oldest, lost his life at sea (10 April 1719) while en route back to America after going there to receive his education. Their two other sons were Charles, Jr. (of Annapolis), born on 2 April 1702, Charles Carroll (Biographical Sketches and Daniel, born 30 October of the Signers of the Declaration of 1707. By 1704, it became proIndependence, Benson J. Lossing, 1854)

CARROLL hibitive for a Catholic priest to celebrate Mass, and a reward of 100 pounds was offered to anyone who caught a priest celebrating a Mass and such priest was convicted. The penalty was death. Catholics were also forbidden from educating the youth, from owning property or sending their children to Europe for an education. If they already owned property, they were forced to pay double taxes. The vast holdings of the Carroll family expanded his property, including Clynmalyra and Doughoregan Manor. During 1715, the 3rd Lord Baltimore succumbed and afterward the province reverted back to the proprietary government under his successor, Benedict Leonard Calvert, 4th Lord Baltimore, who relinquished his Catholicism for the Church of England. Charles’ commission, dated 1716, included the post of naval officer, which permitted him to appoint naval officers and land surveyors, but during 1717, the government prohibited any remaining privileges of Catholics. Charles (settler) succumbed during 1720, leaving a huge estate that included property in the Anne Arundel, Baltimore, Charles, Kent, Prince George’s, St. Mary’s and Somerset counties in Maryland and other property in Westmoreland County, Virginia. At the time, his son, Charles of Annapolis, was still in Europe continuing his education. He returned during 1723 and his brother Daniel (of Duddington) returned the following year. Daniel died in 1734, the same year his sister Eleanor died. Charles of Annapolis, like his father, was able to prosper in property and other ventures. Charles rarely felt the wrath of the Protestant laws due to his high position and the respect he had gained in the province. He was able to expand his holdings and invest in other ventures, including a large interest in the Patapsco Iron Works, founded by a distant relative, Doctor Charles Carroll, the father of Charles Carroll, the barrister. Charles of Carrollton, born during 1737, spent only the early years of his youth in America. Initially, Charles was educated by Jesuits at Bohemia Harmon Manor, which was earlier founded by Father Mansell. Afterward he left the family estate when his parents sent him to Europe to receive his education from the Jesuits. Charles and his cousin John (later Archbishop John Carroll of Baltimore) attended a Jesuit college in St. Orner’s, France (Artois Province), about twenty miles outside of Calais, beginning in 1748, when Charles was about eleven. After completing his studies there, Charles furthered his education, still in France, at the Jesuit college at Rheims, and from there he moved to the college of Louis Le Grand (graduate school). He spent two years there before transferring to Bourges to study civil law for one year. Not yet finished, Carroll moved to Paris and spent another year at a college there before crossing the English Channel to further his law studies in London at the Middle Temple. Following about seventeen years in Europe, he returned to Maryland during 1765 to be rejoined with his father. While Charles was in London, his mother had died on 12 March 1761 from an illness that lasted more than two years. At the time, tension was building between Britain and the colonies. At some point after Charles returned home, he received the estate of Carrollton in the vicinity of Adamstown from his father. While in Europe, Charles, whom his father called Charley, also learned to speak French and German, which later became an asset when Baron von Steuben arrived at Valley Forge to train the Continental Army. During September 1765, writing in reaction to the Stamp Act, Charles noted: “Should the stamp act be enforced by a tyrannical parliament our property, our liberty, our very existence would be at an end.” During the following year, Charles anticipated marriage with his cousin, Rachel Cooke, during May; however, Rachael was severely stricken with fever and the wedding was postponed until the following November, with a scheduled date of the 10th, but again she came down with fever, preventing their wedding. Shortly thereafter, on 25 November, Rachel died. During the following year, in a letter to a friend, Charles wrote: “Hope springs eternal in the human heart.” He was informing his friend of his plans for getting married.

60 Two years later, Charles Carroll married another cousin, Mary Darnall, who had the identical name to his grandmother. She was the daughter of Henry Darnall and Elinor Hatton Brooke Darnall (widow of Major Thomas Brooke). They were married on 5 June 1768, and the event was afterward noted in the Maryland Gazette: “On Sunday evening was married at his father’s house, Charles Carroll, Jr., to Miss Mary Darnall, an agreeable young lady endowed with every accomplishment necessary to make the connubial state happy.” In Maryland, the education of Catholics had been prohibited; Catholics were “under the ban of disfranchisement.” In addition, all citizens in Maryland, including every faith and those without any faith, were taxed to support the Church of England. It was that particular tax that ignited Carroll’s sentiments to raise high opposition; however, due to being a Catholic, he had not publicly spoken, nor did he give public advice. At that time, during 1774, articles in favor of the tax were published by the Maryland Gazette, which often published opposing views with that of the people being the First Citizen and that of the government being the Second Citizen. The attorney general, Daniel Dulany (Dulaney), published his favorable articles with the name Antillon and had a slight sense of arrogance, believing that his reasons and arguments for support of the governor’s tax were invulnerable. The dueling letters were published at several week intervals from 7 January through 1 July 1773. Nevertheless, Carroll responded and essentially blew holes into all of the proponents’ arguments and proved the tax to be invalid. His letters ignited a sense of excitement among the people throughout the province as they became more curious as to who signed their name the “First Citizen” on the four devastating articles. The governor was compelled to repeal his proclamation and the citizens celebrated by giving it a mock funeral. Dulany, considered the finest and brightest attorney in Maryland, after discovering Carroll’s identity, attempted to discredit him due to his Catholic faith, but the scheme failed miserably. Charles Carroll, in the meantime, had been brought to the forefront of the Patriots in opposition, as he started to receive accolades from all across the province for his stand. During the First Continental Congress, Carroll was not a delegate, but he did go to Philadelphia. He met John Adams, who described him that day in his diary: “One Mr. Carroll of Maryland, a Roman Catholic but an ardent patriot and a man of one of the very first fortunes in the colonies.” Although Charles was not a member of the Congress during 1774, back in Maryland he had been appointed to the Committee of Correspondence and the Committee of Safety, and subsequent to the close of the Congress, he returned to his responsibilities there. The next year he was a delegate of Anne Arundel County at the convention held at Annapolis on 7 December. During the following February 1776, Charles Carroll, along with Samuel Chase, Benjamin Franklin and Father John Carroll (Charles’ cousin, and later Archbishop Carroll) were selected by the Continental Congress to travel to Canada to solicit the support of the Catholic French Canadians in the opposition to the British Crown, a mission which failed to bring about the inclusion of the French. They arrived in Canada after the defeat of Richard Montgomery and Benedict Arnold at Quebec on 29 April. During their stay there, Franklin became ill, prompting him to depart on 11 May. Some letters written by John Jay that contained derogatory remarks about the French Canadian Catholics also contributed to the failure of the mission. From Montreal, the party moved to St. John’s, where they met with General John Sullivan, and from there to Saratoga, where they conferred with General Philip Schuyler before traveling to New York to confer with General George Washington. From there they arrived back in Philadelphia on 10 June. Although it is not widely known, Charles Carroll became a close friend of Franklin and of General Washington,

61 the latter having already become a friend of Charles’ family, most probably because of Charles’ (of Annapolis) affairs with the Clinton Iron Works in Virginia. Carroll’s connections in France became a great asset for Franklin. With regard to Washington, Carroll was constantly relied upon as a staunch ally and confidant, which originated through a relationship that began during 1760, when Charles of Annapolis (Charles Carroll’s father) handled a property, the plantation of William Clifton, and placed it for sale to satisfy creditors. The plantation in Fairfax County, Virginia, was purchased by Washington. However, Charles Carroll’s French connections were unable to totally suppress dissension against Catholicism. Even John Adams was concerned that the pope was in the shadows and John Jay had similar sentiments. Simultaneously, France was concerned that by helping the colonies to prevail over Britain, they would in effect be supporting the birth of a new, powerful Protestant nation. Nonetheless, Carroll inconspicuously continued to guide Franklin and General Washington in the quest to bring France into the war on the side of America. Later, the Maryland convention instructed its delegates to Congress not to approve of any declaration of independence without the approval of the convention; however, Carroll, a strong proponent of independence, and others with him succeeded in having the dictate removed on 28 June. Subsequent to that action, Carroll was elected on 4 July as a delegate to Congress and was seated on the 18th. On that day, John Adams, quite frugal with compliments for others, noted in his diary that John Carroll was “an excellent member whose education, manners and application to business and to study did honor to his fortune, the first in America.” Meanwhile, the day after he took his seat in Congress, he was appointed to the Board of War. On 2 August, he signed the Declaration of Independence, adding “of Carrollton” to his signature. Although the Declaration was adopted on the Fourth of July, at that time only John Hancock signed, due to the great risks to their lives. Thirty-five more added their names beginning on 2 August. Someone had remarked to John Hancock that he hadn’t signed, and he responded that because he signed the original document on the Fourth of July, “I incur no responsibility in signing this copy.” Then he glanced at Charles Carroll and said: “Mr. Carroll, have you any objections to signing?” and received the response: “Not the least.” By 2 September, all but two had signed the document and afterward, during December, one of the two remaining men signed, leaving only John Dickinson, who declined to add his signature, due to his religious beliefs as a Quaker that it would lead to war. Back in Maryland, the new convention convened on 14 August. Carroll arrived there on the 17th and played a prominent role in designing the new government. The Constitution was adopted on 8 November; a governor, Thomas Johnson, was elected on the 11th, and on the following day, Charles Carroll was selected as one of five “councellors.” Charles Carroll, barrister, a cousin of Charles of Carrollton, was also a member of the convention, but he resigned and was afterward sent to Congress, but he did not sign the Declaration of Independence. Charles Carroll of Carrollton, a member of the Board of War, terminated his service in Congress during November 1776, with his final day being the 10th. Afterward, he returned to Maryland and became a member of his state’s first Senate; however, during the following year, he returned to Congress. During that time, he was one of the committee members dispatched to Valley Forge in response to what turned out to be erroneous complaints (Conway Cabal) against General Washington. Prior to the investigation, the number of members of the Board of War had been increased and suddenly, political adversaries of Washington were in positions of power. Generals Horatio Gates and Thomas Mifflin became members and Gates was made president of the board. Carroll quickly sensed the danger to Washington, particularly when

CARROLL John Adams, Sam Adams and Doctor Benjamin Rush were aligned with the conspirators. The plot began to unfold during October of 1777 and Carroll traveled to Valley Forge to confer with Washington; he would make several other trips there. At one point, Doctor Rush approached Carroll to solicit his help and support in the move to arrest Washington and place Gates in command, but Carroll flatly refused and remained loyal, along with Governeur Morris and others, ensuring failure of the plot. Carroll was also keenly aware of the conspirators’ methods of promoting General Conway, an Irishman who had served with the French, to the rank of major general to further the conspiracy against Washington, but he blocked the promotion. Conway became increasingly bitter, but the attempt to oust Washington could not get past Carroll. Later, Conway, believing he was going to die, wrote a letter to General Washington that contained an apology for his participation in the plot. Charles Carroll also served on the Committee of Foreign Applications, which oversaw foreign officers in the Continental service. When Cornwallis surrendered at Yorktown during October 1781, Charles Carroll had been back in Maryland. After the great victory, Carroll always found solace and humor in the fact that the fears of the French and Catholicism had been unwarranted and he enjoyed relating that with the French army, which outnumbered the Americans at Yorktown, that about seventy percent of the men who gained the victory there were Roman Catholics. After the close of hostilities, British major general Robertson, while giving testimony at a hearing responding to a question, said: “I remember General (Charles) Lee telling me that half the rebel army were Irish Catholics.” Also, after the war, an ongoing animosity between John Adams and Charles Carroll became more intensified due to Adams’ resentment that Benjamin Franklin and Carroll, along with General Washington, had brought about the French support without him and, in fact, despite the obstacles put in place by him. In a letter to Alexander Hamilton, Carroll referred to the Federalists as “The Friends of Stability.” Nonetheless, both Carroll and Adams were Federalists. During 1782, Charles’ father took a severe fall from the porch and afterward died from the injuries. His wife, Mary, succumbed the following year from a short but gruelingly painful illness. During their marriage, they had seven children: Elizabeth (1769), Mary (1770), Louise Rachel (1772), Charles (of Homeland, 1775), Ann Brooke (1776), Catherine (1778) and Eliza (b. 1780, died three years later). Three reached adulthood: Mary married Richard Caton, Catherine married General Robert Goodloe Harper, and Charles of Homeland married Harriet Chew, the daughter of Pennsylvania Chief Justice Benjamin Chew. Charles Carroll of Carrollton’s career did not terminate with the end of the Revolution. He had not lost his fortune or his sacred honor, and he used both during his later years, as he had done during the conflict. Carroll contributed large sums of money to the cause and after the war remained positioned to continue using his wealth to help the growing nation. In Maryland, he was the sole person who had money to lend. He subsidized the creation of mills and the construction of roads, which helped Maryland move from its reliance on tobacco to other farm products, including wheat and corn. He was elected (1788) to the Maryland Senate subsequent to the birth of the U.S. Constitution. In 1791, he drew a two-year term in the U.S. Senate, but legislation by the U.S. Congress during 1792 prohibited anyone from serving in the U.S. Congress and a state legislature simultaneously. Charles resigned from Congress to continue serving in the Maryland Senate, where he held his seat until 1801. While in the Senate, he was a member of the committee charged with handling the dispute that existed between Maryland and Virginia with regard to the boundary line. In addition, he introduced a bill to bring about the end of slavery; however, it did not pass. In 1794,

CARROLL President George Washington, pursuant to Congressional action authorizing the establishment of the U.S. Navy, asked Charles Carroll to meet with him for consultation regarding the project. Afterward, Washington, on the suggestion of Carroll, sent for Captain John Barry and Andrew Ellicott, a surveyor general at West Point. Another, Joshua Fox (An English shipbuilder), a relative of Ellicott, visiting at the time, was suggested by General Knox, and he too was added to the committee. With Washington, they laid the blueprint for the U.S. Navy. It is thought that the long-lasting friendship between Charles Carroll and Commodore John Barry began during Charles’ voyage home from England, but there is no documentation to verify that Barry was an officer aboard the vessel that transported Charles back to Maryland. The assumption is drawn from when Barry traveled to Annapolis to seek his friend Charles to give him assistance in getting a commission in the Continental Navy. Charles was not politically active in any way during the War of 1812. He had lost interest in politics upon the election of Thomas Jefferson. Charles had supported Aaron Burr. He was the final survivor of those who signed the Declaration of Independence, having outlived two others, John Adams and Thomas Jefferson, both of whom died on the fiftieth anniversary of the adoption of the Declaration of Independence, 4 July 1826. At that time, Congress had ordered 250 specially engraved copies as part of the celebration, with two copies being reserved for each living member who had signed the original and two copies for each family of the respective member who signed. With the deaths of Jefferson and John Adams on the day of the celebration, only Charles Carroll remained alive when the copies were finished during September of that year. A committee from Congress delivered the copies to him. Charles Carroll also became a director of the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad (1827), and in conjunction with that endeavor, he laid the foundation stone on the Fourth of July 1828 in what became his final public act. In addition, Carroll was a member of a committee appointed by the Maryland Assembly for the Potomac Company. The company was formed earlier, but the war interrupted the plan to open up the Potomac River waterway and extend the navigation lanes. A new Potomac Company was established to renew the project. Thomas Stone and Samuel Hughes were the other Maryland members who worked in cooperation with the Virginia members appointed by that legislature. The project included the construction of an overland route of about 40 miles from the headwaters of the Chesapeake to the Ohio River. Although he aged considerably since his days in Philadelphia when he pledged his life, his fortune and his sacred honor, Charles Carroll still retained his charm and demeanor during his final years, and the white hair that flowed as well as the wrinkled brow still could not camouflage his congenial smile. Charles received the last rites and succumbed on 14 November 1832 at age 96, at his daughter’s house on Pratt Street in Baltimore, while he sat in a chair, with both daughters at his side as dusk was descending on that Wednesday afternoon. He was interred in the private chapel near the altar at Doughoregan Manor. Charles Carroll of Carrollton was a Democrat and Federalist. His grandfather was known as Charles the Settler; his son was known as Charles of Annapolis and the latter’s son was Charles of Carrollton. Also, Charles of Carrollton’s son, also named Charles was known as Charles Carroll of Homeland; he died during 1825. And Charles’ grandson, yet another Charles, was referred to as the Colonel. It was Charles the Colonel who inherited the family estate. Charles Carroll was a devout Catholic, as noted by his life and in many of his writings, including a letter to his son Charles, in which he stated: “The fear of the Lord, says the wise man, is the beginning of wisdom. Without virtue, there can be no happiness; and without religion no virtue; consider yourself as always in the presence of the Almighty. If this sentiment be strong and vivid, you will never sin or commit any action you would be ashamed to commit before man.” Among some

62 of Carroll’s final words that attest to his firm beliefs in God were: “I have lived to my ninety-sixth year.... I have enjoyed good health, I have been blessed with great wealth, prosperity, and most of the good things which the world can bestow — public approbation, esteem, applause; but what I look back on with the greatest satisfaction to myself is, that I have practiced the duties of my religion.” Sometimes Charles Carroll of Carrollton is confused with Charles Carroll, Barrister, his cousin. Both lived in the same area and both served in Congress; however, the former married Mary Darnall and the latter married Margaret Tilghman, the daughter of Matthew and Anna Lloyd Tilghman. The home in which Charles Carroll was born remains standing in Annapolis, Maryland, on Duke of Gloucester Street. Also, Charles’ cousin Daniel Carroll was a signer of the Constitution. (See also, Carroll, Daniel.)

Carroll, Daniel (Signer of the U.S. Constitution) Daniel Carroll, the son of Daniel, Sr., and Eleanor Darnall Carroll, was born in Maryland at Upper Marlboro on 22 July 1730. Daniel’s mother was the daughter of Henry Darnall of Woodyard (Eleanor was also a niece of Charles Carroll of Annapolis, the father of Charles Carroll of Carrollton). Daniel’s father was a descendant of Keane Carroll of Ireland. Daniel (2) was the cousin of Charles Carroll of Carrollton and the brother of John Carroll, a Catholic priest and later the first Catholic bishop in the United States. In addition to Daniel and John, Daniel’s parents also had one other son and four daughters: Henry (died young by drowning); John (b. 8 January 1735); Ann (married Robert Brent); Ellen (Eleanor, married William Brent of Virginia); Mary (married Notley Young to become his second wife) and Elizabeth (Betsy, unmarried). At the time of Daniel’s birth, Catholicism was prohibited in Maryland. The penalty for a priest saying Mass in Maryland was death, since Puritans, ousted from Virginia, settled in Maryland and afterward outnumbered Catholics, ending Catholicism in the colony that was founded to assure freedom of religion for Catholics. Nevertheless, the Carrolls, beginning earlier with Charles the Immigrant and Charles of Annapolis, had so firmly entrenched themselves and become so prominent and prosperous that the government closed its eyes. Teaching Catholicism was also prohibited in England and Catholics were forbidden from receiving an education there. Nonetheless, Daniel, after attending Bohemia Manor and being taught by Jesuit priests — like his cousins, Charles of Carrollton and Charles Barrister and his brother, John—traveled to Europe to further his studies, without receiving any repercussions. Daniel was sent to France during 1742 and was educated by Jesuit priests at St. Omer’s in Flanders. After completing his studies, he returned to Maryland in 1748. He married a relative, Eleanor Carroll, a sister of Mary Digges (married Ignatius Digges) and a first cousin of his cousin Charles Carroll of Carrollton. Daniel and Eleanor had two children, Daniel (married Elizabeth Digges) and Mary, but both predeceased their father. Daniel’s brother John, when a priest, was solicited to travel to Canada in a party that included Benjamin Franklin and Charles of Carrollton in an attempt to persuade the French Canadian Catholics s to join with the Americans in the struggle against Britain. The bigotry was not limited to Maryland, although other colonies were not as vicious as Maryland. Initially, Catholics were not permitted to join the army, nor were they permitted to hold public office; however, due to the crisis with Britain and the desperate need for troops as the war carried on, the strict rules against Catholicism simply faded away. Official action was taken in Maryland during 1776, when the restrictions of holding office were removed in the new state constitution. During 1776, Daniel’s cousin, Charles Carroll of Carrollton, was a member of Congress and a supporter of independence who signed the Declaration of Independence. Daniel never did enter the military, but he did lean toward the

63 Patriots’ cause. It was not with an abundance of enthusiasm at the start, but eventually he strengthened his position and became a dependable ally to General George Washington. During 1777, Daniel Carroll was elected to the legislature (Upper House) and served there until 1781. That year, Daniel was elected to the Continental Congress and signed the Articles of Confederation. He continued to serve in that body beyond the close of hostilities and the official peace during 1783, ending his service in Congress during 1784. Subsequently, Carroll was selected as a Maryland delegate at the Constitutional Convention in Philadelphia during 1787 (May–September), but problems developed when he became ill and unable to attend the initial sessions. Once he regained his health, Carroll repaired to Philadelphia in time to support the other proponents, including the Virginians James Madison and George Washington, in adopting the Constitution. Carroll strongly favored a central government that would be effective, but he also insisted that it be responsible to the citizens of the nation, not the legislatures. He stood against the election of a president by the Congress and fought from the floor to ensure that a president would have to be elected by the citizens. With regard to that position, a motion was in process to elect a president “by the legislature,” but Daniel immediately snapped an amendment to the motion, which would eliminate “legislature” and insert “people.” James Wilson, a delegate from Pennsylvania and a signer of the Declaration of Independence, quickly seconded the motion and it prevailed. Carroll also supported the Sixth Article of the Constitution, which included all members of Congress being bound by oath to support the Constitution and “no religious test shall ever be required as a Qualification to any Office or public Trust under the United States.” The article caused alarms to go off at various state conventions. Some, like Major Lusk of Massachusetts, “dreaded the liberty granted to those who were not Protestants, and shuddered at the idea that Roman Catholics, Papists, and Pagans might be introduced into office and that Popery and the Inquisition may be established in America.” The United States Constitution was adopted on 17 September 1787; nine states had to ratify it to make it effective. Maryland, with the aggressive support of Carroll, ratified on 28 April 1788, to become the seventh state to join the union. It was followed by South Carolina on 23 May, then by New Hampshire, which became the ninth state to ratify it on 21 June 1788. Samuel Chase, a member of the Continental Congress who signed the Declaration of Independence, was not a delegate at the Constitutional Convention, but he had become a devoted opponent to ratification of the Constitution. Daniel Carroll responded with a defense that was published in the Maryland Journal. Carroll afterward was elected to the first Congress under the authority of the Constitution. Following that, he returned to Maryland and was elected to the state Senate. Other public service included his appointment as a commissioner charged with surveying the District of Columbia tracts that were donated to the U.S. government for the purpose of establishing the nation’s capital on federal land. The agreement mandated that if the land at some point ceased being federal, the tracts would revert back to Virginia and Maryland. In addition, the federal capital was not to be represented in the House of Representatives or the Senate because it was not a state. At the completion of the surveying project by the three commissioners, Carroll was named a commissioner of the capital, which essentially made him co-mayor. He was unable to hold the post for a long period due to poor health. He retired during 1795, but his health and advancing years had taken a toll. Daniel Carroll died during the following year, one day after the nation celebrated the Fourth of July, on 5 July 1796 at Rock Creek (Forest Glen). His body was interred in the St. John’s Catholic Cemetery in Forest Glen, Maryland.

CASWELL With regard to his private career, he had become friends with General Washington, who was a very close friend of Charles Carroll of Carrollton, and the relationship led to Daniel becoming involved with Washington as a partner in an enterprise named the Patowmack Company (also spelled Potomac), which was formed to increase interstate commerce by connecting the middle states with a canal running along the Potomac River. (See also, Carroll, Charles of Carrollton.)

Caswell, Brigadier General (Governor) Richard Richard Caswell, the son of Richard, Sr., and Christian Caswell, was born in Maryland at Joppa less than twenty miles from Baltimore on 3 August 1729. When Richard was about sixteen, he and his brother William relocated in North Carolina in the vicinity of Kinston. The Caswell family apparently was well connected. Richard carried a letter of introduction from the governor of Maryland to Governor Gabriel Johnston. Later, during 1750, Richard was appointed deputy surveyor (1750) and in 1752, he became the clerk of Orange County. Also that year, Governor Johnston succumbed. At the time, the court system had been nearly non-existent and there was nearly no law and order. Caswell was appointed clerk of Orange County Court. In the meantime, according to the family Bible, on 22 April 1752, Richard married Mary Mackilwean, daughter of James Mackilwean. Mary had a baby girl on 15 September 1753, but there is no record of the baby’s name. On 24 September, the Caswells had a son, William, and on 4 February 1757, Mary had another daughter, unnamed in the Bible. Three days later, on 7 February 1757, Mary succumbed. Meanwhile, subsequent to completing his studies, Caswell was admitted to the bar and established a law practice in Hillsborough. Caswell had also entered politics (1754) and was elected to the colonial House of Delegates as a representative of Johnston County, and at times served as speaker. Richard remarried during the 1758, taking Sarah Herritage as his second wife on 20 June. Richard and Sarah (according to family Bible held in the North Carolina Archives) had the following children: Richard (b. 15 September 1759); Sarah (b. 26 February 1762); Winstone (b. 7 May 1764); Anna (b. 4 December 1766); Dallam (15 June 1769); John (b. 24 January 1772); Susannah (b. 16 February 1775); and Christian (7 January 1779). Christian, the last child, a boy, died two days after his birth. Meanwhile, Caswell had remained in the legislature and continued there until 1776. He was instrumental in rebuilding the court system by introducing a bill that divided the colony into five separate judicial districts. The governor at the time Caswell entered politics was Arthur Dobbs, successor to Johnston. Caswell also joined the militia and served as colonel with Governor William Tryon (succeeded Dobbs in 1765) against the Regulators at the Battle of Alamance (1771). After Tryon’s victory over the Regulators, he was transferred to New York and Josiah Martin became his successor as royal governor. Friction developed between Martin and Caswell, the latter being the speaker at the assembly. The assembly worked to void the new poll tax and Martin dissolved the assembly. Meanwhile, the court system remained in shambles. Martin, using his authority as governor, established courts in Oyer and Terminer. He appointed Richard Caswell, Martin Howard and Maurice Moore as judges. Martin later described Caswell as “a man of the fairest and most unblemished character in the whole country.” Nonetheless, Caswell had political enemies and they successfully plotted to ensure his defeat as treasurer, but only for a while, as he was eventually elected to the post. During 1774, the North Carolina convention elected Caswell, along with William Hooper and Joseph Hewes, as a delegate to the first Continental Congress scheduled to be held in Philadelphia in September 1774. The same delegates were again chosen to attend the Second Continental Congress in 1775. Caswell was en route to Philadelphia

CHAMBERLAINE during April of 1775 when the “shot heard round the world” was fired at Lexington, Massachusetts. Once informed, Caswell had been inspired to the cause. He penned a letter to his son, William, instructing him to raise a force composed of a company or multiple companies in Dobbs County: “Reject none who will not discredit the company. If I live to return I will most cheerfully join any of my countrymen, even as a rank and file man. As in the common cause I am here exposed to danger, but that or any other difficulties I shall not shun whilst I have blood in my veins, but freely offer it in support of the liberties of my country. You, my dear boy, must become a soldier and risk your life in support of those invaluable blessings which, once lost, posterity will never be able to regain.” Back in North Carolina, Governor Martin became acutely aware of the threat to the royal government, and his dim hope of gaining Caswell’s support was quickly dashed. During May of 1775, Governor Martin abandoned the state, to the dismay of Caswell, who at the time was considered the leader of the state. Shortly thereafter, a provincial congress (third) convened and Samuel Johnston was elected president. Caswell was elected chairman of Ways and Means and charged with forming a military force. In cooperation with a directive from Congress to raise a continental force of 1,000 men and six regiments of Minute Men, Caswell toiled to find the means to equip the force. In addition, he was made colonel of the Minute Men in his (Southern) district, and he was appointed again as treasurer. Caswell was also appointed to the secret committee established to acquire arms and ammunition. During February 1776, a Loyalist force, while en route to join with a British fleet, was devastated at Moore’s Creek Bridge, upsetting the plans of Governor Martin, who had anticipated regaining the colony. Militia under Caswell were in support of Colonel James Moore. After the defeat, the Highlanders scattered, leaving control of the colony to the Patriots. The British fleet sailed toward Charleston and failed to move to Virginia to aid Lord Dunmore. Richard Caswell, after the clash, became brigadier general of militia; Moore was commissioned brigadier general by Congress. The North Carolinians established a new government and Caswell became its first governor. He assumed office on Christmas Eve 1776, at the close of the Provincial Congress, of which Caswell was president, that had adopted the state’s constitution. As governor he served three terms (the limit) and was succeeded by Governor Abner Nash. Afterward, Caswell was appointed major general of militia. Initially Governor Nash intended to command the troops in support of General Horatio Gates against Cornwallis, but he acquiesced upon observing the popularity of Caswell. Consequently, General Caswell was with Gates at Camden on 16 August 1780, and it was under his command that the militia collapsed. Despite his attempts to re-form, the North Carolina militia fled. Caswell halted at Charlotte in a move to reorganize the force, then he left for Hillsborough to join with Gates, who fled the field while the battle was ongoing. Gates lost his military career following the devastating defeat and Caswell also suffered. General William Smallwood of Maryland was placed in command of the North Carolina militia over Caswell. Richard and his son, William, also a brigadier general, both resigned their commissions on 26 October 1780. During 1781, General Caswell returned to the general assembly and was responsible for the creation of a three-man committee (Council Extraordinary) to confer with the governor. The governor and a majority of two of the council received authority to take any steps necessary to protect the state. General Caswell, Alexander Martin and Allen Jones were appointed to the council. In addition, the legislature diplomatically covered the replacement of Caswell with Smallwood and reinstated Richard with the following resolution: “That Richard Caswell, Esq., be appointed a major-general, with the rank and pay of a majorgeneral in the Continental Army in a separate department, and that he be requested to take command and call on the several Continental

64 officers in this State not on duty, requiring them to assist in the immediate defense of the same, and to appoint them to such commands as he shall find necessary, which may tend to promote order and discipline in the militia, give satisfaction to the regular and not disgust to the militia officers.” In addition, William Caswell was again appointed brigadier general and assigned responsibility for the district of New Bern. All the while, the British and General Nathanael Greene were engaged in a game of wits, with Greene eventually prevailing. General Daniel Morgan scored a huge victory at Cowpens, and afterward Greene, although forced to retire at Guilford Court House, essentially ended Cornwallis’ hopes of regaining the Carolinas. He departed for Virginia, where he was check-mated by Lafayette and Washington with the support of the French during October 1781. Subsequent to Cornwallis’ capitulation, General Caswell was elected to the North Carolina Senate (April 1782), in what was the initial legislature to serve after the conflict. Richard’s son, William, gained a seat in the House. Caswell supported Alexander Martin for the post of governor. Consequently, Martin was elected, but for Caswell there were unintended consequences, as Martin’s performance received poor reviews, and much blame fell upon Caswell. Nevertheless, when the next election was held, Martin again was elected, beating out Caswell by fewer than twenty votes. Apparently, those first infuriated by Caswell’s recommendation of Martin preferred to retain him to spite Caswell. Nonetheless, Caswell became speaker of the Senate by unanimous vote. Following Martin’s second term, Richard Caswell, who proclaimed he was not going to be a candidate for governor, was nominated and the vote was unanimous. He again served three successive terms, the limit set by the Constitution. Governor Caswell suffered some grave personal losses. The fate of his son also named Richard remains unknown, but he was either lost at sea or seized by pirates. General Caswell also lost his first son, William, to an epidemic. The general sustained the blows, but his stamina never recovered and he continued to grieve. During his final year as governor, Winston, his youngest son, as personal secretary, handled most of the burden and frequently signed the correspondence. Toward the latter part of his term in office, General Caswell resumed his long-time yearning to relocate in Tennessee, known at the time as State of Franklin, but yet again, North Carolina called upon him after his term as governor ended. He returned to the Senate, was unanimously elected speaker and became an opponent of the federal Constitution, rejecting some of its content. North Carolina followed his line and initially rejected ratification. During 1789, he returned to the Senate and again assumed the position of speaker, but several days into the session, on 5 November, General Caswell sustained a stroke that caused paralysis and severely limited his faculties. On 10 November, he succumbed and word of his death was carried to the legislature. Arrangements for his funeral were handled by a committee while the remainder of the body adjourned. General Caswell’s body was transported to Kinston and he was interred there. No records of his exact burial place exist, which has created an ongoing discussion as to the correct site among several places handed down through tradition. In Kinston, a monument stands in his honor. Many honors of tribute were paid to the statesman general. One of those, by Nathaniel Bacon, has survived the ages. Bacon, who considered General Caswell a mentor, said: “Governor Caswell of Lenoir was one of the most powerful men that ever lived in this or any other country. As a statesman, his patriotism was unquestioned, his discernment was quick, his judgment sound: as a soldier, his courage was undaunted, his vigilance untiring, his success triumphant.”

Chamberlaine, Brigadier General James Lloyd James Chamberlaine, the son of Samuel and Henrietta Maria Lloyd Chamberlaine, was born on 10 October 1732 at Oxford, a small town

CHANDLER

65 along the eastern shore of Maryland. In addition to James Lloyd, Samuel and Henrietta had Thomas, Samuel, Henrietta Marie, Richard Lloyd (died young), and Ann. James’ mother, Henrietta, was the daughter of James and Ann Grundy Lloyd and the granddaughter of Colonel Philemon and Henrietta Maria Neale Lloyd. Henrietta was Samuel’s second wife. Initially, Samuel was married (April 1721) to Mary Ungle, the daughter and only child of Robert and Frances Ungle, and granddaughter of John and Margaret Pope. Henrietta’s grandparents had been among the initial settlers who established themselves at Oxford, Maryland, in the vicinity of the Tred Avon River, where they acquired tracts on both sides of the river. Samuel’s father-in-law died during 1727 and his mother-in-law, Frances Ungle, died during 1754, leaving a huge estate. Samuel was named executor along with his son Thomas. Frances Ungle left the bulk of the estate including the property to Samuel, and she bequeathed a substantial sum of money to each of Samuel’s children by his second wife, Henrietta Maria Chamberlaine, whom he married on 22 January 1729 after the death on 13 September 1726 of Mary Ungle Chamberlaine. James Chamberlaine married Henrietta Maria Robbins of Peach Blossom on 16 May 1757. He established himself as a merchant and his business prospered. After his second marriage, his wife’s wealth added to the family fortune, but in the process, while Chamberlaine’s business, particularly trading with merchants in the West Indies, his tastes became extravagant. Chamberlaine’s wealth increased further upon the death of his father, and his inheritance included his father’s plantation along the Wye River. Following the death of Henrietta’s mother, during 1771, James and Henrietta moved to Peach Blossom. James and Henrietta’s only son, Robbins, married twice, to Mary Cruickshanks of Philadelphia and then Catherine Blake. James and Henrietta also had two daughters, Henrietta Maria (married William Hayward, Jr., of Somerset County) and Margaret (married Colonel John Hughes of Harford County). Chamberlaine’s land holdings continued to increase, giving him additional property along the Choptank and Miles Rivers. James Chamberlaine served during the Revolutionary War as a brigadier general of Talbot County militia, but no evidence indicated that he served out of state. No battles were fought in Maryland during the war. General James Lloyd Chamberlaine’s wife succumbed during 1791. The exact date of the demise of General Chamberlaine is unknown.

Chambers, Brigadier General James James Chambers, the son of Colonel Benjamin and Sarah Patterson Chambers, was born about 1742–1743. James’ mother died while he was young. His father remarried during 1748, taking Jane Williams as his second wife. Benjamin and three of his brothers emigrated from Antrim, Ireland. Benjamin founded the town of Chambersburg near the point where Falling Spring Creek converged with Conococheague Creek close to the Maryland line. The initial home constructed by Benjamin was burned down while he was away from the property, but later, he built a fort (Fort Chambers) in Franklin County about ten miles outside of Shippensburg. During the French and Indian War, the authorities at Shippensburg demanded that Chambers relinquish his two four-pound cannon to prevent capture by the enemy if the fort was taken. Chambers ignored the demand and his fort did not fall. During 1760, James Chambers married Katherine (Kitty) Hamilton (daughter of John and Isabella Potter Hamilton, both of whom died while Katherine was young). Katherine was raised by the Potter family. James later joined the militia and, during June 1775, he and his brothers, Benjamin and William, attached to an infantry company, headed for Boston to support the Patriots there. In March, 1776, the same month the British abandoned Boston, James Chambers was promoted to the rank of lieutenant colonel in Colonel (later brigadier general) Edward Hand’s regiment (1st Continental Infantry Regiment).

On 26 September 1776, James was promoted to colonel and received command of the regiment. Subsequent to the successful siege of Boston, Colonel Chambers participated in the New York campaigns, including the battles of Long Island and White Plains. Later his unit participated in the defense of Philadelphia, including the Battles of Brandywine (September 1777) and Germantown (October 1777). After the Battle of Germantown, General George Washington established winter quarters at Valley Forge, Pennsylvania, while the British remained in Philadelphia throughout the winter of 1777–1778. Although the British controlled the city, they were unable to dominate the entire Delaware River, which forced them to abandon the city during June 1778. Simultaneously, General Washington broke camp and moved to intercept the army as it advanced north through New Jersey en route to New York. The two sides clashed on 28 June at Monmouth, which became the final major conflict in the northern states. Colonel Chambers participated at Monmouth and, afterward, his regiment was deployed at White Plains, West Point and other places in the Highlands along the Hudson River until the summer of 1780. Later, Congress passed legislation reducing the Pennsylvania Line to six regiments and permitting officers to resign. The legislation took effect on 1 January 1781, and Colonel Chambers was one of the officers who took the opportunity to resign. Colonel Daniel Brodhead assumed command of Chambers’ 1st Pennsylvania Regiment. Colonel Chambers is sometimes documented as a brigadier general during the Revolutionary War period; however, it was later, after his service in 1794 as a colonel of militia during the Whiskey Rebellion, that he was raised to the rank of brigadier general. During 1795, Colonel Chambers served as an associate judge in the Franklin County Court of Common Pleas. In 1798, pursuant to action by the Congress, James Chambers was appointed brigadier general in conjunction with the Pennsylvania quota of the state militia, which was part of the master plan of an anticipated war with France. General Chambers’ brigade was formed and activated, but its service was not needed. General Chambers died at his estate in Loudoun Forge on 25 April 1805. His wife survived him. She died during January 1820. General James Chambers’ children included Charlotte, Benjamin and Sarah Bella.

Chandler, Brigadier General John John Chandler, the son of Joseph and Elizabeth Sumner Chandler, was born on 4 January 1736 in Pomfret, Connecticut. John’s mother was the daughter of George and Ann Tucker Sumner, also of Pomfret. John received an excellent education that included attendance and graduation from Yale (Class of 1759), where he studied for the ministry and medicine. Subsequently, he moved to Newtown, Connecticut, and established his medical practice there. In addition to being a physician, Chandler was also a minister and he also preached at various times. During 1763, John married Mary Chandler, his second cousin. Mary was the daughter of Doctor Thomas B. Chandler. The couple operated a tavern at their house in Newtown. During their marriage, they had six children, three daughters and three sons, and of those one daughter and two sons died during infancy. Chandler was aligned with the Patriots, and his first entry into politics occurred during 1770, when he was elected to the state legislature, where he served into 1773. In the meantime, during October 1770, Chandler was appointed county surveyor. The next year he entered the militia with the rank of major and, following that activity, he was appointed as a justice of the peace during 1772. After the war had begun at Lexington and Concord in April 1775, Chandler remained in the militia. In March 1776 he served as a lieutenant and as a major in Colonel (later brigadier general) Gold Selleck Silliman’s regiment (Connecticut militia). After the abandonment of Boston by the British on 17 March 1776, Chandler was commissioned a lieutenant colonel in

CHASE Silliman’s 8th Connecticut Regiment, a rank he held until December of that year. During 1776, Lt. Colonel Chandler participated in the various New York campaigns, including Long Island, White Plains and the retreat across New Jersey. On 1 January 1777, in conjunction with Colonel Silliman’s promotion to brigadier general of Connecticut militia, Chandler assumed command of the 8th Regiment. He participated in the defense of Philadelphia during 1777, including the battle of Germantown (October 1777). Following his stay at Valley Forge during the winter of 1777–1778, Colonel Chandler, whose health had deteriorated, resigned his commission in March 1778. After retiring from the service, he became eligible for a pension due to “diseases contracted from severities in the service.” Command of the regiment passed to Colonel Giles Russell. In 1780, the Connecticut Council of Safety appointed Colonel Chandler as superintendent of recruiting of troops for the Connecticut Line in the service of the Continental Army. As part of his responsibility, he was at Morristown, New Jersey, when the Continental Army spent the winter of 1779–1780, and during the spring encouraged enlistments and offered incentives to those who would re-enlist. Colonel Chandler continued to serve for the duration and was promoted to the rank of brigadier general of militia at the close of hostilities. He was also appointed as a judge in Fairfield County. Chandler was chosen as a delegate to the state convention to ratify the U.S. Constitution, which had been adopted 17 September 1787. Connecticut ratified the Constitution on 9 January 1788 to become the fifth state in the union. During 1790, General Chandler returned to politics when he was elected to the upper house (Senate) of the state legislature, and he retained his seat until 1795. Concurrently, he served as a judge in the Fairfield County Court. He retained his rank as a brigadier general until 1793. General Chandler retired from public service during early 1795, then moved to Vermont and resettled in Peacham, but he died on 15 March 1796. Mary survived him and later lived with one of her daughters in Stanbridge, Canada, just north of the Vermont border in the Province of Quebec.

Chase, General Jonathan Jonathan Chase, the son of Samuel and Mary Dudley Chase, was born on 6 December 1732 at Sutton, Massachusetts. The family later relocated in Cornish, New Hampshire. Samuel and Mary, in addition to Jonathan, had nine other children: Samuel (b. November 1728, married Silence Stow of Grafton); Dudley (b. 1730); Elizabeth (b. November 1735); March (b. June 1738); Mary (twin of Sarah, b. July 1740, died young); Sarah (twin of Mary, b. July 1740, married Ebenezer Rawson); Mary (2) (b. February 1744, married a Mr. Bellows); and Abigail (b. July 1753). Jonathan did not receive a classic education; however, he managed to become a capable self-taught man. He engaged in farming and became a surveyor, merchant and miller. In November 1759, Jonathan married Thankful Sherman of Grafton, Massachusetts. They had the following children: Prudence (b. August 1760, married Nathaniel Hall); Elizabeth (b. 1765, married Doctor Nathan Smith); Polly (married Ebenezer Brewer); a son (twin, name unknown, b. 1768, died August same year); and a son (twin, name unknown, b. 1768 died August of same year). Thankful died 25 November 1768. Chase remarried, taking Sarah Hall, the daughter of the Rev. David Hall, as his second wife. Jonathan and Sarah had the following children: Jonathan (b. November 1771); David Hall (b. February 1774); Sarah Hall (birth date unknown, married her brother-in-law, Doctor Nathan Smith, subsequent to the death of her step-sister, Elizabeth, in 1793); Lebbeus (b. January 1779); Parmelia (b. November 1780, married her cousin, Samuel Paine); and Gratia (birth date unknown, married Doctor Erastus Torrey).

66 During 1771, Chase petitioned the royal governor of New Hampshire, John Wentworth, “for confirmation of a grant or an island in the Connecticut river between Cornish and Windsor.” When hostilities erupted at Lexington and Concord, Massachusetts, during April 1775, Chase formed a company and was elected its captain. Subsequently, he was appointed a lieutenant colonel of militia in Colonel Gilbert’s regiment; however, Colonel Gilbert died, and on 30 August 1775, Chase, by act of the assembly, was promoted to the rank of colonel and assigned as successor to Gilbert. Later, the government provided Colonel Chase with three barrels of gunpowder. Chase’s command was utilized to defend the frontier. During the following year, the regiment advanced to bolster the forces at Ticonderoga. When British General John Burgoyne initiated his illfated advance from Canada during 1777, the regiment participated in the Saratoga Campaign, which brought about the surrender of Burgoyne’s entire army during October. On 18 October, 1777, the regiment was released by General Horatio Gates. During 1778, the regiment again reinforced the Northern Army. In 1781, Colonel Chase continued his duties along the frontier and requested that the assembly authorize him to raise a contingent of sixty men to act as scouts along his section of the frontier. He was later promoted to the rank of brigadier general (1788). In addition to his military service, Chase acted as a representative for Cornish with regard to the dispute between Vermont and New Hampshire on the “New Hampshire Grants.” General Chase attended several conventions regarding the dispute between 1779 and 1781. He died on 12 January 1800.

Chase, Samuel (Signer of the Declaration of Independence) Samuel was born on 17 April 1741 in Princess Anne (Somerset County), Maryland, to the Rev. Thomas Chase and his wife, Matilda Walker. Samuel’s father, Thomas, the only son of Samuel Chase, fled from England and sailed to Jamaica during 1738 to escape persecution under Cromwell (the Protector); however, he remained only for a short while on the Caribbean Island and moved to Maryland. About two years later, during January 1740, the Rev. Thomas Chase married Matilda. Matilda succumbed when Samuel was about three years old. Samuel moved to Baltimore with his father, who had accepted a position of pastor of St. Paul’s Episcopal Church. Samuel received an excellent education in Baltimore under the tutorship of his father. Afterward, he traveled to Annapolis at about age eighteen to study law under John Hammond and John Hall. Another Marylander, William Paca, was studying law in the same firm. Although Samuel and William became friends, at the time, neither had any thoughts of serving in a United States Congress together. After receiving his degree, he was admitted to the bar to practice law in Annapolis during 1761. Later, Chase was introduced to a young lady, described as being especially beautiful, named Ann Baldwin, whose widowed mother, Agnes, operated a tavern in Annapolis to support her family, which included Ann and her two sisters, Hester and Rebecca. Ann’s father, Thomas Baldwin, had succumbed while in debtors’ prison during Feb- Samuel Chase (Biographical Sketches of ruary 1762 and left no estate. the Signers of the Declaration of IndeAt the time of his demise, pendence, Benson J. Lossing, 1854)

67 Thomas’ possessions other than some household items consisted solely of one cow. Samuel married Ann Baldwin on 2 May 1762, with the Rev. John Barclay performing the ceremony. They had seven children: Matilda (1763); Tommy (1764); Nancy (1768); Fanny (1770); Ann (Nancy) 1771; Sammy (1773) and Tommy II (1774), but three of them, Tommy, Nancy and Fanny, died either in infancy or while very young. During March 1763, Chase was authorized to practice law in the county court (Frederick County), and soon after, he was allowed to practice in other courts across the colony. Subsequently, during 1765, he was admitted to practice in the provincial court. Chase, lacking the stronger connections of the Maryland society circles, was not inundated with clients; however, he remained persistent and diligent in his performance as an attorney and accepted the financial struggles that accompanied his initial years of marriage. Similarly, his wife remained extremely supportive. In the meantime, Samuel discerned that debtors seldom sought out attorneys and decided to seek out the debtors to increase his practice. His instincts proved true. Through the average man, his practice soon began to grow at a highly accelerated pace. Through 1764 and the first part of 1765, Samuel handled more than 400 cases in the county courts. About three years after their wedding, Chase, as the prosecutor for the Mayor’s Court, found himself in an awkward spot when his motherin-law was charged with “selling rum to servants.” Chase, the prosecutor, lost in court when his mother-in-law was acquitted, but no one in the family was disappointed in his failure to win a conviction. By the time of the trial, Samuel and Ann had already presented Agnes with two grandchildren, Matilda, born on 14 February 1763, and Tommy, born in 1764; however, the latter succumbed during 1765. The year of Matilda’s birth, Samuel received a step-mother, after his father, the Reverend Chase, married Ann Birch, the daughter of Thomas Birch (known as the “Chirurgeon and man mid-wife of Warwick, England). During 1768, another child, Nancy, was born, but she died the following year. During 1769, with his family expanding, Samuel Chase subleased a property on the land of Saint Anne’s Episcopal Church in Annapolis from William Reynolds, but only temporarily, as he intended to construct a mansion. The leased house was burglarized in less than a month. That same year, Chase acquired lot No. 107 on Northeast Street at the intersection with King George Street, with intent to construct a home composed of more than two stories. Prior to its completion, Chase, during 1770, also purchased an estate on the opposite bank of the Severn from Annapolis; however, by 1771, construction costs had skyrocketed and the mansion remained unfinished. Samuel sold the uncompleted home to Edward Lloyd IV. The Chase-Lloyd House still stands on present-day Maryland Avenue. Meanwhile, between 1766 and 1769, in addition to his private practice and duty with the legislature, Chase had engaged in land speculation, buying more than 1,400 acres as sole purchaser and another tract of about 2,000 acres in partnership with William Paca; however, during the time he was constructing his mansion, the Chase part of the tract was sold back to Paca. By the latter part of the 1760s, in addition to his own family, Ann’s two sisters and her mother moved into the home of Samuel and Ann. Another addition entered the family when Fanny was born during 1770, but she died during 1771. Only Matilda, their first child, remained alive. Nevertheless, Matilda was not destined to be an only child. A new sister, Ann (Nancy), was born in 1771, followed by Sammy in 1773 and Tommy in 1774. The family, however, sustained yet another tragedy during 1772, when Chase’s step-mother, Ann Birch, died, leaving five children, all of whom were then raised by Samuel. The Reverend Chase, in addition to having had five children with his second wife, also raised Jeremiah Townley Chase, his great-nephew, following the death of Jeremiah’s parents, Catherine, who succumbed while Jeremiah was very

CHASE young, and Richard, during 1757. Jeremiah, born during 1748, and his second cousin, Samuel, became close friends. Jeremiah served in the state legislature, became an anti–Federalist, and served in the U.S. Congress during 1783–1784. Meanwhile, Samuel Chase and others, like Charles of Carrollton, were in the forefront of opposition to the British taxation of the colonies. Following the Stamp Act, he became a prominent leader of the patriots in Maryland. Samuel and some others, acting as a group of the Sons of Liberty, destroyed the stamps that had arrived at Annapolis and afterward burned the stamp officer, Zachariah Hood, in effigy. Charles Carroll, closely affiliated with the Patriots and later an ally of Chase, did not participate. His actions remained private due to his Catholic faith. The stamp incident was the only act of violence at Annapolis by the Patriots, but Chase was tagged as one of the leaders of the rebels. His notoriety launched his political career, as the citizens became enamored with his actions and elected him to the Maryland assembly. Samuel’s keen intellect, double-bladed tongue and excellent debating skills served the cause well. During 1773, Chase was an opponent of a tax proclaimed by the governor for the purpose of supporting the Church of England. A series of arguments, for and against the tax, emerged in the press, the former by Attorney General Daniel Dulany (Dulaney) and the latter by Charles Carroll, who used the signature “First Citizen.” After Carroll exposed the illegality of the proclamation, Chase was one of the men who befriended Carroll and helped propel him toward his political career. After the governor was compelled to retract his proclamation, Chase and others held a mock funeral that included a military slant and the music of fifes and drums as the procession marched the proclamation to its grave. Chase and several others congratulated Carroll in a statement: “Thanks for your nervy and mastery defense of the constitution, against the late illegal, arbitrary and oppressive proclamation....” Chase was later selected as a delegate to the First Continental Congress, held in Philadelphia. During November 1774, Chase, Carroll and forty-two others were appointed to a committee to ensure that the Congressional resolution against imports was upheld. The action followed an incident the previous month when the vessel Pegg y Stewart arrived at Annapolis. The ship’s cargo of tea was destroyed by the owner, a man from Annapolis, Anthony Stewart. During the following year, Chase again represented Maryland as a delegate to the Second Continental Congress. Around this time he suffered another personal tragedy when his wife, Ann, succumbed. He did not remarry until after the close of hostilities. In 1775 Chase was appointed to the committee responsible for arming the ships of the Continental Navy. He was also appointed as a commissioner and was part of the committee sent to Canada during early 1776 to attempt to persuade the Catholic French Canadians to join the American cause. Others in the party were his friend Charles Carroll of Carrollton and Benjamin Franklin, along with a priest from Maryland, Father John Carroll (later Archbishop Carroll), a cousin of Charles Carroll. Father Carroll was asked to go to help convince the Catholic priests in Canada of the righteousness of the cause. Carroll was not a member of Congress and it is thought that he had been selected through the efforts of Chase. Nevertheless, the mission did not succeed. Meanwhile, the Maryland convention instructed its delegate to Congress not to concur with independence without the consent of the convention, but Chase along with Charles Carroll returned from Canada in time to use their combined influence to countermand its order ( June 28, 1776), which opened the way for the positive vote by the Maryland delegates. Several days before the vote, Samuel Chase discovered that the delegate from Georgia, John Joachim Zubly, a Presbyterian minister, had switched sides and had been communicating the business of Congress to the royal governor of Georgia. Chase, on the floor of Congress, proclaimed Zubly as a traitor. After being exposed by Chase,

CILLEY Zubly absconded before he could be arrested for sedition. He was never apprehended. On the Fourth of July of that year, Samuel Chase voted “Yea” to join with the unanimous decision to declare independence; he was one of the thirty-six who signed the Declaration of Independence on 2 August. John Hancock had been the only man to sign the original on 4 July, due to the great danger involved and certain execution by the British of any of the signers that would be apprehended. The remainder of the men, except for John Dickinson, signed by the end of the year. Dickinson, a Quaker, declined on the grounds of his religious belief that it would lead to war. On 25 July 1776, Congress discussed the initial draft of the Articles of Confederation, and it considered how to manage the boundaries of the thirteen states. Men aligned with Thomas Jefferson were against Congress designing the boundaries, while Samuel Chase and others supported Congress drawing the lines. On 25 November 1776, Chase was appointed to the committee responsible for designing a plan to hinder the progress of the British army. The committee concluded that the battalions of Associators (Pennsylvania) should be assembled and from them, separate units should be drawn as volunteer companies to serve with the Continental Army until March 1777. During 1777, Samuel Chase was appointed to the Board of War. Chase, Charles Carroll and John Penn were appointed to a committee to investigate the conditions of the army. On September 27, 1777, when Congress convened at Lancaster, Pennsylvania, after abandoning Philadelphia, Chase and Carroll were the only two members from Maryland that were present. During April 1778, Chase was appointed to a committee to draw a plan to offer to British troops. The group was established by resolution: “That a committee of three be appointed to prepare and report terms to be offered to such foreign officers and soldiers in the service of the king of Great Britain, as shall quit that service and chuse to become citizens of any of the United States of America.” Samuel Chase ended his term in Congress during 1778 and returned to Annapolis, where he again practiced law. That year, Chase became a member of the Maryland convention and helped establish the state’s first constitution. While in Baltimore on a business trip, he encountered a young man at a debate who impressed Chase with his style and delivery. After inquiring of his name, Chase made contact and encouraged him to practice law. William Pinckney of Annapolis explained that he had neither the money nor the connections to take up the law. Chase solved his problem by permitting him to live at the Chase residence. William was tutored by Samuel while he resided there. Pinckney later became the U.S. attorney general. Samuel’s father, The Reverend Chase, succumbed during 1779. Later, during 1783, Samuel traveled to England under appointment from his former colleague, the governor of Maryland, William Paca. Chase’s mission was to attempt to recover for the state stock in the Bank of London, owned by Maryland. He did not succeed; however, it was not an uneventful trip. While in London, he was introduced to Hannah Kilty Giles, whom he later married. From his second marriage, the couple had two children, Eliza, the oldest, who later married Doctor Skipwith Coale of London, and Mary, who married William Barney, the son of Commodore Joshua Barney, naval hero of the American Revolution and the War of 1812. After his return to Maryland, a close friend, Colonel John E. Howard, in 1786, proposed to Chase that if he would move to Baltimore to practice law, a substantial parcel of land would be given to him. The proposal was in a letter dated 13 February 1786. Chase accepted the offer and relocated to Baltimore. Two years later, he was appointed chief justice of the criminal court of that region. In 1796, Samuel Chase was appointed by President Washington as an associate judge of the United States Supreme Court; he was soon confirmed by the Senate. Chase held the post until his death.

68 Samuel Chase, a staunch Federalist, came under the scrutiny of his political adversaries during the administration of Thomas Jefferson. Charges were lodged against him in 1803 regarding his methods of handling grand juries during the trials of two men (Fries and Callender) accused of sedition. In March 1804, the House of Representatives voted for impeachment. On 7 December, the house managers, led by a John Randolph, delivered the articles of impeachment to the Senate. Chase, despite political enemies in Congress, had one advantage, that being that some of his political opponents placed law above party. Chase’s trial by the Senate began on 2 January and was not completed until 3 March 1805; however, Chase’s defense attorneys, including Luther Martin, one of the most skilled attorneys in the union, were able to expose the partisan nature of the charges. Nonetheless, of the charges, three gained a majority, but none gained the two-thirds vote necessary to remove Justice Chase. The Democratic-Republicans (present-day Democrats) failed. Judge Chase returned to the bench. The trial seemed to verify that impeachment for reasons of partisanship was of no value and could not succeed. Justice Chase remained on the Supreme Court until he died in Baltimore on 19 June 1811. He had worshiped at St. Paul’s Episcopal Church in Baltimore, where he was interred.

Cilley, Brigadier General Joseph Joseph Cilley, the son of Captain Joseph and Alice Rawlins Cilley, was born in Nottingham, New Hampshire, about 1734–1735. Joseph, lacking a formal college education, due to his father’s lack of appreciation of advanced education and belief in only the fundamentals being required, took it upon himself to gain knowledge. He became a successful self-taught lawyer, but his skills were not limited to the field of law. He had an equal thirst for military knowledge. During 1756, Joseph married Sarah Longfellow, the daughter of Jonathan and Mercy Clark Longfellow. Joseph and Sarah had ten children: Sarah (b. October 1757, married Judge Thomas Bartlett); Bradbury (b. February 1760, married Martha [Patty], the daughter of General Enoch Poor); Jonathan (b. March 1762, married Dorcas Butler); Joseph (b. November 1764, died as a young teenager); Greenleaf (b. March 1767, married Jennie Nealley); Daniel (b. March 1769, married Hannah Plumer); Jacob (b. July 1773, married Harriet Poor, daughter of General Poor); Anna (b. May 1775, Nathaniel Williams); and Horatio Gates (b. December 1777, married Sally Jenness, daughter of Richard and Mary Page Jenness). Two years after his marriage, Joseph saw service during the French and Indian War. He entered the military as a private during 1758 and served with the legendary Rogers’ Rangers, the forerunner of present-day U.S. Rangers of the U.S. Army. Cilley, attached to a company commanded by Captain Neal, remained in active service for one year and participated in various actions on the northern frontier and in Canada. He attained the rank of sergeant. Later, at the time the nation was on the brink of breaking away from the mother country, Joseph was in the forefront of the Patriots in Nottingham, a town that seemed to be overrun with Patriots who would later be counted among the heroes that won independence. While the fires were still simmering, a contingent of Patriots, aware of the necessity of acquiring arms for the approaching storm, planned an attack against Fort William and Mary (Later Fort Constitution) to confiscate the king’s powder. Cilley participated in the raid (14 December 1774), which succeeded effortlessly due to the diminutive garrison, composed of only six troops who were not anticipating any hostilities at their post on Great Island (later Newcastle) in Portsmouth harbor. The attack was led by Captain Thomas Pickering. By the following day, Major (later General) John Sullivan arrived and seized small arms and about sixteen light pieces of artillery, adding to the booty of about 100 barrels of powder. During the following spring, Cilley was among the New Hampshire troops from Nottingham, Deerfield and Epsom who converged on Nottingham Square upon

69 word of the clashes at Lexington and Concord on 19 April 1775. Cilley led a contingent of about 100 men to Cambridge to support the militia there. Soon after, on 20 May 1775, he was commissioned a major in the Continental Army and attached to the Colonel Enoch Poor’s 2nd New Hampshire Regiment. On 1 January 1776, when General Washington reorganized the Army, Cilley (also appointed colonel of militia that day) was attached to the 8th Continental Infantry. Colonel Cilley participated in the Battle of Long Island and later at Trenton during December 1776 and Princeton on 3 January 1777. He was promoted to the rank of lieutenant colonel (Continental Army) of the 1st New Hampshire on 8 November 1776. Cilley was raised to the rank of colonel in the Continental Army on 2 April 1777 and was given command of the 1st New Hampshire in place of Colonel (later general) John Stark, who had resigned. On 5 July, 1777, when Fort Ticonderoga was abandoned, Jonathan Cilley, son of Colonel Cilley, was not among those who got away. After he was taken by the British, they became aware of his young age and his identity. The boy was taken to General John Burgoyne, who handled the situation like a gentleman. The boy was released and given items to deliver to his father regarding Burgoyne’s “proclamations.” Burgoyne then gave Jonathan permission to pick any coat he liked from the huge inventory of captured clothing. He picked the most attractive coat he could find, and only later did he discover the rightful owner, Major (later General) Hull. Jonathan was also presented with a horse that, according to a description it wouldn’t go too far too fast due to its age, but Burgoyne assumed the steed would get Jonathan to the American lines. Major Cilley, after welcoming his son, glanced at Burgoyne’s demands, shredded one of them and tossed it into the air, stating: “Thus shall his [Burgoyne’s] army be scattered.” Colonel Cilley participated in the campaign against General John Burgoyne, who advanced from Canada to seize Albany to isolate the New England colonies from the others and link up with General Henry Clinton to liquidate the remaining American units in New York. However, the British were stalled at Saratoga during September and overwhelmed in October, forcing Burgoyne to surrender his entire army and spoiling the grand plan of conquest. On 19 September, the British prepared to launch a bayonet charge against positions held by Cilley’s regiment and he observed the order, described as “fix bayonets and charge those damned rebels.” Cilley’s reaction was neither to retire nor to cower in the face of the blade. Instinctively, in a boisterous voice bellowed: “That is a game two can play at. Charge, and we will try it.” Cilley’s regiment launched its charge and took high casualties, but they broke the enemy line with the points of their bayonets and inflicted high casualties among the British. During the Second Battle of Saratoga, on 7 October 1777, Cilley’s men again performed extraordinarily. Against great odds, they captured a section of British artillery, then joined with the Massachusetts troops that pounded against the Hessian camp in what was an especially dangerous advance that succeeded in collapsing the line again at the point of their bayonets, the very weapon that the Hessian troops had previously used to terrorize the American troops. The New Hampshire troops under Colonel Cilley again were in the thick of a major battle during June of 1778 at Monmouth while General Washington was in pursuit of the British under General Clinton, who had abandoned Philadelphia and was heading back to New York. During the early stages of the contest, General Charles Lee, under orders of Washington to attack, hesitated, then authorized a slight advance before ordering a general retreat. Colonel Cilley’s regiment was afterward ordered to attack a British contingent that was in retreat. When Cilley’s regiment closed at a distance of about 200 yards, the British swiveled to meet the threat, but Cilley improvised and knocked down two fences that stood between the Americans and the Redcoats. At one fence about sixty yards from the enemy, British fire raked the troops, but Cilley’s men held their fire, then with fixed bayonets ini-

CLARK tiated a charge. The British bolted toward a swamp with the Americans in fast pursuit. The skirmish was reinitiated and when the regiment advanced to within close range; in unison, the line delivered a series of volleys, which ended the exchange as the British hurriedly moved to join the main body. Washington sent an aide to inquire which regiment had been engaged, and history has handed down two versions of the reply, one that it came from Lt. Colonel Henry Dearborn and the other from Colonel Cilley. The responses to Washington’s inquiry “What troops are these?” has been recorded as “True blooded Yankees, sir,” attributed to Cilley and “New Hampshire, True blooded Yankees, by God, Sir,” attributed to Dearborn. Nevertheless, from either, the praise was due the New Hampshire regiment of which Cilley was colonel and Dearborn lieutenant colonel. Washington’s response was recorded as: “They are my brave New Hampshire boys.” In 1779, Colonel Cilley participated in the operation planned to regain Stony Point, New York. General Anthony Wayne launched the attack on 15 July and won a stunning victory in which once again, the Americans used bayonets to seal the victory. Subsequent to the end of the war, on 22 June 1786, he was appointed the first major general of the New Hampshire militia. After his service in the military concluded, General Cilley also spent time in public life. He was appointed a justice of the peace and of the quorum, a post he held for the remainder of his life. He served in the New Hampshire Senate (1790–1791), and during the following year, he served in the House. He was also appointed councilor during 1797 and was a member of the Society of Cincinnati, his various positions including vice president and president. He was a Democratic-Republican (present-day Democrat). General Joseph Cilley succumbed on 25 August 1799. He was survived by his wife, Sarah, who succumbed during May 1811. Several anecdotes form a better picture of General Cilley’s character and demeanor. During the harrowing retreat from Ticonderoga, many officers, unable to spot their horses in the darkness, mounted another. Caleb Stark later noticed that his horse was ridden by Colonel Thaddeus Kosciuszko and he pressed for its return, but to no avail. Stark then challenged the colonel, but Kosciuszko refused, telling Stark he was not of high enough rank to make the challenge. An observer of the incident intervened. Colonel Cilley walked up to the mounted officer and informed Kosciuszko that he (Cilley) was of sufficient rank and further stated that Stark’s “demand is a proper one.” The issue was settled, and on the day following the retreat, Stark was reunited with his horse. Another incident occurred in New York during the time between the end of the war and the official treaty when the country was in an armistice phase. General Cilley entered a bookstore and while there was asked to sign his name. A nearby British officer offered his sarcasm about an American being able to sign his name. Cilley was quick to retort informing the officer that he could also “make his mark.” And to the surprise of the Redcoat, he did. Cilley drew his sword and smacked the officer on the cheek with the flat side of the blade. The unnamed officer threatened Cilley, saying that he would be hearing from the officer, but there was no further contact.

Clark, Abraham (Signer of the Declaration of Independence) Abraham Clark, an only child, was born in Elizabeth, New Jersey, on 15 February 1726 (some sources, including Goodrich, 1840, say 1725). He was the only child of Thomas and Hannah Winans Clark. Abraham’s great-grandfather, Richard Clarke, and his wife Elizabeth (maiden name unknown), after leaving Long Island, founded Elizabethtown in Essex County (later Union County) about 1678. Abraham received his education at home on the farm. During that time, his father, who was an alderman as well as a farmer, determined that Abraham

CLARK excelled in mathematics, but he also concluded early that Abraham had not been blessed with a large frame and would be better suited working with his mind rather than taking up the difficult life of a farmer. Abraham also enjoyed studying civil law. He became a selftaught surveyor and a lawyer. Clark frequently counseled some farmers in the area when they encountered difficulty with property titles and lacked the financial means to hire a lawyer. Nonetheless, he never entered law school and he did not officially enter the legal profession. Often he accepted farm products in lieu of payment for his services. Abraham married Sarah Hatfield, the daughter of Isaac and Sarah Price Hatfield of Elizabethtown, during 1749. Their children were: Aaron (b. about 1750); Thomas (b. about 1752); Abraham (b. about 1755–1758, d. July 1758); Hannah (b. about 1756); Andrew (b. about 1759); Elizabeth (b. 1762, d. 1776); Sarah (b. about 1761); Cavalier (b. 1763, d. November 1764); Abraham II (about 1767); and Abigail (1773). His reputation grew, and due to his balanced sense of justice and his knowledge of the law, Clark became known as “the poor man’s counselor.” For a while he was a clerk of the provincial assembly of Amboy and later the high sheriff of Essex County (later split into Essex and Union counties). Clark was also a member of the public safety committee of Elizabethtown. During 1775, he was elected to the Provincial Congress of New Jersey, and during the following year, he was a delegate from New Jersey at the Second Continental Congress after taking his seat during June with the other New Jersey delegates, John Hart, Francis Hopkinson, Richard Stockton and Doctor John Witherspoon. He had long supported independence and was of the opinion that otherwise, the colonies would face slavery imposed by the British. Abraham Clark was one of the signers of the Declaration of Independence. He was elected to the Continental Congress during November 1776 and remained in office for the duration of the Revolution, except for one absence when he served a term (1779) in the New Jersey legislature. On 24 December 1776, Congress appointed Abraham Clark as one of five members to a committee to draw up a plan to acquire foreign support in the conflict against Britain. On 3 January, Clark was appointed to the committee assigned the task of modifying the Articles of Confederation. Also that day, one of Clark’s fellow delegates, Richard Stockton, was seized by the British. He was thrown into a common jail and treated inhumanely. Congress directed General George Washington to inform the British that if that was the case, similar treatment would be given to British captives. On 22 March 1777, Clark was appointed to a committee delegated to improve the health of the troops and to design a method of instilling more discipline into the army. Although Clark had no military service, two (and possibly three) of his sons served as officers during the Revolutionary War and were captured. Their identity (Thomas and Andrew) became known and they received harsh treatment on the Jersey prison ship off New York. Clark made little mention of his grief and requested no special treatment until distressing news concerning one son, Thomas, an artillery officer, reached him. The British confined him in a dungeon-like cell and withheld food, except for what other prisoners could squeeze through a keyhole. Congress retaliated by informing the British that unless they ceased the barbarism immediately, captive British officers would be given identical treatment. The British quickly terminated their brutal treatment of Clark’s sons. Toward the latter part of 1778, Clark became involved with assisting New Jersey with its complaints about Brigadier General William Maxwell having resisted a writ of habeas corpus. In July 1780, Clark made a motion to appoint a new brigadier in place of Maxwell. The motion was referred to a committee. During the following year, Clark nominated and Congress appointed John Pierce to the vacant post of paymaster general.

70 After the war, Clark remained in New Jersey and was active as a member of the convention that brought about the birth of the U.S. Constitution; however, at the outset, Clark had objections to its framework and became ill prior to its completion. Nonetheless, as amendments were added, Clark did support it, but his initial dissension caused him to be tagged as anti–Federalist. His political adversaries used his initial objections against him, which caused him to temporarily suffer politically, but he made a remarkable recov- Abraham Clark (Biographical Sketches ery. of the Signers of the Declaration of InHis initial attempt to re- dependence, Benson J. Lossing, 1854) turn to congress failed; however he was elected to the second congress that followed the U.S. Constitution, serving 1787–1788. Prior to his return to Congress, Clark was appointed as commissioner by the state to address unsettled claims with the United States that had occurred during the war. He was a member of the New Jersey legislature during 1782–1787, and while serving in that capacity, he contributed greatly to an act that regulated the practice of law in New Jersey; it became known as Clark’s Law. In addition, Clark contributed to the actions that brought about the issuance of paper money and became known as the “Father of the Paper Currency.” He also weighed heavily on the side of demanding that Britain account for all the Americans injured by British armed vessels and that Britain abandon its posts in the west in American territory. His legislation prohibited intercourse with Britain until the demands were met. The legislation passed the House, but in the Senate it lost when the vice president, John Adams, cast the tie-breaking vote. During 1791, he entered Congress again on 24 October and served there until he retired at the age of sixty-nine during June 1794 at the end of that congressional session. Clark, a trustee of the First Presbyterian Church, lived only a short while after retirement. He suffered sunstroke on 15 September that year and died within two hours of the attack. Clark, known as a man of honor and integrity, was also known for his Christian piety. He was interred in the church’s cemetery in Rahway. Clark’s will noted that he owned three slaves (two men and their mother) and that they were to be freed at the time in the event his wife, Sarah, remarried or at the time of her demise. The will also stated that his wife was to have use of the property, real and personal, while she remained a widow, and afterward, it was to be distributed to the surviving children. Sarah survived him by about ten years and succumbed during 1804. She was interred in the same cemetery with her husband. Clark had on more than one occasion run for the office of governor, but never successfully. Abraham Clark remained loyal to his country during that time when he pledged his life, fortune and scared honor until his final breath. He had never sought nor acquired great wealth, and the marker on his obscure grave site in Rahway preserved a few words to describe him: Firm and decided as a patriot, Zealous and faithful as a friend to the public, He loved his country, And adhered to her In the darkest hours of her struggles Against Oppression.

71 Clark (Clarke), Brigadier General Elijah Elijah Clark, the son of John Clark, was born in Anson County, North Carolina, about 1742. The family surname is most often spelled Clarke, but North Carolina Archives contends that the correct spelling was Clark. Elijah had no formal education, nor was he polished or sophisticated; however, his lack of social skills did not impede his ability as a troop leader. He relocated in Georgia during the early 1770s, and as late as 1774, Elijah was not yet among the Patriots. Nevertheless, at some point afterward, Elijah sided with the Americans’ cause with other Patriots in northwestern Georgia. Clark entered the military and served with the rank of captain during 1776 and participated in encounters with the Cherokee Indians. Clark engaged in various operations with the militia and later participated in major clashes. During 1778, on 30 June, Patriots assaulted Fort Tonyn in southern Georgia, but the British, who controlled the post since 1776, evacuated and afterward deployed at a bridge on the Pagan Creek Plantation, owned by the brothers of the royal governor of South Carolina, James Wright. The Alligator Creek bridge northwest of Jacksonville, Florida, spanned Alligator Creek (later Borell Creek). A cavalry force under Colonel Elijah Clark attacked the enemy positions, but the British (Tories and East Florida rangers) commanded by Major Marc (Mark) Prevost had the natural protection of thick brush and a large ditch that impeded Clark’s cavalry and gave the British an edge. The attack was repulsed. Colonel Clark was wounded during the contest. The encounter was the final exchange during what was known as the Third Florida Invasion. The exact location of the bridge has never been determined. Some sources maintain it was located in present-day Callahan, while others maintain it was near Point Peter Road in St. Marys, Georgia. In 1779, Colonel Clark, along with Colonels John Dooly and Andrew Pickens, engaged the British under Colonel James Boyd at Kettle Creek, Georgia, on 19 February. The Loyalists spotted the Patriots, eliminating surprise. High casualties were sustained by Clark’s and Dooly’s contingents, but Pickens suffered no harm. He maintained his advance while the others rebounded. Meanwhile, Colonel Boyd had been mortally wounded, a loss the Loyalists were unable to overcome. Lacking a leader, the Loyalists collapsed. The years 1779 to 1781 were trying times for the Georgia Patriots. The Americans were pushed from Savannah and other places to Augusta, and then the British seized Augusta. State archives were initially taken to Charleston by John Milton and from there carried to New Bern until finally transported to Baltimore through the end of the war. Women and children were evacuated across the mountains to safer positions in the Holston region, and farming in Georgia was non-existent, as property was ravaged by the British. Clark’s homestead was among the casualties of war. His wife was also evacuated, but Hannah possessed an iron will and refused a place of safety while her husband was in danger. On more than one occasion, Hannah rode great distances to reach Elijah and help him recover from a wound, and often she traveled with him from camp to camp. The British seized Charleston on 12 May 1780 and with it, an entire American army under General Benjamin Lincoln capitulated. Afterward, General Horatio Gates sustained a devastating defeat at Camden on 16 August, leaving the south with only a small group of American partisans to hold the ground until a new force could be raised and sent south. That small band included Elijah Clark, Francis Marion, Isaac Shelby and John Sevier. Meanwhile, Congress appointed General Nathanael Greene as commander of the Department of the South in place of Gates. On 8 August 1780, the vanguard of a British (Tories) unit under Major Patrick Ferguson prepared to attack Colonel Clark’s force near Cedar Springs, South Carolina, but Clark had been reinforced by another cavalry force under Colonel Isaac Shelby. The vanguard was un-

CLARK able to surprise Clark’s camp because scouts had monitored the advance and the Patriot cavalry was poised to strike with surprise. The leading force of Ferguson was stunned and vanquished, losing about fifty prisoners in the process. Clark and Shelby quickly abandoned the area. From the heights, they were able to observe Ferguson, who approached the empty camp to discover he had again been outfoxed by Patriot forces. Colonel Clark was wounded during the clash. Colonel Clark again clashed with a British force in the foothills of the Blue Ridge Mountains on 18 August at Musgrove’s Mill, South Carolina. The Americans under Colonels Clark and Shelby and reinforcements under Colonel James Williams aborted an attack after learning that the Loyalists had received reinforcements, but they don’t retire; rather a trap was set. A small contingent drew attention and the British took the bait. Meanwhile, the American cavalry had taken concealed positions across the river. The British pursued the retreating contingent and followed closely behind, and with each step their confidence became greater, particularly since the Americans were fleeing. As the British reached a point about 75 yards from the trap, a shot was fired to spring it. The Loyalists offered heavy resistance and the struggle moved to close-quartered combat. Finally, a contingent of reserve cavalry was committed by Clark to preserve Shelby’s flank, and in the process the British commander, Colonel Innes, was wounded. At that point the British began to falter while the Patriots, who were in jeopardy, rebounded. Colonel Clark led a charge and it won the day. Clark was again wounded, but the field was won and the British took severe casualties with more than 220 killed, wounded and captured. The Americans sustained eleven casualties. On 14 September, British-held Forts Grierson and Cornwallis in the vicinity of Augusta were seized by troops under Colonel Clark and Lt. Colonel James McCall. The British (Loyalists and Indian allies) abandoned the area and headed to a trading post known as the White House. A siege was initiated but British reinforcements arrived and the Patriots were compelled to retire. Twenty-nine men were captured and later 13 were hanged; the remainder were handed over to the Indians for a torturous death. In 1780, a Loyalist force of about 450 men engaged the vanguard (commanded by Colonel Clark) of Colonel Few’s command at Long Cane, South Carolina, and defeated the vanguard of about 100 troops. Colonel Clark soon after avenged the defeat when he and Colonel James McCall engaged a British force at Beattie’s Mill, South Carolina, on 21 March 1781. The British were vanquished and their commander, Major James Dunlap, was mortally wounded. Thirty-four British troops were killed and the survivors surrendered at Little River (Abbeyville County). Afterward, Colonel Clark joined with Colonel Henry “Lighthorse Harry” Lee in the campaign to regain Augusta, Georgia. Their combined force seized British-held Fort Galphin at Silver Bluff, near Fort Moore at Savannah Town on Beech Island. Fort Galphin (Fort Dreadnought) was on the Savannah River, below Augusta, Georgia, but it was on the South Carolina bank of the river. On 31 May 1781, Fort Cornwallis was seized after a tenacious fight. After the fort surrendered, an unknown Georgia soldier shot British Colonel Grierson to death. Augusta was taken shortly thereafter on 5 June 1781. Meanwhile, Cornwallis had abandoned the South to seek victory in Virginia, but his quest was in vain. Cornwallis capitulated during October 1781. The British, however, remained in Charleston until December 1782. All the while, the Patriots also maintained pressure against the Loyalists and hostile Indians. Colonel Clark was appointed a brigadier general of Georgia militia during 1781. On 17 September 1782, General Andrew Pickens and General Elijah Clark set out from Long Creek (Georgia) to seek out Loyalists who were trying to remain concealed by scattering into the Cherokee territory. Pressure was placed upon the Cherokee to surrender the Loyalists

CLARK or face attacks, and the Cherokee had few options with the termination of British presence. The Cherokees agreed to the terms and later, through the Long Swamp Treaty, the Cherokee ceded large amounts of territory in northeastern Georgia. The state of Georgia rewarded General Clark for his service during the war. He had been repeatedly wounded during the struggle and was stricken with smallpox, but each time he escaped becoming a fatality and bounced back to continue to plague the British. Elijah Clark was awarded a plantation and he received land grants. In addition, during 1781, he was elected to the state assembly, where he served through 1790. General Clark also served as an Indian commissioner that dealt with treaties. During 1789, General Clark participated in the state constitutional convention. Later, during 1791, General Clark, acting in accordance with his rank in the militia, commanded the force that engaged and vanquished the Creek Indians at a place known as Jack’s Creek on 21 September 1791. In 1793, General Clark became involved with the French and received a commission as a major general in France’s efforts against the Spanish. The scheme instigated by French Minister Genet never materialized and the French ordered his successor, Minister Fauchet, to arrest Genet and have him transported back to France. General Clark attempted to establish a separate republic of Georgia known as Trans-Ocanee, but that scheme also failed due to action taken by the federal government and the state of Georgia. General Clark abandoned the scheme after most of his followers had abandoned it. The forts that had been constructed and the republic’s constitution ended as folly when Clark surrendered to a force composed of regular and Georgia troops during the latter part of September 1794, terminating the Trans-Ocanee Republic. Nonetheless, General Elijah Clark’s name in Georgia history has remained high on her list of heroes. His reputation as a soldier during the war and his service for Georgia was paramount in the minds of Georgians. General Clark succumbed at his residence in Wilkes County, Georgia, during 1799. Clarke County, Georgia, was named in his honor. A monument to his memory was erected in Athens, Georgia, and a state park is named in his honor. Elijah Clark State Park is located along the western shore of Clarks Hill Lake in Lincolnton, Georgia. The park contains a museum (a log cabin) and the grave sites of General Clark and his wife, Hannah Harrington (Arrington) Clark. They were initially interred in Wilkes County were later interred in the state park. John Clark, the son of Elijah and Hannah, became governor of Georgia (1819–1823). The name of General Clark’s mother is uncertain, and information on the precise number of children of Elijah and Hannah is uncertain; however, at the time they relocated in Georgia, they had several young children, including John, who also rose to the rank of brigadier general and twice became governor of Georgia.

Clark, Brigadier General George Rogers George Rogers Clark, the son of John and Ann Rogers Clark, was bon in Virginia on 19 November 1752. John and Ann had eight other children, with George Rogers being the second oldest. The others were Jonathan, John, Richard, Edmund, Lucy, Elizabeth, William and Frances. George Rogers later relocated in Kentucky, became familiar with the wilderness there, and was instrumental in guiding settlers who moved west of the Allegheny Mountains in Kentucky. Harrodsburg (Fort Harrod) was established during 1774 by James Harrod and a group of about 32 settlers who arrived from Pennsylvania. Clark participated in Dunmore’s War in 1774, but he was not at the Battle of Point Pleasant on 10 October, when General Andrew Lewis defeated the Indians. Clark was with Governor Dunmore’s force, and it never arrived at the Kanawa. In a letter dated 1 April 1775, Clark explained to his brother that he was in Kentucky as a surveyor under Captain Hancock Lee and was not there in a military capacity. During his time in Kentucky he was employed by the Ohio Company.

72 Clark became familiar with the territory as he moved from station to station and it became an asset later when he assisted settlers moving from Virginia into Kentucky. Clark returned to Virginia before winter, and during spring of the following year, he moved to Kentucky. Meanwhile, back in Kentucky, Colonel John Bowman commanded the militia at Fort Harrodsburg, but the region was dangerous. With the outbreak of the war the settlers themselves were in jeopardy due to a shortage of ammunition. Harrodsburg was iso- George Rogers Clark (Pictorial Field lated and hostile Indians in- Book of the Revolution, Benson J. Losshabited the region stretching ing, 1860) between the fort and Virginia. Clark, aware of the plight of the Kentuckians, headed once again to Virginia to acquire arms and powder. He arrived and met with Governor Patrick Henry to inform the governor of the circumstances at the fort. Governor Henry needed little prompting to provide Clark with the military stores, and he included a military escort to ensure the powder got to its destination. On 7 December 1776, Clark and John Gabriel Jones, leading a party, departed Fort Pitt by boats en route to Kentucky. They arrived at Limestone Creek, where the ammunition was unloaded and concealed on a few small islands in present-day Lewis County, Ohio, to prevent Indians from discovering it. Clark sped to Harrodsburg to raise a larger contingent to pick up the powder and get it to the fort. In his absence, Colonel Todd arrived and the ammunition was gathered, but only ten men formed the guard and the Indians set an ambush for Christmas Day. Three of the guards were killed: Josiah Dixon, John G. Jones and William Graden. On 2 January 1777, a contingent led by James Harrod set out to search for the Indians and regain the powder. The men advanced to Cabin Creek and to their surprise, the powder had not been disturbed or seized by the Indians. The powder was sped back to Harrodstown. Although the war with the British was at the time primarily in the north, Clark had the foresight to anticipate British actions from their posts along the Great Lakes. The colonists at Harrodsburg were able to stabilize their positions in Kentucky with the arrival of the powder, but the Indian raids continued to accelerate at the instigation of the British at Detroit. By October 1777, Clark moved to eliminate the British threats by initiating an offensive to capture the British forts. He traveled to Virginia again to lay out his plan. His proposal to seize the British positions along the Wabash River and in Illinois was received by the Virginia council on 2 January 1778, and both the council and the governor concurred. The plan included the capture of Detroit, Kaskaskia and Vincennes. Clark received orders to defend Kentucky, but that was his publicized order. He also received secret orders to move against the British at Kaskaskia. Although his plans seemed to require an army to take on the British or at least a division, Clark remained confident when on 24 June 1778, he departed Louisville (Falls of the Ohio) with only four companies of rangers en route to Fort Pitt to acquire ammunition for the campaign. On 4 July, Clark’s rangers moved against Fort Kaskaskia, seized it and renamed it Fort Clark. Clark’s victory gave him control of the capital of Illinois. The Indians in the region soon decided to make peace with the Americans.

73 On 6 July, the force moved to seize Cahokia and Vincennes, the latter on the Wabash River. Both objectives were seized. At Vincennes (present-day Indiana), a French priest, Father Gibault, supported Clark and persuaded the citizens to turn against the British. The British garrison was taken by surprise were driven from the fort; their flag was replaced by the Stars and Stripes. By about that time, Major Clark had been promoted to colonel. While Clark was attempting to suppress hostile Indians, the British continued to instigate trouble. During that period, there was no contact between Clark and his contingent at Vincennes. In conjunction with the success of Clark, on 9 December, Virginia claimed all the conquered territory and called it the county of Illinois. Meanwhile, the British focused on regaining control. On 17 December, Vincennes was retaken, but Clark was still away dealing with Indians. Nevertheless, once informed of the loss, Clark prepared to again take it from the British. On 5 February 1779, Clark’s force of about 175 troops at Kaskaskia, after receiving the blessing of Father Gibault, departed in two groups, one in boats up the Wabash River while the other moved overland. Clark had also earlier dispatched an Italian, Colonel Virgo, to gather intelligence as a spy. Virgo was captured, but he was popular with the Indians; he won his freedom and came to no harm. Clark recaptured Fort Sackville on 25 February 1779 and renamed it Fort Patrick Henry. The notorious British commander Colonel Hamilton, dubbed the “Hairbuyer” due to frequent buying of scalps, was imprisoned. During July of that year, Congress congratulated Colonel Clark for the success of his campaign. In September 1779, after returning to Kentucky, Clark ordered the construction of Fort Jefferson in the vicinity of Clarksville, where the Ohio and Mississippi Rivers converge, to give the military a dominant post to control passage onto the Ohio. By spring of 1780, an attack against Detroit by forces under Colonel Daniel Brodhead at Fort Pitt was planned. At the time, the British were still threatening Kentucky and western Virginia, and George Rogers Clark did not have a sufficient force to move against Detroit. Nevertheless, Brodhead’s campaign never came to fruition. However, the Indians streamed into Virginia; they avoided military installations such as Fort Henry and instead struck isolated settlements between the Ohio River and Wheeling. Militia gathered at Wheeling and sped to intercept the Indians. The march succeeded in driving the Indians back across the Ohio, but settlers who had been captured were massacred rather than dragged back to the Indian territory. Meanwhile at St. Louis and Cahokia, troops under Clark defended against attacks by English Canadian and Indian troops. The main body struck St. Louis and was repelled by the Spanish governor, Fernando De Leyba, reinforced by militia, but civilian casualties were sustained outside the fortified city. At Cahokia, gunners under Clark fired effectively and their artillery repelled the attack. By early June 1780, Clark was aware of a British plan to strike Louisville. The fort at Clarksville came under attack during June and July 1780, but it held. Meanwhile, Clark, operating in Ohio, returned to Kentucky during August. On the 8th, a tenacious fight occurred at Piqua, then on the following day, it was burned by Clark prior to his return to Kentucky. During 1780, Colonel Clark was promoted to brigadier general of Virginia militia. He continued operating on the frontier, but the task became complicated. During 1781, General Washington ordered Colonel Brodhead to reinforce Clark, but it did not occur. At the same time, there were political problems between Virginia and Pennsylvania regarding the border lines. Consequently, Pennsylvania troops were not anxious to fight for Virginia. During July, Clark, unable to attack Detroit due to insufficient strength, returned to Wheeling and afterward headed for Louisville. In the meantime, a contingent of Pennsylvanians under Colonel Archibald Lochry arrived at Fort Henry subsequent to Clark’s depar-

CLARK ture. The column rushed to catch Clark, but en route, while encamped, the contingent was struck by a large British-Indian force in the vicinity of present-day Cincinnati. The surprise attack inflicted high casualties. Colonel Lochry was captured and afterward killed. During May 1782, the governor of Virginia, Benjamin Harrison, authorized General Clark to construct river boats to bolster the Virginia war effort by having the vessels patrol the Ohio River. The boats were under construction at Fort Nelson (Louisville), but guns promised by the governor were slow in arriving. Clark was also bolstered by Virginia Marines, commanded by Captain Jacob Pyeatt, who served with him during the summer of 1782 and manned the guns on the Miami. A force of about 1,000 Indians, led by two British officers, Captains William Caldwell and Alexander McKee, moved against Wheeling, but upon sight of the Miami, the Indians lost heart and aborted the attack. Other vessels, gondolas, were vulnerable to ambush and proved of no value. About September, 1782, the Marines transferred to the Illinois regiment and served for the duration. On 9 August, Indians attacked Blue Licks, Kentucky, and General Clark retaliated swiftly. On 10 November 1782, Clark led a contingent of mounted infantry against Shawnee Indian villages (several known as Chillicothe). The attacks destroyed crops and reduced the villages. In addition, the troops were able to rescue some captives. Clark’s raids against the Shawnee at Chillicothe were the final action in the Northwest during the American Revolution. Subsequent to the close of hostilities, the territory west of the Ohio River gained by George Rogers Clark was handed over to the federal government. Clark was later appointed as surveyor for lands set aside for Virginians who served during the war. General Clark, like many others who devoted their lives and fortunes to the cause of liberty, found himself in a poor financial position after the war. He received some compensation from Virginia, but nothing from the Congress in repayment of the vast sum of money and land he used to finance his military commands. He was never able to recover and spent much time contending with creditors he was unable to pay. The man credited for winning the Northwest Territory and gaining the fear and respect of the Indians in the territory continued to operate his grist mill in Clarksville, Indiana, but never recovered his huge losses. Congress never commissioned General Clark in the Continental Army and his bold achievements were rarely recognized by Congress. At one point, during the 1790s, George Rogers Clark accepted a commission from the French minister, Edmond-Charles-Edouard Genet as major general of the “Independent and Revolutionary Legion of the Mississippi” for the purpose of invading Spanish controlled New Orleans, but the invasion never occurred. The U.S. government compelled Clark to resign or face charges. Genet was recalled to France and was probably destined to become a victim of the guillotine, but the United States prevented his extradition. Genet remained in America and married a daughter of Governor George Clinton of New York. Genet had commissioned other officers, including Elijah Clark of Georgia. General Clark, who never married, suffered a stroke in 1809 and during the attack, his leg was seriously burned from flames in the fireplace. The damaged leg had to be amputated. Afterward, he moved to the residence of his sister, Lucy Clark Crogan, near Louisville, where he remained until he died. He sustained another stroke during early 1818, followed by yet another during February, which proved fatal. General Clark succumbed on 13 February 1818. He was interred at Locust Grove in the Croghan family cemetery, but later, he was reinterred (1869) at Louisville in the Cave Hill Cemetery. Clark’s younger brother, William, achieved fame along with Lewis Meriwether when they led an expedition to the Pacific Ocean during the early 1800s. The now famous army expedition, initiated by President Thomas Jefferson, is known as the Lewis and Clark Expedition.

CLINTON Clinton, Brigadier General George (Governor of New York, Vice President of the United States) George Clinton, the son of Charles and Elizabeth Denniston and the younger brother of General James Clinton, was born on 26 July 1739. (See General James Clinton for further information on the family.) It is thought that George was named after British Admiral George Clinton (son of the Earl of Lincoln), who served as royal governor of the colony of New York from 1743 to 1753. The close friendship between George’s father and Admiral Clinton was split when former remained loyal to the Patriots’ cause and the latter sided with the king. Later, two sons of the elders would become adversaries, with the admiral’s son, General Sir Henry Clinton, entering the British army and devoting his time to suppressing the rebels. During 1755, George Clinton sensed he was going to enjoy a life at sea, which prompted him to leave home and serve aboard a privateer, but apparently, the experience was less than he expected and consumed with danger and accompanying hardships. Consequently, he abandoned life as a privateer and returned home to serve in the French and Indian War with his father and brother. Clinton received a commission as a subaltern in a company that was commanded by his older brother James and attached to his father’s regiment. He participated in the 1758 expedition against Fort Frontenac. After the conclusion of the conflict, Clinton began to work in the law office of William Smith (chief justice and historian of the colony). The experience Clinton gained while in the New York City law firm was invaluable and his personal skills enabled him to get accepted by the bar. Clinton concentrated on establishing his own law practice in Orange County, where he was appointed clerk of the common pleas court. By 1765, many New Yorkers had become incensed with the policies of the crown; however, the colony as a whole remained staunchly aligned with the king. Despite the overwhelming number of Loyalists, Patriot leaders like George and his brother James aggressively and conspicuously raised opposition. George attended the Stamp Act congress held in New York during October 1765. Then in 1766, he was elected to the colonial legislature and his actions there were well received. He remained in the legislature until he was elected as a New York delegate to the Continental Congress. One of Clinton’s allies in the minority was Philip Schuyler, but at the time, neither realized they were destined to become general officers in the not yet heard of Continental Army. However, the combination of Clinton and Schuyler in the legislature was pugilistic in nature, as both battled the Loyalists who held the majority. In the meantime, George’s life took another turn, when he married Cornelia Tappen, the daughter of Petrus and Tjaatje Wynkoop Tappen, who was from a prominent Dutch family from Kingston. George and Cornelia had six children: Catherine (b. November 1770, married John George Clinton (Pictorial Field Book Taylor and then General of the War of 1812, Benson J. Lossing, Pierre Van Cortlandt); Cornelia (b. June, 1774, married 1869)

74 Charles Genet, the French minister to the United States); George Washington Clinton (b. October 1778, married Anna Floyd, the daughter of General William Floyd of New York, a signer of the Declaration of Independence); Elizabeth (b. July 1780, married Matthias B. Tallmadge); Martha Washington (b. October 1783, died unmarried) and Maria (b. October 1785, married Doctor Stephen D. Beekman). Sources sometimes vary on the date of the marriage between George and Cornelia; however, according to records in the office of the secretary of state in Albany, it occurred on 28 October 1769. The marriage, although unintentionally, greatly aided George throughout his political career due to Cornelia coming from a prominent Dutch family. In the meantime, the Patriots were becoming more perplexed with the treatment from Parliament and the king. British troops had been stationed in the country, and Parliament, in cooperation with King George III, increased the tension through acts the colonists saw as oppressive. Many of the Patriots believed there was still some chance of reconciliation, but their numbers diminished during spring of 1775. On 22 April 1775, several days after the battles of Lexington and Concord, Clinton was elected as a delegate to the Second Continental Congress. He arrived in Philadelphia and took his seat on 15 May. While in Congress, Clinton was a proponent of independence; however, with New York being heavily inhabited with Loyalists, there was much indecision within the New York delegation. To further complicate the dilemma, the New York legislature sent no instructions. Nevertheless, when the vote was taken, George Clinton voted “Yea,” but due to the tremendous British threat against his home state, he was compelled to return to New York and was not among those who signed the parchment Declaration on 2 August. Some contemporary sources contend that Clinton departed Congress prior to the vote; however reliable nineteenth century sources, including The Lives of the Governors of New York ( John S. Jenkins, 1852) and The American Generals ( John Frost) each describe George Clinton as having been present for the vote for Independence. Clinton returned to Ulster County to assume command of a brigade of county militia. On 9 July, the New York Provincial Congress, in session at White Plains, affirmed the vote for independence, and on that same day, the members self-described the body as the “Convention of the Representatives of the State of New York.” On 25 March, 1777, General Clinton, already a general officer in the militia, was appointed by Congress as a brigadier general in the Continental Army. In June 1777, General Clinton was elected governor and lieutenant governor of New York. He accepted the former and the office of lieutenant governor was filled by Pierre Van Cortlandt. He was governor and general in the Continental Army simultaneously. The turbulence of the times tested the abilities of George on both fronts, as governor of a state that was overwhelmingly Loyalist and as a general in the state that for nearly all of 1776 and 1777 was the primary objective of the English forces on land and sea. The inhabitants of parts of western New York were frequent victims of barbaric acts by Indians aligned with the British. General Clinton was up to the challenge despite overwhelming odds against success. Nevertheless, there were setbacks, but the entire Continental Army was standing perilously under similar circumstances. In a concentrated effort by British General Henry Clinton during October 1777 to link up with the surging army of General John Burgoyne, advancing from Canada, the British bolted from New York and succeeded in wresting Forts Clinton and Montgomery along the Hudson, but the Clinton brothers who were forced to relinquish the posts were greatly outnumbered. The British encroached the American positions without being detected after landing at Stony Point. Fort Montgomery, commanded by George Clinton, fell easily on the 6th, but the garrison made it to nearby Fort Clinton, commanded by James Clinton, and the defenders resisted tenaciously for hours, despite an ultimatum to surrender. General George Clinton, one of the last to

CLINTON

75 abandon the fort, escaped by boarding a boat, while his brother James, despite a severe wound, escaped by descending a steep cliff. The British afterward also seized Fort Independence, which is separate from Mount Independence across the river in Vermont. During the attacks, the fire was heard by General Israel Putnam, but he was posted on the opposite side of the river, anticipating an attack against Fort Independence. He was too far from the forts to provide support. Many of the defenders were able to escape capture, but one of the captured officers was Colonel James M’Claughry, the husband of Catherine Clinton, the sister of George and James. From days gone by, M’Claughry’s captor, British General Henry Clinton, was familiar with M’Claughry and the Clinton family, which prompted him to ask: “Where is my friend George?” With equal sarcasm, M’Claughry responded: “Thank God, he is beyond the reach of your friendship.” The British however, were unable to reach Burgoyne, who was compelled to surrender his entire army at Saratoga during October of 1777. Albany was preserved. The British at New York advanced, but after bombarding Kingston, they moved back to the city. George Clinton afterward continued as governor and general. He concentrated on the continuing defense of New York, including rebuilding defenses in the Highlands to make up for the loss of the forts along the Hudson that were seized. Subsequently, during 1779, the forts were retaken by General Anthony Wayne. General Clinton retained the governor’s position until 1795. During 1783, upon the evacuation of New York by the British, General Clinton was alongside General George Washington when he rode into the city to officially reclaim it. In 1784, through the persuasion of General Clinton, a university was established by legislative action, and he threw his support behind the establishment of public schools. During 1788, General Clinton remained a strong opponent of the federal Constitution; however, he was unable to prevent its ratification. Prior to his relinquishing the chair of the convention, he reiterated his position and emphasized that the majority of New Yorkers opposed the Constitution, which passed by three votes; however, he vowed to support it. During that same year, trouble erupted in New York when a young boy peering through a window of a hospital observed a man who, after spotting the boy, waved a body part (arm) at him. The boy told his father that the man said it was the boy’s mother’s arm and the mother had only recently died. The unnerving incident propelled New Yorkers into a mob that swarmed around the hospital. Governor Clinton was compelled to call out the militia. During the pandemonium, John Jay was struck with a brick or rock and fell into unconsciousness. Meanwhile, Baron von Steuben, while standing next to the governor, was also struck, and as he went down, he urged the governor to order the troops to fire. That brought an end to the riot. At the time, doctors known as the “resurrectionists” were engaged in the practice of acquiring fresh corpses for dissection. The riots were dubbed the “Doctors’ Mob Riot.” General Clinton, while governor, had also played a distant part in Shay’s Rebellion (1786–1787) when a contingent of the insurrectionists escaped the militia and fled from Massachusetts to Lebanon, New York. The governor arrived at Lebanon and ordered the militia to form and disperse the rebels. In 1791, on the 22nd of January, General Clinton publicized that he would not be a candidate for the governor’s office, thus ending his 17 year in the office. Nonetheless, during 1801, he would again be elected to that post, defeating Stephen Van Rensselaer by about 4,000 votes. He was to be a candidate for the vice presidency of the United States, but others maneuvered to secure the spot for Aaron Burr. Subsequently, during 1805, he was elected as vice president and served in the 2nd term administration of President Thomas Jefferson (a Democratic-Republican, present-day Democrat). Clinton was also re-elected during the 1st term of President James Madison and served until his death, which occurred in Washington, D.C., on 20 April 1812, while

the Congress was in session. President Madison served the remainder of his first term without a vice president. At the time, there was nothing in the U.S. Constitution regarding replacement of a vice president. General Clinton was interred at the Congressional cemetery in Washington, D.C. On 27 May 1908, about sixty-eight years after his demise, the remains of General Clinton were re-interred in the cemetery of the First Dutch Reformed Church in Kingston, New York, alongside his wife, Cornelia. On 22 December 1812, George’s brother, General James Clinton, succumbed.

Clinton, Brigadier General James James Clinton, the son of Charles and Elizabeth Denniston Clinton, was born on 9 August 1736 on the family estate in Little Britain (Ulster County, later Orange County), New York. James’ ancestors arrived from England and the first to emigrate was James, a son of William Clinton, who fled from England to Ireland after the execution of King Charles I. William’s son James married the daughter of an officer in the service of Cromwell and from that marriage, Charles, the father of James (General James Clinton), was born during 1690. Charles arrived in Massachusetts during 1729. Following his time in Cape Cod, he relocated to Ulster County, New York, during 1731. James had three brothers, Alexander (a doctor, graduated Princeton, 1760), Charles (a doctor who served in the British Army) and George (see entry) (brigadier general in the Continental Army, governor of New York and vice president of the United States 1805–1812). James also had a sister named Catherine. In the Last Will and Testament of Charles Clinton, dated 1771, he requested that he be buried next to his daughter, Catherine (wife of Colonel James M’Claughry). James Clinton received his education by private tutors, but it was considered to be excellent. Apparently, at a very early age James became interested in the military and continued on that path. About 1756–1757, during the French and Indian War, he received a commission as an ensign (2nd Regiment militia of Ulster County) from Governor Charles Hardy, and by the following year, 1758, on 25 March, he was promoted to the rank of lieutenant (provincial forces) by Lieutenant Governor James Delancey. Later, during 1759, he attained the rank of captain (provincial army), also presented by Delancey. In the meantime, James Clinton participated in the seizure of Fort Frontenac (Kingston, Ontario, Canada) in August 1758. During the operation, Captain James Clinton (militia) and his younger brother, Lieutenant George Clinton, also participated in the capture of a French vessel on Lake Ontario. The English maneuvering on the lake in row galleys were able to force the French sloop to lower its colors. During the expedition under the overall command of General John Bradstreet to seize the fort, a contingent of troops under Colonel Charles Clinton at Fort Herkimer (German Flats, Mohawk Valley) joined Bradstreet’s advance. James Clinton remained in the service throughout the conflict (called the Seven Years’ War in Europe and French and Indian War in North America). During November 1763, Clinton was appointed captain commandant by Lieutenant Gov. James Colden and focused on raising a corps of volunteers, James Clinton (Pictorial Field Book of known as the “guards of the the Revolution, Benson J. Lossing, frontier.” The unit, composed of four companies and about 1860)

CLINTON 200 troops, defended a section of the northern frontier that stretched about fifty miles. After peace was restored, Clinton left the service and resumed his private life in Little Britain. Several years later, on 18 February 1765, James married Mary De Witt, the daughter of Egbert and Mary (Maria) Nottingham De Witt, and from that marriage, the couple had four sons, Alexander, Charles, De Witt, and George. And they had three daughters, Mary, Elizabeth and Katherine. Prior to the outbreak of the American Revolution, Clinton became a lieutenant colonel in the Orange County militia. At the onset of war, he entered the Continental Army. In the meantime, his brother George had been a member of the New York assembly. Both remained aligned with the Patriots’ cause. On 18 March 1774, James was appointed lieutenant colonel (2nd Militia Regiment). During 1775, on the 30th of June, less than one month after the battles of Lexington and Concord, James Clinton was appointed colonel of the 3rd New York Regiment, which was raised pursuant to the orders of the Continental Congress. That year, on 26 October, the New York Provincial Congress appointed Clinton colonel of the regiment of foot for Ulster County. New York had pledged four regiments, each being composed of three companies, to the Continental Army. In addition to James’ regiment, the 1st New York was commanded by Alexander McDougal and assigned the defense of New York City, the 2nd by Colonel Goose Van Schaick with responsibility for Albany and the northern sector of the colony, and the 4th New York was commanded by Colonel James Holmes. Colonel James Clinton participated in the Canadian expedition in which the Americans sustained a devastating defeat on 31 December 1775 at Quebec City. By the following year, he was promoted to the rank of brigadier general, along with five other officers, James Reed, John Nixon, Arthur St. Clair, Alexander McDougal and Samuel Holden Parsons, each receiving a commission on 9 August 1776. During the following year, the British under General Henry Clinton moved to seize the American fortifications along the Hudson River, specifically, Forts Clinton and Montgomery, defended by about 500 to 600 troops, primarily militia. On 5 October 1777, a large British force landed at Verplank’s Point below Fort Independence. The strategy was misread by General Israel Putnam, who was convinced General Henry Clinton’s Redcoats were going to strike Fort Independence and from there jump toward Albany. Consequently, the Americans did not reinforce Forts Clinton and Montgomery, which were under the command of Generals George and James Clinton, but were on the opposite side of the Hudson and out of reach for the main body in the heights. During the night of the 5th, the British left a force at Verplank’s Point and proceeded up the river undetected by the Americans. On the following morning, the British debarked at Stony Point (west bank of the river), and two separate columns, moving under the cover of fog, advanced yet again without being spotted by the Americans. Both forts were considered untenable, but Fort Clinton was able to raise tenacious resistance for a while. The forces under General Putnam heard the tumultuous exchange but remained too distant to relieve the beleaguered defenders. In addition to reducing both forts, the British snared the American vessels that were unable to break out. Nonetheless, the vessels were self-destroyed at dusk rather than allowed to fall into the hands of the enemy. Forts Clinton, Montgomery and then Fort Independence (separate from Mount Independence, across the river in Vermont) fell to the British. On 7 October, the British also compelled the defenders of Fort Constitution to capitulate, giving the British an open path to Albany. The Royal Navy advanced some distance, and upon arriving at Kingston, they burned the town but inexplicably made no move against Albany, where Clinton’s army would have been in the rear of General Horatio Gates’ forces at Saratoga and positioned to bolster John Bur-

76 goyne. Meanwhile, Generals James and George Clinton were among the last to evacuate the American lines when the forts fell. General George Clinton escaped by boat, while his brother James, despite being seriously injured by a bayonet, managed to break for safety by haphazardly traversing a steep slope upon which his fall was broken by a tree. He made it to a stream, which inadvertently aided his wound. The water was so cold that it slowed the bleeding. On the following morning, still holding the bridle to his horse, which he abandoned during his escape, he acquired a stray horse that was roaming the area. General Clinton then made the ride to his house, where he received aid for his wound and the fever he had contracted. In the meantime, another British army under General John Burgoyne was driving to hook up with Sir Henry Clinton’s forces; however, during September–October 1777, Burgoyne was defeated by forces under the overall command of General Horatio Gates, which prevented the two massive forces from combining their strength. During 1778, General James Clinton was deployed at West Point, where he focused on the defense of that post. Nonetheless, the British continued to focus on New York, using a combination of allied Indians and Loyalists under Chief Joseph Brant and Colonel John Butler, respectively, to wreak havoc on the Cherry Valley and surrounding region. The Cherry Valley Massacre occurred on 11 November 1778. To eliminate the lingering problem, General George Washington authorized General John Sullivan to initiate an expedition during the following spring to destroy the enemy’s ability to strike at will. In conjunction with the Sullivan expedition (1779), Colonel Daniel Brodhead advanced from Fort Pitt at Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, to destroy the Indian strongholds along the frontier. General James Clinton participated in Sullivan’s expedition. During early June, General Clinton advanced from Albany heading toward the Indian territory. After reaching Schenectady, the contingent moved along the Mohawk River to Canajoharie. Later, on 1 July, Clinton’s camp at Canajoharie was disassembled and the contingent moved to the mouth of Lake Otsego, where it rejoined the boats that had been sent ahead. From there, Clinton’s force moved down the Susquehanna River to Tioga (Pennsylvania), where he linked up with General Sullivan on 22 August. Soon after, on 29 August, the army engaged the Indians at the Battle of Newtown (also Battle of Chemung or Battle of Newton), New York. The Indians were vanquished. The Indians, prior to the arrival of the Americans, believed their positions to have been invulnerable to attack due to the inability of the army to navigate the wilderness and reach their safe haven. By 14 September, General Sullivan’s expeditionary force arrived at the Genesee River, having ravaged the lands of the Cayugas, Onondagas and Senecas. In early 1780, General Clinton was again deployed at West Point, and it was during his service there that General Benedict Arnold had been discovered as a traitor. In October 1780, General Washington selected General James Clinton for a new command, that of the Northern Department. In a letter to Clinton, who at the time was at West Point, Washington stated: As it is necessary there should be an officer in whom the State has confidence, to take the general direction of affairs at Albany and on the frontier, I have fixed upon you for this purpose, and request you will proceed to Albany without delay, and assume the command. You will be particularly attentive to the post at Fort Schuyler, and do everything in your power to have it supplied with a good stock of provisions and stores, and you will take every other precaution the means at your command will permit for the security of the frontier, giving the most early advice of any incursions of the enemy.

On 20 November 1778, General James Clinton assumed command of the Northern Department, succeeding Brigadier General Edward Hand. Clinton held the position until 25 June 1781. During August, General Clinton headed south to participate in the Virginia campaign against General Cornwallis. While in command at Albany, a group

77 from one regiment initiated mutiny. General Clinton arrived on the scene and gave an order to march, which was disobeyed. Clinton, unimpaired with modern-day legal advice, simply placed his pistol into the chest of a ringleader, an obstinate sergeant, and repeated the action with several others and reissued his order. The mutiny ended and the regiment gave General Clinton no further problems. General John Stark succeeded General Clinton as commander of the Northern Department. Subsequent to the surrender of Cornwallis’ army at Yorktown during October 1781, General Clinton returned to New York and remained at Albany until the following year. During spring of 1782, he became incensed when Congress made some command changes that placed junior officers ahead of him. He recorded his disappointment, but he did not leave the army. Instead, he joined General Washington, and he was with the Continental Army at New York when it was abandoned by the British. His resignation was accepted by Congress on 3 November 1783. Following his retirement, General Clinton returned to his home in Little Britain. He served on the New York convention that ratified the U.S. Constitution, and he served in other capacities as well, including the New York Senate and as a commissioner charged with aligning the boundary line separating Pennsylvania and New York. With regard to the ratification of the federal Constitution, George, the unanimously elected chairman of the convention, and his brother, James Clinton, opposed its ratification; however, once it was ratified at Poughkeepsie ( July 26, 1788), both Clinton brothers supported the action. General James Clinton succumbed at home on 22 December 1812. His brother George succumbed that same year on the 20 April while in Washington, D.C., serving as vice president under President James Madison. General James Clinton was interred at a family burial site in Orange County. De Witt Clinton, the governor of New York and the son of General James Clinton, left these remarks: “His life was principally devoted to the military service of his country, and he had filled, with fidelity and honor, several distinguished civil offices. He was an officer in the revolutionary war and the war preceding, and at the close of the former was a major-general in the army of the United States. He was a good man and a sincere patriot; performing in the most exemplary manner all the duties of life, and he died as he had lived, without fear and without reproach.” James’ father succumbed on 19 November 1773 and his mother died on Christmas Day, 1779. James’ wife, Mary, succumbed on 12 September 1795. Also, James’ son, Alexander, died by drowning in the Hudson River while serving in Colonel John Lamb’s regiment.

Clymer, George (Signer of the Declaration of Independence and of the U.S. Constitution) George Clymer was born in the city of Philadelphia on 16 March 1739. His father, Christopher Clymer, a sea captain, belonged to the Church of England. He emigrated from Bristol, England. George’s mother, Deborah Fitzwater, was a Quaker who had been shunned by the sect. Both of George’s parents died while he was young, but he escaped the life of the ordinary orphan. An uncle and aunt, William and Hannah Coleman, took it upon themselves to raise George. Initially, his uncle, a wealthy Quaker, ensured that he received a good education and that he learned business practices. George worked as an apprentice in a counting house to learn the basics. Later, with the assistance of his uncle, he became an established merchant in association with another businessman, Robert Ritchie. However, he was never infatuated by the mercantile business. In fact, he remained quite disinterested due primarily to his distaste for sudden gains or sudden losses. Upon the death of his uncle during 1769, George became the recipient of a large inheritance. By that time, he had been married (March 1765) to Elizabeth Meredith, the daughter of another merchant, Reese Meredith. George and Elizabeth had eight children: William Cole-

CLYMER man (1766, d. about 1776), named after George’s uncle; John Meredith (b. about 1769, d. 1794); Henry Meredith (1767, married Mary Willing); Elizabeth (1772, died in infancy); Margaret (1772, married George McCall); Nancy (1784, also known as Ann, married Charles Lewis); George (married Maria O’Brien); and Julian (b. 1780, died same year). Clymer’s business eventually merged with his fatherin-law’s business (Mr. Meredith and Son) and that George Clymer (Biographical Sketches arrangement continued until of the Signers of the Declaration of his father-in-law succumbed. When the colonies were Independence, Benson J. Lossing, 1854) stung by the Stamp Act during 1765, Clymer was among the protestors in Philadelphia. Afterward, he became the leader of a committee of vigilance. Later, George climbed deeper into the cause when he was appointed a member of the council of safety. All the while, the situation between the colonies and Britain continued to deteriorate and swing further away from any chance of reconciliation. In Philadelphia during 1773, when a vessel laden with tea arrived, Clymer was appointed to a committee to ensure the cargo was not sold. His committee was able to bring the incident to a final solution without any violence. The tea was not unloaded and sold in the city. After the skirmishes at Lexington and Concord in April 1775, Clymer had for a short while commanded a company of militia under General John Cadwalader’s command; however, during the latter part of July, he was called by Congress to become a treasurer, which compelled him to relinquish his command. The Congressional resolution of 29 July said: “Resolved, That Michael Hillegas, and George Clymer, Esqrs. be, and they are hereby appointed, joint treasurers of the United Colonies: that the Treasurers reside in Philadelphia, and that they shall give bond, with surety, for the faithful performance of their office, in the sum of 100,000 Dollars, to John Hancock, Henry Middleton, John Dickinson, John Alsop, Thomas Lynch, Richard Henry Lee, and James Wilson, Esqrs. and the survivor of them, in trust for the United Colonies.” Clymer’s dedication to the American cause prompted him to exchange his personal specie for Continental currency. While the sentiments throughout the colonies seemed to favor independence by 1776, the Pennsylvania delegates to Congress remained convinced that war might still be avoided. Nevertheless, the colonies continued to step up the war footing. Clymer was one of the first to commit a large sum of money to the cause. When the final decision came to cut the ties with Britain, some of the Pennsylvania delegates refused to concur with the vote and vacated their congressional seats. Pennsylvania and Congress wasted no time filling the void. On 20 July, the Pennsylvania delegates presented the credentials of its new delegates: George Clymer, George Ross, Benjamin Rush, George Taylor and James Wilson. Although they had not been there to vote on the Fourth of July, each later signed the Declaration of Independence. Shortly after he was admitted to Congress, on 20 September, George Clymer, as a member of the Secret Committee, was sent to Ticonderoga to investigate the condition of the Northern Army. On 23 November, Clymer was appointed to a committee to devise methods to streamline reinforcements to the front lines and to come up with tactics to hinder British progress on the field. The committee recommended that the battalions of Associators (Pennsyl-

COBB vania) be gathered and units from each be raised to serve with the Continental Army until 10 March of 1777. Subsequently, when Congress was compelled to abandon Philadelphia for Baltimore, Clymer, along with others, was selected to remain behind in the city. On 21 December 1776, Congress resolved “that Robert Morris, George Clymer, and George Walton, Esqrs. be a committee of Congress, with powers to execute such continental business as may be proper and necessary to be done at Philadelphia.” Nonetheless, General George Washington thwarted the threat against the city by his stunning victory at Trenton on the day after Christmas. The next March, Clymer was again elected to serve in Congress; however, by that time, his health had deteriorated. He was forced to request a leave of absence in May 1777. Subsequent to regaining his health and vitality, he resumed his seat in Congress. In 1777, Clymer was placed on a committee assigned to investigate the conditions of the army under General Washington and simultaneously charged with determining the validity of complaints against the commissary department. While the British were advancing toward Philadelphia after defeating the Americans at Brandywine (1777), George Clymer’s family had been out of the city in Chester County to evade calamity; however, Loyalists betrayed their location and soon after, the Redcoats appeared. The home was ravaged and everything and anything that could be carried was taken by the raiders. Most of his spirits were liquidated before the British departed. The family escaped harm by hiding in nearby woods. Clymer’s reputation had reached the British prior to their arrival in Philadelphia. Once they occupied it, a detachment was sent to destroy his residence. The British prepared to level it, but they were informed they had arrived at the wrong house, one on Cherry Street that belonged to his aunt. After some embarrassment, they retired, leaving the building stand. On 11 December 1777, Congress appointed George Clymer as the commissioner to the western frontiers to replace Colonel Reed, who declined. Clymer, who had been a member of the Board of War, was charged with investigating atrocities committed by the hostile Indians. The raids, in addition to terrorizing the settlers, was causing problems for the Americans with Delaware and Shawnee tribes that remained friendly to the cause. He completed the perilous journey and arrived at Fort Pitt at Pittsburgh during early January 1778. Clymer also contributed money to establish a bank in Philadelphia to support the army and Congress when the entire cause was on the brink of collapse. The endeavor included the support of John Nixon. Clymer became a director of the board that operated the bank. Later, during 1780, he again was elected to Congress. During that term, he supported the efforts in Congress by Robert Morris to establish a national bank (Bank of North America). Although most of George Clymer’s term in office was serious business and at times placed his life in danger, other events were much more enjoyable, and one such task was his appointment of 2 July 1781 to the committee charged with setting up the festivities for the celebration for the Fourth of July. Following a mission to the South during 1782 regarding the difficulties with the southern states fulfilling the requisitions for supplies, he returned to Philadelphia and afterward decided to relocate in Princeton, New Jersey. His stay there was short. Due to the political situation in Philadelphia, he abandoned New Jersey, relocated back in Philadelphia and within a short while was elected to the Pennsylvania legislature. While in the legislature, Clymer and others of similar mind worked to eliminate the more ancient laws that had long suppressed the citizens. One of the instituted changes included the elimination of the death penalty, except for first degree murder. Another major change introduced by Clymer was the elimination of chain gangs, a practice the British employed to further intimidate American prisoners. Later, while still in the legislature, Clymer was appointed as a del-

78 egate to the Constitutional Convention. Following the birth of the U.S. Constitution and ratification, he was elected to the first U.S. Congress under the Constitution. He declined serving a second term. After Clymer’s retirement, President George Washington appointed him as the revenue supervisor for the state of Pennsylvania, subsequent to Congress passing an act in 1791 that placed a tax on spirits. The position was at times more dangerous than when he was endangered by the enemy during the war, particularly when he was engaged in the western part of the state, which was still a frontier that contained settlers who were reluctant to part with their money. The frontiersmen had a low opinion of the revenue man. Violence erupted (Whiskey Rebellion) and the military was called to suppress the insurrection. During the Whiskey Rebellion (1794), George’s son, John, a member of an army unit dispatched during the rebellion, was mortally wounded at Parkinson’s Ferry (present-day Monongahela). Shortly after the death of his son, Clymer resigned from his appointment as commissioner. Nevertheless, Clymer did not retire from public life. During 1796, George Clymer, Colonel Benjamin Hawkins and Colonel Andrew Pickens were appointed as commissioners charged with the responsibility of consummating a treaty with the Cherokee and Creek Indians in the state of Georgia. The commissioners traveled by ship and en route, the vessel encountered a horrific storm that nearly destroyed it. Nonetheless, it arrived safely at Charleston to the jubilation of all aboard. The mission, which came to be Clymer’s final public service, succeeded when a treaty was agreed upon on 29 June 1796. He returned to Philadelphia, where he spent his remaining days engaged in various private endeavors, including a firm commitment to the arts and sciences. George Clymer was heavily involved with the establishment of the Academy of Fine Arts and became its initial president. He was equally fervent with his support of the Philadelphia Agriculture Society and was selected as its first vice president. From the beginning, his political leanings were with the Democratic-Republicans (present-day Democrats). His political skills were efficient; however, unlike many of his colleagues, he was not known for his oratory skills. He rarely spoke in the public forum; however, he did when he felt it necessary and in those cases he was known to be effective. Nonetheless, his method was always to speak clearly, without a mask of eloquence, and often with strong words to get to his point across without delay and in the process dismantle whoever was presenting the opposing view. George Clymer succumbed on 23 January 1813 while at his estate known as Summerseat, which he acquired during 1806. It was located just outside Philadelphia at Morrisville. He was interred across the Delaware River at a Friends Meeting House Cemetery in Trenton, New Jersey.

Cobb, Brigadier General David David Cobb, the son of Thomas and Lydia Leonard Cobb, was born in Attleborough, Massachusetts, on September 14, 1748. David received an excellent education, including tutoring by Joseph Marsh, Jr., who operated a Latin (or classical) school in Braintree. Afterward, he entered Harvard and graduated during 1766. Also that year, David relocated in Taunton and he married Eleanor Bradish. Eleanor was the daughter of Ebenezer and Eunice Cook Bradish of Cambridge, Massachusetts. Her father operated the Bradish Tavern (later Porter’s Hotel), a prominent gathering place. David and Eleanor, according to the memoir of General Cobb, had the following children: Eleanor Bradish (b. March 1767, married James Hodges to become his second wife); Betsey (b. June 1768, married Ebenezer Smith); Thomas (b. January 1772, married Abigail Hall); William Gray (b. February 1773, died unmarried while serving in the campaign of General St. Clair, 1791); Eunice (b. November 1774, married Samuel Wilde); Mary (b. July 1776, married John Black); David (b. April 1778, died during campaign against Indians in 1794); Sally ( January 1780, died at seventeen);

CONWAY

79 Ebenezer Bradish (b. October 1781, died unmarried in 1840); Henry Jackson (b. December 1784, died unmarried, 1848); David George Washington (b. January 1794, subsequent to the death of his brother David, the name David was added to his name; he married Abby Crocker, daughter of Samuel Crocker). David Cobb studied medicine under Doctor Perkins (thought to be Richard Perkins of Bridgewater), but it is uncertain whether at Boston or Bridgewater, Massachusetts. Later, during 1774, Cobb was elected to the General Court and his brother-in-law, Robert Treat Paine (signer of Declaration of Independence), served in that body at the same time. Robert Treat Paine had married Sally, the sister of David. During the following year, Cobb became the surgeon of Colonel Thomas Marshall’s regiment and served with the unit from May through December 1775. On 12 January 1777, David joined Henry Jackson’s Continental Regiment, which was designated the 16th Massachusetts Regiment, on 23 July 1780. Colonel Cobb transferred to the 9th Massachusetts Regiment on 1 January 1781; however, his military activity had been observed by General George Washington and later, on 15 June 1781, Washington selected David as aide-de-camp, a position he retained until 7 January 1783. On 30 September, Colonel Cobb was awarded the rank of brevet brigadier general. General Cobb retired from the service that November. Due to his service with General Washington, a true friendship developed, and General Cobb, following the cessation of hostilities, spent a few months at Mount Vernon prior to resuming his medical practice. In 1784 he was appointed chief justice of the Court of Common Pleas (Bristol County), a post that he retained until about 1792. In the meantime, in 1785, he was selected by the legislature as major-general of militia in command of the 5th Massachusetts Division. Cobb’s mettle as a general would be tested the next June, as would his demeanor as a judge in jeopardy. An insurrection known as Shay’s Rebellion erupted, literally at the court’s doorsteps. An unruly mob moved to prevent the court from holding session. Cobb, who always presided while wearing his uniform and cocked hat, faced with the challenge, remained calm as he ordered the renegades out of the court, while informing them that he “would sit as judge or die as general.” His combination of courage and undaunted confidence prevailed. In conjunction, the militia was assembled under the command of General Benjamin Lincoln to deal with the crisis. On 20 January 1787, the militia took the offensive and swept through Worchester, Hampshire and Berkshire counties, with the insurgents scattering as the troops advanced. The rebels tried to hold ground at Petersham, Massachusetts, however, the militia struck suddenly during the night of 3–4 February 1787 and extinguished the insurrection. Its leader, Daniel Shay, fled to Canada. During 1789, General Cobb was again elected to the General Court and as speaker of the House. He served in that capacity for four years. At the end of his terms, during 1792, General Cobb was appointed as commissioner charged with drawing the boundary to separate Massachusetts and Rhode Island, a task that had been disputed by both states for well more than one hundred years. In addition, Cobb was also elected to the U.S. Congress during 1793, and he remained there until 1795. Also in 1795, General Cobb became agent for the Bingham estate in Maine, and at about that same time or early the following year, he moved to Gouldsborough and constructed a home at Gouldsborough Point with the dream of establishing a city there. He oversaw the blueprints for roads and the construction of various enterprises such as the creation of saw mills, building of ships and the establishment of wharves and warehouses. General Cobb also engaged in agricultural ventures. Nevertheless, his dream never materialized, as people in the region settled in other areas. General Cobb was elected to the state Senate, representing Hancock County, during 1801. He served as president of the body through

1803, was absent during 1804 and again served in the identical capacity during 1805. In the meantime, during 1803, the general was appointed chief justice of the Court of Common Pleas (Hancock County), a position he retained until 1809. Cobb was elected lieutenant governor of Massachusetts that year, but he served only one term after losing an election the following year to William Gray. His military career terminated during 1814, when he was succeeded as major general in command of the Tenth Massachusetts Division (militia) by John Blake of Brewer. In addition to the other positions, General Cobb had also served as supreme executive councilor in a district that encompassed Hancock County during the following years: 1805, 1808, 1812 to 1815, and again during 1817. Several years later, during 1820, he relinquished his position as manager of the vast Bingham estate, but the position remained in the family when his son-in-law, Colonel John Black, became his successor. By that time, General Cobb had been a widower for about twelve years and his health had begun to fail. Following the death of General Cobb’s wife (7 January 1808), his widowed daughter, Betsey Smith, moved into his residence to care for him. During the final segment of his life, General Cobb was transferred to the General Hospital of Boston, where he succumbed on 17 April 1830. A monument in his honor was erected at Taunton. In addition to his career as a physician, soldier and politician, General Cobb was involved with the Taunton Academy, the Society of the Cincinnati and the American Society of Arts and Sciences. His religious affiliation was with the Congregationalist Church.

Conway, Major General Thomas Thomas Conway was born in Donegal, Ireland, during 1733, but when he was about six years old, his parents immigrated to France. Thomas received his education and his military experience in France. While serving in the French army, Thomas, prior to deciding to travel to the colonies, achieved the rank of colonel and was made a knight of the order of St. Louis. His military credentials were sufficient to gain him a conference with the Silas Deane, the American agent in Paris. Consequently, with the support of Deane, Thomas sailed for America with promise of him becoming a general officer in the Continental Army. He initially landed in Boston and apparently lacked sufficient funds to travel further. General Heath, according to nineteenth century sources, provided the Irishman with money to permit him to repair to Washington’s headquarters. Afterward, Thomas arrived in Morristown, was introduced to General George Washington, and soon after, with the support of Washington, he was accepted as a general officer. In Philadelphia, on 13 May 1777, Congress considered a report on Conway from the committee on Foreign Applications, which included information on his thirty years in the French military and his service in the Irish Brigades, the latter since 9 November 1772. After consideration of the report, Congress appointed Thomas as a brigadier general. Within a few months, General Conway had become disgruntled with his chain of command, and by the latter part of September 1777, he filed a complaint against Major General Lord Stirling (General William Alexander). Shortly thereafter, General Conway plunged into further controversy by becoming a major player in a conspiracy to oust General Washington as commander-in-chief. In the meantime, General Conway participated at the Battles of Brandywine and Germantown on 11 September and 4 October 1777, respectively. Thomas had been assigned command of four Pennsylvania regiments (General Alexander’s [Lord Stirling’s] division). On 11 October, General Conway began to unfold what became known as the “Conway Cabal” when he wrote to General Horatio Gates suggesting that Washington should be replaced and that Gates should be named commander-in-chief. At about that time, Charles Carroll was dispatched to Valley Forge as part of a committee charged with investigating complaints against General Washington. Prior to

CORNELL the inquiry, the Board of War suddenly gained members who were political adversaries of Washington, increasing the power of those against him. Generals Gates and Mifflin became members and Gates was installed as president. Charles Carroll became aware of the danger to Washington, due to certain incidents, including noticing John Adams, Sam Adams and Doctor Benjamin Rush joining with Washington’s enemies. The plot began to unfold during October 1777, and Carroll traveled to Valley Forge to confer with Washington. Carroll made several trips, and at one point, Doctor Rush tried to enlist Carroll to side against Washington and support a move to arrest Washington and place Gates in command. Carroll denounced the action and remained loyal, along with Governeur Morris and others, to ensure the conspiracy failed. General Washington also learned some of the particulars of the conspiracy on 3 November, when Lord Stirling gave him a copy of the letter from Conway to Gates. At about the same time, General Conway was attempting to use his persuasion to be promoted to major general; but similarly to other cases of foreigners’ promotions, there was much opposition to promoting Conway over American generals. At the point of the opposition stood Washington and Charles Carroll. In the letter to Gates, General Conway had written: “Heaven had been determined to save your country, or a weak general and bad counsellors would have ruined it....” Later, on 24 November, Congress received a letter from General Conway and a copy of his commission, which informed Congress of Conway’s intent to resign from the service. Congress took no action and ignored his threat to resign, while Conway’s allies in Congress toiled to get him promoted to further their purposes in the ongoing struggle to oust Washington. During a Saturday session in York, Pennsylvania, on 13 December, Congress resolved to appoint two inspectors generals. General Conway was appointed as the first inspector general and action on the second appointee was postponed. On that same day, Congress promoted General Conway to the rank of major general. By 23 December, the conspiracy was foiled. Some in Congress and some in the military that were implicated later claimed no involvement. General Conway lingered for a while, but he was shortly thereafter left with few options other than to return to France. Various unsigned letters that placed blame on the poor condition of the army on Washington circulated and other unfounded charges were included; however, supporters of Washington, including Patrick Henry and John Laurens, had forwarded copies of the letters to Washington, keeping him abreast of the conspirators’ actions. On 22 March 1778, Congress ordered General Conway to repair to Peekskill. Congress resolved “that General Conway be directed to repair to the army at Pecks Kill, now under the command of General M’Dougal, who, while he continues in that command, is authorized to draw on Jonathan Trumbull, Esqr. pay master in the northern department, for money to answer such demands as relate to the army on Hudson’s river.” Conway was also to have participated as second in command in a scheduled plan to again invade Canada; however, Lafayette, the senior commander, refused to accept Conway and the expedition was scrapped. On 28 March 1778, Frederick von Steuben became inspector general, but his appointment was not confirmed until the following May when Congress also appointed him a major general. General Steuben succeeded General Conway as inspector general; however, General Conway never actually assumed the duties of the post and General Steuben is recognized as the first effective U.S. Army inspector general. During the following month, General Conway closed his military career in the United States. On 28 April, Congress received a letter from him in which he requested permission to resign from the army. Congress, to the great surprise of Conway, accepted his resignation. Having lost his congressional allies, he nevertheless traveled to York, Pennsylvania, in an attempt to reverse his resignation; however, by that time, Washington and his allies had unraveled the conspiracy to the

80 point where some denied any anti–Washington sentiments. Conway’s resignation was not modified. With additional discontent, Conway repaired to Philadelphia, where his negativity continued to rile others, particularly General Cadwalader, who tired of Conway’s antics and accusations about General Washington. Later, General Cadwalader became totally incensed and the animosity led to a duel between Cadwalader and Conway on 4 July 1778. Conway sustained a wound by a shot that entered his mouth and exited through the back of his neck. While an unscathed General Cadwalader stood nearby, Conway slumped to the ground face-first, but he managed to lift himself somewhat, glance at Cadwalader and say: “General, you fire with much deliberation and certainly with a great deal of effect.” Cadwalader’s response, if any, was apparently not recorded. Apparently, it was not quite as effective as thought by Conway, who, along with his attending physician, believed it to be a fatal wound. Within a few days he penned a letter of apology to General Washington, exclaiming his sorrow for having “done, written or said any thing disagreeable to your excellency. My career will soon be over, therefore justice and truth prompt me to declare my last sentiments....” Subsequent to his recovery, General Conway was unable to reinitiate any former friendships. He departed Philadelphia on 23 November 1778 en route back to France, where he resumed his military service. During 1784, he became maréchal de camp, and later he was appointed governor of Pondicherry and the French settlements in Hindostan. While in India, Conway’s propensity for adversity again emerged. His relationship with Tipoo Sahib (Tipu Sahib), the sultan of Mysore, flared into a heated dispute known to have caused worsening relations between France and India. During 1792, General Conway was ordered to assume command of the troops (Royalists) in southern France; however, it was a time of turbulence in France, as revolution was rapidly unfolding. General Conway, an ally of the monarchy, fled the country to escape the guillotine. He is thought to have died while in exile during 1800. In later years, John Jay related his sentiments about the Conway Cabal: “The actions of Congress behind closed doors would forever conceal from the world these actions by Congress against Washington because only he and John Adams, remain alive.” At the time of the revelation, Adams was near death. Jay continued to reveal the details of the secret sessions to remove George Washington. He stated that had the doors of Congress been open, the perpetrators would never have attempted to “injure Washington with the Army and the people.”

Cornell, Brigadier General Ezekiel Ezekiel Cornell, the son of Richard and Content Brownell Cornell, was born in Scituate, Rhode Island, during 1732. He received a fundamental education, but he neither attended college nor traveled to Europe to further his studies. Ezekiel had a mechanical aptitude and pursued the profession as a mechanic; however, he also engaged in farming. During 1760, on 19 January, according to the Dartmouth Vital Statistics, Ezekiel married Rachel Wood. Their children included Ezra (1762) and Rhoda (b. 1765, married Caleb Aldrich). During 1766, Cornell was elected as deputy to the General Assembly. Prior to his entrance into the military, he also served as a justice of the peace. On 2 May 1775, Ezekiel was appointed lieutenant colonel (attached to Colonel Daniel Hitchcock’s regiment, 2nd Rhode Island), and he remained with the regiment until it was disbanded during December 1775. When the Continental Army was reorganized 1 January 1776, the 2nd Rhode Island Regiment, commanded by Colonel Daniel Hitchcock, became the 11th Continental Regiment. Cornell served with the regiment as lieutenant colonel from 1 January 1776 until October of that year, when he was appointed to Washington’s staff and became deputy adjutant-general, a position he held until December. Afterward, Cornell was appointed brigadier general of the Rhode Island

CRAIG

81 militia. Subsequently, General Cornell was appointed as inspector of the Continental Army on 19 September 1782. In that capacity, he served for the duration. In the meantime, General Ezekiel Cornell participated in the siege of Boston as well as the actions in and around New York and Long Island. At the latter, while in Hempstead, Cornell transformed an Episcopal Church (St. George’s) into his headquarters and ordered the pastor to refrain from saying any prayers for the king or the royal family. Later that year, Cornell was with Washington’s staff during the attack against Trenton in December 1776 and Princeton in early January 1777. Afterward, Cornell participated in the defense of Rhode Island. During General John Sullivan’s campaign of 1778 against British-held Newport, Cornell commanded a brigade. On 24 August 1778, during the siege of Newport, General George Washington informed General Sullivan that about 100 British ships were en route to bolster Newport. Sullivan was soon after ordered to abandon the trenches and retire toward Butts Hill (Aquidneck Island) to await the return of a French fleet under Admiral D’Estaing, but the latter did not arrive. Nevertheless, Sullivan was able to evacuate. By the night of 28 August, the siege was abandoned. The forces — including those of Nathanael Greene, John Glover, John Tyler, James Varnum and Ezekiel Cornell — deployed to defend against a British attack during the pre-dawn hours of the 29. By dawn on the 30th, the British discovered that Sullivan had fled, and General Robert Pigot immediately initiated pursuit. A fierce battle ensued at Quaker Hill, with both sides sustaining heavy casualties; however, Glover’s artillery held the British at bay and Sullivan’s army was able to safely make it to the mainland. General Cornell retained his rank until 16 March 1780. That year he became a member of the Continental Congress, which he served through 1782. At that same time (1780), Daniel Mowry, James M. Varnum, and John Collins were also elected as Rhode Island representatives in Congress. On 1 May of the following year, Cornell was reelected, along with John Collins, Jonathan Arnold and David Howell. Meanwhile, by October of 1780, Congress was attempting to snap back from some serious problems, including the loss of Charleston in May followed by the debacle at Camden in which General Horatio Gates suffered a terrific loss and the treachery of Benedict Arnold. General Washington had urged Congress to adapt to the fast-changing circumstances and to place all military affairs under its power. General Cornell had been appointed during the latter part of August to a five-man committee, and its challenge included consideration of three-year drafts to prevent catastrophe and to draw up a plan of reorganization. Others on the committee included Samuel Adams, Joseph Jones, Thomas McKean and John Morin Scott. The committee worked in conjunction with Baron von Steuben and concluded that Congress was to direct each state to field a complete complement of troops by 1 December 1780. The plan was adopted on 21 September. The problems stretched across all of the armed forces, including military installations. The Springfield Armory had fallen into deplorable condition. On 30 July 1781, the Board of War authorized changes that had been carried out by the inspector general, Ezekiel Cornell. The modifications included Captain William Hawes (formerly in command of the harness-makers) being retained as captain of the artificers, and Captain John Bryant (formerly captain lieutenant) of Crane’s artillery regiment being retained as captain in the laboratory. The other officers at the arsenal were discharged. Ezekiel Cornell retired from public life during 1782 and returned to Scituate, Massachusetts. He succumbed on 25 April 1800, the year following the demise of his wife, Rachel, who had died in August. At the time of his death, General Cornell was living in Milford, Massachusetts; however, he was interred at Scituate. His burial place remains unknown.

Craig, Isaac (Marine) Isaac Craig was born in Ireland at Hillsborough in County Down during 1741. He immigrated to America between 1765 and 1767 and settled in Philadelphia, where he lived with several brothers. Isaac was a carpenter and a cabinet maker. Shortly after the Marine Corps was established (10 November 1775), Isaac, on 29 November, was commissioned as a first lieutenant in the corps and attached to the Andrew Doria, commanded by Captain Nicholas Biddle. Captain Biddle’s Andrew Doria participated in the initial invasion by the Continental Navy when New Providence in the Bahamas was seized during March 1776; the American flag was raised for the first time on foreign soil following the first amphibious invasion by American Marines. The invasion was unopposed and the landing force while on the island sustained no battle casualties. On 22 October 1776, Isaac Craig was promoted to captain of Marines and was assigned to the galley Champion. Meanwhile, the British were in pursuit of the Continental Army as it moved through New Jersey en route to Pennsylvania to escape destruction following the grueling summer campaigns in and around New York. After a short cruise aboard the Champion, Captain Craig returned to Philadelphia, where General George Washington was soliciting reinforcements. In response, Major Samuel Nicholas (considered first commandant of the Marine Corps) led a small battalion of Marines to bolster the Continental Army. Captain Craig served as adjutant. On 27 December 1776, the day following Washington’s spectacular victory at Trenton, New Jersey, the Marines arrived in Burlington, slightly below Trenton. The battalion joined with the Pennsylvania militia under General John Cadwalader. Captain Craig afterward participated at the Battle of Princeton on 3 January. During early February 1777, the artillery contingents that had been with General Washington departed; however, their artillery pieces were left behind. Captain Craig and his contingent of Marines were directed to assume responsibility for the artillery. By the following month, Captain Craig switched services. On 3 March, he was commissioned a captain in the Pennsylvania Artillery Regiment, later the 4th Continental Artillery Regiment. Captain Craig requested that his resignation from the Marine Corps be accepted and it was approved. The British were halted by Washington, but they remained focused on seizing Philadelphia, and later that year a British fleet departed New York for the Chesapeake Bay, from where they launched an attack during the summer by advancing northward from Maryland. Captain Craig participated in the defense of Philadelphia, including the Battle of Brandywine in September 1777 and the Battle of Germantown on 3 October. After the fighting at Germantown, the British retired to Philadelphia, while the Continental Army moved to Valley Forge, which was where General Washington established winter quarters. Captain Craig, however, was spared from the depredations of the winter of 1777–1778 at the encampment. He, along with some other officers, was selected for a separate mission in Carlisle, Pennsylvania, where they group was to be instructed in the various “munitions laboratory techniques.” Craig remained at Carlisle until August 1778. Subsequently, during the following year, Captain Craig was appointed commander of Fort Billingsport, New Jersey, just south of Philadelphia on the western bank of the Delaware River. Later that year, he participated in the campaign against the Six Nations, led by General John Sullivan. The expedition was launched in retaliation for Indian hostilities in New York state in the area of the Genesee River. The campaign, which lasted from July through September 1777, ended successfully. Next Captain Craig rejoined the Continental Army at Morristown, New Jersey, during January 1780, and he remained with General Washington’s camp until 20 April 1780, when he was ordered to repair to Fort Pitt at Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. Craig led his artillery unit across the

CRAIG frontier and reached the fort on 29 May. During the following year, Captain Craig participated in an expedition led by George Rogers Cark that moved to the Falls of the Ohio (Louisville, Kentucky). Clark initiated the offensive after being informed that the British had planned to attack Fort Wheeling (West Virginia). The expedition lasted from July through November 1781. On 10 November, Clark retaliated after Indians attacked Blue Licks, Kentucky, by driving against Chillicothe (a group of Shawnee villages) in Ohio. The Indian towns were destroyed and the Kentucky riflemen who accompanied Clark were able to rescue some whites who were earlier captured. The troops also destroyed the crops of the Indians, ensuring extreme hardships during the winter of 1781–1782. The campaign terminated hostilities in the Northwest for the duration of the war. Captain Craig arrived back at Fort Pitt on the day after Christmas. While he was participating in the campaign, he had been promoted to the rank of major, effective 7 October 1781. In November of the next year, Captain Craig commanded a reconnaissance mission that advanced to the Cayahoga and Grand Rivers. The contingent returned to Fort Pitt during early December 1782. Captain Craig afterward continued to be posted at Fort Pitt until his retirement from the service on 17 June 1783. Subsequent to being separated from the army, Captain Craig settled in Pittsburgh and entered into a business partnership with Stephen A. Bayard. In 1784, he married Amelia Neville, the daughter of Colonel John Neville. Isaac’s career as a civilian prospered. He also became a member of Presbyterian Church in Pittsburgh, following the religion of his birth. He was also, during 1787, made a trustee of the Presbyterian Congregation of Pittsburgh and a member of the American Philosophical Society. Later, during 1791, Craig was offered the position as deputy quartermaster of the U.S. Army, and at the same time he was offered the position of “military storekeeper” in Pittsburgh. Several years later, during 1794, while the frontier was being ravaged by hostile Indians, Isaac declined the post of commissary general of the army commanded by General Anthony Wayne during the campaign which avenged the earlier losses, including a major defeat of Governor (general) Arthur St. Clair during 1791. Wayne’s campaign culminated by devastating the Indians at the Battle of Fallen Timers in Ohio on 20 August 1794. Afterward, the Treaty of Greenville (summer 1795) officially brought peace to the frontier. During 1795, Isaac entered into a partnership with General James O’Hara, and together the pair established a plant in Pittsburgh that became the first glass manufacturing company west of the Allegheny Mountains. The pots were made in Pittsburgh and the clay was brought into the plant from Philadelphia by mule trains and pack horses. Other sources for clay included Germany. The first green glass was created during 1800; the estimated cost of producing that first glass was $35,000. In the meantime, relations with France had deteriorated and the United States was preparing for war (Quasi War with France), but simultaneously, steps were taken to prepare for trouble with Spain, which still dominated the Mississippi River. The federal government authorized the construction of two row galleys, the President Adams and the Senator Ross, and Isaac Craig was appointed superintendent of the construction project. The vessels were scheduled to move down the Mississippi River to wrest control of the river. However, events in Europe changed the situation in the United States when France under Napoleon gained control of Louisiana and sold it to the United States in 1803, during the administration of President Thomas Jefferson. The trouble with France was confined to the sea and the conflict was ended during 1800 by the Treaty of Morfontaine, but relations with Britain continued to be poor and the War of 1812 followed. Despite his age, Craig served during the conflict. He utilized his knowledge learned many years ago while he was at Carlisle during the revolution. Craig was engaged in supplying munitions to the Northwestern Army. Isaac Crag died in 1826 on 14 May. He was interred at the First Pres-

82 byterian Graveyard, but later, during 1902, his remains were extricated and he was re-interred in the Allegheny Cemetery.

Craig, Major General Thomas Thomas Craig, the son of Thomas and Mary Craig, was born in Pennsylvania on 26 October 1739. Thomas was a farmer when the war erupted, but he exchanged his plow for a musket. On 5 January he was appointed captain in a company of militia attached to Colonel (later major general) Arthur St. Clair’s 2nd Battalion. He participated in the ill-fated campaign in Canada during 1775–1776. In September 1776, Thomas was promoted to the rank of lieutenant colonel of the 3rd Pennsylvania Regiment. During March of 1777, the regiment, composed in part from St. Clair’s 2nd Battalion and commanded by Colonel Joseph Wood, was entered into the Continental Army; however, Colonel Wood was compelled to relinquish command due to wounds sustained earlier while serving in Canada. Lt. Colonel Craig assumed command and remained with the regiment for the duration. Craig’s regiment participated in the defense of Philadelphia, and afterward, with the city under control of the British, the Continental Army established winter quarters in Valley Forge. In June 1778, the British abandoned Philadelphia with the forces of Washington in pursuit. Craig participated in various actions, including the battle of Monmouth. In January 1781, the regiment’s strength had been drained by casualties and expiration of enlistments; however, it was reorganized at Easton, Pennsylvania, and attached to General Anthony Wayne’s force. The regiment participated in the southern campaign in Virginia and afterward, Craig was ordered to join General Nathanael Greene in the Carolinas. After the war, Craig became a judge in Montgomery County, Pennsylvania, during 1784. Subsequently, during 1789, he relocated at Towamensing Township. General Craig was married to Dorothy Briner. In 1798, he was commissioned a major general in the Pennsylvania militia and retained the commission into the War of 1812 until 1814. General Craig succumbed on 20 January 1832.

Crane, Brigadier General John John Crane, the son of Abijah and Sarah Field Crane, was born in Milton, Massachusetts on 7 December 1744. While John was a young teenager of about fifteen, his father was drafted (1759) to serve in the French and Indian War. However, Abijah was medically unfit at the time and John volunteered in his place. Subsequently, about 1767, John and his wife, Mehitable Wheeler Crane, whom he married during the previous year, moved to Boston. Their children were Abijah, Isaac, John, Charlotte (Charlotta) and Mehitible. John Crane’s sentiments were aligned with the Patriots against the policies of the crown, and he was among the early members of the Sons of Liberty. During December 1773, John participated in the incident known as the Boston Tea Party when Patriots costumed as Mohawk Indians dumped a cargo of tea into Boston harbor. John had the dubious honor of becoming the only casualty of the raid. He sustained an injury and was discovered aboard the ship in the hold on the following day. The handed down story is that when he was recovered and had his boot removed, there was some tea in the boot. It was preserved as a family memento. Afterward, the nation continued to slide further away from the mother country. During 1774, Crane was commissioned as a lieutenant of artillery (Rhode Island militia). Following the clashes at Lexington and Concord, he arrived outside Boston and, on 3 May 1775, became a captain in Samuel Gridley’s artillery regiment. As an artillery officer major, he was known for expert marksmanship. On 10 December 1775, John was promoted to the rank of major (Knox’s Continental artillery regiment). He participated in the siege of Boston and, subsequent to the British abandonment of the city on 17 March 1776, he participated in the various actions in New York until he was wounded.

DAGWORTHY

83 During the following September, on the 14th at Corlaers Hook, on one of his usual missions firing at enemy positions and ships at sea, Crane’s artillery was firing at the HMS Rose in the East River (Hudson). He had an unusual ability to follow the trajectory of a flying shell, but once when an incoming round was en route, standing on one leg, he swiveled to avoid getting hit, but in the process, the shell hit the leg which was in motion in the air and caused serious injury. The shell tore off part of his foot. He sustained lockjaw, but survived to return to duty the following spring. At the time of his retirement he refused a pension, stating: “No, sir; they never shall never say that I eat their bread when I have done serving them.” In 1777, after spending time in Boston, he was promoted to the rank of colonel on 1 January and given command of the 3rd Continental Artillery Regiment. Colonel Crane then participated in the defense of Philadelphia, including the battles of Brandywine and Germantown. Following the fighting at Germantown, during October 1777, the British returned to Philadelphia and General Washington established winter quarters at Valley Forge. During June of 1778, the British evacuated Philadelphia and the Americans initiated pursuit. Colonel Crane’s regiment participated at the Battle of Monmouth ( June 1778), the final major battle in the northern states. Later, on 17 June 1783, Colonel Crane was transferred to Corps of Artillery. On 30 September that year, Colonel Crane was promoted to the rank of brevet brigadier general. On 3 November 1783, he retired and the next year he relocated in Quoddy (later Lubec), Maine. From there, during 1786, he moved to Orangetown (later Whiting), Maine and was appointed as the initial judge of common pleas court (Washington County). General Crane succumbed during August 1805. Though he had refused to accept a government pension, his commercial endeavors during the post-war period never succeeded and toward the latter part of his life, he was compelled to accept the help.

Cushing, Brigadier General Charles Charles Cushing, the son of John and Mary Cotton (second wife) Cushing was born in Scituate, Plymouth, Massachusetts, on 13 August 1734. Charles received an excellent education and chose law as a profession. He graduated from Harvard during 1755. In addition to his profession as an officer of the court, Cushing became a law officer. He was appointed as the first sheriff of Lincoln County, a post he held prior to the American Revolution and retained well after the close of hostilities. About 1760, Charles, along with his brothers William and Rowland, settled in Pownalboro. He married Elizabeth Sumner, the sister of Governor Sumner, during August 1768 and they resided in Pownalboro (later Dresden), Maine. Charles and Elizabeth had eight children; however, two of their daughters, born during 1770 and 1771, died during infancy. The others were: Elizabeth (b. March 1772, married Elisha Doane); Mary (b. January 1774, married Senator Eli Ashman and then Stephen Codman); Charles, Jr. (b. December 1775, married Ann Huske Sheafe); Sarah (b. November, 1777, married Charles Paine); Lucy (b. February 1780, married Henry Sheafe); and Harriet (b. March 1784, d. December 1807). In the meantime, during 1776, Cushing, with the rank of colonel, was appointed as commander of the Eastern Regiment of Maine. A fervent Patriot, while in the military he also maintained his position as sheriff, and the combined power made it especially uncomfortable for Loyalists in his region. In January 1777 Cushing was appointed brigadier general of Lincoln county militia. On 19 June, General Cushing proposed a plan to drive the British and Loyalists from Maine using the combined militias of Cumberland and Lincoln counties. That month, a British force arrived from Halifax and established positions (Fort George) at Penobscot Bay. The British later repulsed an American fleet and the landing

force due to timidity of the American command. The British controlled Castine until 1783. In the meantime, during the summer of 1780, militia from Lincoln County were directed to protect supplies and magazines, and they were ordered to repair to Providence to bolster forces under Colonels Jacobs and Wade. During the summer of 1780, John Jones led a band of Loyalists on a raid to seize Cushing. The raid succeeded. General Cushing was plucked from his bed and carried to Castine, where he was detained. General Cushing’s capture coincided with the end of his military service. After the war, General Cushing served as clerk of the courts (Suffolk and Nantucket counties) from 1783 until his death. Charles Cushing succumbed on 17 November 1810. His wife, Elizabeth, lived until 31 May 1817.

Cushing, Brigadier General Joseph Joseph Cushing, the son of Elijah and Elizabeth Barstow Cushing, was born in Hanover, Massachusetts, during March of 1731 or 1732. He pursued the study of law and subsequent to graduating Harvard (1752) with a master of arts degree, Joseph established his law practice in Plymouth County. That year, he married Ruth Stockbridge and together they had seven children: Ruth, Elizabeth, Charlotte, Joseph, Deborah, Benjamin and Horatio. Cushing was appointed probate judge of Plymouth County and retained the position throughout his life. During 1774–1775, Cushing participated in the provincial congresses. Later, during 1776, he became a member of the Hanover Committee of Correspondence. In the meantime, when the revolution erupted, he served in the Plymouth County militia, initially as a captain. Afterward, he was appointed brigadier general of the 1st Brigade, 5th Massachusetts Division. The details of General Cushing’s service in the field are scarce, which indicates that he was most probably engaged primarily in defensive activity. Nevertheless, during the Saratoga Campaign of 1777, General Cushing sped to Bennington and some contingents of his command participated at Saratoga. General Cushing’s health failed during the latter part of his life and his faculties diminished. He succumbed on 19 December 1791. His wife, Elizabeth, survived him and later succumbed on 12 February 1822.

Dagworthy, Brigadier General John The son of John and Sarah Ely Dagworthy, John Dagworthy was born in Trenton, New Jersey, on 30 March 1721. During 1746, he served in King George’s War. He formed a contingent of about 100 men and became its captain on 23 August 1746. Dagworthy’s company was attached to Colonel Peter Schuyler’s regiment (known as the Jersey Blues) and was scheduled to participate in an invasion of Canada. However, the operation was canceled. The regiment arrived at Saratoga, New York, during September 1746 and Captain Dagworthy deployed at Fort Clinton. The winter weather settled into the area, which increased the difficulties of the garrison. The following year, the fort was abandoned due to the inability to procure provisions. During the time in the Hudson Valley, five men in Dagworthy’s company succumbed and another ten deserted. In 1748, Captain Dagworthy received a commission as captain in the British Army. In September 1753, Dagworthy commanded two companies of rangers who were delegated to guard the border along western Maryland during the French and Indian War. During the conflict, Captain Dagworthy had a prolonged disagreement with Colonel (later general) George Washington regarding rank and command; however, Washington finally culminated the problem by repairing to Boston to confer with General Shirley. Initially, General Braddock sided with Dagworthy, but upon his death, the decision rested with General Shirley.

DANIELSON Part of the argument was whether Fort Cumberland was a king’s fort or a Maryland fort. Shirley concurred with Colonel Washington and confirmed Washington as being superior in rank. Governor Sharpe of Maryland had sided with Dagworthy; however, his attempts to persuade Shirley to side with Dagworthy failed. Shirley’s decision did not deter Dagworthy from remaining in the service. He continued as the commander of Fort Cumberland, which was less than a comfortable post. At the time, his troops were not receiving pay and the supply problems were deplorable. Nevertheless, his command, having great respect for Captain Dagworthy, remained loyal. During the ongoing dispute, Dagworthy ignored Washington’s directives whenever the latter was at Fort Cumberland, and the animosity impeded the cohesion of the garrison. The crisis also infuriated Governor Robert Dinwiddie of Virginia, who adamantly rejected any thought that a Maryland captain in command of a small company of troops would supersede a Virginia colonel and become commanderin-chief of Virginia troops, but the fort was in Maryland, not Virginia. Washington was authorized by Dinwiddie to place Captain Dagworthy under arrest; however, he took no action. In addition, Captain Dagworthy was acting on his previous commission in the British Army, which elevated him above provincial officers. Subsequently, Captain Dagworthy was promoted to lieutenant colonel. During 1758, Colonel Dagworthy, in command of a battalion of about 500 men, participated in the campaign against Fort Duquesne, and a contingent of his battalion was with Major James Grant’s vanguard when it sustained a devastating defeat. Fort Duquesne was seized on 25 November 1758 and afterward renamed Fort Pitt. Word of the fall of the French fortress was delivered in Baltimore by Colonel Dagworthy. In June 1759, Dagworthy acquired a patent to increase Pleasant Grove (Worcester County, Maryland), where he had earlier relocated. Additional land was awarded to Dagworthy for his services in the French and Indian War. Due to the drawing of the Mason Dixon Line, his property became part of Sussex County, Delaware. His property encompassed 20,393 acres and became known as “Dagworthy’s Conquest.” At the time, Delaware was considered the Lower County of Pennsylvania. The town became known as Dagsboro in honor of Dagworthy. The boundary dispute between Delaware and Maryland was ended during 1767 and at that time, Dagworthy’s ownership was confirmed. The Dagworthy estate was described as “capacious” and John was known for his cordiality and generous hospitality. He is reported as having been a major contributor to the church that was built in the town, and he was also responsible for the establishment of a grist mill, sawmill, tannery and a lumber facility in which he cut lumber and, upon his own vessels, transported it to Philadelphia and Trenton to be sold. John married Martha Cadwalader on 20 October 1774. Martha was the daughter of Doctor Thomas and Hannah Lambert Cadwalader. John and Martha had one child, Eli (b. 1775). Four days after the marriage, on 24 October, Governor John Penn (Pennsylvania) appointed Colonel Dagworthy as justice of the peace for Sussex County and later, he was again appointed to the same post (8 March 1777) by Delaware President John McKinly, who was also commander-in-chief of Delaware’s armed forces. As a justice of the peace, Colonel Dagworthy, along with others, was charged with defining the borders of the terrain gained from Maryland and with “selecting freemen to conduct the election for inspectors and assessors,” according to the Delaware laws of the time. In the meantime, the relations between Britain and the colonies had continued to deteriorate, and the move toward open rebellion was becoming more conspicuous. Colonel Dagworthy was appointed to the Committee of Safety (Sussex County), established to quash the Loyalist opposition. During 1775, Delaware, similarly to the other colonies, began building its strategy in coordination with the creation of a military struc-

84 ture. Caesar Rodney, a delegate to Congress, was appointed major general of militia, and the legislature also selected John Dagworthy and Philemon Dickinson as brigadier generals. General Dagworthy initiated action to raise a brigade in Sussex County. In Philadelphia, Congress pondered the candidates for commander-in-chief, and some consideration was given General Dagworthy due to his earlier commission in the British Army. But the gears were in motion to select George Washington, and an eloquent speech by John Adams secured Washington’s nomination by unanimous choice. The New Englanders pushed for the Virginian to secure the support of the southern colonies in the move toward independence. During the course of the war, Washington, having previously encountered problems with General Dagworthy, apparently chose not to chance future disobedience by not bringing him into the service of the Continental Army. Nevertheless, Thomas McKean, a member of Congress from Delaware, noted in a letter during 1777: “We [Congress] made a promotion in the militia by making Dagworthy Brigadier in the Continental Army.” General Dagworthy focused on the defense of Delaware and in suppressing the Loyalists in the state. John Dagworthy succumbed on 1 May 1784, the year following the official termination of hostilities with Britain. General Dagworthy’s will is of record at Georgetown, made 18 June 1781, with a codicil dated the 27 July 1782, and the same probated May 24, 1784. He was survived by his second wife, Martha Mitchell (widow of James Mitchell) Dagworthy. General Dagworthy provided bequests for his nephews, James Mitchell, William Clayton Mitchell and Nathaniel Mitchell. He was interred in St. Prince George’s Chapel near the altar. He had several sisters, including Elizabeth, Mary and Sarah. Mary married Abraham Hunt to become his second wife. Abraham has been lost in the pages of history, but he did play an unexpected part in the victory at Trenton when George Washington stunned the British after crossing the Delaware on Christmas night, 1776. At the time, General Dagworthy’s brother-in-law, Abraham, was a prominent merchant in Trenton and he was also the postmaster. Another obscure fact about Abraham is that he held a commission as lieutenant colonel in Smith’s 1st Regiment, a militia unit if Hunterdon County. Abraham was also considered by some to be a Loyalist; however, no records held by the state of New Jersey place any blemishes on his service. On the night of the attack, Colonel Rall, the Hessian commander at Trenton, chose not to return to his quarters and instead visited Abraham and Mary, aware that their guests were always well received. Tradition regarding the incident says that Rahl partied well into the night and that he was less than full strength when a knock at the door brought a message about the presence of Washington’s army. Nevertheless, whether the prolonged entertainment of Rahl was intentional or an accident of destiny will remain a mystery. General Dagworthy was also the brother-in-law of Generals John Cadwalader and Philemon Dickinson. General Cadwalader was the brother of Dagworthy’s wife, Martha, and General Dickinson married Martha’s sister Mary and, later, another sister, Rebecca.

Danielson, Brigadier General Timothy Timothy Danielson, the son of John and Margaret Mighell Danielson, was born in Brimfield, Massachusetts, on 6 December 1733. John and Margaret had six other children: John (b. December 1728); Nathaniel (b. April 1729); Margaret (b. September 1731); Mary (b. January 12, 1736); and Sarah (b. June 1741). Timothy’s father established residence in Brimfield about 1724. It is thought that the Danielson family initially emigrated from Scotland to Killingly (Danielson). Timothy attended Yale and graduated during 1756. He studied for the ministry and for a while taught school in Brimfield, but he chose neither teaching nor the life of a minister. Rather, Timothy engaged in trading; however, he was aligned with the Patriots and remained loyal to the cause in the capacity of a soldier and a legislator.

85 While pursuing his career, Timothy also took time to settle down with a family. He married Beulah Winchester on 26 November 1761 and together they had two daughters, Sarah (b. August 1761) and Martha (b. August 1766). During 1766, following the Stamp Act of 1765, Timothy Danielson was elected to the provincial assembly; he served there through 1773. In 1774, he was selected as a member of the Governor’s Council; however, General Gage refused to accept some of the nominees and Danielson was on that list. That year, in September, Timothy was elected chairman of a convention held by a series of towns in Hampshire County in an effort to draw up strategy for opposition to the policies of the crown. In addition, the colony convened several Provincial Congresses between 1774 and 1775; Timothy was a delegate at each one. The strained relations between the colonies and Britain struck a point of no return in April 1775 when the British clashed with the Minute Men at Lexington and Concord. Danielson had previously held the rank of colonel in the Hampshire County militia; however, he did not command a regiment until the eruption of hostilities. Colonel Danielson, after receiving command of his regiment, participated in the siege of Boston. William Shepherd served as Danielson’s lieutenant colonel and David Leonard was major. While the siege was ongoing, Colonel Danielson, on 30 January 1776, was promoted to the rank of brigadier general (militia) and charged with the task of recruiting and expediting the distribution of supplies and ammunition. Subsequently, according to House records (April 1780), a committee selected Timothy Danielson, Oliver Prescott, and Jonathan Titcomb as major generals of the Massachusetts militia; however, on 8 May, the Senate selected Timothy Danielson, Michael Farley and Oliver Prescott, and two days later, the House concurred (the election was recorded in Chapter 158, in 1780, April session, Laws and Resolves). General Danielson, while participating in the military affairs of the time, was also elected to the Massachusetts legislature for 1776 and 1777. In December 1779 he was appointed to the court of common pleas (Hampshire County) and he served there as a judge until 1790. During his term in office, Danielson, like other members of the court, was involved with the insurrection known as Shay’s Rebellion. When renegades blocked the entrance to his court, General Danielson bulldozed his way through the crowd and entered his courtroom. Following his service in the legislature, he was appointed to the Governor’s Council, a position he retained from 1778 through 1786. General Danielson also participated as a member of the convention (1779–1780) that established the state constitution. He was elected as a delegate to Congress including 1780 and 1782, but he did not attend the sessions. During June 1782, Increase Sumner was elected as delegate to Congress in place of Danielson, who resigned. Danielson was again elected to Congress during 1783. General Timothy Danielson succumbed on 19 September 1791. He was interred in Brimfield. General Danielson had remarried after the death (date uncertain) of his first wife, taking Elizabeth (Eliza) Sikes as his second wife. His widow, Elizabeth, had three young children, Timothy (b. 1787), Eli (b. 1789) and Sarah (b. 1790). Elizabeth was still young when General Danielson succumbed. During 1792, she married Captain (later general) William Eaton in Union, Connecticut. Both of Elizabeth’s sons from her marriage with General Danielson served in the armed forces. Timothy was a lieutenant in the U.S. Army; he died from fever during December 1812 while en route with General William Henry Harrison to regain Detroit from the British. Eli, Elizabeth’s other son, succumbed while serving in the U.S. Navy during August 1808, while at the Brooklyn Navy Yard. Sarah, the daughter of General Danielson and Elizabeth, married Doctor Asa Lincoln.

Davidson, Brigadier General William Lee William Davidson, the son of George Davidson, was born in Lancaster County, Pennsylvania, during 1746. William’s family relocated

DAVIDSON to North Carolina about 1750 and settled in Rowan (later Iredell) county. As a young boy, William received his education locally, and afterward he attended an academy at Charlotte. He married Mary Brevard, the daughter of John Brevard. They established residence along what became known as Davidson’s Creek in the vicinity of Centre Church. William and Mary had the following children (four boys and three girls): George, John Alexander, Ephraim Brevard, William Lee, Jr., Jean, Pamela and Margaret. Mary Brevard Davidson’s family was also firmly entrenched in the Patriots’ cause. She had eight brothers who served in the army. One of them, Ephraim, penned the Mecklenburg Declaration of Independence. During April 1776, the North Carolina Provincial Congress resolved to raise the number of regiments from the two that had already been formed to six. Davidson was appointed major in the 4th Regiment, which was to be commanded by Colonel Thomas Polk. The regiment was directed to move north with the command of General Francis Nash to support the Continental Army, which at the time was under great pressure from the British. The regiment participated at the Battle of Princeton ( January 1777) and afterward fought as part of the army that defended Philadelphia when the British moved against it. Later that year, while the British were solidifying their positions in Philadelphia, the regiment participated at the Battle of Germantown (October 1777) in which General Nash was killed. The British moved back into Philadelphia, and General George Washington established winter quarters at Valley Forge. The British abandoned Philadelphia during June of 1778 with the Patriots in pursuit. By that time, Davidson had been promoted to the rank of lieutenant colonel for his heroism at Germantown. The British were engaged at Monmouth, New Jersey, on 28 June in what became the final major battle in the northern states. In November 1779, Lt. Colonel Davidson was ordered to lead his regiment to the South to bolster General Benjamin Lincoln at Charleston. Davidson had permission to pause in North Carolina to visit with his family, which he had not seen for about three years. Following his leave, Colonel Davidson repaired to Charleston; however, the British by that time had the city under siege and he was unable to enter the city and join his regiment. His inability to join the regiment saved him from being among the captured when Charleston fell on 12 May 1780. Colonel Davidson returned to North Carolina. After the fall of Charleston, the Loyalists in North Carolina became more confident and initiated activity to regain control of the state. The Loyalists were especially bold in western North Carolina. Colonel Davidson, leading militia, moved to eliminate the problem. In July 1780, he became wounded while engaged against Loyalists led by Colonel Samuel Bryan near the Yadkin River at Colson’s Mill (Rocky River Bridge). The wound knocked him out of action for about two months. In the meantime, General Horatio Gates sustained a devastating defeat at Camden on 16 August 1780. The fiasco costs Gates his military career. General Griffith Rutherford was among the captured. On 31 August, due to the capture of Rutherford, the North Carolina General Assembly promoted Colonel Davidson to the rank of brigadier general (Salisbury district). The Continental Army was nonexistent in the South following the loss of Charleston and the defeat of Gates, but Congress acted quickly. Initially, Congress bypassed General Nathanael Greene (General Washington’s choice) for commander of the Southern Department, but Greene was eventually selected to replace Gates. General Davidson was directed to bolster General Greene’s forces during the period following General Daniel Morgan’s victory at Cowpens in January 1781. Morgan was outrunning pursuing British forces and attempting to transport captured British prisoners to Virginia. On 26 September 1780, at Charlotte, forces under Major William R. Davie and General Davidson defeated a large force of British. After the

DAVIE clash, the Americans retired, but the forces of Davie and Davidson maintained pressure on the roving British units. On 14 October, a force of Loyalists was unexpectedly encountered by a Patriot force in Surry County along Mulberry Field Road near the Yadkin River. The Patriots included a contingent of General Davidson’s command. The engagement, known as the Battle of Shallow Ford, essentially terminated the organized resistance of the Loyalists in the region. The Patriots lost one man killed, Captain Henry Francis, and about four wounded. On 28 January 1781, General Charles Cornwallis closed upon General Morgan, but the latter accelerated his retreat and directed General Davidson to intercept the British to delay them. At the time, torrential storms were pounding the area and causing the rivers and streams to rapidly rise and the roads to become impassable. Morgan was moving the prisoners from Salisbury toward Moravian Town (later Winston-Salem). Nonetheless, the weather worked to the advantage of the Patriots. Cornwallis was stalled for three days at the Catawba. General Davidson was charged with his diminutive force to hold four fords, including Cowan’s. Davidson directed contingents to each, and he deployed at Cowan’s Ford to fight a delaying action. On 1 February, during the early morning fighting, General Davidson sustained a mortal wound. After being shot in the chest, he fell from his horse and died. Davidson’s militia force of only several hundred, unable to withstand the pressure of the superior force, retreated with no time to recover the body of General Davidson. That evening after dusk, two of his men, Richard Barry and David Wilson, disregarded their personal safety to retrieve their fallen commander. Despite the darkness, they found the location where Davidson had fallen and succeeded without incident to transport his body to the residence of Samuel Wilson. General Davidson’s widow was contacted and brought to Wilson’s home. Afterward, the general was interred at Hopewell Church. The loss of General Davidson was personally felt by General Greene, who had been using the skills of Davidson to command the militia. On 20 September, Congress resolved “that the governor and council of the State of North Carolina be desired to erect a monument, at the expence of the United States, not exceeding the value of five hundred dollars, to the memory of the late Brigadier General Davidson, who commanded the militia of the district of Salisbury, in the State of North Carolina, and was killed on the first day of February last, fighting gallantly in the defence of the liberty and independence of these states.”

Davie, William Richardson (Framer of the U.S. Constitution and, later, Brigadier General) William Davie, the son of Archibald Davie, was born in England on 20 June 1753 at Egremont, Cumberlandshire, England. When William was about seven years old, his father left England, taking his son to Waxhaw, South Carolina, where they stayed with the Rev. William Richardson, William’s uncle (his mother’s brother). William remained with his uncle, who adopted him. The Reverend Richardson guided William through his early years. He was educated in Charlotte, North Carolina, at Queen’s Museum College, and afterward at the College of New Jersey (Nassau Hall, later Princeton). After receiving his diploma from Princeton, during 1776, William returned home, but during his absence his uncle had died. Richardson, having no other children, made Davie his heir. Meanwhile, there were no openings for an officer in his district of South Carolina. Consequently, William traveled back to North Carolina to resume studies in pursuit of becoming a lawyer. While in Salisbury, however, having fully sided with the Patriots against his native land, Davie became involved in raising a cavalry troop. He also concentrated on acquiring his law degree, which he received during 1779. At that time he was licensed to practice in the county courts, but by the following year, he was granted authority to practice in the superior courts. Meanwhile, during 1777, Davie participated in a 2,500-man force led by General Allen Jones (his future fa-

86 ther-in-law) that moved to Charleston to support the defenders there, but the threat ended prior to the column’s arrival. Jones returned with the force to North Carolina, ending about three months’ service in the field. Davie participated in various clashes in 1779. Initially, he was commissioned lieutenant by Governor Richard Caswell and assigned to the cavalry unit commanded by Captain William Barnett of Mecklenburg. The unit rode toward the back country to support other militia in putting down an insurrection, but the Loyalists had been subdued prior to the arrival of Barnett’s cavalry. Shortly thereafter, Captain Barnett resigned his commission and Davie assumed command with the rank of captain; shortly afterward he was promoted to the rank of major, while his cavalry was attached to Count Pulaski’s Legion. Davie’s cavalry, attached to General Jethro Sumner’s brigade, participated in the Battle of Stono Ferry, South Carolina, on 20 June 1779. The Americans were close to victory as forces under Colonel William Moultrie pushed forcefully onto James Island, but suddenly, General Benjamin Lincoln ordered a retreat. Afterward, the British abandoned the island. During the fighting, Major Davie led one of the charges and was wounded. Davie, after being hit, fell from his horse, but he had the presence of mind, despite his serious wound, to try to hold his horse’s bridle. A nearby unidentified soldier from a separate unit spotted Davie and simultaneously saw the approaching Redcoats. Ignoring the closing enemy, he reached Major Davie, got him back in the saddle and led him into the woods, saving William from capture. The soldier afterward re-entered the fight. Davie’s wound to his thigh kept him out of service for a prolonged recuperation period at Charleston. In conjunction, General Benjamin Lincoln had been leading his command into Georgia when the British moved against Charleston. Lincoln reversed course and returned in time to bolster Moultrie and compel the British to retire. On 1 August 1780, during General Thomas Sumter’s push against Rocky Mount, Major Davie was sent on a diversionary mission. His contingent of about eighty men returned to Land’s Fort on the 5th, but without any prisoners, yet the mission came close to seizing captives. Davie’s column rode into camp with about sixty extra horses, all with saddles. Davie also seized a large number of muskets and rifles. During that time, Major Davie was concerned about one young boy of about thirteen who arrived in camp with his older brother. Davie insisted the boy was too young; however, the youth was persistent and wore out Davie, who acquiesced. That young boy did accompany the mission, but at the time, no one noticed little Andy Jackson, later general and president of the United States. On 5 August, it was decided to launch the attack against Hanging Rock on the following day. The Patriots routed the Loyalists, but soon after they focused on booty rather than the enemy. General Sumter ordered the force to regroup, but only Davie’s command was prepared to engage the enemy, which had also regrouped. In a stunning maneuver, while the Patriots retired with the booty as the British prepared a counterattack, Davie’s cavalry, supported by only about 200 infantry who remained in place, vanished into the woods, only Richardson Davie (Magazine of Amer- to emerge in full gallop heading directly into Tarleton’s ican History, Vol. 28, 1892)

87 Legion, which vanished. Afterward, Davie headed for Rugeley’s Mill to join with General Horatio Gates, only to encounter Gates at the head of his retreating forces about ten miles outside of Camden, following Gates’ disastrous defeat. Davie was promoted to the rank of colonel on 5 September 1780. That month, Colonel Davie encroached Loyalist positions on the farm of one of the men ( James Wahab) in North Carolina without being detected. The British were unable to react, and as they attempted to outrun one force they encountered another; the Patriot cavalry seemed to be at every spot on the Wahab Plantation. Again no prisoners were taken, but it was because no quarter was given. Those who were able ran for the nearby British post. Davie’s troops were comfortable with their catch, more than 100 stand of arms and about 100 saddled horses. The British were poised to launch another raid until it was foiled by Davie. Aware of a huge British force posted nearby, Davie led his column out of harm’s way before the reinforcements arrived. On 26 September, Cornwallis advanced toward Charlotte, North Carolina, where Colonel Davie was posted with a small contingent. The Redcoats in the vanguard had no idea that Davie’s force was deployed in three layers, waiting to spring a trap. Tarleton’s Legion commenced a charge, but the first layer stood still as if oblivious to the galloping cavalry. As the column reached a point about fifty yards distant, the Patriots fired and broke the momentum of the assault. When the Patriots pulled back, another cavalry attack was launched and it too was struck by more devastating fire that caused the British to retreat. Afterward, Davie headed for the woods, leaving the main body of the British no foe to tackle. He continued to operate against the British positions and columns in conjunction with the forces of General William Davidson of North Carolina. The British sustained a severe defeat at Kings Mountain on 7 October 1780, and by the 14th Cornwallis retired toward Charleston, accompanied by Colonel Davie’s command, which trailed at striking distance and harassed Cornwallis’ rear guard as the column moved. By the 19th, Cornwallis was across the Catawba at Land’s Ford and back in South Carolina. In January 1781, Colonel Davie was appointed commissary general for the Carolina campaign, which placed him with General Nathanael Greene, successor to General Horatio Gates. General Greene had met Colonel Davie during December 1780 when he assumed command of the Department of the South. The opening as commissary came about due to the resignation of Colonel Thomas Polk around that time. The year 1781 was a turbulent one. North Carolina had three governors and each was nothing like the other. Governor Abner Nash, brother of the late General Francis Nash, resigned because of dissatisfaction with the legislature. He was replaced by Thomas Burke, but he was captured and succeeded by Alexander Martin. The position as commissary was a thankless job and the legislature was not in good financial condition, compelling Colonel Davie to again revert to his personal credit to procure supplies and arms. During the Siege of Ninety Six (May–June 1781), Colonel Davie was approached by the soldier who earlier saved his life at the Battle of Stono Ferry, and he told the colonel he would be back to see him. However, during the latter part of May, an attack was launched to reduce the Loyalist-held post and the soldier who saved Colonel Davie was among the fatalities. During that same year, Cornwallis abandoned the Carolinas for Virginia, where he was opposed by Lafayette, and afterward, General George Washington arrived with the Continental Army and a French fleet. Cornwallis surrendered on 17 October 1781. Subsequent to the close of hostilities, Davie resumed his private life and re-established his law practice, which flourished, which was fortunate because he committed and exhausted his fortune during the war. In the meantime, William married Sarah Jones, the daughter of General Allen Jones and the niece of Allen’s brother, General Willie

DAVIE Jones. Sarah’s father is known to have married several times and another of his daughters, Mary, married General Thomas Eaton to become his second wife. William and Sarah established their residence at Halifax, North Carolina. In 1786, Davie was elected as a representative in the North Carolina Assembly, and while a legislator strived to revise the state laws and establish a code for the same. Davie was also involved with the complex circumstances and negotiations that brought about the cession of Tennessee from the United States. Davie was sent to the Constitutional Convention that met in Philadelphia from May to September 1787. As a delegate from North Carolina, he was a fervent advocate of establishing a strong and effective federal government. With his efforts, the entire North Carolina delegation supported the adoption of the U.S. Constitution, subsequent to the “Great Compromise,” which guaranteed that states received equal representation in the U.S. Senate and representation by population in the House of Representatives. Davie departed the convention just prior to its conclusion, confident the Constitution would be adopted. Davie left the convention to return to his duties as a lawyer to handle the cases of his clients around the circuit courts’ fall session. The other delegates from North Carolina were William Blount, Richard Dobbs Spaight and Hugh Williamson, each of whom signed the Constitution. Prior to the compromise offered by New Jersey, Davie supported the idea that the legislature should appoint senators and presidential electors, and he supported slaves being counted with regard to population representation. The U.S. Constitution was adopted on 17 September 1787 and would be made effective upon ratification by nine states. New Hampshire was the ninth on 21 June 1788. Davie worked for ratification in his state, and after the removal of several political obstacles, on 21 November 1789, North Carolina ratified and became the twelfth state to join the union. After ratification by New Hampshire, the new Congress convened on 3 March 1789, under the authority of the United States Constitution. The old Congress, operating under the Articles of Confederation, dissolved. During the following month, George Washington was inaugurated as the first president of the United States. Rhode Island, which did not send delegates to the Constitutional Convention, ratified the Constitution on 29 May 1790 to become the last of the original 13 states. Afterward Davie continued to expand his legal practice, but in addition to his military skills and his legislative ability, he also extended his interests beyond the law and into elevating education in North Carolina. Davie, known as the “Father of the University of North Carolina,” was the primary founder of the institution (initially Warrenton Academy, chartered 1786), and was involved with the selection of the location as well as the curriculum, which was to include the classics as well as mathematics and social sciences. He was presented a doctor of laws degree by the university during 1810. Davie also remained in the legislature for many years, and was absent only when his private affairs prevented him from engaging in the election process. He served as a representative of Halifax in 1786, 1787, 1789, 1791, 1793, 1794, 1796, and 1798. In the meantime, Governor Richard D. Spaight commissioned Davie as a major general of militia (3rd North Carolina Division) during 1794, as the war clouds were gathering due to French aggression. On 24 June 1797, Congress ordered the raising of troops from a few states. North Carolina raised 7,268, and during the following September, General Davie was appointed major general with command of the North Carolina contingent. When the crisis with France accelerated, Congress called for a provisional army during May 1798 and directed the force to be composed of 10,000 troops. General Davie was commissioned as brigadier general by President John Adams. On 19 July 1798, the Senate approved the appointment. General Davie was elected

DAYTON governor of North Carolina on 4 December 1798 and inaugurated on the 7th after defeating Benjamin Williams. During the hostilities with France (Quasi-War with France), President Adams began preparing a war footing. George Washington was called upon to resume his role as commander-in-chief and others considered important to military stability and readiness were also recalled. Governor Davie, during 1799, was appointed as one of the commissioners charged with negotiating with France to conclude the conflict. He resigned as governor during September 1799. His successor was Benjamin Williams, transferring the governor’s seat to the anti–Federalists. On 3 November 1799, General Davie and Oliver Ellsworth sailed from Newport, Rhode Island, aboard the United States en route to Europe, but the turbulence in France prompted them to sail to Spain after first arriving in Lisbon, Portugal. The vessel departed Portugal on 21 December and sailed into unruly seas. The ship got blown off course but escaped disaster from the storm, and they arrived at Corunna on 11 January 1800. Later that month, the party abandoned their seaward journey and traveled overland, arriving at Burgos, Spain, on 9 February. At Burgos, a French messenger, sent by the French minister, Talleyrand, delivered an invitation to travel to Paris and confer with Napoleon. However, after their arrival in Paris, time was wasted, as Napoleon had been in the field on his Italian Campaign. Serious talks did not begin until Napoleon returned. The Treaty of Morfontaine was signed on 30 September 1800 by Ellsworth and Davie on behalf of the United States and by Joseph Bonaparte (brother of Napoleon) and two others, Monsieur Roederer and Monsieur Fleurieu. Oliver Ellsworth was the senior diplomat, but the commanding presence of Davie and his fluent use of the both the French and Spanish languages seemed to keep Napoleon focused on General Davie, rather than Ellsworth and William Vans Murray, the minister at the Hague who joined the American ministers in Paris. After the treaty was signed, General Davie sailed for home, while Ellsworth traveled to England and Murray returned to The Hague. In 1801, General Davie was solicited as a candidate for Congress, but due to personal affairs, he declined. That June, he was appointed by President Thomas Jefferson to act as chair of a commission that included Benjamin Hawkins to negotiate a treaty between North Carolina and the Tuscarora Indians. He held talks with the Indians at Raleigh and a treaty was signed on 4 December 1802. King Blount and the others in his tribe afterward moved to New York state during June 1803. Davie ran for Congress during 1803, but his bid failed; he was solicited to run but he did not campaign. His wife, Sarah, died during 1785 and Davie retired from public service. He settled on his plantation (Tivoli Plantation) in Chester County, South Carolina. Afterward, the long-simmering tensions with Britain that continued after the Revolutionary War finally erupted in yet another conflict, the War of 1812. During 1813, President James Madison, successor to President Jefferson, appointed Davie as a major general, but he declined. William Richardson Davie succumbed in November 1820 at his plantation (various sources give the date as 18 November, 5 November and, including the National Archives, 29 November; the monument at his grave site gives only the years of his birth and death). He was interred in the Old Waxhaw Presbyterian Churchyard in Lancaster County. General Davie was survived by three daughters and three sons.

Dayton, Brigadier General Elias Elias Dayton, the son of Jonathan and his second wife, Mary Crane Dayton, was born during 1737 at Elizabethtown (Elizabeth), New Jersey. Elias’s father, a captain of militia under Governor Lewis Morris, had resided at East Hampton on Long Island prior to relocating in New Jersey. According to the history of Springfield Township, New

88 Jersey, Elias’s father while married to his first wife had a child named Jonathan who was born in 1732 and later became a doctor serving in the military during the Revolution. During 1757, Elias, who by that time had entered the mercantile business, married Hannah Rolfe. The couple had eight children, including the oldest, Jonathan (b. 1760, married Susan Williamson), who later would serve in the army during the Revolution and become a signer of the U.S. Constitution. The other children included Elias Bailey, Aaron, John, Hannah (married Matthias Ogden, later brigadier general), Horatio, and William. Dayton entered the military during 1759 and served as a lieutenant attached to the Jersey Blues. By the following year he was raised in rank to captain. Following the conclusion of the French and Indian War, Dayton served during Pontiac’s War (1763–1764) and during 1764, he commanded a company of militia that advanced to Detroit, which was under siege. The siege ended and the Indians sustained a devastating defeat at Bushy Run at the hands of Colonel Henry Bouquet, which essentially terminated the conflict, but Pontiac did not make peace until 1766. Dayton remained a staunch Patriot during the pre–Revolutionary War days. As the break between the colonies began to widen, Dayton was appointed to the Elizabethtown Committee of Safety. During early 1776, he participated in the daring raid on a British vessel, the HMS Blue Mountain Valley, that was moored off Elizabethtown, New Jersey. Patriots disguised as fishermen approached the supply ship in four boats on the 22nd of January and succeeded in fooling the crew. The Patriots seized the ship before the English discovered the ruse. During the following month, on the 9th, in Philadelphia, Congress directed that another battalion be raised in New Jersey. That day, Congress appointed Dayton colonel of the 3rd New Jersey Battalion and commissioned Anthony Walton White as lieutenant colonel. During the following month, Colonel Dayton was ordered by Congress on the 14th to repair to New York. Other units, including the regiments of Colonels William Irvine and Robert Magaw, received identical orders on that same day. Colonel Dayton was charged with supporting the defense of Ticonderoga. However, on 17 April 1776, Congress ordered a part of Dayton’s battalion to move back to New Jersey: “Resolved, That the commanding officer at New York, be directed to order two companies of Colonel Dayton’s battalion to march to Cape May, there to remain till farther orders.” While in New York, Dayton served initially at Albany and from there he moved to Rome and engaged in reconstruction at Fort Stanwix (Fort Schuyler). At that time, he oversaw the construction of Fort Dayton in Herkimer. However, Dayton’s tour was not confined to fortifying defenses. His command also engaged the Indians prior to being ordered back to New Jersey during March of 1777. In September 1778, a force composed of English and Indians attacked German Flats and reduced the settlement; however, the settlers were able to flee to the safety of Fort Dayton and another fortification, Herkimer Church Fort. In autumn of 1780, the area was again attacked and ravaged; however, the settlers were able to seek safety at the fort built by Dayton and escape annihilation. By May 1781, Fort Dayton stood as America’s westernmost post in New York. After arriving back in New Jersey, Colonel Dayton’s command participated in action at various places including Bound Brook, New Jersey, and raids against Staten Island. In addition, Colonel Dayton participated with General George Washington at the Battle of Brandywine (September 11, 1777) and at Germantown during October of that same year when the British were seizing Philadelphia. The following year, when the British abandoned Philadelphia, pursued by the Continental Army, which had wintered at Valley Forge, Colonel Dayton’s command participated in the Battle of Monmouth, the final major contest in the northern states. During 1779, Colonel Dayton participated in the Sullivan Expedition against the Loyalist-Indian force that had been ravaging various

89 settlements. On 7 June 1780, Colonel Dayton was with Lafayette in New Jersey when about 5,000 troops under General Knyphausen landed at Elizabethtown and moved against Morristown. A tenacious skirmish occurred southeast of Springfield at Connecticut Farms, which was destroyed, but the British halted their advance and moved back to their landing point, De Hart’s Point, on the following day. The British did succeed in destroying Connecticut Farms. That July, Colonel Dayton received command of the New Jersey Brigade in succession to General Maxwell, who retired from the service. During the following year, 1781, Colonel Dayton commanded the 2nd New Jersey Regiment and was involved with quashing a mutiny of the New Jersey Line. Also that year, he moved to Virginia and participated as a brigade commander during the Yorktown Campaign, in which Lord General Charles Cornwallis was trapped at Yorktown and compelled to capitulate on 17 October 1781. At Yorktown, Colonel Dayton’s brigade (composed of the New Jersey Regiments of Matthias Ogden and Dayton as well as the Rhode Island regiment under Lt. Colonel Commandant Jeremiah Olney was attached to General Benjamin Lincoln’s division, along with the brigade of General James Clinton (1st and 2nd New York Regiments commanded by Colonels Goose Van Schaick and Philip Van Courtlandt, respectively). Colonel Dayton was not wounded during the war; however, the enemy had repeated opportunities to liquidate him. His horses had not fared so well. At least three were shot from under him while he engaged the enemy, one at Germantown, another at Connecticut Farms and yet another at Crosswick’s bridge, the latter occurring during the fighting in the vicinity of Monmouth. Colonel Elias Dayton finally received his promotion to brigadier general on 7 January 1783. He was next to last in receiving a commission during the conflict, followed only by General Charles Armand, a Frenchman, who assumed command of the Legion upon the death of Count Pulaski at Savannah in October 1779. During June 1783, General Dayton was appointed major general of New Jersey militia. Subsequent to his retirement from the Continental Army on 3 November 1783, General Dayton served in the New Jersey legislature, followed by service in Congress (1787–1788). With regard to local politics, General Dayton was elected mayor of Elizabethtown during 1796; sources cite varying lengths of service, with some claiming that he retained the position each successive year except for one until 1805 and others claiming he was mayor in 1796–1797 and 1801. In addition, Dayton was a trustee of the First Presbyterian Church and was involved with the Society of Cincinnati. He served as president of the New Jersey branch from its establishment to his death. General Elias Dayton succumbed on 22 October 1807. He was interred at the First Presbyterian Church cemetery in Elizabeth, New Jersey. General Dayton’s daughter Hannah married Colonel (later brevet brigadier general) Matthias Ogden during 1776. His son Jonathan participated in the Yorktown Campaign and the Sullivan Expedition and in 1780 served in his father’s regiment. Later, Jonathan was elected to Congress, and subsequent to his father and Abraham Clark having declined attending the Constitutional Convention in Philadelphia in 1787, Jonathan was selected as a delegate. He supported and signed the U.S. Constitution. (See also, Dayton, Jonathan.)

Dayton, Jonathan (Signer of the U.S. Constitution) Jonathan Dayton, the oldest child of Elias and Hannah Rolfe Dayton, was born on 16 October 1760 at Elizabethtown (Elizabeth), New Jersey. In addition, Elias and Hannah had Elias Bailey, Aaron, John, Hannah (married Matthias Ogden, later brigadier general), Horatio, and William. Jonathan’s father, a veteran of the French and Indian War and a merchant at the time of Jonathan’s birth, operated a store in Elizabeth. Jonathan received an excellent education, which included the Reeves school and the College of New Jersey (later Princeton University).

DAYTON Jonathan’s father was steadfastly opposed to the policies of the Crown and Parliament, and as the nation moved toward active resistance, Elias Dayton was aligned with the Patriots. Elias and Jonathan were appointed to the committee of enforcement during 1774 pursuant to action of the First Continental Congress that convened across the river in Philadelphia and sought support with its declaration regarding nonimportation. The decision to refuse to import goods from Britain was enthusiastically received throughout the colonies, and groups were formed to deal with those who sought to bypass the boycott for personal gain. By the following year, the slim thread that held the colonies and Britain together—while attempts continued to persuade the king to reconsider the unjust policies and end the tension — was severed on 19 April 1775 at the battles of Lexington and Concord in Massachusetts. The British exchanged fire and the powder keg exploded. The Minute Men stood their ground to block passage, and the first shot was fired, but which side fired first was never determined. Suddenly the world’s most powerful military was engaged against an undisciplined, untrained army composed of farmers, merchants, and other civilians. The British, in addition to their seasoned army, controlled the seas. They had no fear of the Americans challenging their warships, as the Patriots had no navy, merely some private vessels, surely no match for the Royal Navy. Meanwhile, the capital of the Patriots was in Philadelphia, far from Boston, adjoining New Jersey. Elias Dayton, Jonathan’s father, was appointed as colonel of the 3rd New Jersey Regiment and his son, attending his last year in college, received a call from his father to join. Suspending his studies, Jonathan, too, joined the regiment, despite the fact that he was only about fifteen years old. The momentum in New Jersey began to build. The royal governor was ousted and arrested, then transferred to Connecticut. George Washington had been named commander-in-chief and had set out for Cambridge to assume command of the American forces. Volunteers funneled into the area from all points, and soon many became part of the Continental Army. The British were corralled in Boston, but on 17 June 1775, they pushed to quash the resistance that had fortified Breed’s Hill, just under Bunker Hill, and a major conflagration erupted. The Patriots battled tenaciously and the British paid a high price; however, when the Patriots had expended all of their ammunition, they were forced to abandon the hill. A siege developed and the British were forced to abandon Boston on 17 March, 17776. It was after that evacuation that New Jersey found itself in the direct path of the British as they later, following several engagements, including Long Island and White Plains, the latter during October, 1776, moved against Philadelphia. Jonathan Dayton’s initial participation in the military occurred while he held the rank of ensign. He was with the regiment attached to the Canadian expeditionary force. The 3rd New Jersey moved to Canada during spring of 1776. The campaign had already sustained severe losses on the 31st of December of the previous year and things deteriorated during the winter. In addition to the grueling winter and battle casualties sustained, Jonathan’s regiment was marching toward a remnant army that was in retreat, but worse, smallpox struck with more devastating results. The 3rd New Jersey was directed to divert and move to the Mohawk Valley to support the efforts there in eliminating Loyalist resistance and Indian raids upon the settlements. During their tour in the valley, the troops constructed Fort Dayton and Fort Schuyler (later Fort Stanwix). The regiment had been absent from the state during Washington’s retreat that took the Continental Army into Pennsylvania. During the battle of Trenton and Princeton on 26 December 1775 and 3 January 1777, respectively, Dayton’s college was located in the area where the two sides exchanged blows and with each of the contests, Washington’s troops prevailed. The regiment did arrive back in New Jersey during early 1777, just in time to support Washington in his

DAYTON efforts to prevent the British from seizing Philadelphia. By that time, Dayton had achieved the rank of captain. Once again, the regiment was on the march outside the state. Dayton participated in the Battle of Brandywine in September 1777 and Germantown during the following month. The British did occupy Philadelphia, while the Continental Army established winter quarters (1777–1778) at Valley Forge. While Washington opposed General William Howe in Philadelphia, back in New York, the Patriots halted an army under British General John Burgoyne at about the identical time, inflicting losses upon the British at Saratoga during September and October. Following the second loss, Burgoyne surrendered his entire army to General Horatio Gates. The 3rd New Jersey Regiment accompanied Washington to Valley Forge and remained there to endure a punishing winter. The following June, the British, unable to totally control the Delaware River, were compelled to abandon Philadelphia on 18 June. General Howe initiated a retreat to New York by crossing the Delaware into New Jersey and marching north. Washington ordered the army to break camp and intercept the columns. There suddenly was a whirlwind of activity. Once the city of Philadelphia was deemed safe, the members of Congress returned. Meanwhile, Washington’s vanguard caught the British at Monmouth on 28 June. The 3rd New Jersey moved tenaciously, and the familiarity of their home turf provided some advantages. The battle was fiercely fought by both sides and each claimed victory, but the stalemate seemed more than a draw. During the night, while General Washington prepared to again attack to finish off General Howe, the British absconded under cover of darkness on the night of the 18th–19th and resumed the march to New York. The Battle of Monmouth, New Jersey, was the final major clash in the northern states. The field of battle shifted southward for the duration. As the strategy began to change, with Washington continuing his efforts to outmaneuver the British, he deployed forces from New York northward to Connecticut as a protective line. The 3rd New Jersey remained in their home state as part of Washington’s umbrella of protection to contain the British forces in New York. In 1779, the 3rd New Jersey again was called upon for duty outside the state. The regiment returned to New York, attached to the campaign led by General John Sullivan. Sullivan swept through the region to retaliate against the Indians that had been ravaging the valley. In cooperation with Sullivan, another force under Colonel Daniel Brodhead departed Fort Pitt in western Pennsylvania. The campaign ended successfully and culminated at the Battle of Newton (Battle of Chemung) on 29 August 1779. During the campaign, Captain Dayton served as an aide to General Sullivan. Afterward, the regiment returned to New Jersey to resume their responsibility of defending the region, which continued to be a cauldron due to the high number of Loyalists and British raiders who frequently launched raids from Staten Island. In autumn 1780, Dayton, having acquired much experience in the field, particularly along the frontier, found himself in a predicament. While at his uncle’s (Lt. Colonel Matthias Ogden) residence at Elizabethtown on 5 November, a contingent of unexpected visitors, a raiding party of Loyalists from Elizabethtown, surprised Colonel Ogden and Dayton and captured the pair. Some nineteenth century and contemporary sources list Ogden’s capture during October; however, a portion of the General Orders of 6 November specifies his capture on 5 November. The excerpt: “The General has just received information that Colonel Ogden and Capt. Dayton, who were in Elizabeth Town, were taken last night in their Bed by the Enemy a Convincing proof that they have the most minute Intelligence of every thing that passed in that Place, and that it is Dangerous for an Officer (except with a Guard or Under sanction of a flag) to remain there during the Night....” Both were confined in New York until April 1781, when they were granted parole. Ogden and Dayton resumed their military duties.

90 Both were attached to a recently re-formed brigade, which included two regiments under the command of Jonathan’s father, Colonel Elias Dayton (later brigadier general). Captain Jonathan Dayton remained with the brigade and was transferred to the 2nd New Jersey. Afterward, Captain Dayton’s company moved to Virginia and participated in the Virginia Campaign, which succeeded in establishing a siege of Yorktown to terminate the campaign with the surrender of General Lord Cornwallis and his entire army. The British at Yorktown awaited reinforcements from New York, but the sea lanes were blockaded by a French fleet. During the siege, one of the British strong points, Redoubt 10, became an informal spot for a reunion of two of the students, Jonathan Dayton and Alexander Hamilton, from Princeton and their teacher, Colonel Francis Barber. Colonel Barber ordered and led a bayonet attack to reduce the obstacle. After the campaign ended much of the Army marched north to New York. The New Jersey troops halted when they got back to their region. Colonel Elias Dayton and Captain Jonathan Dayton remained in the service until the army was disbanded during 1783. Jonathan, having been compelled to leave college early due to the war, and many other student-soldiers with similar circumstances were presented degrees. Jonathan’s father and his uncle Matthias were both promoted to the rank of brevet brigadier general toward the close of hostilities. Upon his return to civilian life, Jonathan Dayton entered the family business, but he did not end his education. He pursed the study of law and entered politics, following in the steps of his father, who was elected to the Continental Congress. Jonathan Dayton was elected to the state assembly as a representative of Elizabeth. His reputation as a veteran of the war and his general popularity as a skilled leader led to his selection as a delegate to the Constitutional Convention, which met in Philadelphia during 1796 to form a new government for the infant republic. Initially, General Elias Dayton and Abraham Clark (signer of the Declaration of Independence) were chosen, but both declined. Elias’ son Jonathan was decided upon. Jonathan Dayton joined with the other New Jersey delegates, David Brearly and General William Livingston, and during the convention, Dayton remained aligned with his colleagues. He held back from taking a conspicuous role, but he diligently participated and was in agreement with the adoption of the United States Constitution, which occurred on 17 September, 1787, effective upon ratification by nine states. New Hampshire ratified the Constitution on 21 June to become the ninth. New Jersey ratified the Constitution on 18 December 1787 to become the 3rd state to join the union. Following adjournment of the convention, Dayton was sent to join the final session of the Continental Congress. Having gained even more prominence, he then returned to the state legislature and served as the speaker of the lower house. His rise in politics lifted him further when he was elected during 1791 to the U.S. House of Representatives and then re-elected three additional times. Dayton had been elected to the initial U.S. Congress during 1789, but he did not serve; rather, he decided to remain in the New Jersey council and maintain his position as speaker of the state House. While in Congress, serving with some former friends from the war and one of his former classmates at Princeton, Alexander Hamilton, Dayton political alliances remained with them, prompting him to be aligned with the Federalists. During the period that the Jay Treaty was up for ratification by the Senate, Dayton supported President Washington, who favored its adoption. The treaty was ratified by the Senate during June 1785. Dayton became speaker of the House and held that position for the final four years of his service in Congress. Dayton purchased Boxwood Hall in Elizabethtown during 1795 and resided there until his death. He had married Susan Williamson and the couple had two daughters, but the date of the marriage is unknown and the names of his daughters were unavailable.

91 Later, during the period of turbulence with France, known as the Quasi War with France, a running conflict that began during 1798 and continued until 1800, but only on the high seas. Dayton was nominated for command of the Corps of Artillerists and Engineers. Dayton, however, showed no interest in returning to the military. He declined the appointment to remain in Congress. Jonathan was elected to the U.S. Senate during 1799, where he served one term. During that time, the situation in Louisiana was uncertain. France under Napoleon was at war with Britain and its allies, and Napoleon, concerned that Britain might gain the territory, sold it to the United States during 1803. At the time, Thomas Jefferson, a Democratic-Republican, was president and strongly favored the purchase. Dayton, although a Federalist, also supported the Louisiana Purchase. Throughout Dayton’s careers, politically and in the military, various new friends and acquaintances increased his knowledge and sharpened his skills, but the military sparked his interest in the frontier and the vast opportunities associated with future expansion. His interest intensified after serving with General Sullivan during the campaign of 1779. Dayton had begun to accumulate enormous amounts of land in Ohio. One of his old friends who served in the war was Aaron Burr who had also, like Hamilton, been one of his former classmates at Princeton. The trio of Burr, Dayton and Hamilton inadvertently formed a peculiar setting that led to tragedy for one and disgrace for the other two although in unrelated incidents. Dayton had lent money to Burr, but Burr became involved in a land conspiracy with international complications. Burr was charged with treason and Jonathan Dayton was implicated in the scheme. Dayton and Burr were arrested during 1807 on charges of conspiracy. However, Dayton was never tried. Burr was tried and acquitted, but he would stand trial for another crime. On 11 July 1804, Burr and Hamilton met in New Jersey to engage in a duel, prompted by a challenge from Burr, subsequent to some derogatory statement by Hamilton regarding Burr. At the time of the duel, Burr was vice president of the United States. Hamilton fired in the air, but it has never been determined if the shot was intentional or if it occurred after he was hit by Burr’s shot. Nevertheless, Hamilton sustained a fatal wound. New York indicted Burr for the crime, but after being acquitted in the case regarding the seizure of Spanish lands west of the Mississippi River, he fled the country. Dayton was scheduled to travel with Burr to the southwest, but he became ill and was unable to join the expedition. His public career, despite his acquittal, was terminated subsequent to charges of conspiracy. The damage was particularly confined to the national scene; Dayton suffered no repercussion in New Jersey and continued to be well respected. He was able to hold local offices and he returned to the state assembly during 1814–1815. Dayton died on 9 October 1824, several months after he had the pleasure of being rejoined with Lafayette, with whom he had served during the Yorktown Campaign. Lafayette had returned to the United States that year for a tour of the country that he helped build. Dayton was interred in the cemetery of St. John’s Episcopal Church in Elizabeth, New Jersey. His land holdings in Ohio expanded to about 250,000 acres that stretched between the Big Miami and the Little Miami Rivers. The city of Dayton was named in his honor of Jonathan Dayton. (See also, Dayton, Brigadier General Elias.)

Deane, Silas Silas Deane, the son of Silas Deane, Sr., was born on 24 December 1737 in Groton, Connecticut. He graduated from Yale in 1758. Afterward, Silas taught school, but he diverted from a teaching career to study law. He was admitted to the bar during 1761. On 8 October 1763, Silas married Mehitable Webb, the widow of Joseph Webb, who had been a well to do merchant in Wethersfield, Connecticut, where Silas had settled. Deane, as an attorney, settled the estate of his late father-in-law and afterward entered the mercantile business. Mehitable

DEANE Webb, about five years older than Silas, had six children and a thriving business left behind by her late husband. Soon Silas was transformed into a merchant who focused on expanding his interests. By 1764, Deane had a new and much larger home built near the store. Soon after moving into the new residence, the family grew by one. Silas and Mehitable had a son, Jesse, but within a few years, Mehitable died from consumption. Afterward, Silas married Elizabeth Saltonstall, the widow of John Ewetse, who died at sea, and the daughter of General Gurdon Saltonstall and sister of Dudley Saltonstall (Continental Navy). In 1768, Deane entered politics and was elected to the lower house of the Connecticut Assembly as a representative of Wethersfield. He was returned to the assembly during 1772 and remained there until 1774. In the meantime, on 21 May 1773, in response to a communication from Virginia’s House of Burgesses, the assembly established a Committee of Correspondence; Silas was appointed secretary. Also that year, Deane was appointed to a committee that dealt with a settlement in the Wyoming Valley that was involved in violence because Pennsylvania and Connecticut both claimed the land. Subsequent to the close of the American Revolution, the dispute was finally settled in court at Trenton, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania prevailed. In addition, Deane was selected as a delegate to the First Continental Congress that convened in Philadelphia during September,1774. Roger Sherman and Eliphalet Dyer were the other two delegates that represented Connecticut. Silas also was returned to the Second Continental Congress during 1775. During April 1775, on the 27th, Colonel S.H. Parsons, shortly after the clashes at Lexington and Concord, arrived at Hartford to discuss the capture of Fort Ticonderoga. Deane and Colonel Samuel Wyllys, after the meeting, agreed on the plan. The money required to pull off the mission was raised from the treasurer of Connecticut on the personal credit of Deane, Wyllys and several others. Word was sent to Benedict Arnold, the man with whom Parsons had initially discussed the plan. Soon after, Fort Ticonderoga, lightly defended, was seized on 10 May. Colonel Ethan Allen led the raid. Arnold was to lead, but he didn’t have any troops, leaving the task primarily to the Green Mountain Boys. The success of the mission became also a prestige booster for Deane in the Congress. On 14 June 1775, Congress took action to create a system under which the army would operate. The resolution: “Resolved, That Mr. [George] Washington, Mr. [Philip] Schuyler, Mr. [Silas] Deane, Mr. [Thomas] Cushing, and Mr. [Joseph] Hewes be a committee to bring in a draft of Rules and regulations for the government of the army.” The U.S. Army, initially the Continental Army, celebrates 14 June as the day it was founded. Deane was appointed to another committee, on 12 July, directed to “devise ways and means to protect the trade of these Colonies.” Others on the committee were Benjamin Franklin, Christopher Gadsden, John Jay and Richard Henry Lee. However, Deane failed to win re-election and was not a member of Congress when the Declaration of Independence was debated during 1776. Meanwhile, Deane became a privateer. Benjamin Franklin, in a letter of August 1775, stated that he agreed with Deane on the need for a navy. Silas Deane (Pictorial Field Book of On 13 October 1775, Deane the Revolution, Benson J. Lossing, was appointed to the Naval Committee, along with Chris1860)

DE BORRE topher Gadsden and John Langdon. Others, including John Adams, were added later. That date, 13 October, is celebrated as the birth of the U.S. (originally Continental) Navy. Officers were selected on 22 December. Esek Hopkins was appointed commander-in-chief of the fleet. Hopkins was the brother of Stephen Hopkins, member of Naval Committee and signer of the Declaration of Independence. Another, Dudley Saltonstall, was appointed captain of the Alfred. He was the brotherin-law of Silas Deane. And another, John Burroughs Hopkins, appointed captain of the Cabot, was the son of Esek Hopkins. Since his arrival in Congress, Deane served on about forty separate committees, including the Secret Committee; however, during 1776, having lost his bid for re-election, he was chosen as a special minister to France. Deane arrived in Paris during July as a businessman on private business, but his mission was clandestine, and the object was to persuade France to support the Americans against the British. Deane enjoyed success, and by September 1776, he wrote to Robert Morris at Congress to inform him that a large shipment of arms, ammunition, and clothing for about 20,000 troops would soon arrive in the United States. On 26 September 1776, the pretense ended when Congress openly named Deane, Arthur Lee and Benjamin Franklin as official agents to France. Lee was appointed in place of Thomas Jefferson, the latter unable to travel to Paris. By August 1777, not long after the death of Deane’s wife (9 June 1777, in Connecticut), Congress was uncomfortable with some of his previous actions, which they feared derailed the American cause. On 5 August, Congress resolved “that Silas Deane Esqr., now one of the American Commissioners in France be forthwith recalled; and, that from the day of his receiving this Resolve, all and every Power with which he hath been vested by Congress do cease and determine; and that he take the earliest Opportunity to embark for North America and repair to Congress.” Although a number of commissions in France for officers in the Continental Army were declined, some of those accepted by Congress were Count Pulaski, Baron de Kalb, Lafayette and Baron von Steuben. Deane also was with Franklin and Arthur Lee when the treaty of amity and commerce was consummated with France, after the defeat of General John Burgoyne during October 1777 at Saratoga. Deane was replaced by John Adams as minister to France in April 1778. After his return to the United States, Congress, concerned about expenditures, on 13 August, resolved “that Saturday next, be appointed to take into consideration the state of foreign affairs, and that Mr. S[ilas] Deane be requested to attend Congress on that day, to give them information respecting the general state of those affairs and a particular state of their funds and commercial transactions in Europe, and especially with Mons. Beaumarchais.” Silas appeared on 16 August, but Congress requested that he put his information in writing, then the motions failed and he was told to return on Monday, 17 August. Much of Deane’s troubles were instigated by Arthur Lee’s letters that implied wrongdoing on the part of Deane. Lee wrote similar derogatory letters to Congress about Benjamin Franklin, but Lee scored no success against the Franklin. Congress continued to deal with the problem and Deane was frequently called to appear, but the saga continued into 1779 without resolve. In August 1779, Congress passed a resolution to send a competent person to Europe to examine the commissioners’ accounts. It also finally informed Deane that he no longer had to appear before Congress. Deane then traveled back to France, but the representative selected by Congress never arrived to examine the accounts. Nevertheless, Deane remained in Paris until summer of 1781. During that period, Deane, not in a state of optimism, penned several private letters (May–June 1781), but they never arrived at their destination — friends back in the United States. The correspondence was intercepted by the British at sea and the British had the letters published in New York by the Rivingtons, who operated a Loyalist publication.

92 The letters, nine in all, and known as the “Paris Papers” or the “Intercepted Letters,” contained suggestions that were damaging to Deane and added to his grief because the contents did not sit well with his enemies in Congress. His reputation was further tarnished by his political adversaries who managed to have Silas positioned nearly equal with a traitor. One of the letters was addressed to Colonel William Duer, and it contained doubts about continuing the war. In another, Silas said: “Nothing short of peace can save our country from ruin. The terms offered by Great Britain furnish a good basis for a treaty, and although unpopular now, will not be so later.” In the meantime, Deane had departed Paris for Holland and from there to Ghent (Belgium), where he stayed until peace was restored. In the meantime, the accounts that Deane wanted investigated to clear his name had not been examined. On 22 February, John Jay wrote a stinging letter to Deane: “I was your friend, and should still have been so, had you not advised America to desert that independence which they had pledged each other their lives, fortunes, and sacred honor to support.” During March 1783, Deane left Ghent and traveled to England. While there, during the following year, he published his responses to the charges that had been lodged against him and caused his recall from France. While was in the process of returning to the United States, Deane died on 23 September 1789. On the previous day, he and Captain Davis of the Boston packet spent the night at Gravesend, and on the 23rd, they arrived at Deal and boarded the vessel, but shortly after embarkation, Silas became ill. He taken to his cabin, where he lost his speech and in the afternoon died. At about 2 P.M., Captain Davis returned to port to with Deane’s body and then the ship sailed for the United States. Silas Deane’s burial place remains uncertain, but it is thought he was interred without a grave stone in St. George’s Churchyard. At the time of his death, Deane had been living in near poverty, and his passage home was covered by friends in America. Deane was survived by his only son, Jesse, from his first marriage. Congress was presented a memorial from Deane’s heirs on 10 January 1835, and that activity led to total vindication of Silas Deane.

De Borre, Brigadier General Chevalier Prud Homme (Prudhomme) Prud Homme de Borre was one of a group of French officers commissioned as general officers in the Continental Army. His previous service included about thirty-five years in the French Army, where he achieved the rank of general. His connection with the army was made through the American commissioners in France. Initially, de Borre served in the Continental Army as a colonel during the summer of 1776 without distinction. During July of 1776, without authority, he captured a Tory and the man was summarily tried and executed. The incident, when brought to the attention of General George Washington, caused the latter to harshly reprimand de Borre, but apparently he continued in his service. General Washington, with regard to the incident, stated: Though I am convinced you acted in the affair with good intentions, yet I cannot but wish it had not happened. In the first place, it was a matter that did not come within the jurisdiction of martial law; and therefore the whole proceeding was irregular and illegal, and will have a tendency to excite discontent, jealousy, and murmurs among the people. In the second place, if the trial could properly have been made by a court-martial, as the division you commanded is only a detachment from the army, and you cannot have been considered as in a separate department, there is none or our articles of war that will justify your inflicting capital punishment even on a soldier, much less on a citizen.

Shortly thereafter, while the British controlled Staten Island, de Borre participated in General John Sullivan’s raid on British positions during August 1776. Colonel de Borre received blame for committing

DE HAAS

93 a blatant mistake while in command of a brigade during the operation. Following that incident, Colonel de Borre remained in service and later, during April of 1777, Congress elevated him to the rank of brigadier general with an effective date of 1 December 1776. The Battle of Brandywine (September 9–11, 1777) essentially became the cause of du Borre’s fall. That month a British fleet arrived in the Chesapeake and debarked a large force which advanced to seize Philadelphia. By that time, Congress was preparing to abandon the city, while General Washington’s forces rushed to intercept the British and save the capital. General du Borre insisted on his force holding the right wing of the army, which General John Sullivan would not relinquish. Du Borre, however, ignored Sullivan’s right to the post of honor, compelling Sullivan to take a circuitous route to get positioned. When the battle erupted, Sullivan had not yet been in place due to the delay caused by the obstinacy of du Borre. Meanwhile, Du Borre transformed the right wing into a position of dishonor. His line was bulldozed by the Redcoats, becoming the first to crumble. Consequently, the situation on the field continued to deteriorate, with the British forcing a general retreat. Various skirmishes continued and included the infamous “Paoli Massacre,” and within a short time, the British moved into Philadelphia. The incident ended du Borre’s service. He was immediately recalled by Congress. Du Borre attempted to rationalize the actions at Brandywine and pass the blame on to his troops, informing Congress by letter that he used all of his “power to rally his men.” He claimed he was wounded and stated, “If the American troops would run away, it was unjust to censure him for the consequences.” Congress, still holding untenable positions in the city, held a Sunday session, which the British were close to attending. Congress was informed that General du Borre offered to resign, and after consideration, the resignation was accepted Chevalier de Prud Homme de Borre received congressional approval to maintain his wagons for the journey to Charleston with the stipulation that upon his arrival, the equipment would be transferred to Continental Army. Subsequently, on 10 October 1777, Congress provided du Borre with $800 “to defray his expences to Charleston, South Carolina, and from thence to France.”

De Fermoy, Brigadier General Matthias Alexis Roche Matthias de Fermoy was born during 1737 in the West Indies. When he approached the Americans to join the fight against Britain during the American Revolution, Matthias, a Frenchman, professed that he had served as an engineer in the French military. His credentials were accepted and he was commissioned as a brigadier general by the Continental Congress on 5 November 1776. A few days later, on 9 November, Congress advanced $250 to Brigadier General de Fermoy, with instructions to repair to Ticonderoga to serve with the Northern Army under General Philip Schuyler. Meanwhile, prior to his departure to Albany, de Fermoy was apparently with General Washington during the operation which seized Trenton. Toward the end of the year (1776), de Fermoy was headquartered in the vicinity of present-day New Hope, Pennsylvania, in Bucks County. On 1 January, he was assigned responsibility for guarding positions at Coryell’s Ferry in the vicinity of Mile Run above Maidenhead (present-day Lawrenceville), New Jersey. History has not recorded volumes of information on the military career of de Fermoy, but what has been recorded gives no indication whether he was or was not an engineer in the service of the French. It does stipulate by example that he was not known for excellence in either leadership or tactics. On 1 January 1777, while his command was posted as a vanguard, de Fermoy left the post and returned to Trenton, which had recently been captured by General George Washington (26 December). Later, against the intentions of General Washington, General de Fermoy was ordered to repair to the Northern Department to serve under General Schuyler. He received command of Mount Inde-

pendence, opposite Ticonderoga. At the time, General John Burgoyne was advancing in New York and General St. Clair evacuated Ticonderoga. Mount Independence (formerly Rattlesnake Hill), Vermont, was also evacuated; however, the operation was discovered when British troops spotted a fire within the American positions on Mount Independence on 6 July 1777 at about 0200. General de Fermoy’s headquarters had been set afire and it is thought that de Fermoy, against orders, started it. Nevertheless, General Arthur St. Clair’s abandonment of Ticonderoga had nearly been completed by the time his strategy became known to Burgoyne. The British sprang to action and attacked Ticonderoga, only to find it undefended. Meanwhile, the British demolished obstacles on the lake, which enabled the Royal Navy to advance to Wood Creek to support the British pursuit. On the 7th, the British defeated St. Clair’s rear guard at Fort Ann, but at Hubbardton, the British were repelled and the pursuit was terminated. De Fermoy sustained no setbacks from his actions; however, later that year, the Frenchman pressed Congress for a promotion to the rank of major general. On 30 December, Congress considered a letter from General de Fermoy and resolved “that Brigadier de Roche Fermoy be informed that Congress do not think it expedient to promote him to the rank he solicits.” Subsequently, on 16 February 1778, Congress resolved “that the Baron Holzendorf have leave to resign his commission of lieutenant colonel, and have liberty to depart for France [and] That Brigadier General de Roche Fermoy have leave to resign his commission in the service of these states, and liberty to depart for France.”

De Haas, Brigadier General John Philip John de Haas was born about 1735 in Holland. While still a teenager about fourteen years old, his family (Huguenots) immigrated to America and settled in Pennsylvania in the vicinity of Lebanon. In January 1758, John became an ensign and soon, during April 1758, he was appointed adjutant for the 1st Battalion, Pennsylvania Regiment, the latter being composed of three battalions. The regiment was commanded by William Denny, lieutenant governor of Pennsylvania, who held the rank of colonel-in-chief. The 1st Battalion was commanded by Colonel (later brigadier General, Continental Army) John Armstrong. That same year, John married Eleanor Bingham. During 1760, de Haas attained the rank of captain and served under Colonel James Burd, who succeeded Colonel Armstrong. Afterward he was promoted to the rank of major. With that rank, John also served with the 1st Battalion (commanded by Colonel Turbutt Francis), provincial forces, during the campaign of Colonel Daniel Broadhead during 1764. Major de Haas received a land grant in the vicinity of Bald Eagle Creek for his service. On 25 November 1775, Colonel Thomas Bull was named commanding officer of the 1st Pennsylvania Battalion, but the appointment was short-lived. Problems developed between Bull and his officers. During January 1776, he resigned but expressed his desire to continue to serve the country and the cause. He was succeeded on 22 January by John de Haas, whom Congress appointed as colonel in the Continental Army on 22 February 1776. At the time de Haas received his appointment, he was serving as justice of peace for Lancaster County. The 1st Battalion became the 2nd Continental Pennsylvania Regiment of the Pennsylvania Line. Earlier, during June 1775, the 1st Battalion of Riflemen (separate from De Haas’ 1st Battalion) was formed, and it was commanded by Colonel (later brigadier general) William Thompson; it became the 1st Regiment (Continental Line) and later, on 1 January, 1776, it became the 1st Pennsylvania Regiment (Pennsylvania Line). Colonel De Haas was ordered to repair to Canada, where he participated in the latter part of the ill-fated Canadian expedition, in which Major General Richard Montgomery was killed on 31 December 1775. On 19 January, Congress resolved to send reinforcements to Canada,

DE KALB two companies from each battalion. By 14 February, five of de Haas’ companies had arrived at Albany, with some moving beyond the city en route to Fort Edward. The contingents were transported by boat from Albany for the journey of just under fifty miles via the Hudson. The troops had suffered greatly from sickness and many were no longer fit for duty, particularly in the extreme cold of that part of New York. Once at Fort Edward, the force jumped to Fort William Henry (later Fort George), located on the eastern shore of Lake St. George, and from there the arduous trek advanced to Fort Ticonderoga at the western shore of Lake Champlain. Yet the journey had not terminated. From Ticonderoga, the units moved to Crown Point, also on Lake Champlain about five miles farther, which still left about 165 miles between the force and Montreal. Meanwhile, part of the force (two companies) was at Fort George with General John Thomas and two companies were at Albany with de Haas. General David Wooster arrived at Quebec on 1 April 1776 and assumed command there, while Brigadier General Benedict Arnold (promoted 10 January 1776) returned to Montreal. Afterward, on 1 May, General Thomas reached Quebec. On 25 May, Colonel de Haas, at Sorel, sped to relieve pressure on Arnold at La Chine, compelling a British force from Detroit to retire. Later, on 30 May, Arnold issued an explicit order to de Haas to strike and demolish an Indian village of Canasada across the Grand River. De Haas called for a war council. The attack was not launched, which caused the officers with De Haas to become infuriated as they withdrew to La Chine. From there his contingent (not his entire five companies) moved to Montreal. By the 15th of June, the British were closing against Arnold, prompting him to initiate a retreat at about dusk. The march continued through the night and reached St. John’s, and it was there on the 16th that all five of the Pennsylvania companies again came together. De Haas’s contingent never advanced to Quebec. Shortly thereafter, on the 18th, British General John Burgoyne arrived at St. John’s. On the 19th, while the Americans remained on the move, orders arrived at Isle aux Noix that instructed Colonel De Haas, along with Colonels Anthony Wayne, Arthur St. Clair, and William Irvine, to establish their respective camps on in the eastern sector of Isle aux Noix. Two days later, on the 21st, a party (unarmed) attached to Colonel Irvine’s command went on a fishing excursion that turned deadly. Several officers and enlisted men surrounded them while they were inside a building, drinking some “spruce beer.” Most were torturously murdered and scalped, while others were taken prisoner. Colonel Anthony Wayne led a contingent that gave chase and was able to retrieve the bateaux that contained the bodies. (See also, Irvine, Brigadier General William.) On the 27th of June, the Americans initiated the trek to Crown Point from Isle la Motte. The Bateaux arrived there on 1 July; however, on the 7th it was decided to abandon Crown Point for Ticonderoga. Colonel de Haas’ battalion arrived there on the 10th. Soon after, on 20 August, General Gates (successor of General John Sullivan) reorganized his force into brigades, with the four Pennsylvania battalions to be commanded by General Arthur St. Clair (promoted to brigadier on 9 August, 1776). On 1 January 1777, General Washington, at winter headquarters in Valley Forge, directed that each Continental Army division be composed of three brigades, with each of the latter containing three infantry regiments. Brigade strength averaged about 2,200 men, bring divisional infantry strength to more than 6,500 troops. However, brigades often contained four to five regiments. The Pennsylvania brigades (1st, 2nd and 3rd) were commanded by brigadier generals Anthony Wayne, John Philip de Haas, and Thomas Conway, respectively. De Haas was commissioned by Congress as a brigadier general on 21 February 1777. He resigned his commission shortly thereafter. However, he served afterward with the Pennsylvania militia and participated in the campaign in the Wyoming Valley during the summer of

94 1778. On 3 July, the valley turned red from blood after being ravaged by a merciless band of Loyalists and Indians ( John Butler’s Rangers) that numbered about 1,000. The settlers were the victims of a savage ruse, and after moving out of the fort expecting a conference, they were encircled and massacred. Of 400 men, only Zebulon Butler and about twenty others were able to break out and get back to the fort. Afterward, the rangers delivered 200 scalps to the gates and demanded surrender. The beleaguered defenders were forced to seek terms of surrender and received the response, “the hatchet.” Adults and children alike were massacred. The Loyalists, aware of women and children in buildings, purposely set them afire. From there they moved to the next post. The troops at that garrison were also murdered savagely. General de Haas was first to arrive at Fort Muncy. Colonel Thomas Hartley (Continental Army) arrived toward the latter part of July with a contingent of his regiment and militia. A command problem developed, as de Haas claimed to be the commander of all of the troops. Meanwhile, General James Potter arrived on 2 August and Colonel Hartley attempted to convince Potter to assume command, but he became passive and declined, stating that he was “not fond of command.” Afterward, Hartley and de Haas moved out of Sunbury and a new post (Fort Muncy) was constructed near Samuel Wallis’ stone mansion just outside of Muncy. Colonel Hartley initiated pursuit of Butler, and along the route, Indian villages were destroyed, but the force was compelled to retire. Nevertheless, Hartley’s command inflicted severe casualties as they withdrew and compelled Butler to abort the chase. Later, the 4th Pennsylvania Regiment arrived and inflicted more punishment on the enemy. After this, General De Haas’ activity faded. Nonetheless, he relocated in Philadelphia, never having moved to his property at Bald Eagle Creek. In 1780, General de Haas received the rank of brevet major general. He succumbed in Philadelphia, where he remained until his death on 3 June 1786. He was survived by his wife, Eleanor, and two children, John Philip, Jr., and his daughter, Harriet. John, Jr., served in the army under his father for a short while and later married Ann Shippin (Shippen) of Philadelphia. Ann Shippin was the daughter of Captain William Shippin (Continental Marines) who was killed at the Battle of Princeton, 3 January 1777. During 1806, John, Jr., relocated to the property at Bald Eagle Creek. Harriet de Haas married William Craig.

De Kalb, Major General Baron John (Hans) John de Kalb, the son of John Leonard and Margaret Seitz Putz Kalb, was born on 29 June 1721 at Huettendorf (later parish of Frauenaurach, Bavarian district of Erlangen). John Leonard was not part of the nobility; rather, he was listed in church records at Frauenaurach as a “sojourner and peasant.” John Leonard, on April 24, 1715, married Mrs. Putz (maiden name was Seitz, originally of Eschenbach). In addition to John, the de Kalbs had two other children, their oldest son, George (b. 1718) and their youngest, Andrew (b. 1727). John’s early life for the most part remains a mystery. He received his fundamental education in Kriegenbronn and for a while worked as a waiter. By about the time he was sixteen years old he left home and eventually arrived in France. During 1743, John, who was given the name Hans at birth, had changed his name and was then known as Lieutenant Jean de Kalb, a member of a French infantry regiment (Count Loewendal’s regiment). Only nobility received an opportunity to advance in the military and John used his manufactured nobility to his advantage. The regiment was French; however, its officers were primarily German. Nevertheless, Hans Jean de Kalb had become Baron De Kalb and his nobility never was challenged. By 1744, the War of Austrian Succession was expanding. During 1740, France had aligned itself with Albert of Bavaria against Austria, but during 1744, France declared war against Austria and Great Britain.

95 At the time, the French under King Louis XV moved into Flanders to oust the British. Menin fell and Ypres and Furnes followed suit, but the king fell ill prior to responding to an Austrian invasion of Alsace. De Kalb’s regiment was heavily involved in the fighting in Flanders. During the following year, his regiment participated as part of the army under Marshal Saxe in the Netherlands, and the battles included Fontenoy. The conflict terminated with the treaty of Aix-Ia-Chapelle (1748). By that time, de Kalb had attained the rank of captain. He also participated in the Seven Years’ War (called the French and Indian War in colonies) and following the end of hostilities, de Kalb was based at Landau. On 10 April 1764, John married Anna Elizabeth Emilie van Robais. The ceremony was held in the Protestant chapel of the Dutch legation in Paris. Anna was the daughter of Peter van Robais, who owned a clothing manufacturing business. John’s marriage brought about wealth, as his wife was an heiress and later would inherit other wealth from her family. De Kalb retired from the French military subsequent to his marriage and received a pension of a lieutenant colonel. In 1767, France’s interest in the unrest of the colonies in America coincided with thoughts in France that a new conflict with Britain might erupt, and the military moved to fortify various places along the French coast. On 20 April 1767, the Duc de Choiseul, at Versailles, said in a letter to de Kalb: “You are hereby informed that his majesty has included you among the list of officers who are to be employed this year in the survey of the country. You will visit the coast from Dunkirk to Calais, and take up your headquarters in the first-named of these towns....” De Kalb expeditiously repaired to Versailles and arrived there on 22 April to receive further instructions, but to his surprise, his mission had been changed. The chief clerk of the ministry of war informed de Kalb that instead, he was to travel to Amsterdam to assess the rumors regarding the American colonists and their relations with the mother country. If proven accurate, John was further directed (by Choiseul’s instructions) to journey to America and discern their needs regarding officers, engineers, and artillery engineers, to scrutinize the fortifications, gauge the level of resistance, and determine who the leaders of the revolt would be. Instinctively, de Kalb rejected the mission, but Choiseul persuaded him to accept. He departed for Holland during early June 1767 and sent his initial report back to Choiseul on 15 July. The information was given to de Kalb by a German who lived in the colonies. He reported that the colonists had about 400,000 militia and of the Germans there, an additional 60,000 men could be raised between the Germans and Irish. De Kalb included in the report that he was “repeating his [the German’s] assertions, without being convinced of their truth.” In September, Baron de Kalb traveled to London, from where he embarked for America aboard the Hercules on 4 October 1767 and arrived in Philadelphia on 12 January 1768. On 25 January, de Kalb departed Philadelphia for New York. The trek was harrowing. On the 28th, from New Jersey, the baron and other passengers, on the word of an innkeeper that it was safe and that there was little ice, boarded a ferry to take them to Staten Island. While crossing, the winds shifted and the ferry was carried toward an island that contained neither shelter nor food. Of the nine passengers, two died before the night Baron John de Kalb (Pictorial Field ended. The survivors were Book of the Revolution, Benson J. Los- those who refrained from sleep and huddled together to sing, 1860)

DE KALB escape certain death. They were rescued on the following morning and taken to shore by a sledge. Baron de Kalb finally reached New York on the 31st. Later he moved to Boston, and on 3 March sent another report back to the French minister, Choiseul, indicating that he would be leaving for Halifax, Nova Scotia. De Kalb had discerned that his messages had been tampered with and might not have ever reached the prime minister. On 24 April at New York, he wrote that he was returning to France to give a full report, but he did write that a conflict did not seem too far off. He also mentioned that the colonists might stall to give them time to construct a navy. Afterward, he embarked for London and from there returned to Paris, arriving on 12 June. After moving to Versailles, he learned that only five of his many reports reached the prime minister. Choiseul later became disinterested in reports by Baron de Kalb and afterward, he began to totally ignore de Kalb. During 1770, de Kalb was assured that he would be among the new brigadiers, but by December, Choiseul was ousted and the promise was not fulfilled. Meanwhile, after Baron de Kalb returned to France and purchased the chateau of Milon la Chapelle, slightly south of Versailles; however, the previous owners, the elderly and childless Besset family, retained the residence until their demise and transferred immediately only the feudal rights and land. Nevertheless, the De Kalbs never moved into the manor because Monsieur Besset outlived the baron, his wife and their oldest son. The baron’s son, Elie de Kalb, was granted permission by Napoleon to return France; he then took over the manor. In March 1771, Baron de Kalb received a letter, dated March 12, 1771, from Duc de Vrilliere at Versailles that stated: “The king, considers you qualified, by your talents, for a special undertaking of great importance to his service. It is the wish of his Majesty that you should at once repair to this place, to receive the directions relating to this mission, if you are prepared to embrace this opportunity of giving further proofs of the zeal heretofore manifested.” The letter was referring to service in Poland. De Kalb responded with a request of the rank of brigadier; however, the mission never materialized. After Louis XVI ascended to the throne, Baron de Kalb was returned to the military. He served during 1775 in Metz under the commanderin-chief Comte de Broglie for a few months. During December 1775, Comte de Broglie received a response to a letter he sent to St. Germain regarding Baron de Kalb, but it said only that there was no opening in the army at the time. During the following year, on 6 November, de Kalb received a commission as brigadier from M. de Sartines. But by that time, Baron de Kalb had already begun to communicate with Silas Deane about serving the American cause. Deane had also been visited by Comte de Broglie, who recommended de Kalb, the latter being promised a commission as major general in the Continental Army with seniority effective on 7 November 1776. De Kalb’s commission, according to U.S. Army records, became effective on 15 September 1777. Nonetheless, on 1 December, Baron de Kalb signed a formal contract on behalf of himself and fifteen others who would serve as officers. However, on 7 December, a new contract was signed and it included the name of the Marquis de Lafayette. Lafayette remained concealed at de Kalb’s home outside of Paris several days prior to embarking on a vessel, the Victoire, captained by Le Boursier. Baron de Kalb subsequently related in letters that the government of France clandestinely supported him in his quest to go to fight alongside the Americans and if so, France was most probably also in favor of Lafayette’s mission, considering they sailed together. Baron de Kalb, Lafayette, and the others arrived in the vicinity of South Carolina during June 1777. Their first encounter was with Major Benjamin Huger about fifty miles from Charleston. Afterward, the party arrived in Charleston, where they met General William Moultrie and other officers. From Charleston, the party traveled overland to Philadelphia, stopping at Petersburg, Virginia, on 18 July and at

DE KALB Annapolis, Maryland on 23 July. They arrived in Philadelphia on 27 July. Congress was not agreeable to the contract made between Silas Deane and Baron de Kalb. The baron proclaimed his indignation to Congress and requested that he be reimbursed for all expenses. Congress had problems due to American generals being aggravated with the appointment of foreigners as general officers. Baron de Kalb became ill from fever after his arrival in Philadelphia, and upon recovery, he was in the process of returning to France. On 13 August, Congress offered thanks to de Kalb and the Viscount de Mauroy for offering to serve, but informed them that it was “impossible for Congress to avail themselves of the offers of service, made by those gentlemen in any way suited to their rank, and the circumstances of the American Union.” On 8 September, Congress resolved to pay the expenses for De Kalb and the other officers that accompanied him back to France. On 15 September, he Philadelphia the city en route for Lancaster after a stop in Bethlehem. Congress on that same day appointed him as major general and then dispatched a messenger to intercept him and inform the baron of the action. Congress ordered “that his commission be dated the day before that of the Marquis de Fayette.” Nonetheless, General Baron de Kalb requested that his commission be dated the same day as the Marquis de Lafayette. On 4 October, Congress resolved “that the Baron de Kalb be at liberty to give up his commission of major general, if the contingency mentioned in his letter of the 28 ult. should happen: That the Baron de Kalb’s commission be dated the same day with that of the Marquis de la Fayette, (agreeable to the request of the Baron).” During November 1777, General de Kalb and Generals Philip Schuyler and Henry Knox were dispatched by Washington to inspect the fortifications at Red Bank, New Jersey, and on the 24th, a council of war was held by General George Washington. An assault against British-held Philadelphia was discussed and General de Kalb was among the majority of general officers in attendance who opposed such an attack. The plan was aborted. General de Kalb wrote often to his wife and M. Le Comte. After the Continental Army established winter quarters in Valley Forge, the baron described the difficulties of the encampment and the lack of housing even for generals. He noted that every fourth day he had duty as officer of the day and that he had little time to himself. The baron’s earlier letters described General Washington as “the most amiable, kind-hearted, and upright of men; but as a General he is too slow, too indolent, and far too weak; besides, he has a tinge of vanity in his composition, and overestimates himself. In my opinion whatever success he may have will be owing to good luck and to the blunders of his adversaries, rather than to his abilities. I may even say that he does not know how to improve upon the grossest blunders of the enemy. He has not yet overcome his old prejudice against the French.” In another report to M. Le Comte, he stated: “It is unfortunate that Washington is so easily led. He is the bravest and truest of men, has the best intentions, and a sound judgment. I am convinced that he would accomplish substantial results, if he would only act more upon his own responsibility; but it is a pity that he is so weak, and has the worst of advisers in the men who enjoy his confidence. If they are not traitors, they are certainly gross ignoramuses....” De Kalb’s letters included descriptions of the poor conditions in camp, sickness and his opinion on parades: “You must understand that the whole parade, headed by the general makes a circuit around the little cluster of horsemen, and then, before setting out to mount guard, range themselves again on the ground from which they started, a march which occupies at least three-quarters of an hour. How sad, that troops of such excellence, and so much zeal, should be so little spared and so badly led! But everything here combines to inspire disgust. At the smallest sign from you I shall return home.” In a letter to his wife, dated 5 January 1778, Baron de Kalb stated:

96 I have annoyances to bear, of which you can hardly form a conception. One of them is the mutual jealousy of almost all the French officers, particularly against those of higher rank than the rest. The people think of nothing but their incessant intrigues and backbitings. They hate each other like the bitterest enemies, and endeavor to injure each other wherever an opportunity offers. I have given up their society, and very seldom see them. Lafayette is the sole exception; I always meet him with the same cordiality and the same pleasure. He is an excellent young man, and we are good friends. It were to be wished that all the Frenchmen who serve here were as reasonable as he and I. Lafayette is much liked; he is on the best of terms with Washington; both of them have every reason to be satisfied with me also.

In February, 1778, Congress directed that General Washington be informed that at the request of General Lafayette, that if General McDougal was not in good health, that General de Kalb should follow Lafayette into Canada; however, the invasion was never initiated. After the break up of winter quarters the next month, a force composed of regiments from Delaware and Maryland commanded by General de Kalb departed Morristown, New Jersey, to reinforce the American forces in South Carolina. The contingent arrived at Hillsborough, North Carolina, on June 22. On the day before he reached Hillsborough, after entering North Carolina, he wrote to his wife regarding the weather and insects: “Here I am at last. I’m considerably south, suffering from intolerable heat, the worst of quarters, and the most voracious of insects of every hue and form. The most disagreeable of the latter is what is commonly called the tick, a kind of strong black flea, which makes its way under the skin, and by its bite produces the most painful irritation and inflammation, which lasts a number of days. My whole body is covered with these stings.” From there, the remainder of the journey was horrific, as the troops were unable to acquire food and supplies. At the time, General de Kalb was the highest ranking officer in the south, but upon the arrival of General Horatio Gates during the latter part of July, Gates assumed command of all forces in the south. Prior to the arrival of Gates, General Francis Marion (Swamp Fox) arrived, and de Kalb dispatched his force on a mission to acquire food. Gates joined with de Kalb at Coxe’s Mill on July 25, and upon his arrival, General de Kalb ordered a 13-gun salute. By the 27th, Gates departed for Camden, South Carolina, to attack the British; however, he had no time to study the terrain nor absorb the advice and counsel of experienced officers. General de Kalb remained with the army as a member of Gates’ staff. By ignoring the advice, Gates’ advance bypassed friendly towns such as Salisbury and Charlotte, where wounded could have received assistance. The march was grueling and many of the troops became severely ill due to the conditions and the lack of food. The force also lacked horses, which caused the army to leave eight pieces of artillery behind. General Gates disregarded the advice on the method of advance attack against Camden that he received from veteran South Carolinians, who urged him to take a circuitous route and use the swamps as added protection. Food promised by the government of North Carolina never arrived and the crisis nearly caused mutiny. On 16 August, the Battle of Camden ignited during the early morning hours. Most of the Americans remained ill from food they ate on the previous night. The Americans and a contingent of Tarleton’s Legion accidentally encountered each other in the pitch darkness at about 0200, while each side was attempting to surprise the other. The vanguard, American cavalry, was driven back. During the hurried retreat, the cavalry slammed into the 1st Maryland Regiment, causing the Marylanders (de Kalb’s command) to collapse. While Gates and British General Charles Cornwallis awaited dawn, Gates discovered that his estimate of about 7,000 troops was actually only about 3,000, with the great majority sick. When the British attacked, the Americans along the line folded, and many fled without firing their weapons. However, General de Kalb’s forces held steadfastly.

97 Nevertheless, his force was unable to withstand the superior numbers of Redcoats. General Gates, who had positioned himself to the rear, retreated with the militia, leaving command to de Kalb while Gates raced toward Charlotte, North Carolina. Meanwhile, Baron de Kalb and the Continental troops mounted tenacious resistance. The British continued to pound de Kalb’s lines and finally caused the troops to pull back. De Kalb led a charge to halt the British and was wounded eleven times. When the British moved to finish Baron de Kalb, his aide-de-camp, Lt. Du Bouson (Dubuysson), threw his body on the general’s and sustained some wounds from British swords as he shouted to spare the general’s life. Cornwallis arrived and de Kalb was spared and given medical attention, as ordered by Cornwallis. Nevertheless, General de Kalb succumbed within a few days, on the 19th, at Camden. The actions of de Kalb subsequent to the flight of Gates did not terminate in victory; however, the regulars under de Kalb and those who tried to hold the field after his mortal wound inflicted enough punishment on the British that Cornwallis was compelled to return to Charleston to rest his force and get re-supplied. Brigadier General Griffith Rutherford was also wounded and captured, but he survived and was released during 1781. On 26 August, du Bouson, fulfilling a last request of de Kalb, wrote to Generals Gist and Smallwood, congratulating them and the troops in his division for the courage and giving his farewell: Dear Generals: Having received wounds in the action of the 16th instant, I was made prisoner, with the Honorable Major-General the Baron de Kalb, with whom I served as aide-de-camp and friend, And had an opportunity of attending that great and good officer during the short time he languished with eleven wounds, which proved mortal on the third day. It is with particular pleasure I obey the baron’s last commands, in presenting his most affectionate compliments to all the officers and men of his division. He expressed the greatest satisfaction in the testimony given by the British army, of the bravery of his troops; and he was charmed with the firm opposition they made to superior force, when abandoned by the rest of the army. The gallant behavior of the Delaware regiment and the companies of artillery attached to the brigades, afforded him infinite pleasure. And the exemplary conduct of the whole division gave him an endearing sense of the merits of the troops he had the honor to command.

On the 14 October 1780, Congress resolved that a monument be erected to the memory of the late Major General the Baron de Kalb, in the city of Annapolis, in the State of Maryland, with the following inscription: “Sacred to the memory of the baron de Kalb Knight of the royal Order of Military merit, Brigadier of the Armies of France And major general in the service of the United States of America Having served with honor and reputation for three years, he gave a last & glorious proof of his attachment to the liberties of Mankind and the cause of America in the action near Camden in the state of So. Carolina On the 16th of August 1780 where leading on the troops of the Delaware & Maryland lines against superior numbers and animating them by his example to Deeds of Valour he was pierced with many wounds and on the 19 following expired in the 48 year of his age. The Congress of the United States of America in gratitude to his zeal, services and merit have erected this monument.”

By 1825, only one tree marked the grave site of General de Kalb and the resolution of Congress regarding a national monument was never brought to fruition. However, on 8 March 1825, through the efforts of the Free Masons, General Marquis de Lafayette arrived in Camden, South Carolina, to lay the cornerstone of a monument from the people of Camden, South Carolina, to honor General de Kalb. The ceremony occurred on the following day. The monument was composed of “Twenty-six massive blocks of granite. Twenty-four of them bear, respectively, the names of the twenty-four States then composing the Union; the twenty-fifth bears the inscription, ‘Foedus esto perpetuum’ and the twenty-sixth covers the ashes of the deceased. The monument itself consists of an obelisk of white marble fifteen feet high.”

DICKINSON Baron General de Kalb was survived by his wife and three children, Frederick (b. May 1765, died by guillotine during 1793), Anna Maria Carolina (b. May 1767, married John Lucas Geymueller, a Swiss captain who served in the French army) and Elie, his second son (b. March 1769; while living in Austria and serving in the Tyrolese rifles, he used the alias Elias von Kell). Elie married Elise Signard. (The source for the exact date and place of birth of Baron General de Kalb was Friedrich Kapp’s The Life of John Kalb, 1884.

De Woedtke, Brigadier General Frederic Wilhelm Frederick de Woedtke was born in Prussia about 1740 and while quite young, he entered the military during the reign of Frederick the Great. He apparently had a falling out and left the service, intent on immigrating to America to fight alongside the patriots against the British. Using his professed service record, he met with the American commissioners in France and persuaded them to provide an introduction to Congress, which after consideration awarded him with a commission as brigadier general in the Continental Army on 16 March 1776. Prior to receiving his commission, he had gone to Cambridge and met with General George Washington. Following the resolution of 16 March that made the appointment official, Congress resolved: “That the baron Frederic William de Woedtke, appointed a Brigadier General in the army of the United Colonies, be ordered immediately to repair to New York, there to remain under the commanding officer, until the commissioners appointed to go into Canada shall reach that colony: and that the said Baron Woedtke be directed to accompany them into Canada, and there serve under the commander of the continental troops in that province.” After arriving in Canada, de Woedtke attended a war council at the Sorel on 14 May that included Brigadier General Benedict Arnold, General David Wooster and Colonel Anthony Wayne. On 7 July, General de Woedtke attended another war council in which he sided with those who concluded that Crown Point should be abandoned and the garrison redeployed at the place opposite Fort Ticonderoga, later known as Mount Independence. A large group of officers, including Colonels Maxwell, Poor and Stark, opposed the abandonment of Crown Point at that meeting; however, Crown Point was abandoned. Later that month, General de Woedtke succumbed in a hospital at Lake George on 28 July. John Pierce, who accompanied the expedition to Canada, wrote in a letter: “The Loss of Gen. De Woedtke is not great, he was always in Liquor — was sick in his Boots and buried in them.” General de Woedtke was given a military funeral with all honors and interred near Fort Ticonderoga. (Some sources list de Woedtke’s death on 31 July; however, earlier sources concur with 28 July and, according to the military records, General Woedtke’s commission expired on 28 July 1776.)

Dickinson, John (Signer of the U.S. Constitution) John Dickinson was born into an affluent Quaker family on 19 November 1732 in the town of Crosiadore in Talbot County, Maryland. His parents were Samuel Dickinson and Samuel’s second wife, Mary Cadwalader Dickinson. When John was about eight years old, during 1740, his family relocated in Kent County to a farm in the vicinity of Dover. As a youth, he received a good education and decided to take up the legal profession as did father, a judge in Delaware. He had a keen intellect and extraordinary oratory skills, which helped him along the path to becoming a skilled lawyer. His initial instruction in the legal profession began in Philadelphia, but he also traveled to England during 1750 to complete his education in London. Although born an American, Dickinson, like many other colonists, thought of himself as an Englishman with equal rights as if born in the mother country. He returned to America during 1757 and at that time established his law practice in Philadelphia. After arriving there, Dick-

DICKINSON inson became well known and, despite his young age, was elected to the Pennsylvania legislature. Dickinson resided in Philadelphia, but he also had a residence in Delaware. Due to the circumstances of that time, for a period of about fifteen years, he served in the legislature of both colonies, with some of that time becoming less than pleasant. In 1760 he served as a representative and speaker of the Three Lower Counties of Delaware. During 1762, he served as a member of the Philadelphia assembly. Later, during 1764, again he was seated in the Pennsylvania assembly and became entangled in the political squabbles of the time, taking the side of the conservatives. Consequently, as a defender of the proprietor governor, he found himself on the opposite side of Benjamin Franklin. The differences created friction that led to the ouster of Dickinson in 1764. The quarrels, although at times intense, cost only the seat, not Dickinson’s honor or integrity. Later they were mended as Dickinson fell into the identical sentiments expressed by Franklin and the other Patriots. During 1765, when trouble was brewing with the mother country, he became a member of the General Congress, and at about the same time, he became a conspicuous opponent of the British injustices against the colonies. Some of his prolific writing emerged during 1765, in reaction to the Stamp Act when, as a member of the Pennsylvania assembly, he authored “The Late Regulations Respecting the British Colonies ... Considered,” an untarnished work designed to ignite the Patriots to influence the British merchants to seek a repeal of the act by Parliament. By 1767, Dickinson unfolded another of his talents when he unleashed a string of potent letters, published in the Pennsylvania Gazette, that disclosed the pretentious masks that covered the pernicious acts of Parliament. His letters (Letters from a Farmer in Pennsylvania) were laid out like stepping stones that guided the colonists towards what appeared to be imminent conflict against the aggression. His dedication to the American positions continued to deepen, and after the initiation of the Townshend Acts (which imposed duties) during 1768, yet again he bolted to the forefront of the opposition leaders to neutralize the new taxes by working to ban imports. In 1770, he took a slight pause in his political activity and married Mary Norris. The number of children born to them is uncertain, but it is known that they had one daughter. By the following year, again, Dickinson threw himself back into the ongoing war of words with Britain. He authored a petition to the king, which the assembly adopted, but his course and dedication to avoiding violence caused him to begin to drift away from the sentiments of others, particularly those in New England. As Britain increased pressure by enacting the Intolerable Acts in 1774, Dickinson declined to support requests that had come down from the Patriots in Boston, which in turn prompted the latter to be less than cordial in their relations with him. During 1774, he was in the forefront at Philadelphia when opposition emerged following Parliament’s Coercive Acts. Also that year, John Dickinson (Our Countrymen, or he became a delegate of the Brief Memoirs of Eminent Americans, First Continental Congress. On 29 May 1775, a letter Benson J. Lossing, 1855)

98 from John Jay directed to the people of Canada was received and approved by Congress. John Dickinson and Thomas Mifflin were charged with having the letter translated into French and getting 1,000 copies transported to Canada and distributed there. On 3 June, Congress appointed a committee — John Dickinson, John Jay and Benjamin Franklin — to compose a letter to the inhabitants of Great Britain. On the 24th, Dickinson was appointed to a committee charged with improving the militia: “Resolved, That a Committee of seven be appointed to devise ways and means to put the Militia of America in a proper state for the defence of America.” The incessant activity in Congress continued, and on 5 July, it approved the Olive Branch Petition, a direct plea to King George III for a path to reconciliation with Britain. The petition was written by Dickinson. On the following day, 6 July 1775, Congress publicized a “Declaration on The Causes And Necessity Of Taking Up Arms,” also authored by Dickinson. It read, in part: “If it was possible for men, who exercise their reason to believe, that the divine Author of our existence intended a part of the human race to hold an absolute property in, and an unbounded power over others, marked out by his infinite goodness and wisdom, as the objects of a legal domination never rightfully resistible, however severe and oppressive, the inhabitants of these colonies might at least require from the parliament of Great-Britain some evidence, that this dreadful authority over them, has been granted to that body....” The first draft of the declaration was penned by John Rutledge, and afterward a second was done by Thomas Jefferson, the latter considered too strong by Dickinson and William Livingston. Dickinson received authorization to modify it. Of Jefferson’s draft, Dickinson maintained his strong support of the cause; however, he remained convinced that war would be averted and reconciliation was possible. On 18 September Dickinson was appointed to the eight-member Secret Committee, established to carry out clandestine operations. As the fateful day approached and the Patriots were faced with adopting the Declaration of Independence, John Dickinson remained conflicted. Nonetheless, during early May 1776, Congress denounced British authority over the colonies and simultaneously authorized each colony to establish a provincial government. Dickinson was appointed to lead the committee charged with drawing up articles of confederation. The Declaration of Independence, composed by Richard Henry Lee of Virginia —“That these united colonies are, and of right, ought to be free and independent states; that they are absolved from all allegiance to the British crown and that all political connection between them and the state of Great Britain is, and ought to be, totally dissolved.”— was opposed by Dickinson; however, it was passed in committee on 10 June over his objections. On the 28th, Dickinson was appointed to the Committee on Foreign Correspondence, established to form alliances with foreign governments willing to support the cause. Dickinson was intentionally absent for the vote on the Declaration of Independence on 4 July 1776 to permit a unanimous vote. Dickinson’s position was complicated. Although he still believed reconciliation was possible and declined to support the Declaration, he was not a pacifist. Since June of the previous year, he held the position of chairman, Pennsylvania Committee of Safety and Defense, and in addition, the initial battalion of volunteers (Associators) that was raised in Philadelphia was organized by him. The modern-day Pennsylvania National Guard unit, the 111th Infantry, traces its roots back to his battalion. On July 22, Congress took up consideration of the draft of the Articles of Confederation written by Dickinson. After modification they were adopted during September of this same year. Soon after, on 2 August, in Philadelphia, the Declaration of Independence, in parchment form, was signed by the majority of the 56 members of the Continental Congress. John Dickinson (Pennsylvania) and some others,

DICKINSON

99 including John Jay (New York) and Robert Livingston (New York), had declined signing the document. In the meantime, Dickinson took leave from Congress after Pennsylvania activated his reserve battalion. He departed the city and headed north to support the effort to defend New York against the British. His battalion was attached to the Flying Camp, a huge reserve organization able to swiftly bolster the Continental Army at New York. Dickinson was given command at Elizabeth, New Jersey, and from there, he was positioned to meet any attempt by the British to proceed there from Staten Island to advance toward Philadelphia. By December 1776, all others had signed the Declaration except Dickinson. His staunch and irrevocable stance caused him to be ousted from Congress. Nonetheless, his equally strong sentiments for the American cause did not become diluted. He had resigned from the Associators and the Pennsylvania assembly, then left Philadelphia for his residence in Delaware. That year, he was elected to Congress from his residence in Delaware; however, he declined. Instead, he joined the Delaware militia in 1777 and served as an enlisted man in a militia company commanded by Captain Stephen Lewis. Dickinson’s unit participated in the defense against the British when a force of 15,000 men arrived at the Head of the Elk on 15 August 1777 during the campaign to take Philadelphia. He was part of the force deployed to intercept any advance towards Baltimore. In October 1777, Dickinson received a commission as brigadier general (Delaware militia) from General Caesar Rodney (a member of the Continental Congress who signed the Declaration of Independence). General Dickinson resigned his commission during 1788. In 1779 he reversed his disapproval, of the Declaration and acknowledged his error. Consequently, Delaware again appointed him as a member of Congress. While serving that term, John signed of the Articles of Confederation as a representative of Delaware. On 26 May 1779, an address penned by Dickinson was adopted by Congress: “Persevere and you ensure peace, FREEDOM, safety, glory, sovereignty, and felicity to yourselves, your children and your children’s children. Fill up your battalions — be prepared in every part to repel the incursions of your enemies....” Departing Congress in 1781, he became president of the Supreme Executive Council, essentially making him the president of Delaware. Later, he again relocated to Philadelphia, and during 1782, he became the president of Pennsylvania, a position he retained until 1785. His dual residency through the years continued to be an asset to the nation. During 1786, John Dickinson was appointed as a Delaware representative for the Annapolis Convention and was selected to chair the event, called to discuss various economic problems occurring in Delaware and the other states in the region. The next year he was in Philadelphia, where as a representative from Delaware he participated in the convention that led to the birth of the United States Constitution. Combining his long service and lessons learned, he was able to measure states’ rights against his belief in a strong national government to close the gap regarding differences of opinion from other delegates, to bring about a consensus and compromise, which resulted in the Constitution being adopted in September 1787. Nonetheless, in yet another irony of Dickinson’s political life, he did not personally sign the Constitution. Unlike his stance during 1776, when he declined signing the Declaration, it was sickness that kept him away from the ceremony, but he was attributed as a signer. One of his colleagues signed John Dickinson’s name to the document, giving him his rightful place in history for his contribution to the founding of the republic. Delaware, during December 1787, became the first state to ratify the Constitution. Through the grueling pace of his life during the events leading up to the Revolution, during the war and afterward up to the founding of the republic, John had not lost any of his skills as a writer. He authored a string of powerfully composed letters in support of the Con-

stitution, but he did not sign his name; rather he signed them “Fabius.” Afterward, Dickinson remained out of politics; however, he continued writing about politics and culminated the life-long project during 1801 when he published a two-volume set, The Political Writings of John Dickinson (printed and sold by Bonsal and Myles at Wilmington). John Dickinson succumbed seven years later on 15 February, at the age of seventy-five in Wilmington during 1808. He was interred in a Quaker cemetery in Wilmington. (See also, Dickinson, Brigadier General Philemon.)

Dickinson, Brigadier General Philemon Philemon Dickinson, the son of Samuel and Mary Cadwalader (Samuel’s second wife) was in Crosiadore (Talbot County), Maryland, on 5 April 1739. Philemon’s father was first married to Judith Troth. About one year after his birth, Philemon’s family relocated in Delaware and settled on a farm near Dover in Kent County. Samuel and Mary had two other children, Henry and John. John was a member of Congress during 1776, but he did not support independence. Nevertheless, once it was declared, he remained loyal to the American cause and served as a general and as president (governor) of Delaware and Pennsylvania. Also, John was attributed as a signer of the Constitution (1787). At the time that the Dickinson family relocated at Delaware, it was considered the Lower County of Pennsylvania. Philemon attended the University of Pennsylvania and graduated in the initial graduating class in 1759. Afterward, he became a lawyer and was admitted to the bar in Philadelphia; however, he never initiated a law practice. On 17 July 1767, Philemon married his cousin, Mary Cadwalader, the daughter of Doctor Thomas Cadwalader and the sister of General John Cadwalader. Together, they had two children, Mary (married George Fox) and Samuel (married Ann Meredith, daughter of James Meredith). Philemon also became a brother-in-law of Brigadier General John Dagworthy, who married Mary’s sister Martha. Philemon, like his brother John, was a firm advocate of the Patriots’ cause. On 19 October 1775, Philemon Dickinson was appointed brigadier general of the New Jersey militia. Prior to the occupation of Trenton in 1776, General Dickinson had purchased a property in Trenton that was initially built by the Rutherford family; however, the property (The Heritage) survived the war and was frequently used by General Dickinson to entertain his friends, including some of the more prominent leaders of the Revolution, such as John Adams, Benjamin Franklin, Thomas Jefferson and others. Also in 1776, he was elected as a member of the New Jersey Provincial Congress. Late in the year, he participated in the campaign to retake Trenton from the British. On 11 December 1776, Hessian troops entered Burlington, New Jersey, below Trenton. General George Washington reacted by deploying forces along the Delaware. A contingent of Marines moved up the Delaware on the following day and deployed in Burlington to greet the Hessian troops if they revisited. The Marines provided Washington with eyes in New Jersey, while he directed other forces to set up defensive positions in Pennsylvania. General Dickinson deployed his militia at Yardley’s Ferry and extended his line southward to link with the contingent under Brigadier General James Ewing at Hoop’s Mill on Biles Creek. Dickinson’s brother-in-law, General John Cadwalader, also participated in the Trenton-Princeton campaign. Following the capture of Trenton by Washington on 26 December and the victory at Princeton on 3 January 1777, Dickinson’s command continued to participate in the campaign against General William Howe, who was en route to seize Philadelphia until halted by the brilliant strike against Trenton. On 16 January 1777, Dickinson’s forces clashed with the British near Quibbletown, where sporadic skirmishes would occur through the summer. Soon after, on 20 January 1777, General Dickinson engaged the British at Millstone (known as Battle of Millstone or as the Battle of Van Nest’s Mills) and drove them away. On 23 January, General Dickinson, in a letter to Colonel John Nielson,

DOUGLAS

100

noted that “on Monday last with about 450 men chiefly our militia I attacked a foraging party near V. Nest Mills consisting of 500 men with 2 field pieces, which we routed after an engagement of 20 minutes and brought off 107 horses, 49 wagons, 115 cattle, 70 sheep, 40 barrels of flour —106 bags and many other things, 49 prisoners....” General Washington, energized by Dickinson’s actions, on 22 January had written to John Hancock: “The Enemy retreated with so much precipitation, that General Dickinson had only an opportunity of making nine prisoners, they were observed to carry off a good many dead and wounded in light Waggons. This Action happened near Somerset Court House on Millstone River. Genl Dickinsons behaviour reflects the highest honour upon him, for tho’ his Troops were all raw, he lead them thro’ the River, middle deep, and gave the Enemy so severe a charge, that, altho’ supported by three field pieces, they gave way and left their Convoy.” During the following month, on 15 February 1777, General Dickinson resigned his commission; however, shortly thereafter, on 6 June, he was appointed major general of New Jersey militia, a position he retained for the duration. In the meantime, after conferring with Washington, Dickinson had learned that many in the army had been suffering from a smallpox inoculation and that the British, once aware of the condition of the forces, might launch a devastating attack. Upon returning to his camp, Dickinson was informed that a militia man deserted and had told the British of the weakness of the American army. Dickinson, using a double agent, had the man depart from the camp and inform the British that the former man had been duped into relaying false information to entice a British attack. The spy also falsely informed the British at New Brunswick that Washington had received thousands of reinforcements. General Cornwallis accepted the information as accurate and canceled an attack. General Dickinson’s brigade participated in the defense of Philadelphia, including the Battle of Germantown during October 1777. His militia was deployed to the rear of the British on the day prior to the Battle of Monmouth ( June 1778), but on the day of the battle, General Charles Lee, ordered to attack, instead ordered a retreat. Meanwhile, Dickinson’s militia was engaged with the British, but their scarce numbers against superior forces caused the militia to retire. Despite the debacle caused by Lee, Washington was able to re-galvanize the forces and hold the field. General Philemon Dickinson was loyal to General Washington, and when a conspiracy instigated by General Thomas Conway (the Conway Cabal) emerged to replace Washington with General Horatio Gates, the plot was foiled. On 4 July 1778, one of Washington’s staunch defenders, General John Cadwalader, challenged Conway to a duel and Cadwalader’s brother-in-law, General Philemon Dickinson, acted as his second. Cadwalader prevailed, but Conway, thought to have been mortally wounded, also survived. During 1782, General Philemon Dickinson was elected to Congress as a delegate from Delaware, and he served into 1783. Others who were simultaneously elected from Delaware were Thomas McKean, Samuel Wharton and Caesar Rodney; however, only Rodney was a citizen of Delaware. The others at the time were residents of Pennsylvania. During 1783, through 1784, General Dickinson served as vice president of the New Jersey Council. Later, he served as a United States senator when he replaced William Patterson, who resigned. General Dickinson served from 23 November 1790 through 3 March 1793. He did not seek re-election. During his time in the Senate, Philemon’s wife, Mary, succumbed (5 August 1791). He retired to private life on his estate known as The Hermitage; however, during December 1784, Congress appointed General Dickinson as one of three commissioners to select the location of a federal city to be established on either side of the Delaware River. The other commissioners were Major General Philip Schuyler and Robert Morris. Later during 1804, General Dickinson remarried to Rebecca, the sister of his late wife.

General Philemon Dickinson succumbed on 4 February 1809 while at home. He was interred in Trenton at the Friends Meeting House Burying Ground. Rebecca Dickinson later succumbed during May 1821. (See also, Dickinson, John.)

Douglas, Brigadier General John John Douglas, the son of Lt. Colonel John and Olive Spaulding Douglas, was born in Plainfield, Connecticut, on 12 April 1734. Olive, the daughter of Benjamin and Olive Spaulding, married John, Sr., about 1724–1725 and they had six other children: William (b. April 1729, died young); Olive (b. November 1731, died young); Benjamin (b. August 1739); William II (b. January about 1742–1743); Sarah (b. April 1744); and Olive (b. 1749). The details of John’s early years, including his education, were not discovered by the author; however, John most probably received a fine education. His brother Benjamin graduated Yale during 1760. John married a woman named Susannah (last name unknown) and they had seven children: Olive (b. 1758, married Anthony Bradford); Sarah (b. 1760, married Jeremiah Kinsman); Rebecca (b. about 1762, married a Mr. Branch, possibly Elisha); Susannah (b. 1764, married the Rev. Joshua Spaulding); Abiah (b. 1767, married Captain Benjamin Gallup); John (b. 1770, married Pamela Lord) and William (b. 1774, died unmarried, 1811). In the meantime, John Douglas served in the militia during the French and Indian War. He remained loyal to the Patriots during the period preceding the American Revolution. In 1775, at the time of the outbreak of hostilities, he was appointed lieutenant colonel of the Connecticut 8th Infantry (6 July 1775). On 19 December, Douglas was promoted to colonel (state regiment and militia). During 1776, John’s wife Susannah succumbed (20 March). John married again, taking Susannah Freyers as his second wife during January 1778. In June 1777, there were changes in the structure of the military in Connecticut. Due to the demise of General David Wooster (May of 1777), who held the rank of brigadier general in the Continental Army and major general Connecticut militia, General Jabez Huntington was appointed successor to Wooster and placed in command of all the state’s militia. At that same time, Brigadier General James Wadsworth was promoted to major general (second in rank) and John Douglas was promoted to brigadier general in place of General Eliphalet Dyer, who resigned. General Douglas’ activity outside of Connecticut included service during 1777 at Peekskill, New York, when his command was ordered to bolster General Israel Putnam’s forces. Contingents of his force were also dispatched to Saratoga that year. General Douglas was also scheduled to participate in a campaign commanded by General Joseph Spencer; however, Spencer canceled the scheduled assault against British positions in Rhode Island. General Douglas, known for wearing “knee-breeches with silver buttons, and silver buckles on his shoes,” served for the duration and afterward returned to private life on his estate. General Douglas’ brother William, who served during the French and Indian War as a sergeant, also served as an officer during the Revolution. During the struggle in and around Long Island in 1776, William received debilitating wounds, which compelled him to leave the service. William Douglas died in May of 1777. General John Douglas succumbed on 22 September 1809. His widow, Susannah, succumbed during the following year on 27 December.

Drayton, William Henry William Drayton, the son of John and Charlotta Bull Drayton, was born in September 1742 at the family plantation, Drayton Hall, along the Ashley River in South Carolina. William’s mother was the second wife of his father, who had earlier married Sarah Cattell. William’s father and Sarah, the daughter of William Cattell, had two children,

101 Stephen Fox (b. November 1737) and William (b. December 1738), but both of their children died young during 1739 and 1740 respectively. John also lost his wife, Sarah, during that same period. He remarried in 1741, taking Charlotta Bull as his second wife. She was the daughter of Lt. Governor William Bull. In addition to William Henry, John and Charlotta had another son, Charles, born 22 December 1743. William Henry’s mother died in 1743, possibly in childbirth. William’s father again married, taking Margaret Glen (sister of Royal Governor James Glen) as his third wife in 1743. John and Margaret had two sons, Glen (b. 1752) and Thomas (b. 1758). In the meantime, William traveled to England during 1753, where he received his education at Westminster, and afterward at Baliol College at Oxford. William traveled with and was supervised by Charles Pinckney (chief justice of the colony), who was en route to England with his two sons, Charles Coatesworth and Thomas. After completing his studies, in 1764 William returned home and began to study international law. Afterward, he was admitted to the bar. On 29 March 1764, William married Dorothy Golightly, the daughter of Culcheth and Mary Golightly. William and Mary had four children, but only three reached adulthood, Mary, John (later governor of South Carolina), and William Henry. Dorothy was also the sister of Mary Golightly, the wife of Benjamin Huger. William Drayton became a polished writer who published pieces centering around the “patriotic associations” that were emerging throughout the colonies and his opposition to them. The pieces received responses from Patriots, including Christopher Gadsden and John McKenzie. Later, during 1771, he returned to England and was introduced to the court. His flattering articles were well received in England and they were also published there. When he arrived back in South Carolina, he carried a king’s appointment as privy councilor of South Carolina. On 8 April 1772, Drayton took his seat, but within a short while, he suddenly found himself an opponent of the policies of the Crown and the province’s royal judges and other officials. Drayton’s step-mother, Margaret, died during 1772. His father, John, married yet again during 1775, taking 17-year-old Rebecca Perry as his fourth wife. Rebecca was about half the age of William, her stepson. John and Rebecca had three children, Anna (b. about 1775); Susanna (b. 1777); and John (died at birth). In the early 1770s, Drayton’s belief that the Crown and Parliament were going to rectify the wrongs imposed upon the colonies was rapidly fading. Although his new observations and conspicuous demeanor were not being well received by the royal government in the colony, he still had strong connections, which prevented drastic action by his political adversaries. Drayton was appointed as an assistant judge by Lt. Governor William Bull, his uncle, on 25 January 1774. Drayton’s career path within the royal government immediately began to encounter divergent roads; by that time he was aligned with the Patriots. Later that year, his pen agitated his adversaries when he published, under the pseudonym “Freeman,” a piece addressed to the delegates of the First Continental Congress, which was to convene in Philadelphia during September 1774. Drayton’s pamphlet included a bill of rights and laid out a plan of action that should be followed. The information contained in the pamphlet was well received by Congress, as evidenced by its later action that closely paralleled Drayton’s advice. Nonetheless, Drayton’s pen caused great trepidation in the royal government in South Carolina. The province’s chief justice, Thomas Knox Gordon, exploded with vitriol. Consequently, William lost his position as an officer of the Crown, and in the eyes of the royal government, the name Drayton had been eliminated from its place of prominence. However, the action actually increased Drayton’s popularity throughout the province, as well as helping his name to become well known throughout the colonies. Drayton had little idle time after losing his position. He was appointed to the Council of Safety during 1775. In the meantime, the

DU COUDRAY

probability of reconciliation with the Crown had been totally eliminated after the battles of Lexington and Concord on 19 April 1775. Open hostilities had begun, and the only paths remaining were those that led either to victory and independence or a lost cause. Drayton, soon after being appointed to the Committee of Safety, was elected as its president. He also became the president of the Provincial Congress of 1775. In South Carolina, at Drayton’s urging, Patriots seized the royal arsenals to confiscate the arms and gunpowder. During March of 1776, in conjunction with the recent adoption of a temporary state constitution, William was appointed as a privy councillor and a chief justice of South Carolina. Chief Justice Drayton took a bold step during April 1776 that surely jeopardized his safety. He presented a charge to the grand jury in Charleston which proclaimed that “the king had abdicated the government, and had no more authority over the people of South Carolina.” The declaration of South Carolina independence occurred prior to the Declaration of Independence proclaimed by the Second Continental Congress on the Fourth of July, 1776. Drayton continued as an undaunted opponent of Britain and he later presented other charges (October 1776 and October 1777) regarding the nation’s independence, each lifting the hearts of his fellow Patriot and infuriating the English. In 1777, Drayton assumed the duties of governor in the absence of Governor John Rutledge. Drayton left the state the following year after being elected to the Continental Congress, where he served until his death on 4 September 1779. His father, John, also died in 1779, during an incursion by the British. John and his family hurriedly departed Drayton Hall but while being ferried across the west branch of the Cooper River, John died from a seizure. He was buried in an unmarked grave in the vicinity of Strawberry Ferry. His widow, Rebecca, inherited the plantation. William Henry Drayton was interred in Christ Church cemetery in Philadelphia. The cause of his death was never determined. Some have speculated it was from a duel. A large amount of his personal papers and correspondence was destroyed. Drayton had worked with Arthur Middleton to design the state seal of South Carolina, with each of them designing one half.

Du Coudray, Major General Philip Philip du Coudray was born on 8 September 1738 in Rheims, France. He was educated in France and became an engineer, but he also focused on the military. By the time the American Revolution was erupting, Philip had become a prominent member of the French military as the adjutant-general of artillery. Like some other Frenchmen, including Lafayette, Philip was inspired by the American cause to volunteer for the Continental Army. The American commissioners in France, Silas Deane and Benjamin Franklin, conferred with Philip during 1776 and from that encounter, he embarked for America with assurances from the commissioners that he would be commissioned a major general and command the artillery. The appointment met with some resistance within Congress and among some American generals, all of whom were reluctant to appoint a Frenchman as commander of artillery above American general officers. Du Coudray arrived in Philadelphia during May 1777, and a large group, composed of 29 officers and twelve sergeants of artillery, accompanied him. Several of the American generals threatened to resign if du Coudray was promoted over Henry Knox. One of the officers was General Sullivan. Congress reacted on 3 July by resolving “that the president inform General Sullivan that Congress have not been accustomed to be controlled by their officers in the measures which they are about to take in discharge of the important trust committed to them by the United States; that they mean not to be controlled by his letter in their proceedings respecting Monsr du Coudray; for that whatever those proceedings may be, General Sullivan’s resignation will be accepted by Congress whenever he shall think it proper to transmit it to them.” Congress in the meantime worked to find compromise.

DUPORTAIL

102

On 15 July, Congress appointed a committee to meet with du Coudray to inform him that the agreement offered by Silas Deane could not be carried out, but Congress would “cheerfully give him such rank and appointments as shall not be inconsistent with the honour and safety of these States, or interfere with the great duties they owe to their constituents.” On 21 July, the committee delivered its report to Congress, which requested that du Coudray “be appointed a Major General with the Powers, Emoluments and Privileges, annexed to that Rank, and that a Train of Artillery be allotted for his Command separate from that under the Command of Brigadier General Knox. That the officers accompanying Mons Du Condray should have the Ranks proposed for them in France together with the Pay and Emoluments annexed to those Ranks in the service of the United States.” Consideration of the report was postponed; however, on 11 August, du Coudray was appointed inspector general with the rank of major general. He remained enthusiastic and he was anxious to serve, despite his disappointment regarding the position of commander of artillery. Nevertheless, the dilemma was terminated during the following month due to tragic circumstances. General du Coudray was seated upon a horse aboard a ferry that was crossing the Schuylkill River. Suddenly the horse bolted after becoming frightened and General du Coudray was carried overboard with the horse. He drowned before he could be rescued. Congress authorized an official funeral and paid the costs. It resolved “that the corpse of the said Mons. du Coudray be interred at the expence of the United States, and with the honors of war; and that the town major carry this order into execution.” The fallen Frenchman, a Catholic, had a Requiem Mass celebrated in St. Mary’s Catholic Church. Congress officially attended. Du Coudray’s funeral was one of only four times during the conflict that Congress was officially present at Mass. General Du Coudray was interred in the cemetery of St. Mary’s Church; however, the exact location of his grave remains unknown.

Duportail, Major General Louis Lebeque de Presle Louis Duportail was born in France at Pithiviers during 1743. He studied at the Military School of Mezieres and entered the service of France as an engineer during 1761. In 1773, he was promoted to the rank of captain. During 1776, Louis began to make plans to go to America to join against the British. After meeting with Benjamin Franklin and Silas Deane, in July 1777 Duportail was sent to America with a group of other French officers, including Gouvion, Radiere and Laumoy. Congress had earlier instructed its ministers to acquire engineers who were presently serving in the French military. Those four officers were chosen by the ministers to fulfill their instructions, and they were the only French officers obtained under the direct instructions of Congress. After Duportail arrived in America, Congress appointed him chief engineer with the rank of colonel. Laumoy and Radiere were commissioned as lieutenant-colonels, and Gouvion was appointed the rank of major. On 17 November 1777, Duportail was promoted to the rank of brigadier general. By that time, General DuPortail was assigned the task of bolstering the defenses at Valley Forge to prepare it against an attack by the British, who at the time occupied nearby Philadelphia. At about the same time, discussions were held by the officers to determine the feasibility of launching an attack against Philadelphia, but some, including Duportail, Nathanael Greene, John Sullivan and Henry Knox opposed the offensive. General George Washington, after listening to their reasons, concurred and the plan was scrapped. The British abandoned Philadelphia during spring 1778 and the Americans broke camp to initiate pursuit. The two sides clashed in a major battle at Monmouth, New Jersey, on the 28th of June, the last battle in the northern states.

General Duportail, following the fighting at Monmouth, was dispatched by Washington to investigate the defenses of Philadelphia, then draw up a plan to fortify it and the Delaware River defenses. After that assignment, General Duportail was to investigate the defenses along the Hudson River at Fort Clinton. His blueprint was approved by General Washington, and afterward, he and Colonel Tadeusz Kosciuszko received orders to complete the fortifications there. In October 1778, Duportail was sent to Boston with orders to improve its defenses and to plan to increase security in the harbor for the French fleet under Charles Hector, Count D’Estaing. During May 1779, Duportail was appointed as commander of the Corps of Engineers. Later, he and Colonel Alexander Hamilton were sent to meet with D’Estaing and deliver confidential dispatches to him regarding a joint operation with the French fleet and the Continental Army; however, in the meantime the French and American force was repulsed at Savannah on 9 October 1779, and only one French ship made it to the Chesapeake. After a time, with no sign of the French fleet on the Delaware, the operation was aborted. Duportail received orders from General Washington to repair to Morristown, New Jersey. Once he arrived at camp, he was directed to assess the defenses to decide which points should be bolstered in the event of a British attack. During January 1780, the Continental Army was about to lose the services of DuPortail, as his commission expired; however, General Washington quickly intervened on behalf of Duportail and the other three officers engaged by Franklin and Deane. Congress retained Duportail and in March 1780, he was ordered to assist General Benjamin Lincoln at Charleston, South Carolina. Nonetheless, his arrival at Charleston was untimely. The British reduced the resistance and seized the city on 12 May 1780. As soon as he arrived in Charleston, Duportail observed the enemy, their positions and their strength, then inspected the defenses. He concluded that the British could have captured Charleston ten days before he got there. His assessment also prompted him to request to depart the city immediately, having determined the positions were untenable. Nonetheless, General Benjamin Lincoln refused to permit him to depart. General Duportail was among the captives when Charleston fell. He was held until exchanged that October. Following his release, General Duportail was to be involved in action against New York, but by August 1781, the planned offensive was aborted and the grand strategy began to point to Virginia, where British General Lord Charles Cornwallis was deployed and awaiting reinforcements. Duportail accompanied General George Washington to a meeting with French Admiral De Grasse on 18 September off Cape Henry, Virginia. Subsequently, Duportail participated at the siege of Yorktown. Following the capitulation, General Duportail sought a leave of absence to permit him to visit France and requested Washington’s intervention to gain him a promotion to major general. Congress was quick to grant the leave of absence, but tardy on the issue of promotion; however, on the 16 November 1781, Congress did promote Duportail to the rank of major general. In addition, France awarded him the Cross of St. Louis and a pension, as well a pledge of the rank of brigadier general in the French service. General Duportail returned to France during October 1783, where he rejoined the French army. By 1788, Duportail rose to the rank of field marshal and afterward served as minister of war (1790–1791). Later, during the French Revolution, he was forewarned of threats against his life. In August 1792, he was condemned by the government, prompting him to conceal himself in Paris for about twenty-two months before he escaped to the United States in 1794. Upon his arrival, he purchased a farm in the vicinity of Valley Forge. During 1797, through the efforts of Mathieu Dumas, Duportail’s name was eradicated from the list of emigrants, which permitted him to return to his home. Nonetheless, during 1802, while en route to France, he died aboard ship.

103 Dyer, Brigadier General Eliphalet Eliphalet Dyer, the son of Colonel Thomas and Lydia Backus Dyer, was born in Windham, Connecticut, in September 1721 (some nineteenth century sources list the 14th and others the 26th). Eliphalet’s mother was the daughter of John and Mary Bingham Backus of Windham. Thomas and Lydia had three other children: Mary (b. January 1718); Lydia (b. July 1724); and Eunice (b. June 1727). Subsequent to the death of Lydia, Eliphalet’s father married Mehitable Gardiner and later, Sarah Walden. Eliphalet’s education included the study of law, and he was admitted to the bar during 1746. By that time, he had been employed in Windham as the town clerk. About 1745 he was appointed a captain of the militia. That year, Eliphalet Dyer married Huldah Bowen of Providence, Rhode Island, the daughter of Jabez and Hulda Bowen. Eliphalet and Huldah had the following children: Thomas (b. November 1747); Eliphalet (b. October 1749); Amelia (b. November 1750, married Colonel Jonathan Trumbull, the son of Governor Trumbull, then Colonel Hezekiah Wyllis); Benjamin (b. October 1753); Oliver (b. December 1755, d. June 1778) and Jabez (b. December 1757, d. July 1779). By 1746, Dyer was appointed a justice of the peace. His career continued to advance and by May 1747, Dyer was appointed deputy to the general assembly. He was reappointed to the post during 1749, and he served during several sessions of 1752 and 1753. In the meantime, he had also remained in the military and was promoted to the rank of major during 1753. That same year, Dyer was one of the primary men who established the Susquehanna Company for the purpose of establishing a colony in the Wyoming Valley, thought by the group that the terrain was within the jurisdiction of Connecticut. The lands, in Indian territory, were contested by Pennsylvania. Some violence occurred, but the dispute found itself in the background for a while due to the outbreak of the French and Indian War. Nonetheless, the land dispute was eventually settled in the courts and Pennsylvania prevailed. With the French movement into New York from Canada, American regiments were formed to evict them. During August 1755, Dyer, serving as a lieutenant colonel, participated in the advance against Crown Point. All the while, he remained entrenched in politics. He served in the assembly during multiple sessions (1756–1758). During March of 1758, Eliphalet was promoted to the rank of colonel and participated in the Canadian Campaign. Also that year, he was nominated for the Upper House of Assistants; however, he continued to serve as deputy for two additional sessions before becoming an assistant in 1762. He served during and beyond the Revolution, holding the post by annual re-election until 1784. In the meantime, during 1763, Dyer, as a representative of the Susquehanna Company, sailed to England to attempt to acquire the title to the land in the Wyoming Valley, but the Crown declined the request. Upon his return to Connecticut, Dyer was appointed as comptroller for the port of New London. By about that time, Britain was engineering ways to increase the flow of income to pay for the costs of the late war with France, but the colonists did not receive the pressure with enthusiasm. The Stamp Act was passed during 1765 and the reaction was immediate and negative. Dyer was one of three men appointed as Connecticut delegates to the congress referred to as the Stamp Act Congress. Governor Thomas Fitch IV pressed for the Connecticut Assistants to pledge an oath of loyalty in support of the Stamp Act, but to his disappointment, most of the members, including Colonel Dyer, rejected the idea and walked away from the Assistants rather than side against the colonies. New elections occurred during May of 1766 and not surprisingly, those like Dyer who rejected the governor’s plans were not returned to office. That year, however, Dyer was appointed as a judge of the Connecticut Supreme Court, yet another long-term post, which he retained until 1793, and during the final four years on the bench,

EATON

he served as chief justice. In other action of the assembly in 1766, Dyer was selected to travel to England as agent for the Mohican Indians, but declined. All the while, since the enactment and repeal of the Stamp Act, relations with Britain never reached a point of reconciliation, but still, most of the colonists held some confidence that a break from the mother country would not be necessary. By 1774, the Americans moved closer to a call for independence, while simultaneously working to find a way to get fair treatment from the Crown and Parliament. A Continental Congress met during September 1774 and Dyer, along with Roger Sherman and Silas Deane, was a delegate from Connecticut. His propensity for long-term posts seemed to emerge with each new responsibility. He served in the Congress each year, except 1776 and 1779, until 1783. (Some sources list Dyer’s service as 1774–1779 and 1772– 1783; however, that appears incorrect, as Dyer would have been noted in the votes regarding the Declaration of Independence during 1776 if he had been a delegate.) In 1775, Dyer was appointed to the Committee of Safety (Connecticut) and he served on the governor’s council. During November 1775, Dyer was placed on a congressional committee charged with repairing to New York to confer with General Philip Schuyler regarding the Canadian expedition, but he became ill and was replaced by Robert Livingston. While in Congress that year, Dyer maneuvered to get a blank commission for brigadier for David Waterbury, but the action prompted Congress to initiate an investigation regarding the distribution of blank commissions by General Schuyler and by the New York Committee of Safety during 1775. Waterbury, who participated in the Canadian campaign, was commissioned as brigadier of militia by Connecticut during June of 1776, and the next October, he surrendered to the British. Dyer’s was absent from Congress during 1776 and was not among those who voted to break free from Britain and afterward signed the Declaration of Independence. During the latter part of 1776, Dyer was commissioned a brigadier general of militia; however, he declined due to his other commitments. Nonetheless, he appears to have retained his commission until 1777, or he was later reappointed. In June 1777, the month after the death of General David Wooster while engaged against the British at Ridgefield, Connecticut, changes were made to the military commanders in the state. General Wooster had held the rank of brigadier general in the Continental Army and major general in the Connecticut militia. General Jabez Huntington was appointed major general in his place as commander-in-chief of the state’s militia. Colonel John Douglas was promoted to brigadier general in place of General Dyer, who resigned. Brigadier General James Wadsworth was promoted to major general (second in rank). In the meantime, on 1 August 1777, Dyer was placed on a congressional committee to investigate the abandonment of Ticonderoga and Fort (Mount) Independence, the latter in Vermont. Other members included Nathaniel Folsom, Henry Laurens and Daniel Roberdeau. Later that year, Dyer was appointed to a committee to consider the possibility of pardons to those who had been loyal to the Crown but were now prepared to return to the American cause. Francis Dana, William Duer and Daniel Roberdeau served with Dyer on that committee. General Dyer retired from public life in 1793. He succumbed on 13 May 1807, at the age of 86 following an illness of short duration. General Dyer’s wife, Huldah, predeceased him. She died on 12 February 1800. General Dyer’s portrait was among those included in the painting by Tomkins Harrison Matteson “The First Prayer in Congress,” which dealt with the First Continental Congress that convened at Carpenter’s Hall in Philadelphia during 1774.

Eaton, Brigadier General Thomas Thomas Eaton, the son of Colonel William and Mary Rives Eaton, was born about 1740. William Eaton, a vestryman of Blanford Church

ELBERT

104

in the vicinity of Petersburg, Virginia, had relocated, along with a group of other settlers, to North Carolina about 1725. Thomas married Anna Bland, the daughter of Theodoric and Frances Elizabeth Bolling Bland, during 1763 (Anna died prior to 1781). Anna was the sister of Colonel Richard Bland and Frances Bland Randolph, the wife of John Randolph of Roanoke. Thomas and Anna had the following children: Anne, William, Thomas, Mary Ellen, and Harriet Bowling. Thomas, subsequent to the death of his wife, is known to have married Anne Stith, and it is generally believed that he was also married to Mary Jones, the daughter of General Allen Jones. During 1775, Patriots under Colonel Robert Howe seized Fort Johnston at the mouth of the Cape Fear River, but the royal governor, Josiah Martin, escaped. Cornelius Harnett, Jr., became president of the Council of Safety (government of the province) and Thomas Eaton became a councilor. The British reacted to the flight of Governor Josiah Martin by sending a fleet to rendezvous with Loyalists (Highlanders) at Cape Fear during February of 1776, and Colonel Thomas Eaton’s battalion was one of the units called into action. However, the British plans were foiled when the Highlanders were bushwhacked by forces under Colonel James Moore at Moore’s Creek Bridge on 26 February, leaving General Henry Clinton without the elite land force that he intended to have join his units. The British, once informed of the defeat of the Highlanders, sailed off toward South Carolina. Colonel Eaton’s militia later participated at the Battle of Briar Creek during the ill-fated campaign to regain Augusta, Georgia. The North Carolina militia under General John Ashe faltered at Briar Creek and Ashe later received a court-martial. Colonel Eaton was among those who escaped capture; however, his hurried escape from Georgia cost him his boots. Another officer, Colonel John Hamilton, aware of the owner of the boots because of their diminutive size and style, spotted them and apparently bought them from another soldier. Back in North Carolina, Colonel Hamilton carried the extra pair of boots to a party and while seated for dinner, the boots were handed back to Colonel Eaton. Hamilton’s humor was not well received. An irritated Eaton “threw them across the table at Hamilton’s head.” In October 1779, General Allen Jones of North Carolina was elected to the Continental Congress. He requested that the assembly appoint Thomas Eaton (senior colonel in Allen’s brigade) to the rank of brigadier general; the assembly concurred. Eaton participated at the Battle of Guilford Court House in March 1781. By 12 March, General Nathanael Greene’s army had been bolstered by the North Carolina militia units, two brigades under Generals John Butler and Thomas Eaton. The North Carolinians replaced South Carolinians under Andrew Pickens that had departed for South Carolina. Greene also had been augmented by Virginians and regulars (Marylanders). General Eaton’s orders from Greene directed that the militia fire two volleys prior to retreating, which they did as ordered. Although unknown at the time, Eaton’s brigade had fought in the battle that saved the Carolinas. Greene was forced from the field but the British sustained grievous casualties and by the end of the month, Cornwallis fled North Carolina. General Eaton succumbed during 1809.

Elbert, Brigadier General Samuel Samuel Elbert, the son of the Rev. William and Sarah Elbert, was born in Prince Williams Parish, South Carolina, during 1740. Samuel’s parents both emigrated from England and initially resided in Georgia before moving to South Carolina. Information regarding Samuel’s early years did not survive the ages; however, it is known that he lost both of his parents while he was young. He left South Carolina for Savannah, Georgia, in search of a livelihood, and it was there that he found himself as a young man fully enveloped in the events that were unfolding around him. He also met Elizabeth Rae, whom he married. They had six children: Catherine Rae, Elizabeth, Sara, Samuel, Em-

manuel de Lafayette (named after Marquis Lafayette), Matthew, and Hugh Rae. Elbert’s initial recorded entrance into the military occurred when he signed his name as “Captain Samuel Elbert of the Grenadier Company” on a pledge of loyalty to the American cause. The pledge was dated 4 June 1774. On the 22nd, he was appointed to the Committee of Safety along with other prominent men of Georgia, including Archibald Bulloch, William Ewen, Joseph Habersham, John Houstoun, and George Walton. Elbert also attended the Provincial Congress as a delegate when it convened on 4 July 1775 at Savannah. He was appointed to a committee charged with acquiring arms and ammunition for the Georgia forces, along with Edward Telfair and Joseph Halbersham. On 14 November 1775, Congress authorized South Carolina to raise three battalions, and at the same time, Georgia was authorized to raise one battalion for service in the Continental Army. Upon the 1st Georgia’s formation, on 7 January 1776, the battalion was composed of eight companies. Samuel Elbert was appointed lieutenant colonel, second in command under Colonel Lachlan McIntosh. Joseph Habersham served in the battalion as major and shortly thereafter became a member of Elbert’s family when he married Isabella, the sister of Samuel’s wife, Elizabeth. The following July, on the 5th, Elbert became colonel of the 2nd Georgia Battalion. In March 1777, the Council of Safety authorized recently elected Button Gwinnett (president) to invade Florida (Second Florida Invasion), but complications developed almost immediately. Gwinnett was unable to raise a strong militia force. Consequently, he required support from McIntosh’s regulars, and that caused more problems of command between Gwinnett and McIntosh. By May 1777, McIntosh and Gwinnett were recalled to Savannah and command fell upon Colonel Elbert. The expeditionary force departed Sunbury on 1 May, but the invasion failed. A contingent under Colonel John Baker advanced by land while Elbert moved by water. Baker’s men lost their horses to Indians but later recovered them; meanwhile the two forces never joined. Elbert’s force was plagued with sickness and compelled to halt at Amelia Island. On 17 May, Baker’s column was struck by British Florida rangers and Creek allies. The Americans sustained casualties and some captured, but the column finally linked with Elbert and made it back to Georgia on 15 June. In the meantime, unknown to Colonel Elbert, General McIntosh engaged in a duel with Button Gwinnett on 16 May; Gwinnett was mortally wounded. McIntosh was pulled out of Georgia and directed to join General Washington. Command of the Georgia battalion was given to Colonel Elbert, who was promoted to the rank of colonel on 5 July 1777. During the following spring (1778), Colonel Elbert, aware of British cruisers causing havoc along the coast, moved to Frederica, where he had been told the enemy had arrived. Taking his command aboard three galleys, he succeeded in seizing the brigantine Hinchinbrook, the sloop Rebecca and a brigantine they had seized as a prize. A third invasion of Florida was authorized by Congress in 1778, but again planning and cooperation between the Continental Army and militia were poor. The expedition was under the overall command of General Robert Howe. The British repelled an American cavalry force under Colonel Elijah Clark at Alligator Creek ( Jacksonville, Florida) on 30 June 1778, and that action terminated the invasion. During fighting at Medway Church on 24 November 1778, James Screven was mortally wounded. Colonel Elbert immediately sent a flag of truce to the British requesting a pause to allow doctors to provide medical assistance. The British permitted passage, but the two physicians, Doctors Braidie and Alexander, after crossing into the British positions, determined that Screven could not be saved. They provided some aid, but he succumbed on the following day.

105 During the campaign to regain Augusta, Georgia, Colonel Elbert was with North Carolinians under General John Ashe at Briar Creek on 3 March 1779. The British closed against the Americans. Upon sight of the Redcoats, General Ashe directed Elbert to advance, saying: “Sir, you had better advance and engage them.” Elbert’s diminutive force stood steadfastly while Ashe’s troops advanced hurriedly to the rear, giving the Georgians no support. The Americans were overwhelmed and Colonel Elbert, who was wounded, was among the captured. During his captivity, Colonel Elbert ignored attempts by the British to convince him to swing his allegiance back to the Crown. The British attempted to end his life while on parole, but the Indians charged with the dastardly act recognized a signal Elbert used to identify himself as an old friend who had once protected Creek chiefs. The Indian assassins, after acknowledging the sign, aborted their plan to kill the general. Consequently, his parole continued. Colonel Elbert was exchanged after the fall of Charleston. Elbert then repaired north to participate in the Virginia campaign against Lord General Charles Cornwallis. Colonel Elbert, who had previously been appointed brigadier general of Georgia militia, was later raised to the rank of major general of militia, and at about the same time, on 3 November 1783, Congress awarded Elbert the rank of brevet brigadier general. After the war, during 1785, General Elbert was elected governor. He served only one term, but during that term, one of his achievements was signing the charter for the University of Georgia. General Elbert had also been elected as a member of Congress during 1784; however, he chose not to serve in that capacity. He also served as sheriff. Following a prolonged illness, died prematurely on 2 November 1788. General Elbert was survived by his wife, and their six children. His body was initially interred at the family plantation (Rae’s Hall) outside of Savannah, but later, General Elbert was re-interred in Colonial Park cemetery in Savannah. Other prominent Revolutionary War leaders buried there include Button Gwinnett, General Lachlan McIntosh and Archibald Bulloch.

Ellery, William (Signer of the Declaration of Independence) William Ellery was born on 22 December 1727 at Newport, Rhode Island. His father, also named William, was an affluent merchant and a lawyer who graduated from Harvard. His son also became an attorney, but at first he didn’t practice law. William worked for a while as a merchant and later as a customs collector, and he spent time as a clerk for the general assembly of Rhode Island. In October 1750, William married Ann Remington without his father’s blessing. Nonetheless, the elder William began to accept the marriage when the couple made him a grandfather with the birth of Elizabeth in 1751. Ann was the daughter of Judge Jonathan Remington of Cambridge and a descendant of Governor Thomas Dudley of Massachusetts Bay. Also born to the couple were Lucy, Ann, William, Jr., Almy, and Edmund Trowbridge. In 1764 Ellery sustained two severe losses. First, his father passed and soon after, within six months, his wife, Ann, succumbed, leaving William as a widower with six children. Nonetheless, he accepted the circumstances and carried out his responsibilities, helped in some measure by his inheritance. Two years later, on 28 June 1767, William married his second cousin, Abigail Carey. Afterward, they had ten children; however, only two reached adulthood, George Wanton Ellery (1789, later married Mary Goddard, daughter of Thomas Goddard) and Mehitable Redwood Ellery (1784, married William Anthony). Ellery remained a student of history, a subject that captivated him as a young boy, particularly the ancient republics, and as the tensions began to build between the colonists and the mother country, Ellery’s sympathies stayed with the American cause. As part of his commitment, he was active with the Sons of Liberty in Rhode Island. In the mean-

ELLERY

time, after working in several different occupations, he began to practice law in Newport during 1770. In May 1776, after the death of Samuel Ward due to smallpox during March 1776, Ellery was selected as Ward’s replacement as a delegate to the Continental Congress. He then became one of the Patriots who pledged their lives, fortunes and sacred honor in defense of the emerging republic, beginning with the Declaration of Independence. Blessed with his superior intelligence, he had also gained William Ellery (Biographical Sketches a grasp of philosophy and of the Signers of the Declaration of Indelogic during his studies, pendence, Benson J. Lossing, 1854) which also included Greek and Latin. Ellery’s oratory skills were at times bolstered when necessary with a tinge of well-pointed sarcasm that blended naturally with his quick wit. Ellery, having been raised in Newport, had a natural inclination to support the navy, and as a member of Congress he was a huge supporter of the naval service. On 11 October 1776, Ellery was appointed to the Marine Committee to replace Stephen Hopkins. Except for the years 1780 and 1782, he served in Congress until 1786. On 4 July 1776, when the Declaration was adopted, Ellery was known to have enjoyed standing erect alongside the secretary, Charles Thompson, to get a close-up view of the emotions and facial expression as each vote was cast, with every affirmative vote bringing with it the sentence of death by hanging if the voter were to be apprehended by the British. During 1777, Ellery was on the committee charged with preparing seven fire ships for the purpose of harassing the British fleet, which was moored at Newport. The British army at Newport was aware of Ellery’s residence and that he was one of the signers they so diligently sought. They never apprehended Ellery; however, the British moved to crack his spirit by burning and destroying all of his property they could find. Nonetheless, the drastic actions served only to embolden Ellery and push his fervent devotion to a higher level, while his resentment against the British intensified. He also chaired a committee charged with finding ways of getting help to the citizens of Rhode Island while they suffered during British aggressions. On 15 November 1777, the Articles of Confederation were adopted by Congress. Subsequent to ratification by the states, the Articles became effective on 1 March 1781. That day Congress listed the names of the members who signed; the list included William Ellery. In 1779, Ellery was appointed to the Committee of Foreign Relations, and during the following year, one in which he was not a member of Congress, he was appointed by that body as a member of the Board of Admiralty, a post he had held when he was in Congress. Congress received a letter of acceptance of the position from Ellery on 26 June 1780. Following the close of hostilities, Ellery, during 1784, was a member of several committees, including one that addressed the treaty with Britain. Toward the latter part of his career in Congress, Ellery sided with those who worked to end slavery in America. Except for 1780 and 1782, he had served the nation in Congress from 1776 through 1785. During his final year, he was offered a position as chief justice of the Supreme Court of Rhode Island, but he declined, preferring to retain his seat in Congress. That year, while still

ELLSWORTH

106

in Congress, Ellery collaborated with Rufus King to attempt to convince Congress to abolish slavery. In 1786, Congress appointed Ellery as commissioner of the Loan Office for Rhode Island. Following the birth of the Constitution and the election of George Washington as president, Ellery was appointed by Washington as the customs collector at Newport. In 1786 he had spent about a year trying to rebound from the great losses he sustained during the Revolution, when the British devastated his property. Although much of his personal property had been lost, Ellery plucked a surviving chair from the debris, one that he favored for the remainder of his life. When the Democratic-Republicans (present-day Democrats) gained the White House with the election of Thomas Jefferson, Ellery, a Federalist, was not forced to leave his post. In his thirty-year term as customs collector, just $200 “upon bond accrued to government” was lost, which was a grand tribute to Ellery’s integrity, and in conjunction with that bond he had taken out five separate sureties. Ellery also spent time writing, and although he was not known for great criticism of others, he did author a series of essays that focused on the flaws of public speakers. On the day of his death, 15 February 1820, no signs of distress were detected. He was as usual making use of his relic, preserved from British destruction, his “flag-bottomed” chair, which he had possessed for about fifty years. On that morning, while reading a book, Tully’s Officiis, written in Latin, his doctor arrived and found him looking extremely pale and without a pulse. Reaching for a bottle of wine that was nearby, a portion was quickly given to Ellery. He was able to respond to his doctor’s words of encouragement, but his answer was prophetic when he said: “It is idle to talk to me in this way. I am going off the stage of life and it is a great blessing that I go free from sickness, pain and sorrow.” He was taken from his chair and placed on his bed; however, even at the point of near-death, Ellery seemed not the least bit concerned. Suddenly he sat erect and began to read another book, Cicero de Officiis, but it was never completed, as within a few more minutes he expired as if he had fallen asleep, with his book nudged under his chin. Ellery had been a widower since the death of his second wife, Abigail, during 1793. In life, William Ellery had received many compliments regarding his many attributes, but he also was remembered as a man of a more ancient generation due to his peculiar way of dressing. He wore clothes of an earlier era with no desire to improve his wardrobe to the modern dress of his lifetime. Although it was not recorded as part of his reading on that final day, Ellery was also known for his close association with his Christian religion; it was said that his Bible, which he read often, was never far from his side. William Ellery was buried in Coggeshall Cemetery in Newport, but later, he was re-interred in a tomb in the Common Burying Ground on Farewell Street in Newport.

Ellsworth, Oliver (Framer of the U.S. Constitution) Oliver Ellsworth, second the son of David and Jemima Leavitt Ellsworth, was born in Windsor, Connecticut, on 29 April 1745. His father, a farmer, was a veteran of the War of Spanish Succession and the French and Indian War. Subsequent to the death of Oliver’s father, his mother, about 62 years of age, remarried to an affluent citizen of Windsor. Oliver’s family belonged to the Congregational church, which at the time was the official church in the colony of Connecticut. Only scant information regarding Oliver’s youth has been handed down. His father took steps to ensure the Oliver received an education that would lead to him becoming a minister. He was tutored by the Rev. Joseph Bellamy, who prepared Jonathan for college. Following completion of his studies, Oliver attended Yale during 1762, but he did not receive his degree for nearly thirty years. While there, he was not separated from typical shenanigans and on several occasions he was disciplined. In one incident, “he and three others presently after evening Prayers on Thursday last put on their Hats and

run and Hallooed in the College Yard in contempt of the Law of College.” Oliver received a fine of one shilling. During his second year, he was caught with others enjoying “a general treat or compotation of wine both common and spiced in and by the sophomore class.” For that incident he was fined four shillings. President Thomas Clapp noted in an entry dated 27 July 1764: “Oliver Ellsworth and Waightstill Avery, at the desire of their respective parents, were dismissed from being members of this College.” Reasons for Oliver’s de- Oliver Ellsworth (Our Countrymen , parture are uncertain. or Brief Memoirs of Eminent AmeriAfterward, he attended cans, Benson J. Lossing, 1855) Princeton; however, following graduation at Princeton, Oliver did not become a minister as his father had wished. Instead, he became a lawyer, but he did not gain admittance to the bar until four years later in 1771. During that period stretching from college to practicing law, again little information about his life has been preserved. Subsequent to receiving his license to practice law, Oliver was not immediately propelled to affluence; rather he had what would be described in contemporary times as college loans. Lacking an affluent family and having no personal wealth, Oliver Ellsworth attempted to settle his debts by selling a tract of land along the Connecticut River that he had inherited, but no buyers appeared. Oliver modified his quest to pay off the money he owed by cutting down trees on the land and taking advantage of the lumber market at Hartford. The scheme succeeded, allowing him to retain the land and pay his debts. In the meantime, during 1772, Ellsworth married Abigail Wolcott, a daughter of William (first cousin of Oliver) and Abigail Abbott Wolcott. According to tradition, Oliver called upon a sister of Abigail, but once he was inside the Wolcott residence and glanced into Abigail’s eyes while she was sitting near the fireplace, he decided that Abigail, not her sister, was the one for him. His subsequent visits were to see Abigail. After their marriage they had nine children, including twins; six survived to adulthood. Oliver and Abigail afterward resided in Wintonbury (Old Windsor and later Bloomfield), about ten miles from Hartford in a house on property owned by his father. Ellsworth was burdened by handling the chores on the property, as he had no servants. He apparently did not even own a horse. Ellsworth walked to Hartford to practice law and he walked home. Nevertheless, he was gaining the bulk of his money from the farm during his early days as a lawyer. Ellsworth did not remain poor forever, and when he did achieve financial success, he was not prone to discussing his wealth, even to his immediate family. About three years after he established his law practice, the future began to brighten. As he began his rise to prominence, Ellsworth was elected, during 1773, to the general assembly as one of two deputies representing Windsor. He remained in the assembly until May 1775, the month following the battles at Lexington and Concord on 19 April 1775. By that time, he had relocated to Hartford. Also in April 1775, the Connecticut assembly convened and immediately set out to provide assistance to Massachusetts. Ellsworth was appointed to the Committee of the Pay Table, organized to oversee wartime expenditures. Afterward, the war began to occupy Oliver’s time. He was not on the rolls of the assembly when it convened during

107 October 1775; he did not reappear until 1779. Nevertheless, his law practice did continue to occupy some of his time. In 1775, Ellsworth was appointed to the Committee of Safety. Later, during February 1776, he was delegated to repair to Cambridge to confer with General George Washington to request “repayment of moneys advanced by Connecticut to her contingent in his command.” Washington was unable to procure the funds. Later that year, Ellsworth was delegated to repair to Albany for the identical purpose, to confer with General Philip Schuyler to seek repayment for the expenses of Connecticut troops who had served in Canada. During 1777, Ellsworth was appointed as the state’s attorney (Hartford County) and elected to the Continental Congress; however he did not take his seat until autumn of the following year. Meanwhile, he did serve on a committee charged with investigating the causes of the failure of a campaign led by General John Sullivan to regain Newport, Rhode Island, during 1777. At the time of the investigation, Congress was aware that the campaign depended upon the support of a French fleet that never provided the support. The assembly resolved “that Roger Sherman, Eliphalet Dyar, Samuel Huntington, Oliver Wolcott, Titus Hosmer, Oliver Ellsworth, and Andrew Adams, Esqrs, be and they are hereby appointed Delegates to represent this State at the General Congress of the United States in America, for the year ensuing and until new be chosen and arrive in Congress if sitting; any one or more of them who shall be present in said Congress are hereby fully authorized and impowered to represent this State in said Congress.” Ellsworth remained in Congress until 1783, but he was frequently absent. He requested and received a leave of absence from Congress during February 1779, about four months after he arrived to serve in that body. He returned in December and remained until June 1780, then departed again in September 1781. Subsequent to yet another absence, Oliver returned to Congress in December 1782 and remained until January 1783, when he departed and later returned during April to complete his final days in Congress. His service ended during the summer of 1783. During the initial and crucial days of the Revolution, those who served in Congress abandoned nearly everything, including their families and livelihoods, to maintain the government; later times brought about changes in priorities, and attendance by some subsequent members never attained similar diligence as that given prior to 1777. Congress, during January 1780, acted to establish an appeals court, composed of three judges. Ellsworth received one of the appointments. He remained in that position until 1786, when the court exhausted all cases and was terminated. Similarly to Ellsworth’s idiosyncrasy regarding concealing his wealth, he also decided not to share his writings. Ellsworth left few papers of any official action and he rarely made any written records, nor did he leave behind many personal letters. One message that survived was a letter ( January 1780) from Ellsworth to Governor Jonathan Trumbull explaining “that in the neighborhood of the army meal was selling at eight dollars the quart, and corn at half a dollar the ear.” During 1784 Ellsworth was appointed as a judge to the superior court of Connecticut. Also, he was appointed as a delegate to the Constitutional Convention held in Philadelphia. Ellsworth stayed only until the latter part of August and his exact reasons for departure are uncertain, but it has been reported that he returned home to resume the business of the court. Nevertheless, his absence on 27 September of that year prevented him from being one of the men who signed the Constitution upon its adoption that day. In January 1788 when the Connecticut convention convened, Ellsworth supported and worked to have the Constitution ratified. Connecticut did so on 8 January, making it the fifth state to enter the union. During the time the convention was active, Ellsworth is known to have been staunchly in favor, but he also took every opportunity to defend the positions of the opponents. During that same year, Oliver

ENOS

was appointed to the Superior Court of Connecticut, and the following year, 1789, he and William S. Johnson were elected to the U.S. Senate as representatives of Connecticut. His career extended further during 1796 when he was appointed to the United States Supreme Court. His commission was dated 4 March 1796. Although Ellsworth retained his commission until November 1800, he actually served until the fall of 1799. Afterward, he took a voyage to France on business as minister plenipotentiary (envoy extraordinary) to France. Ellsworth was accompanied by General William R. Davie, the governor of North Carolina, who was also named as a minister for the peace mission. Oliver Ellsworth and William R. Davie sailed from Newport Rhode Island aboard the United States on 3 November 1799. After a circuitous route caused in part by a nasty storm, and a slow-paced overland trek, the pair finally arrived in Paris on 8 April 1800. They discovered that Napoleon was in the field leading his forces during the Italian Campaign. Genuine talks did not begin until Napoleon returned. Afterward, the talks led to the Treaty of Morfontaine, signed on 30 September 1800 by Ellsworth and Davie on behalf of the United States and by Joseph Bonaparte (brother of Napoleon) and two others, Monsieur Roederer and Monsieur Fleurieu, on behalf of France. Ellsworth, although the senior diplomat, was overshadowed in the eyes of Napoleon by General Davie, the latter possessing a natural commanding presence and a mastery of French and Spanish that seemed at times to overwhelm even Napoleon. The third American, William Vans Murray, the minister at the Hague, returned to the Hague after the treaty was consummated. General Davie sailed for home, while Oliver Ellsworth traveled to England. Upon his return home, Ellsworth spent the remainder of his life in retirement with emphasis on his family and his faith. Ellsworth was known to be a fervent Patriot and a staunch Federalist; however, he had always put his faith above all. Upon his return home, his family was outside waiting to greet him, but, with hardly a glance, Ellsworth instead, in thanks of getting home safely, “acknowledged the God who had led him all his life long, to that day.” He also resolved to abstain from all public service in future. Nonetheless, later he did become a member of the Council of Connecticut during 1802, and he retained the position for the remainder of his life. Subsequently, Ellsworth also became chief justice of the Connecticut Supreme Court during 1807. According to communication between Ellsworth and his wife, regardless of how trying the times, he made time for his children, and when work kept him from home, his thoughts were always with his children. Seven of the children of Oliver and Abigail, four sons and three daughters, grew to adulthood. Oliver Ellsworth died at his residence on 26 November 1807, following a prolonged illness that caused him enormous suffering and at times made him incoherent. He was interred in the ancient burial ground in Windsor. Abigail survived Oliver and lived until 1817. Upon her death, she was interred alongside her husband.

Enos (Eno), Brigadier General Roger Roger Enos, the son of David and Mary Gillett Enos, was born in Simsbury, Connecticut, during 1729. Roger’s great-grandfather, James Eno, arrived in the colonies during 1646 and established his residence in Windsor; however, his father resided in Simsbury. Roger first saw military service during the French and Indian War. He was one of a group of volunteers from his place of residence, Windsor, signed on to participate in the Canadian Campaign. He was appointed as ensign (March 1760) of the 1st Company, attached to Colonel Phineas Lyman’s regiment. Subsequently he saw service at Montreal during September 1760. Afterward, during 1761, he became adjutant of Lyman’s regiment, and he simultaneously served as acting captain-lieutenant of the 1st Company. Enos continued to advance in the military, serving as first lieutenant

EWING

108

of the 1st Company during 1762; he participated in the seizure of Havana, Cuba, that year. The victory was effortless, but within about six months, the British had lost great numbers to sickness from the tropical climate and were compelled to abandon Cuba. During the following year, on 10 March 1763, Roger married Jerusha Hayden, the daughter of Daniel and Esther Mone Hayden of Windsor. Roger and Jerusha had several children, including Pascal Paoli (later one of the proprietors of Springfield, Illinois, and associate of young lawyer Abraham Lincoln); Jerusha (married Ira Allen, the brother of Colonel Ethan Allen); and Roger, Jr. In 1764 Enos served as captain of the 5th Company (Colonel Israel Putnam’s regiment) and participated in a campaign against the Indians. Subsequently, he was a member of a group charged with traveling to the Mississippi Valley to investigate lands granted by the Crown to be awarded as grants to veterans of the war with France. The party, including Enos, Israel Putnam and others from New York, boarded the sloop Mississippi on 10 January 1773 en route to West Florida and arrived off Pensacola on 1 March. The journey was financed by the association known as “Military Company of Adventurers.” Nonetheless, the charter for the land never arrived from England and the settlement was scuttled. However, Colonel Lyman later established a settlement at Natchez. Around that time, relations between the colonies and Britain had begun to deteriorate. Any remaining confidence that reconciliation would occur was shattered at Lexington and Concord on 19 April 1775. Organized resistance began immediately, and the colonies banded together to evict the British from Boston. Enos was appointed major of the 2nd Connecticut Regiment (later 22nd Continental Regiment) on 1 May 1775, and shortly thereafter, on 1 July, he was promoted to lieutenant colonel. Enos had participated at Bunker Hill and around Boston, but during September, his orders changed. On 11 September, Colonel Benedict Arnold, ordered to Canada to link with General Richard Montgomery, received command of a crack force composed of more than 1,000 troops and two provisional battalions (five companies each). One of the latter was commanded by Colonel Roger Enos. En route to Canada, Enos halted, then retired to Massachusetts, arriving there during October, leaving Arnold short of men and supplies. Enos received a court-martial on 1 December 1775, but he, having stated his retreat was necessary to save his men from destruction, was acquitted of any wrongdoing. Shortly thereafter, on 18 January 1776, Lt. Colonel Enos resigned his commission in the Continental Army. He then served in the militia in command of a regiment that operated in the southwestern sector of the state. Two years later, Colonel Enos relocated to Vermont, where he and others in the group established the town of Enosburg during March 1780. Colonel Enos continued his service in the cause and by 1781, as an established resident of Vermont with military service, Enos was appointed brigadier general with command of all Vermont troops. At that time, General Enos corresponded with General George Washington to inform him that he (Enos) was returning to command in the field. Enos served on the Board of War until 1792. He also served in the state assembly (1781–1792). In addition, during 1787, General Enos was appointed major general with command of the 1st Vermont Division. By 1792, General Enos’ health had failed, which prompted him to relinquish his public offices and retire. He moved back to Connecticut to live with his daughter Jerusha, who was married to General Ira Allen, the brother of Ethan Allen. However, he later returned to Vermont and succumbed at Colchester on 6 October 1908. General Enos was interred at Greenmount cemetery in Burlington, Vermont. Ira and Ethan Allen are also interred there.

Ewing, Brigadier General James James Ewing, the son of Thomas and Susannah (Howard Patterson) Ewing, was born in Lancaster County, Pennsylvania, during Au-

gust 1736. James’ father emigrated from northern Ireland. James’ mother was the widow of James Patterson (Indian trader) when she married James’ father. From her first marriage, Susannah had five children, James, Susanna, Sarah, Rebecca and Thomas. From her second marriage, in addition to James, Thomas and Susannah had three other children, John (captain of York militia, killed at an undetermined time during the Revolutionary War), Samuel, and William. Both Samuel and William died young. James’ father died during 1741, while James was only about five years old. His mother, Susannah, married yet again, becoming the wife of another Irishman, John Connolly, who had served in the British army. From the third marriage, Susannah had one son, John. Later, during October 1753, James’ mother succumbed. James’ stepbrother, John Connolly, afterward studied medicine in Philadelphia under Doctor Cadwalader Evans and subsequently moved to Pittsburgh to live with an uncle, Colonel George Croghan, who operated as an Indian trader on the frontier. Within two years of the death of James’ mother, the war with France had erupted. James entered the military at an early year and participated in the ill-fated campaign against Fort Duquesne during 1755. Several years later, he was promoted to the rank of lieutenant. Toward the latter part of the conflict, on 28 August 1760, James Ewing married Patience Wright. During the following year, he was elected to the Pennsylvania Assembly as a representative of York County. Ewing is known to have become one of the fervent advocates of independence while he served in the assembly during that turbulent period when the Crown and Parliament were imposing layers of oppressive measures on the colonies. Ewing served in the assembly until 1776. On 4 July, while Congress was declaring independence, Ewing was commissioned as a brigadier general of Pennsylvania militia. While James was totally committed to the Patriots’ cause, his stepbrother, John Connolly, had taken a different course by remaining a Loyalist, aligned with Lord Dunmore of Virginia. During 1774, Connolly was involved with instigating Indians on the frontier at Pittsburgh and during January seized Fort Pitt from Pennsylvanians. Later he was arrested by rangers under Arthur St. Clair and the fort, which had been temporarily renamed Fort Dunmore, again became Fort Pitt. Later John Connolly was caught with secret papers under his saddle and arrested. He was released in 1777 after his brother arranged for him to travel to his estate for his health, but he was uncooperative and taken back into custody and held until 1780. In the meantime, during July 1776, James, along with Daniel Roberdeau, was appointed brigadier general of Pennsylvania militia. Roberdeau received 160 votes to become top ranking brigadier and Ewing received 85 votes to become second in rank. Ewing commanded the Pennsylvania contingent of the Flying Camp and participated in the campaigns of 1776. Toward the latter part of the year, General Ewing’s command was to participate in the strike against Trenton on 26 December; however, his force was unable to cross the Delaware River. General John Cadwalader, deployed near Ewing’s force, attempted to ford the river, but Cadwalader failed. Ewing made no attempt. Nevertheless, General George Washington, with the support of the skilled sailors of Colonel John Glover’s Marblehead Regiment, succeeded in crossing on Christmas night. Trenton was seized on the following morning. General Ewing was initially a Democratic-Republican (present-day Democrat) and an opponent of Pennsylvania’s first constitution; however, he later aligned himself with the Federalists. During 1781, he was elected to the Supreme Executive Council of Pennsylvania, and during 1782–1783, he held the position of vice president (lieutenant governor) under the administration of Governor (general) John Dickinson. Dickinson had opposed independence and avoided attendance in Congress to permit a unanimous vote, but once it was declared, he supported the cause. Later he was a proponent of the federal Consti-

FARLEY

109 tution and was one of the signers (1787). General Ewing’s relationship with John Dickinson remained cordial and Ewing was named a trustee of Dickinson College during 1783. In 1784, General Ewing returned to the state assembly and served one term. He was then appointed to a committee charged with streamlining navigation along the Susquehanna River. Later, during 1795, as a Federalist, General Ewing was again elected to the legislature, the Pennsylvania Senate, and was re-elected in 1799. Ewing did not graduate from the University of Pennsylvania, and while in the legislature, as vice president, he was listed as an ex officio trustee of the university. It is uncertain whether he had attended Philadelphia College (later University of Pennsylvania). In 1753, a student named James Ewing was listed as having paid tuition. It was the same year that James’ mother succumbed. General Ewing succumbed on 1 March 1806, at his home in Hellam Township, Pennsylvania (York County). His wife, Patience, predeceased him in 1797. At times, information regarding Generals James Irvine and James Ewing get tangled due to similarities, each being from Pennsylvania and the many spelling variations (including Irwin, Irvine and Ewing. General James Irvine and General James Ewing were not related; however, both served in the Pennsylvania Line and both were promoted to the rank of brigadier general in the Pennsylvania milita. More similarities were: both served on the Supreme Executive Council ( January 1783–October 1784); each served during the John Dickinson administration as vice president of the state; and both were of Irish descent. And yet another general from Pennsylvania, William Irvine, was also of Irish descent, yet unrelated to either James Ewing or James Irvine.

Farley, Brigadier General Michael Michael Farley was born in Ipswitch, Massachusetts, during 1719. He married Elizabeth Choate, also of Ipswitch, on 5 February 1746. Elizabeth was the daughter of Captain Robert Choate. The couple resided in Ipswich and together, according to Choates in America (E.O. Jameson, 1896), they had twelve children: John (baptized 5 October 1746, married Sarah Dennis); Ebenezer (baptized 27 November 1748); Elizabeth (baptized 14 January 1750, d. 1769); Michael (baptized 3 December 1752); Jabez (baptized 13 October 1754, married Lucy Rogers, then Susannah Swazey); Eunice (baptized 26 October 1756); Robert I (baptized 4 February 1759, died in infancy); Robert II (baptized 27 April, 1760, married Susanna Kemdall); Susannah (baptized 17 January, 1762, died in infancy); Susannah (baptized February 1764, married William Burleigh); Thomas (baptized 21 February 1776); and Sarah (baptized 16 July 1769, married James Phillips). Michael Farley learned a trade and established a tannery in Ipswich on Market Street during 1755. At the time, Joseph Kimball operated a similar business in Ipswich. Farley lived a relatively quiet life, but at about the time Parliament passed the Stamp Act, followed by its repeal and the later enactment of the Townshend Acts, his circumstances, similar to many other colonists, took a rapid change of course. Farley was catapulted into public life about 1766, and by 1767, he was elected to the General Court as a representative of Ipswich. Doctor John Calef had been displaced by the citizens who had become dissatisfied with his representation. At the time of his election, Farley was also a captain in the militia. He fared better; people were sufficiently satisfied with his performance and re-elected him in May 1768. During that term (winter 1767–1768), a circular letter was issued by the General Court explaining the resistance to the Townshend Acts. It was sent to the other assemblies, but Governor Francis Bernard demanded that the letter be rescinded. Farley was among the ninetytwo member of the House of Representatives who ignored the governor and voted nay with regard to rescinding the letter. Only seventeen representatives supported the governor.

On 11 August, a vote was tallied at a town meeting and the citizens overwhelmingly approved of the negative vote, bolstering Farley’s support by his constituents. The jubilation spread throughout the colonies. In Massachusetts, toasts were frequently raised to the gallant ninetytwo, and the people came up with a song to further celebrate the stand against the perceived tyranny. The tune: “Come Jolly Bacchus” or “Glorious First of August:” Come jolly SONS OF LIBERTY Come ALL with Hearts UNITED Our Motto is ‘WE DARE BE FREE’ Not easily affrighted. Oppressions Band we must subdue Now is the Time or Never That each man PROVE this Motto true And SLAVERY from him sever.

During that same period, the British seized John Hancock’s sloop, the Liberty, on the charge of smuggling liquor without paying taxes. The incident caused riots despite a British warship being in the harbor. Nevertheless, the Patriots received the desired result. Governor Bernard directed the officers involved to depart Boston. The HMS Romney carried the officers to Castle William. The British retaliated by ordering two regiments stationed in Ireland to sail for Boston. In the meantime, other Redcoats were sent down from Halifax. Governor Bernard dissolved the House, but it only further aggravated the situation. After refusing to call the legislature into session, the Patriots sent word that a convention would be held at Boston on 19 September 1768. Captain Farley was selected as the representative from Ipswich. Later, the Patriots in Ipswich convened a meeting on 28 December 1772 and adopted several resolutions regarding treatment by the Crown and the refusal of Parliament and the Crown to acknowledge their petitions for fairness. Captain Farley was among those who signed the resolutions. He was also appointed to the committee of safety at that time. Later, during 1774, Captain Farley, along with Daniel Noyes, attended the initial Provincial Congress held at Salem on 7 October. At that time it was decided to raise Minute Men. It was agreed to equip each soldier with “Firearm, Bayonet, Pouch, Knapsack, Thirty rounds of Cartridges and Ball, and that they be disciplined three times a week and oftener as opportunity may offer.” In addition, the town of Ipswich adopted the “Troops Covenant” on 14 November 1774. The Troop of Horse (attached to 3rd Regiment) of Essex County in that agreement swore to obey their officers. Around that time Captain Michael Farley was appointed colonel of militia. Later, on 3 January 1775, Colonel Farley was selected as delegate to the Provincial Congress scheduled to convene in Cambridge on 1 February. Farley, Daniel Noyes, William Story and Deacon Stephen Choate were assigned as a committee to prepare the instructions, which were to include that Congress set aside a day of prayer and fasting. Events were beginning to unfold rapidly, and by April 1775, all chances of reconciliation with Britain were essentially terminated at the battles of Lexington and Concord on the 19th. Colonel Farley had been a staunch proponent of the Patriots’ cause, but by the eruption of hostilities, he had already reached his mid-fifties. Consequently, he never assumed command in the field. Nevertheless, he was considered a key leader. During 1775, the General Court was re-established and General Farley was elected as a representative. It was a position he retained until 1780. In addition, the people of Ipswich raised Farley to the post of high sheriff, and he was appointed a major general of militia. Farley was also considered a trustworthy leader within the town’s government. He also served as treasurer of the town of Ipswich. Others in General Farley’s family also served during the war. His sons Jabez and John entered the army, and another son, Robert, was too young at the eruption of hostilities, but joined the army when he

FEBIGER

110

reached his sixteenth birthday. Mrs. Farley gave her youngest son some advice as he left to serve: “Behave like a man.” Subsequently, during 1780, while serving as a privateer on a vessel authorized by Congress, Robert Farley was seized and held for about nine months in New York Harbor before being released. After the war, General Farley resumed his normal life. During December 1787, just after the completion of the Constitutional Convention held in Philadelphia the previous October, General Farley was selected as a delegate to the Massachusetts Constitutional Convention, which convened on 3 January 1788. The Constitution was ratified by a vote of 187 to 167. General Farley and the other representatives of Ipswich all voted yea. The vote brought about great jubilation to the people gathered, and a celebration commenced immediately. The church bells rang incessantly and bon fires were ignited, while the available cannon added to the commotion. Working to adopt the federal Constitution appears to be the final public contribution of General Farley to the nation. He succumbed on 20 June 1789 and was interred at the Old North Burial Ground in Ipswich. General Farley and his wife Elizabeth lived in what was known as the Knowlton House, built during 1692 by John Knowlton. John’s son Isaac and his wife Mary Dear Knowlton afterward resided there. Subsequently, Mary, Isaac’s widow, sold the home to Robert Choate, whom she later married. In the meantime, Robert gave the house to his daughter, Elizabeth Choate Farley, the wife of General Farley. Mrs. Elizabeth Farley survived her husband and lived until 20 September 1789.

Febiger, Brigadier General Christian Christian Febiger was born in Denmark on the island of Funen during 1746. Much of his early life is based on speculation that his father succumbed when Christian was about sixteen and that afterward he traveled to Santa Cruz in the company of his uncle to the West Indies; however it is certain he received an education that included military skills, but the place is uncertain and thought to have been at Copenhagen. At some point, Christian decided to abandon his life in the West Indies, thought to have included a position on the staff of the governor, his uncle. His movements remained obscure until 1772, when Christian is known to have been at Cape Fear in North Carolina. From there he traveled northward to Penobscot, marking details regarding each locale and the various products in each area. Armed with the information, Christian became a merchant. In 1775, when hostilities erupted at Lexington and Concord on 19 April, Christian Febiger, who had earlier discarded the military life, quickly abandoned the life of an entrepreneur to return to the military. He volunteered his services as a skilled officer just after the clash, and on 28 April, he joined a militia regiment commanded by Colonel Samuel Gerrish. The regiment was composed of men from Essex and Middlesex counties. Shortly after joining the regiment, he was appointed adjutant. Volunteers began to pour into the area around Boston in an attempt to keep the British penned within the city. Fortifications were established around the city, and on 17 June, the British initiated an attack against Breed’s Hill. Febiger played a substantial part during the fighting and his talents were noticed by other officers. He was selected to accompany Colonel Benedict Arnold, who would lead a crack force into Canada in September to hook up with General Richard Montgomery. The expedition was plagued with problems, including lack of proper food and clothing and sickness. In addition, part of Arnold’s force under Colonel Roger Enos halted while en route and headed back to Massachusetts, leaving Arnold also short of ammunition. Nevertheless, toward the latter part of the year, it was decided to attack Quebec City before troop enlistments terminated. The attack failed, Arnold was wounded, and General Montgomery was killed. Febiger was among the captured. He was paroled during Au-

gust 1776 and arrived in New York the next month; however, he was not released until 1 January 1777, when he and other former prisoners landed at Elizabeth, New Jersey. Despite the grueling Canadian campaign and the confinement of the British which consumed more than one year of his life, Febiger remained committed to the cause. While he was still held by the British, word of his talents apparently reached southward. On 13 November 1776, through the recommendation of Richard Henry Lee of Virginia, Congress appointed Christian as lieutenant colonel and assigned him to Colonel Daniel Morgan’s 11th Virginia Regiment (Continental Army). Febiger had become familiar with Morgan during the Canadian Campaign and Morgan was also among the captured at Quebec. By the following spring, Morgan’s command, composed primarily of men from the vicinity of Winchester, joined with General George Washington’s main body in New Jersey. A vanguard under Lt. Colonel Febiger marched north on 23 February, and his two companies were soon joined by the main body with Morgan. By 15 April, Febiger was deployed at Princeton, and two days later, he was at Bridgewater and Bound Brook. Shortly thereafter, Colonel Morgan was detached from the regiment and given command of a corps of riflemen, which repaired to New York and played a key part in the campaign that compelled British General John Burgoyne to surrender his army at Saratoga. Lt. Colonel Febiger assumed command of the regiment in place of Colonel Morgan and participated as part of General Woodford’s brigade (General Adam Stephen’s division). Febiger participated in the defense of Philadelphia at Brandywine (11 September 1777). He was promoted to the rank of colonel on 26 September 1777. On 4 October, he led his troops at the Battle of Germantown. Following the fighting in and around Germantown, the British moved back into Philadelphia, while the Continental Army established winter quarters at Valley Forge. Three days after the Battle of Germantown, Colonel Febiger received command of the 2nd Virginia Regiment and retained it until 1 January 1783. Richard Parker served as lieutenant colonel of the regiment and Ralph Faulkner as major. Colonel Febiger, subsequent to breaking camp at Valley Forge during June of 1778, participated at the Battle of Monmouth on the 28th of that month. Febiger noted in his record book that he had “been at the head of four thousand men and two pieces of artillery [Virginia line].” Nevertheless, it would have been a temporary command in conjunction with the retreat ordered by General Charles Lee. After the clash at Monmouth, Colonel Febiger was ordered to Philadelphia to oversee the task of manufacturing uniforms for the Virginia troops. Following that duty, he joined with General Anthony Wayne and led a contingent of cavalry during the successful attack against Stony Point on 15 July 1779. Wayne personally selected the troops for the assault, and they were under orders to use only bayonets. Colonel Febiger commanded one of the four regiments (two from Virginia and two from Pennsylvania), and his unit for the assault was composed of six companies of his regiment and two Pennsylvania companies. The objective, thought invulnerable by the British, was seized. On the following day, Colonel Febiger, in a letter to his wife, Elizabeth, wrote: “My Dear Girl, I have just borrowed pen, ink and paper to inform you that yesterday we march’d from Fort Montgomery, and at 12 o’clock last night we stormed this confounded place, and, with the loss of about fourteen killed and forty or fifty wounded, we carried it. I can give you no particulars as yet. A musquet ball scraped my nose. No other damage to Old Denmark. God bless you. Farewell — Febiger.” On 21 July, Colonel Febiger again wrote to his wife to fill her in on the details of the attack. At the end of his letter, he noted, regarding a British advance following a cannonade of British lines: “This obliged General Clinton to come up with his whole army to King’s Ferry, where he now is. What may be his next move we cannot as yet ascertain. If he intends for our Fort, I think he will be damnably

111 drubbed, as this most glorious affair has given double vigor and spirit to our men. Farewell — Febiger.” The corps of light infantry was disbanded in December. Afterward, Colonel Febiger resumed duty with his regiment. During 1780, Charleston was besieged and reinforcements were sent south. Nonetheless, the city fell on 12 May and about 2,000 men of the Continental Army were among the captured; however, although about 700 Virginians were seized, Colonel Febiger had not reached Charleston and was spared. By that time, the situation in Virginia was desperate and the army lacked clothing and ammunition. General Peter Muhlenberg assumed command of the recruiting drive. He ordered Colonel Febiger, on 1 September, to repair to Philadelphia to acquire supplies for the Virginians. After arriving in Philadelphia, Febiger encountered General Nathanael Greene, who was en route to attempt to salvage the remnants of the army in the Southern Department. By then, in addition to the massive losses at Charleston, General Horatio Gates suffered a careerending defeat at Camden, and Greene had been appointed as his successor. Greene, once aware of Febiger’s duties in the city, modified the orders and instructed him to begin acquiring stores for the Carolinas as well as Virginia. Despite the disadvantages, the first train rolled south about 30 November and that was followed with another on 2 January 1781. The trains were composed of nineteen and twenty-three wagons, escorted by military contingents under Lieutenant Newberry and Captain Brown (Harrison’s artillery regiment), respectively. Colonel Febiger completed his task during March 1781. On 28 March, Febiger traveled to Chester, slightly south of Philadelphia, to acquire for the Virginians stores that were aboard a French vessel, the frigate Hermione. On 10 May, Colonel Febiger returned to Virginia. It was not conspicuous duty, nor glorious; however, one man in particular was keenly aware of Febiger’s contribution to the war in the Carolinas: General Greene. The wagons that reached Greene delivered supplies that aided in ridding the Carolinas of Lord General Charles Cornwallis. And the man who dispatched the supplies to Greene was in Virginia to help make the Yorktown campaign Cornwallis’ final campaign. Colonel Febiger participated against Loyalists in Hampshire County, but he commanded only militia at Yorktown, except for a short period when he led a contingent of Virginia regulars in support of Lafayette. At Yorktown, Colonel Febiger held no command of troops. The Virginians (Continental Army contingent), about 400 in number that participated at Yorktown, were commanded by Lt. Colonel Thomas Gaskins. After Cornwallis surrendered in October 1781, Colonel Febiger was directed to raise troops to form a battalion which was to be sent to bolster General Greene. He closed out his career in the army on 1 January 1783. After leaving the army, Colonel Febiger relocated to Philadelphia, the home of his wife, Elizabeth Carson, the daughter of an affluent merchant. General Christian Febiger was the brother-in-law of General James O’Hara, the latter having married Elizabeth’s younger sister, Mary Carson. On 30 September, Congress awarded him the brevet of brigadier general and on 3 November, he was discharged from the army. Despite becoming a brigadier by brevet, Christian chose not to use the title. He later gave his reasons in a letter to a Danish correspondent: “It is more to one’s advantage in business matters in America to be known as Colonel.” General Febiger was elected treasurer of the state of Pennsylvania during 1789. He fulfilled his duties well beyond expectations and so impressed the legislature that he was unanimously re-elected every year and died in office on 20 September 1796. General Febiger’s wife, Elizabeth, survived him. The couple had no children of their own; however, according to Colonel Febiger’s will (probated in Philadelphia), they adopted Elizabeth’s nephew, John Carson Febiger, the son of her

FEW

brother, Doctor John Carson. Elizabeth Febiger succumbed during 1817.

Fellows, Brigadier General John John Fellows was born in Promfret, Connecticut, about 1733. Following service in the French and Indian War, he served in the Massachusetts Provincial Congress (1775), and at the time of the clash at Lexington and Concord, he held the rank of colonel in militia. John married Mary Ashley, a daughter of Judge John Ashley and the sister of Major General John Ashley. John and Mary had seven children (four daughters and three sons): Hannah, Mary, Charlotte, Jane, John, Edmund and Henry. John was a delegate to the initial Provincial Congress of Massachusetts, which convened during 1774. Colonel Fellows led his command toward Boston as soon as word of the hostilities at Lexington and Concord reached him at Sheffield on 20 April. On the following morning at dawn, Colonel Fellows and his Southern Berkshire regiment sped toward Roxbury. On 18 June 1776, less than one month prior to the decision of Congress to declare independence, the citizens of Sheffield called a town meeting to review a report from a committee that included Colonel Fellows regarding the town’s position on independence. A vote was taken and all but two votes were cast to side with Congress. Colonel Fellows, on 26 June, was appointed brigadier general of Massachusetts militia. As a brigadier general, he commanded a brigade at various battles, including Long Island and White Plains. The regiment fought at Trenton during the latter part of December 1776 and at Princeton on 3 January 1777. In 1777, General Fellows participated in the campaign against British General John Burgoyne at Saratoga. After the surrender of Burgoyne, Fellows was assigned a number of prisoners whom he was charged with marching to Boston. En route, some of the captives were left at Sheffield and Hampshire counties. General Fellows retained his commission as brigadier general until 1780. After the war he was appointed high sheriff of Sheffield, Massachusetts. He succumbed on 1 August 1808, in Sheffield. His wife, Mary, predeceased him on 7 December 1797.

Few, William (Signer of the U.S. Constitution) William Few, the son of William and Mary Wheeler Few, was born on 8 June 1748 in Baltimore County, Maryland. His ancestors were Quakers. They immigrated to America during the 1690s and settled temporarily in Pennsylvania before relocating in Maryland. William’s mother described as a “devout Catholic,” but usually a “devout” Catholic would not have agreed to allow her children to be raised in a Protestant faith as a Methodist. However, during the period, Puritans evicted from Virginia relocated in Maryland and eventually displaced the Catholic leaders, making it a crime to practice Catholicism in Maryland. William’s mother came into an inheritance of property from her father, Benjamin Wheeler, during 1741. The area in which they resided in the northern sector of Maryland was inhabited primarily by other relatives, and the land was hit hard by nature, prompting the families to leave their respective farms after losing two of three successive crops of tobacco and head south for better William Few (National Park Service)

FEW

112

opportunities. Several men joined with William’s father on the journey to seek a new place to establish their homesteads. The party departed Maryland about 1758 and traveled through the wilderness. Several hundred miles into the trip, they paused at a spot in Orange County along the Eno River. They decided to resettle there near the river. William’s father acquired land, contracted a builder and had the builder construct a house. Meanwhile, he returned to Maryland, and after settling his affairs and selling his property, the family (his wife, six children and several slaves) departed for North Carolina in one wagon drawn by four horses. After settling in a spot known as Kirkland Place, the elder William established a tavern just outside of the settlement, and he ran a mill farther down the Eno River. William had little opportunity on the frontier to receive a classical education; however, he had a propensity to absorb what he read and studied. Those traits built a foundation of self-determination that opened unending opportunities that permitted William to face and overcome obstacles to achieve a place in history as a self-made man who would be remembered as one of the nation’s Founding Fathers. For a while in the 1760s, a teacher who had arrived in the area offered his services for twenty shillings per year. The teacher was able to instruct the students, including William, in the basics. William had received some education earlier in Maryland, but according to his autobiography, it was not a pleasant experience. He noted: “The teacher was an ill-natured, arbitrary man, who punished with rigor, and enforced his precepts by terror. This man was to me the most dreadful of allmankind....” Encouraged by his new teacher, William later undertook a quest on his own to study law, in addition to handling the normal responsibilities of living on a farm in the wilderness. In 1764, the Few family moved to a new home in Hillsborough, at the time inhabited by about forty families. It was there that William Few was inspired to become a lawyer. He persuaded a lawyer to let him borrow Jacob’s Law Dictionary. At the time there were not large numbers of books in the area, but William read repeatedly the few books in the family library, which included a folio Bible. After struggling for some time, the family began to prosper. William’s father acquired a farm in the vicinity their residence during 1767 and William was given responsibility for the care of it. He left the house on Monday morning and remained at the farm until Saturday before making the 7 mile return trip to be back with the family on the Sabbath. While tending the farm, he used his free time to read. At the end of the season, William Few became jubilant when his crop flourished. As time passed, the Few family also became involved in the affairs of the region, and at that time, there was a large amount of distrust of the government by the citizens in North Carolina. Taxes started to become exorbitant and there were charges of corruption and allegations of bribery. The dissension brought about a group known as the Regulators; their initial purpose was to peacefully protest the policies. Nonetheless, Few, his father, and his brother James became members. In the meantime, William Few’s father had an encounter with the law due to his actions pertaining to his work as a bondsman. Few’s father, in turn, later (about the time of a showdown between royal Governor William Tryon and the Regulators) decided to abandon North Carolina for Georgia and leave William to handle the family affairs, including the lawsuits that had been lodged against his father. Meanwhile, the Regulators, unable to have their grievances settled, turned to violence. The threats included liquidating every lawyer in the colony. The turbulence continued off and on, but during 1771, Tryon led a seasoned force of troops against the Regulators, most of whom were inexperienced as soldiers and many of whom lacked weapons. The Battle of Alamance on 16 May terminated the organization, with some being captured. Of those, some were to be executed. In addition, several hundred were killed or wounded.

Twelve men were expeditiously tried and convicted of high treason, and each of them was sentenced to be executed; however, when the sentences were carried out during the following month, six men were spared. James, a brother of William Few, was one of the men who was executed. James refused to take an oath of loyalty to the Crown, despite repeated offers to spare his life if he agreed. James apparently left a wife and two children, twins William and Sally. Later, James’ widow married either a British officer or a Loyalist officer, and afterward, Benjamin Few traveled to North Carolina and took the twins to Georgia to be raised by the Few family. Benjamin raised the twins as if they had been his children. Meanwhile, with regard to the governor’s force, it had included many sympathizers of the Regulators, but their loyalty to the royal government caused them to support the governor. The Few family afterward abandoned the area and resettled in western Georgia, but William remained in North Carolina to handle and finalize the family’s affairs. Their family farm along with those of other Regulators was destroyed by Tryon. Subsequent to the action at Alamance, the relations between Britain and the colonies began to deteriorate at a more rapid pace, although since the enactment of the Stamp Act of 1765, the colonists were beginning to question why Parliament was treating them unfairly. By 1775, the pondering succinctly terminated as word of the clashes at Lexington and Concord reverberated throughout the colonies. The chance of reconciliation had been severed and the rebellion was underway, with many of the former Regulators and those who in the past had remained loyal to Tryon and the royal government joining together against the English. Governor Josiah Martin, who replaced Tryon, the latter being transferred to New York to assume the governorship there, was ousted. William Few entered the military at Hillsborough and was involved in raising a company of militia. He served and received training, but when North Carolina was in the process of raising regiments for service in the Continental Army, he declined a commission as captain, due to the personal family matters that continued to require his attention. Few later noted in his biography: “I felt the spirit of an American, and without much investigation of the justice of her cause, I resolved to defend it.” In autumn of 1775, after settling the family’s affairs, he departed North Carolina to rejoin his family in Wrightsboro, near Augusta, Georgia. Afterward, Few re-entered the military there. He was also admitted to the bar soon after his arrival in Georgia, and he established his law practice in Augusta. Few entered the Richmond County Regiment, which was commanded by one of his brothers, Benjamin, another of the former Regulators who abandoned North Carolina for Georgia. Few was utilized as an instructor who taught the military skills he had learned in North Carolina’s militia. That year, he was also elected to the convention in Savannah that would establish a constitution. Few was also elected by unanimous vote to the state assembly as a representative of Richmond County. The assembly convened in Savannah under authorization of the recently established constitution. It resolved to appoint a governor and an executive council composed of sixteen councilors. Few became one of the sixteen. He had also been named as an Indian commissioner and was selected as the state’s surveyor-general. In 1778, when the British were poised to invade Georgia from positions in Florida, Few was called to arms, but the British halted their offensive at a point about ten miles from the Georgians. Afterward, Few participated in the East Florida Campaign (Third Florida Invasion) led by General Robert Howe (Continental Army) during spring of 1778. The operation failed due in great part to dissension between the militia commanders and Continental Army commanders, but an epidemic of sickness also contributed to the debacle. The Americans sustained severe losses. After the campaign, Few was appointed as the state’s surveyor-general with his headquarters at Savannah, but after

113 about six or eight months at the post, he was struck by fever and compelled to relinquish the position. Few was later appointed a commissioner of confiscated estates and senior justices of Richmond County. In December 1778, a British force of about 3,000 troops under Colonel Archibald Campbell arrived at Savannah via the Savannah River. The force landed, and after receiving intelligence, it bypassed the defenders to get to their rear. The Patriots resisted tenaciously, but the city fell on the 29th. Few’s regiment participated in the defense. The surprise amphibious landing inflicted high casualties of about 83 killed, 450 wounded and 483 captured, while the British sustained 13 casualties, including 3 killed. The British hoisted their ensign above Fort Savannah and renamed it Fort Prevost. Soon Augusta was effortlessly seized, in early January 1779. The British were then poised to dominate the entire state, faced only by some militia, primarily composed of troops from the upper part of the state. William Few continued to participate in various actions against the British, including the failed attempt to retake Augusta under General Benjamin Lincoln during 1779. At that time, the British, aware of Lincoln’s advance, executed a diversionary move against Charleston, and Lincoln’s army was compelled to abort and return to defend Charleston. Colonel Archibald Campbell’s force, which had abandoned Augusta, was able to return. Later that year, Lincoln, supported by a French fleet, attacked to regain Savannah. The British were prepared and the city did not fall; however, a premature attack urged by the French proved disastrous and the siege was terminated on 16 October 1779. During those campaigns, William Few, with the rank of lieutenant colonel, led his militia; as guerrillas, his men were frequently engaged against Loyalists and against hostile Indians. During January 1780, Few, having again been elected the previous year, took his seat in the legislature. He was also elected that year to the Continental Congress. Meanwhile, Charleston fell on 12 May 1780, inflicting yet another grievous loss on the Patriots. Afterward, General Nathanael Greene arrived to succeed Benjamin Lincoln as commander of the South. Augusta was regained on 5 June 1781. Savannah was abandoned by the British on 11 July 1782. In the meantime, General Lord Cornwallis surrendered at Yorktown on 17 October 1781. Few, having served admirably during the struggle in Georgia, had earned a reputation as a bold, aggressive leader, which prompted the Georgians to also take advantage of his skills. While he was attached to the militia, Few also participated in parleys with the Indians along the frontier. The progress of General Nathanael Greene prompted Georgia to recall Congressman Few to participate in reorganizing the state government, which, until the eviction of the British, was not centralized. He departed Philadelphia on 17 July 1781 and, accompanied by Colonel Martin and Major Deveraux, he arrived back in Georgia on 1 September. Afterward, when his task was completed, Few returned to Congress (May 1782). Few’s military and legislative achievements were increased yet again when he was sent back to Congress during 1786. Afterward, while in New York (arrived 3 May 1786), he was selected as a delegate to the Constitutional Convention held in Philadelphia from May to September 1787. Few was one of six men chosen as Georgia state delegates; however, two never left Georgia and two others attended but failed to remain for the close of the convention upon adoption of the Constitution. Few held double responsibility during the convention because Georgia requested that simultaneously he maintain his position as congressman. He handled both tasks by dividing his time between the two bodies at the expense of missing convention sessions during July and some during August. While at the convention, Few was an ardent supporter of adoption of the Constitution, but he did not take the floor to make any speeches during the debates. While he was in attendance, he did contribute by casting crucial votes in support of the Constitution. He noted a mo-

FEW

tion by Benjamin Franklin that failed to pass (while progress at the convention was slow), stating in his biography: “All human efforts seemed to fail. Doctor Franklin proposed to appoint a chaplain and implore Divine assistance, but his motion did not prevail.” Back in Georgia after the Constitution was adopted, William aggressively supported ratification. The Georgians ratified the Constitution on 2 January 1788 to become the fourth state in the union. The Constitution was to become effective after ratification by nine states, which occurred on 21 June 1788 as New Hampshire ratified the Constitution and entered the union. A new Congress operating under the Constitution, convened on 4 March 1789. Few’s contribution to the process was further rewarded by Georgia when he was chosen to be one of the state’s initial senators. On the day of the transition from the old government to the new, Congressman William Few vacated his seat in the House and took his seat in the U.S. Senate. Meanwhile, problems with the Creek Indians continued back home. President George Washington was approached to gain his support in quelling the violence by dispatching troops; however the president took a separate approach by appointing three commissioners and dispatching them to parley with the Creeks and seek a solution. The commissioners departed New York during September 1789, but two sloops were required to carry the party, which most probably included some security forces. William Few was also among them. He was not a commissioner, but he was dedicated to finding a way to end the hostilities. After what was described as a harrowing voyage, the ships safely arrived at Savannah and the commissioners from there traveled along the Oconee River (border between the state and Indian territory) to hold the talks. The gifts that had been brought were distributed and the commissioners shared “black drink and the calumet of peace.” The occasion was by Indian standards very formal. The talks, however, failed due to the obstinacy of a part–Indian, McGillvary, who preferred war. Afterward, Few returned to New York and completed his term. He was finally making preparations for retirement during 1793, but Georgia was not anxious to lose his services. He was convinced to postpone his retirement from public life to serve in the state legislature during a new period of turbulence ignited by land speculators (Yazoo Land Scheme) subsequent to the Yazoo Land Bill signed by Governor George Matthews during his second term, which opened up land west of the Mississippi River (Alabama and Mississippi). Few served as a representative of Columbia County. The assembly convened during January 1795 and immediately proclaimed the Yazoo Act invalidated. Apparently all documentation and records pertaining to the act were destroyed. Retirement was again suspended during 1796. At that time, in conjunction with the legislature splitting the state four districts, Few was appointed as judge of the second district. He served out his three-year term, but during that period, he was being enticed to leave Georgia and relocate in New York. The persuasion worked well. After concluding his time as judge, he, along with the person who advised the move, his wife, Catherine Nicholson Few, a native New Yorker, traveled to New York on a visit in May 1799. The arrival wasn’t entirely jubilant. At the time, a yellow-fever epidemic was sweeping through the city. While there, Few purchased a five-acre farm on Greenwich Lane for $15,000, and he had decided to relocate there. He noted other reasons for leaving Georgia, including “the accumulating evils of fevers and negro slavery, those enemies to human felicity.” However, his plan to retire to private life was yet again foiled. Few’s reputation preceded his arrival. After getting settled in Manhattan, he was elected to the state assembly (1801, 1802, 1803 and 1804) of New York. During 1805, he was appointed as federal commissioner of loans. In the meantime, he was appointed as state’s inspector of prisons during 1802, and he held the position until 1810. Later, during

FITZSIMMONS

114

1813, he was elected as alderman (8th Ward) and he served into 1814. He was also appointed as a director of the Manhattan Bank during 1804, a position he retained until 1814. He was president of the City Bank in New York from 1814 until 1816. All the while, he maintained his law practice. After closing his term as a federal loan commissioner, Few finally reached his goal of retirement at his country house in Duchess County. During his lifetime and his climb from being a farmer’s son to becoming one of the nation’s Founding Fathers, William Few never lost track of his roots or his faith. When he achieved financial success, he became a philanthropist and continued to support people less fortunate. In addition, he remained a devout Methodist from childhood. William Few succumbed at the age of 80 at Fishkill-on-the-Hudson. He was interred in the cemetery of the Reformed Dutch Church, but later his remains were extricated, transported to Georgia and reinterred in the cemetery of St. Paul’s Episcopal Church in Augusta. Peculiarly, in his brief autobiography, Few omitted the names of his parents, siblings, wife and children. William was survived by his wife, Catherine (daughter of Captain James Nicholas of the Continental Navy) and their three daughters. William died at the home of his daughter Frances and her husband, Albert Chrystie.

Fitzsimmons, Thomas (Signer of the U.S. Constitution) Thomas Fitzsimmons was born in Ireland during 1741, but the exact date is unknown. Thomas’ family, including five children, immigrated to America and settled in Pennsylvania during the 1750s. Thomas and his siblings received a fine education through the foresight of his father; however, he died soon after arriving in Pennsylvania. The family carried on without a father and later Thomas and his twin sister, Ann, both climbed the ladder of success. Thomas became a trader. In the early 1760s, he entered into a partnership (George Meade and Company) with another of the Irish merchants in Philadelphia, George Meade (grandfather of General George Meade, Union general in the American Civil War). During the year following the establishment of the partnership, Thomas married Catherine Meade, the daughter of Robert Meade (father of George), making his partner, George, also his brother-in-law. The endeavor began to flourish; however, later, when the Crown and Parliament sought ways to increase the share of the colonies in paying the cost of the late French and Indian War and to support the costs of British troops in the colonies, action was taken in Parliament that ignited intense resistance in America. The spark that caused the furor was the Stamp Act of 1765, and as traders who did business in the West Indies, Thomas Fitzsimmons and George Meade were among that enormous group of Americans who protested. Parliament was compelled to repeal the act during the following year, but other legislation followed to compound Britain’s problem with its colonists. From that point forward, relations between America and the mother country never rebounded. Within a few years, British troops were transported from Nova Scotia and deployed in Boston, increasing the consternation of the citizens there. Later, the tension, which was already high, exploded when a mob confronted British troops in Boston. After being harassed and pelted with snowballs containing rocks, the troops fired upon the mob. That incident, known as the Boston Massacre, occurred during 1770. In 1773, Boston again became a powder-keg and the fuse nearly caused a major confrontation. The British troops afterward were redeployed outside the city. Parliament continued its aggressive policies and the colonies began to galvanize. In 1773, the Sons of Liberty, a group that emerged to oppose British policies, moved into action in Boston. The Patriots disguised themselves as Mohawk Indians, advanced to the harbor and boarded British ships, then dumped the tea cargoes of the respective vessels into the harbor. The raid unfolded without British interference and became known as the Boston Tea Party, yet another explosive step toward open rebellion.

Britain retaliated with more legislation; the Intolerable Acts funneled even more fuel into what was at the time only a simmering fire. Nevertheless, with the British sealing the port of Boston, the citizens found themselves isolated and soon lacking many necessities. By then word had spread throughout the colonies, stretching to the southernmost colonies, and they began to form committees of correspondence to be poised to quickly transmit information. Meanwhile, other Patriots discerned that if the British succeeded at Boston, they would feel free to close other ports. That caused merchants to push for a non-importation act to counter the British and refuse to import British goods. The Patriots also established methods to deal with merchants who refused to abide by the non-importation action. Fitzsimmons and Meade were among the numerous Philadelphia merchants who supported the action. At about that time, Fitzsimmons was drawn into politics. He was a popular and effective Irishman, and during 1771, the Irish merchants and the various tradesmen in Philadelphia elected him vice president of the Friendly Sons of St. Patrick, a fraternal organization formed to assist other Irishmen and to hold some influence within the political community. In 1774, Fitzsimmons was elected to a committee that was charged with engineering protests in response to the Intolerable Acts and was appointed to the Philadelphia Committee of Correspondence, which was essentially a governing body. Laws in the country at that time prohibited Catholics from holding office; however, Pennsylvanians were not as intolerant as the political leaders in Maryland, where life for most Catholics was at times intolerable. The prohibition of electing Catholics was thrown aside in Pennsylvania, and in addition to the committee just mentioned, Fitzsimmons was also selected to attend the Pennsylvania convention as a delegate of Philadelphia. At that meeting in 1773, it was decided to call yet another convention, but it was to include delegates from each of the thirteen colonies. The foundation of the nation was then laid, word was spread throughout the colonies, and during September 1774, the convention convened with delegates from the various colonies arriving in Philadelphia to bring about the birth of the First Continental Congress. Fitzsimmons had become a full-scale Patriot, still Irish, still Catholic, but eager to support the cause of his new country. He participated also as a delegate to the state’s constitutional convention. Fitzsimmons, like many of the nation’s affluent citizens, contributed more than just the risk of their lives and honor; he was quick to contribute his personal finances to aid the cause. At some point during the conflict when Congress was in one of its frequent dilemmas regarding currency, Fitzsimmons and his partner contributed £5,000 to bolster the Continental Army. As the war progressed, the company operated by Thomas Fitzsimmons and his partner, George Meade, was contracted to provide supplies to the army as well as fire ships, which were loaded with combustibles, set on fire and sent into enemy fleets. In Philadelphia, the militia units formed were known as Associators, and it took large sums of money to raise them, equip them and acquire arms and horses. Fitzsimmons also raised a company, became its commander with the rank of captain, and served as part of Colonel John Cadwalader’s 3rd Battalion. The Philadelphia militia (infantry) was the forerunner of the Pennsylvania National Guard’s 111th Infantry Regiment. Meanwhile, the British clashed with the Patriots at Lexington and Concord on 19 April 1775, and that contest severed any chance of reconciliation. Afterward, the British were halted from further progress at Bunker Hill (Breed’s Hill) during the following June on the 17th, which led to the British being corralled in Boston, unable to even exit the city on foraging missions without encountering fierce resistance. General George Washington soon after took command of the Continental Army and from there, during the balance of the summer into March 1776, a siege was maintained. On 17 March 1777, the British were compelled to evacuate Boston, but afterward, Philadelphia became a

115 primary target. At New York, General Washington prepared for a British onslaught, but the Continental Army was greatly outmatched. On 2 July 1776, about 12,000 British and Hessian troops landed on Staten Island. By about the end of the month that figure grew to more than 30,000 troops. Urgent calls for reinforcements were made by Washington to Congress, and Pennsylvania responded by dispatching its Associators to northern New Jersey to hook up with and bolster the Flying Camp, a flexible unit with components from various states that was established to be in position to expeditiously move anywhere a flash-fire erupted. Captain Fitzsimmons’ company operated there under Colonel John Dickinson and was deployed near the coast at various posts to intercept any British force that might attempt to bolt from Staten Island and invade New Jersey to make an advance against the capital in Philadelphia. Later that year, after seizing New York and pushing the Continental Army to White Plains, the British unleashed a sudden offensive that again forced Washington to retreat hurriedly or face the possibility of the total destruction of the army. Washington’s strategy to evade a major confrontation worked, and the army safely made it across New Jersey and into Pennsylvania. At that time, the Associators were again called upon. Captain Fitzsimmons’ company, beginning on 5 December 1776, deployed to support and cover the retreat. The unit deployed along the Delaware River at various strategic points and held those positions until the end of the month. Nevertheless, when Washington turned the table on the British on Christmas night and crossed the Delaware during a horrendous blizzard, Fitzsimmons’ company was attached to Colonel John Cadwalader’s command, and it did not make it across the river. Cadwalader attempted to cross below Trenton in the vicinity of Bristol, but the artillery also became endangered and the advance was halted. Washington, however, had the additional help of Colonel John Glover’s regiment out of Marblehead, Massachusetts, and its troops were Marines who skillfully transported the attack force across the river despite the unruly currents and the massive amounts of floating ice that threatened success. Later, after the stunning victory at Trenton, Cadwalader’s command joined with Washington and participated in halting a British counterattack. On 2 January 1777, the British were in motion to strike yet again in retaliation to the embarrassing loss of Trenton, but yet again, Washington outfoxed General Lord Charles Cornwallis and evacuated his positions, leaving only an empty camp and burning camp fires. On the following day, the British again were thrashed at Princeton. Meanwhile, the Americans, including the militia, had been terrorized by the use of bayonets by the Hessian troops, but after marching the huge number of Hessian prisoners through Philadelphia, those fears began to dissipate and the Americans were beginning to believe that they would prevail. Captain Fitzsimmons’ company was attached to Colonel Cadwalader’s regiment, which played a substantial part in the victory; however, Fitzsimmons’ company had been held in reserve and its participation was not required. Nonetheless, the unit was prepared to move if called upon, and it did support the action that forced the British to abandon their scheme to plow through New Jersey to capture the capital and the rebel leaders. Toward the latter part of January 1777, Captain Fitzsimmons terminated his service in the militia, but he received no reprieve with regard to service. He was appointed by Pennsylvania to an 11-man committee with responsibility of supervising the Pennsylvania navy, which was the defender of the city’s water approaches. The vessels patrolled from the city southward to Delaware Bay. In addition, Fitzsimmons’ committee responsibilities included overseeing the river land defenses and communicating with neighboring states to be prepared to meet any threat. The British, unable to penetrate, modified their plans and decided to sail from New York to the Chesapeake and then march northward to take the city.

FITZSIMMONS

In September 1777, the British plan unfolded and the Continental Army supported by militia engaged the British at Brandywine during September, but the British pushed through and the city fell. Another battle was fought during early October at Germantown, but due to confusion among the American units while attacking under a dense fog, friendly fire hit General Nathanael Greene’s column and sure victory fade away. Washington established winter quarters in Valley Forge and the British returned to the city. The British were able to dominate there, but they were unable to totally control the Delaware River and they were forced to abandon the city on 18 June 1778. Afterward, the Continental Army gave chase and intercepted the columns at Monmouth, New Jersey. Following a tenacious battle the day ended with both sides claiming victory. Washington made preparations to launch another attack on following day, but there was no foe. After dark on the 18th, the British abandoned their camp and resumed the retreat to New York. That battle was the final major confrontation in the northern states. Meanwhile, Thomas Fitzsimmons — like his counterparts in Maryland, Charles Carroll of Carrollton, Daniel Carroll (signer of Constitution), and other Irishmen — was completely committed to the struggle for independence. Since his arrival in America, he had also become acquainted with many of the leaders of the Patriots’ cause, both from the military and the financial sectors. One of those men was Robert Livingston, known as one of the major financiers of the war. In 1781, when a national bank was being established, Fitzsimmons was appointed as a director of what became the Bank of North America. That position, which he held until 1803, combined with other new acquaintances and his on-scene experience since the beginning of the war, made him a fervent advocate of a strong and effective central government to ensure that the nation would survive after the war. While favoring a strong government, Fitzsimmons retained his concerns regarding the welfare and safety of the citizens, which kept him focused of obtaining a government that was fair with equality. His beliefs were basically formed from his life’s experiences that, in addition to his military service and political activity, included his life in America as a Catholic and his interaction and philanthropic work with the less fortunate. Consequently, when he was later selected as a delegate to the Constitutional Convention in Philadelphia, he was well prepared for the task in front of him and the other delegates who held responsibility for designing a new government for the infant republic. In the waning days of the war in 1782, following the surrender of General Charles Cornwallis at Yorktown during October 1781, Fitzsimmons was elected to the Continental Congress. After he took his seat, one of his priorities was the struggling economy. He became aligned with Robert Livingston and others of like mind, including Alexander Hamilton and James Madison, to find a solution by establishing a centralized economy. Fitzsimmons also concentrated on getting back pay for veterans who served selflessly during the war. Nevertheless, his actions were not admired by everyone, and some constituents in his home region became antagonistic toward him because of various positions that he took regarding fiscal policy. Undaunted, while he remained in Congress, he worked to ensure that taxes were distributed fairly and not pointed toward only certain segments of the population. The antagonists prevailed, prompting Fitzsimmons to resign from Congress during 1783 to return to private life and resume his personal business. Subsequently, he was elected to the Pennsylvania Council of Censors, an entity that oversaw legislative actions as well as executive actions with regard to their constitutionality. In 1786, he was elected to the state assembly and re-elected for two additional terms. During that same period, Fitzsimmons was appointed to a commission, as a representative of Pennsylvania, which was formed to initiate talks between Pennsylvania, Delaware and Maryland to devise ways to encourage

FLOYD

116

interstate commerce and eliminate impediments that were stalling progress. Fitzsimmons reached the pinnacle of his political career in 1787 when he was appointed as a Pennsylvania delegate to the Constitutional Convention held in Philadelphia during May–September 1787. While attending the convention, Fitzsimmons was an advocate of adopting the constitution, and he took to the floor when required to make his points on articles he considered paramount. They included the topics of finance, taxes, imports, and exports, all centered around his core beliefs of fairness, equality and strength. The U.S. Constitution, referred to as the “Miracle in Philadelphia,” was adopted on 17 September 1787, and it was to become effective upon ratification by nine states. At the Pennsylvania constitutional convention, Fitzsimmons strongly favored ratification. Pennsylvania took that action on 2 December 1787, less than three months after its adoption, to become the second state to enter the union. On 21 June 1778, New Hampshire became the ninth state. At the conclusion of the convention, Fitzsimmons returned to the state assembly to resume his work there. After ratification of the Constitution by New Hampshire, preparations began for the new Congress. It convened during March 1789 and Thomas Fitzsimmons was among the initial members. With the convening of the Congress under the authority of the Constitution, the old Congress was dissolved. Fitzsimmons, while in Congress for a period of six years, remained a Federalist. He served on several important committees, including Ways and Means, for which he sat as chairman at times. He was also appointed to the committee delegated to draw up a blueprint for a government in the Northwest Territory (Territory southwest of the River Ohio), which was established during 1790. In 1791, the frontier was still aflame due to hostile exchanges with Indians. A small expedition was defeated and afterward, Governor (General) Arthur St. Clair led a major expedition into Ohio to terminate the hostilities, but the force was defeated and nearly annihilated, greatly boosting the morale of the Indians, who also gained the artillery that was lost on the field. The defeat occurred on 4 November 1791 in present-day Fort Wayne, Indiana. Back in Congress, an investigation was initiated to determine the cause of the defeat, which became the worst in the history of the United States Army. Fitzsimmons was appointed to the investigative committee and was chairman. Subsequently, General Anthony Wayne, leading a trained and seasoned force, moved into the territory. Following his decisive victory at the Battle of Fallen Timbers on 20 August 1794, the Indians were unable to mount further organized raids. Back in Pennsylvania, Fitzsimmons, unlike some other delegates of the Constitutional Convention, did not see an increase in his popularity. He lost his bid for re-election to Congress. When his term expired in 1795, he retired to private life. Fitzsimmons continued to conduct his business, but lacking the constraints that Congressional business had placed upon him, he had more time for his philanthropic work. Later in life, Fitzsimmons sustained business losses that crippled his finances, but even then he was known to have remained a friend to those less fortunate. During a flare up in the turbulence with Britain, which was impressing high numbers of Americans into the Royal Navy, President Thomas Jefferson proposed and Congress enacted the Embargo of 1807–1808, which crippled American shipping, but in Jefferson’s thinking it would either prevent or at least postpone war with Britain. Nevertheless, Thomas Fitzsimmons and most merchants opposed the effort. It did not prevent war, only postponed it, and finally the hostilities erupted into the War of 1812. Once again the British were foiled and America prevailed. The French had also harassed American shipping following the close of the American Revolution, and there too, Fitzsimmons was among the many who sought retaliation. The conflict with the French, however, never led to an invasion of American soil. It was

confined to the high seas and was settled by the Treaty of Morfontaine on 30 September, 1800. Although Fitzsimmons had been away from politics, as a staunch Federalist, he had no qualms about engaging the Jeffersonian administration. He was a key proponent of re-chartering the First United States Bank, a measure opposed by Jefferson. In 1805, Fitzsimmons sustained his financial losses, but through persistence, he was able to rebuild some of his wealth. The setback did not affect his nature, nor his character. During that trying period he maintained his philanthropic efforts as best he could and he continued to be a dependable contributor to his parish church, St. Augustine’s Roman Catholic Church in Philadelphia. Thomas Fitzsimmons succumbed in Philadelphia on 26 August 1811. He was interred in the cemetery of St. Mary’s Roman Catholic Church in center city Philadelphia, at present located in a section of the National Park’s Independence Square. Fitzsimmons was known for his statement regarding political issues: “I conceive it to be a duty to contend for what is right, be the issue as it may.” A statue in honor of Thomas Fitzsimmons was erected in 1946 in Philadelphia on the east side of Logan Square, slightly west of 18th Street between Race and Vine Street.

Floyd, William (Signer of the Declaration of Independence) William Floyd was born on 17 December 1734 in the town of Brookhaven, New York, in present-day Mastic, Long Island, Suffolk County. He was the second child of seven and the oldest of two sons. His parents were Nicoll Floyd and Tabitha Smith. William’s paternal grandfather, Richard Floyd, emigrated from Wales about 1680. The family prospered, though his father died and his mother did also when William was about twenty years old. He came into a large inheritance; nevertheless, his youth did not cause him to squander the family fortune nor abandon responsibility for taking care of his siblings. He became prudent with the income of the family farm, where part of the labor was handled by slaves. William’s parents’ other children were: Ruth (b. February 1731, married General Nathaniel Woodhull); Tabitha (b. January 1735, married Daniel Smith of Smithtown); Nicoll (b. December 1736); Charles (b. February 1738); Charity (b. January 1739, married Ezra L’Hommedieu); Mary (b. 1743, married Edmund Smith, of Smithtown); Catharine (b. May 1745, married Thomas Thomas of Westchester); and Anna (b. August 1748. married Hugh Smith of East Moriches, Long Island). William as a youth received no formal education and attended no college, but as an adult he would a key part in the Patriots’ cause. In 1760, he married Hannah Jones, the daughter of William Jones of Setauket, Long Island. They had three children, Nicoll (1762, married Phebe Gelston, daughter of David Gelston of New York), Mary (1764, married Colonel Benjamin Tallmadge of Litchfield, Connecticut) and Catherine (1767, married Doctor Samuel Clarkson of Philadelphia). Meanwhile, as the British increased their taxation upon the colonies, Floyd was among those who were quick to rise in opposition to the Crown and its policies. He joined the militia of Suffolk County and eventually rose to the rank of major general. During 1774, Floyd was selected as a member of the First Continental Congress, which scheduled a clandestine meeting in Philadelphia on 5 September. After his return to New York, following the adjournment of the Congress, a threat of a British landing at Gardner’s Bay occurred. Floyd took command of his militia contingent to meet the invasion force, but no action developed because the British aborted the landing. As a member of Congress and of the New York Senate during his long career, he was acknowledged as a key leader, but he refrained from frequent public speeches and was known as a man of action rather than oratory. He was again delegate to Congress in 1775. On 24 June, Congress resolved “that a Committee of seven be appointed to devise ways and means to

117 put the Militia of America in a proper state for the defence of America.” William Floyd was appointed two days later. During 1776, William was among that bold group who, realizing they were risking their lives, signed the Declaration of Independence. Floyd, along with Philip Livingston, Francis Lewis, Lewis Morris and Henry Misner, voted “yea” on 4 July, following a long line of previous abstentions from the New York delegation (although Henry Misner voted “yea,” he later departed Congress and never signed the parchment document). William Floyd at the time was unable to be on Long Island with the militia. On 22 August 1776, a force composed of about 20,000 troops under General William Howe debarked at Long Island. Floyd’s wife fled with their three children to the safety of Middletown, Connecticut. Although his family escaped capture, the British transformed his residence into a barracks for the duration of their occupation, which lasted until 1782. Floyd departed Congress during 1776 and returned to New York, where he was appointed to the initial New York Senate on 8 May 1777; however, he did not take his seat until 9 September. He remained there except for some brief absences until the session that adjourned on 6 November 1778. On 15 October, he was re-elected as a delegate, by the New York Senate and Assembly, to the Continental Congress. He took his seat there on 2 January 1779 and remained there until summer. Afterward, he returned to New York and reinitiated his term as state senator during the first session under their new constitution. Nonetheless, upon learning of the dire situation of the army and the desperate monetary problems facing the cause, he again returned to Congress, stunned by the fact that some Americans were speculating at the expense of the nation and at times causing some of the population to face starvation due to shortages of food. Floyd arrived at Congress on 2 December 1779. The next day, he and James Forbes, both members of Congress, were appointed to the Board of Admiralty, along with a non-member, George Bryan. Shortly thereafter, Floyd was appointed to the Board of Treasury, placing him on two key committees, which positioned him to intently focus on transforming the terrible circumstances into something positive to bolster the army and the Congress, the latter sustaining great stress due to the financial condition of the colonies. Nevertheless, Floyd himself was not immune to stress and by April 1780, ill health compelled him to seek a leave of absence. In June, subsequent to an urgent request from the New York Senate, Floyd resumed his position as a state senator and later, during 1780, he yet again returned to Congress after being elected as a delegate on 12 September. Floyd remained in that position until April 1783. In the meantime, while the British continued to encamp on his property on Long Island, his wife, Hannah, succumbed on 16 May 1781. After three years to the day of being a widower, he married Joanna ( Johanna) Strong on 16 May 1784. From his second marriage, two additional children were born, Ann (1784, married George Clinton, Jr., son of Governor General Clinton of New York, then Abraham Varick of New York) and Eliza (Elizabeth) (1789, married James Platt of New York). William Floyd (Biographical Sketches During the first year of his of the Signers of the Declaration of second marriage, Floyd began Independence, Benson J. Lossing, 1854) to acquire property in Central

FOLSOM

New York. He had been asked to return to Congress, but he declined to devote time to rebuilding his shattered plantation and to continue serving in the state senate. Following the adoption of the United States Constitution in 1787, the people of New York again sent Floyd back to Congress, where he remained for only one term before retiring during 1791 due to the high toll that his long service had taken on his health. Despite his yearning for the private life, the people of New York elected Floyd to the state Senate during 1803, and once again he returned to public life, serving one term before finally retiring. By that time, he and his family had relocated to a farm near the Mohawk River, known as Western (Westernville), on the fringe of the Adirondack Mountains and less than ten miles from Fort Stanwix at Rome (known as Lynchville during the early 1800s). Floyd’s farm was near the canal built during 1797 to link the Hudson River to the Great Lakes. General Floyd in his retirement lived as a farmer until he became seriously ill on 20 August 1821. He succumbed a few days later on 25 August at age 86. General Floyd and both of his wives, Hannah and Joanna ( Johanna), are interred in the cemetery belonging to the Westernville Presbyterian Church in Westernville. Floyd’s second wife succumbed on 24 November 1826. The original home of General Floyd in Westernville, now a national historic landmark, still stands and is privately occupied. A grave marker there is the original, which was transferred from the cemetery to the estate when it was replaced at the cemetery by a new monument; however, it is only a symbolic marker, not a grave site.

Folsom, Brigadier General Nathaniel Nathaniel Folsom, the son of Jonathan and Anna Ladd Folsom, was born in Exeter, New Hampshire, during 1726. Nathaniel’s ancestors, John and Mary Gilman Folsom, arrived in the colonies from Britain aboard the Diligent in 1638 and settled in Hingham, Massachusetts, prior to relocating in Exeter during the early 1650s. Jonathan was the grandson of John, the immigrant, and Anna was the daughter of Nathaniel Ladd. Jonathan and Anna had eleven other children. They were: John; Mary (b. February 1722, married Peter Folsom, the son of Peter and Catherine Gilman Folsom); Jonathan (b. 1724, severely wounded at Battle of Louisbourg, 1758); Nathaniel (b. 1726); Anna (birth date unknown, married David Gilman); Samuel (b. 22 February 1732); Trueworthy (b. about 1734, married Mary West of Boston); Josiah (b. November 1735, married Elizabeth Gilman); Sarah (birth date unknown, married John Nelson); Lydia (birth date unknown, married William Bowden) and Abigail (birth date unknown, married Ebenezer Sinclair). Nathaniel was still young, about fourteen, when his father died during 1740. All of the children had to contribute for the family to subsist. Initially, Nathaniel took up a trade, but in 1761 he went into business with his cousins, Joseph and Josiah Gilman. They established a company named Folsom, Gilman and Gilman. The company operated a general store, and it branched out to construct ships and engage in commerce. Prior to entering the business world, Folsom served in the militia during the French and Indian War and participated in the expedition against Crown Point in 1755 as the commander of a company of New Hampshire militia. Folsom led his command from Exeter to Fort Edward in New York to link up with the other New Hampshire forces already there. At the Battle of Lake George on 8 September 1755, the commander of a French and Indian force, Baron Dieskau, was wounded and captured; however, his wounds were fatal. On that same day, Captain Folsom (Colonel Blanchard’s regiment) was directed to lead a scouting mission toward Fort George, and his command intercepted the French who were retreating. Folsom’s contingent, one of ten companies, was composed of his 84 men and about forty New York militia men. Folsom’s rangers inflicted severe casualties upon the enemy. In an

FORMAN

118

after-action report, Theodore Atkinson, secretary of the province of New Hampshire, noted: In the engagement with General Dieskau about eighty of our men (Captain Folsom’s company of eighty-four) with about forty Yorkers — many of whom were of little service though others of them behaved well — I say, this small party under the command of Captain Folsom of New Hampshire, it is thought killed more of the Canadians and Indians than was killed at General Johnson’s camp; they continued an obstinate engagement with more than one thousand — indeed all that retired from before General Johnson’s camp, killed great numbers of the enemy, recovered about twelve hundred packs, beat off the enemy, carried their own wounded men to the camp.... It is said of Captain Folsom’s victory that it served more than anything else to revive the spirit of the colonies.

Following that battle, the New Hampshire militia returned to their homes. Nathaniel married Mary Smith and together they had six children: Nathaniel (married Mary Studley); Mary (b. 1751, married Caleb G. Adams); Deborah (b. 1753, married Governor John Taylor Gilman); Jonathan (birth date unknown, died at sea); Anna (b. 1762, married General Nathaniel Giddings); Dorothy (birth date unknown, married Samuel Blodgett). Mary succumbed and Nathaniel remarried, taking Mary Sprague Fisher as his second wife. They had one child, Ruth Weare, born May 1780. In the meantime, Captain Folsom remained in the militia after the close of the French and Indian War. He was promoted to the rank of major during 1767 and then rose to the rank of lieutenant colonel. Afterward, he became colonel of the 4th New Hampshire Regiment, a post that he is thought to have held until he was promoted to brigadier general by the Provincial Congress on 21 April 1775. Folsom was a member of the Provincial Congress of 1774 and he, along with John Stark, was elected as a delegate to the First Continental Congress. Patriots attacked Fort William and Mary on 14–15 December 1774. Colonel Folsom was not with the initial contingent that launched the assault, but once word arrived at Exeter, he sped to the fort and assigned his force to guard the cannon until it could be safely moved. On 17 May 1775, the Provincial Congress again convened. Several days later, on the 20th, it was agreed to raise 2,000 troops. On the 23rd, it was decided that the colonels would be John Stark, James Reed, and Enoch Poor, under the command of General Folsom. Only Stark and Reed arrived at Cambridge. Colonel Poor deployed at Portsmouth to defend it, and General Folsom remained in New Hampshire engaged in recruiting. On 15 June 1775, Congress appointed eight brigadier generals, including John Sullivan of New Hampshire. In addition, it selected Nathanael Greene of Rhode Island, rather than General Nathaniel Folsom of New Hampshire. On 30 June, Nathaniel Folsom was appointed major general of New Hampshire militia with his rank being retroactive to 24 May 1775. In the meantime, General Folsom arrived in Massachusetts several days after the Battle of Bunker Hill and assumed command of the New Hampshire troops, but the changes in command and the presence of General Sullivan caused General Folsom to return to New Hampshire after serving less than three months in the field. He resumed command of the troops that operated in New Hampshire. Also, friction between Colonel Stark and General Folsom at times created major complications. Stark’s troops were reluctant to take orders from Folsom. General Folsom also continued to serve in the Provincial Congress until 1783, when he resigned due to a conflict with other positions. He was again elected to Congress in 1777. The credentials of Nathaniel Folsom and the other delegate, George Frost, were presented to Congress on 16, May 1777; however, General Folsom did not arrive until 21 July 1777. On 1 August, he was appointed to a committee that included John Adams and Henry Laurens to investigate the abandonment of Ticonderoga and Fort (Mount) Independence. General Folsom remained in Congress through 1780. On 5 August 1780, on the motion of John Armstrong and second by

Nathaniel Folsom, Congress resolved “that Congress proceed to the election of a quarter master general.” Timothy Pickering was appointed to the post and held it for the duration of the war. Folsom served as executive councilor during 1778. Later, during 1783, he served as a delegate and president of the state constitutional convention. In addition, General Folsom was appointed as chief justice of the court of common pleas during 1783. He also served on various committees during the war. As a member of the second and third Provincial Congress, Folsom served on the committee of correspondence and the committee of safety during 1775, 1776, 1778, 1779,1782, and 1783. He was also a member of the state council during 1776 and 1784. Nathaniel Folsom succumbed on 26 May 1790 and was interred in the Winter Street Cemetery in Exeter.

Forman, Brigadier General David David Forman, the son of Joseph and Elizabeth Lee Forman, was born on 8 November 1745 on the family estate in Monmouth County, New Jersey, where his father retired after leaving the very successful shipping business he operated in New York. Joseph and Elizabeth had five other children in addition to David. They were: Joseph, Jr. (b. October 1734); Ezekiel (b. October 1736, married Augustine Marsh, the daughter of Thomas and Mary Thompson Marsh, then Margaret Neilson); Elizabeth (b. March 1740, married her first cousin, Colonel Samuel Forman to become his second wife); Stephen (b. May 1743) and Aaron (b. February 1748). During 1767, on 28 February, David married Ann Marsh, the daughter of Thomas and Ann Frisby Marsh. David and Ann had eleven children; however only five daughters are thought to have survived to adulthood. Daughters mentioned in his will, written 30 August 1796 and probated 26 October 1797, were: Sarah Marsh Forman, Ann, Emma, Eliza, Malvina and Rivine. The will stipulated that his daughters were to receive their shares when they reached twenty-one or when they got married. Forman grew up as a proponent of the American cause. Subsequent to the outbreak of the American Revolution, he was appointed a colonel of the New Jersey militia during June 1776, and he was attached to General Nathaniel Heard’s brigade. The brigade sped to New York to support General George Washington. In November, Colonel Forman was dispatched to Monmouth to deal with Loyalists who were causing serious problems in the region. Late in the year, Colonel Forman was offered command of a newly established continental regiment. During February 1777, General Philemon Dickinson, one of the three initial New Jersey brigadier generals, notified the assembly on the 15th that he was relocating out of the state. The assembly selected Joseph Ellis as his successor, but Ellis declined the appointment. On 21 February 1777, New Jersey appointed new brigadiers. They were David Potter and John Neilson; however, Potter declined. During the following month, three additional brigadiers were commissioned, William Winds (4 March), David Forman (5 March), and Silas Newcomb (15 March). Confusion continued in the ranks of New Jersey militia for some time. General Forman participated in the fighting for control of Philadelphia that year, including the Battle of Germantown in October. In the meantime, friction arose between the New Jersey assembly and General Forman. Consequently, General Forman resigned his commission during November 1777. The continental regiment General Forman was offered by Washington never became a full complement of troops. At some point during 1778, the various units were transferred into other regiments. In the meantime, General Dickinson had reversed his decision to leave New Jersey and the assembly commissioned him as major general on 6 June 1777. In conjunction, General Newcomb, appointed during the previous March, resigned his commission on 4 December 1777. Subsequent to departing the army, General Forman initiated clan-

119 destine activity by observing the British warships in New York and getting the intelligence forwarded to General Washington. However, he must have spent time with the army. At the Battle of Monmouth in June 1778, General Forman was with General Charles Lee at the time the unauthorized retreat was ordered, and Forman was later called to Lee’s court martial to testify against him. In 1782, General Forman was involved with presenting a case for Captain Joshua Huddy, who was hanged by Loyalists. General Forman was a first cousin of David Forman, the high sheriff; at times, they are confused for one another. The sheriff was known by the Loyalists as “Black David” and the general as “Devil David.” In 1791, General Forman was appointed as judge of common pleas court. In February 1794, General Forman and his wife relocated in Chesterfield, Kent County, Maryland, the state in which his wife was born. Some of the Forman family had taken up residence in Natchez, Mississippi, and General Forman owned land there. He journeyed to Natchez during 1796 to check on his property and while there, he suffered a non-fatal stroke. Once he was well enough to travel home, he boarded a ship at New Orleans. The voyage was violently interrupted by a British privateer, which seized the vessel and sailed it to New Providence in the Bahamas. The British never released General Forman. He succumbed while a captive in the West Indies on 12 September 1797.

Franklin, Benjamin (Signer of the U.S. Constitution) Benjamin Franklin, the son of Josiah and Abiah Folger (second wife), a daughter of Peter Folger, was born on 6 January 1706. Josiah, his first wife and three children arrived in America about 1682. After settling in Boston, they had four additional children. After the death of his first wife, Josiah remarried, taking Abiah as his second wife; they had ten children, including Benjamin, the eighth of the ten and the youngest son. Josiah and Abiah remained married for more than fiftyfive years and died during 1744 and 1752, respectively. Benjamin, according to his autobiography, fell short of his father’s goal of having him become a minister. At age eight, Benjamin entered a grammar school and was taught by George Brownell, but only for about two years. Afterward, Benjamin was taken from school to work with his father, who ran a business as a “tallow-chandler and sopeboiler.” In the meantime, Josiah had concluded his trade was not providing sufficient money to provide for his large family. He placed Benjamin as an apprentice with a candle maker, where Benjamin undertook a mundane position of cutting wicks and filling molds and when required, running errands for the owner. All the while, Benjamin had a desire to go to sea like his brother, Josiah, but his father was adamantly opposed to the idea and spent much time trying to find Benjamin a job within the various trades that he would find an interest, but to no avail. Later, during 1717, Benjamin’s brother James returned from London with a new printing press. Benjamin’s father convinced Benjamin to sign an agreement of indenture that would keep him in the employ of his brother until he was twenty-one years old. Although he was learning the trade of a printer, Benjamin continued a practice that he had acquired early in his youth. He was a voracious reader and at times he remained sleepless to finish a book before he had to return it on the following morning. All the while, he also continued to tinker with his many experiments that eventually led to many inventions. Benjamin had done well in school with reading and spelling, but he was not able to conquer arithmetic. Nevertheless, while he was advancing his studies through reading and becoming an amateur poet, Benjamin purchased a book on arithmetic and soon after mastered the subject. Later, he published a piece, The Lighthouse Tragedy, which through poetry described the deaths by drowning of Captain Worthilake and his two daughters, and that was followed by another, a song about Edward Teach, known also as Blackbeard the pirate. Benjamin’s father

FRANKLIN

was not impressed with his poetry and discouraged Benjamin from pursuing poetry, which would lead him to the life of a beggar. Benjamin had no difficulty in forgoing his career as a poet, but in addition to his lingering passion for the sea, he remained equally determined to continue writing prose. In 1721, his step-brother, James, established a newspaper, the New England Courant, and Benjamin contributed by writing a series of essays. There had been only one other paper in the country prior to James’ endeavor, the Boston News-Let- Benjamin Franklin (Beacon Lights, J.C. ter. Benjamin delivered pa- Abbott, 1896) pers throughout the town of Boston. James got into a predicament when the paper published something that angered the assembly and it cost James some time in jail. Benjamin, like his brother, was interrogated, but he did not receive the one month sentence that was given to his brother; rather, Benjamin was only admonished. James was also instructed to stop publishing, but he attempted to outsmart the assembly by placing the paper under the name of Benjamin. In the plan, Benjamin’s indenture was officially cancelled, but a private deal was cut demanding that Benjamin remain under his original agreement. The relationship between Benjamin and his brother started to become hostile. Benjamin Franklin left Boston during 1723 to begin anew. He sold some of his book to pay his passage to New York, but once he arrived there, he was unable to gain employment with a Mr. Bradford; however the latter suggested that if he traveled to Philadelphia, Bradford’s son would hire him. He departed New York and found employment as a printer in Philadelphia, but not with Bradford; rather at Keimer’s printing company. While in Philadelphia, Franklin met Deborah Reed, the daughter of John and Sarah White Reed. He attempted to get married, but Deborah’s mother, knowing he was leaving for England, was opposed and suggested that they wait until his return before considering marriage. Franklin only remained in the position at the printing company for about one year before he decided to sail to England, where he arrived at London on Christmas Eve 1724. After two years in England, Franklin returned to America during July 1726 and arrived back in Philadelphia on 11 October. In England he had picked up more experience in the printing industry and from that, he established his own printing business. Deborah had married while Benjamin was in England, and the marriage was not one of bliss. Deborah separated shortly thereafter and refused to live with her husband. Around 1728, Deborah’s husband, John Rogers, after becoming deeply in debt, absconded to the West Indies about 1727. In 1730, Franklin took over a newspaper, the Pennsylvania Gazette, which was established in 1828 by another person. The paper remained in publication until 1748. During that time, Franklin published (1732) his most well known work, Poor Richard’s Almanac. The almanac, which he published under the name Richard Saunders, catapulted to high popularity and trailed only the Bible in sales. In the meantime, Franklin had been able to re-establish a good relationship with Deborah. In his autobiography, Franklin stated: “I took her (Deborah) to wife, September 1st, 1730. None of the inconveniences happened that we had apprehended; she proved a good and

FRANKLIN

120

faithful helpmate/assisted me much by attending the shop; we throve together, and have ever mutually endeavour’d to make each other happy.” From that marriage, they had two children, Francis and Sarah; however, Deborah also raised William, an illegitimate son of Benjamin. The name of William’s mother was never discovered. Francis died at the age of four from smallpox during 1736. Franklin also operated a subscription library which he decided to establish when he found it difficult to find any books of value within the city; at the time few people in the city could read. In 1733, Franklin, who had some instruction in Latin, initiated his plan to learn other languages, and through his self-taught methods familiarized himself with French, Italian and Spanish. Although he had not believed he had much knowledge of Latin, as he increased his knowledge, he discovered that he did know more than he thought, and it helped him conquer the others. From that point, Franklin continued to lead a frugal lifestyle: “We kept no idle servants, our table was plain and simple, our furniture of the cheapest. For instance, my breakfast was a long time bread and milk (no tea), and I ate it out of a twopenny earthen porringer, with a pewter spoon.” Later, Benjamin noted surprise when he was “called to breakfast” to discover it was in a “China bowl with· a spoon of silver! They had been bought for me without my knowledge by my wife, and had cost her the enormous sum of three-and-twenty shillings, for which she had no other excuse or apology to make, but that she thought her husband deserv’d a silver spoon and China bowl as well as any of his neighbors. This was the first appearance of plate and China in our house.” Franklin was raised as a Presbyterian; however, he did not regularly attend services. The minister in Philadelphia persuaded him to come to church and Franklin did so for five straight weeks, but afterward he stopped, stating that he might have continued if the minister had been a good preacher, “but his discourses were chiefly either polemic arguments, or explications of the peculiar doctrines of our sect, and were all to me very dry, uninteresting, and unedifying, since not a single moral principle was inculcated or enforc’d, their aim seeming to be rather to make us Presbyterians than good citizens.” In 1734, a new minister, the Reverend Hemphill, arrived and Franklin became a regular attendee. In his autobiography, he said this of his faith: “And conceiving God to be the fountain of wisdom, I thought it right and necessary to solicit his assistance for obtaining it; to this end I formed the following little prayer, which was prefixed to my tables of examination, for daily use: ‘O powerful Goodness! bountiful Father! merciful Guide! Increase in me that wisdom which discovers my truest interest. Strengthen my resolutions to perform what that wisdom dictates. Accept my kind offices to thy other children as the only return in my power for thy continual favours to me.’” He also asserted “that there is one God, who made all things. That he governs the world by his providence. That he ought to be worshiped by adoration, prayer, and thanksgiving. But that the most acceptable service of God is doing good to man. That the soul is immortal. And that God will certainly reward virtue and punish vice, either here or hereafter.” Franklin also had made a list of virtues that he attempted to achieve on a daily basis, and each night he examined his activities. He admitted poor success, but claimed it made him a better man from the attempts. Later, he added humility to his list after being told of his pride. Consequently, Benjamin modified even his manner of speech, which later proved to be a great advantage in negotiations: I cannot boast of much success in acquiring the reality of this virtue, but I had a good deal with regard to the appearance of it.... I even forbid myself, agreeably to the old laws of our Junto, the use of every word or expression in the language that imported a fix’d opinion, such as certainly, undoubtedly, etc., and I adopted, instead of them, I conceive, I apprehend, or I imagine a thing to be so or so; or it so appears to me at present.... I soon found the advantage of this change in my manner; the con-

versations I engag’d in went on more pleasantly ... and I more easily prevail’d with others to give up their mistakes and join with me when I happened to be in the right.

During 1736, Benjamin was appointed clerk of the colonial assembly of Pennsylvania, a post he held until 1751. The next year, Colonel Alexander Spottswood, the postmaster general, discharged his deputy postmaster at Philadelphia and in his place appointed Franklin. In 1744, He established a Philosophic Society. He was elected to the colonial legislature in 1751 and retained his seat until 1753; also that year he was appointed deputy postmaster of the colonies, a position he held until the following year. At the time he was appointed, upon the death of the postmaster general, another man, William Hunter, was jointly appointed by the postmaster general in England. In 1754, Franklin was selected as a representative to the Albany Congress, which was called to find ways to galvanize the colonies during the hostilities (French and Indian War) with France that threatened the English hold on the continent. While the Albany Congress was in session, Franklin proposed a blueprint, the “Plan of Union,” which was adopted by Congress; however, the various colonies declined accepting it due to their interpretation that it interfered with the powers of the respective states. As time moved along, Franklin’s lifestyle was elevated far from his younger days, when he used lunch money to purchase books. His business flourished by about 1748 and he became affluent. He apparently never forgot his days as a paper boy with few financial resources; he became a philanthropist who freely aided various organizations, including hospitals and schools. It was also in the 1740s that war erupted. During the War of Austrian Succession (King George’s War in the colonies), 1740–1748, units were formed in Philadelphia and Franklin was appointed colonel of one contingent, but he declined, claiming to be “unfit”; however, Benjamin did serve and he took his normal turn at guard duty. Peace was restored during 1749. During 1749, Franklin resumed his intent to establish an academy (later the University of Pennsylvania), an idea he tried without success previously. During the process, Franklin remained in the shadows, as he had often done while trying to contribute to the community. The plan succeeded and trustees were appointed, while teachers were simultaneously being hired. Nevertheless, Franklin oversaw the project as the work was done on the building. During the previous year, he had arranged a partnership with David Hall to oversee the newspaper business while Franklin attended to the school. The partnership lasted for eighteen years. It made Franklin a retiree and a man of leisure, giving him time to study, learn and experiment with his ideas regarding inventions. For a while, he was also a justice of the peace, but he discerned that he did not command sufficient knowledge of the common law; based on that, he left the position. In 1751, Franklin’s first year as a member of the legislature, he was visited by Doctor Thomas Bond, who was interested in establishing a hospital in Philadelphia. Franklin concurred with the idea. However, as usual, he attempted to remain in the background. Doctor Bond set out to gather subscribers to undertake the endeavor, but to his surprise, those he sought inquired whether he had first confided in Benjamin Franklin. He, according to the wishes of Franklin, responded no, but it became evident that Franklin’s public support was necessary for the goal to be achieved and finally have a place to treat the citizens who were both poor and ill. Franklin began to publish articles in his newspaper and solicit support from the assembly. Consequently, the hospital was built. The next year, 1752, while Franklin was serving his second year in the legislature, he was appointed to a committee to speak with the Indians at Carlisle and negotiate a treaty. Franklin and another member of the House accompanied members of the council to compose the commissioners. Franklin noted that the treaty came about quickly because the Indians were told they could not receive any spirits until the

121 business was completed. Subsequently, during 1754, when hostilities with France were erupting, Franklin was appointed as a commissioner on a committee charged with traveling to Albany to speak with the Six Nations to discuss ways of defending the Indian territory and the colonies against French aggression. The meetings occurred during June of that year. During that time period, Franklin proposed a blueprint for uniting all the colonies in a chain designed for the common defense of the nation. After sharing it with several others, Franklin presented it to the congress of commissioners who were meeting in Albany. Others had similar plans, but it was agreed that it was a necessity, and the various representatives carried word back to their respective legislatures. In Pennsylvania, the plan was brought up in the assembly while Franklin was absent and it was declined. Subsequent to the defeat of General Edward Braddock at Fort Duquesne during 1755, Governor Robert Hunter Morris of Pennsylvania placed Benjamin Franklin in charge of defending the frontier. Franklin received a commission from the governor and accepted it despite feeling he was unqualified. Franklin raised a force of more than 500 volunteers, and about January 1756, they departed Bethlehem and moved toward Minisink, where the troops began the construction of forts. Later, Franklin was recalled to the assembly. The next year, Franklin traveled to England, and while there he served as agent for Pennsylvania until 1762; however, after returning to America, he was again sent to England during 1764 to act as an agent for several additional colonies, Georgia and New Jersey, then during 1769, upon the death of Denis de Berdt, Franklin became also the agent for Massachusetts. He remained in that capacity until 1775. In the meantime, while Franklin was spending his second year (1765) in England, Parliament passed the Stamp Act, which was not seen as usual to Franklin, and neither he nor Parliament expected the reaction that followed back in the colonies. Franklin had not yet become one of the radical American Patriots; however, the transformation was beginning to take place. During August 1765, Parliament approved of the selected stamp agents. Franklin wrote to a friend: “The sun of liberty is set. The Americans must light the lamps of industry and economy.” Later he received a response from his friend, Charles Thomson (later secretary of Congress): “We Shall light torches of a very different sort....” In 1769, Franklin and others were able to secure land in western Virginia; the acquisition was intended to establish a new colony. The scheme got derailed, despite receiving a patent from King George III, because of the outbreak of war. By 1773, Benjamin had strayed far from his former loyalty to the Crown, and his time in England was spent observing the British actions. On 5 February, he stated: “I cannot but lament ... the impending calamities, Britain and her colonies are about to suffer, from the great imprudencies on both sides. Passion governs and she never governs wisely — anxiety begins to disturb my rest.” Franklin remained in England until 1775. He arrived back in Pennsylvania during May. He was, that same month, made a member of the Second Continental Congress. On 29 May 1775, Congress resolved “that Mr. [Benjamin] Franklin, Mr. [Thomas] Lynch, Mr. [Richard Henry] Lee, Mr. [Thomas] Willing, Mr. S [Samuel] Adams, and Mr. P [Philip] Livingston, be a committee to consider the best means of establishing posts for conveying letters and intelligence through this continent.” Franklin was appointed to a series of other important committees, and during July of that year, Congress elected him as the first postmaster of the United States for a term of one year. The following month, Franklin was appointed to the committee charged with repairing to New England to confer with George Washington regarding the condition of the army and the ongoing siege of British-held Boston. Shortly after Franklin’s trip to Massachusetts, on 29 November 1775, he was appointed to the Committee of Correspondence (later Committee of Secret Correspondence, forerunner of CIA).

FRANKLIN

In February 1776, Franklin, Charles Carroll, Samuel Chase and Father John Carroll (later Archbishop Carroll), Charles’ cousin, were selected by the Continental Congress to travel to Canada to solicit the support of the Catholic French. While on the mission, Franklin became sick and was compelled to return early. He departed for home on 11 May. The mission failed to ignite the French Catholics, due in part to a derogatory letter written about French Catholics by John Jay. Subsequently, Franklin, Carroll and General Washington continued to work together to bring France into the war on the side of America, while Jay maintained his opposition to the Catholic monarchy. In June of 1776, Congress declared Benjamin’s son, William, the royal governor of New Jersey, a “dangerous enemy to American liberties.” He was first taken to Burlington and then to Connecticut to be under the custody of Governor Jonathan Trumbull until exchanged. By that time, Franklin had severed contact with his loyalist son. Earlier that month, following Franklin’s return to Philadelphia, he along with John Adams, Thomas Jefferson, Robert Livingston and Roger Sherman were charged by Congress to draw up a Declaration of Independence. The task was completed prior to the end of the month and presented to Congress on the 28th. Afterward, it was slightly modified by Franklin and John Adams before being adopted on 2 July, with one abstention: New York. On the 28th, Congress appointed a Committee on Foreign Correspondence with Franklin being assigned as one of the members. The committee was charged with drawing a plan to seek alliances with foreign governments. A plan was submitted, and it was adopted by Congress during September 1776. On the Fourth of July, Congress officially declared independence. During the signing (only John Hancock signed) of the Declaration of Independence, John Hancock stated to Benjamin Franklin: “We must all hang together,” and Benjamin responded: “We must all hang together, or most assuredly we shall each hang separately.” The remaining signers affixed their names to the parchment document beginning in early August 1776. In September, in reaction to a peace feeler from General William Howe, Franklin, along with John Adams and Edward Rutledge, the representatives of Congress, met with Howe in the Billop Mansion at Staten Island opposite Perth Amboy, New Jersey; however, no substantive results were gained. The British escorted the American delegation across Raritan Bay and from there, they returned to Philadelphia to report the results of the meeting. On the 26th, Congress named Benjamin Franklin, Arthur Lee and Silas Deane as the official agents to France. Up to that point, the American agents’ activity had been clandestine. On 26 October, Franklin sailed for France aboard the 16-gun vessel Reprisal, captained by Lambert Wickes. Following a harrowing journey, Franklin arrived in France, and after an overland trip, he finally joined with the other agents. They met with Count de Vergennes on the 23 December 1776 and informed the count that they were authorized to propose and negotiate treaties of amity and of commerce between the United States and France. Soon after, on 1 January, 1777, Congress appointed Franklin as minister to Spain, which increased his diplomatic responsibilities. In the meantime, Franklin also devoted time to acquiring ships. The Reprisal returned to port during mid–February with five prizes to the dismay of the British, who complained vehemently to the French. The Reprisal was ordered out of French waters, but Franklin had also worked to enlist other seamen to oppose the British on the high seas. Franklin’s efforts brought Captain Samuel Nicholson and another, Gustavus Conyngham, into the service of the United States. With the two additions, Benjamin continued what became known as “Franklin’s Naval War.” Captain Nicholson traveled to England and acquired a cutter, the Dover, but once he returned to France, it was renamed the Dolphin. Meanwhile, Franklin ordered Conyngham to move to Dunkirk to assume command of the Surprise.

FRAZER

122

During the following year, on 1 May 1777, Arthur Lee replaced Benjamin Franklin as minister to Spain, but Franklin remained as commissioner to France. On 7 May, Congress named Ralph Izard as Franklin’s successor as the commissioner to the grand duke of Tuscany. Later that year, the Americans defeated British General John Burgoyne at Saratoga, New York, and during October 1777, Burgoyne surrendered his entire army. Franklin, while in France, took advantage of the victory and began to scheme to work the French against the British in an attempt to finally get France to officially recognize the United States and openly support the war. Simultaneously, Franklin maneuvered to extract the best possible circumstances from the British. The French were ecstatic about the defeat at Saratoga and the British were unsettled. Lord North was proposing legislation to terminate the war, giving Benjamin an element of superiority as he manipulated both the French and English ministers to assure the United States of a no-lose situation. On 20 March 1778, Franklin and the other commissioners met with King Louis XVI, who remained unsure of the ability of the Americans to defeat the English, but he had disdain for the trustworthiness of the English. Consequently, the king officially recognized the United States. On 14 September, Congress appointed Franklin as minister plenipotentiary to France. It resolved: “that a committee of five be appointed to prepare a letter of credence to his most Christian majesty, notifying the appointment of Dr. Franklin, minister plenipotentiary of these States at the court of France.” Subsequently, in April 1782, Britain began to move toward terminating the war. In Britain at the Colonial Office, Lord Shelburne dispatched Richard Oswald to Paris to begin negotiations with Benjamin Franklin, who at the time was the sole minister to France. Franklin was holding an unexpected trump card: intelligence that informed him that the British treasury had been nearly expended. Franklin stunned Oswald with his revelation and carried his confidence further by suggesting that Britain cede Canada to the United States. Oswald offered to carry the proposal back to Parliament. All the while, Franklin used his skills to advantage by again working Britain against France to secure what was best for the United States. His efforts culminated successfully. On 30 November 1782, Franklin, along with John Adams and John Jay, signed a preparatory peace treaty with Britain. Richard Oswald signed the treaty on behalf of Britain. The official treaty (Treaty of Paris) that terminated the war was consummated on 3 September 1783 and was signed by Benjamin Franklin, John Adams and John Jay; however, it was signed on behalf of Britain by David Hartley. Meanwhile, the French took offense with the Americans consummating a treaty with Britain without their participation. On 16 December, Franklin responded to their concerns, stating that the Americans had not signed a treaty, and that they had only “agreed upon the preliminary articles of peace.” He also told the French that they should refrain from broadcasting their dissatisfaction to ensure the English did not pick up on the division of the allies on the matter, and the tactic worked. In addition, Franklin maneuvered smoothly and secured another loan from the French. Subsequent to the conclusion of the treaty, Franklin returned to the United States. During 1785, he became president of the Supreme Executive Council of Pennsylvania, and later, during 1787, was a delegate to the Constitutional Convention that convened in Philadelphia during 1787. Despite his ill health, he was an active participant. Franklin did not agree with the entire document, but he was able to use his skills to calm tempers and persuade delegates to consider the greater good of the nation by the adoption of the U.S. Constitution, which occurred 27 September, 1787. Pennsylvania ratified it on 12 December 1787 to become the second state to join the union. That year, Franklin was also elected as the initial president of the Pennsylvania Society for Promoting the Abolition of Slavery. Franklin’s health also received a jolt during December 1787 when he fell from a wall in his garden. The shock was severe due to his age.

Nevertheless, during his recuperation, which lasted until the following spring, he was devoted to getting his estate in order, and yet he was excited about the election of his friend George Washington as president of the United States. At the time, Franklin lived in Philadelphia, and his residence was located on Market Street, but he owned other property, including two new and spacious homes and two smaller ones, in addition to a building that contained a printing house he had constructed for his grandson. Franklin also owned two homes in Pewter Platter Alley and yet another on Sixth Street. Other property that he owned included some lots in the center of the city and some open pasture land in Hickory Lane. But he owned even more property in Massachusetts (a house on Unity Street), several thousand acres in Georgia and a tract in Nova Scotia. His worth at the time was in the hundreds of thousands of dollars, which included bonds, but he also had an unusual portrait of King Louis XVI, which was adorned with four hundred and eight diamonds. In his will, Franklin left the land in Nova Scotia to his son William and he forgave William the debts owed to his father. The will stipulated: “The part he [William] acted against me in the late war, which is of public notoriety, will account for my leaving him no more of an estate he endeavored to deprive me of.” Most of his estate was left to his daughter Sarah, her husband, Richard Bache, and their children, but he also left a great deal to various organizations. His will also stipulated that he was to be buried next to his wife, Deborah, who passed away during 1774, while Franklin was in England. Benjamin Franklin died on 17 April 1790. He was interred in Philadelphia in Christ Church Burial Ground. He left behind a multifaceted legacy, also being known as the inventor of several things, including, bifocals, the Franklin stove (which he never patented), and the lightning rod.

Frazer, Brigadier General Persifor Persifor Frazer, the son of John and Mary Smith Frazer, was born in Newtown Township, Delaware County, Pennsylvania, on 9 August 1736. His father emigrated from Ireland and arrived in the colonies during 1735. Persifor, who married Mary Taylor Frazer, a Quaker, on 2 October 1766, resided on Mary’s family farm in the vicinity of Brandywine. Together Persifor and Mary (who was called Polly) operated the farm and its iron forge. They had ten children: Sarah (b. 1769); Robert (b. 1771); Mary Anne (b. 1774, married Jonathan Smith); Persifor (b. 1776); Martha (b. 1778); Mary (b. 1780, married Joseph Smith); John (b. 1781, died young); Martha (b. 1783, married William Morris); Elizabeth I (b. 1786, died young) and Elizabeth II (1788, married Henry Myers). Frazer found himself aligned with the Patriots during the turbulent period that extended from about 1765 through the opening of hostilities at Lexington and Concord in April 1775. He was elected as a delegate to the Provincial Convention of Pennsylvania, which convened in Philadelphia on 23 January 1775. During January of the following year, Frazer was appointed captain of the 1st Company. He was promoted to the rank of major (4th Pennsylvania Battalion) on 3 October 1776, effective on 24 September 1776. Shortly thereafter, on 12 March 1777, Frazer was advanced to the rank of lieutenant colonel attached to the 5th Regiment, effective on 4 October 1776. Lt. Colonel Frazer participated in the defense of Philadelphia during 1777 until he was captured during the American retreat following the Battle of Brandywine, which occurred on 11 September. Frazer spent some time at the farm, but he departed on the 13th to attempt to observe the British movements; however, a British cavalry contingent captured him and had him transported to Philadelphia, where he was confined. On that same day, the 13th, only hours after Colonel Frazer departed, the British arrived at the farm to confiscate the ammunition that Loyalists had said was concealed there. Polly Frazer’s children and the servants fled to the woods, but Polly remained to

123 confront the British. Initially, the British crude and abusive, but she adamantly stood her ground. She was told that if her husband would abandon the rebels and join with the British, he would be rewarded. She scoffed at the idea and informed the British that they did not know her husband, and she underscored her obstinacy by telling an officer that if Persifor did betray the cause, she would abandon him. Nevertheless, the British, who nearly inflicted harm on Polly Frazer, were stopped by Captain DeWest. She eventually prevailed, and the British, who threatened to burn the farm, departed, leaving behind a ransacked home and some empty liquor containers. While confined by the British, Colonel Frazer claimed to have been confined and unable to exercise. Consequently, when he escaped imprisonment on 17 March 1778 and fled to Valley Forge, the British claimed he broke his parole, but Frazer countered that he was not afforded parole and therefore his escape was legitimate. Shortly after his escape, during June 1778, the British abandoned Philadelphia and Fraser participated in the Battle of Monmouth, the final major battle in the northern states. On 9 October 1778, Colonel Frazer resigned his commission. On 1 April 1780, he was appointed commissioner of purchases for Chester County, Pennsylvania. Congress appointed Frazer the clothier general of the Continental Army on the July 15, 1779, but on the 19th Congress received word from Fraser that he declined the position due to the salary. Subsequently, on 25 May 1782, Frazer was appointed brigadier general of Pennsylvania militia, a rank he retained until the official close of hostilities. General Persifor Frazer succumbed on 24 April 1792.

Freeman, Brigadier General Nathaniel Nathaniel Freeman, the son of Edmund and Martha Otis Freeman, was born on 8 April 1781 on Cape Cod in the Eastern sector of Yarmouth (present-day Dennis), Massachusetts. Several years after the birth of Nathaniel, the family moved to Mansfield, Connecticut. Nathaniel’s mother, Martha, was the daughter of Nathaniel and Abigail Russell Otis. Nathaniel received an excellent education that permitted him to follow two professions. He studied medicine under Doctor Cobb to become a doctor and surgeon, but he also studied law under James Otis and initiated a law practice in Sandwich, where he settled. On 5 May 1763, Nathaniel married Tryphosa Colton of Killingly, Connecticut. They had the following children: 1, Edmund (b. May 1764, married Elizabeth Patee of Maine); 2, Nathaniel II (b. March 1766, married Polly Ford); 3, Abigail (b. August 1768, married Colonel Abraham Williams and George Ellis); 4, Martha (b. June 1770), married William Fessenden); 5, Jonathan Otis (b. April 1772, married Lucy Crocker); 6, Rufus (b. October 1773, married Hannah Palmer); 7, Tryphosa C. (b. December 1775, married Captain Samuel Parker); 8, Sarah (b. June 1778, married Shadrack Freeman); 9, Nancy I (b. September 1778, died March 1790); 10, Russell (b. October 1782, married Eliza J. Sturgis); 11, Abraham Williams (b. August 1784, married Nancy Fairfield); 12, George Washington (b. June 1789, became a bishop and married Ann Yates Gholson, the widow of William Gholson and daughter of Colonel William Yates). After Tryphosa’s death on 11 July 1796, General Freeman remarried, taking Elizabeth Gifford, the widow of Josiah Gifford and the daughter of John Handy, as his second wife. From that marriage, the following children were born: 13, Frederick (b. December 1799, married Elizabeth Nichols, Hannah Huntington Wolcott, then Isabella Williams); 14, Tryphosa Colton (b. January 1801, married the Rev. Louis Jansen); 15, Nancy II (b. January 1802, died December 1804); 16, Nathaniel III (b. April 1803); 17, Elizabeth H. (b. May 1804, married the Rev. Davis Lothrop); 18, Love Swain (b. July 1805), married Weston R. Gales, the mayor of Raleigh, North Carolina); 19, Tryphena (b. July 1808, married Captain Isaiah Harding); and 20, Hannah B. (b. March 1810).

FREEMAN

In addition to his career and family responsibilities, Freeman found time to become a loyal supporter of the Patriots’ cause. During January 1773, at a town meeting held in Sandwich, it was decided to appoint a committee of correspondence to maintain communications with a similar committee in Boston. The members were Nathaniel Freeman (chairman), John Allen, Mordecai Ellis, Simeon Fish, Seth Freeman, Joseph Nye III, John Percival, Elisha Pope, Moses Swift and Joshua Tobey. Around that time, Freeman was elected to the General Court. In addition, during the Revolutionary War and for a while afterward, Freeman served as superintendent of Barnstable County and in the Massachusetts House of Representatives. His participation as chairman of the committee of correspondence frequently focused on the activity of Loyalists in the region. In addition, hearings were convened and oaths of loyalty were administered. The most widely known incident involved a one-legged man named Edward Davis, who was spotted as a stranger in the company of prominent Loyalists. It was determined that Davis was linked to a group of Loyalists scattered about the region in various towns in Massachusetts and Rhode Island. Further investigation exposed a counterfeiting ring operating in conjunction with the British at Newport, Rhode Island. Life for the Patriots in Boston had become particularly tough by 1774; that year Governor Thomas Hutchinson was replaced by General Thomas Gage. On 13 May, Gage arrived in Boston accompanied by four fresh regiments of Redcoats. Boston became paralyzed by the Port Bill, but surrounding towns provided aid, including food, wood and currency. Colonel Freeman, concerned about the confiscation of the Patriots’ fishing boats, moved speedily that month to disperse the potential targets to safe locations. Freeman oversaw an operation that moved the boats ashore, and from the beaches of Cape Cod they were hauled to swampland and other obscure places. The effort was noble; however, with British warships patrolling the waters, fisherman found it too risky to leave the harbor, so they remained in their secret places until the British departed. By spring of 1774, the court system was a charade and was utilized as a heavy hammer of the Crown against the people. During September 1774, a group of Patriots in Sandwich led by Nathaniel Freeman marched to interrupt and disband the county courts. The militia marched from Wareham, Rochester and Middleboro, and were joined by Freeman’s group at Sandwich. Their numbers amounted to about 1,500 men when they reached the courthouse on Rendezvous Lane in Barnstable and “Brigadier Freeman,” as Nathaniel was dubbed, apparently led the group. During the incident, he was also referred to as the “conductor in chief.” The men requested that the court be closed and Judge James Otis (himself a Patriot) concurred. The final King’s Court in Barnstable was terminated. One of the observers, the Honorable Abraham Holmes of Rochester, described Doctor Freeman as being “a fine figure of a man, between thirty and forty years of age. He had a well made face, a florid countenance, a bright and dignified eye, a clear and majestic voice; and wore a handsome, black lapelled coat, a tied wig as white as snow, a set up hat with the point a little to the right.” That group who participated in closing the court by their act of treason to the king was referred to as “The Body of the People.” The men had also decided to elect their own officers and they swore oaths “not to drink strong drink, nor swear, [and to have] prayer of mornings.” Once the militia returned to Sandwich, to their dismay, they discovered that in their absence, some Loyalists had chopped down the Liberty Pole that had been erected. Swift retaliation was initiated as the Patriots “hunted up and punished into due humility, certain persons who had cut down the Sandwich liberty pole....” On 7 October 1774, Provincial Congress was held, then on 16 November, a county congress convened at the courthouse in Barnstable and the delegates selected James Otis as chairman. Colonel Nathaniel Freeman, Job Crocker, Daniel Davis, Captain Jonathan Howes and Thomas Paine were appointed to a committee of correspondence. In

FROST

124

conjunction, Freeman was referred to as colonel in various records of the time, prior to 1776, but other sources state that he was promoted to lieutenant colonel on 1 January 1776. It appears that the congress held at Barnstable never reconvened. On the military front, Freeman initially served as a colonel in the militia from 1775 until he was appointed a brigadier general during 1781; however, some nineteenth century sources place his commission as brigadier in 1778. In 1775, Freeman served as register of probate, a post he retained until 1822. On 11 October 1775, he was appointed as a judge of common pleas court in Barnstable County; he retained that post through 1811. During the Revolutionary War, it seems General Freeman spent little time in the field; however, he retained his rank until 1793. On 2 April 1779, British warships were discovered as they moved toward Falmouth. The alarm rapidly spread, and reinforcements, including troops under Colonel Freeman, arrived there after dusk. The three companies that composed his contingent established defensive positions at the beach. The next morning seemed to favor the British navy, which advanced under the cover of early morning fog, and as they approached shore, the vessels commenced fire in conjunction with lowering about ten boats, which pushed off with a vanguard of about 220 Redcoats. Freeman’s troops were up to the task, and in a sense even taunted the Redcoats to land. Various points were tested from the morning until afternoon, but no landing succeeded. The Americans had withstood the fire and held back their return fire. By about 1700 hours, just after Freemen ordered his men to fire for effect, the British chose to pull back. The British, irate at their inability to shovel aside militia, began the following morning, a Saturday, with enhanced enthusiasm and the will to knock off the rabble. They moved to Woods Hole and found themselves greeted by about 30 militia who anticipated the attempt to land. The Redcoats were again foiled by Freeman. Undaunted, they moved to Nonnamesit, an obscure island, and landed without incident. Apparently, only one family resided in the area and the British threatened to kill them. Nonetheless, the only casualties were a small number of livestock, which the British killed. Shortly thereafter, the British realized they were about to be struck. They embarked, taking a hog and half of a pig. But still, the British intended to land and drive Freeman away. On Sunday, the 4th, just after dawn, yet again the ships’ cannon commenced fire, only to again be repelled by small arms. The slowmoving saga continued into Monday, the 5th, still without success for the British. One boat attempted a landing at Woods Hole, but it was driven back. Afterward, the flotilla sailed for Nantucket. After the war, Freeman was elected to the Fourth and Fifth U.S. Congresses as a representative of Massachusetts. General Freeman served in Congress from 7 December 1795, until 3 March 1799. During that period, he was chief judge of Common Pleas Court of Barnstable County. He maintained his medical practice until about 1804, but he continued to treat a small number of patients for his remaining days. Nathaniel Freeman succumbed on 20 September 1827.

Frost, Brigadier General John John Frost, the son of John and Sarah Gerrish Frost, was born 15 August 1738 in Kittery, Maine. John entered the military and participated in the Canadian Campaign of 1759 during the French and Indian War. John’s mother was the daughter of Timothy and Sarah Eliot Gerrish. In addition to John, his parents had the following children: Mary (b. October 1735, married Francis Eppes); Sarah (b. October 1740, married Richard Cutts); Timothy (b. October 1742, married Hannah Nowell, the sister of Mary, his brother John’s wife); Abigail (b. October 1742); William (b. May 1747, married Elizabeth Randall); Jane (b. September 1749, married Colonel John Nowell); Elizabeth (b. February 1752, married John Frost, Jr., of York); Nathaniel (b. June 1755, married Abigail Ferguson) and George (b. January 1758, married Elizabeth Goslin).

John married Mary Nowell on 17 April 1760. Mary was the daughter of Ebenezer and Patience Hamilton Nowell of York. John and Mary had the following children: John (b. December 1760, died unmarried); Joseph (b. December 1762, married Mary Shapleigh); Mary (b. January 1765, married Samuel Jordan); Sarah (b. February 1767, married John Swett); Andrew (b. April 1769, died February 1771); George (b. April 1769, died May 1769); Nathaniel (b. January 1774, married Abigail Kimball); George (2, b. October 1776, married Sarah Bartlett of Eliot) and Timothy (b. December 1778, married Sarah Coffin). Just after the outbreak of hostilities with the English at Lexington and Concord in April 1775, Frost served as a lieutenant in Colonel Jonathan Moulton’s regiment during the siege of Boston. Frost was promoted to the rank of colonel during 1776 Subsequent to the evacuation of Boston by the British during March 1776, he participated in the New York campaign that summer. Afterward, Colonel Frost’s regiment participated in the Saratoga Campaign that terminated with the surrender of British General John Burgoyne’s army during October 1777. He also participated in the Battle of Monmouth (29 June 1778) in which the British, afterward, continued their retreat to New York after having abandoned Philadelphia. Following the clash at Monmouth, the field of battle switched to the South; no additional major battles were fought in the northern states. Colonel Frost continued to serve in the field until the close of hostilities. He was promoted to the rank of brigadier general (Massachusetts militia) toward the later part of the war. Subsequent to the close of hostilities, General Frost was appointed as a judge on the court of sessions of York County. Later, he also served on the governor’s council of Massachusetts. Maine was part of Massachusetts until it became the twenty-third state on 15 March 1820. General Frost succumbed during July 1810.

Frye, General Joseph Joseph Frye, the son of John and Tabitha and the eighth of thirteen children, was born in Andover, Massachusetts. Nineteenth century sources conflict on the date, either April 1711 or March 1712. General Joseph Frye in his own handwriting recorded the dates of birth and death for his children; however, he did not list his birth date, nor those of his siblings. The children of John and Tabitha were John I, Isaac, Joshua, Abiel, Mehitable, Anne I, Phebe, Joseph, Hannah, Anne II, Samuel John II and Tabitha. After 1730, Joseph married Mehitable Poor and they had three children: Joseph I (b. 17 July 1733, died 27 August 1738), Samuel I (b. 1 January 1735, died September 10, 1778), and Mehitable I (b. 16 April, 1738, died 9 September, 1738), two of whom died during the distemper epidemic of 1738 that ravaged a great part of New England. The couple had another child, also named Mehitable II, on 12 May 1739, however, she lived only sixteen days. Following the premature deaths of their first four children, the Frye family increased by seven other children, Mehitable III (8 April 1741), Joseph II (10 July, 1743), Tabitha (11 October, 1744), Hannah (23 March 1748 or 1749), Richard (5 August 1751), Nathaniel (22 April 1753) and Samuel II (5 July 1758). Joseph was born into a prominent family; however, he did not get the benefit of a European education or a college degree. Nevertheless, he became well educated, and during 1745, he entered the military and served as an ensign in the 5th Massachusetts Regiment during the campaign initiated by Governor William Shirley to seize Louisbourg. During 1746, Frye, with the rank of lieutenant, served at Falmouth, Maine, and afterward, from 1747 until the latter part of 1749, he was posted at Scarborough with the rank of captain. After the war, Joseph reinitiated his private life; however, the next conflict, the French and Indian War, brought him back to the military. From about 1750, the French and British both initiated activity to gain domination of the region that is present-day New Brunswick, with the former putting their efforts into convincing the Acadians to

125 relocate in French controlled territory. As time passed tensions intensified. The French ordered the Indians to destroy villages to keep the Acadians from moving back, and the British in turn established Fort Lawrence. Beginning in 1750 the British and French grappled for control of the mainland of present day New Brunswick. The French built a fort on a hill overlooking the Beaubassin area. At first they tried to persuade the Acadians to move to this French soil, with limited success. Some of the Acadians even asked the British permission to leave and settle on the French side but were refused. The British feared these Acadians would only add to that growing French menace on their border. Failure to persuade the Acadians led the French to apply increased pressure to force them to move. With the Acadians on French soil, they commanded the Indians to burn the surrounding villages to prevent the Acadians from returning to their land. The British responded by building Fort Lawrence where the village of Beaubassin had stood. A contingent under Major Lawrence established the post on 15 September 1750 and its presence became an immediate treat to the nearby French post, Fort Beausejour. The English came under fire by Mimac Indians while the fort was under construction, but still it was completed by the 17th. The British made the first hostile advance when, during the summer of 1755, Fort Beausejour was besieged. It fell to the British after fourteen days. Many of the Acadians had been coerced into defending the French fort, which infuriated the British. After some Acadians were transferred to Fort Edward to face deportation, some escaped. When they did not return, Lt. Col. Monckton ordered a contingent led by Major Frye to destroy the property and structures at Cobequid and at Three Rivers to deprive them of concealment. Frye set out on 16 September, moving along the Petcoudiac River, devastating everything in the path, including livestock. French forces gave pursuit and engaged Frye’s command at des Blanchard. The English took high casualties, but the force made it back to English-held Fort Beausejour. For about the next two years, the British remained within the vicinity of their forts. In 1755, Lt. George Scott succeeded Lt. Col. Monkton as commanding officer of Fort Beausejour; subsequently, during autumn of 1759, Scott was succeeded by Frye. Meanwhile, to prevent the loss of Fort Lawrence to the Acadians and Indians, it was self-destroyed by the English during October 1756. The captured Acadians were transported to the Carolinas. All the while, beginning with the British attempt to seize Fort Beausejour, the conflict continued between the French and English for the domination of North America. Initially the French held the advantage. In 1755, Frye, along with General Johnson, selected the site of Fort William Henry at Lake George, New York, and drew up the blueprint of the post. The French made some attempts to over the next two years to reduce it, but without success. Later, during July 1757, a contingent of about 350 Jersey Blues, commanded by Colonel Peter Parker, embarked aboard twenty barges from the fort to intercept a French force that was advancing toward Fort William Henry. The Indians ambushed the vanguard. The trailing barges, unaware of the trap, were also pounded upon. Only two barges escaped the devastating attacks. Of the captives, some were slaughtered and others were cooked and eaten by the Indians. On 4 August, the French, about 10,000 strong (including Indians), launched an attack against the fort, which was defended by about 2,500 troops under Colonel George Monro. The horrific bombardment failed to break the will of the English, and Monro ignored an ultimatum from Montcalm to surrender or face the wrath of the Indians. On 7 August, a truce flag was raised within the French lines, and the party delivered a captured letter in the handwriting of General Daniel Webb informing Monro that no reinforcements were en route (despite the fact that Webb’s command was nearby at Fort Edward). And still, the English officers, including Monro, Joseph Frye and Israel Put-

GADSDEN

nam, defied the odds and continued to resist. Finally, on the 9 August, capitulation became inevitable. The French promised protection from the Indians, but broke their word. A massacre ensued and yet again, the slaughter of the English was horrifying. Eventually the French intervened, but not before hundreds had been butchered. More than 100 women, according to General Putnam, were “shockingly mangled” (see also, Putnam, Major General Israel). Captain Frye was seized by an Indian and taken out to be slaughtered, but he was able to overwhelm his captor and escape into the woods. He eventually made it to Fort Edward. On the following day, the English came under French protection, but soon after the march began, yet again, the Indians ignored the French and pounced upon the unarmed English. Finally about 400 troops from Fort Edward arrived to intervene, end the slaughter and guard the column as it made its way back to Fort Edward. The incident with Captain Frye was not his first encounter with hostile Indians. Earlier, while in Maine, he was surprised by a band of Indians who believed they had him trapped, but Frye jumped from a cliff to safety. The Rock at Raymond’s Point from where he jumped became known as Frye’s Leap; however, it is possible that this story, which claims he landed on the frozen ice and escaped across Sebago Lake (Frye’s Island), is only a legend. Following the French and Indian War, in which Britain prevailed, Frye was elected to the Massachusetts general assembly. During 1761, using his connections and his military service, Major Frye was able to acquire land in Maine upon which he established the town of Fryeburg. He had the skills of a surveyor, which enabled him to lay out the town in a short period of time. Later, upon the outbreak of the American Revolution, Frye repaired to Cambridge and was appointed a major general in the Massachusetts militia on 21 June 1775. As major general, he was afterward posted in the vicinity of Falmouth. On 10 January 1776, Congress appointed Frye a brigadier general in the Continental Army. However, his active service was of short duration. General Frye apparently was not one of General Washington’s choices and it seems as if there was a personality conflict in addition to Washington lacking great confidence in Frye’s military skills. Washington ordered Frye to report to Cambridge, but prior to his arrival, Frye became ill and was unable to report. On 23 April 1776, General Frye resigned from the service due to ill health. He returned to Fryeburg, where he lived until his death on 25 July 1794.

Gadsden, Brigadier General Christopher Christopher Gadsden, the son of Thomas and Elizabeth Gadsden, was born about 1724 in Charleston, South Carolina. The Gadsden ancestors originated in Normandy and from there moved to England. Earlier spellings of the surname included Gatesden and Gadesden. Christopher’s father, Thomas, had served as a lieutenant in the Royal Navy and after arriving in the colonies, he acquired the position of the king’s collector at the port of Charleston. Thomas had a large estate, but he lost it while gambling with Lord Anson, a British admiral. As a youth, Christopher was sent to England to complete his education. He remained in the mother country until he was about sixteen years old and returned to Charleston around 1740. After his return to America, he traveled to Philadelphia, where he worked at the Lawrence counting house. With that experience, he was able to later establish himself in the mercantile business. When he was about twenty-one, he returned to England, and after he ended his stay and returned home, he traveled aboard a British warship. En route, the purser died and Christopher received the position, one which he held in the navy for about two years, prior to returning to Charleston. During 1746, Christopher married Jane Godfrey. By the early 1750s, the couple had seen their family grow. They moved to different residences in the area, but eventually Christopher was also able to reacquire the home that his father had earlier lost to gambling by

GADSDEN

126

purchasing it from Lord Anson, who won it during 1733. Jane succumbed during 1755, leaving two children, Christopher, not yet five, and Elizabeth, about eight years old. By the end of the year, Christopher remarried, taking Mary Hassell (Hasel), the daughter of the Rev. Thomas Hassell, as his second wife. The marriage brought about four additional children, Thomas (b. 13 August 1757), Mary (b. 1758 or 1759, baptized September 1759), Philip (b. about 1760 or 1761, baptized October 1761) and Ann (b. about 1762–1763, baptized October 1763). In October 1757, Gadsden entered politics when he and Henry Laurens were both elected to the South Carolina assembly as representatives of St. Philip’s Parish. Two years later, during the French and Indian War, Gadsden participated in the expeditions led by Governor William Henry Lyttleton against the Cherokee Indians (1759). Acting upon authorization of the legislature, of which he was a member, Gadsden raised an artillery company, and participated in the campaign as its captain. Gadsden’s company was the forerunner of the “Ancient Battalion of Artillery.” Lyttleton’s expedition brought about a temporary and uneasy peace that was untenable and actually ignited more severe turbulence. Another expedition, which included British regulars, had to be initiated during 1761 to suppress the hostilities, but the South Carolina militia that participated under Colonel Middleton (overall command of Colonel Grant) listed Francis Marion, William Moultrie and Colonel Charles C. Pinckney as participants; Gadsden was not recorded as having accompanied the expedition. Nevertheless, the campaign succeeded in terminating the hostilities, and it is probable that the artillery was commanded by Gadsden. Gadsden was one of the first Patriots in South Carolina to vocally oppose the policies of the English Crown, and he was among the leaders who gathered in Charleston during 1762 under what was known as the Liberty Tree. At the time, Gadsden had been deeply involved as a merchant and with the shipping industry, both of which were affected by British policies. After Gadsden was elected to the assembly in 1762, Governor Thomas Boone proclaimed Gadsden’s election invalid. Nevertheless, when the assembly convened in December 1762, Gadsden was again a member. The assembly in turn began to resist Boone. For two years the animosity continued, until finally, during 1764, Boone returned to England. In 1765, Gadsden was selected as a delegate to the Stamp Act Congress, held in New York. In July 1765, representatives of South Carolina discussed a circular letter sent by the general court of Massachusetts the previous month requesting that South Carolina and the other colonies send delegates to a specially called Provincial Congress to deal with the oppressive Stamp Act. The participants at the July meeting in South Carolina received an affirmative response from the committee headed by Christopher Gadsden. He, John Rutledge, and John Lynch, Sr., were selected as representatives. The congress met during October 1765. South Carolina’s participation was strongly supported by John Rutledge (later governor) and bolstered by the fiery Gadsden, and the combination of Gadsden and Rutledge assured bold support for the congress. The primary success of the congress seemed to be the opening of representatives from the north meeting with those of the southern colonies; however, the resulting effects that increased opposition to the Stamp Act caused it to be repealed. Following the congress, the recorded trail of Christopher Gadsden faded out, but it would appear that he continued with private endeavors. On 7 July 1774, he was selected as a delegate to the First Continental Congress, which met in Philadelphia during September–October of that year. The other delegates were Thomas Lynch, Henry Middleton, Edward Rutledge (brother of John), and John Rutledge. Gadsden had also been a member of the Second Continental Congress. His opinions were openly for preparation for war and that reconciliation was impossible. He also favored an attack against the British in Boston under General Thomas Gage.

On 24 June 1775, Gadsden was appointed to a committee charged with bolstering the militia. Congress resolved “that a Committee of seven be appointed to devise ways and means to put the Militia of America in a proper state for the defence of America.” Records indicate that the members were chosen on the following Monday: John Dickinson, William Floyd, Christopher Gadsden, Benjamin Harrison, Stephen Hopkins, Robert Treat Paine and Roger Sherman. On June 26, John Dickinson and Thomas Jefferson were appointed to the committee. While Gadsden was in Philadelphia in June, the South Carolinians elected him colonel of the 1st South Carolina Regiment of Foot. William Moultrie was appointed colonel of the 2nd South Carolina Regiment of Foot and junior to Gadsden. On 12 July 1775, Gadsden was appointed to a committee delegated with devising “ways and means to protect the trade of these Colonies” along with Silas Deane, Benjamin Franklin, John Jay and Richard Henry Lee. The next month, Gadsden was appointed to yet another committee, pursuant to the following resolution: “Resolved, That a Committee of accounts or claims be now raised to consist of one member from each of the United Colonies, to whom all accounts against the Continent are to be referred, who are to examine and report upon the same, in order for payment, seven of them to be a quorum.” On 13 October 1775, Congress authorized the establishment of the Naval Committee, essentially, the beginning of the United States Navy. Three delegates were appointed: Christopher Gadsden, John Langdon of New Hampshire and Silas Deane of Connecticut; later four other members were appointed. Gadsden was appointed to the committee charged with “fitting of the armed ships” on 14 December. By February of 1776, while Gadsden was engaged in the business of the Congress, South Carolinians had decided that they required his services and appointed him brigadier general of the South Carolina militia. He left Congress and was unable to cast his vote for independence. According to the memoirs of General Moultrie, Brigadier General Gadsden arrived back at Charleston during February 1776 to assume command. The next month, the South Carolina Provincial Congress established a provisional constitution, which resulted in the election of John Rutledge as president and Henry Laurens as vice-president. Soon afterward, Thomas Lynch, Sr., while attending Congress, became seriously ill. His son Thomas, Jr., requested leave to go to Philadelphia to aid his father, but Gadsden, his commanding officer, refused to grant it. South Carolina then selected Thomas Lynch, Jr., as a delegate to the Second Continental Congress to get around Gadsden’s obstinacy. Thomas, Jr., arrived in Philadelphia in time to vote for independence, but later, while returning to Charleston with his ailing father, the latter died en route at Annapolis (See also, Lynch, Thomas, Jr.). On 18 June 1776, Congress resolved that the battalion of artillery, and the two other batallions of foot, raised in South Carolina, and kept up in that colony for the defence of the same, be considered as continental forces, and allowed the same pay, rations and disbursements as other forces on the continental establishment: That the two batallions, under the command of the Colonels Gadsden and Moultrie, be allowed all the advantages of the continental establishment, from the 4th day of November last, and the regiment of artillery, from the time when the same was ordered to be raised by the Provincial Congress or convention of South Carolina: That the two batallions of rifflemen, raised in and for the defence of the said colony, be considered as continental troops from the 25 day of March last, and be entitled to all the advantages of the same: That all the above mentioned troops be liable to the articles for the government of the forces in the said colony: That the said forces be continued on the continental establishment until the expiration of their inlistment, unless they shall be sooner disbanded by Congress.

On 2 August, most of the 56 members of Congress signed the parchment copy of the Declaration of Independence. Some refused to sign

127 and five were absent from the vote and signing due to military or state responsibilities. They were General George Washington (Virginia), General George Clinton (New York), General Christopher Gadsden (South Carolina), General John Sullivan (New Hampshire) and Governor Patrick Henry (Virginia). Word that independence had been proclaimed on 4 July arrived in Charleston on same day. Without delay, Patriots again gathered at the Liberty Tree, located on Alexander Street, slightly north of Boundary Street (later Calhoun Street), in Charleston, where General Gadsden enthusiastically read the Declaration of Independence to the citizens. Later, on 16 September 1776, Gadsden was appointed by Congress as a brigadier general in the Continental Army. When a British fleet under Peter Parker arrived in Charleston Harbor on 1 June 1776, General Gadsden was in command at Fort Johnson; however, the fleet was repelled by Colonel William Moultrie, who defended Sullivan’s Island in a fort that was later ordered abandoned by General Charles Lee, who had arrived during early June to command the forces of the Continental Army. Moultrie and Governor John Rutledge both objected to Lee’s order to abandon the unfinished fort. General Lee also pushed for the construction of a bridge from Sullivan’s Island to Haddrell’s Point to provide a mechanism for escape if the British were able to land on Sullivan’s Island. The bridge was constructed through the efforts and personal expense of Gadsden. Nonetheless, it wasn’t needed. The British were handily repelled on 28 June, and by the 29th, the fleet headed north for New York, leaving Commodore Parker and General Henry Clinton time to decide how to explain why they failed to quash the rebels. The victory brought two additional years of safety for Charleston. During that period, General Gadsden remained in the military, but in October 1777, he resigned his commission in the Continental Army. Meanwhile, he had also served in the assembly and as a member of the privy council. Subsequent to the death of his second wife, General Gadsden married again in 1776, taking Ann Wragg, as his third wife. Gadsden had some difficulties with the chain of command with regard to the Continental Army and the state forces, which contributed to his resignation as a continental brigadier, but the differences also caused a conflict on a more personal note with General Robert Howe. Gadsden refused to apologize for derogatory remarks regarding Howe’s leadership during a campaign against British-held positions in Florida. On 13 May 1778, Howe and Gadsden met in the vicinity of Cannonsburg at Lowndes Grove on the Ashley River to settle their differences. General Howe fired first. His shot barely missed Gadsden’s head. Gadsden returned fire, intentionally firing high. Afterward, Howe declined taking a second shot and the duel ended with both men shaking hands and putting aside their differences. From the harmless duel, the two men both survived and afterward they become friends. During January 1779, the South Carolina legislature, pursuant to the terms of the new state constitution, convened. Also that month, John Rutledge was elected governor and Thomas Bee was elected lieutenant governor. It is unclear exactly when Christopher Gadsden became lieutenant governor; however, the events of the time seem to indicate that he was elected when Thomas Bee gave up the post to become a delegate at the Continental Congress in 1780. When the British invasion became imminent during 1780, the South Carolina legislature dissolved, leaving Governor Rutledge with dictatorial powers, similarly to when Congress fled Philadelphia, leaving General George Washington with the same powers. Nevertheless, when Governor Rutledge was urged to flee Charleston in spring 1780, Christopher Gadsden was lieutenant governor at the time of his departure. Gadsden participated in the defense of Charleston when the British invaded in 1780. The Patriots established a redoubt on Boundary Street (later Calhoun Street) near Charleston’s famous land mark, the Liberty Tree. Some traces of the remains are still visible. The Lib-

GADSDEN

erty Tree was at some later point cut down, but the spot now holds a plaque that pays tribute to General Gadsden’s activities there. On the 13 April 1780, while the British were closing fast and their trenches had reached a point from where Charleston was within striking range, Governor Rutledge was advised by General Benjamin Lincoln and Lt. Governor Gadsden that it was imperative that he evacuate the city, along with the civilian leaders. The military contemplated abandoning the city to enable the Continental Army to regroup and resist the British rather than remain in untenable positions; however, on 26 April, a war council was held and civilians attended. Lieutenant Governor Gadsden and the civilians vociferously opposed any pullout by the Continental Army. They made it clear that they would destroy all the boats rather than watch the troops leave. At the time, the warships under Captain Abraham Whipple were trapped farther up the Cooper River and useless against the British army; they were not positioned to embark with troops. General Lincoln and his officers aborted the plan and chose to remain. Gadsden was seized on 12 May 1780, when Charleston capitulated. General Gadsden had rigidly supported defending the city, but during the last days, he supported surrender to spare the city from further bombardment. He was paroled, but afterward, he was seized and transported to St. Augustine, Florida. Once there he was offered parole if he would pay allegiance to the king, but he refused, despite being informed he would be put in solitary confinement. Gadsden’s response included his intent to “place his trust in God.” The British kept General Gadsden in the “Castle” for ten or eleven months. Subsequent to General Nathaniel Greene’s victory in South Carolina, General Gadsden was released along with other prisoners at St. Augustine and transported to Philadelphia. General Gadsden later returned to Charleston. He was among those who entered the city as the British were abandoning it on 14 December 1782. Prior to the evacuation of the city, Gadsden had been elected to the South Carolina assembly, which convened at Jacksonborough during 1782, and he was a member of the governor’s council. After the war, Gadsden resigned himself to private life; however, he did periodically serve in the assembly, and he participated in two state conventions, including the one in which the federal constitution was ratified and one during 1790 in which the state constitution was modified. General Gadsden had also been elected as governor of the state in 1782, but he did not serve due to his health and advanced years. Throughout his life, General Gadsden had been a close friend of Henry Laurens, who had been a president of the Continental Congress. The two men lived near each other, which increased their friendship during their later years. He was known as a devout Christian and a man who thought unfavorably about lawyers and distrusted doctors. Regarding lawyers, he believed “their pleadings as generally tending to obscure what was plain, and to make difficulties where there were none; and much more subservient to render their trade lucrative than to advance justice.” With regard to doctors, he preferred to rely on “temperance and exercise,” which he considered “superior to all their prescriptions, and that in most cases they rendered them altogether unnecessary.” During 1750, Gadsden became a member of the Charleston Library Society; in 1754, he became a member of the South Carolina Society, an organization that engaged in charitable work and encouraged learning the French language. General Gadsden had also established Gadsden’s Wharf in Charleston and it still carries the name. It was the wharf to which the Redcoats marched when they finally abandoned Charleston. Also, the colonial flag, known as the Gadsden’s flag, was created by him. It depicted a serpent cut into thirteen sections to represent the 13 American colonies; however other variations of the flag were also prominent during the Revolution and they were frequently flown atop U.S. warships. General Gadsden succumbed at his residence, known as the “Anson House,” on 28 August 1805. His demise had occurred from an acciden-

GANSEVOORT

128

tal fall rather than from sickness or age. He had been active in St. Philip’s Episcopal Church, which was where he was interred.

Gansevoort, Brigadier General Peter Peter Gansevoort, the son of Harman and Magdalena Douw Gansevoort, was born on 17 July 1749 at Albany, New York. The Gansevoort family had initially arrived in the province when it was controlled by the Dutch and Albany was known as Fort Orange. Peter’s father ran a family brewery and the family also operated farms. The records of Peter’s early life and education are unclear, but having been born into an affluent Dutch family, it is evident that he received a proper education, and it is thought that he received it in New Jersey. The Gansevoort family, similarly to the van Rensselaers and the Schuylers, were prominent supporters of the Patriots’ cause. Peter initially joined the military by raising a company of grenadiers, with each of the volunteers standing at least 6 feet tall. Gansevoort became a lieutenant in the Albany militia during 1775 when men throughout the colonies were rallying around the cause. At nearly the same time, he received a commission as major in the Continental Army. Gansevoort participated in the ill-fated Canadian Campaign. Initially he served as major of the 2nd Continental Regiment, but by 19 January 1776, he was promoted to lieutenant colonel. On 9 January 1776, Congress resolved “that Colonel V. Schaick, Lieutenant Colonel Yates, and Major Gansevoort, be continued in the service of the United Colonies, and that they take the command of the batallion to be levied in the colony of New York, for the service in Canada.” In November Peter was raised to the rank of colonel and became the commander of the 3rd Continental Regiment. The regiment was ordered to repair to Fort Stanwix (Fort Schuyler) to defend it. By August 1776, Burgoyne’s advance was within the Mohawk Valley. On 3 August, a British contingent arrived at Fort Stanwix, displayed their force and demanded surrender of the post. The commander, Colonel Gansevoort, remained unimpressed and rejected the ultimatum with a pledge to “defend the fort to the last man.” A siege was initiated and Gansevoort remained convinced he could hold. Consequently, he discarded repeated ultimatums, which were similar to one issued on 9 August by Barry St. Leger: “I expect an immediate answer, as the Indians are extremely impatient; and if this proposal is rejected, I am afraid it will be attended with very fatal consequences, not only to you and your garrison, but the whole country down the Mohawk River; such consequences as would be very repugnant to my sentiments or humanity, but, after this, entirely, out of my power to prevent.” Gansevoort replied: “In answer to your letter of this day’s date, I have only to say, that is my determined resolution, with the forces under my command, to defend this fort at every hazard to the last extremity, in behalf of the United American States, who have placed me here to defend it against all their enemies.” St. Leger’s attack force of more than 800 troops (regulars, Loyalists and Canadians) was bolstered by about 1,000 Indians. Reinforcements were dispatched to bolster the garrison and a scout was sent by General Nicholas Herkimer to inform Gansevoort of the advancing column. The scout managed to avoid discovery and was able to penetrate the British lines to safely enter the fort. Nevertheless, the column was intercepted at Oriskany. Despite the desperate situation within the fort, Gansevoort that day boldly dispatched a column from the fort to assist Herkimer’s command at Oriskany. The British there were eventually overcome and the column returned to the fort. Meanwhile, the British commander at the siege, Colonel Barry St. Leger, again demanded surrender. And his ultimatum was yet again ignored by Gansevoort. He maintained his confidence in his troops’ ability to withstand whatever St. Leger had planned, and he remained aware of the consequences if St. Legers’ Indians penetrated the walls. Undaunted by the overwhelming pressure, he sent two riders, Lt. Stockwell and Colonel Willet, with orders to gallop fifty miles to Gen-

eral Schuyler’s positions to acquire reinforcements to break the siege. Meanwhile, Gansevoort’s supplies were dwindling and the British were closing fast. With the Indians and Redcoats within about 150 yards of the gates by the 22nd, Gansevoort’s final plan was to fight his way to safety after dusk rather than capitulate. In the meantime, the urgent call for help from Albany had been answered by Benedict Arnold, who advanced with a strategy of pulling off a huge ruse. Arnold dispatched a captured Tory, Yost Schuyler, to inform St. Leger Peter Gansevoort (Pictorial Field Book that a major force was clos- of the Revolution, Benson J. Lossing, ing against his positions. The 1860) propaganda worked far better than expected. Schuyler’s compensation for his part in the lie was his life. The Indians that accompanied St. Leger had already been disgruntled and began to scalp the British during the retreat, fully aware that they were paid per scalp and a British scalp was indistinguishable from a Patriot’s scalp. St. Leger was totally defeated, the Indians abandoned the campaign, and no shots were fired. St. Leger retreated on the 22nd upon word of Arnold’s arrival. It was during that retreat when the British lost their scalps to their former allies. In addition, the Indians established ambushes along the line of retreat and, upon the approach of the quickmoving British, they found themselves the targets. Much of the British artillery and supplies were left outside the gates of the fort, but the supplies with the columns were nearly effortlessly confiscated by the Indians, leaving the officers with no baggage and the column with neither supplies or provisions. Arnold arrived on 22 August and met no resistance. Gansevoort’s indomitable spirit and sheer determination proved sufficient to bolster the spirit of his force to perform above expectations and set an example that proved a fort could be held. The fort remained active until 1778, but it faced no further threats. On 3 September 1777, just days before the first Battle of Saratoga, in response to the heroism of Gansevoort and others, Congress resolved “that the Board of War take into consideration the merits of Brigadiers Stark and Herkimer, and of Colonel Gansevoort and Lieutenant Colonel Willet, and to report to Congress what testimonies of public gratitude should be shewn to these officers for their late signal exertions in the defence of their country.” On the following day, Congress again acknowledged Gansevoort, resolving “that the thanks of Congress be given to Colonel Gansevoort, and to the officers and troops under his command, for the bravery and perseverance which they have so conspicuously manifested in the defence of Fort Schuyler: That Colonel Gansevoort be appointed colonel commandant of the fort he has so gallantly defended.” Gansevoort accepted his new command, but he also spent time in Albany, where his wife, Catherine Van Schaick, whom he married during January 1778, was living. Catherine, also known as Katy, was the sister of General Gosen Van Schaick. Peter and Catherine had three children, Peter, Jr., Leonard, and Maria. Peter’s wife was the sister of another Dutchman, Gosen Van Schaick, dubbed “Goose,” a colonel in the army who later became a brigadier general (brevet). While the garrison at Fort Stanwix was under threat of falling to the British, Colonel Gansevoort was one of the American officers from

129 New York who was entangled in a not so unusual controversy surrounding rank. On 4 September in Philadelphia, Congress settled the problem after receiving a report from the Board of War which stated that it had taken into consideration the dispute with regard to the relative rank of the Colonels Cortlandt, Gansevoort, Dubois, and Livingston, commanding four of the New York regiments, and find that a committee of the convention of the State of New York, being properly authorized for such purpose, did appoint the officers above mentioned to their respective regiments, in the following order, viz. Colonel Cortlandt 2d, Colonel Gansevoort 3d, Colonel Dubois 4th, and Colonel Livingston 5th. As this arrangement must be presumed to have been founded on principles of justice and public utility, the Board of War are of opinion that it would be highly inexpedient to make any alteration in the relative rank of these officers.

Congress concurred with the report. The successful defense of Fort Stanwix played a key part in the ultimate victory of the campaign. General John Burgoyne sustained back-to-back defeats on 19 September and 7 October at the First and Second Battles of Saratoga, which brought about the capitulation of his entire army to General Horatio Gates during October 1777. A story has been passed down that the Stars and Stripes was first unfurled at Fort Stanwix during the siege; however, historians have determined that from it was impossible for that word to have reached Fort Stanwix (Fort Schuyler) in time. The regiment continued to serve in the defense of New York, and during the winter 1778–1789, Gansevoort’s command deployed at various places, including Saratoga and Schenectady. Subsequent to spring 1779, Colonel Gansevoort was directed to accompany General John Sullivan on the expedition to retaliate against the Six Nations, which had been ravaging the region. After that campaign, Colonel Gansevoort repaired to his home in Albany for the winter of 1779–1780 before rejoining his command. In July 1780, Gansevoort’s regiment was based at West Point as part of the defenses there. Later, during the autumn, Colonel Gansevoort received temporary command of a brigade; his forces operated throughout the Hudson Valley but his command was short lived. There were no major actions in the northern states subsequent to the June 1778 Battle of Monmouth in New Jersey. Colonel Gansevoort’s service had been without blemish throughout the war, but that didn’t prevent the loss of his command in the Continental Army. By 1 January 1781, his heroism at Fort Stanwix was a blurred memory in the halls of Congress when it integrated the 3rd New York into the 1st New York and cancelled Colonel Gansevoort’s commission. But the New York leaders and Governor George Clinton’s recollections of Gansevoort’s service remained crystal clear. Gansevoort was appointed brigadier general of the Albany militia and served in that capacity for the duration. At the close of hostilities, the flag carried by Gansevoort’s regiment was given to the general. It was described as “a piece of heavy blue silk, of very fine quality, and which has preserved its color remarkably. Its present dimension are those of a square, being nearly seven feet each way.... The design upon the flag represents the arms of the state of New York, but not as at present, nor yet like the seal adopted in 1778.” General Gansevoort handed the flag down to his son. It was later unfurled once more at the Bicentennial Celebration at Oriskany on 7 August 1877. At the gala celebration that featured various military units, it was noted that the people would not request that the Gansevoorts “surrender the flag” to the state, knowing “that no one of the lineage of Colonel Gansevoort would surrender a flag. The effort to do get him to do that was unsuccessfully tried by St. Leger.” The speaker thanked Gansevoort’s granddaughter for bringing the cherished relic to the gala and the crowd responded with “three hearty cheers, and continued applause.” After the war, General Gansevoort returned to private life and reinitiated his business (family brewery) pursuits in an attempt to rebuild

GATES

his family finances, which had been badly drained during the hostilities. He broadened his farming operations and started new ventures: he established a lumber business and built grist mills. Nonetheless, Gansevoort later returned to public life. During 1788, General Gansevoort accepted an appointment as Indian commissioner and afterward, during 1790, he became sheriff of Albany County and yet more military life was in his future. General Gansevoort was appointed as a U.S. military agent during 1800 by President Thomas Jefferson. In 1809 he achieved the rank that evaded him during the Revolutionary War when he was commissioned a brigadier general in the United States Army. During the winter of 1811–1812, while the nation was gearing up for anticipated hostilities yet again with the British Empire, General Gansevoort became ill. During December of that year, he presided as chair at the court martial of General James Wilkinson, who had been involved with the conspiracy of Aaron Burr with regard to land in the western territory. Wilkinson was acquitted and the court adjourned on Christmas Day; however, en route back to his home, General Gansevoort was stricken with ill health again. He made it back to his residence but never fully recovered. The compounded illnesses became insurmountable and presented the gallant general with a nemesis that struck a fatal blow. General Gansevoort succumbed on 2 July 1812, two days prior to the 36th anniversary of the Declaration of Independence and less than one month after President James Madison asked Congress to declare war against the British. The declaration was made on 18 June 1812. General Gansevoort was the grandfather of Guert Gansevoort (son of Leonard), a naval officer who spent about forty-four years (1823–1867) in the service. In addition, he was the grandfather of the author Herman Melville, the son of Maria, who married Alan Melville.

Gates, General Horatio Horatio Gates was born in England at Malden (Essex) during 1728; his mother was a housekeeper of the 2nd Duke of Leeds (Peregrine Osborne). He entered the military before he turned eighteen and served in a regiment as an ensign. After the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle was consummated, Horatio Gates’ regiment was based at Halifax (1748), Nova Scotia, under General Sir Charles Cornwallis. During the French and Indian War, Gates participated in the failed campaign of General Edward Braddock, who was killed during the attempt to seize Fort Duquesne. During the fighting there, many of the officers were killed but Gates survived; however, he did sustain a severe wound. George Washington was one of the few officers who survived unscathed. Remarkably, Washington’s uniform had four holes shot through it, but without any harm being inflicted. The wound sustained by Gates greatly curtailed his service during the French and Indian War. Although he had been a loyal Englishman, like others, he was drawn to the colonies, particularly because at the time of his departure from England, there was little chance of advancement in the British army. Gates also participated in the successful campaign in the West Indies when Martinique was seized by General Robert Monckton during 1762. Horatio Gates (Pictorial Field Book of During the following year, the Revolution, Benson J. Lossing, 1860)

GATES

130

1763, Horatio, his wife, Elizabeth Philips Gates, whom he met in Halifax and married during 1754, and their son Robert, born in 1758, immigrated to America and acquired a farm in Virginia (later West Virginia). Subsequent to the death of Elizabeth, Horatio married Mary Valence, the daughter of James Valence of Liverpool. Mary joined him in America just before the outbreak of the American Revolution. The Gates family took up residence outside New York City at an estate known as Rosehill. Mary Gates frequently cared for wounded soldiers at their home; the patients included General Thaddeus Kosciuzko. When relations between the British and the colonies deteriorated, Gates was firmly grounded as an American, and with his reputation as an officer, he was among those first chosen as brigadier generals by the Continental Congress. During July 1775, the month following the date of his commission as adjutant general with the rank of brigadier general, Gates departed Philadelphia with General George Washington en route for Cambridge, Massachusetts. On the 16th, Congress had authorized five staff officers. Gates was among those chosen because of his experience and a recommendation from Washington. He held the post until 5 June 1776. Gates remained in Massachusetts during the siege of Boston, and he arrived in New York with General Washington on 13 April, subsequent to Washington’s departure from Boston. On 16 May, Gates was promoted to the rank of major general. He was to succeed General John Sullivan in Canada; however, by that time, the general retreat was in progress and the Canadian Campaign had failed. Gates never assumed command of the Canadian Expedition. Instead he was ordered to the Northern Department to serve under General Philip Schuyler. On the 24th of May, Congress, after meeting with General Washington, Horatio Gates and Thomas Mifflin, directed the commander of the Northern Department to establish a defense to prevent the British from advancing along the St. Lawrence River. Orders stipulated that the forces are to “contest every foot of ground.” Meanwhile, on 5 June, Colonel Joseph Reed succeeded Gates as adjutant general. On 7 July 1776, General Gates and General Schuyler decided to abandon Crown Point. During the war council at which the decision was made, officers, including General Stark, objected, but the withdrawal went forward and the garrison headed for Ticonderoga. General Benedict Arnold, having returned from Canada, oversaw the retreat. On 14 July, Brigadier General Benedict Arnold, at Crown Point, wrote to General Horatio Gates at Ticonderoga explaining that the final boats had departed Crown Point and moved toward the Onion River in search of boards, the latter being required to transfer the army to Ticonderoga. On the 15th, Gates dispatched nearly 100 bateaux under the command of Commodore Wynkoop to Crown Point. On the 21st of July, Gates was informed of a shortage of Marines for the naval vessels at Ticonderoga, but he solved the problem by using seamen and soldiers of the Northern army as Marines. By the 25th, Arnold requested that General Gates dispatch 300 sailors to Ticonderoga to intercept the British fleet. On 7 August 1776, General Gates ordered Arnold to deploy his fleet at a narrow pass on Lake Champlain to intercept the British fleet. Wynkoop’s flotilla arrived at Ticonderoga, but the commodore proclaimed that he was commander and declined taking orders from Arnold, infuriating Gates. Gates ordered Wynkoop’s arrest. On 29 August, Gates dispatched General David Waterbury in place of Wynkoop. During that period of turbulence, the Americans in the Northern Department had another nemesis in addition to the British: smallpox. However, toward the latter part of August, Gates informed General Washington that the disease had been eliminated. On 11 October, Benedict Arnold’s improvised fleet engaged the British on Lake Champlain and took a beating, but still, the beleaguered Americans fought a successful delaying action that prevented the

British from linking with General William Howe. On 15 November 1776, Congress was informed by letter from General Gates that the British were abandoning Crown Point and returning to Canada. On 20 November, Generals Gates, Arnold and Schuyler held a war council and determined the British threat to Crown Point to be over. The troops, except those of the garrison, were directed to return to their homes for the winter. With that threat over, General Gates was able to lead reinforcements who had been participants in the Canadian expedition to join with Washington on 20 December to meet the British threat against Philadelphia. Gates met with Washington at his headquarters in Pennsylvania on the 22nd, but he became sick and unable to participate at Trenton. Instead, he journeyed to Baltimore where Congress was convening. Washington pulled off a spectacular victory at Trenton and then won another victory over the British at Princeton, terminating the threat against Philadelphia. On 20 February 1777, Congress ordered General Gates to resume his position as adjutant general, with retention of his rank. By the following month, on the 25th, Congress directed General Gates to assume command of the Northern Army at Ticonderoga. The assignment was concocted through favoritism of Gates in Congress at the expense of General Schuyler. In less than one week, General Arthur St. Clair was ordered to report to Ticonderoga to serve under Gates, but first, St. Clair was to report to Congress in Philadelphia. On 16 April, Congress, once informed of a plot to destroy the barges above Ticonderoga, instructed Gates to “take timely and effectual measures to prevent the execution of this pernicious project.” However, orders again changed on 15 May; Congress ordered General Schuyler to assume command of the Northern Department and offered General Gates the option of serving under Schuyler or accepting the appointment as adjutant general. On 8 July, General Gates was ordered by Congress to travel to Washington’s headquarters at Morristown, New Jersey. But orders were changed yet again on August 4 and Gates was directed to assume command of the Northern Army. Meanwhile, General St. Clair had abandoned Ticonderoga and General Schuyler had been accused of neglect of duty (he was later acquitted of all charges). Gates assumed command on 19 August and retained the post until April of the following year. General Schuyler remained in the service and immediately offered positive help to Gates. By that time, General John Burgoyne’s Redcoats and their Indian allies continued to press the Americans. On 30 August, Burgoyne protested to Gates about treatment of captive Tories at Ticonderoga, but Gates responded with a list of the specific atrocities committed by the Indians against the Americans, including those Indians operating with St. Leger who failed to reduce Fort Stanwix (Fort Schuyler). Burgoyne continued his advance to hook up with General Henry Clinton, but two fierce engagements, the First and Second Battles of Saratoga on 19 September and 7 October 1777, respectively, halted the British progress and eliminated Burgoyne’s entire army from the conflict. St. Leger had already turned back and headed to Canada, having failed to gain supplies at Bennington due to the tenacity of the Americans under General John Stark on the 16th of August. General Gates became the hero of Saratoga; however, he never left his headquarters. The field command was handled by General Arnold and Daniel Morgan, the former having no command at all. Arnold took to the field despite orders from Gates to remain at headquarters. On 11 October, General Gates was about to be drawn into a conspiracy to oust General Washington. General Thomas Conway, having only recently complained to Congress about General William Alexander (Lord Stirling), penned a letter to Gates detailing his thoughts on stripping Washington of his command. Conway wrote that Gates should be Washington’s replacement. Later, General Alexander handed

131 a copy of the letter to Washington. Others, including General Thomas Mifflin, were allied with Conway. Meanwhile, on 13 October, General Burgoyne, out of options, called for a cease fire, which was agreed upon by General Gates. The next day Burgoyne agreed to surrender. Shortly thereafter, on 17 October, Gates sent Colonel James Wilkinson on the mission to inform Congress of Burgoyne’s capitulation, but intentionally, he failed to inform General Washington. Congress awarded Gates a gold medal, and the messenger, Wilkinson, was promoted to brigadier general. After the defeat of Burgoyne, Gates was charged by Congress with constructing forts along the Hudson and to order vessels to ensure domination of the river. Toward the latter part of November 1777, Gates began to consider a plan to again invade Canada, but his idea was opposed, particularly by General Washington. Nonetheless, the proposal was not totally discarded until 1779. Also in November, Gates was appointed as president of the new Board of War, at a time when some in Congress were working to relieve Washington of command. By the 23rd of December, the plot to replace Washington was exposed and had failed. General Conway, one of the instigators, was later forced to resign. General John Cadwalader, infuriated by the conspiracy, seriously wounded Conway in a duel. Conway thought he was about to die and cleared his conscience in a letter to Washington by acknowledging his complicity in the plot and asking forgiveness. Washington held no grudge and Conway survived. Nevertheless, he never served again; rather, he returned to France where he later died. The failed plot became known as he Conway Cabal. In January 1778, Congress directed that the Board of War travel to meet with General Washington, but on 20 January, the board reported to Congress that Gates was unable to make the trip and that someone should be sent in his place. On 15 April, Congress ordered Gates to repair to Fishkill on the Hudson River and take charge of the troops there. Two days later, Congress resolved “that Brigadier Stark be employed in the northern department [formerly New York Department] under the command of General Gates.” The records of the U.S. Army list General Stark as the commanding officer of the Northern Department from 22 January 1778 until 19 October 1778. With Gates at Fishkill, Congress, on 4 May 1778, directed him to provide protection to the Indians by resolving “that General Gates be directed to afford all that protection to the Oneida and Tuscarora tribes, and others of the Six Indian Nations, which the commissioners for Indian affairs in the northern department, promised them in behalf of the United States; and that a copy of the resolution of the said commissioners, passed on this subject, the 15 day of April last, be transmitted to General Gates.” On the 20th, Gates assumed command of the Highlands Department (New York). He succeeded Brigadier General Alexander McDougal. Gates held the post until 24 November 1778, when he assumed command of the Eastern Department, replacing Major General William Heath. Gates, the final commander of the department, remained at the post until November 1779. On 11 August 1779, General John Sullivan initiated an expedition (Allegheny River Expedition) in conjunction with another force under Colonel Daniel Brodhead, which departed New York and Fort Pitt in Pennsylvania respectively. General Gates moved to Providence to replace General Sullivan, who had commanded there. During 1778, General Gates communicated with various members of the Continental Congress, as well as officers in the military and the press, in an attempt to tear down the character of General Washington. Gates also had an article, titled “Vindication,” published in the Pennsylvania Packet on 3 December 1778 that infuriated friends of Washington, including General Anthony Wayne and Colonel John Laurens, with the latter challenging Gates to a duel for his unflattering remarks. Laurens was unscathed in the contest, but Gates was wounded. General Wayne also challenged Gates, but the wound he

GATES

had sustained in the duel with Laurens prevented Wayne from getting satisfaction. The British regained control of Augusta, Georgia, on 29 January 1779, the month following the fall of Savannah. Afterward the British continued to make progress in the South. Charleston fell on 12 May 1780. Due to the devastating defeat of General Benjamin Lincoln at Charleston, Congress, on 13 June, commissioned Gates as commanding officer of the Southern Department. His selection by Congress was unanimous; however, General Washington had recommended the quartermaster general, Nathanael Greene. General Gates had been on leave since the previous November, leaving him with few things to finalize before heading south. When General Gates departed for the South, his wife, Mary, left New York and returned to their home in Virginia. Gates arrived at his command during July and relieved the temporary commander, General John de Kalb. Gates officially assumed command of the Southern Army on 25 July. Soon after, he prepared to advance and intercept the British. General de Kalb remained with the force. Gates, having no working knowledge of the terrain in the South nor of the southern militia units, set out on the 27th for Camden. He disregarded suggestions by others, including General de Kalb, believing Camden would easily capitulate. Along the route, his army was unable to successfully forage due to the lack of food and the situation became so critical, mutiny nearly overtook the force, when promised food supplies never arrived. The exhausted column arrived at Clermont (Rugeley’s Mills), South Carolina, on 13 August. They made it through the swamps, but still food was scarce, compelling the troops, their ranks slimmed to about 4,000 men, to consume unripened corn, peaches and apples. Gates would have had additional troops, but he turned down the cavalry unit under Colonel William Washington. The Americans under Gates clashed with Cornwallis’ army at Camden on 16 August, fighting British who had been well supplied while the raw fruit and corn eaten by Gates’ force sickened most of the men. The battle erupted in pitch darkness, giving the British yet another advantage, as they had been familiar with the terrain. Gates and his forces hurriedly retired to Charlotte, North Carolina, while Baron de Kalb and the Continental troops attempted to forestall disaster. Gates’ army had been thrashed, but he was not on scene to witness the defeat. It was reported that he made the eighty-mile getaway without ever leaving his saddle. De Kalb was wounded and the British then disregarded his rank when informed of de Kalb’s position by his aide. The British fired again. He died shortly after being taken prisoner. Gates, prior to his premature departure from the field, remained in the rear with the reserves and never entered the fight. De Kalb had been wounded eleven times before he died. On 27 November 1780, Gates arrived at Hillsborough, North Carolina, and on 2 December at Charlotte to confer with his successor, General Nathanael Greene. Within one week, Gates headed north, leaving the Carolinas and terminating his active military career. He retired in Virginia, where his wife, Mary, awaited his return. On 21 May 1781, subsequent to considering a committee report, Congress passed a resolution “directing a court of enquiry to be held on the conduct of Major General Gates, as commander of the southern army....” A congressional committee cleared Gates of blame for the loss at Camden. In 1782, Gates was reinstated in the army, but by that time, there was no further need of his service in the field. About 1790, Horatio and his wife, Mary, having freed their slaves, left Virginia, returned to New York (Manhattan), and established residence in a home located in the vicinity of Twenty-Third and Second Avenue, where he led a private life, except for one term in the New York legislature. General Gates succumbed on 10 April 1806 and was survived by his wife, whom he always referred to as “My Mary.” Gates’ son, an officer in the Continental Army, was killed at the Battle of Camden.

GERRY

132

Gerry, Elbridge (Signer of the Declaration of Independence and Framer of the U.S. Constitution) Elbridge Gerry was born in Marblehead, Massachusetts, on 17 July 1744, the third of five children in the family of Thomas and Elizabeth Gerry. The other children were Thomas, John, Elizabeth and Samuel Russell. The town is located slightly northeast of Boston in the vicinity of Massachusetts Bay. His father, Thomas Gerry, a merchant, immigrated to America from Newton, England, during 1730, and after his arrival married Elizabeth, thought to be the only daughter of Enoch and Rebecca Russell Greenleaf. Enoch was a local merchant. Detailed personal information of Elbridge as a youth is scant; however, it is known that he entered Harvard at about age thirteen. Elbridge completed his studies and graduated with a bachelor of arts during 1762. His intent to enter the medical field got sidetracked when he became involved with commercial enterprises, initially working in the counting house of his father and afterward, independently with the backing of his father. Elbridge’s father engaged in shipping; the family owned vessels that specialized in transporting dried codfish to Barbados and Spain. As a businessman, Elbridge Gerry succeeded extremely well, and as time moved along, he was able to accumulate much wealth. While still young, he became a prominent citizen of Marblehead, and as the tension continued to intensify between the British and the colonies, Gerry had become anchored with the Patriots who were opposing the king’s taxes. Gerry’s fellow colonists in Marblehead elected him to the Massachusetts general court during in 1772. The following year, they again chose him as a representative of Marblehead at the court. Also in 1773, an outbreak of smallpox struck New England, and in Massachusetts, Gerry was among a group that organized the construction of a hospital on an island. The endeavor caused problems, as the building was of insufficient size to accommodate all of the sick, and the less wealthy began to believe they were being ignored. In addition, some people became infected while in the hospital and carried the disease back to the mainland. At about the same time, the Boston Tea Party occurred, then a mob burned the hospital to the ground. Meanwhile, leaders were emerging to oppose the king and Parliament and of those in Massachusetts, John Adams, Samuel Adams and John Hancock had been catapulted to primary roles. Gerry, like them, held firm in his opposition to the Crown. It was Elbridge Gerry’s proposal that prompted the establishment of committees of correspondence that began to emerge throughout the province. Gerry said in a letter to John Adams, dated 12 May 1774: “The whole business of life seems involved in one great question, what is best to be done for our country?” Gerry refused to accept re-election to the general court that month and resigned his position as a member of the Marblehead committee of correspondence due to some unprofessional activity by some in that area. As a member of the new Provincial Congress, Gerry was among those who assembled in Cambridge in February 1775 when it was proclaimed that there was a distaste for violence, yet the Americans had to initiate defensive measures against anticipated British tactics. The Provincial Congress was organized in Salem but adjourned and moved to Concord. The suspected British actions proved true when they advanced toward Lexington and Concord during April of 1775. Part of the British plan was to seize prominent leaders, including Gerry, John Hancock and Samuel Adams, but most — including Samuel Adams, Colonel John Glover, John Hancock and Benjamin Lincoln—had departed the Black Horse Tavern inn in Menotomy (Arlington), a section of the township of Cambridge where the Provincial Congress’ committees of safety and of supplies had been meeting. However, some of the men — Elbridge Gerry, Colonel Azor Orne and Colonel Jeremiah Lee (Massachusetts militia)— remained for he night. The British arrived during the night of the 18th–19th, unaware that the Patriots had been warned of their movement, and they discovered

no rebels. Those who were there made an expeditious exit from their beds and disappeared into a cornfield to the rear of the tavern to foil the plot. The British conducted a thorough search of the premises, going room-byroom, but in vain. Gerry had departed in such haste that he left his watch behind, under his pillow, but the British didn’t notice it, and later it was retrieved. Hancock, another of the target, had departed Menotomy earlier for Lexington. Nonetheless, that Elbridge Gerry (Biographical Sketches incursion at Lexington and of the Signers of the Declaration of Concord, combined with the Independence, Benson J. Lossing, 1854) British manhunt for American leaders, galvanized the Patriots. Colonel Lee, who remained in the cornfield, suffered grave consequences. The chill and the damp air caused him to become ill and he died within a few months. Several days after the incident, the congress again convened. The fire that had been simmering was ignited at that first shot at Lexington, and that small band of rebels survived extinction to join with other colonists to battle the British in a confrontation that would last for about eight years. In Massachusetts, the decision had been made to resist; however, the Patriots were heavily handicapped. They had no magazines containing arms and their stock of ammunition was insufficient to supply the militia. Elbridge Gerry was selected to head a committee to acquire the arms. During June, when the British launched the attack against Breed’s Hill (Bunker Hill), the Massachusetts Provincial Congress was holding session at Watertown. Elbridge Gerry’s colleague who shared a room with him, Doctor Joseph Warren, the president of the congress, departed Watertown on the night of the 16th. He fought and died in the battle on the following day. Gerry, in addition to gathering arms, was also one of the men charged with drawing up a blueprint authorizing the fitting out of privateers. Gerry, chairman of the committee, along with Governor Sullivan, provided a plan that included the establishment of a court of admiralty, essentially usurping the power of the king, the only person with the power to grant letters of marque and of reprisal. The action, from the perspective of the king and Parliament, placed another notch against Gerry as a wanted ringleader of the rebels. Gerry was selected to be a judge on the court of admiralty, representing Essex, Middlesex and Suffolk. By 18 January the next year, Gerry had been selected as a Massachusetts delegate to the Continental Congress, along with John Adams, Samuel Adams, John Hancock and Robert Treat Paine. He traveled to Philadelphia, presented his credentials, which were accepted, and took his seat on 9 February 1776, just as the colonies were nearing the decisive vote on independence. As a member of the Congress, Gerry voted for adoption of the Declaration of Independence; however, he was not in attendance on 2 August 1776, when the members began to sign the document. He added his name later in the year. Gerry remained in Congress well beyond the close of hostilities and also played a key part in many of the decisions made during the war. On 17 April 1777, Congress appointed Elbridge Gerry to a committee to solve the problem of discipline in the army. Subsequently, following the adoption of the Articles of Confederation (15 November 1777) and the announcement of John Hancock’s retirement as president of Congress, a member brought up consideration of a vote of thanks for

133 the president’s actions to bring about the adoption of the articles. Gerry, supposedly a close friend of John Hancock, opposed it, arguing that all had accomplished the success of the articles and each deserved thanks. His stance was based on the concept that no president deserved thanks for carrying out their official duties. Nonetheless, his objections were overcome and Hancock received the vote of thanks. Subsequently, each of the thirteen states ratified the articles and the confederation became effective 1 March 1781. The Continental Congress Journal notes on that day that Elbridge Gerry signed the document. On 28 November 1777, while Congress was in session in York, Pennsylvania, it resolved “that a committee of three be appointed forthwith to repair to the army, and, in a private confidential consultation with General Washington, to consider of the best and most practicable means for carrying on a winter’s campaign with vigour and success.” Elbridge Gerry, Joseph Jones and Robert Morris were placed on the committee. During 1778, Congress passed a prohibition of “theatrical entertainment, horse racing and gaming,” and then in reaction to some officers who ignored the legislation, Congress resolved “that any person holding an office under the United States who shall act, promote, encourage or attend such plays shall be deemed unworthy to hold such office and shall be accordingly dismissed.” At the time, gambling had been spreading about the colonies with enterprises being operated even on the river aboard flatboats. Gerry, as a Democratic-Republican (presentday Democrat), supported those resolutions and other similar legislation. He was also a strong supporter of Congress selecting and proclaiming days of prayer and fasting with thanks to God. Elbridge Gerry had spent much time until 1779 on the Board of Treasury, which oversaw the finances of the Congress, and although Gerry was vehemently against speculators and price fixing, his presence on the committee provided him as a merchant with information that aided his own business interests; however, he apparently was not guilty of unfair practices. In addition, Gerry was instrumental in establishing a general hospital, and he was deeply involved with alleviating the financial problems that plagued Congress and threatened the newly emerging nation. He remained a defender of honest government and an advocate of the military. During 1779, on 14 October, it was Gerry who proposed the expedition commanded by General John Sullivan against the Indians. Gerry retired from Congress in 1780 after a bitter argument with colleagues revolving around the financial dilemma caused by the war. He departed without notice and remained absent until he returned during 1783. In the interim, Gerry became involved in privateering, and he spent some time in the lower house of the Massachusetts legislature. In 1783, after being selected by both houses of the Massachusetts legislature, he took his seat in Congress during August and remained in that position until September 1785. During the conflict with the British, Gerry had become known as the “friend of the soldier,” however, some contradictions were attached to his legacy. He was not a proponent of soldiers’ pensions, and with regard to the military, he favored long-term enlistments while opposing a standard army. While in New York during 1786, Elbridge married Anne Thompson, the daughter of James and Catherine Walton Thompson. Anne’s mother was a sister of Mary Walton, who married Lewis Morris, another signer. Anne’s father was a prominent merchant who afterward returned from New York to Massachusetts. Anne had been born in Dublin, Ireland, during 1763, and at the time of her birth she had two older brothers who attended Edinburgh University in Scotland. Her brothers, after completing their education, entered the British army, but never saw service in the American colonies. In 1787, Gerry and his family relocated to Cambridge and resided on an estate which he purchased that had been confiscated from a Tory. While in retirement, which lasted only a short while, Elbridge Gerry was selected as a delegate to the Constitutional Convention in Philadel-

GERRY

phia from which the U.S. Constitution was adopted during September 1787; however, Gerry was opposed to parts of the blueprint and declined giving it his support to the end, when he refused to sign it. Gerry described in a letter his reasons for holding back support: “There is no provision for a representation of the people; that they have no security for the right of election; that some of the powers of the legislature are ambiguous and others indefinite and dangerous.” He penned other objections; however, he also said he believed that the Constitution had “great merit” and with appropriate amendments would lead to the “preservation of liberty.” Nonetheless, Gerry had gained a reputation at the Convention as being cantankerous and against anything that he had not personally proposed. Gerry paid a high political price inflicted by those who supported the Constitution. Ironically, during 1789, after being the greatest adversary of the Constitution in Massachusetts and the person who led the state’s efforts to derail it, he reversed his position and proclaimed that he supported the Constitution. The move revitalized his popularity and he was sent back to Congress, the first under the Constitution. Once there, he advocated policies of the Federalists to the dismay of the Democratic-Republicans. After serving four years, he again took steps to retire from public life during 1793. After returning to private life, Gerry again changed his ideology; having lost confidence in the Federalists, he switched allegiance to the Democratic-Republicans, the latter being pro French. However, once again, his personal plans were derailed when President John Adams, successor to President George Washington, addressed Congress on 15 June 1797 with regard to restoring friendly relations with France. Gerry, along with General Charles Pinckney and John Marshall (chief justice) were appointed as extraordinary ministers, charged with traveling to France to bring about an end to the hostilities (Quasi-War with France) between the two nations. The French informed Pinckney that they would not receive any ministers until the United States rectified the grievance. Upon arrival of the Americans in France, the French court essentially ignored their official status. Lesser government officials stalled them and insisted upon outrageous monetary payments prior to the start of negotiations. In turn, the Americans ignored the coercion, while biding their time. Nevertheless, by spring of 1788, the French remained obstinate and announced that Pinckney and Marshall were no longer permitted to remain in France. Gerry was to remain, which he did, but his refusal to depart with the other commissioners was viewed harshly by many back in the United States. Gerry, convinced he had to remain to keep communications from being totally severed, refused to negotiate; however, he was used by the French during the XYZ Affair (1798–1799), which was the creation of Charles de Talleyrand, French foreign minister. Gerry, in accordance with a recall by President John Adams, finally departed Paris during the latter part of July 1798 and arrived back in the United States in early October. On 15 January 1779, all correspondence between Gerry and the French ministers that occurred since the departure of the other American ministers was placed before Congress on 15 January 1779. Charles Coatesworth Pinckney left for posterity his summation of the French bribery attempt: “Millions for defence, but not one cent for tribute.” Gerry, upon his return to America, delivered assurances to Congress from France that peace could be attained. A new commission later arrived in France and, as predicted by Gerry, peace came about. The conflict was confined to the sea. No land battles between France and the United States occurred during that period. Meanwhile, Gerry, on four separate occasions, lost his bid to become governor due to a majority of his constituents holding much resentment to his condescending or aristocratic attitude. During 1805, Gerry was selected as a member of the Electoral College. In 1810, he was finally elected governor of Massachusetts, a position he held for two years. During his term, Gerry redistricted the state to give his party (De-

GIBSON

134

mocratic-Republican) an advantage in future elections. From that action that the term gerrymandering originated. In 1812, Gerry was nominated as the vice president on the ticket with James Madison (second term). Madison and Gerry were elected and sworn into office on 4 March 1813. George Clymer had been vice president during the first term of Madison, but he succumbed in April of 1812. At the time of his acceptance to be vice president on the Democratic-Republican ticket, Gerry’s fortune had diminished to the point where he was close to poverty and his health had also become poor. On 24 November 1814, while en route to the Senate, he succumbed. His death at age seventy was sudden and unexpected. Elbridge Gerry was interred in the Congressional Cemetery in Washington, D.C. His widow, Anne Thompson Gerry, lived until 1849, to become the last surviving wife of a signer of the Declaration of Independence. After the death of her husband, Anne disposed of their home in Cambridge and relocated in New Haven, Connecticut. Elbridge was also survived by three sons and six daughters: Catherine (married James T. Austin); Eliza (married Major David Townsend); Ann; Elbridge; Thomas Russell; Helen Maria; James Thompson; Eleanor Stanford; and Emily Louise. Emily Louise lived until 1894 and was the last surviving daughter of a signer of the Declaration of Independence.

Gibson, Brigadier General John John Gibson, the son of George and Elizabeth De Vinez Gibson, was born on 23 May 1740 in Lancaster, Pennsylvania. John’s mother was the daughter of a French count, a Huguenot who had fled to Ireland. John’s father owned a tavern in Lancaster known by the name Hickory Tree. It was located where the Slaymaker’s hotel later stood. George and his wife, Elizabeth, had three other children, George (later a colonel) and two daughters. One daughter married Captain Jacob Slow of the Continental Army and the other married a Mr. Reed. John Gibson received a classical education. At the age of eighteen, he entered the militia and participated in the campaign of General John Forbes that seized Fort Duquesne from the French during 1758. Forbes planned to attack, but the French abandoned the post, permitting the English to seize it without incident on 14 November 1758. The post was afterward renamed Fort Pitt. Gibson then relocated to Pittsburgh, where Fort Pitt was located, and established himself as a trader. Later, when the conflict known as Pontiac’s War erupted in 1763, Gibson, while transacting his business, got snagged in the conflict. The Indians ambushed Gibson’s canoe which was moving down the Ohio River until the canoe was intercepted at the mouth of the Beaver, slightly less than thirty miles from Fort Pitt. Two others were with Gibson. One was instantly put to the stake and killed by a barbarous method; the other was temporarily spared. However, once the band and the captives arrived at the Kanawa, the other man with Gibson received equally torturous treatment and was murdered there. Gibson was spared death through the fortuitous intervention of an Indian squaw, known to have lost her son in battle. She saved Gibson’s life by adopting him. During the following year, 1764, Gibson was handed over to Colonel Henry Bouquet. Afterward, Gibson resumed his life at Pittsburgh. His various experiences with the Indians from his activity as a trader and even as a captive came to be of value during 1774, during the period of turbulence with the Indians known as Dunmore’s War. Gibson’s familiarity with the Indian language permitted him to act as an interpreter for Lord Dunmore during the negotiation that brought about peace. In the meantime, General Andrew Lewis, without the support of Lord Dunmore, the latter never having arrived as anticipated, engaged the Indians in a major battle on 10 October. At the time, there was great animosity between Dunmore and Lewis. Dunmore remained at Fort Pitt during the fighting. At the time, unknown to Lewis, many

Indians in Chief Logan’s tribe had been killed by colonists and huge numbers from various tribes were moving against Lewis’ command. Initially, on 10 October, the Indians were close to annihilating the trapped column, but the tide turned and General Lewis prevailed, scoring a devastating victory. Meanwhile, as Dunmore was holding parleys with the Indians to try to bring a cessation to the hostilities, Gibson translated the reaction of Chief Logan to the massacre of Logan’s family. Chief Logan, an ally of the Americans, said: “I appeal to any white man to say if ever he entered Logan’s cabin hungry, and he gave him nothing to eat. If ever he came cold and naked, and he clothed him not.” With regard to the killings, he said: “I had even thought to have lived with you, but for the injuries of one man, captain Cresap, the last spring, in cold blood, and unprovoked, murdered all the relations of Logan, sparing not even my women and children. There runs not a drop of my blood in any living creature. This called on me for revenge: I have sought it. I have killed many; I have glutted my vengeance ... who is there to mourn for Logan?— not one!” Captain Cresap received blame for the killings, but it is thought that he was not present when the incident occurred. Logan, a Mingo chief, was at the Scioto River in Pickaway County, Ohio, when he made his statements. The speech, noted as remarkably eloquent, initially was accepted as Logan’s; however, as time passed and the passages were scrutinized more closely, certain passages seemed beyond the vocabulary of an Indian chief. It is thought that the “genius” of the translator, who also spoke French and Spanish, might well have embellished the translation with a little poetic license. The elm tree believed to be the place of his speech was later identified. In October 1912, the people in Pickaway County presented the tree to the State of Ohio. It was protected by an iron railing and intended to be in memory of Chief Logan. When the American Revolution erupted, John Gibson was an agent of Virginia at Pittsburgh, but he had still not entered the Continental Army. John’s brother George, who had also served in Dunmore’s War in the west, returned to his residence at Westover Mills in the Sherman Valley, Pennsylvania, where he had relocated from Silver Springs (Cumberland County), Pennsylvania, during 1773. George received his commission as a captain in the 1st Virginia on 2 February 1776, but John did not receive his commission as a lieutenant colonel (13th Virginia) until 12 November 1776. John Gibson’s services to the nation around the time the war erupted was spent among the western Indians in search of allies and peace, while George’s early entrance into the Continental Army placed him with General Hugh Mercer, where he saw duty in New York and New Jersey prior to being charged with a spectacularly dangerous mission by Congress. George was dispatched to Spanish controlled New Orleans to acquire gunpowder. The mission succeeded, with Gibson’s party posing as traders, gaining about 100 barrels of powder and getting it delivered to Fort Henry on 2 May 1777. In the meantime, John’s destiny centered on the frontier. During October 1776, John Gibson was an Indian agent for Virginia at Pittsburgh, but soon was succeeded by Richard Butler. Following that, Congress took it upon itself to negotiate with the Indians in the west by sending George Morgan to Fort Pitt as Indian agent. On 12 June 1778, Congress, after consideration of a letter dated 28 May from General George Washington, resolved “that a commission of colonel in the Virginia line be granted to Lieutenant Colonel John Gibson (6th Virginia Regiment); he to rank as colonel from the twentyfifth day of October, 1777.” He transferred to the 14th Virginia on 14 September 1778. Later that year General Lachlan McIntosh initiated an advance into the Indian territory en route to Detroit; however, no major battles ensued. On 4 November the column departed Fort McIntosh, entered Ohio, and established Fort Laurens and present-day Bolivar. The army advanced no further. McIntosh returned to Fort Pitt during

135 February 1789, leaving a contingent under Colonel John Gibson at Fort Laurens. The winter of 1778–1779 made it especially difficult for Gibson’s command, and the Indians in the region, having become enraged at the erection of the fort, maintained great pressure against the garrison, preventing the troops from venturing out for food and supplies. A relief train departed Fort McIntosh to resupply the troops, but during the return trip, it was attacked and some casualties resulted. Even though Gibson received supplies, soon the stores dwindled to dangerous levels and the fort was threatened. The Indians, through British Captain Henry Bird, demanded surrender. Gibson ignored the ultimatum. the Indians issued new demands, believing Gibson had insufficient food on hand. The demand called for one barrel of flour and one barrel of bacon, and the Indians agreed to lift the siege once it was delivered. Gibson, in an attempt to give the illusion that the garrison was well stocked with food, sent out the barrels. The nearly starved garrison became ecstatic when it became evident that the Indians bought the ruse. They departed on the following day, leaving tracks in the heavy snow as they traveled. The fort survived until the relief column arrived on 23 March. The sight of the approaching column, composed of several hundred regulars, so impressed the troops that they fired in celebration. The pack horses were not impressed. They stampeded, taking many of the provisions with them. Following that duty, Colonel John Gibson returned to Fort Pitt. There Colonel Gibson accused Colonel Daniel Brodhead of misusing public funds, and the accusations led to a court-martial. Gibson succeeded Brodhead as temporary commander at Fort Pitt during September 1779; however, Colonel Brodhead was acquitted of all charges, following his court-martial, held in February 1782. Meanwhile, General William Irvine became the permanent commander of the Western Department in place of Colonel Brodhead. On 12 February 1781, he transferred to the 7th Virginia Regiment. Colonel John Gibson’s service continued at Fort Pitt for the duration of the war. Colonel Gibson later became a delegate to the Pennsylvania Convention (1790) that established the Pennsylvania constitution. In addition, he became a judge in Allegheny County and was appointed a major general in the state militia. During 1800, President Thomas Jefferson appointed General Gibson secretary of the Indiana Territory. He retained the position until Indiana became the nineteenth state during 1816. General Gibson is frequently referred to as the second territorial governor of the Indiana Territory; he only assumed the duties of governor when Governor William Henry Harrison was absent. Once Indiana became a state, General Gibson left and returned to Pennsylvania. General John Gibson succumbed at Braddock’s Field, Pennsylvania, and was interred in Allegheny Cemetery in Pittsburgh. The general’s tombstone states that he died on 16 April 1822. His wife, Ann was buried in the same place. Ann’s tombstone states that she was born in Carlisle on 15 November 1762 and that she died on 19 July 1833. Traditional stories have been handed down that General Gibson had married a daughter of Chief Logan, but there is no evidence to validate any such marriage or the accompanying tale that a child was produced through the marriage.

Gilman, Nicholas (Signer of the U.S. Constitution) Nicholas Gilman, the son of Nicholas, Sr., and Ann Gilman, was born in Exeter, New Hampshire, on 3 August 1755. His parents had seven other children, including Nicholas’ brothers John and Nathaniel. Nicholas’ father was an affluent merchant; the family also was involved in ship building. Nicholas, Sr., also served in the militia as well as holding public office as state treasurer. Earlier, an ancestor of Nicholas, John Gilman, established the Gilman Garrison House at Exeter during 1690, and later generations of the Gilman family continued to improve it. (During the 1950s, the garrison house on Water Street was restored.)

GILMAN

During the French and Indian War, Nicholas, Sr., served as commander of the Exeter militia. The younger Nicholas attended school in the town of Exeter and later worked in the family business. During the American Revolution, when Congress issued the Declaration of Independence, Nicholas was about twenty years old, but later he served in the military and as an officer on General George Washington’s staff while the Continental Army was headquartered for winter 1777–1778 at Valley Forge. Meanwhile, Nicholas’ father was deeply involved with the crisis. Like Colonel (later general) Enoch Poor and Nathaniel Folsom, the elder Nicholas was looked upon in Exeter as a leader. He was a member of the Provincial Congress and served as state treasurer during the war. When the British marched against Lexington and Concord during April 1775, John (later governor), an older brother of Nicholas, participated with the Exeter militia when it advanced to Boston to support the forces already there. At the time, John held the rank of sergeant. Later, just prior to the Battle of Bunker Hill, John took a break from his military duties to marry Deborah Folsom, the daughter of General Nathaniel and Mary Smith Folsom, on June 13 1776. By the following year, Nicholas Gilman was in the midst of the war activity. In November 1776, he was appointed as adjutant of the 3rd New Hampshire Regiment and at the time, the unit was being reorganized under the command of Colonel Alexander Scammel. Initially Nicholas was an important link in the regiment due to his natural talent with administration skills. With his assistance, Colonel Scammel was able to build the regiment into a seasoned fighting force, by gathering veterans who received their baptism under fire at Trenton and beyond during 1776–1777. In addition, recruits were pulled into the regiment from all points in the state. By spring 1777, the regiment was on the march pursuant to orders to advance to Ticonderoga, where a British threat had developed. General John Burgoyne was in the process of driving through the state toward Albany, where he intended to link with General Henry Clinton, who was en route from New York to Albany. The regiment was at Ticonderoga when General Arthur St. Clair ordered a retreat. Occupation of Ticonderoga by Burgoyne’s forces bolstered the morale of the British. In the meantime, General Horatio Gates replaced General Philip Schuyler as commander of the Northern Department, a move prompted by the abandonment of Ticonderoga; however, Schuyler was not there at the time and the retreat was ordered by General St. Clair. Both general officers were later exonerated of wrongdoing. Meanwhile, aggressive measures were taken to slow progress and Burgoyne fell victim to his extended supply line and harassment action, while the Americans began to bolster their positions. Burgoyne sustained further setbacks at the Battle of Bennington and the failed siege of Fort Stanwix. Reinforcements continued to flow into American lines near Saratoga; some were from New Hampshire, commanded by Nicholas’ father, and another, John Langdon (later signer of the Constitution). The British also were defeated at the First and Second Battles of Saratoga, which compelled Burgoyne to surrender his army during October. And the Americans also blocked General Clinton from reaching Albany or linking with Burgoyne. During the Saratoga Campaign, Nicholas Gilman was primarily confined to training troops; however, he did participate in the two major battles in which General Benedict Arnold and Colonel Daniel Morgan vanquished Burgoyne. General Gates received credit for the victory, but he never entered the field, remaining in his headquarters during both major battles. In the meantime, General George Washington remained under great pressure at Philadelphia since the seizure of the capital by the British. Following the British capitulation at Saratoga, many of the militia units returned to their homes, but the Continental units either remained or were sent to another hot spot. The 3rd New Hampshire was ordered to bolster Washington. Gilman had the pleasure of being

GIST

136

introduced to a frigid winter at Valley Forge that rivaled winter in New England, but lacked many of the necessities that he would have had at hand’s reach back in Exeter. Nevertheless, one would suspect that Gilman, through some luck, did encounter some comfort. His commanding officer, Colonel Scammel, was appointed as adjutant by Washington. Subsequently, Scammel selected Gilman to be his assistant. About the time the army broke camp to pursue the British, who abandoned Philadelphia, Gilman was promoted during June 1778 to the rank of captain. Despite his lower level rank, Captain Gilman, as assistant to Scammel, had been directly in the circle of the various commanders, including Washington, and his diligence during the campaigns had paid dividends by allowing him to acquire deeper experience and become introduced to the challenges faced by the high command, while simultaneously gaining insight into the trials and tribulations of the average fighting man, militia and Continental Army. Following the clash at Monmouth on 28 June 1778, the British retired to New York, while the Americans began to modify their strategy to gain the advantage as the theater of war switched to the South. Captain Gilman accompanied the main body under Washington from the field of Monmouth to the siege of Yorktown. Monmouth became the final battle in the northern states, but the British were quick to attempt to regain the South. Savannah fell during January 1778 and Augusta followed, giving the British domination of Georgia, but afterward, on 12 May 1780, the situation worsened when Charleston fell. With its capitulation, General Benjamin Lincoln was compelled to surrender his entire army. The Continental Navy contingents that were at Charleston were unable to break to open seas. For a while, the preservation of the South relied only on some scattered militia and guerrilla units. Later, during January 1781, Colonel Scammel resigned as adjutant general to take command of the 1st New Hampshire; Captain Gilman also joined the regiment that day. In the meantime, General Nathanael Greene was ordered south to assume command in place of General Horatio Gates, who sustained yet another severe loss at Camden, South Carolina, on 16 August 1780. The defeat cost Gates his military career. Meanwhile, in South Carolina, the remnant forces held together until Greene assumed command and turned the corner toward success. Later, General Charles Cornwallis abandoned the Carolinas, leaving Lord Rawdon in command there, while he moved to Virginia. General Lafayette had been sent to evict British forces that were plundering parts of Virginia and, later, subsequent to the arrival of Cornwallis, a French fleet met Washington and the Continental Army at Philadelphia when they arrived after departing the North undiscovered by the British. The fleet, carrying the main body, sailed south to deliver the final blow to the British. Captain Gilman’s regiment participated in the siege of Yorktown, but for Gilman, the jubilance of victory was subdued due to the loss of his friend and commander Colonel Scammel. On 30 September 1781, less than one month before Cornwallis surrendered, Colonel Scammel was mortally wounded and captured. He died in captivity on 6 October. Nonetheless, Captain Gilman remained with the regiment for the duration. His father died during 1783, and at that time he resigned his commission. Within about three weeks his mother also died. Upon his return to Exeter, Gilman assumed the responsibilities previously handled by his father and continued to run the family business. He was also a lawyer, but at what time he was admitted to the bar was not determined. During 1786, Nicholas was elected to the Continental Congress and selected as a delegate to the Annapolis Convention called to devise ways to improve navigation and expand interstate commerce. Each state was requested to send delegates to the convention, but only a few did. Gilman did not attend. He was selected as a delegate to the Constitutional Convention held in Philadelphia during 1787 (May–September).

Gilman was a proponent of the Constitution and worked for its adoption; however, both he and John Langdon arrived late. The debates, discussions and proposals continued for some time without progress, but a proposal by New Jersey regarding equal representation in the Senate and representation by population in the House of Representatives seemed to satisfy those who feared domination by the large states to move toward a compromise for the good of the nation over regional convictions. The “Great Compromise,” was the key that opened the door to the birth of the republic under the U.S. Constitution, which was adopted on 17 September 1787. On the day following adoption of the Constitution, Gilman noted his opinion on the accomplishment by referring to the Constitution as “the best that could meet the unanimous concurrence of the States in Convention; it was done by bargain and Compromise, yet, notwithstanding its imperfections, on the adoption of it depends (in my feeble judgment) whether we shall become a respectable nation, or a people torn to pieces ... and rendered contemptible for ages.” Following adjournment, Gilman remained behind to resume his duties in Congress; however, his brother, John, also a fervent supporter of a strong and effective central government, worked with other supporters to gain ratification. It was required that nine states ratify the U.S. Constitution to make it effective. New Hampshire ratified on 21 June 1788, by a slim vote, which gave it the honor of casting the historical vote and becoming the ninth state to enter the union. The next March, the new Congress, acting under authority of the Constitution, opened its first session in conjunction with the termination of the old Congress. Nicholas Gilman was elected as a member of that initial U.S. Congress, and he remained in the House until 1797. In 1800, Gilman was elected to the New Hampshire Senate, where he served one term. Afterward, during 1801, in conjunction with a change in his political leanings from Federalist to a supporter of the Jeffersonian Democratic-Republicans (present-day Democrats), Gilman received a presidential appointment from President Thomas Jefferson as a federal bankruptcy commissioner. Gilman is said to have changed allegiance due to his conviction that there was a “need to protect the common man from abuses of power by government.” During 1804, Gilman was elected to the U.S. Senate. He served there from 1805 until his death on 2 May 1814, while the War of 1812 remained in progress. At the time of his death, the Senate had recessed and he was heading home to his brother Nathaniel’s house, where he lived. Gilman bequeathed most of his estate to Nathaniel. He was interred at the Winter Street Cemetery in Exeter. Nicholas’ brother John, a Federalist, served in the Continental Congress during 1782–1783 as successor to General John Sullivan, and he served as governor of New Hampshire from June 1794 until June 1805. He repeatedly lost bids for re-election until June 1813, when he was returned to the governorship and held the position until June 1816. John Gilman married three times: Deborah Folsom, Mary Adams, and Charlotte (Peabody) Hamilton. His brother Nathaniel served in state politics, but not nationally. Nathaniel’s first wife, Abigail Odlin, died after giving birth to her fourth child. Nathaniel later married a granddaughter of General Folsom, Deborah Folsom, having the identical name as his brother John’s wife, her aunt. Subsequent to the death of Nicholas, Sr., during 1783, Nathaniel inherited the family home on Front Street in Exeter, which had been purchased by his father during the year prior to his death.

Gist, Brigadier General Mordecai Mordecai Gist, the son of Captain Thomas and Susan (Susanna) Cockey Gist, was born on 22 February 1742 in Maryland. The history of the early years and those preceding the American Revolution regarding the life of Mordecai are scant at best; however, it is known that his family was affluent and had a strong military tradition. Mordecai married Cecil Carman of Baltimore during 1769; however, Cecil

137 succumbed during 1770. As early as 15 October 1774, Mordecai Gist was involved in the Patriots’ cause in Baltimore when Anthony Stewart, who had signed the pledge regarding non-importation, received a shipment of tea. The Patriots accepted his apology, but still demanded that the tea be destroyed. The ship Peggy Stewart (named for Anthony’s daughter) and its cargo of tea was burned on 19th; the occasion is still celebrated in Maryland as “Peggy Stewart’s Day.” Gist, prior to entering the military, was a member of the committee of observation in Baltimore County. At that time, Baltimore still had its share of Loyalists. Gist served in Major William Smallwood’s battalion and later as commanding officer of a unit known as the Baltimore Independents. During 1776, Maryland was directed by Congress to dispatch troops to New York to bolster the Continental Army under General George Washington. Gist was attached to the brigade of General William Alexander, Lord Stirling. During that campaign, the Battle of Long Island, Colonel William Smallwood was away (August 21–27) in New York on a court-martial, along with Lt. Colonel Francis Ware, leaving command of the 1st Maryland Regiment to Major Gist. Under his leadership, the Maryland regiment covered the retreat of the army. As the British pressure mounted, General Alexander (Lord Stirling) personally selected 400 troops under Gist and led them into the fire in the vicinity of the Cortelyou house, while directing the remainder of his force to retreat as best they could. Gist’s troops repeatedly lunged forward with their bayonets fixed. The British were stymied five times, and during the desperate thrusts, art times, the Marylanders were outnumbered by about ten to one. The troops displayed absolute fearlessness, yet all other troops had been ordered into retreat. Initially, as Gist’s troops advanced, it appeared to onlookers, including General Washington, that General Charles Cornwallis’ brigade was about to capture the gallant 400, until the bayonets flashed, then slashed through the lines of Redcoats, just after Washington had remarked: “Good God! What brave fellows I must this day lose.” On the sixth attack, the Marylanders inflicted more than punishment. The British lost their momentum and pulled back haphazardly. And then suddenly, other British troops, General James Grant’s brigade, struck from the rear, plucking victory from sure defeat. The little band was unable to overcome the superior numbers. General Lord Stirling and about forty men at the point were compelled to surrender, but three companies and Gist, again resorting to the bayonet for extra incentive to the British, fought their way through the lines and escaped. In October, Colonel Smallwood became wounded and again command of the regiment came under Gist. The combat at Long Island and afterward at White Plains and beyond, took a high toll on the Marylanders. When the regiment arrived in New York, it was composed of about 750 troops; by November 1776, it had been cut to about 300, and by the following month, it was barely operational, standing at only about 200 men. Gist was among those who were placed in hospitals. He was hospitalized in New Jersey as late as 12 October. The Maryland regiment was not the only unit that was hard hit. The British were badgering the Continental Army. Nevertheless, General Washington persevered, and after being chased through New York, out of New Jersey and into Pennsylvania, he rebounded by stunning the British, taking Trenton, New Jersey, on 26 December 1776. Shortly thereafter, Gist, having been promoted to colonel, returned to Maryland with Colonel Smallwood to recruit replacement troops and acquire supplies for the regiment. Recruiting had been much more difficult that anticipated and in the midst of that, the British instigated the Loyalists along the eastern shore to create havoc. Colonel Gist was diverted from recruiting and sent to quell the trouble. At the same time, the region was hit by an epidemic of smallpox. Nonetheless, after about six months, despite the multiple handicaps, Colonel Gist had recruited about 200 troops and sent them to join the main army under General Washington.

GIST

Colonel Gist did not return; rather, he and Smallwood were directed to command the Maryland militia, move to the Head of the Elk, from where the British were to advance against Philadelphia, and strike the right flank; however, Gist lacked a sufficient number of men and officers, impeding progress. Finally he was able to advance from the eastern shore on 10 September, but it was too little too late. By then the British were in the process of defeating General Washington at the Battle of Brandywine (September 10–11, 1777). Orders were immediately Mordecai Gist (Pictorial Field Book of changed and both Gist and the Revolution, Benson J. Lossing, 1860) Smallwood were directed to strike the rear of the British, which they did, but their movements were not coordinated. Gist and Smallwood acted independently. Meanwhile, Washington, concerned with his main body, also became increasingly worried about the Marylanders and the possibility of them being in the rear without any chance of receiving reinforcements. Both units were directed to join with Washington rather than risk being encircled and captured. While the Marylanders were in the process of joining General Anthony Wayne, the British found him first. Wayne was attacked at Paoli on 23 September in what is remembered as the “Paoli Massacre.” The Marylanders (militia) became unnerved, but the calm leadership of Colonel Gist brought about cohesion. The militia handily covered the rear, while the main body retreated. It became a harrowing mission and although Gist escaped serious harm, his horse was hit twice. Gist luckily was able to mount another horse and continue the mission. Afterward, Gist’s command joined with General Washington, and the Marylanders participated in the Battle of Germantown on 4 October 1777. Three days later, on 7 October, Washington was informed of British movement, and in anticipation of a general attack, he dispatched a contingent to intercept and delay the advance. The Marylanders under Colonel Gist and the Virginians under Colonel Morgan, through effective fire, persuaded the British to abort the advance. Cornwallis failed once again to draw Washington into a major duel. Meanwhile, the British returned to Philadelphia. Washington, in turn, moved to Valley Forge to establish winter quarters. Colonel Gist up to that point had maintained a balanced disposition, accepting the hardships of the conflict, but he began to change his attitude after having to promote some he believed were undeserving. He also was adamantly opposed to Valley Forge as the site selected for winter quarters, due to his belief that it was a poor location and that Germantown would have been better. In January 1778, Colonel Gist found time to get married, taking Mary Sterret, also of Baltimore, as his second wife. Later that year, Mary became grievously ill while being pregnant; however, circumstances prevented him from getting home until October. He remained with his wife until, in January 1779, a son was born. At nearly the same time, on 9 January Gist was promoted to the rank of brigadier general. General Gist was afterward charged with the defense of Maryland. In April 1780, the situation in the South was becoming precarious. The British were closing against Charleston, defended by General Benjamin Lincoln. By 12 May, the city capitulated and General Horatio Gates was ordered to assume command of the Department of the South

GLOVER

138

in place of Lincoln, who was captured with the fall of the city. General Gist and his Marylanders, along with units from Delaware, arrived in time to participate in the fiasco at the Battle of Camden on 16 August 1780. General Gates, the commander, remained at headquarters and fled from Camden to Hillsborough, North Carolina, along with North Carolina and Virginia militia. Gist remained in the thick of the fighting along with General John DeKalb, and both brigades performed meritoriously. The British, already familiar with Gist’s brigade being skilled with the bayonet, acted cautiously. Nevertheless, the brigades were forced from the field, due in great part because the force lacked cavalry. Gates had turned down Colonel William Washington when he committed his cavalry to the advance. General de Kalb was mortally wounded during the fighting at Camden. During September of that year, prior to being replaced by General Nathanael Greene, General Gates ordered General Gist to return to Maryland to initiate yet another recruiting mission. The recruiting program did not progress smoothly due to a variety of reasons, not the least of which was the absence of finances. In addition, Gist became ill. He was eventually able to raise a moderate force and lead it to Virginia; it was there when General George Washington vanquished General Charles Cornwallis at Yorktown in October 1781. Gist remained committed to the cause despite some disturbing events that, on occasion, had him pondering about resigning from the service, but apparently, the memories of the misery vanished upon his arrival at Yorktown. He later noted: “I feel my happiness augmented, by having had the honor to become one of the Generals commanding in the Trenches for the three last days of the Siege and particularly so when I reflect that the Surrender of Cornwallis and his Army must establish our Independence and pave the way to an honorable peace.” Gist’s brigade was composed of the 3rd and 4th Maryland Regiments, commanded by Lt. Colonel Peter Adams and Major Alexander Roxburg, respectively. Nonetheless, the glorious sensation of being among the victors did not immediately bring about the close of hostilities. General Nathanael Greene was still engaged in clearing the final pockets of British presence in the South and reinforcements were needed. Units from Maryland were among those dispatched to augment Greene during the final stages of the war in the Carolinas. General Gist had received command of light infantry corps prior to departing for South. Once there, the most pernicious enemy was the weather. Gist, amazingly, avoided sickness during the blistering heat of the summer, and he was a participant at the contest at Combahee Ferry on 27 August, but by October 1782, he was victimized and stranded on Kiawa Island without any genuine medical help. The British abandoned Charleston on 14 December 1782, but General Gist had not yet recovered and was too ill to participate in the re-occupation of the city. Due to his poor health, General Gist was assigned command of James Island, a non-strenuous task. He remained in South Carolina until July, and at that time, he returned to Maryland. Following his retirement from the army during November 1783, General Gist remained in Maryland only a short while. He was involved with the Maryland Chapter of the Society of the Cincinnati while there. He relocated to a plantation outside Charleston. General Gist, having also lost his second wife, Mary Sterret Gist, remarried, taking Mary (Polly) Cattell of Charleston as his third wife in 1784. Mary’s maiden name was McCall, and she was originally from Philadelphia. She was the widow of Benjamin Cattell. Mordecai Gist succumbed in Charleston on 12 September 1792. Some sources vary on his date of death; however, he was buried in the cemetery of St. Michael’s Church in Charleston and the date of death on his tombstone is 12 September. General Gist had two sons, whom he named Independence and States; Independence was born January 1779 during his second marriage to Mary Sterret Gist, and States was born in 1787 during his third marriage to Mary McCall Cattell. His daughter, Susanna, was born in 1784, also during his third marriage.

The Tombstone of General Gist states: “HERE Lie the remains of Major General MORDECAI GIST, An Officer of the Maryland Line In the Revolutionary War. He died 12th. of Septr. 1792, Aged 44. Here also lie those of his youngest Son, STATES GIST, who died 1st. of Febry. 1822, aged 35. And those of his daughter. SUSANNAH GIST, who died 23d. July, 1785 aged 8 months and 11 days.”

Glover, Brigadier General John John Glover was a descendant of Charles Glover, who arrived in the colonies from England during 1630. The family settled in Salem, Massachusetts. John’s parents were Jonathan, Jr., and Tabitha Bacon Glover; he was one of four children. The others were Jonathan III, Samuel and Daniel. John and his brothers, along with their mother, subsequent to the death of his father, moved to Marblehead. John took up the profession of a shoemaker; however, he apparently wasn’t satisfied by the challenges of the trade. At Marblehead his interests focused on the fishing industry and shipping, which prompted him to venture into the profession of a fisherman. John Glover was able to use his ships to sell his cargoes in the West Indies and beyond, in France and Spain. His endeavors increased his knowledge of the sea and provided him with additional skills that would later prove valuable. Glover’s shipping ventures also proved lucrative and catapulted him to a place of prominence among the citizens at Marblehead. Later, according to the vital statistics of Marblehead, John married Hannah Gale Glover on 30 October 1754 and they had eleven children: John (b. March 1756, married Fanny Lee); Hannah I (b. May 1757, died as an infant); Daniel (b. April 1759, died as an infant); Hannah II (b. April 1761, married Richard Cowell); Samuel (b. December 1762, married Martha Bowden, then Betsy Skillins); Jonas (b. April 1764, married Sally Pierce); Tabitha (b. December 1765, married William Brooks); Susannah (b. March 1767, married Captain Nicholas Broughton); Mary (b. January 1769, married Robert Hooper); Sarah (b. February 1771, married Samuel Lewis); and Jonathan (b. May 1773, never married). During the Seven Years’ War (French and Indian War), Glover served in the military with a commission as ensign in the 3rd Company of Foot (Marblehead), which was commanded by Richard Reed. Then he served in the Essex County militia (5th Regiment of militia, commanded by Colonel Jacob Fowle). Glover’s commission was signed by Governor Thomas Powell on 12 March 1759. Later, he received yet another commission, that of a captain lieutenant, and was attached Marblehead’s military company of foot, commanded by Azor Orne. Following the close of hostilities, Glover received yet another commission (12 February 1762, signed by Governor Francis Bernard) while he served in the Essex County militia regiment as lieutenant under Colonel Fowle. After the conflict with France terminated, Britain began to press the colonies hard to help pay the cost of the war, and the colonists, who had paid a high price in the cost of lives, as well as financially, became incensed as time passed due to the Crown’s heavy taxations. The Stamp Act of 1765 added fuel to the simmering fire and from there, relations took a severe down-slide. The House of Commons passed legislation during 1767 that initiated custom duties on the colonies to pay for the cost of John Glover (Memoir of General Glover, a permanent British military William P. Upham, 1863)

139 presence on American soil. The Crown caused further consternation by adding a section that mandated paying the salaries of the colonial governors and judges. By 1768, the Patriots in Boston sensed that the far-reaching power of the mother country was in the process of eliminating their liberty. They reacted by distributing a circular letter in an attempt to galvanize the thirteen colonies to stand together to end what they perceived as tyranny. Soon after, the British in Massachusetts seized a ship, the Liberty, which was owned by John Hancock. The incident sparked a nasty reaction by the colonists. Britain, once informed of the reaction, retaliated by dispatching British regulars to Boston. By that time, the minor trembling of the land was building to a crescendo. On the 25 July, Richard Henry Lee of Virginia made the initial recognized call for a break with the crown, stirring the fires of liberty in that state. As the colonists began to link their grievances together, the British were in the process of executing quick action to suppress any further trouble. The Redcoats arrived in Boston on 23 September 1768. However, the presence of what the colonists considered an occupational force merely stoked the fire, and although some believed reconciliation was still possible, the subsequent actions of the British, both in Great Britain and on the American shores, created fires in the hearts of the Patriots, making the entire land a combustible cauldron susceptible to a catastrophic explosion. All the while, John Glover was becoming deeply entrenched in the cause. During 1773, Glover was appointed captain of a company in Colonel John Gallison’s regiment; his commission was signed on 8 February by Governor Thomas Hutchinson. That year, a pernicious epidemic swept across New England, and Marblehead was not spared. While most of the population panicked, Colonel Glover and others, including Elbridge Gerry and Azor Orne, took steps to isolate those infected. A hospital was built at their expense on an island (given various names, including Cat Island, Essex Island and Lowell Island) in Salem Harbor. The hospital was not supported by many inhabitants on the mainland and some at one point threatened to attack Glover’s home, but he was prepared with a cannon and the assault never occurred. Nevertheless, the hospital remained open for more than one year, and the cost was covered by those who built it. Tension remained high while the hospital remained open. The period was sometimes referred to as the “Smallpox War.” During April 1775, the sparks that ignited the American Revolution occurred at Lexington and Concord on 19 April 1775. Two primary targets of the British were Samuel Adams and John Hancock, but they had been warned of the British movement. At the time, Orne and other members of the committee of safety were at the Black Horse Tavern located on the British route of advance toward Lexington, but the forewarning outfoxed the British. When they arrived at the tavern they discovered no rebels. Adams, Orne, Elbridge Gerry and the others exited from the tavern and vanished into a cornfield behind it. The colonists cast aside their hopes of reconciliation and raised tenacious opposition. The break with Britain had reached the point of no return. About one month later, around the 22nd of May, Colonel John Gallison’s regiment was abruptly transformed from a unit of King George’s Massachusetts militia to one of the first contingents (Marblehead Regiment) of the forthcoming Continental Army. It received a new colonel, John Glover. Colonel Glover’s oldest son, John, served as lieutenant (later captain). Glover’s men were all experienced mariners and were familiar with the use of both oars and sails. With hostilities imminent, their new commander was ensuring that they became proficient in drill to instill discipline into his regiment. Shortly after the Battle of Bunker Hill, on 21 June, Colonel Glover was directed to repair to Cambridge. The regiment moved out the following day and was in place when General George Washington arrived on the 3rd of July. Shortly thereafter, the

GLOVER

Marblehead Regiment encountered its first clash; however, not with the British. While encamped near a contingent of Virginians — the latter being uniformed partially in Indian attire and the former donning “reefing jackets”— each side taunted the other. The verbal chants escalated until blows were struck. The infighting quickly terminated when General George Washington arrived and clasped two of the riflemen simultaneously, holding one in each arm as he vigorously began to shake them, while exclaiming that they should reserve their aggressiveness for their enemies. The ruckus ended abruptly. The skills of the men in Glover’s regiment did not get overlooked by the commander-in-chief. On the 2nd of September, Glover lost one of his officers. Captain Nicholson Broughton was commissioned as captain of the schooner Hannah by Washington. Consequently, the Hannah had the distinction of becoming the first warship in the American navy, and the first ship in the unit known as “Washington’s Fleet.” The general’s order for the Hannah was to “seize all enemy vessels bound to or from Boston, laden with soldiers, arms, ammunition, or provisions for the British army.” The fleet, during its time of operation, consisted of seven schooners and one brigantine. Despite its slim numbers, the fleet seized 55 British vessels, with the first victim being the Unity (actually a recapture). Meanwhile, Colonel Glover’s command continued to prepare for combat. On 4 October, Glover was ordered to depart Cambridge for Beverly with a task of fitting out additional ships. He acquired the Franklin and the Hancock. At the time, Colonel Glover was essentially carrying out duties that would have been the responsibility of a secretary of the navy; however, that post was not yet established. During the operation to fit the ships, more of Glover’s regimental troops were collected to serve in the fleet. Meanwhile, the Patriots maintained the siege of Boston, which kept the British penned in the city and impeded their foraging operation. Colonel Glover’s Marblehead Regiment was designated the 14th Continental Regiment on New Year’s Day, 1776; however, it continued to be referred to as the Marblehead Regiment and even Glover’s Regiment much more so than its official designation. Glover’s command remained in the vicinity of Marblehead beyond the evacuation of Boston by British General William Howe on 17 March 1776, until it was ordered on 20 July to repair to New York. The regiment arrived at its destination on 9 August and was immediately attached to General John Sullivan’s brigade. Once again, some of Glover’s troops became involved in sea duty. On the 16th, two fireships were commanded by Captains Fosdick and Thomas, with instructions to rid the Hudson of two menacing British warships that were patrolling the river. The ships were not destroyed, but the patriots compelled both vessels to withdraw, essentially accomplishing their mission. Nevertheless, many other British vessels and land forces were poised to strike and destroy the rabble forces of General Washington. It would be Glover’s experienced troops who forestalled disaster. On the 25th, the British prevailed at the Battle of Long Island, and on the following day, Glover was ordered to cross onto Long Island. The force arrived prior to noon and deployed at Wallabout Bay. As the pressure mounted, Washington, on 29 August, ordered every available vessel to be sent expeditiously to the East River prior to dusk. As directed, the boats were at Brooklyn, and, as previously directed, Glover’s command took on the task of sailors, with responsibility for safely ferrying the beleaguered army across the river. It was a daunting experience. Inclement weather wreaked havoc on the boats with no reprieve until about midnight (29th–30th), when the winds shifted to calm the sea. Peculiarly, a dense fog permeated the Long Island sector, but all was perfectly clear on the New York side of the river. The operation was successful and Glover’s regiment preserved Washington’s army in the nick of time. A large force of British warships arrived afterward that would have trapped the entire command, leaving no avenue of escape.

GLOVER

140

On 18 October 1776, Glover’s force was deployed near Pell’s Point (Pelham), and while Glover was scanning the area from a position atop a hill that overlooked Long Island Sound and the Hutchinson River, he spotted a large British landing force through his spy glass. At the time, he had four regiments, and no reinforcements were nearby. As the highest ranking officer, Colonel Glover chose to deploy and oppose the Redcoats. Three regiments were staggered. Two concealed themselves behind a stone wall, a third laid back near what became known as “Glover’s Rock,” while the fourth, the Marblehead Regiment, held the final line and was bolstered by artillery. The British were hit hard at the first line, after Glover and forty troops marched toward the British as bait. After being stung, the British advanced and were pounded by the second concealed regiment. Undaunted, they advanced again and hit another unexpected hurricane of fire. The Redcoats lost their discipline and retired to New Rochelle, never testing the final line. While the British were being delayed, General Washington safely arrived at White Plains. Glover’s command stood at about 850 men against several thousand British troops. His regiments included 14th Marblehead Regiment, 13th Regiment under Colonel (later brigadier general) Joseph Read, the 3rd Regiment led by Colonel William Sheperd, and the 26th Regiment, commanded by Colonel Loammi Baldwin. The British units that were repulsed included the 1st, 2nd and 6th Brigades and the 3rd Hessian Battalion. On the following day (19th), Colonel Glover penned a letter to his mother and stated: “Our loss yesterday was seven killed and thirteen wounded, the enemy’s loss, as near as I can learn was between two hundred and three hundred.” Colonel Glovers’ regiment also fought at the Battle of White Plains on 28 October and again the enemy greatly outnumbered the Americans under Glover. The British pounded against General McDougal’s positions on Chatterton’s Hill, and they received ferocious opposition; however, the pressure compelled McDougal to withdraw. Afterward, the British moved against Glover’s positions on a hill near McDougal’s lines and dominated a primary road leading to Albany and New England. The British, with a strength estimated at about 12,000, forged ahead. Glover’s orders to hold fire were strictly obeyed. Each of the defenders peered downward into the valley, while four columns of Redcoats moved confidently, unaware of Glover’s artillery (three brass cannon: a 24-pounder, 6-pounder and a 3-pounder, augmented by several iron 12-pounders). The fire was so precise that the disciplined columns broke under fire and the disorder was never rectified. The British aborted the advance and retired. Next Glover joined with General Charles Lee’s division and remained in North Castle until the latter part of November, when Lee’s division, including Colonel Glover’s contingent, was directed to repair to New Jersey to reinforce General Washington, who at the time was accelerating his retreat with the British in hot pursuit. General Lee procrastinated en route to support Washington, but his tardiness cost him his command when the British seized him while he was dining on 5 December. General McDougal, on 10 December, assumed command of Lee’s division and pushed harder to join with Washington. The hook-up occurred on 15 December, which, for General Washington, turned into a bit of luck. When the attack against Trenton was scheduled to commence, the Delaware River was a deadly natural obstacle with ice blocks bouncing about the unruly river. Washington called for volunteers to take charge of the boats, needed to ferry about 8,000 troops and ammunition to the Jersey (east) bank of the river. Glover’s troops yet again were transformed into sailors, and the operation unfolded flawlessly. Glover’s contingent of mariner-soldiers had saved Washington’s army at Long Island, making it a grand occasion to have preserved the army to fight another day, and that day came on 26 December with the momentous victory at Trenton, followed by the victory at Princeton on 3 January.

On 23 February, Colonel Glover was promoted to the rank of brigadier general. He then moved to Peekskill, where he received his brigade (General Putnam’s command), then remained there and for a short while at Middlebrook until he received orders to advance to Saratoga, New York, to support the defenses there against the threat of General John Burgoyne’s army, which had plowed its way south from Canada to hook up with General William Howe, in what was to be the grand scheme to finish off the Continental Army in New York and terminate the rebellion. At the time, the British also controlled Philadelphia. General Glover left Peekskill on 27 July en route to Saratoga. On 3 August, Glover advanced from Saratoga to Stillwater, then later, on 19 August, his command was with the army when it retreated to Van Schaick’s Island. By that time, General Charles Lee was in command of the Northern Department. Glover’s brigade participated at the First (September 29) and Second (October 7) Battles of Saratoga, the latter confrontation being responsible for devastating Burgoyne’s offensive. Part of Glover’s brigade was not engaged; it was part of Gates’ reserve. Nonetheless, the Marblehead Regiment was at the front with General Benedict Arnold and Colonel Daniel Morgan. General Glover, himself, was unscathed, but three of his horses were shot from under him. General Glover, already proving to be a skilled seaman and soldier, fared well as a cavalryman, but yet he was destined to play yet another role in the war: interrogator. On 11 October, an attack ordered by Gates was aborted after Glover interrogated a British soldier who failed to pull off a ruse by informing Glover that he was a deserter. With a threat of execution if he lied and a fine time as captive for telling the truth, the soldier revealed Burgoyne’s plan and that, in fact, Burgoyne’s entire force was in motion. Word of the enemy movement was sent back to Gates, along with the captive. With the new knowledge, Gates saved his force from destruction, and he was able to outfox Burgoyne and allow his army to enter a trap from which it could not escape. The entire British army under Burgoyne was surrendered on 13 October. General Glover’s brigade was part of the escort that marched Burgoyne’s army to Cambridge, arriving on 9 November 1777. From Cambridge, General Glover’s command moved to Valley Forge to rejoin General Washington and arrived there during January 1778, in time to share all of the hardships that were endured during that harsh winter. In June 1778, General Glover was appointed commander of Fort Arnold, a support post of West Point. Meanwhile, General John Sullivan was hard pressed by the British, who held Newport, Rhode Island. In an effort to bolster Sullivan, General Lafayette dispatched the Marblehead Regiment and some other contingents to Providence to strengthen Sullivan’s force. General Glover met his regiment while it was en route to Rhode Island, and upon his arrival, his reputation having preceded him, General Sullivan handed him the task of enlisting 200 sailors with a commitment of 15 days’ service. Glover expeditiously moved to Salem, Marblehead and Boston, and with equal speed he arrived back at Providence on 10 August, delivering the 200 sailors Sullivan had requested. Nevertheless, a major problem developed when the French sailed away, leaving Sullivan on his own while the British moved to Boston, purportedly to make repairs necessitated by a storm. In addition, many of the troops’ enlistments had expired. Despite pleas from Sullivan, a large number of men departed as their time expired, but the Marblehead Regiment remained intact. The British launched an attack on 28 August and both sides sustained high casualties. By the following day, it was decided at a council of war that retirement was imperative. General Sullivan, similarly to Washington, fortuitously had Glover at his side when the evacuation became imminent. Glover took command of the boats and his men yet again executed the operation with great skill. The operation began after dusk with Glover’s soldier seamen in control of the flat boats. Before dawn on the 30th, the entire

141 force was safely ferried across the Narragansett River and out of harm’s way on the mainland. Generals Nathanael Greene and Lafayette were among the ferry passengers. Soon after, from the mainland, the entire army (all supplies and ammunition also evacuated) had an even greater appreciation of the Marblehead Regiment when about 100 British sail came into sight. The colossal fleet, transporting the army of General Henry Clinton, was closing to reinforce the garrison at Newport, and if not for Glover, the entire army might have suffered a similar fate as Burgoyne at Saratoga. While General Glover was still in Rhode Island, his wife, Hannah, succumbed on 13 November 1778. In February 1779, on the 27th, Congress took a letter of resignation from General Glover under consideration, but declined his request and resolved “that Congress, sensible of Brigadier General Glover’s past merit, and in expectation of his future services, direct the Commander in Chief to indulge him with a furlough for such time as may be necessary to settle his private affairs.” General Glover took leave and returned to visit his family at Marblehead. He returned to Providence and stayed until 20 June 1779, when he led his brigade to the Hudson Valley to join with the main army, but he remained there only a short time. On 23 July he was ordered to Ridgefield to monitor the movements of the enemy and forward the intelligence to headquarters. By 25 November 1779, General Glover’s brigade was at Peekskill, then deployed at West Point by the summer of 1780. At the time, the treachery of General Benedict Arnold was unfolding. Although Arnold escaped West Point by boarding a British warship, the Vulture, one of his accomplices in the conspiracy to allow the British to seize Wet Point, was captured. British Major John Andre was snagged at a checkpoint after getting past another as he made his escape. General Glover was among the officers at Andre’s court-martial on 29 September, when Andre was convicted and sentenced to be executed by hanging. Andre requested a firing squad, but the request was denied because he was caught as a spy and was not wearing his uniform. His execution occurred on 2 October 1780. The brigade remained in the vicinity of West Point throughout the winter of 1780, and during the following year when General Washington moved south to engage the British under General Charles Cornwallis in Virginia, General Glover’s command was one of the units selected to remain to ensure that General Clinton at New York did not gain any advantages in the Highlands. Washington, supported by the French, forced Cornwallis to capitulate at Yorktown, Virginia, on 19 October 1781. During spring of 1782, General Glover was directed to repair to Massachusetts to supervise mustering and to forward the recruits to their respective units; however, by that time, the general’s health had deteriorated, cutting his service short. He was compelled to retire the following July. Congress accepted his resignation on 22 July 1782 and awarded him half-pay for the remainder of the conflict. Nonetheless, General Glover’s pension was not sufficient to make up his great financial contributions during the war. He had remarried in March of the previous year, taking Frances Fosdick as his second wife. General Glover’s financial wealth had been drained during the war, which compelled him to find a source of income. He reverted to a trade he learned as a young man. General Glover used a small section of one room in his home to set up his workshop and once again became a shoemaker. He was elected to the state legislature during 1783 and again in 1788 and 1789. He had also served as a selectman in 1787, 1788, 1789, 1790, 1791 and 1792. General John Glover succumbed on 30 January 1797 and was interred at the Old Burial Ground in Marblehead.

Godfrey, Brigadier General George George Godfrey, the son of Captain John and Joanna Gooding Godfrey, was born on 19 March 1721 in Taunton, Massachusetts. Little is

GORHAM

recorded of his early life and education, but it is known that George married young, taking Lydia Hodges as his wife on 19 March 1739. Together the couple had one child, Deborah (b. October 1740), but the marriage ended prematurely when Lydia succumbed during 1741. George remarried on 9 May 1744, taking Bethiah, the sister of Lydia, as his second wife. George and Bethiah, according to the New England Historical and Genealogical Register (Volume 17, 1863), the children of George and Bethiah were Lydia (b. 1745); Bethia (b. 1747); Lindsay I (b. March 1766); Joanna (b. November 1747); Bethia (b. 1749); Mary (b. November 1751); Welthea (b. May 1756); George (b. September 1758); Rufus (b. July 1761); and Lindsay II (b. March 1766). (According to the History of Pittsford, Vermont, 1876, their children were Mary, Joanna, Lydia, Wealthy (Welthea), Jersuha, George, Rufus, John, and Melinda). George Godfrey first saw military service when joined the militia as a private and served during the French and Indian War. In 1770, Godfrey was elected to the general court, where he served through 1772 as a delegate from Taunton. He served additional terms during 1775, 1779 and 1784. Godfrey also became the treasurer of the town of Taunton during 1775. On 9 November 1774, the commissioned officers of the East Division held a meeting in Norton, Massachusetts. At that time, George Godfrey was elected colonel, George Williams was elected lieutenant colonel and Nathaniel Leonard was elected first major. The East Division was composed of men from Easton, Raynham and Taunton (Bristol County). On 3 July 1775, at Taunton, the town established a committee of inspection and correspondence. The members included Colonel George Godfrey, Captain Henry Hodges, Lieutenant Solomon Dean, and Major Richard Godfrey. By January of 1776, Colonel Godfrey was catapulted to the top echelon of the state’s militia. He was appointed as a brigadier general during early 1776, with command of a brigade composed of four regiments that had been raised in Bristol County. His duty in the field was sparse, but he did lead his command into Rhode Island on more than one occasion, including December 1776, when his brigade and that of Joseph Cushing of Hanover were ordered by the general court on 8 December to advance to Providence. Other units from other regions were ordered to Providence at that same time. Subsequent to the close of hostilities, he remained active and, as mentioned previously, he did return to the legislature. General Godfrey’s second wife, Bethiah, succumbed on 27 January 1786. He married a third time on 5 September 1786, taking Abigail Dean (maiden name Abigail Shaw) as his wife. General Godfrey was listed in the History of Pittston, Vermont, as having succumbed at Taunton on 30 June 1793 (sources vary on the date of his death). The residence of General George Godfrey at 125 County Street in Taunton was designated a National Historical Place during August 1984.

Gorham, Nathaniel (Signer of the U.S. Constitution) Nathaniel Gorham, the son of Captain Nathaniel and Mary Soley Gorham, was born in Charlestown, Massachusetts, on 27 May 1738. Nathaniel’s father was the son of Stephen and Elizabeth Gardner Gorham. His mother was the daughter of John and Dorcas Coffin Soley. In addition to Nathaniel, his parents had the following children: Mary, John, Elizabeth and Stephen. Nathaniel did not receive a formal education. His father operated a packet boat, but Nathaniel did not join with his father, rather, he began his career as an apprentice in the mercantile business in New London, Connecticut, under Nathaniel Coffin about 1753. Around 1759, Nathaniel returned to his home in Charlestown, where he established himself in the mercantile business. The endeavor quickly proved successful. In 1763, Nathaniel married Rebecca Call; they had the following children: Nathaniel; Rebecca (married Warham Parks); Mary (married George Bartlett); Elizabeth; Ann (married Peter C. Brooks); John;

GREATON

142

Benjamin; Stephen; and Lydia (married John Phillips, became the mother of Bishop Phillips Brooks). Nathaniel Gorham’s lack of a classical education did not prove to be an obstacle to his success. His business prospered and he became a prominent Patriot. Prior to the outbreak of the American Revolution, he served in the General Court of Massachusetts (the state legislature, 1771–1775, and at times as speaker of the House). Prior to his election to the legislature, Gorham had been a notary. In 1774, he was elected as a delegate to the Provincial Congress, and he served there again the following year. His public life during the war included his appointment to the Board of War, 1778–1781, and service n the lower house in 1781 (he continued in the lower house until 1787 and served as speaker during 1781, 1782 and 1785). In the meantime, Gorham was selected as a delegate to the Massachusetts state constitution convention of 1779–1780. Other posts included being elected to the Continental Congress, where he served 1782–1783 and 1785–1787. During his time in the Continental Congress, he was president from June 1786 until January 1787. Meanwhile, during 1785, he was appointed as a judge of common pleas (Middlesex County) and retained that post until 1796. During 1787, Nathaniel, as a Massachusetts delegate, attended the Constitutional Convention in Philadelphia that convened during May and continued until September. Simultaneously, Gorham held responsibilities in the Continental Congress. Nevertheless, he took his seat as a delegate in the convention on 28 May 1787. On the second day of the convention, Gorham was “called to the chair, then was elected chairman of the whole, and as such presided over the convention during the greater part of its deliberations.” Gorham’s selection, despite his lack of a classical education and the absence of any legal credentials, indicates the depth of feelings and opinions held by his fellow delegates, which included some of the brightest minds in the nation at the time. He shared the stage with George Washington, James Madison, John Dickinson, Alexander Hamilton and others. Following adoption of the Constitution on 17 September 1787, Gorham retired from Congress. While at the convention, although he represented one of the larger states, he maintained his concern for the smaller states with regard to not being overpowered. He was aligned with those who supported a strong, effective central government that would also have the authority to hold jurisdiction over the respective state militias. One of his priorities was to permit long terms of office for those elected as president; his sentiments for election to the Senate were identical. Gorham also supported the government’s regulation of paper currency. After adoption of the U.S. Constitution, ratification by nine states was necessary for it to become effective. Massachusetts ratified in Boston on 6 February 1788 to become the sixth state to join the union. On 21 June 1788, New Hampshire became the ninth state to ratify the Constitution. In March 1789, the new Congress convened in conjunction with the termination of the old Congress, which had operated under the Articles of Confederation. During the following year, 1788, Gorham was appointed to the Governor’s Council, and he remained a member until the following year. Also in 1788, Gorham and Oliver Phelps (possibly some others were involved) acquired from the state of Massachusetts “the preemption right of that state in and to all that part of Western New York lying between Seneca Lake on the east, Genesee river on the west, Pennsylvania on the south and Lake Ontario on the north.” The transaction is known as the “Phelps and Gorham Purchase.” Purchased for one million (devalued Massachusetts scrip), the tract was massive, composed of about six million acres in western New York. The value of the land increased when Massachusetts scrip gained value, which created financial problems for Gorham and Phelps. By 1790, they had cleared Indian titles to about 2,600,000 acres, and much of it had been sold to settlers, but the revaluation of the scrip prevented them from

keeping up with the mortgage payments. Some of the Indians had previously found the transaction favorable; at the time the scrip was worth about 50 cents on a dollar, but with revaluation the scrip essentially doubled in value. The Indians refused to accept payments of $5,000 and insisted upon payments of $10,000. At an Indian council held during November of that year in Tioga at the request of Timothy Pickering, Indian representatives (Chief Red Jacket and a brother of Chief Farmer) were disgruntled, claiming “that the sum to be paid by Mr. Phelps, was ten instead of five thousand dollars; alleged that they had been cheated; that their ... heads had been confused by treaties with the ‘thirteen Fires,’ with ... fires kindled by the Governor of New York, and by ... Livingston.” The Indians claimed fraud and stated that the money they received from the transaction amounted to “one dollar each.” Although Gorham never traveled to the territory, settlers who had relocated there during May of 1780 included General Israel Chapin (Indian agent during Revolution); Benjamin Gardner; Daniel Gates; Nathaniel Gorham, Jr., and Frederick Saxton. Nonetheless, the elder Gorham was forced into bankruptcy. Just as suddenly, he found himself no longer included in the gatherings of those who considered themselves part of the Boston society. Nathaniel Gorham had truly become a self-made man and until his death his reputation remained sterling and his character above reproach. To add to his successes over and above his previously mentioned contributions, including his commitment to get the Constitution adopted, he bounced back from financial disaster during the Revolution after the British ravaged his property when they occupied Boston. His involvement with privateers during the conflict enabled him to regain much of his lost fortune. Nathaniel Gorham succumbed on 11 June 1796. He was interred at the Phipps Street Cemetery in Charlestown, Massachusetts.

Greaton, Brigadier General John John Greaton, the son of John and Catherine Greaton, was born in Roxbury, Massachusetts, on 10 March 1741. The Greyhound Tavern, a gathering place for many of the locals that later formed the nucleus of the Sons of Liberty, had been operated by his father, John Sr. The younger John also became a member of the Sons of Liberty. During 1760, John married Sarah Humphreys, the daughter of Richard and Ann Humphreys. John and Sarah had seven children: Ann (Nancy, b. December 1762, married Samuel Heath); Richard (b. August 1765); Lucretia (b. December 1769); John (b. October 1771); Caty (b. January 1773, later married James Dana); Salley (Sally, b. January 1775 and died that year); and Sarah (b. February 1781). John Greaton leased property from Samuel Sumner during 1765, and from there he operated a business (separate from the tavern) in Roxbury for about ten years. Greaton carried and sold West Indian goods. During 1774, he was appointed colonel in the militia and his commission was signed by Samuel Huntington, who later became a member of Congress and a signer of the Declaration of Independence. During that period, the British were tightening the noose on the Bostonians. General Thomas Gage, the royal governor, sealed the port of Boston on 1 June 1774 in reaction to the Boston Tea Party (16 December 1773). Gage deployed troops at the Neck a point between Boston and Roxbury. At Roxbury, John Greaton was involved with the countermovements by the Patriots against the British oppression. Roxbury sent delegates to the Provincial Congress during the latter part of September. On 28 November 1774, the Boston Gazette published the following: “At a meeting in Roxbury last week for choice of military officers for the first parish, Rev. Mr. Adams opened the meeting with prayer, after which he was chosen moderator. The officers chosen were, Capt. JOSEPH HUTH, Captain. Mr. JOHN GREATON, Lieutenant, Mr. JOSHUA FELTON, Ensign....” Later on 26 December, Greaton was appointed to a 15-man committee to “carry into execution

143 the agreement (Non-importation Act) and association of the late Continental Congress.” Roxbury was eager to execute its responsibility. Greaton was also a member of a unique outfit of the area, the Governor’s Horse Guards of Boston, which was formed by prominent citizens as an escort contingent used for ceremonial occasions. At about that same time, Roxbury formed their Minute Men, and John Greaton became a colonel of one of the Roxbury regiments. Greaton was involved in the turbulence at Lexington and Concord on 19 April. William Heath, Lieutenant Greaton and others were reforming scattered Minute Men and overseeing their deployment at various points along the path of retreat taken by the British as they returned to Boston. During the following month, he was appointed lieutenant colonel in Colonel Heath’s regiment. On 2 June, Colonel Greaton led a raid that succeeded in gathering about 800 sheep and lambs on Deer Island and some cattle to prevent the bottled-up British from acquiring the animals for food. The Americans also seized a British barge and captured some prisoners. The bold deeds incited other Patriots to take action and raid the other islands in the harbor. The islands between Chelsea and Point Alderton became prime targets. The British also discovered that the Patriots had succeeded in burning down the lighthouse that had stood at the entrance to the harbor. With each passing day, it became more difficult for the British to forage for food. Greaton rapidly rose in rank while gaining more responsibility. In July 1775, he was promoted to colonel of the Continental Army. His commission, signed by the president of Congress and a fellow patriot of Massachusetts, John Hancock, was dated 1 July. He became commander of the 24th Continental Infantry Regiment when the Continental Army was reorganized on 1 January 1776. During that period, Greaton was involved with the siege of Boston and he commanded various missions against the British positions, including a raid against Long Island (Boston Harbor), which succeeded in destroying some buildings. Boston was evacuated on 17 March 1776, and during April Greaton was ordered to Canada. However, by that time, the Americans had already sustained bitter defeats and the campaign was coming to a close. However, sufficient time remained for Greaton to reach Montreal and participate in the grueling retreat. En route back to Crown Point, many of the troops in his regiment, as well as every other contingent, were struck down by sickness. Greaton’s regimental chaplain, the Rev. Caleb Barnum, spent most of his time tending the sick troops, but his contribution took a high toll. The Reverend Barnum was stricken at Ticonderoga and before he reached his home in Pittsfield, Massachusetts, he succumbed. Colonel Greaton was also among the casualties of disease. During July, while at Fort George, he wrote on the 31st to General William Heath in an effort to describe the conditions of his force: “Our fatigues and hardships have been very great. The men are in very low spirits. You would hardly know the regiment now, it is so altered in every shape.” The next month, Colonel Greaton became severely ill; however, he regained his health and survived. Toward the latter part of 1776, he was ordered to join with General George Washington, who was at that time engaged in the Trenton and Princeton campaigns. Greaton’s regiment volunteered to remain with Washington until he was reinforced even though the enlistment term had expired. Subsequently, Colonel Greaton moved to New York with General Heath’s division and participated in the campaign that permanently terminated the threat of the army under General John Burgoyne. The British army under Burgoyne was compelled to surrender after two devastating defeats at Saratoga during September and October 1777. Greaton’s command also served under General John Nixon. Greaton completed the Saratoga campaign without injury; however, General Nixon had a close encounter with an enemy cannon ball. The projec-

GREENE

tile passed so near his head that it inflicted severe damage to one of his eyes and caused him to bring his military career to an end. Afterward, Colonel Greaton was based in other points in the Northern Department, including West Point and at Albany. Colonel Greaton had not caught the attention of Congress during the conflict. Though he had not accomplished any spectacular victories, he served well and he had been consistent throughout the war. Well after the surrender of Lord General Charles Cornwallis at Yorktown during October 1781, Colonel Greaton finally received his promotion. Congress promoted him to brigadier general on 7 January 1783. He headed home that October, though his retirement date was 3 November. General John Greaton died on 16 December 1783, soon after he returned to Roxbury. He was interred without fanfare at the old burying ground in Roxbury and no stone marked his grave. General Greaton’s son, Richard Humphrey Greaton, had served as an ensign in his father’s regiment. Richard was commissioned as a captain in the United States Army. Captain Greaton participated in the illfated campaign of General Arthur St. Clair against the Indians and was wounded in the vicinity of Fort Recovery (Ohio) on 4 November 1791. He recovered, remained in the service, and received an honorable discharge on 1 June 1802. He died in 1815.

Greene, Major General Nathanael Nathanael Greene was born on 27 May 1742 ( July 27, 1742; see note at end of entry), the second of six sons from his father’s second marriage and the fourth of eight sons of Nathanael Sr., a Quaker minister who was pastor of the Meeting House in East Greenwich for almost forty years. His ancestors arrived in the colonies from England during the seventeenth century and settled in the vicinity of Warwick, Rhode Island, along Potowhommett Creek on land acquired from the Narragansett Indians. The original settler was John Greene, and it was Nathanael, Sr., third in descent from John, who established a mill and forge in the area. Nathanael, Sr., had no daughters who survived infancy. His only daughter, Phoebe, was the oldest child of his second marriage and she received the name of his first wife, his cousin Phoebe Greene. However, baby Phoebe died before reaching her first birthday. His two older sons, Benjamin and Thomas, were also from his first marriage. Subsequent to the death of his first wife, Nathanael, Sr., married Mary Mott, and from that marriage six additional children who reached maturity were born. They were Jacob (served as commissary of purchases while his brother was quartermaster general and state legislator, died 1805); Nathanael; William (never married); Elihu; Christopher (married twice, both times to daughters of Governor Samuel Ward) and Perry. Nathanael’s mother, Mary Mott, died while he was still young. His father married a third time, taking Mary Rodman as his wife in November 1754. Although Mary had no children of her own, she immediately cared for the boys as if they were hers. Nathanael’s father placed heavy emphasis on the Bible, leaving his family without the comfort of other books. Nathanael Greene (Pictorial Field Book Nathanael eventually found a of the Revolution, Benson J. Lossing, thirst for knowledge from a 1860)

GREENE

144

friend in East Greenwich and afterward focused on learning from books belonging to other families in the area. As he increased his knowledge on various subjects, including Latin, mathematics and surveying, he continued to work at the mill as a blacksmith, but when not officially working, Nathanael devoted time to making toy anchors and other toys out of iron. He sold those novelties to raise money to purchase his books in Newport. Whenever possible, Nathanael traveled to Newport in search of new books to add to his personal library when sloops were heading there with wares from the mill. On one such visit, he became acquainted with the Rev. Ezra Stiles, later the president of Yale. Nathanael was taken under Stiles’ wing and from that point, he was assured of helpful guidance from an excellent teacher. He increased his knowledge on the subjects of logic, philosophy and one of his favorites, navigation. Nevertheless, he was not a typical Quaker. His father maintained a strict household with specific rules, including that all doors being closed and bolted at a particular time with his children safely inside. Nathanael was always in the house on time, but often when his father had fallen asleep, Nathanael would creep out a window and head for the village to join other youths in dances and other activities. However, as is usually the case, his father was not as uninformed as he thought. Following his suspicions, his father waited patiently one night for the reveler to return home and a whip was in his hand. Nathanael approached the house but spotted his father. He paused momentarily and then, knowing there was no way to talk his way out of the predicament, he walked up to his father and received a stern punishment, and to his father’s astonishment, without a cry or complaint. During his pause, Nathanael quickly slipped some shingles under his clothes so that the whipping would be painless. Both father and son were satisfied with the punishment. Nathanael’s father had also acquired another mill at Coventry. By that time, Nathanael was old enough to operate it. At Coventry, although only a young man of about 23, he became popular, and one of his early achievements was being involved in the establishment of a public school. By 1765, with the passage of the Stamp Act, Nathanael’s attention turned to politics, and as relations continued to deteriorate between Britain and the colonies, he became more involved. During July, a group of unidentified patriots seized the HMS Liberty at Newport and let it drift ashore, where it was set afire. The British never discovered the men who were responsible, but it was thought that most were from Connecticut. Later, during 1772, the HMS Gaspee, operating in the Providence River, was burned. Nathanael was not involved with the incident, but he was wrongly accused of being a participant. By that time he had also become a serious student of military history, causing quite a stir among typically pacifist Quakers. Nathanael was greatly pressured to abandon his new tendencies, but the threats had no effect. He was written out of the Quaker books of brotherhood. In 1774, he left the Quaker religion. During 1770, Nathanael Greene was elected to the general assembly of Rhode Island. In 1774, he joined a corps known as the Kentish Guards, and although he did not secure an officer’s appointment due to a lame knee that caused a slight limp, he served as a soldier. The corps was commanded by General James Varnum. Greene, having been a Quaker, had no weapons, but to rectify that, he traveled to Boston, which at the time was controlled by the British. Dressed in plain Quaker attire, he innocently entered Boston and traversed the streets without notice. While in the city, he spent time observing British regiments, all the while trying to cram his observations under his Quaker hat. After Greene acquired a musket and ammunition, a wagoner stashed it in the bottom of a wagon in a pile of straw. Greene departed the city and returned to Coventry, but he arrived with more than his

weapon. A British deserter who was skilled in British drill had accompanied him; the new recruit was a grand addition to the Kentish Guards. Greene, who had earlier been whipped for sneaking out to go dancing, married a girl he met while on his excursions, Catherine Littlefield, the daughter of John Littlefield, on 20 July 1774. Most of the dances had been at her house. Greene would later become a close friend of General George Washington and one of his trusted generals. Greene named two of his children after the Washingtons. During 1775, Greene experienced a meteoric rise in rank from private to brigadier general. During the crisis following the clash at Lexington and Concord, Rhode Island raised three regiments in support of Massachusetts. Greene was appointed commander with the rank of a brigadier. He then led the force to Cambridge. On 17 June, the British launched an attack to dislodge the dominating American positions on Breed’s Hill, just under Bunker Hill. The Americans were compelled to pull back due to expending their ammunition, but the British sustained severe casualties, particularly among the officers. The American resistance was so fierce that the British would never again launch a massive frontal attack against entrenched American lines. Following the battle, General Greene stated: “I wish I could sell them another hill at the same price.” Five days later, Congress commissioned eight brigadier generals and Greene was the eighth man selected. On the following day (23rd), General Washington initiated the organization of the Continental Army. General Greene and General John Sullivan were assigned brigades in General Charles Lee’s division and ordered to deploy on the left wing, from where they could defend against an advance from the Charlestown peninsula. The recent successes at Boston kept the British penned within the city. Even foraging parties faced danger when they ventured out of the city. The British awoke on 5 March 1776 and to their surprise discovered that the heights were fortified with artillery. The Americans had accomplished the feat overnight without detection. The situation compelled General William Howe to make a choice, either attack or abandon the city. In the meantime, Washington had prepared to meet the assault. Generals Sullivan and Greene were positioned at Cambridge, and other forces at Dorchester were poised to strike; however, the British chose to abandon Boston on 17 March. On 5 August, General Greene, in conversation with Washington on Long Island, proposed that New York be burned to prevent its use by the British. Washington had pondered the identical strategy, but he decided that the city had to be retained. Soon after, on 9 August, Congress promoted General Greene to the rank of major general. On 15 August, Washington was informed by Greene that British transports had debarked Hessian troops at Staten Island. Washington was confident that his forces would be able to handle the threat, but he became distressed to learn that Greene had been stricken with a severe fever. Meanwhile, the British defeated the Americans at Long Island, and fighting continued in the region with yet another battle at Harlem Heights during mid–September. Afterward, Greene was placed in command of Fort Lee in New Jersey and Fort Washington in Manhattan. On 8 November, General Washington suggested to General Greene the possibility of abandoning Fort Washington, but the decision was left for Greene and he chose to hold the post. On 13 November, Washington arrived at Fort Lee. The situation at Fort Washington deteriorated by the 15th. The British moved to seize it, and the defenders had no time to evacuate or ferry reinforcements across the river. Nevertheless, the commander, Colonel Robert Magaw, rejected an ultimatum to surrender and eventually was forced to capitulate. Afterward, Greene abandoned Fort Lee rather than lose his force to capture. The Americans continued to retreat with the British in pursuit, but Washington outmaneuvered General William Howe and made it to

145 Pennsylvania. On Christmas Day, Washington re-crossed the Delaware and at dawn on the 26th stunned the Hessian force at Trenton to gain a spectacular victory. On 3 January, with General Greene’s command participating, the Americans scored yet another victory at Princeton, taking the pressure off Philadelphia and allowing Congress, which had fled Baltimore, to return. Meanwhile, Generals Greene and Sullivan, along with Colonel Henry Knox, had become upset due to the promotion of a recently arrived Frenchman (Philip du Coudray) and forwarded their feelings to Congress, which responded on 7 July by resolving “that the president transmit to General Washington copies of the letters from Generals Sullivan, Greene, and Knox, to Congress, with directions to him to let those officers know that Congress consider the said letters as an attempt to influence their decisions, and an invasion of the liberties of the people, and indicating a want of confidence in the justice of Congress; that it is expected by Congress the said officers will make proper acknowledgments for an interference of so dangerous a tendency; but, if any of those officers are unwilling to serve their country under the authority of Congress, they shall be at liberty to resign their commissions and retire.” On September 9–11, 1777, General Greene’s command participated at the Battle of Brandywine. He was ordered to advance to bolster General Sullivan, but by that time, the British had Sullivan’s force in retreat. During the following month, Greene again was engaged at the Battle of Germantown; but due to early morning fog and confusion, there too, the Americans were compelled to retire. Nonetheless, at Germantown, the Americans had done well and were on the verge of victory until friendly fire struck Sullivan’s column and added to the confusion. The British, however, were not able to liquidate Washington and were unable to totally dominate the Delaware River. While Washington engaged the British at Philadelphia, the Northern Army was in the process of vanquishing General John Burgoyne at Saratoga. Combined, the actions at Germantown and Saratoga by the Americans changed the tide of battle. Burgoyne was prevented from reaching New York and lost his entire army in the process, and Philadelphia was becoming untenable. On 2 March 1778, General Greene was appointed quartermaster general. He succeeded General Thomas Mifflin. Greene was not especially happy about the position, but he accepted it with the condition that he would also continue to command in the field. He held the position until August 1780. A major clash occurred on Sunday, 28 June 1778, at Monmouth. After some skirmishing and a combination of miscommunications, in conjunction with orders to retreat from General Charles Lee, the British were set to thoroughly defeat the Americans without even receiving serious resistance before Washington reached the front lines. General Greene was ordered by Washington to speed to positions from which to protect the right flank of the main body as it pushed forward. Washington was able to rally the disoriented columns and turn a rout into a fight. The British formed to launch a final thrust to liquidate Washington’s exhausted force, but Generals Greene and William Alexander (Lord Stirling) remained fresh and waited in the woods, and Washington also had General Wayne’s contingent holding atop a hill. Repeatedly, the British were repelled, and during one charge, against the hill held by Wayne, the British sustained catastrophic losses among the officer corps. By midnight (28th–29th), General Henry Clinton abandoned his lines and the British marched toward Sandy Hook without being discovered by the Americans. General Greene had participated in what became the final battle in the Northern States. During August 1778, General Washington ordered General Greene to Rhode Island to support General Sullivan. Greene was directed by Sullivan to command the right wing of the army, and during the fighting at Newport, Greene performed heroically. Despite abandonment by the French, Sullivan was able to extricate his force and reach the

GREENE

mainland safely. The next June, on the 23rd, British forces, including cavalry, struck General Greene’s positions at Springfield and Elizabeth, New Jersey. The British were unable to break through to Morristown, but they were able to destroy property in Springfield and at Connecticut Farms. The British retreated to De Hart’s Point, from where they would jump over to Staten Island, but Greene initiated pursuit and informed General Alexander that he did not need the militia. On 5 August, Congress reacted to a letter from General Greene that said he would no longer serve as quartermaster general due to the reorganization of the department. Congress passed a series of resolutions, including “that the Commander in Chief be directed to inform Major General Green [Greene] that the United States have no further occasion for his services, and that it is expected he will proceed immediately to the settlement of his accounts.” General Washington had recommended Greene for the Department of the South, to succeed General Benjamin Lincoln, but Congress ignored the advice and chose Horatio Gates. By September, Congress was about to receive more distressing news regarding another general, Benedict Arnold. On the 27th, Congress learned from a letter sent by General Greene that Arnold had betrayed the nation while serving at West Point. At the time, Congress was already greatly concerned due to the defeat of General Gates in the Carolinas at Camden. On 5 October 1780, General Greene was appointed to command the Highlands Department. He succeeded General Alexander McDougal, but only for a short time. On 14 October, Congress appointed Washington’s first choice, General Greene, as successor to Horatio Gates as commander of the Southern Department. On the 27th of October, Greene paused in Philadelphia to confer with Congress and afterward reinitiated his journey south, accompanied by Baron Von Steuben, who later stopped in Virginia. Greene arrived in Charlotte, North Carolina, on 2 December, conferred with Gates, and officially assumed command on the following day. Greene immediately became aware of the terrible condition of his troops, who lacked supplies and proper clothing. General Greene, unlike his predecessor, Gates, immediately sensed the value of the militia commanders and he disregarded their unique uniforms, most of which were quite ragged. On the day after Greene assumed command, General Daniel Morgan arrived at Charlotte and introduced himself to the new commander. On 4 December, General Greene met Francis Marion, the “Swamp Fox.” By that time, Greene had discerned that Charlotte was not a practical position for his army. On 29 December 1780, the army, including militia units, departed for Cheraw, South Carolina. In the meantime, Greene had split his force, placing part of it under General Morgan. On 17 January 1781, Morgan’s contingent vanquished Tarleton’s force at Cowpens, South Carolina, but General Charles Cornwallis remained a huge threat and his location remained unknown to the Americans. Morgan retreated to evade Cornwallis. On the 31st, his force and that of General Greene hooked up at Morgan’s camp. In February, Greene arrived at Guilford Court House in North Carolina and resumed command of the entire force. Afterward, the Americans continue to retreat with Cornwallis in pursuit, but Greene was able to ford the Dan River into Virginia without being intercepted. On 22 February, with Cornwallis having established his headquarters at Hillsborough, North Carolina, General Greene, having been reinforced, re-crossed the river and marched toward Cornwallis. The two sides finally clashed at Guilford Court House on 15 March; the cost was high for both sides after the slugfest that lasted more than two hours. The Americans were eventually forced to leave the field, but Cornwallis lost about 25 percent of his force to the casualty list and was unable to mount pursuit of Greene. Within three days, he was compelled to initiate his departure from the Carolinas and move toward Virginia. Meanwhile, Greene made it to positions near Troublesome Creek and the music was soon playing “Yankee Doodle Dandy.”

GREENE

146

Greene, having halted Cornwallis’ progress, was not immediately aware that his men had saved the Carolinas. Following the fighting at Guilford Court House, Greene focused on retaking the Carolinas, where forces under Francis Rawdon-Hastings and Colonel Watson were still operating. On 24 April, General Greene’s forces arrived at Hobkirk’s Hill, which stood only about one mile from Lord Rawdon’s lines at Camden. Greene was betrayed by a deserter who informed Rawdon of the American positions. The British immediately planned to launch a surprise attack at dawn on the following day. The Americans took the shock of the assault and for a while rebound, but the ferocious resistance was fleeting, as discipline was lost. Greene was compelled to order a retreat and preserve his supplies. The British sustained too many casualties to give serious pursuit. The Americans reached Rugley’s Mills while the British moved back toward Charleston. In the meantime, Cornwallis, whose force numbered more than 7,000, continued toward Virginia, but other Patriot forces were moving to meet that threat, leaving Greene free to continue his task in the Carolinas. British-held posts, including Forts Motte, Watson, Granby and others, had been surrendered, but others still flew the British ensign, including Fort Ninety Six. Forces under Greene initiated a siege of Fort Ninety Six on 22 June, and although the garrison was ordered to abandon the post, the message never arrived. The Americans took high casualties in an unsuccessful assault and were pursued by the British on the 20th after reinforcements arrived. Nevertheless, Greene had not withdrawn in a full retreat; rather he only crossed to the opposite bank of the Broad River. The British however, believing Greene was in full retreat, abandoned the fort. On 22 August, Greene departed Santee, South Carolina, en route to Charleston. On 8 September the Battle of Eutaw Springs erupted. The contest was again tenacious, but the Americans finally forced the British to retire; however, they repositioned themselves securely and the Americans were unable to reduce the stronghold. Greene ordered his force to disengage and retire. Nonetheless, on the following day, the British retired to Charleston, leaving large numbers of wounded on the field. Greene’s success at Eutaw Springs compelled the British to remain within the confines of Charleston. British domination of the region was terminated at the battle, which became last one fought in South Carolina. Congress, on 29 October, in recognition of General Greene’s leadership at Eutaw Springs, resolved “that the thanks of the United States in Congress assembled, be presented to Major General Greene, for his wise, decisive and magnanimous conduct in the action of the 8th of September last, near the Eutaw Springs, in South Carolina; in which, with a force inferior in number to that of the enemy, he obtained a most signal victory over the British army commanded by Colonel Stewart.” In the meantime, General Greene was continuing to subdue the remaining British forces in the Carolinas. Meanwhile, his cavalry under General Andrew Pickens became involved with eliminating some hostile Cherokee Indians. During the latter part of April 1782, a group of Pennsylvania troops, about 10 or 12, primarily foreigners, who were disgruntled due to a lack of supplies and provisions, plotted to seize General Greene and turn him over to the British, but they failed. Several of the instigators were hanged. The British abandoned Charleston on 14 December 1782. General Greene resigned from the army in 1783, having served as a major general from 9 August 1776 to 3 November 1783. While en route home from the south, he paused in Princeton, where the Congress was temporarily in session. Congress presented him with two pieces of ordnance that had been seized from the British. General Greene arrived back at Newport, Rhode Island, on 25 November 1783. He set up residence in a home owned by Colonel Archibald Crary, but he never purchased a home there. Greene was also awarded land by Georgia as well as North and South Carolina in appreciation of his earnest service in those states during the latter part of the war.

The tract he received from South Carolina, located on the Edisto River, was sold to provide him with funds to pay back his indebtedness for the supplies he acquired for his army. On 13 April 1782, the North Carolina assembly presented Greene with a 25,000 acre tract on the Duck River. Nevertheless, General Greene and his family embarked for Savannah during October 1785 to make their home there. The plantation, known as Mulberry Grove, was on the Savannah River about 10 miles below Savannah. The estate had formerly been the property of a Tory, Lt. Governor Graham. The following year, General Greene visited the home of Major Nathaniel Pendleton, one of his aides during the war, and after staying the night, he and his wife arrived at the plantation of William Gibbons the morning of the 12th. Gibbons and Greene were checking out the Gibbons’ rice crop. General Greene was hatless and the sun took a high toll. After departing the Gibbons home, on that Tuesday evening, General Greene came down with a severe headache, suffering from sunstroke. The following day, he got worse. Doctors arrived, but medication was of no value. His head had by that time swollen and he became delirious. The severity of the stroke inflicted a fatal inflammation of his brain, which caused his death on 19 June. Prior to his death, word was rushed to one of his friends and a neighbor, General Anthony Wayne. General Wayne sped to Greene’s house and was with him when he succumbed. Word of Greene’s death quickly spread. The shops in Savannah closed and the ships in the harbor placed their colors at half-mast. General Greene’s corpse was carried by boat to Savannah, where he was interred on the 20th. Georgia Gazette in the edition of 22 June described the funeral: “When the military reached the vault in which the body was to be entombed, they opened to the right and left, and resting on reverse arms, let it pass through. The funeral services being performed and the corpse deposited, thirteen discharges from the artillery and three from the musketry closed the scene. The whole was conducted with a solemnity suitable for the occasion.” The paper did not specify where General Greene had been buried, but it was later determined to be the cemetery of Christ Episcopal Church in Savannah. Nathanael Greene was survived by his wife and five children. The children were: George Washington, Martha Washington (Patty), Cornelia Lott, Louisa, and Nathanael Ray. A sixth child, Catherine, died during infancy. On 11 August 1786, Congress resolved that a monument be erected to the memory of Nathanael Greene, Esq. At the seat of the federal government with the following inscription: “SACRED to the Memory of the HON. NATHANIEL GREENE, who departed this Life the 19th of June, MDCCLXXXVI, late Major-General in the Service of the U.S. and Commander of the Army in the Southern Department. The United States, in Congress assembled, in honour of PATRIOTISM, VALOUR, AND ABILITY, have erected this MONUMENT.”

The monument was never built. Subsequently, during the 1800s, the city of Savannah constructed an obelisk in Johnson Square, which was to pay tribute to General Greene and to General Count Casimir Pulaski; however, the monument remained without any inscriptions. Later, one was added, but only for General Greene, and afterward, the city erected another monument in honor of General Pulaski for his heroism during the ill-fated attack against Savannah during 1779. General Greene’s inscription read: “Soldier, patriot, the friend of Washing-

147 ton. This shaft has been reared by the people of Savannah in honor of his great services to the American Revolution.” Several years after the death of Nathanael, his wife, Catherine, remarried, to become the wife of Phineas Miller. After the marriage, she moved from Savannah to Dungenness House on Cumberland Island, Georgia, more than 100 miles from Savannah, where she lived until her death in September 1814. With regard to General Greene’s expenses in acquiring items for his troops, a nineteenth century biographer, Judge William Johnson, repeated a statement from Greene: “At the Battle of Eutaw Springs ... hundreds of my men were as naked as the day they were born. Posterity will scarcely believe, that the bare loins of many brave men who carried death into the enemy’s ranks at the Eutaw, were galled by their cartouchboxes, while a folded rag or tuft of moss protected the shoulders from sustaining the same injury from the musket. Men of other times will enquire by what magic was this army kept together? By what supernatural force was it made to fight?” In 1902, the government of Rhode Island was informed that the remains of General Greene (in Georgia) had been located in a vault at Colonial Park, which had been an ancient cemetery at Savannah. Steps were taken by Rhode Island in coordination with Georgia to have the general’s remains re-interred in a permanent place of honor. Letters from the government of Rhode Island were sent to eighteen descendants of General Greene with requests that they provide their preference with regard to the permanent resting place for the general. Fifteen responded that they preferred that he be re-interred in Savannah and three suggested Guilford Court House, North Carolina. None preferred Rhode Island, his birthplace. The remains of General Greene and his son, George Washington Greene, were located in the GrahamMossman vault. On 12 November 1902, the remains of both were reinterred in the monument to General Greene that had been erected in Johnson Square in Savannah. The inscription on the tomb read: The Graham Vault Here rested for 114 years The remains of Maj. Gen. Nathanael Greene b. in Rhode Island Aug. 7, 1742 Died At Mulberry Grove June 19, 1786.

Note: The date of Greene’s birth was noted in the records as being “born in 1742, on the 27th day of the fifth month,” but at the time of his birth, the old system was in effect, making March the first month until the system was changed in Britain and the colonies during 1752, which made January the first month of each new year. Consequently, the fifth month at the time of Nathanael’s birth was July, not May. An entry by his father stated: that General Greene’s birth date was Tuesday, May 27, 1742; however, May 27, 1742, fell on a Thursday. To further complicate the mixture of dates, the plaque on which his name was inscribed when he was re-interred at the monument in Savannah during 1702 lists his date of birth as August 7, 1742.

Gregory, Brigadier General Isaac Isaac Gregory, the son of William and Judith Morgan Gregory, was born in Pasquotank County, North Carolina, about 1737. Information regarding his early years was scarce; however, it is known that he married twice, and that his first wife was a daughter of Caleb Sawyer. Subsequent to the death of his first wife, Isaac married Sarah Lamb, the daughter of Thomas and Sarah Beckwith Lamb. Isaac had the following children, but is unclear which of his wives were the mothers: William (married Martha Long); Isaac; Mary (married Enoch Sawyer); Sarah (married Nathan Snowden); Penelope (also married Nathan Snowden) and Harriet. Isaac Gregory’s public life was initiated during April 1775, when he

GREGORY

attended the second Provincial Congress of North Carolina as a delegate from Pasquatank County (Elizabeth City), and he participated in the following Provincial Congress which convened at Hillsborough that August. On the next to last day of the second congress, 9 September, Gregory was appointed lieutenant colonel of the Pasquotank Regiment of North Carolina militia; but his services were not limited to the military. Congress also appointed him to the committee of safety, Edenton District. During 1776, two regiments were organized in Pasquotank County. On 22 April, Gregory was promoted to colonel and given command of the 2nd Pasquotank Regiment. He was also placed on a committee charged with acquiring arms and ammunition for the militia and for the continental troops to be raised by North Carolina. Command of the 1st Regiment went to Colonel Thomas Boyd. Later that year, Colonel Gregory was a member of the Provincial Congress that convened at Halifax, North Carolina, during November. With Congress still in session on 23 December, the members elected Colonel Gregory as a justice of the court of Pleas and Quarter Session (Pasquotank County). Meanwhile, North Carolina was in the process of carving out a new county, Camden, which was formed from a portion of Pasquotank, with the Pasquotank River becoming the border. The county of Camden (northeastern side of Pasquotank River) was approved by both houses of the legislature by mid–May 1777, and it was named in honor of Charles Pratt, 1st Earl of Camden, known to be an ally of the American cause. Colonel Gregory was named one of the commissioners charged with selecting a county seat and overseeing construction of a county jail. Colonel Gregory found himself with yet additional responsibilities during 1778. He became the initial state senator from Camden County (Edenton District) when he was elected to that seat during 1778. He retained his position in the state senate until 1788. After a pause, he was again returned to the body during 1795 and served through 1796. Meanwhile, on 15 May 1779, Colonel Gregory was promoted to the rank of brigadier general; his command (district) was composed of Camden and Edenton, North Carolina. A year later, Charleston, South Carolina, fell to the British when the city capitulated on 12 May. In North Carolina, Governor Richard Caswell assumed command of all North Carolina militia. General Gregory received command of a brigade, which he led at the ill-fated Battle of Camden on 16 August. The commander of the Southern Department, General Horatio Gates, planned his strategy poorly at best, and he had no confidence in the militia officers. Gates disregarded advice from various skilled southern leaders and moved against British General Charles Cornwallis, lacking artillery and proper food. Gates fled the field while the battle was fully engulfed and headed back to Hillsborough, North Carolina. He moved so swiftly that is has been said that he was to the front of the fast-moving North Carolina militia. General Gregory; however, did not run. He was among the heroes like Baron John de Kalb, who stood and fought. Like de Kalb, Gregory was seriously wounded twice from the enemy bayonets, and in the heat of close-quarteredfighting, he had a horse shot from under him. Unlike de Kalb, however, General Gregory survived his wounds. General Gates survived injury, but his military career was abruptly terminated after the devastating defeat. Gregory’s brigade fought tenaciously at the Battle of Camden. Most of the men in Gregory’s brigade who were wounded had their injuries inflicted by the thrust of a bayonet. Initially, reports on the battle caused confusion on both sides and rumors were rampant, both by correspondence and word of mouth. General de Kalb, General Gregory and General Rutherford were reported captured, and the British commander reported General Gregory as having been killed at the battle, as well as de Kalb. Nevertheless, although the capture of Gregory continues to be told, he actually, despite his wounds, escaped capture. About a month after the fighting at Camden, on 11 September, the

GRIFFIN

148

North Carolina Assembly passed a joint resolution to get General Gregory back in the saddle. It said “that Brigadier-General Gregory be furnished, at the expense of the State, for immediate service, with a gelding of the first price in consideration of the one by him lost in the late action near Camden.” Soon after, with his new steed, General Gregory returned to the field to again become acquainted with General Lord Cornwallis. Gregory’s command included remnants of two of the regiments which fought alongside him at Camden, that of Jarvis and of Exum, and amounted to about 200 troops when he was in the vicinity of Charlotte (Cornwallis’ headquarters) with General Thomas Sumter, who was operating to the front of Cornwallis positions. Following the loss at Camden, on the heels of a devastating defeat at Charleston, only the diminutive militias were able to try to hold the line until reinforcements from the Continental Army could arrive to deprive Cornwallis of gaining total domination of the southern states. Subsequent to the arrival of General Nathaniel Greene and the success of his campaign, Cornwallis departed the Carolinas for Virginia. General Gregory remained in North Carolina and focused his command on protecting the northern frontier. It was during that period that General Gregory’s reputation and integrity as well as his patriotism were the object of an obscene ruse, invented by a British officer with the intent to damage General Gregory by implying he was in collusion with the British and setting plans to surrender his force. Two letters intended to be discovered by the American command were planted. One said: “G. G.— Your well formed plan of delivering those people now under your command into the hands of the British General at Portsmouth gives me much pleasure. Your next I hope will mention the place of ambuscade, and the manner you wish to fall into my hands, etc., etc., etc. And am, Dr. Gregory, Yours with esteem.” The other: “Gen. Gregory, A Mr. Ventriss was last night made prisoner by three or four of your people. I only wish to inform you that Ventriss could not help doing what he did in helping to destroy the logs. I myself delivered him the orders from Col. Simcoe [Queen’s Rangers]. I have the honor of your acquaintance.” The fraudulent notes were captured when British Captain Stevenson’s baggage was seized in a boat at Great Bridge. Gregory was thought to be a traitor. For a while, he was placed under arrest by his own troops. General Gregory endured a court-martial at which it was effortlessly proved that the British planted the false conspiracy. When the British learned of Gregory’s circumstances, Lt. Colonel Simcoe communicated to the Americans the story behind the letters that could have brought about the hanging of General Gregory. Simcoe wrote: “Ties of humanity summon me to declare that Captain Stevenson mentioned to me, some hours before it was known that the gunboat was taken, the fictitious letters you found among his papers. At a distance the matter appeared in a ludicrous light: as it may otherwise lead to serious consequences, I solemnly confirm the truth of Captain Stevenson’s explanation of the affair; and add upon the sacred honor of a soldier and a gentleman, that I have no reason to believe or suspect that Mr. Gregory is otherwise than a firm adherent of the French King and of the Congress.” General Gregory retired to private life following the conclusion of hostilities. In 1798, he recorded a deed as a gift to his son, William. General Isaac Gregory died in April 1800. During the same period covering the life of General Gregory, at least one other Isaac Gregory lived, and at times complications develop that cause one to be confused with the other. An Isaac Gregory who was born in Virginia later relocated to North Carolina in a section that became part of South Carolina after being annexed (1772). The latter Isaac Gregory (married to Alse Gerard or Gerrard) had six sons who served in the military during the American Revolution. That same Isaac Gregory resided in the vicinity of Brown’s Creek (Union District, later Union County), South Carolina, on land that he received in a grant from Governor William Tryon. Isaac of South Carolina succumbed

during 1797, possibly in March. His last will and testament (according to South Carolina law at the time) had to be filed within thirty days of his death. It was written during August 1796 and was filed during May 1797. The will listed Isaac’s seven children (six sons and one daughter).

Griffin, Cyrus Cyrus Griffin, the son of Leroy and Mary Ann Bertrand Griffin, was born during 1748 in Lancaster County, Virginia. Cyrus’ paternal greatgrandparents were Colonel Leroy (justice of Rappahannock County) and Winifred Griffin. Winifred was the daughter of Colonel Gawin Corbin. Cyrus’ paternal grandparents were Thomas (House of Burgesses, Richmond County, 1718–1723) and Sarah (maiden name unknown) Griffin. Cyrus’ father was the high sheriff of Richmond County. Cyrus’ mother, Mary Ann, was the only daughter of the Rev. John and Charlotte Jolly Bertrand. And Mary Ann became the heiress of Belleisle (Lancaster County, Virginia); Charlotte’s brother William died during 1760. In addition to Cyrus, Thomas and Mary Ann had three other sons, Corbin (later Doctor Corbin, surgeon with the Virginia Line); William (later, colonel of militia); Samuel (later colonel of militia and member of Congress). Cyrus, the youngest of the brothers, received his education in Europe. He studied in Edinburgh and in London and received his degree in law at the Temple. While in Edinburgh, Cyrus became close to Charles Stuart (Lord Linton), the son of John (6th Earl of Traquair, Lord Stuart of Traiquair, Linton and Caberston) and Christian Anstruther Stuart. Charles was also the brother of Lady Christina. Charles invited Cyrus to the family estate where the latter was introduced to Lady Christina, who later became his wife. The marriage, however, did not come about without obstacles due to the stark differences in their religious beliefs. Lord Stuart, a Catholic, denied his permission for Lady Christina to marry a Protestant, but Cyrus and Christina paid no heed; rather, they left the castle and sought out a priest who married them. After the birth of their first child, named John (April 1771) after his maternal grandfather, the Earl apparently dropped his opposition to the marriage. The Griffin family, by tradition, claims the couple was married by a minister. After living in the Traquair House in Scotland for about one year, the Griffins sailed for America. Cyrus and Christina, in addition to John, had the following children: Samuel Stuart (married Sally Lewis); Mary (b. 1774, married Thomas Griffin, her cousin) and Louisa (married Hugh Mercer, the son of General Hugh Mercer). Cyrus and Lady Christina settled in Williamsburg, where Cyrus Griffin established his law practice, was elected to the state legislature, and was appointed as a judge. In 1778, Griffin was elected as a Virginia delegate to the Continental Congress, where he served from August 1778 until 1781. In the meantime, on 18 January 1780, Congress established the “Court of Appeals in Cases of Capture” and appointed three judges, Griffin, William Paca (signer of Declaration of Independence) and Titus Hosmer. Griffin was the president of the Supreme Court of Admiralty from its inception until it was abolished. With regard to his appointment, the president of Congress, Samuel Huntington, wrote to Griffin in a letter dated 1 May 1780: “I have the Pleasure and Satisfaction of presenting you with the enclosed Act of Congress & Commission by which you are appointed and constituted one of the Judges of the Court of Appeals.” Later, during 1786, Griffin was unsuccessful in his attempt to become governor of Virginia to succeed Patrick Henry. Edmund Randolph won, and he was later succeeded by Beverly Randolph. During the following year, 1787, Griffin was again elected to the Continental Congress. That same year, the Constitutional Convention met in Philadelphia and adopted the United States Constitution on 17 September 1787, effective upon ratification by nine states. New Hampshire ratified

149 the Constitution on 21 June 1788, to become the ninth state to ratify and the ninth state to enter the union. Meanwhile, Griffin was elected president of the Continental Congress. He succeeded General Arthur St. Clair (15th president) to become the sixteenth and final president of the Continental Congress. Griffin was president when the new Congress, operating under the U.S. Constitution, convened on 4 March 1789. During the following month, on 30 April 1789, George Washington was inaugurated as the first president of the United States. In the meantime, on 27 December 1788, the state House of Representatives and Senate elected Griffin as a judge of the General Court. He succeeded Edmund Randolph, who had been elected governor of Virginia. Subsequently, during October 1789, Griffin became privy councilor, and that same year, he was appointed as federal judge of the District of Virginia, a post he retained until his death. In addition, Griffin was called upon to deal with a problem with the Creek Indians under Alexander McGillvray, but the talks, intended to gain a treaty, despite a warning that troops would be dispatched to quell the hostilities, failed to gain any success. A campaign to end the hostilities also failed. By the time Griffin ended his service in Congress, his health had been failing. He made several trips to places with more favorable climate, but he was unable to regain his health. Cyrus Griffin died on 14 December 1810, three years after the death of his wife, Lady Christina.

Gunby, Brigadier General John John Gunby, the son of John and Sarah Gunby, was born at the family residence outside of Crisfield along Gunby’s Creek in Somerset County, Maryland, on 10 March 1745. John’s grandparents were also named John and Sarah Gunby. John’s home was initially built by his grandfather during 1721. His siblings were Kirk, Mary, Elisha, David, and Betty. John’s children were George, Nancy, and Sally. John’s father and his grandfather served as vestrymen in the Anglican Church, but his son founded a Presbyterian church (Gunby Memorial) in Worcester County. John’s father was a fervent Loyalist, while John, the subject, was equally committed to the Patriots’ cause. The split in John’s family erupted in a storm during 1775, when John joined the Minute Men and returned home to give his father the news. The dinner table became a conference table and the family debate continued until beyond midnight with John, Sr., urging his son to remain loyal to the Crown, which would assure him of later awards. He also informed his son that to be a Patriot would surely bring about his hanging. But the repeated pleas fell on deaf ears. The younger John said he would “rather sink into a patriot’s grave than wear the crown of England.” At the conclusion of the stalled talks, John departed the house and set out to raise an independent company to lead against the British. On 2 January 1776, John was elected captain of the 2nd Independent Maryland Company, drawn from Somerset County. Uriah Forrest was elected first lieutenant, William Brown second lieutenant and Benjamin Brooks third lieutenant. On 21 May 1776, while the Maryland Convention was in session, it considered a petition from Lt. Uriah Forrest on behalf of himself and Lieutenants William Sprigg Bowie and Benjamin Brooks. It complained of John Gunby’s conduct and questioned his patriotism. The complainants asked to be moved to another unit. The convention, after consideration, ruled: “That it is the opinion of this convention that the said captain John Gunby, far from having given any just cause to suspect his zeal for the rights and liberties of America, hath by his conduct manifested a laudable zeal in defence of the rights and liberties of America in general, and this province in particular. Resolved, therefore, that the said petition be rejected.” Captain Gunby saw service New York and New England. He participated in the Battles of Long Island and the confrontation that followed at White Plains, New York. In addition, he participated in the

GUNBY

defense Philadelphia, including the battles of Brandywine and at Germantown, followed by the Battle of Trenton during the latter part of December 1776 and at Princeton on 3 January 1777. In the meantime, Captain Gunby had been promoted to the rank of lieutenant colonel on 10 December 1776, just prior to the fighting at Trenton. Later that same year, on 17 April, Gunby was promoted to the rank of full colonel. In conjunction, on 1 April, 1777, the General Assembly resolved to raise seven battalions for continental service. Records are somewhat confusing on Gunby’s service at that time; his name is listed as lieutenant colonel of the 7th Maryland Regiment, and on the same date as colonel of the 2nd Maryland Regiment. Nonetheless, he was subsequently placed in command as colonel of the 1st Maryland Regiment. After the British abandoned Philadelphia in June 1778, the Americans broke camp at Valley Forge and initiated pursuit. Colonel Gunby participated with the Continental Army’s pursuit of British General Clinton. General George Washington’s vanguard under General Charles Lee intercepted the British at Monmouth on 28 June 1778, but Lee, under orders to fight, instead, ordered a retreat. Washington was able to rally his troops and withstand the British pressure. Following the battle, the British reinitiated their retreat to New York to terminate the final major battle in the northern states. In addition to serving in combat, Colonel Gunby also participated in five separate courts-martial. At one court martial, that of Peter Buise, the soldier was accused of desertion and left his command without authorization to see his wife. He was found guilty of the charge and sentenced to death. In another instance, Richard Ennis was accused of “aiding and abetting desertion.” The board reached the same conclusion and Ennis received the identical sentence, “that he shall be hanged until he is dead.” During the time of the Revolution, desertion was not treated lightly and death was most often the consequence when caught. Colonel Gunby moved his regiment to the Southern Department, and it participated in the ill-planned Battle of Camden on 16 August 1780. The American commander, General Horatio Gates, fled from the field; however, the Marylanders under Gunby remained in the thick of the battle with General John de Kalb, who refused to retire. The Marylanders sustained severe casualties and Baron de Kalb was mortally wounded. The devastating defeat ended Gates’ military career. He left the service and retired to live the life of what some would call that of a hermit. Gunby’s battered regiment remained in the South and soon fought alongside the new commander, General Nathanael Greene. During the latter part of 1780, the situation in Hillsborough, North Carolina, was less than favorable; the town was quite crowded due to many who arrived there following the Battle of Camden. During that time Colonel Gunby was appointed commandant of Hillsborough, and he retained the responsibility through January 1781. That month, a contingent of Gunby’s regiment was attached to Lt. Colonel John Eager Howard’s command and directed to bolster Daniel Morgan at Cowpens, South Carolina, where Morgan stunned the British by inflicting a devastating defeat upon them. Gunby’s contingent performed meritoriously while they subdued the British 71st Regiment. Afterward, Gunby’s Marylanders fought at Guilford Court House, North Carolina, on 15 March 1781. The militia buckled and the 2nd Marylanders got caught in the confusion of the moment; however, the 1st Maryland was ordered by Gunby to turn around and charge the British Guards. The Marylanders obeyed the command and inflicted severe punishment on their foe. By that time, General Greene had already directed the Virginia reserves to retire. Greene was forced from the field; however, his goals were achieved. More cat-and-mouse games between General Charles Cornwallis and Greene continued, but Greene eventually prevailed and Cornwallis abandoned the Carolinas. In the meantime, on 25 April 1781, a fierce fight developed at

GUNN

150

Hobkirk’s Hill. Some historians later recorded that General Greene blamed the loss on Gunby’s Marylanders. Nonetheless, although history is not crystal clear on the matter, Gunby’s men performed heroically on every field of battle, and at Hobkirk’s Hill, the British sustained equally severe casualties. Greene saved all of his supplies and artillery during the retreat. The British, too badly hurt to pursue Greene, moved back into Charleston, while Greene headed toward Rugeley’s Mills. At the same time, Cornwallis was beginning to move into Virginia, leaving Lord Francis Rawdon-Hastings in command to deal with Greene. At the Battle of Hobkirk’s Hill, the confusion of the battle caused conflicting accounts of Colonel Gunby’s actions. The British caught Greene by total surprise and the commander was not on the field at the end of the fight. Part of Gunby’s regiment faltered, but those two companies were reformed. Afterward, Gunby ordered his command to fall back and regroup around the “colors.” A retreat was not ordered and the act was accomplished, but Gunby is often given blame for the loss at Hobkirk’s Hill. At the end of the day, although both sides sustained severe casualties, the Americans still held the ground, which makes it difficult to assess the tenacious contest as a loss. A court of inquiry was held on 2 May 1781, and nothing in the report points to Gunby’s actions as the cause of a defeat. Actually, Gunby’s move to retire and reform was a tactic often used, and it was used similarly by Daniel Morgan and others at Guilford Courthouse without being condemned. The court of inquiry’s report stated: It appears to the Court that Colonel Gunby received orders to advance with his regiment and charge bayonet without firing. This order he immediately communicated to his regiment, which advanced cheerfully for some distance, when a firing began on the right of the regiment, and in a short time became general through it. That soon after two companies on the right of the regiment gave way. That Colonel Gunby then gave Lieutenant Colonel Howard orders to bring off the other four companies, which at that time appeared disposed to advance, except a few. That Lieutenant-Colonel Howard brought off the four companies from the left and joined Colonel Gunby at the foot of the hill, about sixty yards in the rear. That Lieutenant-Colonel Howard there found Colonel Gunby actively exerting himself in rallying the two companies that broke from the right, which he effected, and the regiment was again formed and gave a fire or two at the enemy, which appeared on the hill in front.

At the time the two companies became disoriented, one of the key officers, Captain Beatty, was killed. Confusion on the matter will never be completely over, but in the interest of fairness, it is imperative to note that the inquiry members, which included Colonel William Washington and Brigadier General Isaac Huger, included nothing grave in the report, but they discerned that Gunby should not have ordered the four companies to move back. The call by Gunby will remain arguable, but with the loss of the two companies that broke, it is equally arguable that without them, it was imperative to reform. And with all such inquiries, the element of what the commanding general expects is a consideration. Colonel Henry (Lighthorse Harry) Lee, General William Moultrie and others, not member of the inquiry team, concurred with Gunby’s actions. Lastly, after the Marylanders reformed, they returned to punish the British. In 1783, General Nathanael Greene paused at Baltimore on his way north and paid tribute to the troops of the Maryland Line, stating his thoughts “of every opportunity of expressing my obligations to the officers and troops of this state affords me the highest satisfaction. They have been companions with me in the hours of adversity, and have greatly contributed to all our little successes.” Colonel Gunby was awarded the brevet of brigadier general by Congress on 30 September 1783. General Gunby retired and attempted to live as a recluse; however, he did attend the meeting of the Society of the Cincinnati on 5 July

1784. General John Gunby succumbed on 27 May 1807. The Republican Star or Eastern Shore General Advertiser (Talbot County) published the general’s death notice on 8 June 1787: “Died on the 27th ult., at his farm near Snow Hill, General John Gunby, in the sixty-third year of age. This gentleman early embarked in the cause of his country during the late war which ended in the independence of the United States, and from almost the commencement to the close of the conflict with Great Britain, he was an officer of distinguished rank, activity and zeal in the services.” General Gunby was interred in the family cemetery on the plantation about fifty yards from his residence. The general’s wife, Amelia, and their son, Doctor John Gunby (died 1888), were also interred there; only one tombstone detailed their deaths. One slight error on the tombstone was that the engraver spelled General with a “J.”

Gunn, Brigadier General James James Gunn, the son of John and Sarah Gunn, was born in Virginia on 13 March 1753. He received his education in Virginia and studied law. At the outbreak of the Revolution, he joined with the Patriots and served with the rank of captain in a contingent of dragoons. Subsequent to the surrender of General Lord Charles Cornwallis at Yorktown, Virginia (October 1781), he participated under General Anthony Wayne in Georgia during 1782 to regain Savannah. That same year, James Gunn relocated to Savannah. After settling in Georgia, Gunn resumed his law practice, and he was appointed a colonel of the 1st Georgia Regiment of militia (Chatham County). Afterward, he was promoted to the rank of brigadier general. While in that capacity, General Gunn participated in conferences with Governor Edward Telfair as the state moved to subdue hostile Indians. Gunn also instigated trouble with General Nathanael Greene, who had also relocated in Georgia. Gunn challenged Greene for allegedly abusing his power over Gunn while he was Gunn’s commander in the southern theater. General George Washington intervened and sided with Greene’s response, which was that accepting Gunn’s complaint would “prove totally subversive of all military discipline.” General Gunn was elected to the Continental Congress on 10 February 1787, but he never took his seat. The U.S. Constitution was adopted on 17 September 1787 and ratified by nine states. General Gunn served in the U.S. Senate from March of 1789 through March of 1801. During that time, he was involved with speculators who attempted to acquire land through a scheme known as the Yazoo Land Scheme, in conjunction with the Georgia state legislature passage of the Yazoo Land Bill, signed by Governor (formerly general) George Matthews during his second term. The bill opened up land west of the Mississippi River (Alabama and Mississippi). The Georgia assembly convened during January 1795 and immediately proclaimed the Yazoo Land Bill invalidated. All documentation and records pertaining to the act were destroyed. Retirement was again suspended during 1796. General Gunn, while in the Senate, was one of three grantees of the Georgia Company, which would have benefited immensely had the plan worked. The man primarily responsible for foiling the scheme was another prominent Georgian, General (and U.S. Senator) James Jackson. On 3 July 1801, General James Gunn died while in Louisville, Georgia. He was interred in the Old Capitol Cemetery. A letter dated 31 July and published in the Georgia Gazette on 6 August 1801 stated: “General Gunn arrived here [Louisville] last Sunday, and died last night [30 July] at eleven or twelve o’clock, a very short illness indeed. It is said that his death was greatly owing to a draught of cold water after the taking of medicine; and, what is strange, the doctor and several men were in the room, and not one observed his death till sometime after he expired.” General Gunn’s will was probated on 10 May 1808 in Chatham County.

151 Gwinnett, Button (Signer of the Declaration of Independence) Button Gwinnett was born in Down Hatherly, England, about 1732–1735. Little is known about his early life, except that he came from a good family, but not one of wealth, and that his family was large. Button was the second son in a family of seven children or possibly more. His father, of Welsh ancestry, was an Anglican vicar, and his mother was English. After learning the merchant trade, Button relocated to Wolverhampton, Staffordshire, during 1757, and while there, he married Ann Bourne, the daughter of a grocer. Button and Ann had three daughters, Amelia, Ann and Elizabeth. For about two years, Button Gwinnett worked in partnership with his father-in-law, and then he initiated a business that exported goods to the American colonies. From that experience, he eventually immigrated to America. The exact date Gwinnett arrived in Savannah, Georgia, is unknown; however, during 1765, he acquired a store there. He retained the business for less than one year and then bought a plantation on St. Catherine’s Island off Sunbury. At the time, his funds were not sufficient to buy the estate outright, but he was able to borrow £3,000. Gwinnett later acquired other tracts on the mainland with borrowed funds. Afterward, he acquired more land from grants from the colony. He also acquired slaves to work on his property. In 1768, Gwinnett was appointed justice of the peace and a local pilotage commissioner. The next year he was appointed to the assembly as a representative of St. John’s Parish, which convened in Savannah, but by that time, his finances were spiraling out of control, which restricted his attendance. Gwinnett’s financial condition continued to deteriorate, and he abandoned politics for about five years. His excessive borrowing eventually brought about financial ruin, causing him to lose his land as well as his slaves during 1773. The creditors claimed the island, but in a display of empathy, Gwinnett was permitted to remain in his home, where he stayed until his death. Despite being an Englishman, he did not side with the Loyalists; however, due to his family in England and many old friends, Gwinnett did not immediately side with the American resistance. His wisdom was given extra depth from his time in England, where he had a vast knowledge of the tactics of the English; however, as time moved along, and most probably through the influence of men like George Walton and Lyman Hall, the latter a member of the same church (Midway Congregational Church) Gwinnett chose the American cause by about mid–1775. On 13 September 1775, subsequent to an August recess, the Georgia delegates were seated in Congress after not having officially sent representatives to the First Continental Congress; however, Button Gwinnett was not yet selected. The Continental Congress’ journal notes the admittance of Archibald Bulloch, John Houstoun, Esquires, the Rev. John J. Zubly, Noble Wimberly Jones and Lyman Hall. On 7 January 1776, the royal governor of Georgia, James Wright, while in conversation with the council of safety in Savannah, was arrested by a group of patriots under Major (later colonel) Joseph Habersham. The governor later escaped on 11 February and found refuge on a British warship on the Tybee Button Gwinnett (Story of Georgia, River. Meanwhile, on the 11th of George Smith, 1900)

GWINNETT

January, Colonel Lachlan McIntosh was ordered by the council to prepare to defend Savannah in the event of a British invasion by sea or by the British forces in East Florida. By that time, McIntosh was having problems with Gwinnett, the latter not having received a high command in the militia. On February 2, 1776, the Georgia delegates to the 2nd Continental Congress were selected by the Provincial Congress and Button Gwinnett, among the group, took his seat on 20 May. Another of the delegation, a holdover from the previous year, the Reverend Zulby, at the last minute, after having switched his allegiance to the British, was exposed. He fled from Congress, chased by John Houstoun, who had been charged by Congress to give pursuit and to seize Zulby. Consequently, Houstoun, who supported the Declaration, missed the vote. Gwinnett supported the adoption of the Declaration of Independence, and on 2 August, he placed his signature on the parchment document. Shortly thereafter, he completed his congressional work and returned to Georgia with great expectations of becoming a commanding officer in the militia, but the appointment went to his political opponent, Lachlan McIntosh. That October, Gwinnett was again selected as a representative of the Continental Congress, but he declined and instead became a member of the Georgia legislature. While in the legislature, he was involved with coming up with a blueprint for the state’s constitution, but he also devoted time to work against his adversary, McIntosh. During March 1777, Gwinnett became the acting governor (or president of the council of safety) of Georgia when he succeeded Archibald Bulloch, who succumbed. His term lasted only two months because Gwinnett was not re-elected. Meanwhile, the animosity between him and McIntosh intensified, the latter being dismayed with Gwinnett’s appointment as the president of the council. The legislature had, in the meantime (February 1777), adjourned after transferring authority to the council of safety. Gwinnett held the position that the civilian government had the authority to try military officers for offenses, while General McIntosh declared that only the military held that power and officers charged with offenses would be tried by court-martial. As president, the council authorized him to assemble the militia and initiate an expedition into Florida (Second Florida Invasion), in conjunction with Congress’ authorization of an invasion into Florida if feasible. On 17 March, Gwinnett, as president of the council of safety, ordered that George McIntosh, the brother of General Lachlan McIntosh, be arrested on charges of treason. Meanwhile, Gwinnett was unable to raise a sufficient number of troops, which compelled him to seek assistance from the Continental Army, which in Georgia was commanded by McIntosh, who had received a commission in the Continental service as brigadier general. The militia under Gwinnett arrived at Sunbury on 13 April, followed the next day by the Continental contingent under McIntosh. On the 15th, at Sunbury, the officers of the Continental Army refused to attend a war council called by Gwinnett. Shortly thereafter, on the 17th, elements of the Continental Army prepared to move out of Sunbury, and at that time, McIntosh learned that Gwinnett ordered the militia not to advance. On 1 May, a contingent led by Colonel Samuel Elbert departed Sunbury en route to Florida (Second Florida Invasion). Both Button Gwinnett and Brigadier General Lachlan McIntosh had been recalled to Savannah, leaving Elbert in command of the expedition. Nevertheless, the mission failed. Gwinnett was charged with malfeasance, but he was subsequently cleared of any wrongdoing. However, the blood-feud with McIntosh erupted into deadly violence when the two agreed to a duel. On the morning of 16 May 1777, the men met on the field on the Wright Plantation (Sir James Wright) on the outskirts of Savannah. The two antagonists each fired and both were wounded; however, Gwinnett’s wound to the leg became infected with gangrene and he

HALL

152

succumbed on the 19th. Allies of Gwinnett pressed charges against McIntosh and he was tried on charges of murder, but he was acquitted. McIntosh departed Georgia and joined General George Washington at Valley Forge, where the Continental Army encamped for the winter (1777–1778). Gwinnett County, South Carolina, was named in honor of Button Gwinnett. (Several nineteenth century sources report that Button Gwinnett first arrived in South Carolina at Charleston during 1770 and remained there in business for two years prior to relocating in Georgia; however, the National Park Service reports that documentation showed that Gwinnett had acquired his business in Savannah during 1765 and the same year acquired his plantation. Also, some sources at times differ on the date of Gwinnett’s death, with some stating 19 May 1777 and others stating May 27 or some other date. The National Park Service, Department of the Interior, concurs that his death occurred several days after the duel; the same date is used by the Georgia Encyclopedia and in the Biographical Directory of the U.S. Congress.)

Hall, Lyman (Signer of the Declaration of Independence) Lyman Hall, the son of John and Mary Street Hall, was born on 12 April 1724 in Wallingford, Connecticut. He was one of five children and the third son born to the Halls. Lyman received a fine education, including attendance and graduation from Yale during 1747, when he was 23 years old. In addition, he received instruction in theology from a relative and Congregationalist minister, the Rev. Samuel Hall. During 1749, Lyman began to preach, but as a candidate for the ministry, not as a pastor. That September, in the face of opposition by some, he was ordained, only to be fired during 1751 due to charges of immoral conduct. Subsequently, he was restored after offering repentance. He resumed preaching, but not from a stationary post; rather, he essentially was a fill-in preacher for the Congregationalist Church. Lyman, during May 1752, married Abigail Burr, the daughter of Thaddeus and Abigail Burr of Fairfield, Connecticut. Abigail, according to the Vital Statistics of Fairfield, succumbed during June of 1753 at age 24. Lyman remained close with her family, which included her brothers Thaddeus and Gershom. Abigail’s mother died during 1753 and her father in 1755. Lyman was one of the executors of Thaddeus’ last will and testament. Subsequent to the death of Abigail, about 1757, Lyman remarried, taking Mary Osborn as his wife. She was the daughter of Samuel and Hannah (Couch) Osborn, who also resided in Fairfield, Connecticut. Meanwhile, Lyman Hall also began to study medicine. Dissatisfied with his progress as a minister, he became a doctor. Later, Hall and his family set out for South Carolina to establish a medical practice. After his arrival there, he began his practice in Dorchester, but later relocated at Medway (Midway), Georgia, in St. John’s Parish (later Liberty County). Hall’s medical experience became an asset, as the area was located in swamplands and many colonists came down with malaria. Subsequently, Hall, who also maintained a home in Sunbury, departed his plantation and returned to South Carolina, where he remained until 1764 before again returning to Georgia. In 1765 the colonies had come under additional pressure from Britain; however, Georgia remained more closely aligned with the mother country than the other colonies. Nonetheless, by that time, many of the colonists had already begun to resist the British tactics, particularly after passage of the Stamp Act. Hall’s activities as a conspicuous leader of the Patriots did not find great favor with the royal governor, James Wright, who became familiar with the name Doctor Lyman Hall and with the man. Nevertheless, Hall found no reason to restrict his activities. His political activity thrust him into the forefront of the resistance to actions by the British that the colonists found oppressive. He participated in the meetings held in Savannah during 1774–1775. In St. John’s Parish,

the sentiments of the residents, primarily Puritans, were strong in support of the Patriots’ cause, but the parish stood alone. During December 1774, the Patriots of St. John’s Parish moved to secede from Georgia and join with South Carolina and during that same month acted to ratify the acts of the First Continental Congress in Philadelphia. Nevertheless, South Carolina declined accepting the parish. In March 1775, St. John’s Parish held its convention Lyman Hall (Biographical Sketches of and elected Lyman Hall as its the Signers of the Declaration of Indedelegate to Congress. At the pendence, Benson J. Lossing, 1854) time, intercourse with Georgia (except for St. John’s Parish) had already been prohibited by Congress. Savannah was considered a Loyalist stronghold, but it was also home to a few steadfast patriots, including George Walton. Hall, while at Congress, remained a non-voting member because he represented only one parish. Subsequently, on 13 September 1775, following a meeting of the Georgia Provisional government during July, when the colony selected delegates, three Georgians — Button Gwinnett, Lyman Hall and George Walton—took their seats in the Second Continental Congress. Back in Georgia, the situation was rapidly changing. On 11 January 1776, subsequent to the arrest of the royal governor, James Wright, Colonel Lachlan McIntosh was ordered by the council of safety to prepare for a possible invasion by the British. At the same time, political problems emerged within the ranks of the Patriots in Georgia due to ever-growing friction between McIntosh and Button Gwinnett, the latter frustrated due to not receiving command of the militia. Nonetheless, on 2 February 1776, the Georgia delegates to the 2nd Continental Congress — Archibald Bulloch, Button Gwinnett, Lyman Hall, John Houstoun, and George Walton — were selected by the Provincial Congress. Doctor Hall and his close friend Button Gwinnett were seated on 20 May, but Bulloch remained in Georgia as president of council. Another delegate, the Reverend Zubly, a holdover from the previous year, was caught corresponding with the royal governor and exposed on the floor of Congress by Samuel Chase, just prior to the vote for independence. He escaped from Philadelphia and John Houstoun was ordered to give chase and apprehend him. Consequently, Houstoun, a strong proponent of the Declaration, missed the vote on independence and Zubly escaped. Doctor Hall, Button Gwinnett and George Walton voted in the affirmative and later added their names to the parchment document. On 20 December of that year, Doctor Hall and four other delegates — Nathan Brownson, Button Gwinnett, John Houstoun and George Walton — arrived at Congress, which had convened in Baltimore. Doctor Hall was re-elected to Congress through 1780; however, due to a request from Gwinnett, Hall returned to Georgia to support his friend. Gwinnett had become president of council during March 1777 subsequent to the death of Bulloch. Button Gwinnett died after duel with General Lachlan McIntosh during May of that year, and Hall was named executor of Gwinnett’s will. The task was overwhelming due to the complicated estate of Gwinnett. Doctor Hall was in Georgia when the British invaded during 1778, but he escaped capture by moving to Charleston. Soon after the invasion, the British controlled the coast of Georgia, permitting them to

153 initiate ravaging raids. On 2 January 1779, while Savannah was controlled by Hessian troops, a British force advanced to reduce Fort Morris at Sunbury, defended by only about 200 troops. The Americans, unable to neutralize the British artillery and the overwhelming force (including regulars and Loyalists) of about 2,000, capitulated. The British destroyed Doctor Hall’s home in Sunbury and devastated Hall’s Knoll. Charleston fell on 12 May 1780 after a long siege, but Hall again escaped capture and possible hanging by fleeing to Connecticut before the city surrendered. Hall remained in Connecticut until 1782. At that time, after the British were compelled to abandon Georgia, he returned home. The next year, Hall was elected to the Georgia state assembly, where he served for one year. In 1784, Hall was elected governor of Georgia and one year later, during 1785, he returned to the House of Assembly. He remained in the House for a year before leaving public life for retirement. Doctor Hall remained in Savannah until 1790, when he moved to a place below Augusta in Burke County to settle on his new property, Shell Bluff Plantation, located along the Savannah River. It was the last move he would make. Lyman Hall succumbed at age 66 on 19 October 1790, usually a day of grand celebration in Savannah, known as Victory Day because it was on that day during 1781 that Lord Cornwallis surrendered at Yorktown. More than sixty years had passed since the death of Lyman Hall, the people of Georgia erected a monument in Augusta to honor their three favorite sons — Button Gwinnett, Lyman Hall and George Walton — each of whom had pledged their lives, fortune and sacred honor during the War for Independence, then voted for and adopted the Declaration of Independence (4 July 1776) and afterward signed their names to the parchment document. In addition to the monument, their remains were re-interred there; however, to this day, there is no evidence to verify that Gwinnett’s remains are there. The original stone that marked Lyman Hall’s grave site was later transferred to Connecticut. The solemn marker was placed in a public cemetery in Wallingford, where he was born. The epitaph on the tombstone proudly proclaimed him a Patriot and underscored the description with: “A True Christian and an Honest Man.” Lyman’s widow, Mary, lived several years longer. She succumbed during 1793, outliving both her husband and their only child, John, who predeceased his parents. John Hall had married Laura Wolcott and together they had a son, named Lyman after his grandfather. He died while serving as a captain in the Massachusetts militia on 14 January 1807.

Hamilton, Alexander (Signer of the U.S. Constitution) Details on the early life of Alexander Hamilton, including his birth date and ancestry, are not clear. Hamilton himself left no documentation to clarify what is based on tradition. Alexander was born of a common law marriage between a Scottish merchant and an English–French Huguenot mother who was the daughter of a planter. He was born in the West Indies on the island of Nevis during 1757. Alexander’s father later suffered financial losses. The family, including Alexander and his brother, moved to St. Croix in the Danish (later United States) Virgin Islands. At some point, Alexander’s father departed St. Croix and returned to St. Kitts, but his family remained on St. Croix. Alexander’s mother opened a store in an attempt to provide the basics for her family, and a Presbyterian minister provided some support by overseeing Alexander’s education. Alexander lost his mother during 1768, when he was only about eleven years old. There is no indication that he and his brother received any aid from their father after that. Alexander, however, gained employment in a mercantile business and while there, his abilities impressed the owner, who took it upon himself to become one of Alexander’s benefactors. By that time, thanks to the minister, Alexander had

HAMILTON

also mastered the French language. In 1772, Alexander was sent to America. He first arrived in Boston during October 1772, and from there he traveled to New York, where he was met by his new patrons, who prepared his way for his college education. He was also fortunate to have met William Livingston (later brigadier general and signer of Constitution). Alexander was invited to stay for a while at Livingston’s estate. After being entered in Barber’s Academy in Elizabethtown (Elizabeth), Alexander completed his studies there during the following year and jumped to King’s College 127 Alexander Hamilton (American Elo(later Columbia) in New quence, Vol. 1, Frank Moore, 1859) York. During 1774, the First Continental Congress convened in Philadelphia, and immediately after it adjourned, a minister (later bishop) named Seabury published his opinions which criticized the Congress He published two pamphlets, “Free Thoughts on the Proceedings of the Continental Congress” and “Congress Canvassed by a Westchester Farmer” under the pseudonym “A Westchester Farmer.” The pamphlets received a response penned by Alexander Hamilton, “A Full Vindication of Congress,” and his second and more strongly worded response, “The Farmer Refuted.” During 1775, Hamilton published a pamphlet in response to the Quebec Act. On 11 May, a mob threatened Myles Cooper, a Loyalist and the president of King’s College. He was saved from injury by Hamilton, who managed to get him out of harm’s way to a place of safety. In addition, Hamilton joined a company of militia in New York. He would have graduated King’s College during 1776, but he had begun writing for the Patriots’ (Whigs) newspapers. In the meantime, Hamilton had diligently studied artillery. On 14 March 1776, he was commissioned as a captain in the Provincial Company, New York Artillery. He participated in the various New York campaigns and during that time distinguished himself. General George Washington selected him as his primary aide-de-camp with the rank of lieutenant colonel on 1 March 1777, a rank he held for the duration of the war. In the meantime, during the attack against Trenton on the morning of 26 December 1776, Captain Hamilton’s artillery unit, along with that of Captain Thomas Forrest, was synchronized with the signal to attack. When the guns commenced fire, the thunderclap became the wake up call for the Hessian defenders as the shells effectively poured down upon King and Queen Streets. The city was quickly taken, and it became a turning point in the war. The Americans, who had a tremendous fear of the Hessian bayonets, discovered that they had nothing to fear. Shortly after seizing Trenton, Washington defeated the British at Princeton on 3 January 1777. During the following month, on 16 February, Alexander Hamilton was succeeded by Captain John Doughty of Morristown, New Jersey, as commander of the artillery company. Hamilton in turn had been elevated to the position as aide-de-camp to General Washington. The 1st Battalion, 5th Field Artillery, Fort Riley, Kansas, is the descendent of Hamilton’s artillery company, the only Army unit dating back to the Continental Army. In May 1777, at Washington’s headquarters at Morristown, New Jersey, Lt. Colonel Hamilton reported 5,738 officers and men (excluding

HAMILTON

154

artillery and light horse regiments) ready for duty. He also reported 1,057 men present and sick, with the greater part of the sick from the Pennsylvania Line, where men became ill from their smallpox inoculations. After the surrender of General John Burgoyne at Saratoga (October 1777), General Washington sent Hamilton to Albany to request that General Horatio Gates dispatch reinforcements to join the Continental Army to assist in evicting General William Howe’s army from Philadelphia. In April 1778, Hamilton was selected as one of the commissioners designated by Washington to negotiate with the British regarding a prisoner exchange. Later, after heated debate, Congress on 21 April resolved that it approved of “the conduct of Colonel Grayson, Lieutenant Colonel Harrison, and Lieutenant Colonel Hamilton, and Elias Boudinot, Esqr. commissioners appointed by General Washington to meet the commissioners appointed by General Sir William Howe, and with them to confer, determine and agree upon a treaty and convention for the exchange of prisoners of war, and for all matters whatsoever which may be properly contained therein, in the several meetings held at Germantown and Newton, with the commissioners of General Howe.” Afterward, Hamilton participated at the Battle of Monmouth on 28 June 1778, when the Continental Army intercepted General Howe’s army while it retreated through New Jersey en route to New York. Hamilton was at Washington’s side as the battle was erupting, and at that time, he said: “I will stay with you my dear general and die with you. Let us all die rather than retreat.” The battle ended with both sides claiming victory; however, after dusk, the British abandoned their camp and resumed the march toward New York, ending what became the final major battle in the northern states. Also in 1778, Hamilton became involved with the emerging idea to establish a national United States Bank, which through the efforts of others, including Robert Morris, a main financier of the war, would come to fruition. Later that year, General Horatio Gates, who had been corresponding with Congress and officers in the military in an attempt to scar General Washington’s reputation, caused many of Washington’s admirers to take offense. Colonel John Laurens, after the publication of a piece penned by Gates appeared in the Pennsylvania Gazette on 3 December 1778, challenged Gates to a duel. Alexander Hamilton acted as second to Laurens. Gates was wounded, but Laurens was unscathed. In 1779, General Philip Schuyler visited General Washington at his headquarters, and Schuyler’s daughter Elizabeth accompanied him. During that stay, Hamilton and Elizabeth were engaged; they were married on 14 December 1780. Alexander and Elizabeth had the following children: Philip; Angelica (b. September 1784); Alexander (b. May 1786); James Alexander (b. April 1788); John Church (b. August 1792); William Stephen (b. August 1797); Eliza (b. November 1799); and Philip (2, b. January 1802, named after his brother, who was killed in a duel in 1801). Subsequently, Hamilton and General Washington had a disagreement that led Hamilton to resign from the general’s staff; however, Hamilton remained in the army. After his wife had a baby, he was out of active service and studying law after having settled in New York. Nevertheless, he became restless and sent a letter to Lafayette in 1781: “I have been employed for the last ten months in rocking the cradle and studying the art of fleecing my neighbors.” Lt. Colonel Hamilton had moved to join Lafayette in Virginia during the campaign against the British commander, General Lord Charles Cornwallis. On 14 October 1781, Hamilton commanded the vanguard during a major thrust against British lines. One part of his force, led by Colonel John Laurens (former captive at Charleston), hit fast and hard to overwhelm the forward position. Cornwallis surrendered his army on 17 October. That year, the idea of a national banking system earlier discussed by

Alexander and Robert Morris re-emerged. Morris and George Clinton worked to eliminate the Continental paper money that held no value and replace it with currency of value. Morris proposed the idea of a national bank and, during July, he and others managed to have the USS Trumbull secretly sail under the pretense of delivering cargo, though its mission would be acquiring silver. The ship was captured, but the secret papers were thrown overboard. Later a French warship delivered the hard currency (2,500,000 livres and 18 sous) to agents in Boston. An escort met the train about sixteen miles outside of Philadelphia, and it arrived safely in the city and immediately transferred to the U.S. treasurer, Mr. Hillegas. Congress chartered the bank (North American Bank) located at 3rd and Chestnut Streets on 7 January 1782. Hamilton’s military service terminated after the victory of Yorktown. He returned to New York, but in December 1783, he was awarded the rank of brevet colonel. In 1782, Hamilton was admitted to the bar of the Supreme Court and that May, Robert Morris appointed him as receiver of the Continental taxes in New York. In November 1782, the legislature appointed Hamilton as a delegate to Congress. In autumn 1783, he resumed his law practice. Hamilton was elected to the General Assembly in 1786; also that year he attended the Annapolis Convention, where delegates from each state were expected, but only a few were sent. From that convention it was concluded that a Constitutional Convention was needed to either strengthen the Articles of Confederation or design a new government. Hamilton was appointed a delegate to the Constitutional Convention held in Philadelphia during 1787. He was an aggressive supporter of a strong, effective central government. Hamilton was also one of the principal authors of the Federalists Papers. The others were James Madison and John Jay. Eighty-three essays, published under the name “Publius,” were out prior to the Constitutional Convention, and they clearly exposed the dangers of foreign influence upon the nation and bolstered the necessity of a having an effective constitution. Hamilton was also was a delegate at the New York state constitutional ratification convention, which ratified the U.S. Constitution on 26 July 1788, to become the eleventh state to join the union. Hamilton was a staunch Federalist, but he was also a fervent defender and supporter of Christianity. Concerned about faith, he stated: “In my opinion, the present Constitution is the standard to which we are to cling.” Hamilton proposed organizing “the Christian Constitutional Society, to support the Christian religion and the Constitution by means of pamphlets, and concerted action to elect fit men.” In September 1789, while living in New York, Hamilton became the secretary of the treasury, a post he held until January 1795. He relocated in Philadelphia during August 1790 and remained there until he resigned in January 1795. At that time, he traveled to Albany and remained at his father-in-law’s estate until autumn, when he returned to New York to resume his law practice. In August 1790, Congress authorized acquiring ten boats to be used to counter smugglers. The fleet became known as the Revenue Marines or Revenue Service Cutters. The acquisition of the fleet was at the urging of Alexander Hamilton. Later, the size of the fleet is increased and during 1848, it became the United States Coast Guard. Alexander Hamilton is considered the father of the Coast Guard. During his tenure as secretary, as a member of President George Washington’s cabinet, he worked tirelessly to straighten out the nation’s finances. During that period, Britain and France again were at war with each other and Hamilton was opposed to entering the conflict; rather, he advocated neutrality. He published essays supporting neutrality under the pseudonyms of “No Jacobin” and “Pacificus.” Hamilton was one of Washington’s allies who supported the Jay Treaty in 1794. There was much opposition to the treaty, but it was finally ratified by the Senate in June 1795.

155 After completing his term as secretary of the treasury, Hamilton returned to private life and resumed his law practice, which expanded rapidly. In the meantime, relations with France deteriorated, and all the while, the British continued to instigate trouble. During 1798, Hamilton again put his effective pen to work to detail the dangers hovering over the nation due to the French actions. The essays, published under title of Titus Manlius, essentially formed the blueprint that was followed during the Quasi-War with France. On 19 July 1798, Hamilton was commissioned as major general and inspector for the United States Army, and on 15 June 1800, he received an honorable discharge. The national election caused a lot of turbulence in 1800. At the same time, there was friction within the Federalist Party. The election brought about a tie between Thomas Jefferson and Aaron Burr, and both were disliked by the Federalists. Nevertheless, the possible election of Burr created even more conflict. The tie had to be settled in the House of Representatives. After thirty-eight ballots, Thomas Jefferson finally emerged the winner to become the third president of the United States. Hamilton was deeply involved and his sway with the Federalists gave the win to Jefferson. In 1804, Aaron Burr attempted to win the governorship of New York and again, Alexander Hamilton worked to defeat him. After Burr’s defeat for governor, his animosity toward Hamilton intensified. The political rhetoric turned into violence. Burr instigated and accused Hamilton of making derogatory remarks, then challenged Hamilton to a duel. The two met on 11 July 1804 at Weehawken, New Jersey. Hamilton fired into the air, but Burr scored a fatal hit. Hamilton died from his wound on the following day. It was never determined whether Alexander Hamilton intentionally fired off target or if his shot was fired after he was hit. Alexander Hamilton was interred in the Trinity Churchyard in New York City. His widow, Elizabeth, and seven children survived him. At the time of his death, Hamilton had no large estate, nor had he acquired a large fortune in either money or tracts of land; rather, he was in heavy debt. His son, Philip, died in a duel with George I. Eaker during 1801, and both Alexander and Elizabeth were grief stricken; however, their eldest daughter, Angelica, never recovered from the shock. She was not able to cope with the loss of her brother and literally went insane. Elizabeth, in addition to caring for her invalid daughter, also had to care for her younger daughter and her five sons. Hamilton, on 4 July 1804, wrote two letters to his wife, one of which follows: This letter, my very dear Eliza, will not be delivered to you unless I shall first have terminated my earthly career, to begin, as I humbly hope, from redeeming grace and divine mercy, a happy immortality. If it had been possible for me to have avoided the interview, my love for you and my precious children would have been alone a decisive motive. But it was not possible, without sacrifices which would have rendered me unworthy of your esteem. I need not tell you of the pangs I feel from the idea of quitting you, and exposing you to the anguish which I know you would feel. Nor could I dwell on the topic lest it should unman me. The consolations of Religion, my beloved, can alone support you; and these you have a right to enjoy. Fly to the bosom of your God and be comforted. With my last idea I shall cherish the sweet hope of meeting you in a better world. Adieu best of wives — best of women. Embrace all my darling children for me. Ever yours A. H. July 4, 1804.

Hancock, John (Signer of the Declaration of Independence) John Hancock, the son of the Rev. John and Mary Hawke Hancock, was born on 23 January 1737 in Braintree (later Quincy), Massachusetts. John’s father died during 1744, but his uncle, Thomas Hancock, made sure he was raised and that he received an excellent education. All the while, John retained contact with his mother, his brother Ebenezer and his sister Mary. John attended the Boston Latin

HANCOCK

School, which was operated by John Lovell, and afterward, he attended Harvard and graduated in 1754 at age seventeen. John gained employment in the mercantile house of his uncle. Later, he was sent to England, where he increased his knowledge about the mercantile business. While in England, John attended the funeral of King George II in 1760, and he was present at the coronation of his grandson and successor, King George III. Shortly after his return to America, John’s uncle died during August John Hancock (Biographical Sketches 1764 at his mansion at Bea- of the Signers of the Declaration of con Hill, leaving John the Independence, Benson J. Lossing, 1854) beneficiary of a vast estate. This made him one of the most affluent men in Boston, if not the most. John’s wealth had no effect on his character. He remained down to earth and was known to have been charitable. However, he greatly expanded his business endeavors and acquired more wealth. John’s attire was quite noticeable, and he was described as a gentleman: “He wore a coat of scarlet, lined with silk, and embroidered with gold, white satin embroidered waist coat, dark satin small-clothes, white silk stockings, and shoes with silver buckles.” He also wore a “three cornered gold laced hat.” John’s carriage was pulled by “six blooded bays” and they ignited much conversation among the Puritans, as a coach such as his had never been seen in Boston. John also enjoyed all sorts of entertainment and celebrations, including singing, dancing, fine wines and elegant dinners. Nevertheless, he had acquired so much wealth that the Puritans who quietly complained were unable to cause him any discomfort from their criticism. During 1765, Parliament passed the Stamp Act, which caused turmoil back in the colonies once word of the legislation arrived. The act was to become effective during November of that year; however, the colonists reacted brashly well ahead of its effective date. Stamp agents were intimidated and worse to ensure that they would not distribute the stamps. During 1766, the year the legislation was repealed, John Hancock was elected to the General Assembly, along with Patriots Samuel Adams, Thomas Cushing and James Otis. Prior to his election to the assembly, Hancock had served as a selectman in Boston. He rose quickly to become one of the radical leaders who openly opposed the policies of the Crown and Parliament. At one point, Hancock was elected as speaker of the assembly, but an irate royal governor, Francis Bernard, rejected the appointment. In 1768, one year before he was recalled, Governor Bernard dissolved the assembly. Soon after, due to some other incidents, the British dispatched troops at Nova Scotia to Boston to increase the animosity of the Patriots. During spring of 1768, Hancock, who had earlier been appointed captain of the Boston Cadets, declined calling out the unit to provide escorts during the general election in a show of open opposition to the royal government and the Crown. For a while, the governor attempted to win over Hancock and even Sam Adams, but neither relinquished their principles to submit to the bribery through offers of advancement. The governor then changed tactics to eliminate his formidable foes. The British seized the sloop Liberty, owned by John Hancock, after it

HANCOCK

156

arrived in port with a cargo of wine. The cargo was unloaded during the night and no duties were paid, prompting the seizure, but the Bostonians took action by initiating riots despite facing a British warship, the HMS Romney. John Hancock was accused of making erroneous entries regarding the cargo by the commissioner of customs. The action of seizing the vessel backfired when the Bostonians watched the Liberty being towed by the British ship and riots broke out. The riots succeeded in gaining the release of the vessel, and Governor Bernard was compelled to order the officers who oversaw the seizure of the ship to leave Boston. The HMS Romney took the officers aboard and carried them to Castle William (later Fort Independence). The governor used the riots as a reason to bring British troops into Boston. John Hancock was arrested, but the charges against him could not be proved. The arrival of the Redcoats during 1768 caused a furor, and the tension continued to mount. Hancock, Sam Adams and others spread the word not to quarter the troops. During 1770, a mob confronted a group of British troops, and during the confrontation of 5 March, the troops were pelted by stones hidden within snowballs. The soldiers, after being reinforced, still amounted to less than ten men. The mob continued to instigate and even pressed their bodies into the bayonets. Finally, violence occurred and three of the civilians were killed and five others were injured. The incident became known as the Boston Massacre. The British troops afterward were removed from the city by Governor Thomas Hutchinson, Bernard’s successor. The troops were later defended by Josiah Quincy, Jr., and John Adams. Six of the soldiers were acquitted and two others were handed minor sentences. The day before the incident, John Hancock and others, particularly Sam Adams (who became the spokesman), had been designated to speak with the governor to convince him to transfer the troops out of the city, but the governor dismissed the plea. Committee of Correspondence was established at the insistence of John Adams, but John Hancock was unwilling to serve, thinking the action to be too insolent. Hancock was still holding out for reconciliation. Nonetheless, later he participated in the proceedings. During 1773, the colonists were stunned when the British imposed a tax on tea. Hancock was adamantly opposed to it. Patriots gathered at Faneuil Hall on the 5th of November to deal with the crisis, and Hancock was selected as moderator. A vessel, the Dartmouth, arrived in the harbor on 28 November. On the following day, it was decided that the cargo should be sent back to England. It was decided to place a watch to ensure no tea was unloaded, and Hancock was quick to volunteer for the duty, saying: “I should be willing to spend my fortune, and life itself, in so good a cause.” Meanwhile, two other vessels laden with tea arrived. With three ships in the harbor, the Patriots moved to end the problem and simultaneously switch from passive opposition to active resistance. On 16 December 1773, the Sons of Liberty, disguised as Mohawk Indians, advanced to the wharf. The Patriots, including John Hancock, boarded the vessels and dumped the tea into the harbor without interference by the British, taking the resistance into a state of open violence. During March 1774, the British retaliated with a series of bills known as the Intolerable Acts. One of those bills, the Boston Port Bill, was enacted during March 1774, and it galvanized the Patriots throughout the colonies. Closing the port endangered all of the citizens in Boston and the region. During August, British General Thomas Gage, the governor (successor to governor Hutchinson), called for the General Court to convene at Salem; however, the tension in Massachusetts had risen to uncontrollable limits, prompting him to cancel the session of the House. Nevertheless, the House convened despite the governor’s edict. After the session began, the body was immediately transformed into a Provincial Congress. After that action, the body adjourned then reopened its session in Concord. The members elected John Hancock as their initial president.

Hancock wasted little time as president. The House appointed a committee of safety and handed it the authority to call out the militia. In other immediate action, three generals — Jedediah Preble, Artemas Ward, and Seth Pomeroy — were appointed to command the militia and the Minute Men. In yet other activity sure to aggravate the governor as well as the Crown, the Provincial Congress directed the various tax collectors to halt the payment of taxes to the royal government and instead, pay the taxes to a new treasurer to be appointed by the House. In the meantime, word had been sent throughout the colonies as the situation in Massachusetts continued to become more unsettling, but it was the Port Bill that caused the most consternation and from it, the colonies galvanized to get help to the citizens of Boston while taking steps to defend their own colonies. While the Patriots continued to move toward a war footing, the British were still convinced that the trouble was caused only by a few rabble-rousers, and they had no concerns about a countrywide rebellion. During November 1774, on the 23rd, the Provincial Congress called for raising 12,000 militia and Minute Men. In addition, two more generals ( John Thomas and William Heath) were appointed. John Hancock was elected as a delegate to the Second Continental Congress. By spring of 1775, the British took a more adamant position toward suppressing the rebels and seizing their leaders. On 17 April 1775, Paul Revere communicated with Doctor Jeremy Belknap, giving him the signal once British movement was identified. He stated: “If the British went out by water, we would show two lanterns in the north church steeple; and if by land, one, as a signal.” On the following night, Paul Revere, William Dawes and Doctor Samuel Prescott, after getting word that the British were crossing the Charles River in boats en route to Concord, set out to warn the Patriots. Revere was able to warn Samuel Adams and John Hancock; however, afterward, he was halted by the British and detained. While the British moved to the Black Horse Tavern, where they had been told they would find Hancock, he was on his way to Lexington, but several other Patriots from the Committee of Safety had spent the night at the tavern and just barely escaped capture by hiding in a cornfield in back of the inn. Meanwhile, John Hancock had some enjoyable diversion from the sound of the guns and the danger he faced if the British caught him. He had earlier evaded capture several times; the first attempt occurred at Salem when the British rode to the church expecting to nab their prey; however, the column was spotted and the congregation was told to leave. A contingent under Colonel Timothy Pickering sped to the bridge, but the British chose to retire rather than engage the troops. Hancock and Sam Adams had been in hiding at various places ever since the arrival of General Gage, but he had also met a young woman, Dorothy Quincy, the daughter of Judge Edmund and Elizabeth Wendell Quincy. Hancock had been at the Clarks’ house when he was warned by Paul Revere. During that time Dorothy was a guest at the home of the Rev. James Clark, a relative of John Hancock. Dorothy’s father had been out of town, and the invitation to stay with the Clark family came from Lydia Hancock, an aunt of John’s who lived in the same house as the Reverend Clark. Hancock was warned to remain in Lexington until British intent was discovered, and when he was told that Dorothy was a guest at the Clarks, he was easily convinced to stay. Sam Adams also stayed there. The two sides clashed at Lexington and Concord on 19 April, ending all paths to reconciliation. The British were met by the Minute Men, and the Redcoats were forced to retire to Boston, but for the entire line of retreat they were hit by fire from Minute Men scattered about the entire route. Afterward, the British were corralled within the city limits while the Patriots awaited reinforcements. In Philadelphia, Congress was taking action to resist the British. On 24 May 1775, John Hancock was elected president of the Second Continental Congress. He succeeded Peyton Randolph. Randolph,

157 like John Hancock and Sam Adams, was on the list of condemned rebels who were to be seized and hanged. An armed guard escorted Peyton Randolph back to Virginia. Shortly after Hancock assumed the presidency, General Gage expressed his thoughts on the election. On 13 June, Gage declared martial law and proclaimed “that all who lay down their arms, except Samuel Adams and John Hancock, shall receive a pardon.” On the following day, Congress established the Continental Army and the next day named George Washington as commander-in-chief. Hancock had himself hoped to be named commander-in-chief, but John Adams and others believed that they needed a southerner to command to keep the southern states aligned with the conflict. Afterward, Washington moved to Cambridge, while Congress continued to adjust to open hostilities. On 17 June, the British moved to take Bunker Hill (Breed’s Hill), and at the end of the day, the British held the field after the Patriots had expended their ammunition and had to retire. The British, however, sustained severe casualties, and with the militia from neighboring colonies speeding to the area and the gathering of the Continental Army, it was the British who were immobilized. The siege continued throughout the winter of 1775–1776 until the British were compelled to abandon Boston on 17 March 1776. Hancock traveled to Fairfield, Connecticut, in August and while there, on the 23rd, he married Dorothy. Together, the couple had two children, a daughter who died while an infant and a son who died young. Dorothy was as bold and daring as her husband. She and John’s Aunt Lydia watched the fighting at Lexington from the house. After the battle, Lydia told John that she was returning to her father’s house in Boston and John had forbid her to go due to the British occupation, saying: “No madam, you shall not return as long as a British bayonet remains in Boston.” Lydia was less than intimidated and retorted: “Recollect, Mr. Hancock, I am not under your authority yet. I shall go to my father’s house.” Nonetheless, Aunt Lydia afterward persuaded Dorothy of the great danger. Together, Lydia and Dorothy instead traveled to Fairfield and remained there at the residence of the Rev. Thaddeus Burr. When Dorothy Quincy finally got to return to Boston, she was Dorothy Hancock. On 26 September 1775, John Hancock wrote to Washington to instruct him to select winter quarters for the army. Later that year, Washington wrote to John Hancock to inform him that it was “impossible” to enlist troops who would serve for the duration. On 14 December, Hancock was appointed to the committee that was charged with fitting the armed ships. On 1 January 1776, General Washington reorganized the Continental Army, while Congress continued to devise methods of acquiring supplies and ammunition for the troops. Congress was aware of the great pressures upon it, and without much time for relaxation, the members remained in session at times even on Sundays to cope with the never-ending task of maintaining the government and the armed forces. In February 1776, although John was weighed down with his responsibilities as president of the Congress, Massachusetts commissioned him as a major general of militia. Later that year, as the nation was moving toward declaring independence, Hancock, on 4 June, encouraged the colonies to make preparations to defend against the British and to encourage their citizens “that you will be able to lead them to Victory, To Liberty and to Happiness.” On the Fourth of July, Congress officially declared independence. John Hancock was the only member to sign the document at that time. The other signatures came later, beginning in August 1776. During the ceremony, Hancock stated to Benjamin Franklin: “We must all hang together,” and Franklin quipped: “We must all hang together, or most assuredly we shall each hang separately.” John Hancock’s signature was quite large and recognizable. Legend has it that Hancock also remarked as he was signing the document, “King George can read that without his glasses.”

HAND

Hancock remained president of Congress until 1 November 1777, the month following the surrender of British General John Burgoyne at Saratoga. Poor health prompted Hancock to resign, but he remained in Congress into 1779. During 1778, John recuperated sufficiently that he was able to take command of the militia. He led the Massachusetts troops during the Rhode Island campaign commanded by General John Sullivan during the unsuccessful attempt to retake Newport from the British. A French fleet was to support the offensive, but it did not arrive. The Americans were compelled to retire to the mainland in late August. During 1780, John Hancock was elected governor of Massachusetts, becoming the first governor to serve under the new constitution. Hancock received 11,000 votes out of the 12,281 votes cast for a total of seventeen candidates. He held the post until 1785, when he declined to run for another term He was succeeded by James Bowdoin, who was elected by the legislature. Hancock was also elected as a member of the Massachusetts Constitutional Convention. Meanwhile, Hancock was returned to the Continental Congress and served in 1785 and 1786. He was returned as governor during 1787 and remained in office for the rest of his life. It was during that same year, 1787, that the Constitutional Convention convened in Philadelphia. The United States Constitution was adopted on 17 September 1787, effective upon ratification by nine states. Governor Hancock supported ratification and used all of his persuasive powers to bring it to fruition; however, during the state ratification convention, his gout caused problems that forced him to miss some sessions. Out of the three hundred and sixty delegates, Hancock had been selected to preside over the convention. Nonetheless, he recovered and returned to Congress. Massachusetts ratified the Constitution on 6 February 1788 to become the sixth state to enter the union. John Hancock died unexpectedly on 8 October 1793. His wife, Dorothy Quincy Hancock, remarried several years after the death of John. She married Captain James Scott, who had been a friend of Governor Hancock. Dorothy Hancock Scott died on 3 February 1830.

Hand, Brigadier General Edward Edward Hand, the son of John and Dorothy Hand, was born in Ireland at Clyduff, Kings County, on 31 December 1744. Prior to arriving in the American colonies, Edward was educated in Ireland. His courses at Trinity College in Dublin centered around the medical field. After completing his studies he was reluctant to serve a prolonged apprenticeship of five years, so he entered the military and became a surgeon’s mate with the 18th Royal Irish Regiment, a unit of the British army. Hand’s arrival in America occurred in 1767 (during the French and Indian War) while he was in the military. After arriving at Fort Pitt along the frontier in western Pennsylvania, he left the army (1774) after selling his commission. Shortly thereafter he established residence in the vicinity of Lancaster, Pennsylvania, where he later (1785) acquired a farm near the Conestoga River, which he named Rockford (Rock Ford). Hand, once settled in Lancaster, established a medical practice. Despite his service with the British, he quickly became aligned with the colonists, who were increasing their opposition to the actions of Edward Hand (Campaign of 1776, the Crown. By the following year, Henry Phelps Johnston, 1878)

HAND

158

Edward married, taking Katharine Ewing, the daughter of John and Sarah Ewing, as his wife on 13 March. The couple had eight children: Sarah (b. December 1775, married Samuel Bethel), Dorothy (b. November 1777, married Edward Brien), Katharine (b. December 1779), John (b. March 1782), Jasper (b. February 1784, married, wife unknown), Mary (b. May 1786, died unmarried), Margaret (b. May 1789, died young during 1800) and Edward (b. January 1792). Meanwhile, during 1775, shortly after the Battle of Bunker Hill in Massachusetts, Hand re-entered the military, but not for the English; rather the emerging American army. On 25 June 1775, he was appointed lieutenant colonel of Colonel William Thompson’s Rifle Battalion (formed in Carlisle), which was the initial battalion authorized by the Continental Congress. Colonel Thompson’s commission was also dated 25 June 1775. Without any delay, Thompson and Hand led the battalion to Massachusetts and joined with General George Washington on 14 August. Shortly thereafter, the contingent participated in the siege of British-held Boston. On 14 November 1775, the battalion repelled a British landing at Lachmere’s Point. On 1 January 1776, the Continental Army was reorganized; however, the rifle contingents were not immediately affected, as the enlistments did not expire until 1 July. However, the units were redesignated as Continental Army units. The Pennsylvania Rifle Regiment, formed by William Thompson, with Edward Hand as lieutenant colonel, became the 1st Continental Regiment. It included the attached rifle companies from Virginia and Maryland. Two other companies were detached to participate in the Quebec Campaign. After Colonel Thompson was ordered to New York in conjunction with his promotion to brigadier general, Colonel Hand assumed command of the regiment on 7 March 1776. The regiment under Hand’s command was in the thick of the fighting at Long Island and the exasperating retreat from New York. Afterward there was little leisure time. Colonel Hand’s regiment participated in the Battle of Trenton on 26 December 1776 and during the fighting in the same vicinity on 2 January, when the British unsuccessfully attacked to regain Trenton. During the day’s heavy fighting, the British moved to ford Sabakunk Creek, but Washington had anticipated the move and ordered Hand to defend there, the northern edge of the city’s defenses. The British hit a stone wall as Hand’s troops prevented a crossing for about three hours, before pulling back to a preset position to reinitiate the delaying fire. The superior British force was again stymied for about one hour before Hand ordered his command to withdraw across Assunpink Creek to keep from being surrounded. The unit assigned to cover the retreat, Hitchcock’s brigade, bolted for safety after being struck by German grenadiers and British infantry. While the disorganized brigade was being re-formed, Washington modified his strategy by calling upon artillery, and it rained effective fire that quickly ended the British surge. At about the same time, Colonel John Cadwalader and his Pennsylvania militia and its attached Marine contingent commanded by Major Samuel Nicholas plugged the gap at the bridge and ended the ground fighting, leaving the remainder of the day’s combat to the opposing artillery, while General Charles Cornwallis pondered how his 6,000 troops would finally crush the rebels. During the night of the 2nd–3rd, Washington abandoned his camp, but the fires continued to burn brightly. On the following day, Cornwallis, once again outsmarted by Washington, was defeated at the Battle of Princeton. Hand’s regiment again delivered severe punishment upon the enemy. On the 3rd, General Cornwallis received two surprises. He discovered the American encampment had been abandoned, but there was no time for jubilation. At about the same time, he heard artillery fire and it was not to his front. Washington had maneuvered from where he could bang against the British rear. The left flank was drilled by Colonel Hand’s riflemen, who took a high toll on the Redcoats while Colonel Cadwalader pounded against the opposite flank. The British were compelled to retreat toward New Brunswick, and

the Jersey route to Philadelphia had been sealed. General Sullivan pushed right into Trenton. During the tenacious exchange, General Hugh Mercer was mortally wounded. On 1 April 1777, Colonel Hand and Colonel Charles Scott of Virginia were promoted by Congress to the rank of brigadier general. General Hand’s duty in New Jersey soon ended, and he did not participate in the defense of Philadelphia later that year. On 10 April, Congress directed General Hand to repair to Fort Pitt to assume command of the Western Department (Department of the Frontier) and to maintain the western frontier. He retained the position until 26 May 1778. When he repaired to Fort Pitt, he took his brother-in-law, Major Jasper ( Jesse) Ewing along as his aide-de-camp. General Hand received additional instructions on 15 April 1777. Congress resolved “that 4,000 dollars be advanced to brigadier General Hand, to erect such works at Pittsburg as he shall think necessary, and towards contingent expences; he to be accountable.” In addition to Fort Pitt, slightly less than 250 miles from Britishcontrolled Detroit, General Hand’s command included Fort Henry and Fort Randolph at Wheeling, Virginia (later West Virginia), and several smaller posts. While he was in command at Fort Pitt, his forces were frequently engaged with Loyalists and Indians. Later, on 19 July 1777, Congress resolved that an expedition was to be mounted against British-held Pensacola, Florida, under the command of General Hand; however, the invasion was never executed. During that same month, General Hand was informed by Nonhelema, the sister of Chief Cornstalk, that the British had made a secret treaty with the Indians along the frontier, and she also brought intelligence that Forts Henry (formerly Fort Fincastle) and Randolph at Wheeling, Virginia, were to be attacked. Both forts were contacted and told of the possibility of attack, but after a while, when none came, the garrisons became complacent and some of the militia returned to their homes. On 1 September, the attack against Fort Henry was launched, but the Indians had no British artillery and the thinly manned garrison, supported by women and children, held until reinforcements arrived. Nonetheless, the settlement at Wheeling was devastated. On 26 September, the Indians, led by Half-King, ambushed a contingent commanded by Captain William Foreman at Grave Creek and devastated the column before it could return fire. Foreman and two of his sons were among the dead. The survivors raised strong resistance and were able to get back to Fort Henry. Meanwhile, during autumn 1777, Fort Hand was established to replace Fort Kittanning, which was ordered abandoned, and the garrison of the former moved to the latter. On 20 November 1777, Congress dispatched Colonel Crawford to Fort Pitt to take command, under General Hand, of the continental troops and the militia. Also that month, Cornstalk, while at Fort Randolph after informing the commander of an imminent Indian raid, was murdered by militia along with his son and two other Shawnee. Cornstalk was detained while awaiting word from General Hand, but he was erroneously accused of being part of a conspiracy. However, his information was accurate. The death of Cornstalk caused previously friendly Indians to take up the tomahawk. Cornstalk’s sister was also known as the Grenadier Squaw, but she had another name, Catherine, which she received when she was baptized. Subsequent to the death of Cornstalk, she decided to leave her tribe. Nonhelema, with just under fifty head of cattle, relocated at Fort Randolph and frequently acted as interpreter for the garrison. At the conclusion of the war, she moved to Pittsburgh and requested a land grant, but Congress never took action on her behalf. The frontier remained combustible, but no major confrontations occurred. The Indians launched swift raids against the settlers and the threat of Indian attacks remained high throughout spring of 1778. General Hand requested funds from Congress to construct armed boats for use as patrol boats on the Ohio. He also requested to be

159

HARRINGTON

replaced as commander at Fort Pitt, to which Congress responded affirmatively. On 26 May 1778, Congress appointed Brigadier General Lachlan McIntosh as Hand’s successor. General Hand was appointed commander of the Northern Department on 19 October. He repaired to Albany as successor to General John Stark. Nevertheless, on 20 November, Hand was succeeded by General James Clinton. During the summer of 1779, General Hand’s brigade participated with General Sullivan during his expedition against the Indians, and on 28 August, the brigade departed Tioga for Newton, New York. Three other brigades, those under Generals James Clinton, William Maxwell and Enoch Poor, destroyed Indian villages as they advanced. On the following day, Loyalists and Indians under Major Walter Butler and Chief Joseph Brant respectively were thrashed at the Battle of Newton (Battle of Chemung). During August 1780, General Washington handed command of one of the two recently established light infantry corps to General Hand, with the other corps going to General Enoch Poor. Hand’s corps was attached to General Lafayette’s division. On 8 January 1781, General Hand was appointed adjutant general. He was with General Washington when he departed for Virginia to command the Yorktown Campaign. The party paused at Mount Vernon and from there moved to Williamsburg. General Hand was involved with the preparations and strategy intended to vanquish Lord Charles Cornwallis’ army. He remained an adjutant general for the duration of the conflict. Shortly before he left the service, he received the rank of brevet major general on 30 September 1783, then retired on 3 November. That year, General Hand was elected to Congress (1783–1784). Afterward, he served in the Pennsylvania legislature (1785–1786). His public service after leaving the legislature included his election during 1789 as chief burgess of Lancaster, Pennsylvania. One of his goals at the time was to have Lancaster chosen as the location for the federal capital, but his idea lost out to a different location, one carved out of Maryland and Virginia and called the District of Columbia. In addition, he was a member of the Pennsylvania constitutional convention of 1790 that drew up a new state constitution. In 1798, General Washington was again called upon to command the United States Army, due to the anticipation of imminent war (Quasi War with France). Washington requested that General Hand be reappointed adjutant general of the army. Congress affirmed the appointment. Nevertheless, a land war never occurred. The conflict was confined to the sea. He again retired during 1800. Edward Hand succumbed from cholera at his home (Rockford) in Lancaster County, Pennsylvania, on 3 September 1802. He was interred in the St. James Episcopal cemetery in Lancaster. His wife, Katharine, succumbed on 21 June 1805. The family mansion was initially located on 160 acres. It expanded by an additional 15 acres in 1792 and remained in the family until 1810. By the mid–twentieth century, the ancient Georgian styled mansion had long ago lost its elegance and was destined to be reduced to rubble, but a group of people aware of the significance of the property and its link to the past saved it from destruction. The mansion (Rock Ford Plantation) was later restored by the Rock Ford Foundation and it, as well as a museum on the spacious grounds, remains open to the public.

John had married Joan Contee, but details of Joan’s life are unknown. John and Joan had three children: Alexander Contee, Peter Contee and Samuel Contee. John and his son, Alexander Contee, during 1774, were selected as delegates to the General Congress held at Annapolis, and both were appointed as members of the Committee of Observation, with John presiding as presiJohn Hanson (Pictorial Field Book of dent. the Revolution, Benson J. Lossing, 1860) During July 1775, as a member of the Provincial convention, Hanson asserted his position, declaring that British force would be met “by force.” Hanson was engaged in raising troops for Maryland and was involved in the manufacturing of ammunition and gunpowder. He was also a member of the committee of correspondence. Just after the engagement of Bunker Hill, the committee received a letter that requested reinforcements to support the Patriot forces in the vicinity of Boston. Two companies were raised by Hanson and dispatched to Massachusetts. The column, composed of the two companies, commanded by Captains Michael Cresap and Thomas Price, reached Boston on 22 August 1775. In addition, Hanson had donated two hundred pounds sterling to alleviate the problems of the needy in Boston after the Port Bill, which closed the Boston port, was passed during 1774. In June 1775, Hanson was elected treasurer of Frederick County. Maryland was a center of activity, and John Hanson, although more than sixty years old, had totally committed himself to the cause. He was also concerned with Loyalist activity and, as the leader of Frederick County, continually signaled preparedness and ensured that Patrols were vigilant in search of signs of British-Indian incursions along the western frontier. During early 1776, the Maryland Council of Safety appointed Hanson to a committee charged with procuring gold and silver from citizens in the county to help support the war costs. Later that year, on 9 October, Hanson was appointed to a commission established to reorganize the Maryland armed forces and to seek the re-enlistments of the veterans. During 1780, Hanson was elected to the Continental Congress. On 1 March 1781, Maryland, a holdout, finally signed the Articles of Confederation. With Maryland’s concurrence, the thirteen states had completed their path to becoming a nation. On 5 November, Hanson was elected president of the Continental Congress. He succeeded Thomas McKean and served as president until the following November. He was succeeded on 4 November 1782 by Elias Boudinot. John Hanson died at the home of his nephew in Oxen Hill (Prince Georges County), Maryland, on 22 November 1783, about nine months after Britain officially declared an end to the war.

Hanson, John

Henry Harrington was born about 1748 in England, but later he immigrated to the West Indies, where he resided in Jamaica before relocating in the colonies. Initially, Henry established himself in South Carolina along the Pedee (now Pee Dee) River, but afterward he relocated in the Pedee sector of North Carolina in Richmond County, which at the time was a section of Anson County. Prior to moving to North Carolina, Henry married Rosana, the daughter of Major James Auld of Anson County, North Carolina. Their children were Rosana (married Robert Troy); Henry William; James Auld (married Eleanor Wilson); and Harriet (married Belah Strong).

John Hanson was born on 3 April 1715, in Maryland at Mulberry Grove (Charles County). Details of his early life are unclear, but it is thought that he was sent to Europe for his education. In 1757, Hanson was elected to the state assembly as a representative of Charles County. He remained in the assembly until 1758, but later, during 1765, he was returned and served into the following year. After a year out of office, he again returned to the assembly during 1768. Then in 1773, John relocated to Frederick County. He was totally aligned with the Patriots’ cause.

Harrington, Brigadier General Henry

HARRISON

160

Henry and Rosana settled in North Carolina in 1776; however, before Henry made the jump to North Carolina, he had secured a commission that gave him a captaincy in St. David’s Parish (Craven County) with command of a volunteer company. His commission was issued on 3 August 1775, and about that same time, Harrington was appointed chairman of the committee of observation of St. David’s Parish. On 25 November 1779, Harrington was appointed colonel of militia in Richmond County (carved from Anson County that year). During the following year, Colonel Harrington saw some action in South Carolina prior to the fall of Charleston (12 May 1780); however, he was not in Charleston when it fell. Nevertheless, other North Carolinians, including General Griffith Rutherford, were among those who were captured. Rutherford, only recently promoted during spring of 1780, was replaced by Harrington, who was promoted to brigadier general. In addition to his military responsibilities, General Harrington also took on political responsibilities after being elected in 1780 to the North Carolina House of Commons as a delegate from Richmond County. Later that year, the Loyalists became active in the area near Cross Creek, and General Harrington, during September, set out with about 500 men drawn from Albemarle and Cape Fear to liquidate the problem. The Loyalists were scattered, and afterward Harrington moved into South Carolina to acquire needed supplies; however, while he had been in the process of quashing the insurrectionists, the House of Commons bypassed him and appointed Colonel William Lee Davidson as brigadier general. The move apparently did not sit well with Harrington, who, after completing his mission, resigned his commission (Salisbury District) during autumn 1781; however, General Harrington is known to have again served in the militia in 1782. While the war raged and General Harrington worked to protect his region against Loyalists and hostile Indians, the Loyalists managed to destroy his home by fire, setting him alongside many other prominent Patriots who lost more than just their fortunes during the war. In addition to setting his home afire and destroying his personal possessions, including a well stocked library, the Loyalists carried away many of his slaves. Nonetheless, after hostilities ended, many of his former slaves found their way back to Harrington’s plantation. Harrington was able to ascertain one of the ringleaders who was responsible for his great loss. After the war he pursued the man in court for damages. The court ruled in his favor and the Loyalists in turn lost everything; however, the fact that he succeeded in placing the Loyalist’s family into poverty caused the general more discomfort. Harrington, when informed that the man’s family was about to be homeless with his acquisition of their property, handed the family the deed for their home, ending their crisis. Another anecdote about the general occurred during the war when two of his escort riders rode ahead while he took a diversionary turn to spend the night at the home of a friend. While traveling to rejoin his men, a highwayman held him up at pistol point. The robber took the general’s money, then returned some, stating that the general might need it to complete his journey. The man who robbed Harrington was detained and arrested, along with a group of Loyalists. Harrington spotted the man who relieved him of only part of his money and inquired what had possessed him to take such a course. If satisfied with his answers, Harrington would ensure that he was not among those hanged. Apparently, Harrington was satisfied. The man was spared and he joined Harrington’s forces to become a loyal soldier to the Patriots’ cause. After the war, General Harrington returned to his estate to rebuild his plantation. In addition, he served in the North Carolina legislature. During 1791, the legislature selected General Harrington as a commissioner charged with selecting the site of the state capital. He was also a trustee of the University of North Carolina, a post to which he was elected during 1789 and held through 1795.

General Henry Harrington succumbed on 31 March 1809 at his residence in Richmond County. Two newspapers, the Raleigh Register and the Raleigh Star, on 13 April 1809, published the identical obituary: Died — At his seat in Richmond County, on the 31st ultimo, in the sixty-second year of his age, General Henry W. Harrington. He was an active and useful officer, and acquired honor in the Revolution which secured to this country its independence. In private life he exercised all the virtues that recommend a man to our confidence and regard. The nicest sense of honor and strictest principles of justice marked every transaction of his life. In his more domestic relations he was eminently amiable — the most tender and affectionate husband, the kindest and most indulgent father, a sincere and zealous friend. His memory will ever be cherished by all the virtuous and good of his acquaintance.

With regard to the general’s sons, William served in the U.S. Navy and in the North Carolina House of Commons. Afterward, he was a member of the state’s constitutional convention of 1835 and sided with those who sought to repeal the parts of the constitution that were targeted against Catholicism for the “removal of this stain on the escutcheon of North Carolina.” James Auld relocated in South Carolina and like his father became a planter.

Harrison, Benjamin (Signer of the Declaration of Independence) Benjamin Harrison was born in Virginia on the family estate (Berkeley Plantation) on 5 April 1726. The origin of the Harrison family in America began about 1640 with the arrival of his great-grandfather, also named Benjamin, who settled in Surrey. Benjamin had several sons, one of whom he named Benjamin, the oldest, and another named Nathaniel. Benjamin of Surrey, the grandfather, acquired a plantation known as Berkeley in Charles City along the James River about 24 miles from Williamsburg. His brother Nathaniel purchased his tract of land along the same river, but slightly more than ten miles below Berkeley Plantation. The estate presented a riverbank view of City Point, the port of both Richmond and Petersburg. Benjamin of Surrey married Elizabeth Burwell of Gloucester, the daughter of Lewis Burwell. Benjamin succumbed during April 1710, when he was about 37 years old. He was survived by his wife, Elizabeth and two children, Benjamin, the father of Benjamin the Signer, and a daughter, Elizabeth (married Peyton Randolph, president of Continental Congress). Benjamin, the son, married Anne Carter, the daughter of Robert Carter, known as King Carter of Carotoman (Lancaster County, Virginia). The marriage ended in tragedy when Benjamin was about thirtyseven years old. A storm struck and Benjamin, along with two of his daughters were each killed when lightning struck the home. Benjamin was survived by his wife, six sons and two daughters. Their sons were: Benjamin, Charles, Nathaniel, Henry, Colin and Carter. Their daughters were Betty and Anne. Benjamin (the Signer), the Benjamin Harrison (Biographical oldest of the boys, had been Sketches of the Signers of the Declaraattending William and Mary tion of Independence, Benson J. LossCollege in Williamsburg ing, 1854)

161 when the fatal accident occurred. Subsequent to the death of his father and prior to graduation, he returned home to Charles City to assist his mother, Anne (daughter of the king’s surveyor general), and to take over the responsibilities of the estate. By that time, the family had become acquainted with another prominent family of Virginia, the Randolphs. Benjamin later became the brother-in-law of both Peyton and William Randolph. One of his sisters, Betty, married Peyton and another, Anne, married William. Like his father before him, Benjamin Harrison became a member of the provincial legislature and was seated in the House of Burgesses, although he was known to be younger than the minimum age stipulated by law to qual. By that time, he had married Elizabeth Bassett, the daughter of Colonel William and Elizabeth Churchill Bassett of Kent County. Seven of their children, three sons and four daughters, lived past their infancy. They were: Benjamin III (married Anne Mercer and later Sussannah Randolph); Carter Bassett (married Mary Howell Allen and later Jane Byrd); William Henry (married Anne Symmes; he became major general, 9th president of the United States, and great-grandfather of Benjamin Harrison, 23rd president); Lucy (married her cousin Peyton Randolph, a nephew of Peyton Randolph, the initial president of Continental Congress, and then Anthony Singleton); Elizabeth (1752, married Doctor William Rickman and later John Edmondson); Anne (1758, married David O. Copeland); and Sarah (married John Minge). While his family was growing, his business ventures also prospered. He invested in constructing ships and in shipping, but not at the loss of farming. He eventually owned eight separate plantations and some other tracts. During 1764, Benjamin was one of the house (burgesses) members appointed to draw up an address to King George III and to Parliament with respect to the recent resolutions passed in the mother country. His conspicuous opposition did not lead to offering his support to Patrick Henry’s resolutions of the following year, which included violent resistance if required. Harrison had been a member of the house since about 1749 and frequently acted as speaker. Nevertheless, as time passed, the split between the colonies and the motherland widened beyond the point of reconciliation. Harrison then gave his complete support to the Patriots’ cause. Harrison remained in the House of Burgesses until Governor Lord Dunmore ( John Murray, 4th Earl) dissolved it during his waning days as royal governor. In August 1774, Benjamin Harrison was one of seven men appointed as delegates to the Continental Congress. Harrison arrived in Philadelphia at Congress on 5 September. He and Braxton Carter became two of the most conservative members of the Virginia delegation. Other Virginians were Richard Bland and Patrick Henry. A Virginian, Peyton Randolph, Harrison’s brother-in-law, was elected as president of the First Continental Congress. The representatives maintained strict secrecy regarding the proceedings. While Congress was in session, it declared support for Massachusetts and created a “Declaration of Colonial Rights” in response to a series of eleven acts passed by Parliament since 1760. Congress adjourned on 20 October. Early the next year, on 20 March 1775, Harrison was among the members of the Virginia convention that assembled in Richmond. The delegates decided to establish a military force to prepare to defend the colony. Prior to adjournment of the convention, Harrison was again appointed a delegate to Congress. All the while, Lord Dunmore had publicly and strongly opposed the convention and described the activity as being “highly displeasing to his majesty” King George III. He also declared that the convention was to cease. Nonetheless, the Patriots continued with the business of the convention and elected their delegates in defiance of Dunmore. The turmoil in Virginia caused the president of Congress, Peyton Randolph, to relinquish his position to return home. On the 24 May

HARRISON

1775, John Hancock succeeded him as president, with a little playful help from Harrison. John Hancock was reluctant to take the president’s chair due to a combination of the huge responsibility attached to the office and his natural modesty. Harrison, who had been standing nearby, moved quickly and literally lifted Hancock into the air, then placed him into the chair, saying: “We will show mother Britain how little we care for her, by making a Massachusetts man our president, whom she has excluded from pardon by a public proclamation.” At the time Hancock was a hunted man, and if caught, he was subject to be hanged. At the Second Continental Congress in Philadelphia, on 26 June 1775, Benjamin Harrison was appointed to the committee charged with preparing the militia for the anticipated hostile action by the British. The resolution, passed on Saturday, the 24th, stated “that a Committee of seven be appointed to devise ways and means to put the Militia of America in a proper state for the defence of America.” Congress adjourned on 1 August, and afterward, Harrison was again appointed as a delegate. He took his seat on 13 September. He was appointed on 30 September to a committee charged with going to New England to consult with General George Washington. By mid–October, more than 22,000 troops had been encamped in Massachusetts, far more than the number initially proposed by Congress. On the 29th of November, Congress established the Committee of Correspondence, the initial foreign intelligence organization established in the United States. Benjamin Harrison, Benjamin Franklin and Thomas Johnson (a delegate from Maryland) were appointed to the committee. In the meantime, the fluid situation in Virginia caused concern in Congress. At that time Virginia still had no genuine military defenses on either land or sea, and the royal governor, Lord Dunmore had been ousted from office. On 8 June he boarded the HMS Fowey. Congress looked upon Harrison for direction and dispatched him to his home state to oversee the operations in reaction to Dunmore. While back in Virginia, he succeeded in having a small flotilla fitted out with arms. After arriving back in Philadelphia, Harrison, during January 1776, was appointed to a committee charged with establishing a department of war. In a coordinated effort, Harrison and others traveled to New York to confer with General Charles Lee and to map out a plan to defend New York. By March, Harrison was a supporter of the congressional action that authorized letters of marque and reprisal, a power reserved for the sovereign. And during June of 1776, he was sitting on the first meeting of the Board of War. By the time of the Declaration of Independence, Harrison had already chaired several committees of importance and gained much wisdom regarding the affairs of the struggling Congress. He firmly supported the Declaration, voted in favor of it, and afterward, affixed his signature to the parchment document, an act that catapulted him and the other signers into a period of peril. If caught they were subject to hanging. At the time of the signing, despite the solemnity of the occasion, Harrison’s sense of humor again emerged. He glanced at Elbridge Gerry, over whom he towered, and said: “When the hanging scene comes to be exhibited, I shall have all the advantage over you. It will be over with me in a minute, but you will be kicking in the air, half an hour after I am gone.” His words were not prophetic. Both he and Gerry avoided capture and execution. On 11 August, Benjamin Harrison’s term in Congress ended. He returned to his home state and by the time he arrived, Virginia had already adopted a new state constitution, which brought about eight councilors of state, and he had been selected as one of them. Subsequently, when Virginia decided on delegates to the next Congress, the number was reduced from seven to five. Harrison was not among the chosen number. Stories still linger that he was omitted due to political differences circling around his support of a Doctor Rickman for a

HART

162

position as physician for the continental hospital, but there seems to be no evidence to support the theory. Harrison was heralded by his peers for his service in Congress as well as in Virginia. Upon the resignation of Thomas Jefferson from Congress to become Virginia’s governor, Harrison was elected to succeed him. The vote, taken on 10 October 1776, passed with only five members withholding their support. In less than one month, following a three-month absence, Harrison again took his seat in Congress on 5 November. His colleagues immediately took action to make use of his skills. They placed him back on the Board of War and to each of the committees that he had previously been a member of. Benjamin was not one of the fiery orators, but he was a serious contributor to the business of Congress and participated in many committees, including foreign affairs and financial, as well as chairing the committee of the whole in 1776–1777. Harrison soon received an opportunity to prove he was agile when Philadelphia became imperiled. He and the others fled to Baltimore and were able to return only after General Washington scored the great victory at Trenton in December 1776. Later, on 22 May 1777, Virginia again elected Harrison as a delegate to Congress by both houses of the legislature. It wasn’t too long before Congress was again compelled to hurriedly depart Philadelphia. The British encroached, and on 18 September, the members headed to Lancaster, where they paused temporarily before moving on to York. Toward the end of the year, Benjamin Harrison retired from Congress and returned to Virginia, where he resumed his position in the House of Burgesses. His colleagues elected him as speaker of the House, a position he retained until 1782. During his time in the House, Virginia had been targeted for raids by the British. Benedict Arnold, subsequent to his betrayal of the nation, arrived at Hampton Roads on 30 December 1780. Afterward, the British caused some chaos in the state to disrupt even the legislature, which was forced to jump from town to town to convene. However, no major confrontations occurred, and the slimly numbered militia was the primary resistance, as many of the Virginians were at the time with George Rogers Clark in the West. Initially, help was sought from the Continental Army, but Harrison was unable to get it, as Washington was unwilling to sacrifice total victory to defend his native state. Later, however, American troops under Lafayette arrived to check Arnold and British General William Phillips. In the meantime, Lord Charles Cornwallis arrived in Virginia from the South, but it was there in Yorktown that the master stroke was struck and Lord Cornwallis capitulated during October 1781. Subsequently, during 1782, after the resignation of Governor Thomas Nelson, Benjamin Harrison was elected governor and then re-elected twice. He was the fourth successive governor of the state who had also been a signer of the Declaration of Independence. Any additional term was prohibited by the state’s constitution. His terms were described as very successful; however, his political adversaries remained active. Also, during his first term, he became concerned about the river defenses and authorized Brigadier General George Rogers Clark to prepare patrol boats for a mission on the Ohio River. Clark informed Harrison in May that he had two gondolas ready to be armed and that he had one galley near completion. He initiated the project at Fort Nelson at the Falls of the Ohio in Louisville, Kentucky. A contingent of Virginia Marines served aboard the Miami; the second vessel never received an official name. The galley proved of no value. Nonetheless, the Miami had a positive effect on the enemy. A large force of British and Indians were preparing to attack Wheeling, but upon sight of the Miami, the force abandoned the effort and retired. Around early September 1782, the Miami was sunk in the vicinity of Louisville. Subsequent to Harrison’s terms as governor, he was nominated for the legislature. Around that time his adversaries struck. They used one of his earlier actions (when he ordered militia to reduce the embankments at Yorktown) to defeat him. After the setback, Harrison moved

across the James River to Surrey, and once there he was elected to the legislature from that district. His political adversaries, who gained temporary jubilation after preventing Harrison from serving in the legislature, were soon greeted with a stunning surprise. Harrison was elected speaker of the House to the chagrin of his opponents. Subsequent to the adoption of the U.S. Constitution during September 1787, Harrison was a member and chair of the Virginia convention of 1788, which was to ratify the Constitution. He opposed particular items in the document, but following amendments, he supported its ratification. The majority of the members opposed the document, but Harrison and others siding with him were able to persuade the majority to postpone their opposition, ratify the Constitution and afterward seek modifications. Although in poor health, Harrison was nominated as governor during 1790. He declined, aware of a political ploy to use him to defeat his friend and ally, Beverly Randolph. Even Benjamin’s son, Carter, a legislator at the urging of his father, voted against him. Consequently, Beverly Randolph was re-elected. Harrison was, however, despite his poor health, again elected to the legislature. Although Harrison’s health continued to deteriorate with ongoing bouts with the gout, he maintained an active life at home and continued to entertain friends. In addition to keeping up with his reading, he also spent much time with his two pets, a spaniel and a cat, the latter described as “large.” He found joy in teaching them some tricks. During April 1791, Harrison became extremely ill from his condition, but for a while, seemed to recover. He held a gathering and was in good spirits, enjoying the company, but the illness struck again. Some medicines were prepared for him while awaiting the arrival of his doctor. A servant arrived at his side and explained that his medicines had been prepared, and he responded: “And here is a dying man.” Benjamin Harrison succumbed on the following day, 24 April 1791. He was interred in the family cemetery on the Berkeley Plantation. During his lifetime, Benjamin, blessed with a great sense of humor enshrined around his large frame, had been known for enjoying his life of wealth and luxury and his taste for fine wines and excellent food, which gained for him the nickname “Falstaff of Congress.” Nonetheless, he had also gained a reputation for integrity and high patriotism as well as his staunch commitment to the cause when he risked his fortune and honor during 1776. His son, William Henry Harrison of Ohio, was elected the ninth president of the United States in 1840. William Henry was inaugurated on 3 March 1841, but soon after he came down with pneumonia and succumbed one month later on 4 April 1841. Benjamin’s great-grandson, also named Benjamin Harrison (of Ohio) was elected 23rd president of the United States in 1888. He served as president during 1889–1893. The Berkeley Plantation was the place occupied by Union troops during 1862, while Confederate forces were posted on the opposite bank of the James. It was at that time that Union General Daniel Butterfield composed “Taps.” The Berkeley Plantation is one of the colonial plantations along the James River that remains standing and open to the public. Also, some of the Harrison family contend that their ancestry links back to a Thomas Harrison, who had been a butcher in England and later discarded his profession to enter the military and serve as an officer with Oliver Cromwell, the Protector, and as one of the Regicides; however, there is no evidence to support the connection and it is thought to be erroneous.

Hart, John (Signer of the Declaration of Independence) John Hart, the son of Edward Hart, a veteran of the French and Indian War, was born about 1711 in Stonington, Connecticut, and by the following year, his father moved from Connecticut to Hopewell, New Jersey, where he acquired a large estate and lived as a farmer. During the conflict with France, Edward Hart organized a military unit known as the Jersey Blues. John also took up farming; however, he

163 spent no time in the military during his early life. Upon the death of his father, he inherited an extremely large estate. In the meantime, he had married Deborah Scudder (1740) and together they raised a family of thirteen. Along the way, John Hart had also begun to expand his property with the acquisition of mills, and he became involved with the local community. His character and integrity were clear and not in the least ostentatious, which earned him a nickname, “Honest John,” among his friends and neighbors in Hunterdon County. Although he had no formal education in law, Hart, prior to his ascendancy as a delegate to the Continental Congress, had held the position of justice of the peace and of county judge (court of common pleas). Hart also dedicated himself to the improvement of the region by working with local legislators on projects involving construction of roads and bridges, as well as introducing additional seminaries into the area. Later, he entered politics. During 1761, he was elected to the New Jersey Assembly, and as the rift between the colonies and Britain widened, he remained solidly with the cause of the patriots. During 1765, in reaction to the Stamp Act, Hart was involved in the selection process that approved and sent delegates to New York to participate in the congress held there during October. Although at the time, independence was not a priority to the colonists, it was declared at the assembly that taxation by the king and Parliament without representation was tyranny. In 1774, Hart participated as a member of the state’s Provincial Congress and the succeeding ones through 1776 in positions including the Committee of Correspondence, Council of Safety, and as vice president. During July 1774, Hart was selected as a delegate to the First Continental Congress. He was elected during January 1775 as a delegate to the Second Continental Congress. He easily crossed the Delaware River on 10 May and attended sessions until Congress adjourned during August, but he remained on his farm when Congress reconvened during September. Due to his advancing years and his personal affairs, he requested that his resignation be accepted, and during November 1775, it was. Nonetheless, during the following year, just before the great discussion regarding the adoption of the Declaration of Independence, Hart and four other men were selected to replace the delegates who were in attendance. Hart arrived during early July, which placed him in that body when the vote for independence was taken on 4 July 1776. At the time, Hart was more than sixty years old, but still of keen mind and well aware of the dangers he placed upon himself and his family, particularly with an imminent threat by the British. It did not take too long for Hart to become a recipient of the repercussions of the Declaration. Following the Battle of Long Island, the British prepared to jump the Delaware to initiate the drive to Philadelphia to quash the rebellion. Much of New Jersey was plundered and John Hart’s property was among the debris. Fortunately, Hart’s children were able to evade harm and escape prior to the arrival of the British, but his wife, Deborah, had been too sick to even attempt escape. Hart, himself, barely escaped capture because he was with his wife, who was near death when the raiders descended upon the property with the intent of seizing Hart. He bolted into the woods John Hart (National Park Service)

HART

with Redcoats giving chase. Nevertheless, despite his age, he was able to outrun the pursuers and lose them in the brush. The days that followed continued to bring ill-fortune to Hart. He had to jump from one place to another on a daily basis and be prepared to even seek refuge in caves to avoid capture. Unable to stay in one place for any length of time, the constant threat of capture did little for his health. Finally, General George Washington checked the British advance with his stunning victory at Trenton during December of 1776 and with the unexpected stamina of the Continental Army at Princeton in early January 1777. The defeats forced the British to postpone their advance and withdraw most of their forces to New York, relieving Hart of his role as fugitive. In the meantime, Hart’s wife, Deborah, died on 8 October 1776. All the while he was under enormous stress and had opportunities to renounce the cause and pledge loyalty to the king for a pardon, but Hart never wavered from his decision as a signer of the Declaration. With the departure of the British, he was able to reassemble his family; however, the scars of the experience were never erased. Hart was able to reinitiate his life at Hopewell, but not for a prolonged period. By May of 1777, evidence survived that material from his mills had been salvaged. Congress on 7 May 1777, after having learned that material at Hart’s mill had been saved from the British, resolved: “That the quarter master general, and his deputies, deliver to John Hart, Esqr. all such cloth as he or they may have in their possession, taken from Mr. Hart’s fulling-mills, near Rocky Hill, in New Jersey, in December last; and also account and pay for all the cloth taken from thence, which has been used and cannot be delivered.” Hart again became a member of the New Jersey Assembly and served during 1777–1778; however, illness forced him to resign. He had celebrated when he learned of the defeat of the British at Saratoga in October 1777, and the accompanying surrender of British General John Burgoyne’s entire army. He also found some jubilation upon learning that the British under General Henry Clinton abandoned Philadelphia during June 1778. While the British were retreating through New Jersey with the Continental Army in pursuit, the columns were traversing near Hart’s farm. On 22 June, General Washington shared a meal with Hart, while more than 10,000 troops were encamped in the fields making preparations for a major clash with Clinton at Monmouth. On that same day, Washington held a council of war at the Hart House. The army remained there until 22 June and afterward advanced to strike the British. Essentially, John Hart, pledged his life, fortune and sacred honor and paid a high price for his devotion to his country, but he was able to witness some fruits of his great sacrifices, including the alliance with France, but his health gave out before he could participate in the great celebration that followed the surrender of General Lord Cornwallis at Yorktown during October 1781. John Hart succumbed on 11 May 1779 at age sixty-nine. Although the British ravaged Hart’s farm, his contributions, along with those of the other fearless Patriots who signed the Declaration, brought about the greatest harvest a small band of men could produce by spreading the contagious seeds of liberty, a free and independent nation. John Hart, a Presbyterian, was interred in the First Baptist church cemetery in Hopewell.

Hart (Heart), Brigadier General Selah Selah Hart, the son of Nathaniel and Abigail Hooker Hart, was born in Connecticut at Kensington on 23 May 1732. Selah’s mother was the daughter of John Hooker. Selah married Mary Cole, the daughter of Stephen and Abigail Hart Cole of Kensington, on 4 March 1754. Selah and Mary had one child, Mary, but she died young. In addition, Selah’s young wife also died prematurely. Selah remarried on 22 December 1763, taking Ruth, the daughter of Matthew and Mary Newell Cole, also of Kensington, as his second wife. Selah and Ruth had no children; however, Selah adopted his brother’s son, Cyprian (Hart),

HAZEN

164

the son of Nathaniel and Martha Norton Hart. Selah had established his residence in the vicinity of where his grandfather, Elijah Hart, lived. In 1775, Hart joined the militia, and following the clashes at Lexington and Concord, he served as a officer. That year, Hart was charged by the General Court with responsibility of acquiring lead to be used by the militia of the state. Hart served as a captain in Colonel (later general and governor) Oliver Wolcott’s regiment, and he participated in the siege of British-held Boston. Subsequent to the British evacuation of Boston on 17 March 1776, he participated in various actions during the defense of New York. On 20 June 1776, Hart was appointed lieutenant colonel in Colonel Fisher Gay’s 15th Connecticut Regiment. Gay was killed during the action in New York, the Connecticut Assembly appointed Hart as colonel of the regiment and Noadiah Hooker as lieutenant colonel. During that same period, when New York was abandoned, a contingent under Hart got caught in a squeeze by the British after the Redcoats landed to their front and blocked passage, preventing the regiment from rejoining the main body of the retreating forces. Colonel Hart was captured in September 1776 and held until exchanged the next March. During his captivity, the British never acknowledged that Hart was a prisoner, leaving the authorities and his wife unaware of his fate, with the latter believing he had been killed. Colonel Hart was exchanged and resumed his service with the militia, and he remained in active service until the close of hostilities. During 1779, Colonel Hart was promoted to brigadier general of militia. That year, his force focused on the defense of the state, and similarly to other states, ammunition was always a priority, along with salt. While Hart’s command was deployed in the vicinity of Farmington in July, he dispatched a party to acquire powder at Glastonberry from George Stocking, who operated a powder manufacturing facility. The authorization signed by Hart said: “Sir / Please to deliver to the barer [sic] Mr Hinsdale ten hundred wait [sic] of powder and take his recaite [sic] therefore — Farmington ... / To Mr Joseph Temple at Glastonbury.” The back of the back authorization slip read: “Rec’d — one thousand and fourty two weight one quarter of Powder to deliver to General Hart for the use of this State — Elijah Hinsdale.” Subsequent to the close of hostilities, General Hart resumed his civilian life. In 1785, the newly incorporated town of Kingston convened its first town meeting, and Hart presided as moderator. At that time, General Hart was selected as town treasurer and as one of three selectmen, along with Elijah Buckley and David Mather. He also was appointed to a 5-man committee charged with “settling accounts with Farmington and Berlin” from which Kensington was carved. He was named to the committee charged with drawing the boundary lines of Kensington. General Hart was a delegate to the state convention in 1788 that adopted the U.S. Constitution. General Selah Hart died at Kensington on 10 June 1806. His wife, Ruth (b. 29 October 1742), survived him and lived until 15 January 1844. At the time of her death, Ruth was “aged one hundred and one years, two months, and sixteen days.” Cyprian Hart, the adopted son of Selah and Ruth, predeceased his mother on 1 March 1806. His family, including his widow, Lucy Hooker Hart, inherited the estate. Ruth Hart and her daughter-in-law continued to reside at the Hart House.

Hazen, Brigadier General Moses Moses Hazen, the son of Moses and Abigail White Hazen, was born in Haverhill, Massachusetts, on 1 June 1733. Moses’ mother was the daughter of John and Lydia Gilman White. Abigail had a twin brother, Joseph (died young), and she was one of fourteen children. The family was of Puritan stock. In addition, Moses, Sr., and Abigail had the following children: Abigail (b. January 1728–1729, married Moses Moors; became the mother of General Benjamin Moors of New York); John (b. August 1731, married Ann Swett of Haverhill); Anna (b. July

1735, married Robert Peasley); William (b. July 1738, married Sarah LeBaron of Plymouth; they had sixteen children); and Sarah (b. during 1770s, married Major Nathaniel Merrill of Haverhill). The records of Moses’ early life and education were undiscovered by the author; however, it would appear that he did receive a good education. When the French and Indian War erupted, he became an officer in the British army and participated in several campaigns, including Crown Point, Louisbourg (1758), and he fought at the decisive Battle of Quebec (1759). At Quebec, Hazen sustained a severe wound that required hospitalization. He was a member of Rogers’ Rangers during the campaign against Quebec. Hazen remained loyal to the Crown after the war, and he settled in the vicinity of St. Johns, Nova Scotia. Hazen also was able to retain his lieutenant’s commission, although at half-pay. While residing in Canada, Moses married Charlotte La Saussee, but the couple had no children. He used his skills to amass a huge fortune by selling supplies to the British. At the outbreak of the American Revolution, the British used him as a spy. He was directed to monitor movements of the Americans, but in addition, he intentionally deceived the Americans by feeding them erroneous information regarding British troop strength in Canada. Nevertheless, by the time General Richard Montgomery initiated the Canadian Campaign, Hazen apparently had a change of heart. The merchant increased his clientele by selling supplies to the Americans, an act not taken to kindly by the British. Once aware of Moses’ actions, they retaliated by burning his home, ransacking his businesses and confiscating his property. For Hazen, the British provided the incentive for him to return his loyalty to his country of birth and join the Patriots. He was commissioned a colonel of the 2nd Canadian Regiment on 22 January 1776. Hazen raised a regiment (not full strength) which was known as the 2nd Continental Regiment; however, it was also dubbed “Congress’ Own and Hazen’s Own.” By the action of Congress, Hazen’s regiment was separate from the quotas of any state, which brought about the name. Moses was elected colonel and Edward Antil was elected lieutenant colonel. Hazen raised about 500 troops, but when the regiment arrived in Albany in August 1776, its numbers had been reduced to less than 100 men. After arriving in Albany, Hazen and Antil repaired to Philadelphia to seek help from Congress. The Congress authorized Hazen to raise troops in any or all of the states. Once in the Continental Army, Colonel Hazen immediately became a loyal officer, and he served meritoriously throughout the war. Nevertheless, he did not get along with Benedict Arnold, who lambasted Hazen with allegations of insubordination during the Canadian Campaign. Hazen’s record discounts Arnold’s accusations. Arnold had Hazen arrested for disobeying orders, and he received a court-martial. Colonel Philip Van Courtlandt was appointed to the board. Hazen was acquitted of the charges and Van Courtland reported later that Arnold should have been arrested due to his actions, including misappropriation of goods seized in Montreal from merchants, and Arnold’s “improper conduct before the court.” During 1777, Hazen’s regiment participated in the defense of Philadelphia, including the Battles of Brandywine (11 September) and of Germantown (4 October). In August, the regiment participated in the raid led by General John Sullivan against Staten Island. Later, during November 1778, Congress rejected the continuation of Colonel Timothy Bedel’s regiment in the service of the Continental Army. Consequently, responsibility for the sector that encompassed western Grafton fell to Colonel Hazen’s regiment. Hazen’s command operated as rangers, but in the service of the Continental Army. Although Bedel left the field, he remained committed to the cause, and he remained a close friend of Hazen’s. Bedel focused on gathering and distributing supplies, but he later re-entered the service as a brigadier general of militia.

165 During spring of 1779, an attempt was made to gather the units of Benjamin Whitcomb’s rangers to deploy at Haverhill; however, they were too widely scattered. Instead, Hazen’s 2nd Regiment moved to Haverhill and his continental contingent, composed of about 600 men and officers, was ordered to move to the Lower Coos. Subsequent to the departure of Hazen’s regiment, the frontier became the responsibility of a regiment commanded by Colonel Moses Nichols, but shortly thereafter, Nichols was ordered to West Point. At that time, the available troops under the command of Major Benjamin Whitcomb held responsibility for the frontier. In the meantime, following the service at Haverhill, Colonel Hazen during autumn of that year was ordered to Congress to submit his plan for a new invasion of Canada. Some officers were in favor of a new offensive and various ideas were considered. Hazen’s blueprint was presented, but the invasion was eventually canceled. His regiment deployed at Fishkill, New York, and remained there during the winter of 1780–1781. From there, it moved to West Point, but from there Hazen repaired to Virginia to participate in the Yorktown Campaign against Lord Charles Cornwallis, who surrendered his army during October 1781. At Yorktown, Hazen commanded a brigade (Lafayette’s division). After the capitulation of Cornwallis, Hazen’s regiment was ordered to Lancaster, Pennsylvania, with orders to guard British prisoners. Following that duty, Hazen’s regiment moved to New York for its final service. Furloughs began during June 1783, and by November the regiment, at White Plains, was disbanded. Another of Hazen’s contributions to the cause was the construction of the Bailey-Hazen Military Road at the behest of General George Washington. Congress awarded Colonel Hazen the rank of brevet brigadier general on 29 June 1781. He remained in the army until June 1783 and afterward relocated in Vermont. After the French and Indian War, Hazen’s brother John, Timothy Bedell and Jacob Kent paused in Vermont while en route to their homes in Massachusetts. Afterward, they sought to receive grants, and they enlisted the help of General Moses Hazen and others. Consequently, the towns of Newbury and Haverhill, Vermont, were established during 1763. It was Jacob Bailey who suggested to General Washington that a road be cut to shorten the route by about ten days and nearly 75 miles for reinforcements moving into Canada, and it was Bailey who initiated the work at the direction of Washington to establish a road from Vermont leading to St. Johns, Canada. Hostile Indians and British forces compelled Bailey to suspend the project, which by that time had been cut through to a point beyond Peacham, but it was later completed by General Moses Hazen, who cut the highway through to Hazen’s Notch. (See also, Bailey [Bayley], Brigadier General Jacob.) Hazen again moved, and relocating Troy, New York, on a tract that he received for his service in the war. General Hazen succumbed in Troy on 3 February 1803. His widow received from Congress a grant of just under 1,000 acres and a pension of $200 for life. She died during 1827.

Heard, Brigadier General Nathaniel Nathaniel Heard was born in Woodbridge (Middlesex County), New Jersey, during 1730. He married Mary Ford, also of Woodbridge, on 14 February 1752. Nathaniel and Mary had seven children. The three sons were John (married Mary, a daughter of Samuel Sargant of Amboy; also served in Sheldon’s Dragoons and rose to rank of general); James (served in Revolution; married a daughter of General Daniel Morgan); William (never married, died by suicide subsequent to the death of his father). The author was unable to discover the names of General Heard’s four daughters. During the winter of 1774–1775, subsequent to the close of the Provincial Congress, Nathaniel Heard was appointed to the Woodbridge committee of observation. The British

HEARD

clashed with the Patriots at Lexington and Concord on 19 April 1775, and on 24 April, word reached Middlesex County. The general committee of correspondence convened at New Brunswick and it was decided to call a Provincial Congress to convene on 23 May. Heard was a delegate of Middlesex County. The Congress decided upon a 14-man committee of safety, and Heard was appointed to the committee as a representative of Middlesex County. He was one of the first men in New Jersey to race to the field. He raised a contingent of troops and committed them to the committee of safety and the Provincial Congress. Heard became colonel of the 1st Middlesex Regiment and later commanded a battalion of Minute Men, followed by command of a battalion that became known as Heard’s Battalion. He commanded with the rank of brigadier general; however; the rank of brigadier general of militia was not awarded until 12 February 1777. In November 1775, Heard was appointed as colonel (New Jersey militia) and by the following year, he was charged with responsibility of offering the royal governor a choice between parole or confinement. Prior to dealing with Governor William Franklin, the Provincial Congress ordered Heard to lead his force of militia into Long Island to search out Loyalists and relieve them of their arms. Initially, Congress preferred William Livingston as the commander of the troops that were to be sent to New York, but he declined and Congress gave the command to Colonel Heard. A New England contingent under Colonel David Waterbury was to participate but was cancelled. The mission, launched during February, succeeded. Loyalists discovered in various towns, including Hempstead, Jamaica, and Oyster Bay, retained an unfavorable memory of Heard’s hunt. Another Patriot from Middlesex, John Neilson, raised a company, and it was placed under the command of Colonel Heard. Neilson, as captain, participated in the Long Island mission and was later that year promoted to colonel (later brigadier general) of militia with command of the 2nd Middlesex Regiment. Colonel Heard apprehended nineteen Loyalist leaders and transported them to Philadelphia, and from there they were transferred to New York. Shortly after the Long Island raid, Heard was called upon for another task. He was directed to repair to the residence of New Jersey’s royal governor, William Franklin. Heard’s orders were clear. He was directed to offer Franklin a parole, but if the conditions were not agreed upon by the governor, he was to be arrested. On the night of 17–18 June 1776, at midnight, a contingent of continental troops under Captain Nathaniel Heard arrived at an estate (The Heritage) in Perth Amboy, where the royal governor and his family resided. Governor William Franklin, the son of Benjamin Franklin, was arrested. The parole that Franklin declined said: I, William Franklin, being apprehended by an order of the Provincial Congress of New Jersey, do promise and engage on my word and honor, and on the faith of a gentleman, to depart within two days from hence to ———, in the Province of New Jersey, being the place of my destination and residence, and there, or within six miles thereof, to remain during the present war between Great Britain and the said United Colonies, or until the Congress of the said United Colonies, or the Assembly, Convention, or Committee, or Council of Safety of the said Colony, shall order otherwise, and that I will not directly or indirectly give any intelligence whatsoever to the enemies of the United Colonies, or do or say any thing in opposition to or in prejudice of the measures and proceedings of any Congress for the said Colonies, during the present troubles, or until I am duly discharged. Given under my hand this day of A.D. 1776.

Franklin’s wife remained on the estate for a short time after her husband’s detainment, but departed after a while, and the Continental Army used the residence as headquarters. Congress ordered Franklin to be transported to Connecticut and placed in the custody of Governor Jonathan Trumbull. Franklin was detained (lived in residence of Captain Ebenezer Grant) until 1778. He arrived in New York after

HEATH

166

exchange on 1 November and remained there until August 1782, when he embarked for England. In the meantime, just before Colonel Heard’s raid, Congress had asked New Jersey to commit more than 3,000 troops to bolster the defenses of New York. The New Jersey forces, including Heard’s command, fought under the command of General Nathanael Greene and participated in various contests, including the Battles of Brooklyn and the succeeding skirmishes in New York, including White Plains in October 1776 after New York City was evacuated by the Continental Army the month before. General Heard participated in the Battle of Trenton on 26 December 1776 and the Battle of Princeton and 3 January 1777. Following the contest at Princeton, Heard’s forces were deployed in the vicinity of Morristown. The regiment participated in various skirmishes with the British and Loyalists throughout the summer. During the following year, after the British abandoned Philadelphia ( June 1778), General Heard’s command participated in the Battle of Monmouth on 28 June as the British fought their way back to New York. The contest at Monmouth was the final major battle in the northern states. Nevertheless, General Heard remained active for the duration. For his service to his state and the nation, the British retaliated. General Heard’s residence was burned to the ground and his other structures were destroyed in similar fashion. The enemy carried away his stores of hay, wheat and other food supplies. Following his service in the military, General Heard returned to civilian life. He was appointed marshal of New Jersey, and following the adoption of the U.S. Constitution, General Heard became the revenue agent at Amboy. He succumbed on 28 October 1792.

Heath, Major General William William Heath, the son of Samuel and Elizabeth Payson Heath, was born on 2 March 1737 in Roxbury, Massachusetts. As a youth, William held interest in agriculture and military tactics. His entry into politics occurred during 1761 when he became a member of the Massachusetts General Court as a delegate from Roxbury. On the 19 April 1759, William had married Sarah Lockwood of Cambridge. Together, they had five children, four sons and one daughter. In 1765, the year the Stamp Act was passed by British parliament, Heath became a member of the Ancient and Honorable Artillery Company in Boston, and shortly thereafter, at the request of the commander of the 1st Regiment of militia (Suffolk), Heath was appointed commander of the colonel’s company. He was afterward promoted to lieutenant and then to captain. During that period, a friendship developed between Heath and Royal Governor Francis Bernard. Heath had been a farmer, but he had also trained himself on such things as military tactics. Despite the growing friendship with the governor, Heath retained a strong commitment to the colonies as the relationship with Great Britain continued to deteriorate. At the time of the Boston Massacre, Heath flexed his literary muscles regarding British power and on several occasions issued pieces to encourage the citizens to familiarize themselves with weapons. The addresses were signed “A Military Countryman.” An unintended consequence from his opposition to the Crown’s policies was his ouster from the Suffolk militia by Governor Thomas Hutchinson, the successor to Governor Bernard, the latter having been recalled to England during 1769. Nevertheless, the reorganization of the Suffolk militia by Hutchinson backfired, as the troops demanded that they appoint their own officers. They elected Heath as colonel. Heath’s popularity continued to grow. During 1771, he was re-elected to the General Court, and during 1774, he was elected as a delegate to the First Provincial Congress of Massachusetts, which convened during 1774–1775, and he was appointed to the committee of safety. In February 1775, Heath was appointed brigadier general of militia by the provincial assembly.

The colonists clashed with the British at Lexington and Concord during April. General Heath was on the field during the clash at Lexington and during the evening deployed his troops in the vicinity. On the following day, Heath was ordered to move his regiment to Roxbury, near the British positions in Boston. Heath was promoted to the rank of major general of militia in June. He participated at the Battle of Breed’s Hill, and several days later, on 22 June, he was appointed as brigadier general of the Continental Army. Meanwhile, Heath remained at Roxbury until July 1775. While there, he convinced Henry Knox of the Boston Grenadiers to join the army. Knox required little persuasion and later rose to commanding officer of the Continental Army’s artillery. On 23 November, Heath was directed by General George Washington to move to Cobble’s Hill, and on 18 December, a contingent of several hundred men under Heath was ordered to Leechmore Point to relieve a work party attached to General Israel Putnam’s command and finish the work on defenses there. While the project continued, British warships were able to initiate barrages, and similar attacks were launched against Cobble’s Hill by British floating batteries. Nevertheless, other than minor skirmishes, the British mounted no offensive to dismantle any of the American positions outside Boston. The British, unable to break the siege of Boston, abandoned the city on 17 March 1776 and embarked for Halifax. Soon after, General Washington departed Boston for New York. On the 18 March, Washington entered Boston triumphantly. On that same day, General Heath was selected to lead five regiments into New York to join the main contingent, which had been dispatched on the 17th. General Artemus Ward remained in Boston to maintain its security. During August, General Heath was promoted to the rank of major general, effective on the 9th. On 1 September, General Washington reorganized the army and formed three divisions, one of which was placed under General Heath, while Generals Israel Putnam and Joseph Spencer commanded the other two. General Heath was appointed commander of the Highlands Department on 12 November. During the following month, on 14 December, a contingent of Heath’s command struck Tory positions at Hackensack, New Jersey, and captured a large number of prisoners and some supplies. Two days later, a combined force composed of troops under Generals Heath and George Clinton attacked Tory positions at Paramus. The Tories and Patriots clashed in the vicinity sporadically until summer 1781. General Heath was succeeded by General Alexander McDougal as commander of the Highlands Department on 21 December 1776. During January of the following year, on the 7th, General Washington directed General Heath, at Westchester, to advance with his three divisions toward New York to feint an attack. The columns arrived at Fort Independence, garrisoned by about 2,000 Hessian troops. On the 17th, after some action, Heath issued an ultimatum, giving the garrison “twenty minutes in which to surrender or to abide the consequences.” The Hessian commander ignored the ultimatum, and Heath failed to take action. For ten days he placed the fort under siege, but he never launched an assault. On the 25th, the British mounted a counterattack that dislodged a forward position and created panic in the army. By the 29th, the Americans were compelled to lift the siege. Heath’s lack of aggressiveness did not get him drummed out of the army, but it did have an indelible negative effect on his career. Washington, after the incident, wrote the following to Heath: “This letter ... is to hint to you, and I do it with concern, that your conduct is censured (and by men of sense and judgment who have been with you on the expedition to Fort Independence) as being fraught with too much caution; by which the army has been disappointed and in some degree disgraced. Your summons, as you did not attempt to fulfil your threats, was not only idle but farcical, and will not fail of turning the laugh exceedingly upon us.” After the fiasco at Fort Independence, General Washington ensured that General Heath never again took command of any key operation in the field.

167 On 20 March 1777, General Heath was appointed commander of the Eastern Department. He succeeded General Artemus Ward. Subsequent to the victory over British General John Burgoyne at Saratoga, General Heath was directed on 8 November by Congress to detail information on the British captives that were transported to Boston. The resolution said “that Major General Heath be directed forthwith, to cause to be taken down the name and rank of every commissioned officer, and the name, former place of abode, occupation, size, age, and description of every non-commissioned officer and private soldier, and all other persons comprehended in the convention made between Lieutenant General Burgoyne and Major General Gates, on the 16 day of October, 1777.” The congressional action was necessitated to ensure that none of the captives could rejoin the British army in the colonies without being detected if recaptured. Burgoyne arrived at Boston on 7 November and was met by General Heath. On the following day, British Generals Burgoyne, Phillips and Baron von Riedesel were invited to dine with Heath, and while the enemy officers were under the jurisdiction of Heath, they received excellent treatment. General Heath remained as commander of the Department until 7 November 1778, when he was succeeded by General Horatio Gates. During the following summer, General Heath was appointed to the Board of War on 22 June. He inquired whether he would retain his rank and was informed that he would; however, his pay would be that of a commissioner. On 27 July 1779, General Heath requested that he be removed from the board. During the summer of 1780, General Washington directed Heath to head to Rhode Island to greet the French fleet and the commanders, Rochambeau (army) and Chevalier Ternay, the fleet commander. During that time, Heath assisted in making the French feel welcome and helped to acquire accommodations for the officers. On 17 October 1780, General Heath became commander of the Highlands Department, succeeding General Nathanael Greene, the latter having been ordered to the Department of the South to relieve General Horatio Gates. At that time he departed Newport, Rhode Island, for West Point. General Heath, the initial commander of the department, retained the position until 11 May 1781. That May, General Washington ordered Heath to return to New England to help with the deteriorating condition of the army by making contact with the state authorities and acquiring supplies and provisions. Meanwhile, Heath was placed in command of the main army, which was in the Highlands, by Washington, when the latter departed for Virginia to engage the British under Cornwallis. The Virginia Campaign concluded in victory with the surrender of Lord Charles Cornwallis during October 1781. On 18 January 1782, General Heath was appointed commander of the Highlands Department for the fourth time and retained the post until succeeded by General Henry Knox on 24 August 1782. Upon the return of General Washington during April 1782, he established his headquarters at Newburgh, New York. General Heath received a personal thanks from Washington for handling his responsibilities with the army while Washington was engaged against Cornwallis. On 10 June 1783, General Heath was general of the day. At that time, he stated: “It is a little remarkable, that the general by whose orders and under whose direction the first guard in the American Army was mounted at the foot of Prospect Hill, on the evening of the 19th of April, 1775, after the battle of that day, should happen, in the course of service, to be the last general of the day in the American main army, on the l0th of June, 1783, to inspect, turn off, and visit the guards.” General Heath arrived back at his farm on 1 July. Following his military service, General Heath participated in the state’s convention regarding ratification of the Constitution during 1788. He was elected to the state Senate, serving 1791–1792. During the latter year in the senate, General Heath was appointed as a judge in the

HENDERSON

probate court of Norfolk County, Massachusetts. He published his memoirs in 1798. Heath was elected lieutenant governor of Massachusetts, during 1806, but he declined. William Heath succumbed on 24 January 1814 in Roxbury. On the following Friday, he was interred at Forest Hills Cemetery (present-day Boston) after a service by the Reverend Porter. During a legislative session on the 26th, General Heath’s death was announced by Mr. Otis, who described the general as “The venerable Heath [1765]— the companion of Washington — the honest patriot — the Christian soldier — has paid the debt of nature. He was, before his decease, probably, the only surviving major-general of that army which gave us Independence; and his memory is dear to his country.” Sarah Heath succumbed on 14 October 1814.

Henderson, Brigadier General William William, the son of Samuel and Elizabeth Williams Henderson, was born in the vicinity of Nutbush Creek and Williamsboro, North Carolina, on 5 March 1748. William’s early life and education escaped the family and colonial records; however, it is known that he moved to South Carolina prior to the outbreak of the war with Britain and that after pursuing the profession of a merchant, he became a staunch advocate of the Patriots’ cause. Shortly after the clashes at Lexington and Concord outside of Boston on 19 April 1775, Henderson was appointed major of the 6th South Carolina. His appointment was made the same day that the British attempted to quell the insurrection by attacking Bunker Hill (Breed’s Hill), 17 June 1775. The British on that day took the hill, but at great cost, and from that day forward, they were reluctant to again launch a direct frontal attack against American positions. At Bunker Hill, the British sustained 1,050 casualties from their 2,000-man force. Twelve percent of the officer casualties of the entire war were sustained at that battle. Major Henderson was promoted to the rank of lieutenant colonel of the regiment on 16 September 1776. Later, on 11 February 1780, when Charleston was preparing to meet a British invasion, Henderson was transferred to the 3rd South Carolina Regiment and, several months later, while fighting as part of that regiment, he was among the captured on 12 May 1780, when the city capitulated to the British. In November, Lt. Colonel Henderson was exchanged. Immediately thereafter, he returned to the field and joined General Nathanael Greene and his army at the siege of Ninety Six. Afterward, he participated in the remaining major skirmishes in South Carolina. Henderson again transferred units, when he was attached to the 1st South Carolina Regiment on the first day of 1781. Although Henderson served as a lieutenant colonel in the Continental Army, that same year, 1781, he was appointed a brigadier general of the South Carolina state troops. He participated in the Battle of Eutaw Springs on 8 September 1781 and during the tenacious contest, he was wounded. On 18 January 1782, the South Carolina Assembly convened and shortly thereafter General Thomas Sumter resigned his commission. The assembly appointed General William Henderson as his successor. Henderson attained the rank of full colonel in the Continental Army on 30 September 1783. He died in Pacolet, South Carolina, on 29 January 1788. On 11 February, the State Gazette of South Carolina published a death notice regarding the demise of General Henderson: “Died on Tuesday the 29th ult. at his plantation, General William Henderson. He was a brave and intrepid officer, and much beloved and respected for his many virtues.” General Henderson had served in the Second Provincial Congress (1775–1776) and in the South Carolina House. General Henderson’s brother, Major Pleasant Henderson, fought in the war as a commander of Orange County, North Carolina, militia. The author was unable to confirm the name of General Henderson’s wife, but according to the

HENRY

168

South Carolina Historical and Genealogical Magazine, South Carolina Historical Society, General Henderson had only one child, Eliza. According to the article (Vol. 28, 1927), written by B.F. Taylor, Eliza Henderson married Simon Taylor to become his second wife. Simon and Eliza relocated at Louisiana.

Henry, Patrick Patrick Henry, the son of John and Sarah Winston Syme Henry, was born at Studley in Hanover County, Virginia, on 29 May 1736. Patrick’s mother was the daughter of Isaac and Mary Dabney Winston and the widow of Colonel John Syme. John and Sarah lived in her residence about fifteen miles from Richmond. At the time of the death of Colonel Syme, his widow Sarah, had one child. John and Sarah had eight children in addition to Patrick. Soon after Patrick’s birth, his parents moved into a new home along the South Anna River in the vicinity of Rocky Mills, but still in the same county and only a few miles farther away from Richmond. Initially the home was referred to as Mount Brilliant, but later it became known as “The Retreat.” Patrick received his initial education in a local school, but when he was about ten years old, his father removed him from the school and took over responsibility for educating him. Patrick was not a diligent student and much preferred to go fishing or take a hunting trip. He was gaining a reputation of taking a path to nowhere. When Patrick reached the age of twenty-one, he and his brother William, funded by their father, began to establish themselves as merchants, but the initiative failed, partly because they trustingly allowed too much credit. The business ended in bankruptcy. By that time, Patrick had been married about three years. During autumn of 1754, Patrick Henry married Sarah Shelton, the daughter of John Shelton. Patrick and Sarah had six children: Martha (married John Fontaine); Anne; Elizabeth; John; William; and Edward. After receiving some land from his parents and a tract that was given to his wife, Henry again tried to become a businessman, but his farm-

Patrick Henry (Harpers Encyclopedia of U.S. History, Benson J. Lossing, 1906)

ing enterprise failed due to a bad crop. He established another store but that too failed, and fire destroyed their house during 1757. Nonetheless, at that crucial time in his life, he turned law. After studiously focusing on the subject for about six weeks during 1760, Henry was admitted to the bar. Henry received his license to practice law from the king’s attorney at the time, Peyton Randolph. Randolph noted “that the applicant knew very little, but might learn later, being an able man.” Henry, despite his sprint from bankruptcy to the legal profession, did not actually make him a sudden success, nor did he transform himself into a man with a more serious demeanor. Later, about 1764, his fortunes began to change when he handled a case in Hanover Court House. Henry displayed his talents in outstanding fashion, dazzling the courtroom with his eloquence and spirited oratory, which catapulted him to the forefront of the law profession. During March 1765, Parliament passed the Stamp Act, effective November of that year, and it passed other legislation, including modification of the Mutiny Act. Another was the Quartering Act, which mandated that the Americans had to provide quarters for British troops and provide other items including candles, bedding, drink, and soap. Word of the acts reached the colonies during April 1765 while the assembly was holding sessions. At that time, Patrick Henry, new to politics, introduced five protest resolutions and they all passed. Afterward, similar resolutions were voted upon in other colonies as the path toward reconciliation was becoming clogged with obstacles. The resolutions created harsh debate that rose to a crescendo during the final proposal. Henry took on several of the dissidents when he proclaimed: “Caesar had his Brutus, Charles I, his Cromwell, and George III....” In mid-sentence, Patrick was interrupted as various members began to call out “treason.” Nevertheless, Henry remained steadfast in his position as he let another man bellow. Then, Henry, still silent, peered at the speaker, raised his voice and finished his sentence: “may profit by their example.” Still commanding the floor, he concluded: “If this be treason sir, make the most of it.” The fifth resolution stated that only the General Assembly had authority to tax the colonies and “that an attempt by an entity other than the General Assembly to tax the colonies would be an attempt to destroy both English and American freedom.” The motion passed by only one vote, but on the following day, when Henry was not at the session, Peyton Randolph cancelled the fifth resolution, claiming Patrick Henry’s resolutions were of no value to the Americans’ cause. In 1769, Patrick was elected to the General Court. During February 1773, the royal governor, Lord Dunmore ( John Murray, 4th Earl) dissolved the assembly, but the Patriots in the House of Burgesses, including Thomas Jefferson, Richard Henry Lee and Patrick Henry, ignored him and gathered despite his action. Subsequently, on 1 August 1774, the Virginia assembly selected Patrick Henry, Peyton Randolph and George Washington as delegates from Virginia at the First Continental Congress held in Philadelphia beginning 5 September. During the following year, Henry sustained a grievous loss when his wife, Sarah, died. Nevertheless, Henry remained involved with the cause. On 20 March 1775, at the second Virginia convention, he introduced legislation to strengthen the militia, but he hit opposition from those who continued to lean toward reconciliation. Several days later, on the 23rd, during a session of the House of Burgesses held at St. John’s Church in Richmond, Patrick Henry, defiantly holding to his convictions of defending the nation and Virginia, gave his inspiring speech that included his proclamation: “I know not what course others may take, but for me, give me liberty or give me death.” During April, Lord Dunmore sent Royal Marines to seize the gunpowder at the Williamsburg magazine. Patrick Henry and others reacted by taking up arms, but they were persuaded otherwise by Peyton

169 Randolph. On 6 August the Virginia convention overlooked Henry’s lack of military experience and appointed him commander-in-chief of Virginia’s regular troops. He retained the command until February of the following year. In September, Henry rode to Williamsburg to rendezvous with his command, and upon his arrival, there were cheers. Many of the troops had no arms, but they proudly flaunted their colors, which was emblazoned with a snake and the words also used in South Carolina and other places, “Don’t Tread on Me.” Henry was also appointed as Indian commissioner, but he declined the post and it was filled by Thomas Walker. During the latter part of 1775, the convention was working to squeeze out Henry as commander-in-chief, and during the following year, when the regiments were reorganized, Robert Howe and Andrew Lewis had been commissioned as brigadier generals, leaving Patrick Henry as commander only of his regiment, while officers of a lower rank were promoted over him. The action caused a crisis among the troops, but Henry was able to calm the situation. He resigned during February and that month was offered a commission as colonel in the Continental Army. He declined without much consideration of the offer, and he remained acutely aware of the conventions’ lack of trust in his military abilities. On 29 June 1776, in conjunction with the adoption of Virginia’s constitution, the assembly elected Patrick Henry as the first governor of Virginia. The convention notified him of his election on 1 July. Although he was one of the most fervent advocates of independence, Henry had left Congress prior to the Declaration of Independence on the Fourth of July. The term of governors was set at one year; however, Patrick served three successive terms, then following the close of hostilities, he was returned to the post of governor for two terms. Fort Fincastle in western Virginia was renamed Fort Henry in September 1777 in his honor. On 25 November 1776, Congress directed the Board of War to request that Governor Henry dispatch the Virginia light horse to northward to join with General Washington, who was under great pressure from the British, who had during the summer taken New York. Washington was in retreat attempting to stay out of harm’s way to prevent the army from being destroyed in a direct confrontation with British General William Howe. Congress abandoned Philadelphia for Baltimore during the threat, but Washington reversed the retreat after arriving in Pennsylvania by recrossing the Delaware River on Christmas night and seizing Trenton on the 26th of December, ending the jeopardy. During February 1777, on the 26th, Congress adjourned and agreed to reconvene in Philadelphia. Prior to adjournment, Congress directed that “Governor Patrick Henry and the council of Virginia be desired to consider of the propriety of ordering an expedition from the western frontier of that State against the settlement of Indians west of the river Ohio, commonly known by the name of Pluggy’s town.” However, on 25 March, Congress rescinded its order and resolved “that the governor (Patrick Henry) and council of Virginia, be desired to suspend any operations against the gang of Indians, commonly called Pluggy’s people, till they shall receive farther advice from Congress.” In the meantime, George Rogers Clark had been requesting authority to attack the British stronghold in the Northwest. On 9 October 1777, Patrick remarried, taking Dorothea Dandridge, the daughter Colonel Nathaniel West Dandridge, as his second wife. Nathaniel was a brother of John Dandridge, the father-in-law of George Washington and the father of Martha Washington. Patrick and Dorothea had eleven children: Dorothea; Sarah; Martha Catharine; Patrick; Fayette; Alexander; Spotswood; Nathaniel; Richard (died in infancy); Edward Winston; and John (of Red Hill). Patrick had sold his property and relocated in Henry County where he raised his new family.

HERKIMER

On 2 January 1778, Governor Henry proposed such an attack to the privy council and the plan was accepted. Clark received two separate sets of orders, one of which was a diversion to help keep the entire campaign a secret. Clark was authorized to raise seven companies from any point in Virginia for the expedition. In October, Congress directed Governor Henry to dispatch the 1,000 troops to bolster the forces in South Carolina, and at the same time, Governor Richard Caswell of North Carolina was requested to send 3,000 troops for the same purpose. During June 1779, Henry’s terms as governor ended. He was succeeded by Thomas Jefferson. After concluding his governorship, Henry resumed his law practice and was returned to the assembly, where he served frequently until 1791. After the war, Henry supported leniency for the Loyalists and allowing them to return to their homes. He met heavy opposition, but he prevailed in the assembly. He also favored trade with Britain without restrictions, and that legislation, too, he was able to get passed, but another, his bill during 1784, to encourage marriage between the settlers and Indians, failed. That year, Henry was again elected governor. He was not a delegate to the Constitutional Convention that convened in Philadelphia during 1787, but he was an opponent and at the Virginia state constitutional convention; he worked against ratification out of concern of the state losing its rights to a federal government. Despite his efforts, he was only able to slice the majority, not defeat ratification. Virginia ratified the Constitution in Richmond on 25 June 1778 to become the tenth state to join the union. During the period when Henry opposed ratification, political mischief entered the picture when rumors floated regarding George Washington making disparaging remarks about Henry, including an accusation that Henry was a “factious, seditious character.” At that time, a long-term friendship ended; however, Washington never made the statements and the letters regarding them were forgeries. Nevertheless, it wasn’t until the final stage of Patrick Henry’s life that the misunderstanding got straightened out. In 1791, Henry chose not to run for re-election to the assembly. He retired from public life. Later, during 1794, he declined serving in the U.S. Senate and declined a position as minister to Spain. The next year, Henry was offered the position of secretary of state by President George Washington, but he declined, and during 1796, he declined a post as chief justice of the Supreme Court. In 1796 he was again elected as governor but declined. His reluctance to return to public life did not deter others from seeking his contribution to the nation. Henry was nominated by President John Adams as minister to France in 1796, and the senate confirmed his appointment. Nevertheless, he again declined serving. During March 1799, Patrick Henry, at the urging of George Washington, appeared in public to announce that he was a candidate for office. It was his last public appearance. Henry was elected to the assembly and John Randolph was elected to Congress, but Henry never served. By then his health had badly deteriorated. He died on 6 June 1799. His widow, Dorothea, later married Patrick Henry’s cousin, Judge Edmund Winston.

Herkimer, Brigadier General Nicholas Nicholas Herkimer, the son of John ( Johan) Jost and Catherine (Katherine) Herkimer, was born at Herkimer, New York, during 1728. Initially, the family name was spelled Ergheimer and sometimes as Herchhcimer. Nicholas was one of thirteen children. The others were Henry, John I Joseph (Yost), George, John II (again), Elizabeth Barbara, Delia, Gertrude, Madaline (Lana), Catherine, Elizabeth, Mary and Anna. The area around present-day Herkimer was not quite as tranquil as a visitor finds it during modern times. However, the German settlers were not unaccustomed to hostilities. The area in the valley was settled by Germans from the Palinate of the Rhine territory within

HERKIMER

170

Germany, but bordering France, prompting both nations to frequently wage war against each other for domination of the ground, with the people living in towns; Manheim and Heidelberg were ravaged by both antagonists. Peace was consummated during 1697, but the region was left barren from the warfare. The emigrants at first moved to England, where they were welcomed; however, England was unprepared to handle the enormous numbers, which prompted the Germans to seek out America. The Germans were not especially welcome in their new home. Life west of the Hudson, where it began for the Germans, was harsh and often their children were treated horribly. The Germans, convinced their settlement would fail, moved toward present-day Schoharie County and the Mohawk Valley. During the arduous trek, the settlers lacked proper clothing and possessed little food, which compelled them to seek support from the Indians in the region. They were well received by the Indians, who forestalled disaster by providing food and shelter. In addition, they shared their hunting grounds. The good relations existed between the new settlers and the Indians for several years, while they essentially lived together. Some, including the Herkimers, were able to acquire land grants in the Mohawk Valley, which to many seemed as if they had been transplanted back to the Rhine. The Herkimers were descendants of Palatines who immigrated to America. Nicholas’ father arrived in what was known as the “third immigration” during 1721. Nicholas’ paternal grandparents ( Jurgh [George] and Madaline) accompanied the new arrivals. Nicholas received a fundamental education and the common language among the settlers in the region was German. A group including Nicholas’ father petitioned Governor William Burnett to authorize a purchase of land from the Indians, and the governor, after consulting with his council, approved of the acquisition. The group’s request was granted on 9 September 1721. The Herkimers and others consummated the agreement with the Indians on 9 July 1723, which gave the settlers terrain on both sides of the Mohawk River and encompassed the terrain from below Little Falls to present-day Frankfurt. Ninety-four people (24 families) received the patent, dated 30 April 1725, which provided 100 acres (Burnettsfield Patent) for each person. By the time Nicholas was a teenager, he was living in what became known as the Herkimer Mansion within the walls of Fort Herkimer, called Fort Kourai by the Indians. Nicholas’ father maintained a farm and successfully engaged in the mercantile business among the many Palatine Germans who resided in the region encompassing the Mohawk Valley. The colonists built a trading post at Oswego and used it to solidify their friendship with the Six Nations. In addition, the settlement required a method of acquiring food. The route was difficult. Food and supplies for the garrison had to be transported by bateaux. Nicholas’ father apparently began a transportation operation shortly after arriving in the valley. The bateaux carried the supplies “up the Mohawk river to Rome, thence to Wood Creek and through the Oneida Lake and Oswego River to Lake Ontario.” Nicholas, after reaching maturity, also initiated a successful enterprise that included a profitable farm as well as a business. He also operated a portage business with which he transported goods by water between the area of Herkimer and Little Falls. The settlement at the fort was rocked during 1756 when a French-Indian force attacked German Flats. The colonists sought protection at the Herkimer house. The compound, fortified by Sir William Johnson, included the Herkimer mansion, the stone church and a few other structures bolstered by earthworks. During 1758, German Flats came under yet another savage attack by Indians, compelling the settlers to flee to the fort, which at the time was commanded by Colonel Charles Clinton (father of Generals George and James Clinton) and Captain Herkimer (Nicholas’ father). The enemy

struck on the 30th of April and although many reached the safety of the fort, the Indians reduced the settlement and seized almost 100 colonists and carried them away. Subsequent to the ravaging raid, the Herkimers relocated at Canajoharie (Tryon County). Herkimer served throughout the conflict as a lieutenant in the militia. As the war was winding down, Nicholas married in 1760, taking Lany Tygert (Dygert), the sister of Peter Tygert (Dygert), as his Nicholas Herkimer (Herkimers and wife. After Lany died, Nic- Schuylers, Phoebe Strong Cowen) holas married Myra (Maria) Tygert, the daughter of Peter Tygert. No children were born during either of Nicholas’ marriages. Meanwhile, tensions between the Indians and the settlers continued even after the French and Indian War was terminated. During 1772, the colonists at German Flats were again compelled to seek protection; however, not from the French. By that time, the divide between the Americans and Britain had continued to widen and the Indians had new allies, the Tories, prompting the settlers to again gather in the fort. All the while, the relationship between the colonies and Britain continued to deteriorate. During 1775, Nicholas was appointed colonel of the Canajoharie Regiment. His responsibilities grew in 1776 when he was appointed brigadier general of the county’s four militia regiments. General Herkimer replaced Sir John Johnson, who sought refuge in Canada. By 1777, the British moved to link two armies. General John Burgoyne was advancing from Canada to join with General Henry Clinton’s forces. Clinton advanced up the Hudson, but he was unable to reach Albany. Meanwhile, Burgoyne had penetrated deeply and was threatening to overrun the resistance. Fort Stanwix (Fort Schuyler) was one of the obstacles in his path. A force under Colonel Barry St. Leger laid siege and American reinforcements were gathered to rescue the trapped garrison. General Herkimer departed Fort Dayton on 4 August and reached positions near Oriskany on the following day. Express riders were dispatched to beleaguered Fort Stanwix to coordinate with Colonel Willet, who was to fire a cannon three times to signal that the riders safely reached the fort. The communications from Herkimer were delivered at about 1000 on the 6th; however, Herkimer was expecting to hear the signal, despite being about eight miles from the fort. He had preferred to await reinforcements before launching his attack or hearing the cannon fire, but he never heard the sound of the guns. Meanwhile, some of his troops instigated trouble. Herkimer was accused of cowardice and of being a Loyalist. Other derogatory remarks were also forthcoming. Herkimer, at that point, discerned that he would advance without waiting for the additional strength. General Herkimer told his detractors that their anxiousness to attack would terminate at first sight of the enemy and that they would be the first to flee. His remarks were prophetic. General Herkimer, leading the Tryon County militia’s four regiments and allied Oneida Indians, advanced toward the beleaguered garrison, but the British commander had been informed of the column’s advance. On 6 August 1777, while Herkimer’s column reached a point in the vicinity of Oriskany, there were no signs of enemy presence in the high ground. Nevertheless, the heights north of the river held a large force of Loyalists and Indians in well concealed positions.

171 Without warning, the ambush was sprung and Herkimer’s force was caught by complete surprise just as it crossed a ravine and reached a curve. Herkimer fell to the ground when his horse was shot. However, he remained calm under fire and his militia performed admirably in what became a heated battle that lasted for about five hours and included gruesome close-quartered fighting. The bayonet, tomahawk and knife became the weapons of necessity during the close-quartered donnybrook. During the opening portion of the fight, General Herkimer was shot in the leg, but still, the wound did not deter him from his command responsibility. He refused shelter even after a storm struck in the midst of the fighting and forced a suspension of the contest. When Herkimer’s troops attempted to move him, he refused to budge and replied: “I will face the enemy.” Many of the men on opposing sides knew each other and some were blood relatives. The most stark example of relatives opposing one another involved General Herkimer himself. His brother, Johan Jost Herkimer, fought on the side of St. Leger. The battle between the Loyalists and the Patriots was essentially a civil war; an unintended but not unexpected consequence was pitting brother against brother. And at Oriskany, hatred ran deep. Herkimer disregarded his pain to direct his forces; however, he was neither re-mounted nor fighting at the point of the fight. He was compelled to sit, leaning against a tree. From there, he bellowed orders while smoking his pipe. The wound and the bleeding did not deter him from losing his composure under stress. Meanwhile, the tenacious resistance of his militia stunned the Loyalists ( Johnson’s Greens) and Indians under Chief Joseph Brant, who had anticipated a rout. Some of the troops retreated after crossing Oriskany Creek as the tomahawks approached, but the majority of the militia stood fast and skillfully covered each other, sometimes in pairs, with one loading while the other fired. Those who chose to abandon the fight soon found that their path of retreat was blocked by the enemy, who anticipated a haphazard retreat. While Herkimer watched the cowards run, he was confident of what would occur and had already determined that once across the causeway that passed over a swamp, there was no option except to stand and fight or be annihilated. Those who ran found themselves in a shredder. The opposing force was composed of twice Herkimer’s numbers and stood at about 2,000. During the combat, despite being under siege, a contingent of troops under Colonel Marinus Willet was able to move out of Fort Stanwix and bolster Herkimer’s forces. The Loyalists and Indians were stymied, and after receiving more punishment than they doled out, the enemy was forced to pull back. The Indians had been told by the British that they would not have to engage, but instead could just watch the British trample the Patriots; but like the British, they sustained heavy casualties. Willet’s contingent returned to the fort, having participated in the ferocious contest without sustaining any casualties. Herkimer’s warriors also equalized the enemy when the struggle included knives. Herkimer had not been able to break through, but the enemy was unable to dislodge the militia, which held the field with such determination that they were able to remove their wounded without any disruption to the fight. The Indians, apparently stunned, were the first to desert the field, with the Loyalists following on their heels, leaving Herkimer’s troops standing and alone on the bloodied field along with the enemy dead and wounded that had been left behind. The Patriots held firmly, but at the time, they had no realization of how important their task had been. That night, they retired and moved back to join the main body, which continued to hold the fort under siege. By not being overwhelmed and forced to run, that small band of fewer than 1,000 troops under General Herkimer and his allied

HEWES

Oneida braves saved Albany and brought about the lifting of the siege at Fort Stanwix. When another force under Benedict Arnold moved toward the fort to reduce the siege, the British, also aware of his approach, retired without a fight, but afterward, the Redcoats sustained many casualties to the Indians who had become disgruntled. Indians began to scalp some of the British during the retreat from Fort Stanwix, knowing they were compensated per scalp with no means of proving their origin. Meanwhile, St. Leger was unable to convince Colonel Gansevoort, commander of Fort Stanwix, to capitulate. Sir John Johnson and others moved to coerce the inhabitants of the area to switch their allegiance, but the mission was interrupted when a contingent under Colonel Weston dispatched troops from his base of operations at Fort Dayton. The contingent galloped to Mr. Shoemaker’s home at German Flats to interrupt the meeting. The patriots captured Lieutenant Walter N. Butler (St. Leger’s force) and almost thirty enemy soldiers and Indians. Following the battle on the 6th, the militia had the task of getting General Herkimer back to friendly lines for medical attention. The militia returned to Fort Herkimer, but they still had to get Herkimer back to his residence at Little Falls, a trying task, considering his condition. From the fort, the general was carried to his home, with the greater part of the journey by boat. By the time he arrived at his residence after a grueling trip of about 35 miles, the wound, which he ignored during the fighting, had become life threatening. It was determined by doctors that it was imperative to amputate his leg. The operation took place; however, the surgeon was not skilled and afterward, General Herkimer’s leg became infected. On 16 August, General Herkimer succumbed. According to many reliable sources, General Herkimer was reading his family Bible at the time of his demise. He died knowing he had done his duty for his country; however, he had no idea how important his actions and those of his men had been for the survival of the nation. If Herkimer had been routed, Albany surely would have fallen and the Loyalists would have soon dominated the region. General Herkimer’s father succumbed during August 1775 and his mother died soon afterward. General Herkimer was interred at his estate (Herkimer Home) at Little Falls. The inscription on the marble slab at his grave site stated: “General Nicholas Herkimer, died ten days after the battle of Oriskany, in which he received the wounds which caused his death.” The estate passed to Nicholas’ brother, George, but later during 1814, George’s son, John, sold the property to someone other than a family member. In 1913, the Herkimer Home in Little Falls, New York, was acquired by New York State. The mansion is seasonally open to the public.

Hewes, Joseph (Signer of the Declaration of Independence) Joseph Hewes was born in the vicinity of Princeton, New Jersey, on 23 January 1730. His parents, Adam and Providence Worth Hewes (originally Hughes), both Quakers, departed Connecticut hurriedly after some anti–Quaker laws were passed. Their flight was quite hazardous due to hostile Indians along the route. When Adam and his wife forded the Housatonic River, Indians in pursuit closed and fired upon them. Providence, the daughter of Joseph Worth, was wounded in the neck by musket fire, but she survived and the couple made it safely to New Jersey. There, they established a farm at a place known as Maybury Hill. As a young man, Joseph was reared as a Quaker; however, his instincts for pleasures such as dancing and his propensity to defend liberty worked to dissuade him from being a pacifist. Joseph entered Princeton College. Following graduation, he entered an apprenticeship in nearby Philadelphia and afterward was employed with a mercantile business in that city.

HEYWARD

172

For a while Joseph Hewes traveled back and forth to Philadelphia gaining additional experience within the maritime industry, and he used that knowledge to begin his own shipping business. Later, Hewes settled in Edenton, North Carolina, where he became involved in shipping during 1760 and was able to succeed enormously in the endeavor to accumulate a large fortune. In the meantime he entered politics. He was elected to the provincial assembly of North Carolina during 1766, one year after the Stamp Act was passed by Parliament, and he remained as a member of that body until the royal governor disbanded it during 1775. Hewes worked with the Whigs to oust the royal government. On 8 April 1775, Josiah Martin, the royal governor of North Carolina ordered that the state assembly be dissolved, and on 3 May, he received direction from Britain to establish a militia composed of Loyalists. Patriots assembled in Mecklenburg County on 8 May 1775 and declared independence from Britain. The action (five resolutions) became known as the Mecklenburg Declaration of Independence. At the time the patriots acted, they had been informed of the battles at Lexington and Concord. Those sparks in North Carolina began to expand into a rapidly moving force by the end of the month. On the 31st of May, the governor fled New Bern and took refuge aboard the HMS Cruzier, which had been on the Cape Fear River. Afterward, Governor Martin was carried to Fort Johnston, but only for a short while, as the Americans torched the fort on 18 July. Subsequent to the flight of the royal governor, Cornelius Harnett, Jr., became president of the council of safety (government of the province), making him the chief executive of North Carolina. Hewes was elected as a member of the provincial legislature installed by the Patriots, and he had also been a member of the committee of correspondence prior to being selected as a delegate to the Second Continental Congress, which convened in Philadelphia during 1775. By that time, Hewes had abandoned the Quaker faith and moved far from pacifism; however, he was still unwilling to discount reconciliation with Britain. Hewes was appointed to various committees, including one created on 14 June 1775, by a resolution of Congress, to design rules: “Resolved, That Mr. [George] Washington, Mr. [Philip] Schuyler, Mr. [Silas] Deane, Mr. [Thomas] Cushing, and Mr. [Joseph] Hewes be a committee to bring in a dra’t of Rules and regulations for the government of the army.” June 14 is known as the Birthday of the United States Army. On the 13th of October 1775, Congress authorized the establishment of the Naval Committee, initially composed of three men. Four others, including John Adams and Joseph Hewes, were added on 30 October. The action was the birth of the United States Navy. Subsequently, Hewes, as chairman, nominated John Paul Jones to be the commander of the navy, but Adams, who had earlier agreed to a Virginian, George Washington, as the commander-in-chief of the Continental Army, resisted Jones for a man from New England. Eventually, Adams prevailed and Esek Hopkins was chosen; however, within a year he was expelled. Joseph Hewes remained in Congress during 1776, but maintained that he was unwilling to break from Britain until just before Joseph Hewes (Biographical Sketches that fateful decision. During June 1776, Hewes of the Signers of the Declaration of Independence, Benson J. Lossing, 1854) refused support for the reso-

lution for independence presented by Richard Henry Lee. He continued to ignore North Carolina’s instructions to its delegates to vote for independence; however at some point during the debate, according to John Adams, Hewes conspicuously reversed his position and loudly exclaimed, while still seated with his hands outstretched toward heaven: “It is done! And I will abide by it.” His reversal catapulted him into that band of Patriots who adopted the Declaration of Independence while pledging their lives, fortunes and sacred honor. In the case of Hewes, there was no pretense of being an orator, nor was he among those who spent much time debating on the floor; however, his contributions to Congress were total commitment and immovable fortitude, but he also backed his support with his fortune. Without hesitation, Hewes also pledged his ships to the cause. His massive knowledge of the maritime industry was an added bonus for Congress as it struggled to neutralize the overwhelming sea power of the British Empire. Hewes was appointed secretary of the Naval Affairs Committee, a post he retained until his premature death. He also was a member of several other key committees, including the Secret Committee. During 1777, Hewes, who had not been re-elected to Congress, returned to North Carolina to contribute within his home state in the assembly (1778–1779). In 1779, Hewes was returned to Congress, but by that time, he was in extremely poor health. The stress that plagued all of Congress had in his case taken a high toll and his health had greatly deteriorated. Nonetheless, he resumed his duties and continued to devote his remaining energy to the cause. Soon all his strength was drained. He last attended on October 29, 1779. His illness by that time had totally incapacitated him. Joseph Hewes succumbed during the night of 9–10 November. On the morning of the 10th, Congress was notified of Joseph Hewes’ death and that his interment was scheduled for the following evening, Thursday, 11 November 1779. Congress resolved “that Congress will, in a body, attend the funeral to-morrow evening, at three o’clock, with a crape round the left arm, and will continue in mourning for the space of one month.” Hewes died a bachelor. Early in his career, Hewes became engaged; however, prior to his wedding, his fiancee, Isabella Johnston, the sister of Governor Samuel “Sam” Johnston, died. Joseph Hewes was interred in the cemetery of Christ Church in Philadelphia at a service attended by all of Congress, as well as the General Assembly and the Supreme Executive Council of Pennsylvania. The solemn ceremony was celebrated by the chaplain of Congress, Bishop White. The memory of Hewes was honored by a large military force attendance by other dignitaries. He was remembered as one of that outstanding group of patriots who contributed everything within his means to bring about the birth of the nation, devoid of all ulterior motives and bound only by a sense of unbridled dedication and a high sense of honor, honesty and integrity until his final breath. Hewes and Caesar Rodney and were the only bachelors to sign the Declaration of Independence. In addition to Joseph Hewes, four other signers were interred in the Christ Church cemetery: Benjamin Franklin, Francis Hopkinson and George Ross and Benjamin Rush. The cemetery remains open to the public and is within walking distance of Independence Hall.

Heyward, Thomas (Signer of the Declaration of Independence) Thomas Heyward, the son of Colonel Daniel and Mary Miles Heyward, was born on 28 July 1746 at the Old House Plantation in St. Luke’s Parish ( Jasper County), South Carolina. The Heywards first arrived in Charleston during 1670 when Captain Thomas Heyward (1) and his brother Daniel emigrated from little Eaton, England. Thomas married after arriving in America. Upon his death, Captain Thomas was survived by two sons, and both, Daniel and Thomas (2),

173 were sent to England to live with another of their father’s brothers to ensure they received an excellent education. Thomas (2) returned from England after completing his education and married. Upon his death, he left one son, also named Thomas (3), the grandfather of Thomas (the signer). When Thomas (3) was about eighteen years old, he was drafted into the British army during a time of turbulence with Indians. He remained in the service, made the rank of captain, and was stationed at Fort Johnson on James Island in Charleston Harbor. Thomas (3) was rewarded for his meritorious service with a grant of land in St. Luke’s Parish (Beaufort District) that included the “Old House” tract. Later, at the age of about 35 years, Thomas succumbed, leaving six sons, one of whom was named Thomas (4). The other sons and brothers of Thomas (4) were Daniel, the father of Thomas (signer), John, Samuel, Nathaniel and William. Thomas’ (signer’s) parents had two other children, John and William. Thomas’s father remarried, taking Jane Elizabeth Gignilliat as his second wife, giving Thomas two step-brothers, James and Nathaniel, and a step-sister, Maria. Elizabeth died and Thomas’ father remarried, taking Elizabeth Simons as his third wife. From this marriage one child, Benjamin, was born in 1776. The plantation where Thomas Heyward (signer) lived was about twenty-five miles above Savannah, Georgia. His birth into a wealthy family assured him of an excellent education in the province. He furthered his studies by taking up law in both America and England. Prior to departing to London to complete his education, he studied law under Mr. Parsons in Charleston. During the course of his education, similarly to another of the signers, Charles Carroll of Carrollton, Heyward became a serious student of Greek and Roman classics, which he continued to enjoy throughout his lifetime. Those topics, always percolating about liberty and republican freedom, at times mesmerized him and essentially guided his thinking toward freedom for the colonies. He sensed irregularities with the law and the way Britain treated her colonies and colonists. After spending about five years in England, where he furthered his legal studies at one of the inns of court at the Temple, he took a short trip about Europe. By the time he returned to the colonies, he had clear and unwavering feelings toward Britain’s policies. Heyward was about 25 years old when he arrived back in South Carolina, and because of what he considered condescending attitudes of the British toward him and other Americans, while he was in England, he was personally disappointed by their actions and anxious to become involved in the American cause. His father, one of the rice kings of Charleston, undertook a project during 1760 to have a house constructed in the city for his son. During 1772, Heyward was elected to the South Carolina Assembly and remained in that capacity until 1775. At the time of his election, he had been practicing law for about one year. His entry into political life converged with the ongoing struggle of the colonists who were, with each passing day, increasing their disgust with the policies of Parliament and the Crown over taxation and other tactics they saw as oppressive. In 1773, Thomas Heyward married Elizabeth Matthews, the daughter of one of the prominent planters of the area and the sister of Governor John Matthews (1782–1783). Thomas and Elizabeth had five children, but only one son, Daniel, reached adulthood. The others died in infancy. Heyward built a plantation known as White Hall. In 1775, he was elected a delegate to the Second Continental Congress in place of John Rutledge, who was called home to take measures against an anticipated invasion by the British. Nevertheless, Heyward declined, explaining that he believed he was too young. However, he remained active in the Provincial Congress and was elected again as a delegate to Congress during 1776, which he accepted. He was then propelled into the midst of those Patriots who pledged their lives, fortunes and sacred honor in the course of supporting, adopting and signing the Declaration of Independence.

HEYWARD

As a South Carolinian, Heyward was hesitant at first regarding the Declaration due to differences, including the topic of slavery; however, after holding back support on 1 July, he relented and voted in the affirmative in the crucial unanimous vote on 2 July. Independence was formally adopted 4 July 1776. Heyward also signed the parchment document during August and remained with Congress when it fled to Baltimore to evade capture by the British army that threat- Thomas Heyward, Jr. (Biographical ened Philadelphia. Although Sketches of the Signers of the DeclaraGeneral Washington termi- tion of Independence, Benson J. Lossnated the threat with the vic- ing, 1854) tory at Trenton during the latter part of 1776, Congress remained in Baltimore. On 3 January, Heyward was appointed to a committee of three, along with Abraham Clark and Francis Lightfoot Lee, charged with amending the Articles of War. On the 31st, he was appointed to a committee delegated to draw up a schedule of honors due to the late General Joseph Warren (slain at Bunker Hill) and to the late General Hugh Mercer, who was killed at Princeton on 12 January 1777. Heyward was appointed on 19 March as one of three men charged with investigating the conditions of the French officers serving in the Continental Army. Congress had resolved that all applications by those officers were to be referred to the committee. During 1777, Thomas’ father, Colonel Daniel Heyward, succumbed, leaving Thomas to oversee the family estate. That year, 1777, Congress adopted the Articles of Confederation on 15 November. The Articles were afterward sent to each state for ratification, and on 1 March 1781, the Articles became effective. The entry in the Journals of the Continental Congress for that day records the acceptance of the ratification and the accompanying signatures. The Articles dictated U.S. law, specified the powers and responsibilities of the federal government, and underscored its limitations. Heyward’s congressional career closed during 1778, but not his conviction and commitment to the cause of liberty. By war’s end, he paid dearly for his convictions. Heyward returned to South Carolina during 1778 and assumed a position as a judge (criminal and civil courts), but soon he was fighting in the military. He was with the forces under General William Moultrie that fought and repelled the British under Major Gardener at Port Royal Island on 3 February 1779. Heyward, a captain at the time, was wounded during the fighting. Edward Rutledge, another signer of the Declaration, also fought at that battle, a fight that caused the British to postpone their invasion. Heyward was also with the military at Charleston. One of Heyward’s colleagues, Lyman Hall, had been in Charleston, but he fled for New England before the city fell during May 1780. Heyward, badly wounded and left with an indelible scar, was seized and transported to Florida to be imprisoned in St. Augustine. He was not the only signer snagged by the British at Charleston. Edward Rutledge and Arthur Middleton were also captured and Lyman Hall barely escaped. Hall had been in Georgia and fled to South Carolina when the British invaded there; however, he departed Charleston and made it to New England, depriving the British of his company. Rutledge and Middleton, similarly to Heyward, received extremely harsh treatment. The British, while in South Carolina, devastated Heyward’s estate and confiscated his slaves, most of whom were afterward

HIESTER

174

transported to Jamaica. He survived his time in captivity and was released from his dungeon during July 1781. During the voyage to Philadelphia, by accident, Heyward fell overboard, but he was able to grasp the rudder of the ship until he was rescued. While a prisoner, Heyward used his literary skills to modify the British national anthem by changing the lyrics to suit his pleasure and changing the title from “God Save the King” to “God Save the Thirteen States.” His songwriting seemed quite successful, as the Patriotic rip-off tune spread rapidly through the colonies. The feeling of exhilaration for Heyward was dimmed when he saw his estate in absolute ruins, but by the following year, things turned worse when his wife, Elizabeth, succumbed. Also in 1782, Heyward resumed his judgeship, a position he retained until 1789. He became a member of the state legislature and served two terms (1782–1784). During 1790, Heyward participated in the establishment of the constitution of South Carolina. Several years after the death of his first wife, he remarried, taking Elizabeth Savage as his second wife. During 1794, Heyward sold his house in Charleston but retained his plantation. Thomas Heyward, Jr. (assigned Jr. by his father, Daniel, to distinguish him from his uncle Thomas, his father’s brother), succumbed on 6 March 1809 at age 62 while at the Whitehall Plantation. Thomas Heyward was interred in the family cemetery at the Old House Plantation. Scant information remains regarding the children from both of his marriages, but it is known that he was survived by his wife, Elizabeth, and four children. Daniel married Anne Sarah Trezevant, the parents of Elizabeth, who married Captain James Hamilton in the U.S. Army and brigadier general in the militia. Hamilton later became governor of South Carolina and afterward was engaged for a while as a diplomat of the Republic of Texas before Texas was admitted to the union. Later during 1857, he was lost at sea when a collision occurred between the vessels Opelousa and the Galveston in the Gulf of Mexico off Texas. The other surviving children from his second marriage were Thomas (married Ann Elisa Cutbert, the daughter of General John A. Cuthbert of Bethel); James Hamilton Heyward (married Decima Shubrick, the sister of William Branford Shubrick, rear admiral, U.S. Navy); and Elizabeth (married Henry Middleton Parker). The Heyward House in Charleston, later known as the Heyward-Washington House, still stands. During 1791, when President George Washington traveled to Charleston, he stayed at the townhouse. Some sources differ on the date of the death of Thomas Heyward, Jr.; however most reliable sources, including Dwight, Goodrich, Lossing, and Sanderson’s Lives of the Signers each supply March 1809. Another source from the nineteenth century, Sages and Heroes of the American Revolution by Judson and the National Parks System, also list his death as occurring March 1809. Harper’s Encyclopedia of U.S. History by Lossing, 1906, lists the date as 6 March 1809.

Hiester (Heister, originally Huster), Brigadier General Daniel Daniel Heister, the son of Daniel and Catherine Schulerine Hiester, was born on 25 June 1747. Daniel, Sr., and Catherine had six other children: Margaretha (b. June 1743, married Philip Hahn); Johannes ( John, b. April 1745, married Hannah Pawling); Gabriel (b. June 1749, married Elizabeth Bausman); Katarina (Catherine, b. September 1751, married Jonathan Bischoff ); Samuel (b. April 1754, died young); and Wilhelm (William, b. June 1757, married Anna Maria Meyer). Daniel’s father and his two brothers ( John and Joseph) emigrated from Germany (Borough [Dorf ] Elssof, Grafschaft [township] Witgenstein) during the early 1700s and settled in Goshenhoppen, which then was considered to be in Philadelphia, but later, Montgomery County. John (known as Jost Husterr, prior to arriving in the colonies) was the first brother to arrive (1732). He was followed shortly thereafter by Joseph and Daniel, who both arrived at Philadelphia on the vessel St.

Andrew from Rotterdam. Upon their arrival, Joseph and Daniel took an oath of allegiance, then traveled to join their older brother, John. Daniel’s mother, Catherine, the daughter of Gabriel Schulerine (native of Germany) was born in Skippack (Montgomery County), Pennsylvania. Daniel, Sr., immediately acquired a farm, but later, he and his brothers acquired 2,000 to 3,000 acres in Bern Township, later Berks County. Daniel, Sr., remained on his original land, but his brothers relocated to Bern Township. The Hiester family became prominent in the region and sided wholeheartedly with the Patriots’ cause. In 1770, Daniel married Rosina (Rosanna) Hager, the daughter of Captain John and Elizabeth Krischner Hager of Hagerstown, Maryland. Daniel and Rosina had two children, Martin (b. 1765 or 1767, according to family records) and Susan (b. 1768). The three sons of Daniel, Sr., each joined the Patriot forces at the outbreak of war. They enlisted in the organization known as the Associators. On 4 July 1776, at Lancaster, two brigadier generals were appointed, and Daniel and John Hiester were appointed colonels, while Gabriel received the rank of major. The youngest brother, William, also served, but due to the combination of his age and the poor health of his parents, William only served early in the war. Another Hiester, Joseph, the son of John (Daniel’s uncle) also joined the service. Joseph fought as a captain of the Pennsylvania part of the Flying Camp. He was captured during the fighting on Long Island (1776) and confined on the British prison ship, New Jersey, in New York. After the war, Joseph became the governor of Pennsylvania (19 December 1820 to 16 December 1823). During May 1782, Colonel Daniel Hiester was commissioned as a brigadier general of militia. General Hiester’s service in the field appears to have been limited within the state of Pennsylvania. Following the close of hostilities, Hiester continued a life of public service as a civilian and held state offices as well as federal. From 1784 through 1786, he served on the Pennsylvania supreme council. In 1787, he was appointed as a commissioner charged with bringing about a resolution to the ongoing dispute between Connecticut and Pennsylvania regarding claims on land (Connecticut Land Claims) in the Wyoming Valley. General Hiester also became the initial representative from Berks County in the U.S. Congress following adoption of the United States Constitution. By that time, he had relocated in Berks County. His service in Congress as a Pennsylvania representative spanned 1789 to 1796 (First, Second, Third and Fourth Congresses, 4 March 1789 to 1 July 1796). During his final year as a representative from Pennsylvania, Hiester and his family relocated in Maryland, the place of his wife’s birth. They settled in Hagerstown, which had been founded in 1762 by Rosina’s father and initially called Elizabethtown after Rosina’s mother. Daniel’s father died in June 1795. Catherine, Daniel’s mother, died during August 1789 at age 72. At the time of her demise, she had been married to Daniel’s father for 46 years. After settling in Maryland, General Hiester again was returned to the U.S. Congress. He served in the Seventh and Eighth Congresses (4 March 1801 to 7 March 1804). General Hiester died in Washington, D.C., while in office. He was interred in the Zion Reformed Graveyard in Hagerstown, Maryland.

Hogan (Hogun), Brigadier General James James Hogan was born in Ireland, but the exact date is unknown. His early history also remains a mystery. In Ireland his surname is usually Hogan, which is the spelling used in this work. James arrived in the colonies and settled in North Carolina at Halifax County in a section known as Scotland Neck. On 3 October 1751, James married Ruth Norfleet, the widow of Thomas Norfleet. During 1774, Halifax County created a committee of safety. The committee was composed of eleven men including James Hogan. When the Provincial Congress met during August 1775, Hogan again

175 represented Halifax County. In April 1776, the Provincial Congress took a series of steps regarding the defense of the state, and it reorganized the militia into six brigades. Allen Jones was appointed brigadier general of the Halifax district, with Willis Alston selected as colonel, David Sumner as lieutenant colonel and James Hogan as first major. The congress also appointed a committee to design a blueprint for a state constitution. Word of the Declaration of Independence reached the congress on 22 July 1776. In November 1776, the congress assembled at Halifax and one of the primary items on the agenda was to adopt a state constitution. Hogan served on the committee on the Bill of Rights and Constitution. Hogan was also appointed paymaster of the 3rd Continental Regiment, which was commanded by Colonel Jethro Sumner, a position he held only for a short time. On 26 November, he was elected colonel of the 7th North Carolina Regiment. Subsequent to his appointment as colonel, he resigned from the Provincial Congress. Afterward, the 7th Regiment, along with the 8th, commanded by Colonel John Armstrong, moved north to join with General George Washington. Both regiments arrived in time to participate in the unsuccessful defense of Philadelphia. In conjunction, another North Carolina force, a brigade under General Francis Nash, also participated in defending Philadelphia. At Brandywine, the Americans were pushed back and the British occupied the city. On 4 October, another major confrontation occurred at the Battle of Germantown. It was there that Colonel Hogan displayed great heroism. Following the contest at Germantown, Hogan’s command wintered at Valley Forge. There were actually nine North Carolina regiments encamped at Valley Forge. On May 29, 1778, less than one month before the British abandoned Philadelphia (18 June), Congress ordered a reorganization of the regiments. As part of that action, North Carolina was authorized to raise four more battalions for the Continental Army. Colonel Hogan was sent back to North Carolina to raise and organize the units. He was also selected to command the first new regiment. By July, Hogan was prepared to move back to the northern states to join with the main army under Washington at White Plains, New York. During November 1778, Hogan’s command was deployed at West Point and engaged in fortifying the post. On 9 January 1779, Colonel Hogan was promoted by Congress to the rank of brigadier general. Colonel Jethro Sumner also of North Carolina was raised to brigadier. There were some complications with regard to Hogan, as another officer, Colonel Elijah Clark, was being pushed for promotion by the North Carolina legislature and by Clark’s brother-in-law, William Hooper, who was at the time a member of the Continental Congress. Nonetheless, the officers of the brigade prevailed and Hogan, who held seniority over Clark, was promoted. The vacancies occurred due to the promotion of Brigadier General Robert Howe and the death of General Francis Nash at Germantown in October 1777. General Hogan remained in the northern states until 1780; however, General Sumner was ordered to return to North Carolina to participate in the defenses of Georgia and South Carolina. General Hogan received orders in early 1780 to lead his command south to participate in the defense of South Carolina. He reached Wilmington, North Carolina, during February and proceeded from there to Charleston, where he arrived in April, but by then the American army under General Benjamin Lincoln and a U.S. naval squadron was corralled in Charleston, with the ships land-locked and the army besieged by the British. The defenders raised resistance as long as possible, and the Continental Army units that were about to abandon the city to live to engage the enemy were coerced by politicians to remain. General Hogan and the regulars he commanded were part of the army that was surrendered when Charleston fell on 12 May 1780. North Carolina was hit especially hard when the city was lost. In addition to the regulars, a large force of North Carolina militia was in

HOLDEN

Charleston. However, General Sumner had been back in North Carolina when the city fell, allowing him to escape imprisonment. The militia was paroled by the British, but the regulars under General Hogan were crammed onto Sullivan’s Island at Haddrell’s Point. The British ensured that the conditions of their captives were inhumane to the point that the militia was improperly fed and medical help was essentially unavailable. The British maintained such barbaric methods that even a simple request by the prisoners to receive permission to fish to gather some additional food was rejected. General Hogan was offered parole, but he concluded that for the good of his command he wouldn’t accept it. General Hogan’s decision to endue the same sufferings as his men became a fateful moment. He was unable to survive captivity. General Hogan succumbed at Sullivan’s Island on 4 January 1781, but his death was not an unusual occurrence. About 1,800 troops of the Continental Army were imprisoned on the island and of those, about 900 died prior to paroles being granted. About 700 men survived Haddrell’s Point (vicinity of present-day Mount Pleasant) to eventually return to their homes. No military honors were afforded General Hogan, who was buried in an unknown grave. At some point during the war, General Hogan’s papers were taken by federal troops, but there is no record of what happened to them. Consequently, the general’s correspondence was never available for posterity. General Hogan was survived by one son, Lemuel. During 1786, as the heir of General Hogan, his son received from the state of North Carolina a tract of 12,000 acres in Davidson County, Tennessee, and later, during 1792, Congress awarded Lemuel the sum of $5,250 (seven-year half pay), the amount awarded to the heirs of brigadier generals who sacrificed their lives during the fight for independence. Lemuel, in 1786, married Mary Smith of Halifax County. Subsequent to the death of Lemuel (1814), his widow and children moved to Tuscumbia, Alabama.

Holden, Brigadier General Thomas Thomas Holden, the son of John and Deliverance Greene Holden, was born in Warwick, Rhode Island, on 7 June 1741. Thomas’ mother was the daughter of James and Mary Jones Greene. Thomas’ parents had three other children: Welthian (b. December 1733); Charles (b. June 1737); and Deliverance (b. September 1738). The details of Thomas’ early life and some family records have not survived the ages. Even the maiden name of Thomas’ wife remains uncertain. Thomas married a woman named Freelove, but her parentage remains a mystery. Some nineteenth century historians recorded Freelove’s last name as Barton and listed her father as Rowland Barton. Historians also say a man named Rowland Barton did have a daughter named Freelove, but records indicate that Freelove Barton never married. Nonetheless, Thomas and Freelove Holden, according to Eben Putnam’s work (The Holden Genealog y, 1923), had the following children: John (date of birth unknown); Thomas Holden (b. October 1758); Hannah (b. May 1762); Edward (b. January 1764, married Sarah Burlingame); Oliver (b. March 1766); Catherine (b. May 1768); Ruth (b. February 1770); William (b. March 1772); Freelove (b. January 1775); Mary (b. January 1777); Elizabeth (b. June 1780); Welthian (b. August 1782) and Susan Archer (b. April 1785). Thomas Holden leaned heavily toward the Patriots’ cause. Around the time of the outbreak of hostilities in Lexington and Concord (April 1775), Holden was appointed captain in Colonel James Varnum’s regiment (later Continental 1st Rhode Island Regiment). He was a captain in the continental service from 3 May 1775 until December that year. Holden was recommended for promotion to major, but continental records give no indication that the promotion came to fruition. He also served as quartermaster of a Rhode Island brigade (state troops) during 1776. Thomas, Jr., declined an appointment as 2nd lieutenant of the

HOOPER

176

Kentish Guards, and sometimes Thomas, Sr., is erroneously thought to have rejected the appointment. The younger Thomas, however, did serve with his father as “waiter.” Subsequently, during spring 1778, Thomas, Sr., was elected captain of the Warwick Alarm Company, but in May he received a commission of the 1st Regiment (Kent militia). Colonel Holden’s force deployed in and around East Greenwich; however, at nearly the same time, plans were becoming operational to launch an attack against British-held Newport. That summer Holden’s command participated in the campaign of General John Sullivan, who moved to evict the British. Nevertheless, French support faltered and the Americans had to operate without the French fleet. The Americans failed to retake Newport, but Sullivan was able to extricate his forces and get back to the mainland just before the arrival of a fresh British fleet. Subsequently, during June of 1779, Colonel Holden was appointed as brigadier general (Kent County brigade). Two years later, during 1781, General Holden was appointed to the Council of War. After the close of hostilities, General Holden retained his rank and later, during 1790, he was promoted to major general of the Rhode Island militia. In the meantime, during 1788, he was elected to the Continental Congress, but there is no record of General Holden ever taking his seat. During the following year, again, he was elected to Congress; however, still no record exists of him serving. General Holden had served as deputy at the General Assembly. General Holden’s wife, Freelove, died at an undetermined time. He remarried in June 1793, taking Mercy Gorton Wightman (widow of Philip Wightman) as his second wife. Mercy was the daughter of Othniel and Theodosia Hopkins Gorton. No children were born to Mercy and General Holden. In 1800, the year of his father’s death (age 100), General Holden was appointed a judge on the Rhode Island Supreme Court. Thomas Holden succumbed on 23 February 1823. He was interred in the family cemetery at Natick, Rhode Island in an unknown location. A memorial stone was later erected in the East Greenwich Cemetery to commemorate his service to the nation. General Holden’s father, John, subsequent to the death of his wife, Deliverance, also remarried, taking Hannah Fry, the daughter of Thomas and Welthian Greene Fry, as his second wife. No children were born during the marriage of Thomas and Hannah.

Hooper, Brigadier General Henry Henry Hooper (4), the son of Henry (3), was born during 1720 in Dorchester, Maryland. That year, Henry (3) acquired a tract known as “My Lady Sewall’s Manor, referred to as Warwick. Henry (4) was the great-grandson of Henry (1) and Sarah Hooper, who arrived in present-day Calvert County during 1651. Henry (3) acquired more land on the eastern shore and the estate became known afterward as Warwick Fort Manor. Henry (3) was the son of Judge Henry Hooper (2) and Elizabeth Denwood. The mansion at the time of its construction was located in an area frequented by the Choptank Indians, which prompted Henry (3) to fortify it against attack. The fortress-home was constructed with English brick and the walls were two feet thick. The doors were fortified with iron bars and each had hinges four feet long. Henry (3) was a member of the Maryland Assembly and the House of Burgess, but he also served in the militia and rose to the rank of colonel during 1733. Upon the death of Henry (3), during 1767, Henry (4) inherited the estate, which at the time encompassed more than 2,000 acres. The property was located along Secretary Creek (later Warwick River). Early twentieth century sources list Henry as having married about 1735, which would have made him about fifteen years old. He married Anne Ennalls, the daughter of William and Ann Smith Ennalls. Henry and Anne’s children were William, who became a physician (married Sarah Ridgeway); Henry (5) (married Mary Ennalls); John (served as

major during Revolution); Mary (married Denwood Hicks); Sally; and Anne Elizabeth (married William Barrow). Henry Hooper (4, the subject) became solidly aligned with the Patriots, and he played a significant role in the region during the days preceding the outbreak of the American Revolution. Hooper participated as a delegate at several Provincial Congresses that convened in Maryland during 1775 and 1776. In 1774, he participated in what was known as the convention of deputies. After the passage of the Port Bill (British closure of Boston’s port) in March 1774, the Marylanders convened a meeting of deputies at Baltimore on 31 May 1774. Hooper was a participant. In response to a call for another meeting, Hooper participated in the gathering at Annapolis on 22 June 1774, and yet again was a delegate when the deputies convened in April 1775. During the latter convention word arrived regarding the clash with the British at Lexington and Concord (19 April 1775). During the April convention, it was decided that new deputies be elected for the upcoming convention (known as the Association of the Freemen). The convention met on 26 July 1775 and Hooper was a delegate from Dorchester County. At that convention it was decided to form a Committee of Safety and from each county a Committee of Observation was to be formed to bolster the former committee. Hooper, by that time a colonel of militia, was appointed to the committee of observation in September 1775. On 7 December, another convention was held at Annapolis. The four-man delegation from Dorchester County included Henry Hooper, John Ennalls, William Ennalls and James Murray. The delegates focused on improving the state’s defenses and resolved to establish a Maryland battalion composed of eight companies and another force of seven independent companies. During the early part of 1776, Colonel Hooper was appointed as brigadier general and his district included the lower portion of the Eastern Shore of Maryland. The deputies gathered on 6 January at Severn and elected the following general officers, in order of rank: (1) Thomas Johnson, Jr. (Upper District); (2) Henry Hooper (Lower District Eastern Shore); (3) John Dent (Lower District); (4) James Loyd Chamberlaine (Upper District) and (5) Andrew Buchanan (Middle District). General Johnson, a lawyer and a member of the convention had no military experience when he assumed command of the Maryland militia. The Marylanders continued to improve their defenses and build their military forces. During May 1776, yet another convention met, and while it was in session, a letter from Lord Germain destined for Governor Robert Eden was intercepted and expeditiously delivered to the convention. The intelligence gained included the British plan for launching an invasion of Maryland (and other colonies) to bring it back into the royal fold. General Hooper was a delegate in attendance when the captured correspondence arrived. The delegates voted on Eden’s fate after it was determined that he was in collusion with the plan. The vote was 41 to 14 to permit the governor and his officers to depart the state. General Hooper and the other three delegates from Dorchester were among those who opposed the governor’s departure. The group reconvened on 21 June and during that time it was determined to draw a new state constitution. For that purpose, a new convention convened on 14 August 1776. The constitution was drawn and afterward ratified when the citizens elected delegates to a general assembly to convene on 5 February 1777. The newly elected delegates from Dorchester did not include General Henry Hooper. Meanwhile, one of the initial threats faced by General Hooper was a force under Lord Dunmore, royal governor of Virginia, known as Dunmore’s fleet, a roving band of vessels that intended to plunder the coastal towns. During July 1776, General Hooper distributed his militia at various points along the eastern shore to intercept any of Dunmore’s pirates. Hooper stationed a force of more than 100 men under Colonel Richardson at Cambridge, and a similarly sized contingent

177 under Lt. Colonel Benson Stainton established positions at Cook’s Point. A slightly larger force was deployed at Honga River and smaller contingents of about 15 men were posted at Ascom’s Island, Hooper’s Island, James’ Island, Meekin’s Neck and Taylor’s Island. General Hooper also deployed a 30-man contingent under Major Fallen at Hooper’s Straits, providing a formidable ring of protection around the lower portion of the eastern shore. On 13 January 1777, pursuant to a directive from the General Assembly, a force under General Hooper and a naval flotilla under Captain James Campbell, bolstered by a contingent of Virginians led by Colonel Southey, moved into Somerset and Worcester to terminate trouble instigated by bands of Loyalists. Many prisoners were seized and held captive for a long period of time. The British devoted little time to Maryland, and during the entire war the state was spared major battles. The British did, however, land a major force in Maryland in 1777, but its objective was Philadelphia and the major exchange occurred at Brandywine, Pennsylvania, as the Redcoats closed against the city. Nevertheless, General Hooper’s forces maintained pressure against the Loyalists, and Hooper also held responsibility for sending replacement troops to the Continental Army (Maryland Line). The British privateers began raiding coastal towns. In spring of 1781, the militia faced a raid against Vienna, and other British vessels were in the vicinity. The British raised a flag of truce and informed the Americans that they wanted only the grain and added that they would pay for what they took. General Hooper had arrived on scene by the time the offer was made. He evaluated the enemy strength and concluded that his militia lacked the strength to repel an attack, which had been promised if the offer was declined. Hooper acquiesced and the British kept their word. After re-boarding the vessels, the British departed; however, the decision by Hooper was not well received by his militia, who stood idly by and observed the entire operation. Although Hooper’s action was detested by other officers, he was never officially admonished. He retained his rank for the duration General Henry Hooper succumbed during 1790. The estate, Warwick Fort Manor, subsequent to the general’s death, was inherited by his son Henry (5), and afterward, he sold the estate in separate parcels.

Hooper, William (Signer of the Declaration of Independence) William Hooper, the son of the Rev. William and Mary Dennie Hooper, was born in Boston on 17 June 1742. The Reverend Hooper, originally a Congregationalist, changed to the Episcopal Church during 1746. He was born in Scotland on a farm located at the convergence of the Eden and Tweed Rivers in the vicinity of the village of Kelso into the family of Robert and Mary Jaffray Hooper. The Reverend Hooper and his wife, Mary, had four other children: John, George, Mary and Thomas. William Hooper (signer) was born in Boston on 28 June 1742, the oldest of the family’s five children. As a young boy of about seven, following instruction at home, William attended Boston Latin School under John Lovell for about seven years. Later he entered Harvard College as a sophomore due to his earlier education. Subsequent to graduation from Harvard during 1760, William expanded his education by studying law under James Otis, to the dismay of his family. Although his family hoped William would follow his father and become a minister, he chose to become a lawyer, but in addition, his father was also a Loyalist and aware that Otis was a radical patriot. William was a Harvard grad, but his father and paternal grandfather both graduated from Edinburgh University. Like some of the other men who entered that group of patriots who pledged their lives and fortunes for the cause of liberty during the quest for independence, William Hooper developed a deep interest in the clas-

HOOPER

sics. Nonetheless, he did not practice in Boston. He moved to North Carolina and established himself in Wilmington during 1764. There he met and married Ann Clark, the daughter of high sheriff Thomas and Barbara Murray Clark, during autumn 1767 in Boston. They had three children, William (1768), Elizabeth (1770) and Thomas (1772). Ann was the sister of Colonel Thomas Clark, the latter having been put up for promotion to brigadier general at the death of General William Hooper (Biographical Sketches James Moore (1777), but it of the Signers of the Declaration of was never approved by the Independence, Benson J. Lossing, 1854) North Carolina assembly. Consequently, he remained a colonel of the North Carolina regiment for the duration. Hooper raised his status in the colony by familiarizing himself with the various courts, and moving from one to another he gathered affluent planters as clients. He had a residence in Wilmington, but in addition, the family estate (Finian) was located outside the city at Masonboro Sound, slightly less than ten miles from Wilmington. Hooper was in Wilmington during 1766 when the group known as Regulators (later Whigs) emerged in the Carolinas. The group formed to punish offenders for crimes such as stealing horses. Another group known as Scovilites (later Loyalists or Tories) was formed in opposition. By 1768, the Regulators in North Carolina swore to refuse paying taxes to what they perceived as a tyrannical government and they condoned violence against government officials. The next year, the North Carolina Assembly was dissolved. Nevertheless, the representatives gathered and voted against purchasing any items from Britain. By the following year, after judges were driven from their offices and other violence threatened law and order, William Hooper proposed that the military quash the threat by attacking the Regulators. His counsel was accepted. On 16 May 1771, Governor William Tryon led militia to Alamance to dismantle the Regulators. A large number of the Regulators, most without weapons, were killed or wounded. Of the captives, twelve were tried and convicted of high treason. Of those, six were executed. Initially, the group opposed corrupt government, but they shifted priorities and were perceived as too extreme. Prior to being knocked out of action, they had intended to kill all the lawyers, one of whom was Hooper. And Hooper, at the time an ally of Tryon, participated at the battle. Meanwhile, as his practice prospered and his personal contacts expanded, Hooper was able to attain the office of deputy attorney general of North Carolina by about 1770. During June of 1771, Tryon removed to New York to become governor there and was replaced by Josiah Martin. At the time, some of the royal governors were switching places. Lord Dunmore, replaced by Tryon, moved to Virginia to become its royal governor. Back in North Carolina, Hooper was elected to the assembly during January 1773 and served 1773–1775. Afterward, the Crown became acutely aware of his staunch opposition to the policies imposed upon the colonies and of his literary skills. The state assembly, taking advantage of the expiration of the court system, moved to modify it by permitting the colony to confiscate American property owned by foreigners who owed money. The act would have included the British, prompting the governor Josiah Martin to prevent its passage. A huge

HOOPER

178

confrontation occurred, placing control of the colony in dispute for a period of about four years. For Hooper, the battle became a financial disaster, as he lost his means of income from his law practice. Nevertheless, Hooper led the opposition. He published a series of essays exposing the unfairness of the system of taxation and other heavy-handed policies, while simultaneously exhibiting that he stood with the American cause and had greatly distanced himself from his previous tendencies to side with the motherland. He became a leading figure with the Whigs (formerly Regulators) and later predicted the break from Britain, which earned him the name “Prophet of Independence.” During the early 1770s, although New England was receiving the brunt of the British tactics, the South was engaged and in sympathy. During 1773, Josiah Quincy of Massachusetts journeyed to the South and met with a group of patriots including William Hooper and John Ashe, the leader of the Whigs. The conference was designed to get the South to participate in the continental correspondence. On 8 December that year, the assembly appointed a standing committee of correspondence, composed of nine members, one of which was William Hooper. During 1774, Hooper was re-elected to the assembly, and during that session, North Carolina followed the action of Virginia (Virginia Resolutions) and proclaimed it was prohibiting acceptance of British tea or other products. Hooper’s actions were observed by the people, who began to depend upon him as a trusted friend of the colonists. His popularity grew immensely and he was easily elected on 25 August as a delegate to the First Continental Congress. Back in North Carolina on 23 November 1774, the assembly established a committee of safety and Hooper was appointed to it. During the following year, he was again sent to Philadelphia as a delegate to the Second Continental Congress. On 4 April 1775, Hooper was a member of the assembly and of the convention that convened at New Bern, and at that time he was selected as a delegate. That year, Lord North proposed legislation to restrict the commerce of New England (Connecticut, New Hampshire and Rhode Island) to England, Ireland and the West Indies and it forbid fishing on the banks of Newfoundland and some other places, but the action was not confined to New England. The British expanded its policies to most of the other colonies; however, North Carolina was one of the exceptions. Meanwhile, tension continued to build between the Americans and the British. On 8 April 1775, the governor ordered the abolition of the state assembly, and during the following month, orders arrived from Britain directing Governor Josiah Martin to raise a force of Loyalist militia. By that time, the flames of independence had already begun to spread throughout the colony; however, Britain remained focused upon retaining the loyalty of the North Carolinians, due in part to the huge amounts of naval stores in the colony. At the time, there still were strong feelings within the populace that the rift would be healed. The mood swing in North Carolina became drastic on 8 May, upon the arrival of the news of the confrontations at Lexington and Concord. By that time, Hooper and the other delegates to the Continental Congress had departed for Philadelphia. On 19 May 1775, one month after the battles of Lexington and Concord, the patriots assembled in Mecklenburg County and in a convention declared independence (Mecklenburg Declaration of Independence). By the end of the month, communications had opened between Philadelphia and New Bern. Hooper had sent a dispatch to Cornelius Harnett explaining the urgency of action. On 31 May, the Wilmington committee pressed Sam Johnston (moderator) to convene a new provincial congress for the purpose of arming the colony. The royal governor had failed in his attempt to raise a sufficient force of Loyalists. He was compelled to flee from his seat during the latter part of May, and by July he was pushed from North Carolina. On 7 June, while Hooper was in Philadelphia, the Continental Con-

gress resolved “that Thursday the 20th of July next, be observed throughout the twelve United Colonies, as a day of humiliation, fasting and prayer.” John Adams, William Hooper and Robert Treat Paine were charged with drawing the address. The proclamation was delivered by the committee on 23 June 1775 and adopted: As the great Governor of the World, by his supreme and universal Providence, not only conducts the course of nature with unerring wisdom and rectitude, but frequently influences the minds of men to serve the wise and gracious purposes of his providential government; and it being, at all times, our indispensible duty devoutly to acknowledge his superintending providence, especially in times of impending danger and public calamity, to reverence and adore his immutable justice as well as to implore his merciful interposition for our deliverance: This Congress, therefore, considering the present critical, alarming and calamitous state of these colonies, do earnestly recommend that Thursday, the 20th day of July next, be observed, by the inhabitants of all the English colonies on this continent, as a day of public humiliation, fasting and prayer....

The proclamation was directed at twelve colonies, because Georgia did not send representation to the First Continental Congress. Meanwhile, in reaction to Hooper’s original communication with the assembly in North Carolina during the previous May, the third provisional congress (North Carolina) convened during August at Hillsborough. At that time, the Provincial Congress raised two continental regiments and six battalions of Minute Men. In addition, the entire membership of the congress signed their names to a document that pledged loyalty to the king, but simultaneously proclaimed that the members were also pledged and bound to the direction of the Continental Congress by either action or resolution. In the meantime, Hooper, a member of the Provincial Congress, was again elected as a delegate. During 1775, as a member of the Second Continental Congress, Hooper served on several key committees, including the Marine Committee and the Committee of Secret Correspondence. He was again elected as a delegate and served in the Continental Congress during 1776. All the while, the turmoil continued in North Carolina as the British worked to coordinate a liaison with a large force of Highlanders (Loyalists). The British fleet waited in vain as the Highlanders were intercepted on 27 February at Moore’s Creek Bridge. The Loyalists sustained a devastating defeat and the victory by the Patriots foiled the grand plan of the British. The Loyalists, after the battle, were never again able to build a large force in North Carolina. Within one week, the North Carolinians met at Halifax in the Fourth Provincial Congress and, on 12 April, the convention informed the delegates to support independence. Several days later, on 15 April, William Hooper and John Penn arrived at the convention from Philadelphia and participated in the business at hand. Hooper was appointed as chair of a committee charged with ensuring the defenses of the North Carolina seacoast, and he was appointed to another charged with acquiring arms and ammunition. He was also a member of other committees, including the committee of secrecy, war and intelligence. That same year, 1776, Hooper became one of that select group who pledged their lives, fortunes and sacred honor in support of the Declaration of Independence; however, he was absent when the vote was taken due to the situation in his home state, particularly with the British in control of Cape Fear. Nonetheless, Hooper, subsequent to the adoption of the Declaration of Independence, signed the parchment document in August along with the other members. On 11 October 1776, Hooper was one of three men added to the Committee of Secret Correspondence; however, his days in Congress were coming to a close. On 21 December, Congress delegated Hooper to investigate the condition of the prisoners from North Carolina being held in Baltimore. His instructions directed him to have the seriously ill removed from their holding cells and placed in private homes with

179 the stipulation that they each have a guard and access to a doctor. He returned on the following Monday, 23 December, with dismal news about the jail, prompting Congress to resolve “that until the apartments of the jail of the town of Baltimore shall be repaired, and put in such a condition as not to endanger the health of those who may be confined in them, that the prisoners from the state of North Carolina be removed from thence to different rooms in the court house, or wherever else they can be procured, and there safely locked up and secured....” During February 1777, Hooper requested and received a leave of absence to attend to his personal affairs. He did not return to Congress. At the time, he was aware of the toll his actions had already taken on his family. Loyalists had been harassing them. Although he had been in Congress when North Carolina adopted its state constitution and was unable to participate, upon his return to his home state, he remained active in the provincial government of the state and continued to contribute to the war effort. He served in the assembly nearly continually until 1786. He was a representative from Wilmington until 1784 and after moving to Orange County, he was elected that year to represent it. While in the North Carolina assembly during the latter part of April of 1777, he resigned his congressional seat. The situation in the state remained fluid, but the situation began to drastically change during September 1780, when the British under Lord Cornwallis launched an invasion of North Carolina from their positions in South Carolina. The Hooper family fled from their estate and moved to Wilmington; however, during January of the following year, the city was seized. Mrs. Hooper was treated terribly and when the British let her depart, they placed her in great jeopardy. She was forced to leave in a boat and somehow made it to Rocky Point on the northeast branch of Cape Fear. From there, with the help of General Rutherford, she made it to Hillsborough, southeast of Greensboro and about 170 miles from Wilmington at a point about fifty miles from the Virginia border. In the meantime, William Hooper was out of contact with his wife and without any place of security for himself. He had fled further inland after he sent his wife to Wilmington. Nevertheless, the Loyalists, led by Major Craig (Craige) failed to seize him. All the while, he had lacked funds and became dependent upon friends, primarily at Edenton, to provide shelter and food. During the ordeal, he came down with malaria, but he recuperated. In the meantime, Cornwallis maintained his effort to demolish the American forces and regain control of the Carolinas; however, following setbacks in South Carolina, General Nathanael Greene arrived to assume command. At Guilford Court House, Greene’s forces, including regulars and militia, fought a heated battle with the British and were forced from the field. Despite Cornwallis’ claim of victory, his army was shredded and he was unable to continue his offensive. Greene was not yet aware that the gallantry of his force had saved the Carolinas. Cornwallis retreated to Wilmington and departed from there on 27 March en route to Virginia. In November, the British remaining in Wilmington abandoned it following the total defeat and surrender of Lord Cornwallis at Yorktown during October 1781. During the time the enemy controlled Wilmington and the region, a plan had been in place for Hooper’s family to be transported to the West Indies for protection by the French, but it did not become necessary. Shortly after the British evacuated the city, Hooper was able to return, but only to find his property, including his estate, destroyed. At that point, he apparently concluded that to rebuild a career and his estate would be fruitless. He left the area after a short while and traveled to Hillsborough to join his family. Once there, he again began to practice law. By that time, Hooper again changed his ideology. He became dissatisfied with the Republicans (Whigs) and became a conservative, but he also began to be perceived as condescending by the people and that

HOPKINS

problem was compounded by his sympathy for the Loyalists. Hooper was unable to regain any type of popularity or retain any of the admiration he had earlier earned by his actions in support of the Declaration at the risk of his life and fortune during the war. Still, he continued to contribute to the cause through his beliefs. During 1786, on 22 September, Congress, operating under the Articles of Confederation, appointed Hooper as a federal judge and delegated him as one of the judges charged with intervening in a controversy that emerged between New York and Massachusetts regarding a tract of land claimed by both parties. The dispute was settled amicably by the two parties in Hartford, Connecticut, that December. By 1787, Hooper remained engaged in the business of the state, but his health was failing, and simultaneously, he had been moving further from his previous allies who adamantly demanded harsh terms for the Loyalists. In the case of Hooper, he remained absolutely loyal to the American cause, but his indifference to stiff retaliation was due to many of his family members in New England having remained loyal to the king and Britain. The hostilities between the various lawyers and judges continued to mount as the lawyers most often represented Loyalists. Hooper, during 1788, devoted his remaining energy to getting the U.S. Constitution ratified in North Carolina. It was ratified the following year and North Carolina entered the union as the twelfth state on 21 November 1789. By that time, Hooper’s health had become extremely poor. William Hooper succumbed prior to his 49th birthday on 14 October 1790. He was survived by his wife, Ann, and their three children: William, who married Helen Hogg; Thomas, who never married; and Elizabeth, who married Henry Hyrne Watters. Initially, William Hooper was interred at Hillsborough, but later, during 1894, he was re-interred at Guilford Courthouse National Military Park near Greensboro, North Carolina.

Hopkins, Commodore Esek Esek Hopkins, the son of William and Ruth Williamson Hopkins, was born on 26 April 1718 at what was then a sector of Providence, Rhode Island, and later became Scituate. The town was known as Chopomisk by the Indians. In addition to Esek, William and Ruth had the following children: William; Stephen (signer of the Declaration of Independence); Rufus; John; Hope; Samuel; Abigail; and Susanna. Esek worked his father’s farm as a boy. When he was about twenty years old he went to sea. Shortly thereafter, Esek became the captain of a vessel, and from there he increased his skills as a mariner. Later, during November 1741, on the 28th, Esek married Desire Burroughs, the daughter of a prominent merchant and ship master, Ezekiel Burroughs. The ceremony was performed by the Rev. Nicholas Eyres. Esek and Desire established residence at Newport, rather than Providence, where Esek was living at the time. They had the following children: John Burroughs (b. August 1742, d. December 1796); Heart (b. September 1744, d. 1825); Abigail (b. October 1746, d. April 1821); Samuel I (b. February 1748, d. September 1750); Amey (b. January 1751, d. December 1835); Stephen (b. March 1753, d. July 1761); Susanna (b. May 1756, d. 1803); Esek, Jr. (b. June 1758, d. 1777); Samuel II (birth date unknown, d. 1782) and Desire (b. May 1764, d. May 1843). Prior to the Revolutionary War, during the French and Indian War, Esek Hopkins for some time was a privateer and often at sea. Afterward, he was elected to the general assembly several times. In August 1775, after the clashes at Lexington and Concord in April, the town committee at Newport designated Captain Esek Hopkins as commander of the battery at Fox Hill. Later that year, a committee (Recess Committee) formed by the general assembly to act when it was not in session commissioned Esek Hopkins as a brigadier general and commanderin-chief. General Hopkins’ commission, dated 4 October 1775, was signed by Deputy Governor Nicholas Cooke and by Henry Ward, secretary.

HOPKINS

180

That year, while General Esek Hopkins was in command, a British naval force under Captain James Wallace closed the harbor and threatened to bombard the town. At the time, Hopkins had about 600 troops under him, when the town of Newport refused to provide the fleet with provisions. Meanwhile, the British were punishing the town by isolating it from the fishermen as well as the ferries and other commercial vessels. Nevertheless, negotiations began between the town leaders and Wallace and a truce was declared by the British. Wallace’s undated letter included this: “I will suspend hostilities against the town till I have further orders, upon their supplying the King’s ships with fresh beef, &c. Let it remain neuter. The ferry and market boats to supply it unmolested. If the rebels enter the town, and break the neutrality, I hold myself disengaged and at liberty to do my utmost for the King’s service. JAMES WALLACE. His Majesty’s ship, Rose.” The letter was published in a newspaper, the Providence Gazette, on 9 December 1775. The town was spared and the British received provisions as agreed upon, on a weekly basis; however, it is questionable whether the British would have bombarded the town realizing that they were going to attempt to seize it as a naval base. While the British were in pursuit of General George Washington as he led the army across New Jersey and into Pennsylvania, the British, on 8 December 1776, landed and occupied Newport. In the meantime, on 13 October 1776, Congress established the Naval Committee, and by the end of the month it had seven members. Except for John Adams, the members were politically committed. The establishment of the Naval Committee was considered the beginning of the United States Navy. In December 1776 Congress appointed Esek Hopkins, the brother of a delegate to Congress, Stephen Hopkins, as the first commander-in-chief. On 22 December, Congress accepted the names for the officer corps of the Continental Navy. Those named to fit out and command the ships were: Esek Hopkins (commander in chief of the fleet) and Captain Dudley Saltonstall (Alfred); Captain Abraham Whipple (Columbus); Captain Nicholas Biddle (Andrew Doria); and Captain John Burrows Hopkins (Cabot), son of Esek Hopkins. John Paul Jones was appointed first lieutenant. Abraham Whipple was a close friend of Esek Hopkins and Dudley Saltonstall (brotherin-law of Silas Deane, Naval Committee member). On 14 February 1776, Commodore Esek Hopkins was at Cape Henlopen (Delaware Bay) under secret orders to strike the British in either Virginia or the Carolinas; however, he also had another option, the Bahamas. Hopkins apparently chose the Bahamas. He directed Captain Biddle to maintain close contact with his flagship, the Alfred, and if any vessel in the squadron lost contact for a period of four days, the rendezvous point was announced as Great Abaco Island in the Bahamas. At the time, the British realized that the Americans were in motion, but they had not anticipated the Bahamas as a target, giving the squadron the element of surprise. Nonetheless, on 25 February, word reached New Providence that an attack against it was possible. Nevertheless, Royal Governor Montfort Browne did not remove the ammunition as suggested by General Howe due to fear of an attack by the Spanish or the French. Commodore Hopkins and his Marine contingent were in position and prepared to launch the invasion on Sunday, 3 March 1776. New Providence was protected by two forts, Montagu and Nassau at either end, but they were in poor condition and the garrisons were especially thin. At the first stroke of dawn, the governor was informed of the enemy fleet in the harbor, but there was little that he could do to prevent a landing. Three cannon were fired as a warning, but two of them collapsed. In the meantime, the militia began to beat their drums as a signal of distress. Unaware of the chaos in New Providence, the fleet passed the guns of one of the forts, somewhat taken aback when no defensive fire commenced. By 0900, some of the militia had rallied and moved toward Fort Montagu, the back door to Nassau. Despite deplorable weather, nearly 250 Marines bolstered by about

fifty seamen landed at Fort Montagu, making the landing the first by the Continental Marines, and it was unopposed. Nevertheless, Commodore Hopkins had neglected to seal off the main entrance of the harbor. The British dispatched a messenger under a white flag to inquire about the incursion. The response was that it was an American force dispatched by Congress of the United Colonies to seize the powder and ammunition of the King of England. All the while, no shots were fired and the townspeople were becoming more anxious. By midnight, the British were able to get some of the ammunition aboard vessels, and because Hopkins did not block the harbor, the ships were able to escape and make it to East Florida. At about dawn on 4 March, the Marines were back in motion after a night of undisturbed sleep. Many of the militia on the island had already deserted and still, the Americans received no opposition. Captain Nicholson advanced down Main Street and requested the keys to Fort Nassau; they were handed to him. Afterward, the Americans moved into the fort and found forty cannon, prepared to fire, but no crews. The Marines lowered the British ensign and raised the American flag, the first time the flag was hoisted on foreign soil. Meanwhile, the governor was detained by Marine guards, while the remainder of the land force continued loading the supplies. The operation was completed on the 16th and the fleet departed on the 17th, having sustained no casualties from the enemy; however, many got sick. The force was struck by fever and smallpox prior to arriving back in America. The fleet departed having elevated the conflict for the British, who had believed they were facing only some rebels. The invasion of the Bahamas informed the British that the conflict was no longer confined to the ground in the colonies and they from that point also had to be concerned about amphibious invasions by the Marines. The landing by the Marines under Commodore Hopkins also set a precedent that has continued. Since the founding of the Marine Corps, the Marines have never been pushed back to the sea after landing on hostile terrain. While en route to America in early April, Hopkins’ fleet encountered British warships HMS Hawk and HMS Bolton off Block Island. Both British vessels were seized along with two others that were being escorted; however, the jubilance that was raised after taking the prizes soon ended. Afterward, the HMS Glasgow appeared and soon the Cabot was struck with a broadside. The barrage continued, killing Captain John Hopkins. The other ships sped to the rescue, but in vain, and the Glasgow was able to escape. Hopkins’ squadron was badly damaged. The incident was considered to have been a consequence of too much celebrating while heading home and that same reason was given for the poor marksmanship of the American gunners. After arriving back at port, Captain Tom Hazard was dismissed from the navy for his actions aboard the Providence. Hazard was succeeded by John Paul Jones. During October 1775, after Captain John Paul Jones arrived back in port from a successful cruise, he sought permission to initiate another cruise based upon his belief that many lucrative British merchant ships would be in the vicinity of West Africa, but permission was denied by Commodore Esek Hopkins. Hopkins had also been aware that Jones’ 49-day cruise gained sixteen prizes. However, the next month, Hopkins sent John Paul Jones on another cruise. At the time, Jones had been appointed captain of the Alfred, subsequent to Captain Dudley Saltonstall being reassigned. Jones departed Newport en route to raid Cape Breton (formerly Isle Royale). The cruise was successful and Jones received a bonanza that would be transferred to the Continental Army. One of his prizes was carrying a cargo that included uniforms for about 10,000 troops. Commodore Hopkins was faced with a threat from a British fleet during December 1776. When warships arrived, Hopkins moved quickly and led the fleet up the Providence River to prevent the British from destroying it; however, by that time the weather in New England was becoming nasty. Hopkins held the fleet upriver to prevent damage

181 from either the British or the storm. On 2 January 1777, Commodore Hopkins received intelligence that the HMS Diamond had become grounded near Warwick Neck in Narragansett Bay. Hopkins, acting on advice from Lt. John Trevett, a Marine aboard the sloop Providence, moved to capture the prey. The crew of the Diamond spotted the Providence and the Americans received heavy fire. The contest continued throughout the day, with the Diamond determined not to be taken. During the engagement, Hopkins went ashore to confer with ground troops; however, the boat never returned to retrieve him. Consequently Hopkins remained ashore for the night and in the meantime, the Diamond broke free and escaped. Commodore Hopkins had been the recipient of many complaints regarding his leadership and his action. On 26 March 1776, Congress considered the charges and resolved “that Esek Hopkins be immediately, and he hereby is, suspended from his command in the American navy.” Some of the charges emerged after Commodore Hopkins failed to seize the HMS Diamond; they included “blasphemy against God and the Continental Congress, of inhuman treatment of prisoners, and the blamable manner in which he handled himself during the engagement with the British frigate.” Despite the Congressional action, Hopkins remained another year before he was actually dismissed from the Continental Navy. On 16 August 1776, Congress resolved “that the said conduct of Commodore Hopkins deserves the censure of this house and this house does accordingly censure him.” Nevertheless, on 19 August, Congress ordered Commodore Hopkins “to repair to Rhode Island and take command of the fleet formerly put under his care.” In the meantime, on 12 August 1776, John Adams, one of Hopkins’ supporters, wrote: “Commodore Hopkins had his hearing; On this occasion I had a very laborious task against all the prejudices of the gentlemen from the Southern and Middle States and of many from New England. I thought, however, that Hopkins had done great service, and made an important beginning of naval operations.... I saw nothing in the conduct of Hopkins which indicated corruption or want of integrity. Experience and skill might have been deficient in several particulars; but where could we find greater experience or skill? I knew of none to be found....” On 14 May 1777, after receiving new complaints, Congress ordered a new inquiry into the actions of Hopkins. Finally, on 2 January 1778, Commodore Esek Hopkins was again discussed in Congress and afterward, it was resolved: “Congress having no further occasion for the service of Esek Hopkins, Esqr. who, on the 22 December 1775, was appointed commander in chief of the fleet fitted out by the Naval Committee, Resolved, That the said Esek Hopkins, Esqr. be dismissed from the service of the United States.” Subsequent to being dismissed, Hopkins returned to being a privateer, something he had earlier been involved with during the French and Indian War. Back in Rhode Island, Hopkins’ reputation was not harmed. He was again elected to the General Assembly shortly after he arrived home. He served there as a representative from North Providence from 1777 through 1786. In 1777 he was appointed a member of the Council of War. In 1785, Esek was elected as collector of imposts (County of Providence), a position he retained for one year. Other activity undertaken by Esek included becoming a trustee of Rhode Island College (later Brown University). Toward the latter part of his life, Hopkins suffered a stroke that caused partial paralysis, and from that sickness, he was compelled to use crutches to walk. In December 1796, Esek’s oldest son, John Burroughs, died on the 5th, and that tragic loss caused him severe grief. John Burroughs had served in the Continental Army with his father. Esek, another of Esek’s sons, also served in the Continental Navy and died while held captive by the British. Commodore Esek Hopkins died on 26 February 1802 at the age of 84. His five sons predeceased him, but his five daughters survived him. Hopkins was interred in a cemetery known as the “burying place,” lo-

HOPKINS

cated about one mile from his home. The tract was donated to North Providence by Hopkins with the stipulation that it be used as a burial ground. When a portion of North Providence was annexed by Providence, the burial ground was located within the city limits of Providence. The cemetery later became known as Hopkins Park. (See also Hopkins, Stephen.)

Hopkins, Stephen (Signer of the Declaration of Independence) Stephen Hopkins was born in a village known as Scituate, which at the time, 7 March 1707, was a section of Providence, Rhode Island. Stephen’s paternal grandfather, Thomas Hopkins, was among the first colonists to reside in Rhode Island. He married Elizabeth Arnold, the sister of Governor Benedict Arnold. Stephen’s parents were William and Ruth Wilkinson Hopkins. There is no record or evidence that he received any formal college education. He apparently received excellent instruction at home by his mother and other relatives. Stephen easily mastered mathematics and he devoted much time to science. He learned farming on his parents’ farm; however, he also became a surveyor, again most probably by instruction from relatives. At age nineteen, Stephen married Sarah Scott, the daughter of Silvanus and Joanna Jenckes Scott. Together they had seven children. They were Rufus, John, Lydia, Silvanus, George, Simon and Ruth. The latter two did not reach maturity and none survived their father. Hopkins was employed in various jobs in addition to his work as a surveyor. The position included town clerk and clerk of the Court and Proprietaries of the County about 1731–1732. During that period, due to the constant recording of various names and facts, he also acquired excellent penmanship. In 1731, the section of Providence known as Scituate became separate from Providence. Providence at the same time was further divided with the establishment of Gloucester and Smithfield. Hopkins was elected to the Rhode Island general assembly in 1732 and remained in the body for six years, followed by a six year term beginning in 1735 on the town council, where he served as president for six years. In addition, despite having no formal study of law, he was appointed justice of the peace and judge of the common pleas court, before being elevated to chief justice of common pleas court during 1733, a position he held until 1754. Hopkins had continued his work as a surveyor when possible. His surveying projects included mapping out the streets of Providence. Hopkins and his brother, Esek (later, commander-in-chief of the U.S. Navy), established a mercantile company that engaged in shipping and continued to operate for about thirty years. In the meantime, after an absence of several years, Stephen Hopkins returned to the state assembly during 1741 and during the following year, he moved back to Providence and continued his political career there. He was elected in 1742 to the assembly as a member from Providence and he followed that by becoming speaker of the house. Tracing his earlier career, he was elected as justice of the peace and afterward, during 1759, he was elevated to the position of chief justice of the Superior Court. Stephen Hopkins (Biographical Sketches Nonetheless, his career did of the Signers of the Declaration of not hold in place with the Independence, Benson J. Lossing, 1854)

HOPKINS

182

judiciary. During that same year, 1759, he was yet again elected to the assembly. Hopkins was charged with another task during 1754, when he was a delegate to the convention held in Albany in an effort to persuade the Six Nations to remain neutral early in the French and Indian War. The convention also designed a blueprint for a union of the colonies, similarly to the Articles of Confederation, the latter being the guidelines designed by the Continental Congress. In the midst of Hopkins’ political career, his wife died prematurely following a long illness on 9 September 1753 at age 47. In the year following his mission with the Indians, 1755, Hopkins remarried, taking Anne Smith, the widow of Benjamin Smith, as his second wife. Anne was a descendant of John Smith, one of the four associates of Roger Williams when his party departed Massachusetts for Connecticut. Stephen and Anne were married in the Friends’ Meeting House in Smithfield. Anne was about 38 years old and she had three children from her first marriage, Benjamin, Ruth and Emery. At about the same time, Hopkins rose to power within the group of radical Patriots who enjoyed the support of the colony’s merchants, but his success as leader received an immediate nemesis, Samuel Ward, who led the conservatives from his base at Newport. In 1756, Hopkins became the chief magistrate (governor) of Rhode Island. He suffered a political setback when his adversaries blocked re-election; however, despite the intense opposition from his enemies, Hopkins retained the post with some interruptions until 1767. Meanwhile, the British had been sustaining heavy losses inflicted by the French and their Indian allies, prompting Lord Loudoun to call for colonial troops to join with regulars to invade Canada. The force was raised; however, a French fleet arrived and the move to strike Halifax was suspended. Meanwhile, the French and Indian War continued to rage. Despite his age, Hopkins received command of militia in Providence following the loss of Fort William Henry in New York to the French on 9 August 1757 and the slaughter of many of the garrison force by Indians. Hopkins signed his name on an agreement of volunteers, for men who joined the militia, which stated that once the force reached 250 men, “recommending ourselves and our cause, to the favourable protection of Almighty God,” it would advance. British reinforcements later eased the situation for the militia at Providence and they afterward saw no enemy action. Subsequently, Hopkins was re-elected as governor during 1759 and again during 1760. By 1760, the British reversed their fortunes and the French, who had initially dominated on the field, were faced with total defeat. Hopkins was yet again elected chief magistrate of the colony in 1761. He would later hold the post during 1763, 1764 and 1767, for a total of seven terms, while his political opponent, Samuel Ward, held it four times. By the time the British taxes were imposed upon the colonies beginning in 1760, Hopkins was in his early fifties, yet quite vigorous and determined to continue his ongoing opposition to the policies of the king and Parliament. About two years later, Stephen was involved with the establishment of two newspapers, the Country Journal and the Providence Gazette. Later, during 1764, he would pen a piece titled “The Rights of the Colonies Examined,” and it was afterward reprinted as a pamphlet that spread from colony to colony, then beyond, reaching England, where it antagonized the British. Hopkins also displeased the Crown during his time as governor by authorizing Rhode Island ship owners to engage in trade with Spain’s colonies and with the French colonies; however, the action was not in violation of any of the laws of Britain. Hopkins’ vocal opposition to the enactment of the Stamp Act during 1765 did little to endear him to the king. Aside from the agonies of dealing with the strategy of Britain, Rhode Island moved into a period of political turmoil bordering on civil unrest which caused Hopkins to quit his post (1767) as chief magistrate, against the advice of his

supporters, in an attempt to return tranquility to the colony. He addressed the general assembly on 28 October 1767. Meanwhile, as the 1770s roared forward, Hopkins intensified his opposition to Britain. He returned to the assembly as a representative from Providence during 1772 and served there for three additional years (1772–1774). He was also elected a delegate to the First Continental Congress on 10 August 1774 and attended sessions when it convened in Philadelphia on 5 September 1774. Stephen Hopkins and Samuel Ward, the delegates from Rhode Island, joined with fifty-one others from twelve of the thirteen colonies that day, initially at City Tavern (also known as Smith’s Tavern), and from there the delegates walked to nearby Carpenter’s Hall. Only Georgia failed to send representation. In the meantime, while contributing to Congress, Hopkins was still antagonizing the king by actions in Rhode Island, such as a bill to outlaw the importation of slaves, presented by Hopkins and passed by the assembly. Hopkins had during the previous year freed the slaves that he had held. In 1775, again Hopkins was elected as a Rhode Island delegate to the Second Continental Congress, but still he remained deeply involved in the affairs of his home state. On 24 June 1775, Congress resolved “that a Committee of seven be appointed to devise ways and means to put the Militia of America in a proper state for the defence of America.” Stephen Hopkins was appointed along with Benjamin Harrison and Thomas Jefferson. Subsequently, on 24 October 1775, Hopkins was appointed to a five-man committee charged with intervening in the land dispute between the colonies of Pennsylvania and Connecticut in the Wyoming Valley. Congress appointed Hopkins to a key committee which began on 13 October that was actually the beginning of the U.S. Navy. The resolution: Resolved, That the second vessel ordered to be fitted out on the 13th Inst, do carry 14 guns, with a proportionate number of swivels and men [and] that a Committee be appointed to carry into execution with all possible expedition the resolution of Congress of the 13th Inst, the one of ten and the other of 14 guns, and, Resolved, That two other armed vessels be fitted out with all expedition; the one to carry not exceeding 20 Guns, and the other not exceeding 36 Guns, with a proportionate number of swivels and men, to be employed in such manner, for the protection and defence of the united Colonies, as the Congress shall hereafter direct. That the Comee. consist of seven and therefore that four new members be now elected to be added to the former Comee.— 4 a quorum.

Other members were John Adams, Joseph Hewes and Richard Henry Lee. Subsequently, Hewes nominated John Paul Jones as commander of the U.S. Navy, while John Adams resisted, and insisted upon a man from New England to compensate for the appointment of the Virginian, George Washington, as commander-in-chief of the Continental Army. Adams prevailed and Esek Hopkins, the brother of Stephen Hopkins, received the appointment n December 22, 1775. Within one year, Esek was expelled and went to sea as a privateer. Also in 1775, Stephen Hopkins became the chief justice of Rhode Island. While the major storm clouds began to gather, Hopkins was a delegate, and when the discussion and debate on independence emerged, Hopkins was a proponent. He supported and voted to adopt the Declaration of Independence on 4 July 1776 and afterward signed the parchment document. Hopkins was not renowned for his public speaking; however, he was not shy about delivering his opinions while in Congress and he was thought of as a man of great depth. His signature on the Declaration, however, might at times suggest otherwise, but at the time, his health was impaired by a nervous disease that caused difficulty in writing. Often he was forced to use his left hand to guide his right hand while writing. After signing his name on the parchment document, Hopkins prepared to depart from Congress for his home state. On the 11 October 1776, in the absence of Stephen Hopkins, William Ellery was appointed to the Marine Committee to replace him. Nevertheless, Hopkins

183 remained in the Rhode Island Assembly in 1777, 1778 and 1779. He was again elected as a member of Congress on 8 May 1778. That was his final year in congress, but afterward, he did serve in the Rhode Island Assembly, leaving there during 1779. During his years of public service, Hopkins never slighted the normal needs of the people. He was a strong advocate for education and made a substantial contribution of time and money to establish a library in Providence about 1754, and when it was later reduced by fire during 1760, he again contributed to make it possible to acquire new books. Hopkins was also responsible for establishing the school system in Rhode Island, which permitted the citizens to educate their children without cost. Apparently, Hopkins the politician also remained a devout Christian throughout his life and often permitted his residence, which came to be known as the “ministers’ tavern” to be used by the Society of Friends, whom he seemed to be most attached; however, ministers of other faiths also were always welcomed there. The remaining years of Hopkins’ life became a little less stressful, but there was never a prolonged period of inactivity since his early youth. He learned farming and surveying, raised his family, entered politics, entered the judiciary, joined the famous club, composed of the Signers of the Declaration, entered the state assembly, yet still had time to devote to manufacturing, commerce and shipping. Other interests of Stephen Hopkins included higher education. Although self-taught and without any college degrees, he became the initial chancellor of Rhode Island College, founded during 1764 at Warren. It later became known as Brown University. Hopkins was an active member of the Philosophical Society of Newport. Also, Hopkins’ keen interest in science as a young man came into good use during a phenomenon of June 1769. Hopkins was involved with the study of Venus passing over the sun’s disc, which had occurred during 1739. He observed the incident in cooperation with the Philosophical Society, which was part of the worldwide study. The pamphlet that described the phenomenon was afterward published and dedicated to Stephen Hopkins. Stephen Hopkins never did accumulate great wealth. He found solace within simplicity and declined any ostentatious activity. He succumbed following a prolonged fever on 13 July 1785 in Providence. He was interred in the North Burial Ground. Stephen’s wife, Anne, had predeceased him by about two years. Although some said Hopkins was an unbeliever, he was in fact a Christian and, according to one of his friends, Hopkins believed in religion as a “divine system formed by a Universal Parent.” Until the end of his life, Stephen Hopkins retained his faculties and his demeanor lost none of its glow. However, the physical problems that restrained him for years did not relent. It had been a difficult chore for something as simple as signing his name. None of the seven children from his first marriage were alive to attend his funeral. Of Stephen’s five sons, Rufus, the oldest child, became a sea captain. During 1758, Rufus, the captain of a privateer, Desire, was seized by the French; however, luckily while his ship was being taken to Martinique, a British warship, the Britannia, recaptured the vessel en route and saved Rufus from being imprisoned by the French. Rufus was married to Abigail Angell of Providence. Following his marine career, Rufus operated the Hopewell Furnace. He succumbed during 1813 at Scituate. John, also a sea captain, Stephen’s second son, married Mary Gibbs of Boston. He died of smallpox at age twenty-four in 1753, while in port aboard the vessel Two Brothers, of which he was master, at St. Andero, Spain. Sylvanus (Silvanus), his third son, also a sea captain, was shipwrecked off Cape Breton during 1753, when he was about nineteen years old. He survived but afterward was attacked savagely by hostile Indians who tortured and murdered him on or about 24 April of that year. Yet another son, George, married Ruth Smith, his step-sister, the

HOPKINSON

daughter of his father’s second wife, Anne Smith. George was the youngest of Stephen’s children from his first marriage. He too was actively engaged in the maritime service as a sea captain. He embarked from Charleston en route to Providence from Surinam during August 1775, but it was his last voyage. No word from the vessel was ever received. The vessel vanished without a trace. During the latter part of Stephen’s life, he mentioned his step-daughter in his last will and testament, leaving to Ruth Hopkins, “widow of my son George Hopkins, One Thousand Dollars in Silver, being Money which belonged to him and which he Ordered that she should have.” Stephen’s fourth son, Simon, never attained adulthood. He died at about the age of seven or eight. Stephen’s daughter Ruth, the third born, died as a young child. Daughter Lydia lived to adulthood and married Colonel Daniel Tillinghast of Newport after the death of his first wife. Anne Smith’s son Benjamin married Mary Tillinghast, who became a step-daughter of his sister Lydia after the latter married Colonel Tillinghast. Ruth, as previously mentioned, married her stepbrother, George Hopkins. The Stephen Hopkins House still stands. During 1805, it was relocated to the rear of the original site, known as Towne Street (presentday 15 Hopkins Street). The preserved residence of the signer is open to the public on a limited basis. (See also, Hopkins, Commodore Esek.)

Hopkinson, Francis (Signer of the Declaration of Independence) Francis Hopkinson was the son of Thomas Hopkinson, an Englishman who immigrated to America, and his wife, Mary Johnson Hopkinson, the only daughter of Baldwin Johnson of Newcastle. He was born in Philadelphia during 1737; however, historians and authors stretching back to the early nineteenth century differ on the date. The two most often given are 21 September and 2 October 1737. Francis was the oldest of eight children. His mother was a niece of the bishop of Worcester. Francis, having been born into an affluent family, was able to receive an excellent education that included graduation from the College of Philadelphia (later, University of Pennsylvania) as its initial graduation in 1757. He had also been blessed with great talents that included writing skills and those of a musician. His father, Thomas, and his close friend Benjamin Franklin joined together to bring about the establishment of the college. At about seventeen, Francis learned to play the harpsichord. He was not considered a skilled professional, but his talent reached at least to the point of being a good amateur on the instrument. His father, noteworthy in his own right, was familiar with the sciences as well as the law and he helped Franklin perfect the lightning rod by introducing a pointed rod as opposed one with a blunt end. Francis’ father succumbed in 1751. Other influential friends of the Hopkinson family included Benjamin Chew, with whom Francis studied law after his graduation from college. Chew rose to the Francis Hopkinson (Biographical Sketches position of chief justice of of the Signers of the Declaration of IndePennsylvania but is remem- pendence, Benson J. Lossing, 1854)

HOPKINSON

184

bered more because his residence (Chew House) in Philadelphia is where George Washington lost the Battle of Germantown. Francis furthered his studies by following the usual practice of the wealthy Americans. He was sent to England, where he was instructed for about two years by the bishop of Worcester, a relative of his mother. By the time he went to England, he had already become aligned with the Patriots; view of the perceived oppression from the British. He had begun to express his sentiments through his writings, which often contained potent doses of sardonic wit. Francis split his topics between the British and the Loyalists with barrages of essays and cautiously carved letters and cryptic pamphlets, most of which seemingly contained contagious ink. His pieces spread from town to town and lifted the spirits of the Americans while inciting the British. His arrival home occurred at nearly the same time the king was in the process of squeezing the colonies with new heavy taxes to ease the burden on the British caused by the war with France. Nevertheless, he did not immediately become involved in struggle that began to ensue due to the frustration of the colonists with the taxes and policies of Britain. During 1761, Francis Hopkinson was admitted to the bar, which began his career in the law profession. Two years later, he became the customs officer in New Jersey at Salem in South Jersey. In 1766, after being unsuccessful in his commercial ventures, Hopkinson undertook a voyage to England and became closely acquainted with Benjamin Franklin and with some of the English aristocrats, such as Lord North. Hopkinson returned home and operated a business in Philadelphia in the vicinity of 3rd and Race Streets. He married during 1768, taking a prominent lady from New Jersey, Ann Borden, the daughter of Joseph Borden, as his wife. The marriage also made Thomas McKean of Delaware a relative (brother-in-law) by marriage. McKean had married Ann’s sister, Mary, during 1763. The family of Ann and Francis soon increased with the birth of their children, James (1769), Joseph (1775), Elizabeth (1772), Maria (1773), Thomas I (1775), Ann (1777), Thomas II (1779), Francis (1781) and Sarah Johnson Hopkinson (1784). James and both boys named Thomas died in infancy, as did their sister, Sarah Johnson Hopkinson. About four years after his marriage, Hopkinson moved to Delaware after becoming the customs collector at New Castle, but within about two years, he relinquished that position to establish a law practice in his wife’s hometown, Bordentown, New Jersey. The Hopkinson family moved in with Ann’s family. Hopkinson was elected to the New Jersey legislature and served for two years (1774–1775). During the following year, 1776, he was elected as a delegate to the Continental Congress. He was not known for his piercing oratory; rather for his humor and artistic ability, but not at the expense of any of his intellectual talents, which also were of high quality. On 9, January 1776 Thomas Paine followed his piece The Liberty Tree of the previous year with another antagonistic piece, Common Sense, which propelled his ideas of liberty into the political winds and into the homes of the Patriots and Loyalists in Philadelphia and beyond. The message began to stir the hearts of the Patriots and infuriate the Loyalists. Hopkinson, a powerful writer himself, laid back while Paine’s rallying cry received the first of a series of a responses, titled “Letters of Cato,” published in the Pennsylvania Gazette on 13 March. The string of eight potent essays continued to be published through April, coinciding with the ongoing debate on independence in Congress. It was immediately thought that the essays had emerged from the pen of the prominent Whig Rev. William Smith, the provost of Philadelphia College, where Hopkinson had attended. The essays savaged Common Sense and appeared to give the author a sense of invincibility, and gave authoritative reasons for discarding any thoughts of breaking with Britain. Hopkinson maintained his focus on the events and then suddenly bolted into the debate, using Smith’s messages to the citizens of

Pennsylvania as the butt of his sarcasm, mixed with his most serious contention that liberty was at hand. His piece “The Prophecy” reached back into ancient times to create a sage who prophesied the land had essentially become infected with a rotten tree and that “Cato” emerged in contemporary times to inform everyone that a rotten tree was better than no tree. It was a pointed prophesy of the Declaration of Independence wrapped in satire. The finale of the piece states that “Cato would die and his works shall follow him.” Hopkinson supported and voted to adopt the Declaration of Independence and subsequently signed the parchment document. During those tension-filled sessions, many members had their ways of easing the tension. Hopkinson’s methods included drawing caricatures of his fellow members. On 17 October 1776, Congress “resolved, That a Committee of Intelligence be appointed to select and report such authentic accounts, as are, from time to time, received by Congress, of the state of the armies and navy of the United States, as they shall judge proper to be published by authority of Congress.” Hopkinson, Benjamin Rush and Richard Henry Lee were appointed. On 29 October, after Congress had been informed of secret papers being stolen from a dispatch, took action to discover who was responsible. Congress resolved “that all civil officers be requested, and all continental military officers be ordered, to afford every assistance that may be required by the said committee.” Hopkinson was appointed to the committee. Several weeks later, on 18 November, Hopkinson was appointed to the Marine Committee. In 1777 he was appointed chairman of the Navy Board, a post he retained for two years. Hopkinson also remained an ally and friend of George Washington throughout his terms in Congress and after the war. Hopkinson also was appointed treasurer of loans during 1778 through 1781. On 5 January 1778, the Americans under Washington in Pennsylvania attempted to harass the British by sending floating barrels containing gunpowder rather than spirits down the Delaware River. The British, upon spotting the kegs, opened fire, unaware of the contents. The incident known as the “Battle of the Kegs” was memorialized by Hopkinson in a poem titled “The Battle of the Kegs,” sung to the lyrics of “Yankee Doodle Dandy.” Another of Hopkinson’s pieces, “The Properties of a Saltbox,” also had doses of his humor. In 1778 Hopkinson was involved with the compilation of the Journals of the Continental Congress. On 17 September, Congress authorized payment of $200 towards his compensation for “compiling an index to the first and second volumes.” In 1779, he was appointed by the president of Pennsylvania as judge of the admiralty court in place of George Ross. He held the position until 1789, subsequent to the government operating under the U.S. Constitution. After the adoption and ratification of the Constitution, Hopkinson was appointed as a federal circuit judge (Eastern District of Pennsylvania) during 1789, a position he retained until 1791. Francis Hopkinson frequently suffered from gout during his lifetime, but he succumbed from an epileptic attack. While feeling poorly on 8 May 1791, he retired, and on the following morning, he suffered the attack at about 0700. He died within two hours. He was 53. He was survived by his wife and children Joseph (author of “Hail Columbia”), Elizabeth (married Jonathan Williams Condy), Mary (married Isaac Smith), Ann (married Ebenezer Stout) and Francis, Jr. (married Mary Morton Hewitt). Hopkinson, a Christian, was interred at Christ Church cemetery in Philadelphia, where he attended and during 1770 played the organ. In addition to Francis Hopkinson, four other signers were interred in the Christ Church cemetery: Benjamin Franklin, Joseph Hewes, George Ross and Benjamin Rush. The cemetery remains open to the public and it is located within walking distance of Independence Hall. During his life, including his youth, Hopkinson seemed to always strive to achieve goals, learn new talents and improve those he had

185 already possessed. In addition to becoming a scholar and jurist, he was a musician and psalmodist, and he was able to play the harpsichord as well as the organ. He also composed music and wrote poetry. His song “My Days Have Been so Wondrous Free,” penned during 1759, remains the earliest known non-religious composition created by an American. The Library of Congress records that Hopkinson stated: “I cannot, I believe, be refused the Credit of being the first Native of the United States who has produced a Musical Composition.” His talents as a musician were accompanied by his ability as an artist. He was also known to have been an inventor, brought about by his incessant curiosity for learning more of whatever he was engaged in at a given time. His musical interest brought with it curiosity regarding the mechanics of the instruments. From that interest he was able to modify the tone of the harpsichord by plucking the strings with crowquills, then by metal tongues. Afterward, he utilized leather quills and from there he began to use velvet cork. During his long-term friendship with Benjamin Franklin, Hopkinson began to tinker with Franklin’s glass harmonica, and he succeeded in producing a keyboard for it. He was the inventor of the instrument known as the “Bellarmonic,” which used steel bells. During summer 1787, Hopkinson, in a letter to Thomas Jefferson, noted his success and stated that he had ordered bells to be cast for the instrument and that he succeeded in “drawing the Tone from metal Bells by Friction.” Nevertheless, no such instrument has survived. Some of Hopkinson’s other works included his “Ode to Music” (1754), which preceded “My Days Have Been so Wondrous Free” by about five years. “My Days” was set to Thomas Parnell’s work, “Love and Innocence,” part of a collection of his works completed in 1759–1760 titled Seven Songs and dedicated to George Washington. One additional song was added, but too late to be included in the title page. It was published about thirty years later. Some of Francis’ other works included a poem, “The Treaty,” written during 1761 when he was a secretary of a conference held between Pennsylvania officials and various Indian tribes. The meeting concluded with a treaty and Hopkinson wrote the poem while he was along the banks of the Lehigh River. During the following year, he penned “Science, A Poem.” Later, Hopkinson used his crafty pen during the period of debate regarding the U.S. Constitution to author “The New Roof and Objections to the Proposed Plan of a Federal Government for the United States, on General Principles.” He also penned an article using a Wheelbarrow Society at the jail as opposition to the Constitution. His works focused primarily on humor and satire in dealing with his many subjects, and often used absurdity. Francis Hopkinson is credited with designing the American flag; however, according to the records of Congress, he never received any compensation for his work in designing Old Glory. He was known to be a Whig during the Revolution, with republican principles, and in his politics, a Federalist.

Houston, William Churchill (Framer of the U.S. Constitution) William Houston, the son of Archibald and Margaret Houston, was born in South Carolina about 1746. William was unsuccessful in convincing his father, an affluent rice planter and a Quaker, to send him to an institute of higher learning, but his father did eventually offer him a sum of money to be used for whatever purpose William chose. He accepted and received about £50, and his father also provided William with a horse and other items of equipment. William headed north to New Jersey and entered the College of New Jersey (later Princeton). After graduating in 1768, he did not immediately set out to acquire his fortune. He took a recently established position, professor of mathematics and natural philosophy. Afterward, Houston traveled to Philadelphia, where he became involved with the political leaders of the Patriots’ cause and became the

HOUSTON

deputy secretary (assistant to Charles Thomson) of the Second Continental Congress, remaining in the position from 1775 into 1776. Houston also entered the New Jersey militia during 1776, when he was appointed captain in the Somerset County militia (2nd Regiment of Foot). He enlisted when the British advanced toward Princeton and participated in various clashes in that part of central New Jersey, but he left the militia after a short stint to return to the college. At that time, the British threat forced the college to close temporarily, but once General Washington terminated the threat with his stunning victories at Trenton and Princeton on 26 December 1776 and 3 January 1777, respectively, the school was able to resume operation. Houston also felt obligated to return to the school due to the absence of its president, John Witherspoon (signer of Declaration of Independence), who was busily engaged in his responsibilities in Congress. Houston entered politics when he was elected to the New Jersey Assembly and his military service was terminated. Although he was a member of the assembly, he also retained his position at the college, and he was appointed in 1778 to the New Jersey Council of Safety, a post he held until 1779, when he was elected to the Continental Congress. He was re-elected four times and served until 1781. During his time in Congress, Houston was unattached to the conspiracy (Conway Cabal) to oust General George Washington as commander in chief. He was a steadfast supporter of Washington and an admirer who was personally affected by the scheme. He penned a letter to William Livingston, the governor of New Jersey (later signer of Constitution) to convey his feelings: “My object in sending these documents, is to communicate the noble and dignified sentiments of the commander-in-chief, and to give some idea of the difficulties he [General Washington] has to encounter. If ever a man deserved gratitude and confidence, he does, and the more especially as his modesty will never allow him to be saied [said] with the former, nor his goodness of heart to abuse the latter.” Although Houston’s personal life had been drastically affected by the war, his propensity for gaining additional knowledge was not disrupted. While a delegate in Congress, he clamped yet another task onto his schedule by initiating the study of law under Richard Stockton (signer of the Declaration of Independence), which led to his admittance to the bar during 1781. He established his office in Trenton, New Jersey, from where he handled cases in several counties, including Burlington and Monmouth. Shortly thereafter, Houston was appointed as clerk of New Jersey’s Supreme Court. He continued to carry out his responsibilities at Princeton until 1783, when he tendered his resignation. In the meantime, an ongoing dispute between Connecticut and Pennsylvania over land in the Wyoming Valley, which erupted into violence between opposing settlers during 1769, was on the table for a final resolution in 1782. Houston was appointed by Congress as one of the commissioners to settle the dispute. The case was heard in Trenton during 1782 between 12 November and 30 December. A colleague from New Jersey, Chief Justice David Brearly (later a signer of the Constitution), was also one of the commissioners. Pennsylvania prevailed. That April, Robert Morris (signer of the Declaration of Independence and U.S. Constitution), the superintendent of finance, selected Houston as the U.S. representative in New Jersey to receive Continental taxes — essentially the tax collector with responsibility of overseeing the collecting federal taxes and delivering them to the treasury. Houston was again sent to the Continental Congress in 1784 and re-elected and the following year. Meanwhile, events following the close of hostilities were beginning to reveal severe weaknesses in the Articles of Confederation. One came about when Maryland and Virginia began negotiations on the border, which was the shoreline of Virginia along the Potomac River, not the middle of the river. Consequently, efforts were made to negotiate a

HOUSTOUN

186

pact to increase shipping on the Potomac by constructing a canal to link the interior of the country to the seacoast via the canal and the Potomac. The agreement, known as the “Mount Vernon Compact,” was ruled illegal under the Articles because states were prohibited from consummating any treaties among themselves without congressional approval. The crisis brought about the Annapolis Convention of September 1786 to discover a path to increase interstate commerce, but more complications developed because only a few states sent delegates. The participants came from Delaware, New Jersey, New York, Pennsylvania and Virginia. Houston did attend the convention. From the lack of attendees, it was determined that a constitutional convention was imperative to either strengthen the Articles or to form a new government, with the latter being heavily favored by many. Consequently, the Constitutional Convention was called, scheduled to convene in Philadelphia during May 1787. William was selected as a delegate representing New Jersey, along with David Brearly, Jonathan Dayton and William Livingston. Houston’s convictions leaned heavily toward a strong, effective central government; however, after attending for about one week, he became severely ill with the tuberculosis that had been torturing him for several years. He was compelled to return to his home. Although he was unable to cast his vote or sign the finished document, he did sign the report that was delivered to the New Jersey legislature after the adoption of the U.S. Constitution on 17 September 1787, effective upon ratification by nine states. New Jersey ratified the Constitution on 18 December 1787, about three months after it was adopted, to become the third state to join the union. In the meantime, Houston’s health did not improve. During the following year, he decided to travel south, where it was thought he might bounce back to health, but he never completed the journey. On 18 August, at a point about twenty-five miles from his home, William Churchill Houston died from tuberculosis in what was then Frankford (present-day Philadelphia). He was carried into the city of Philadelphia and interred in the cemetery of the Presbyterian Church at 4th and Pine. Houston was survived by his wife, Jane Smith, the daughter of the Rev. Caleb and Martha Dickinson Smith. Jane’s grandfather was Jonathan Dickinson, the president of Princeton College. Jane Smith Houston died in 1796 at age 41. She was interred in the Lawrenceville, New Jersey, cemetery. Houston was also survived by his children: William Churchill (2) (married Susannah Somers); George S. (married Mary Forman); Elizabeth (married Horace G. Phillips), and Mary (married the Rev. Isaac V. Brown). Princeton University holds many of William Houston’s papers that have been preserved. The documents include his personal papers relative to his legal practice and many from the period when he served as U.S. tax receiver.

Houstoun (Houston), William (Framer of the U.S. Constitution) William Houstoun, the son of Sir Patrick Houston, Baronet, was born in Savannah, Georgia, about 1755. William and his older brother John each received an excellent education and pursued careers as lawyers. William was sent to London, where he completed his studies in 1776 and attended the Inner Temple. With American Revolution in progress, he sailed back to the United States and participated on the side of the Patriots, but precise details are unavailable. After the war, Houstoun was elected to the Continental Congress during 1783 and served until 1787. He was known as an unapologetic defender of the honor of the state of Georgia and of the South in general. During one incident that occurred in Congress, Houstoun found himself within earshot of a delegate from Rhode Island, the Rev. James Manning, when the minister spoke some words that William perceived as derogatory and pointed toward southerners. At the time, Houstoun

did not react, but on the following day, he caused more than a bit of excitement when he walked into the halls of Congress, armed with his sword and poised to engage in combat. Hurriedly, he was first engaged by some allies who convinced him to refrain from violence, and the hottempered Georgian agreed. Houstoun handed the sword to his servant, who returned it to Houstoun’s quarters. The incident was forgotten. While Houstoun served in Congress, he was appointed in 1785 to a commission charged with bringing about a settlement of a dispute regarding the boundary line separating Georgia and South Carolina. He also became involved, along with his brother John (later governor), with Franklin College (later the University of Georgia). Houstoun was one of the first trustees of the college and held that post until 1787. Having been selected as a delegate representing Georgia, Houstoun traveled to Philadelphia in 1787 to attend the Constitutional Convention that convened in Philadelphia during May–September 1787, however, he was among those who did not favor adoption. After attending sessions into July, he abandoned the convention. Details of Houstoun’s life subsequent to the close of hostilities were not available to the author. Much of the personal papers and property of Houstoun and his brother was destroyed by fire during the Civil War. The articles and papers were sent out of Savannah to a safer location, but the building in which they were stored burned down. William Houstoun died in Savannah on 17 March 1813. He was interred in New York City in St. Paul’s Chapel. At the time of the outbreak of American Revolution, many in Houstoun’s family who had been loyal to the royal government, remained so during the war, but William and his brother John were staunch Patriots. While Houstoun was abroad studying, John was already a leader in the Patriots’ movement. On 20 July 1774, John was with Archibald Bulloch (first governor of Georgia), Button Gwinnett (signer of the Declaration of Independence), Lyman Hall (signer of the Declaration), and George Walton (signer of the Declaration) when they called for the Patriots to meet at the “Watch House” in Savannah to discuss their rights as loyal citizens of the Crown. John Houstoun and Bulloch, Gwinnett and Hall are remembered as the original four Georgians who established the Georgia Sons of Liberty. Subsequently, during 1778, John, the brother of William, was elected as the third governor of Georgia.

Howe, Major General Robert Robert Howe, the son of Job and Sarah Jones Howe, was born in Brunswick County, North Carolina, about 1732. After his mother died, Robert was sent to England to complete his education. Later, during 1754, he was appointed as a captain on the Bladen County militia. His political career began during 1760 when he became a member of the general assembly. There he became friendly with the royal governor, William Tryon, and from that connection, Howe was appointed in 1761 as a justice of the Supreme Court (Wilmington District) and in 1766 to the Court of Exchequer. From 1765 through 1767, Howe was the com-

Robert Howe (History of North Carolina, Vol. 1, John H. Wheeler, 1851)

187 manding officer of Fort Johnston in Smithville at the mouth of the Cape Fear River. After an absence of about two years, Howe again assumed command of the fort during 1767. The fort, originally established during 1748, was reconstructed during the French and Indian War and built in the shape of a star. The garrison, while under Howe’s command, supported Governor Tryon against the Regulators’ insurrection. The friendship that existed between Howe and Governor Tryon did not extend into the next administration. Governor Josiah Martin, who succeeded Tryon, never became friends with Howe. Governor Martin relieved Howe of his command of Fort Johnston and from his position on the Court of Exchequer. By that time, the relations between Britain and the colonies was rapidly deteriorating. Howe, who had married Sarah Grange during 1764, was firmly on the side of the Patriots. By 1773, North Carolina established a committee of correspondence and Howe was appointed as one of its members. Later, during 1775, he was appointed a colonel. In that capacity, he trained the Brunswick County militia. Meanwhile, Governor Martin fled to Fort Johnston during June 1775. On 18 July, the fort was seized by troops under Colonel Howe, but the governor escaped. On the following day, from his position aboard the HMS Cruzier, Governor Martin watched the fort burn. Colonel Cornelius Harnett participated in the seizure of Fort Johnston. With the flight of Martin, Harnett became president of the council of safety (government of the colony). Subsequently, Colonel Howe, with the 2nd North Carolina Regiment, sped to Norfolk, Virginia, during what was known as Dunmore’s War to bolster Colonel (later general) William Woodford against the forces of Lord Dunmore. The forces of Dunmore sustained a severe defeat at Great Bridge, on the Elizabeth River, on 11 December 1775. On 1 March 1776, Robert Howe was appointed a brigadier general in the Continental Army, a position he held until 20 October 1777, when he was promoted to the rank of major general. During the early part of 1776, British General Henry Clinton, after arriving in the vicinity of Cape Fear, dispatched a large force of about 900 troops under Lord Cornwallis for the purpose of destroying the Howe plantation. On 5 May 1776, General Clinton offered a pardon to those in North Carolina who gave loyalty to the king, but General Howe and Cornelius Harnett were excluded from the offer. Later, during October 1777, General Howe was appointed commander of the Department of the South in place of General James Moore, who had for a while replaced General Charles Lee. During the summer of 1778, General Howe was ordered to lead an attack against the British and seize St. Augustine, Florida, but the campaign failed. On 30 June the Battle of Alligator Bridge occurred. British-held Fort Tonyn in southern Georgia was unable to withstand a land-and-sea assault. The defenders were compelled to destroy the post and evacuate it upon sight of the Americans. The British retired to the North River and from there they moved to Pagan Creek Plantation and fortified positions at Alligator Creek (later, Borell Creek). The British repulsed cavalry under Colonel Elijah Clark (General Howe’s command). The defeat of Howe at the bridge, northwest of Jacksonville, Florida, combined with the ongoing problems between Georgia militia commanders and the Continental Army commanders, essentially terminated the campaign known as the Third Florida Invasion. The British force, including Florida Rangers, was commanded by Major Marc (Mark) Prevost. The American cavalry, unable to penetrate, retired, leaving the British free to make an effortless retreat to the St. John’s River on the following day. General Howe was in charge of the defenses at Savannah when it fell to the British on 29 December 1778. A subsequent court-martial cleared General Howe of any wrongdoing. General Benjamin Lincoln arrived in Charleston during the latter part of December 1778 to succeed Howe as commander of the South. Following the loss of Savannah, Howe continued to serve in the

HUGER

army. He was ordered north to serve with General George Washington. General Howe served in New York along the Hudson in the Highlands, and participated with General Anthony Wayne in the assaults against Stony Point and Verplanck Point, New York. In addition, he served time in Connecticut and at West Point. At the latter place, he was appointed commander during 1780, prior to Benedict Arnold assuming command. During Howe’s service in the north, General Washington twice dispatched Howe with responsibility to terminate mutiny, once with the New Jersey line ( January 1781) and another time in the Pennsylvania line (1783). Following the conclusion of the war, General Howe spent some time during 1785 as one of the commissioners sent to negotiate with the Indians on the western frontier in Ohio. General Howe was struck with a severe fever that took his life in November 1786.

Huger, Brigadier General Isaac Isaac Huger, the son of Daniel and Mary Cordes Huger, was born on the family plantation (Limerick) outside Charleston, South Carolina, on 19 March 1742. The ancestors of the family originated in Touraine, France. Isaac’s father, a descendant of Huguenots who immigrated to the colonies to escape religious persecution after the Edict of Nantes, was one of the Carolinians known as the Rice Kings. Isaac’s parents had four other sons, Daniel, John, Benjamin and Francis. Isaac received an excellent education in Europe. He gained military experience through his participation in a campaign commanded by Colonel Archibald Montgomery (later Lord Eglintown) against the Cherokees during 1760. Montgomery’s column, which was en route to lift a siege at Fort Loudoun, was ambushed and returned to Charleston, leaving the defenders at Fort Loudoun with no options but surrender to the Indians (Fort Loudoun Massacre). The campaign was later reinitiated by Colonel James Grant. His force, including the regiment commanded by Colonel Thomas Middleton (son of Arthur Middleton, signer of Declaration of Independence), destroyed Indian villages and pushed them into the mountains. Middleton’s regiment seemingly was an incubator for some prominent leaders from South Carolina during the Revolution. The roster included Isaac Huger, Henry Laurens, Francis Marion, William Moultrie and Andrew Pickens. By the time the colonies were in the process of breaking away from the mother country, Huger’s family was aligned with the Patriots. In the meantime, Huger married Elizabeth Chalmers in 1762. Isaac and Elizabeth had eight children; however, only seven names were confirmed: Elizabeth, Mary, Martha, Isaac, Daniel Lionel, Francis and Ann. Shortly after the clashes at Lexington and Concord on 19 April 1775, Huger was appointed as a lieutenant colonel in the 1st South Carolina Regiment (commanded by Colonel Christopher Gadsden), coincidentally on the same day that the British and the Patriots were exchanging devastating blows on Bunker Hill (Breed’s Hill), 17 June 1775. Owen Roberts was appointed major of the regiment. At about the same time, the Continental Army was forming in the north and gathering about the Boston area, with reinforcements arriving from all parts of the colonies. Initially, Huger missed the fighting in South Carolina when the British fleet appeared in Charleston Harbor. Huger was posted with the regiment at Fort Johnson. The victory went to those under Colonel William Moultrie who held steadfastly on Sullivan’s Island and forced the British to retire and sail to New York. While Huger was fortifying the defenses at Fort Johnson, General John Rutledge, after examining the works, informed Huger that the project turned out “very good,” but he added that Huger had apparently not prepared an escape route, if needed. Lt. Colonel Huger responded, “Retreat, no.” After a momentary pause he completed his thought, saying: “I do not mean to retreat! I do not see that retreat is at all necessary.” Shortly after the British were

HUNTINGTON

188

repelled, during September 1776, Huger was promoted to the rank of colonel and given command of the 5th South Carolina Regiment. Nevertheless, the success at Charleston postponed any further enemy invasion of the South. On 29 December 1778, the delegates in Congress from South Carolina nominated Isaac Huger in conjunction with a resolution of that day calling for a brigadier general from South Carolina. On 9 January 1779, Congress appointed three brigadier generals, Colonel Jethro Sumner and Colonel James Hogan (Hogun), each from North Carolina, and Colonel Isaac Huger from South Carolina. Afterward, General Huger saw service in Georgia. A British force under Colonel Archibald Campbell arrived at Tybee Island just prior to Christmas of 1778. The Patriots were unable to hold the city, which fell to the British on 29 December 1778. General Huger participated with General Benjamin Lincoln (April–May 1779) on the advance to Augusta, Georgia, and the quick turnaround when Charleston was threatened and General Moultrie was close to being overwhelmed. Afterward, General Huger participated in the Battle of Stono Ferry on 29 June 1779, when the Americans were nearing victory until General Lincoln ordered a retreat. Huger was wounded during the fighting. In September, General Huger participated in the unsuccessful fight to regain Savannah. In February, Huger’s force, similarly to others in the South, lacked equipment and arms. Meanwhile the British were expanding their hold at various places in the southern sector. Huger had sent in a request for a chaplain for his regiment, and on 7 February 1780, Congress approved his request, originally dispatched during April of the previous year. The resolution: “That the Rev. Henry Purcell be appointed chaplain to the brigade commanded by the said Brigadier General Huger, and entitled to the emoluments of the said office, from the said 7 day of April, 1779.” On 13 April 1780, a British force, composed of the 33rd and 64th Regiments of Foot under Lt. Colonel James Webster, joined with Tarleton’s Legion, which already was bolstered by Ferguson’s Loyalists, and moved out cautiously about one hour before midnight (13th–14th) toward Monck’s Corner, outside Charleston, defended by General Huger and a cavalry unit under Lt. Colonel William Washington. The British captured a Negro who was carrying papers from Huger to General Lincoln at Charleston. The British gained valuable intelligence from the messenger, which included where the American defenses were located at Monck’s Corner. Huger’s lines were caught by complete surprise at about 0330 on 14 April due to their defenseless perimeter. The British swarmed upon the Patriots, who had held formidable positions, but with no sentries, their advantage was instantly lost. The British cavalry galloped over Biggins bridge with the infantry at full speed. Although the Americans had no time to form a battle line, Huger remained in total control and without panic, the Patriots vanished into the swamps and nearby woods, diverting a disaster. Huger’s lack of sentries was costly. The British gained about 400 horses and succeeded in terminating communications between Lincoln’s main body, trapped in Charleston, and the units under Huger, the only American contingent that had not been trapped in Charleston. On the 6th of April, Banastre Tarleton struck again and gained surprise to defeat a contingent of Lt. Colonel Washington’s cavalry after the Americans had gained prisoners at a plantation and were close to joining the main body near Lenud’s Ferry. While the attack was unfolding, another force of American cavalry under Colonel Buford was on the opposite bank of the Santee, unable to provide support. Washington and two other officers escaped capture by diving into the Santee and swimming to safety. Charleston fell on 12 May 1780. General Huger, due to the collapse of Charleston, ordered Colonel Abraham Buford to lead his command of Virginians (Continental Army) to Hillsborough. Governor John Rutledge accompanied the

column and operated the government from Hillsborough. On 16 August 1780, General Horatio Gates, the successor to General Lincoln as commander of the Department of the South, sustained a severe defeat at Camden that further shattered the chances of regaining South Carolina from the British. The remnant forces of the militia remained the last line of defense in South Carolina. Meanwhile, Congress took steps to reverse the setback by naming Nathanael Greene as Gates’ successor. In addition, Colonel Daniel Morgan was reactivated and dispatched south. Greene arrived in Charlotte, North Carolina, on 2 December 1780. The tide of battle soon began to change. On 17 January 1781, Morgan, in command of a large part of Greene’s army, delivered a powerful blow against the British at Cowpens, and afterward, he made a successful retreat with Cornwallis in pursuit. Meanwhile, on the 29th, General Greene left his force with General Huger and with only a small party, sped to join with Morgan. On 7 February, Huger, along with the forces under Colonel “Lighthorse Harry” Lee, arrived with the other half of Greene’s army at Guilford Court House. After a short period of cat and mouse between Greene and Cornwallis, during which Greene moved across the Dan River into Virginia and back into North Carolina, the Patriots engaged Cornwallis at Guilford Court House on 15 March. The slug-fest was costly. After exchanging blows for more than two hours, the Americans were forced from the field. Nonetheless, Cornwallis sustained severe casualties and was forced to withdraw to Wilmington, North Carolina. In less than two weeks, Cornwallis abandoned North Carolina and moved into Virginia. General Huger, who fought at Guilford Court House, became one of the wounded, but he recovered and by May was again engaged against the British, at the time led by Lord Francis Rawdon-Hastings, charged with command of the British forces in South Carolina since the departure of Cornwallis. After the war, General Huger returned to his private life and attempted to rebuild his finances. However, he entered public life when he was elected to the assembly of South Carolina. In addition, he became a member of the Society of the Cincinnati. On 26 September 1789, President George Washington appointed General Huger as a United States marshal. He retained the post until August 1793, when the combination of ill health and the need to attend to personal matters prompted him to retire. Genera Isaac Huger succumbed on 17 October 1797. Some sources say the date of General Huger’s death was the 6th or 7th of October 1797, while others list his death at an undeterminable time. The date cited here was from the U.S. Marshal’s record (which is in accord with several other reliable sources), in which Huger was listed as South Carolina’s first U.S. marshal. His place of interment remains unknown. It is thought that he was buried along the Ashley River on property owned by a member of the Huger family.

Huntington, Major General Jabez Jabez Huntington, the son of Colonel Joshua and Hannah Perkins Huntington, was born on 2 August 1719 in Norwich, Connecticut. Jabez’s mother was the daughter of Jabez Perkins. His father was a descendant of Simon Huntington, who immigrated to America from Norwich, England, with his wife and three sons, Christopher, Simon (2) and Samuel, about 1640. Just before arriving at the colonies, Simon, ill from fever, succumbed aboard the vessel; he was brought to shore and buried in Connecticut. His widow later married a man named Stoughton from Windsor, Connecticut. Of the three sons of Simon, Samuel relocated in New Jersey, but Simon (2) and Christopher remained in Connecticut. Simon (2), the son of the emigrant Simon (1), had five sons: Simon (3) (grandfather of Jabez), Joseph, Samuel, Daniel, and James. Simon (3) had three sons, Simon (4), Ebenezer, and Joshua, the latter being the father of General Jabez Huntington. Jabez received his early education in Norwich and then graduated

189 from Yale in 1741. Subsequent to finishing his education, Jabez Huntington became a prosperous merchant, with his fortune being built principally from trade with the West Indies. During the course of expanding his ventures, Huntington also acquired his own ships. In the meantime, during 1741, he also began his family. He married Elizabeth Backus, the daughter of Samuel and Elizabeth Tracy Backus and a sister of the Rev. Isaac Backus of Middleborough. However, Elizabeth died prematurely during 1745 at the age of 24, leaving two children, Jedediah and Andrew. Huntington married a second time. In 1746, he was wed to Hannah Williams, the daughter of the Rev. Ebenezer and Penelope Chester Williams of Pomfret. Jabez’s father, Colonel Joshua Huntington, also succumbed unexpectedly from yellow fever, which he contracted while he was in New York. Joshua was able to return home, but he succumbed on 27 August 1741. His widow, Hannah, later married Colonel Samuel Lynde of Saybrook, but he too died (1754), and afterward, Hannah married Captain Ebenezer Lathrop of Norwich. Huntington entered politics during 1750 when he was elected to the colonial assembly and rose to the position of speaker of the lower house. Following his service in the assembly, Huntington became a member of the council. During 1761, his brother, Zacharia, died and Huntington inherited his shop and land, located on the Lathrop lot. Huntington gave the property to his eldest son, Jedediah (later a general). By the time the American Revolution erupted, Huntington was a member of the Norwich council of safety and he was also a staunch proponent of the Patriots’ cause. During 1765, Governor Thomas Fitch arrived at council and handed the members the Stamp Act. The governor urged the body to administer an oath authorizing him to execute the act. At the time, Huntington and his cousin, Hezekia, also a member, sided with the majority to deny giving Fitch the oath. However, four of the members began to administer the oath, causing both Huntingtons to storm out of the assembly. By the time war began, Huntington’s personal fortune was greatly diminished, due to his vessels being captured as prizes by the Royal Navy. He was appointed a major general of the militia along with David Wooster; however, Huntington was never commissioned by Congress for service in the Continental Army. David Wooster was commissioned by Congress during the early part of the war, on 22 June 1775, as a brigadier general, a short time before General George Washington arrived at Cambridge to assume command of the Continental Army. General Wooster was mortally wounded by a shell that literally broke his backbone while engaged with the British in the vicinity of Ridgefield, Connecticut, during April 1777. General Wooster succumbed on 2 May 1777. Following the death of Wooster, General Jabez Huntington was appointed sole major general in command of the Connecticut militia. Brigadier General James Wadsworth of Durham was promoted to major general to fill the slot left absent by Huntington’s promotion. Following the death of Wooster, General Huntington remained faithful to his duties; however, he was fast becoming physically and mentally drained by the perils and stress of the war. He was compelled to retire from the service during 1779. General Jabez Huntington, once a strong and sturdy man, continued to deteriorate, spending the remainder of his life unable to regain his full mental or physical stamina. He succumbed in Norwich on 5 October 1786. At his funeral service, it was noted in the sermon that he “devoted his all to the public good, and sacrificed his ease, his health, and eventually his life, to serve and save his· country.” Hannah Huntington survived her husband and lived until the age of 80. She died of influenza while living with her youngest son, Zacharia. General Huntington had five sons, two from his first marriage, Jedediah and Andrew, and three from his second marriage, Joshua, Ebenezer and Zacharia. By his second marriage, Huntington had two daughters, Elizabeth and Mary. Jedediah, the oldest, later became a

HUNTINGTON

general. Andrew served temporarily as agent for supplying uniforms to the army. Joshua married his cousin, Hannah, the daughter of Colonel Hezekia Huntington, during 1771. He served as volunteer during the siege of Boston and during the New York campaign and rose to rank of colonel by close of war. Ebenezer, born December 1754, was attending Yale when Battle of Lexington erupted. He and others were refused permission to leave school to fight, but he left on his own, about two months prior to graduation. Nevertheless, he received his degree. Subsequent to the close of the war, during 1792, Ebenezer was appointed major general of the Connecticut militia. Zacharia, born in 1764, was not old enough to participate in the war, but later he served in the militia and the War of 1812 and also rose to the rank of brigadier general. He married Hannah Mumford, the daughter of Thomas and Catherine Havens Mumford of Groton, Connecticut. Elizabeth, born in 1757, married her cousin, Colonel John Chester, and Mary married the Rev. Joseph Strong. When Jabez Huntington’s father succumbed and the property was distributed, Jabez’ brother, Zacharia, and his sister, Lydia, received a lot that was located between Jabez’x lot and a lot owned by Daniel Needham. During 1753, Zacharia sold the property to Jabez and he opened a cooper’s shop and a distillery. When Jabez died, the property and business was inherited by his son, Andrew. (See also, Huntington, Brigadier General Jedediah.)

Huntington, Brigadier General Jedediah Jedediah Huntington, the son of General Jabez and Elizabeth Backus Huntington, was born in Norwich, Connecticut, on 16 August 1743. His mother died when he was two years old. In 1746, Jedediah’s father remarried, taking Hannah Williams as his second wife. Jedediah received his fundamental education in Norwich and then entered Harvard, from where he graduated during 1763. In the meantime, his father had become a successful merchant who acquired many vessels engaged in trading with the West Indies. Subsequent to his graduation, Jedediah entered his father’s business. Like his father, Jedediah became staunchly entrenched with the Patriots’ cause as the relations between the Crown and the colonies continued to deteriorate due to the policies of Parliament and King George III. During 1766, on 1 May (according to the Vital Statistics of Norwich), Jedediah Huntington married Faith Trumbull, the daughter of Governor Jonathan Trumbull. Jedediah and Faith had one child, Jabez, born on 17 September 1767. Later, Jedediah received a master’s degree from Yale (1770). He joined the local militia and was a member of the Sons of Liberty. He was elected a member of the committee of correspondence, along with Christopher Leffigwell, Doctor Theophilus Rodgers, Captain William Hubbard and Captain Joseph Trumbull. During autumn of 1774, the general court directed that Norwich should hold the 20th Infantry Regiment (militia), and it appointed Jedidiah Huntington as its colonel. Following the outbreak of war, Connecticut raised twenty regiments, but during 1776, the number was increased to 25 regiments. In 1777 Connecticut only raised Jedediah Huntington (Campaign of 11 regiments. Meanwhile, on 1776, Henry Phelps Johnston, 1878)

HUNTINGTON

190

15 July 1775, following the clashes at Lexington and Concord on 19 April 1775, Huntington was commissioned as colonel of the 8th Connecticut Regiment. He arrived at Cambridge on the 26th of April, just after the battles of Lexington and Concord. Huntington’s contingent was deployed at Dorchester Heights and it remained there during the siege of British-held Boston until the city was evacuated on 17 March 1776. Huntington’s regiment was furnished with new uniforms, compliments of Governor Trumbull and the council. The uniforms had been intended for the British army, but the ship transporting them was seized as a prize. Prior to departing Norwich, Colonel Huntington was conducting his regular business at a location on Shetucket Street known as the blue store, which formerly was the office of Trumbull, Fitch and Trumbull. In a letter dated 14 August 1775 to his father-in-law, Governor Trumbull, Jedediah informed the governor that many in his regiment were extremely ill and that the supply of medicine was near exhaustion. Several days later, in another letter to the governor, he mentioned the acute shortage of working weapons. Despite the pressures of the conflict and the agonies and hardships from lack of adequate medical assistance, Colonel Huntington also found time to communicate with his son, Jabez. On 21 September 1775, Huntington excitedly responded to a letter from his son, asking him to give his ( Jedediaha’s) love to his mother. He also gave Jabez some advice: “You must always keep in remembrance, that God created you for his own glory; and whenever you are going to do anything, think whether you shall honor God or dishonor him, and take care to perform the former and avoid the latter. To this end you are to look to him for grace.” Since the time of the Battle of Bunker Hill, Huntington’s wife, Faith, had become seriously ill after visiting with her husband and her brother, Joseph, also in the army. While in Massachusetts at camp, Faith witnessed the horrific scenes of the Battle of Bunker Hill and its aftermath, which had been too much for her to bear. She literally became mentally ill. During October 1775, Huntington found it impossible to take leave, but in communication with his father-in-law, it was arranged for Faith to travel to visit him. They met at Dedham, Massachusetts and she succumbed there on 24 November 1775. Huntington wrote in a letter to his brother-in-law, Joseph Trumbull: “Her obligingness and affection were without a parallel. The law of kindness was ever on her tongue and heart, but she is gone, and gone. I trust to scenes of uninterrupted bliss. My tears must and will flow.” Although Huntington’s grief was deep, he was compelled to continue with the responsibilities of handling his regiment. The Continental Army was reorganized on 1 January 1776, and Huntington’s 8th Connecticut Regiment was designated the 17th Continental Regiment. As the British embarked from the harbor, General George Washington directed some forces to remain at Boston while others moved to New York. Huntington’s regiment was attached to the latter and it participated in various actions that unfolded, including a skirmish at Danbury, Connecticut, during April 1776, when his command and another under Colonel Benedict Arnold combined to repel a British force. While the British were exiting Boston harbor, General Washington had planned his strategy to include leaving forces at Boston while moving the main army into New York. Colonel Huntington also participated in the Battle of Long Island on 27 August 1776. Huntington’s regiment sustained severe losses at Long Island and many were reported missing, including 6 captains, 6 lieutenants, 21 sergeants and 126 enlisted men. Of those missing few would ever return to Connecticut; rather they died while imprisoned in New York. Pursuant to resolves of Congress on 16 September and 8 October 1776, regarding Connecticut raising eight battalions, including troops already serving, the state legislature selected the commanders for the battalions. Jedediah Huntington was among those selected. The others included Andrew Ward, Jr., John Durkee, William Douglass, John

Chester, Philip Burr Bradley, Heman Swift, and John Douglass. On 12 May 1777, Huntington was promoted by Congress to the rank of brigadier general. Shortly thereafter, General Huntington was ordered to join General Israel Putnam at Peekskill, New York, where he remained from July until September, when new orders arrived directing him to join the main army deployed outside Philadelphia, which had come under the control of the British. Meanwhile, General Washington decided upon Valley Forge, outside of Philadelphia and on the opposite bank of the Schuylkill River, as the most desirable defensive location for winter quarters. General Huntington remained at Valley Forge during the winter of 1777–1778. That spring, General Huntington was ordered back to New York, where his brigade was deployed at various points in the Highlands along the North (Hudson) River. Also that spring, on 9 April, he married Anne Moore (formerly of New York City), the daughter of Thomas Moore. Jedediah and Anne had seven children: Ann Channing (b. October 1780), Jabez (b. September 1767), Elizabeth (b. January 1779), Faith Trumbull (b. October 1782), Harriet (b. July 1784), Joshua (b. January 1786), Daniel (b. October 1788), and Thomas (b. December 1793). While in the Northern Department, General Huntington participated in the court-martial of General Charles Lee for his actions at the Battle of Monmouth, New Jersey, on 28 June 1778. Lee’s trial, held during July, led to the termination of Lee’s military career. Huntington was also a member of the board that handled the trial in September 1780 of British major John Andre, a captured spy and co-conspirator of Benedict Arnold. The board sentenced Andre to death, but his request for a firing squad was rejected. Instead, he was hanged. General Huntington remained in the service until 1783, but he did not participate in the final campaigns of the war in the South. He remained in the vicinity of West Point. Congress, however, did bestow upon him the rank of brevet major general during September 1783. Following his retirement from the army, General Huntington returned to Connecticut and resumed his private life. During 1788, upon the death of Prosper Wetmore, the high sheriff of New London County, Huntington was appointed as his successor. And he was appointed as state treasurer during that year, among other posts he held. One publication stated: “Major General Huntingtin, Esq., Vice President of the order of Cincinatti, High Sheriff for the county of New London, Judge of Probate for the district of Norwich, first alderman of the city of Norwich, one of the representatives of the town in the state legislature and one of the state electors, is now appointed by the General Assembly, Treasurer for the State of Connecticut.” After the adoption of the U.S. Constitution, General Washington, who had become President Washington, appointed Huntington to the post of customs’ collector for the port of New London. Following his appointment as collector, General Huntington moved to New London during August 1789. It was recorded that he arrived on his first day as collector at 7 A.M. on 15 August. Huntington built a new home in the vicinity of Broad and Washington Streets. Huntington was not known for his physical strength, and he was not among those who achieved glory on the field in a major contest; however, he was known as an excellent general with a keen intellect who faithfully carried out his duties fearlessly, despite his size. He weighed less than 135 pounds. General Jedediah Huntington succumbed in New London on 25 September 1818. Known as a religious man throughout his life, he was consistent even toward death. He began his last will and testament with the following words: “My Soul has long been consecrated to my Creator, Redeemer and Comforter....” Initially, General Huntington was interred at New London, but later, in accordance with his will, his family arranged for his re-interment in the family crypt in Norwich. (See also, Huntington, Major General Jabez.)

191 Huntington, Samuel (Signer of the Declaration of Independence) Samuel Huntington, the oldest son of Nathaniel and Mehetable Thurston Huntington, was born in Windham (present-day Scotland), Connecticut, on 3 July 1731. His ancestors had originally settled in Saybrook. Samuel’s parents resided on a farm and Samuel, like his father, learned farming. His education was attained through the local schools; however, he did not attend college. As the eldest of the ten children, Samuel was designated as the inheritor of the family estate and apparently, his father did not encourage or provide a college education for Samuel. Nevertheless, three of his brothers attended Yale and from them, Samuel picked up an unquenchable thirst for knowledge. He initially concentrated on the sciences, but this self-education expanded further and Samuel began to study law. Meanwhile, his brothers became ministers. Samuel also devoted enormous time to learning the Latin language, which was commonly used in law books. In addition, much of his early education came from his mother, Mehetable Thurston Huntington. By the age of twenty-three, Samuel Huntington was admitted to the Connecticut bar (1754). His ability to pass the bar was due in great part to Zedekiah Elderkin, a lawyer in Norwich. Huntington borrowed Elderkin’s law books and studied on the family farm. For a while Huntington practiced his profession in the town of Windham, but around 1760, he was appointed to a prestigious position in Norwich as the king’s attorney. Huntington had not served in the military during the French and Indian War. Although he remained the king’s attorney until 1773, his sentiments never leaned toward the British. As early as 1760, when the king initiated the ever-burdening taxes on the colonies, Huntington’s true allegiance had already been molded as one of the Patriots. During the following year, Samuel married Martha Devotion, the daughter of the Rev. Ebenezer and Martha Lathrop Devotion. During 1774, Huntington remained in the employ of the British when he was appointed as an associate judge of the Superior Court of Connecticut, a position he retained for about ten years. During the following year, as relations between Britain and the colonies continued to deteriorate, Huntington became a member of the Sons of Liberty. From that point Huntington’s talents became more intertwined with the Patriots’ cause. He resigned his position with the royal government during 1774. He was elected to the Connecticut Assembly (Upper House or Senate) during 1775. Later, during October 1775, he was selected as a delegate to the Continental Congress, along with Roger Sherman, Oliver Wolcott, and William Williams. The Connecticut delegation was seated during January 1776. From the beginning of the session, Huntington remained a solid proponent of independence, but he was not among those who were known for their fiery rhetoric. Huntington voted for and later signed the Declaration of Independence. On 14 October 1776, Huntington was appointed to a committee delegated to deal with the seizing of Negroes. The resolution: “That a committee of three be appointed, to consider what is to be done with negroes taken by vessels of war, in the service of the United States.” James Wilson and Richard Henry Lee were also named to the committee. On the 17th, Congress appointed Huntington to another committee. The resolution: “Resolved, That a committee of three [four] be appointed to review such of the resolutions of Congress as relate to the capture and condemnation of prizes, and report what alterations or additions should be made respecting the same.” George Wythe, Edward Rutledge and Robert Treat Paine were also appointed. Huntington’s health began to fail, and by the fall of 1776, he returned to Connecticut; however, he was able to remain in Congress despite the inability to attend all sessions. His service continued through 1778, 1779–81 and 1783.

INGERSOLL

Meanwhile, on Tuesday, 28 September 1779, upon the resignation of John Jay, who had been appointed minister plenipotentiary to Spain, Huntington was elected to succeed him as president of Congress. Huntington retained the position of the presidency of Congress until his failing health compelled him to seek a leave of absence on 6 July 1781. During his term in office the Articles of Confederation were adopted. Congress scheduled the Samuel Huntington (Biographical Sketches election of his successor for of the Signers of the Declaration of Indethe following Monday. On pendence, Benson J. Lossing, 1854) 9 July 1781, Samuel Johnston was elected to succeed Samuel Huntington. However, Johnston declined the presidency. A new election was held on the following day and Thomas McKean was elected. Samuel Huntington, however, continued to serve his country. He departed for Connecticut and upon his return he was immediately returned to the board and to the bench. During his absence from his home state, his positions had never been filled. Subsequently, during 1782, Huntington was again selected as a member of Congress. His poor health prevented him from accepting until the following year. He was selected for Congress again during 1783 and he accepted. Huntington again departed Congress during November 1783, following his election as lieutenant governor of Connecticut. He was also chief judge of the Superior Court of the state. Two years later, Huntington was elected governor, succeeding Matthew Griswold. Similarly to his congressional service during 1776, when he was a staunch proponent of the Declaration of Independence, as governor, he held the point in leading his state’s ratification of the U.S. Constitution. Samuel Huntington, as governor, remained popular. On two occasions he won two “favorite son” votes for the presidency of the United States. Due to his presidency of Congress when the Articles of Confederation became effective (1 March 1781), Huntington is sometimes referred to as the first president of the United States. Huntington remained governor until 1796 and succumbed while in office. Samuel’s wife had succumbed two years earlier during 1794 on the 4th of June. Governor Huntington, a faithful Christian, was interred in Norwich next to his wife. Although Huntington never attended college, he was rewarded late in life with three honorary degrees, one each from Dartmouth, Princeton and Yale. The Huntingtons never had any children of their own, but they did adopt three. Samuel and Frances, children of Samuel’s brother, the Rev. Joseph Huntington, were adopted in 1771 after the death of his brother’s wife, Hannah. The Huntingtons also adopted Mason Fitch Cogswell, the son of the Rev. James and Alice Fitch Cogswell. Mason’s mother died while Mason was about eleven and his father remarried, leaving his son with the Huntingtons. Mason later became a prominent surgeon. The renovated boyhood home (Huntington Homestead) of Samuel Huntington located in Scotland, Connecticut, was made a national landmark during 1974. It contains a museum and is open to the public.

Ingersoll (Ingersol), Jared (Signer of the U.S. Constitution) Jared Ingersoll, the son of Jared Ingersoll, Sr., was born in New Haven, Connecticut, on 27 October 1749. Jared’s father had been an official of the royal government, and he was in England when the

IRVINE

192

Stamp Act was passed by Parliament during 1765. Neither Jared, Sr., nor Benjamin Franklin, also in England at the time, predicted the repercussions the Stamp Act would cause in the colonies. Franklin actually encouraged Jared, Sr., to accept the post of stamp master of the colony of Connecticut. From that point forward the relations between Britain and the colonies began to deteriorate. The elder Ingersoll had no inclination to align himself with the Patriots, nor did he encourage his son to join with those who began to question the policies of the king and Parliament. Jared attended Yale graduated with the class of 1766, the year the Stamp Act was repealed due to the adamant opposition in the colonies. His graduation was in synchronization with the sparks of resistance that were beginning to spread across the colonies. By that time, Jared’s family had moved to Philadelphia, which became the center of the opposition in the country by the early 1770s. Afterward Jared spent time managing the affairs of his father and when that task was completed, he too relocated in Philadelphia where he pursued a career in law. During 1773, subsequent to the Boston Massacre and prior to the Boston Tea Party, Jared’s father apparently discerned the imminent crisis. He persuaded his son to travel to London to further his studies. Jared’s father was a Loyalist, but not aggressive in his stance and Jared, Jr., held no particular allegiance to the Patriots’ cause, which at the time was primarily vocal opposition to the policies considered oppressive by the Patriots. However, Jared seemed to be reluctant to join with his fellow Americans due to his respect for and loyalty to his father. Jared traveled to Europe during 1773 and entered the Middle Temple to study law. He completed his studies in 1776, the same year that Congress adopted the Declaration of Independence. He remained in Europe for two additional years before returning home, which had gone from a colony to the United States of America. At some point while abroad, he chose sides and his choice was in opposition to the Loyalists. After completing his traveling to various places in Europe, Jared sailed for home. After re-establishing himself in the city, he initiated his career as a lawyer by working in the office of Joseph Reed (brigadier general and president of the Pennsylvania Executive Council), a good friend of the family. In 1780, Ingersoll was elected to the Continental Congress and served until 1781, the same year that he married Elizabeth Pettit (also Petit), the daughter of Charles and Sarah Reed Pettit. Jared and Sarah had three children, Edward (married Catherine Ann Brinton); Charles Jared (married Mary Wilcocks); and Joseph Reed (Ann Wilcocks). Subsequently, Ingersoll was selected as a delegate to the Constitutional Convention along with George Clymer, Thomas Fitzsimmons, Benjamin Franklin, Thomas Mifflin and Robert Morris. The Constitutional Convention convened in Philadelphia during May 1787 and adjourned during September 1787. Initially, Ingersoll was a supporter of improving the Articles of Confederation, under which the government operated, but later he was convinced that the best course for the nation was to design a new government. He was a constant attendee at the sessions and a proponent of adopting the constitution as presented with the “Great Compromise,” which assured that the smaller states would not be dominated by the larger states. Nevertheless, Ingersoll was not among those who frequently made speeches. The United States Constitution was adopted on 17 October 1787. Ratification by nine states was necessary for it to become effective. Pennsylvania ratified the Constitution on 12 December 1787 to become the second state to join the union. Later, on 21 June 1778, New Hampshire ratified, to become the ninth state. At the conclusion of the convention, Ingersoll resumed his law career and seldom participated in politics, but during 1789, he did accept appointment to the Common Council of Philadelphia. During his political career and afterward, Ingersoll remained a Federalist. He was less than enthusiastic about Thomas Jefferson as a candidate for president and is known to have described the candidacy of

Jefferson as a “great subversion.” During 1790, Ingersoll was appointed attorney general of Pennsylvania, a post he held until 1799, but later, during 1811, he again became attorney general of the state. He remained in the position until 1817. In the meantime, Ingersoll failed during 1812 in a bid to become vice president on the Federalist ticket. Other posts he held included solicitor for the city of Philadelphia (1798–1801), and from 1800 into 1801 he was a U.S. district attorney. Subsequently, Ingersoll was a presiding judge in the Philadelphia District Court in 1821–22. Jared Ingersoll succumbed in Philadelphia on 22 October 1822. He was interred in the cemetery of the First Presbyterian Church in Philadelphia. His wife, Elizabeth, predeceased him. Jared was survived by his three children. Ingersoll had continued his law profession and practiced in front of the Supreme Court. Two of his prominent clients were William Blount, who was expelled from the senate, and Stephen Girard, an affluent philanthropist from Philadelphia. Girard left a fortune to cover expenses of a home for orphaned boys. Girard’s will, which stipulated “white boys,” was overturned by the courts during the mid–20th Century and the institution was ordered to break the will and accept black children.

Irvine, Brigadier General James James Irvine, the son of George Irvine, was born in Philadelphia on 4 August 1735. James’ father, born in Northern Ireland, had immigrated to America and settled in Pennsylvania. James first joined the militia as an ensign in Captain Atleir’s company during 1760, at which time the French and Indian War was winding down. After the war, the frontier remained a turbulent region due to hostile Indians, and Irvine also served along the frontier. During the conflict known as Pontiac’s War, Irvine, who by that time had been appointed captain, served under Colonel Henry Bouquet. He became a solid supporter of the Patriots’ cause as the country began to question the practices of the Crown and Parliament. He entered politics as a delegate to the Pennsylvania Provincial Congress, which convened on 23 January 1775. At about the same time, he was appointed captain of the 1st Pennsylvania Battalion and, later that year, was appointed lieutenant colonel of the battalion on 25 November 1775. Irvine participated in the Canadian Campaign. On 25 October 1776, Irvine was appointed colonel of the 9th Pennsylvania Regiment; however, he remained with the regiment only until 12 March 1777. At that time, Colonel Irvine was transferred to the 2nd Pennsylvania, where again he spent only a short time. On 1 June, Irvine resigned from the continental service due to dissatisfaction regarding rank. During the previous April and May, Congress had appointed additional brigadier generals and Irvine was not on the list. However, his military career was not terminated. On 26 August 1777, Irvine was appointed brigadier general (Pennsylvania militia). At the time of his appointment, the British were preparing to seize Philadelphia. General Irvine participated in the defense of the city and while the British controlled Philadelphia, he led a brigade at the Battle of Germantown (4 October 1777). Before establishing winter quarters, General George Washington’s army was involved in a cat-andmouse game with British General William Howe, the latter attempting to draw Washington into a major battle, but Washington did not take the bait. Nevertheless, skirmishing continued. On the night of 4 December the British advanced to Chestnut Hill (present-day Philadelphia) and spent two days in the failed attempt to pull the Americans from their positions at Whitemarsh (Montgomery County). General Irvine was wounded (lost three fingers) and captured on the 5th at Chestnut Hill. Afterward, the British returned to Philadelphia and General Washington established his winter quarters at Valley Forge. General Irvine was not exchanged until June 1781. The British permitted General Irvine and Colonel Matthews to

193 depart Long Island and speak to Congress on their behalf and that of the other prisoners. They departed during December 1780. At the time, Congress had not even paid their board. Shortly after his release, Congress appointed General Irvine as commander of Fort Pitt in western Pennsylvania (present-day Pittsburgh) during October 1781. The following year, General William Irvine, also of Pennsylvania, assumed command of Fort Pitt. General James Irvine was promoted to major general of militia during May of 1782. He retained his rank after the close of hostilities until 1793. In addition, during 1782, he became a member of the Pennsylvania Supreme Executive Council. In 1784 General Irvine was elected vice president (lieutenant governor) of the state and served his term into 1786. Following his service as vice president, General Irvine was elected to the state senate and served in that capacity from 1795 through 1799. He also served as one of the initial trustees of Dickinson College. General Irvine succumbed on 28 April 1819. Information regarding Generals James Irvine and James Ewing get tangled at times due to the similarities of the individuals, each being from Pennsylvania, and because of the variations of the spelling of Irvine (including Irwin, Irvine and Ewing). General James Irvine and General James Ewing were not related; however, both served in the Pennsylvania Line and both were captured, Ewing in Canada and Irvine at Chestnut Hill. Both were brigadier generals in the Pennsylvania militia and both served on the Supreme Executive Council ( January 1783–October 1784). In addition, James Ewing and James Irvine served during the John Dickinson administration as vice presidents of the state. In addition, both men were of Irish descent. Another general from Pennsylvania, William Irvine, was also of Irish descent, yet unrelated to either James Ewing or James Irvine.

Irvine, Brigadier General William William Irvine was born on the 3rd of November 1741 in the vicinity of Enniskillen, Ireland. He received his advanced education at Trinity College in present-day Southern Ireland. Initially, William began his career as a surgeon and, during the Seven Years War (French and Indian War in the colonies), was in the Royal Navy aboard a warship as the ship’s surgeon. Toward the end of the conflict, William resigned his commission and immigrated to the colonies. After his arrival in America during 1764, he settled along the frontier in Carlisle, Pennsylvania, coincidentally, the area in which several other prominent leaders of the American Revolution, including General John Armstrong and James Wilson (signer), resided. After establishing residence, William Irvine began a medical practice that expanded greatly and became extremely successful. He married Ann Callender, (Callendar), the daughter of Captain Robert Callender from the vicinity of Middlesex, near Carlisle. According to the family Bible, which was handed down through the generations of the family, William and Ann had eleven children: Callender (b. January 1775), Ann (also known as Nancy, b. March 1778), Mary (b. November 1780, d. November 1781), William Neill (b. November William Irvine (History of Beaver 1782), Elizabeth (b. January 1786, died young about 1790), County, Joseph H. Bausman, 1904)

IRVINE

Mary Bullen (b. March 1788), Armstrong (b. April 1792), Rebecca (b. October 1794), James (twin of John, b. October 1796), John (twin of James, b. October 1796), Martha (b. March 1799, died that May). There are various spellings for Irvine, including Irwin, and sometimes General William Irvine is confused with William Irwin, who also emigrated from Ireland to the colonies about 1730, and he too settled in the vicinity of Carlisle where he raised 12 children. William Irvine is also confused with Colonel James Irvine, the latter participating in the defense of Philadelphia and being captured during late 1777 at Chestnut Hill, just outside Germantown (Chestnut Hill and Germantown are located in present-day Philadelphia). By the time the break with the mother county was emerging, Irvine had become a staunch American Patriot, despite his service in the Royal Navy. In 1774, he was elected a delegate to the provincial convention that convened in Philadelphia on 15 July. On 6 January 1776, Irvine was appointed colonel of the 6th Pennsylvania Regiment (later 7th Pennsylvania) of Cumberland County. He led the unit to join with the Canadian expeditionary force. While in the vicinity of Three Rivers, a group from his command, while on a fishing trip on an island, came under a surprise attack by Indians. The troops, enjoying some “spruce beer” in a house, did not have their weapons with them and the Indians surrounded them. The incident turned into a massacre, with some being taken captive. During that same period, on 7 June 1776, an attack was launched against the British positions at Three Rivers, but the landing place was off target and swampland hindered the advance. Four columns under Colonels William Maxwell, Arthur St. Clair, William Irvine and Anthony Wayne participated. Three of the columns were forced to traverse the swamp, leaving the force under Wayne isolated. About 200 men, including General Thompson and Colonel Irvine, were among the captured. Colonels St. Clair and Wayne both received wounds. Colonel Irvine initially made it to the swamps, but unable to discover the remainder of the force, he wandered aimlessly for some time before surrendering to the British. The remnant American force reached Crown Point on 2 July. At one point the Canadian expeditionary force had reached about 10,000 men; however, back at Crown Point, only about 5,000 men were present and of those, about one-half were in the hospitals for a variety of reasons, including sickness and wounds. Colonel Irvine was paroled at Quebec during early August; however, his exchange did not occur until April 1778. Colonel Irvine returned to his home in Pennsylvania. He did not resume field duty until his exchange and afterward, he participated in the Battle of Monmouth, New Jersey, the final major contest in the northern states. Colonel Irvine was attached to General Anthony Wayne’s brigade at Monmouth. He served under Wayne throughout 1779–1780. During a good part of 1781, General Irvine focused on recruiting for the 2nd Pennsylvania Brigade, which he commanded. On 24 September 1781, Brigadier General William Irvine was appointed commander of the Western Department. He was ordered to repair to Fort Pitt on the frontier in western Pennsylvania to assume command. He succeeded General Daniel Brodhead and retained the post until October 1783. Brodhead had been relieved by General Washington due to accusations made against him by an officer under his command. Brodhead was acquitted of all charges in a February 1782 court-martial. Colonel Brodhead was promoted to the rank of brevet brigadier general. Shortly after arriving at Fort Pitt and getting a look at the fort and garrison, Irvine penned a less than complimentary letter to General Washington. The letter, dated 2 December 1781, said in part: “I have been trying to economize; but everything is in so wretched a state, that there is very little in my power. I never saw troops cut so truly a deplorable, and at the same time despicable a figure. Indeed, when I arrived, no man would believe from their appearance that they were soldiers.... Though they do not yet come up to my wishes, yet they are

IRWIN

194

some better.” At the time of his arrival, the fort was dilapidated and the pickets were destroyed more often than not. General Irvine set out immediately to refurbish the post and stabilize it in the event of an attack by the British or their Indian allies. General Irvine’s tour at Fort Pitt was anything but uneventful. Hostile Indians raided settlements and ambushed small patrols. During April 1782, Irvine expressed his sentiments in a letter to his wife. “Some people are killed and some taken, by the Indians, in almost every quarter. I lost five of my men, a few days since, who were woodcutting and carelessly laid down their arms to load the wagon, when a party rushed on them. This was at a fort [Fort McIntosh] we have thirty miles down the river [vicinity of Beaver along the border with Ohio].” He was inundated by urgent pleadings from letters written by settlers from all points. The general was a tough individual, which reinforced his discipline with his ineffective troops. Those who committed infractions often earned as many as 100 lashes. Mutiny was frequently hovering over the garrisons at Fort Pitt and Fort McIntosh. In one incident, during spring 1782, General Irvine wrote to General Benjamin Lincoln (secretary of war) on 2 May that he had subdued a mutiny, which was intensified at Fort McIntosh by whiskey that had been distributed at a morning muster. General Irvine, despite an acute shortage of disciplined, loyal troops, informed Lincoln that it was quelled and that two of the men were scheduled for execution on the 3rd. Irvine was actually rescued by other officers or he might have been killed. Irvine also informed Lincoln that he was not anticipating any further trouble because by that time he had sufficient loyal officers. During the early part of General Irvine’s tour, Indians attacked and massacred a family named Wallace in present-day Ohio. Militia retaliated, but they ravaged the Moravian Indians, who had apparently been tricked by the hostile Indians to accept a blood-stained dress of one of the victims. The Moravians were told to evacuate the area, but they believed that the militia would believe them, particularly because they (Indians) were Christian. Nevertheless, the militia ignored their pleas and massacred many of the Indians. General Irvine had no part in the action, but neither did he press for a government investigation. Subsequent to the close of hostilities, Irvine was appointed as a commissioner charged with investigating the public lands intended to be awarded in tracts to soldiers who had served for Pennsylvania in the Revolution. General Irvine also acted as a commissioner to deal with the Pennsylvanians who revolted due to the Whiskey Act. When he was unable to defuse the powder keg, he was appointed commander of the Pennsylvania militia by Governor Thomas Mifflin, with authority to quell the insurrection. Eventually, with the intervention of George Washington and the threat of using military force against what was essentially a group of farmers, not seasoned fighters, the Whiskey Rebellion (1794) was ended peacefully. In 1795, General Irvine moved Philadelphia, where in 1797 he was appointed superintendent of the military stores in Pennsylvania. During that time, he also awarded a tract to his son, Callender, who was at Fort Pitt with his father working as assistant to a surveyor. Callender joined the army and served in the artillery corps, but due to ill health, most of his service until his resignation during 1801 was at Carlisle. Following his military career, General Irvine served as a delegate to the Pennsylvania state constitutional convention during 1787 and he served in the U.S. Congress (1786–1788 and 1793–1795), representing the district which included Cumberland County. General William Irvine succumbed in Philadelphia on 29 July 1804. He was interred at Gloria Dei Church (Old Swedes) in Philadelphia. He had served as the president of the Society of the Cincinnati (1801–1804) and was on the board of trustees of Dickinson College (1783–1803). He had two brothers in the military during the Revolution. Andre served in William’s regiment as an officer and he was

wounded during the Canadian campaign, but not captured. After recuperating, he continued to serve under Anthony Wayne. William’s other brother, Doctor Mathew Irvine of South Carolina, served as a doctor.

Irwin, Brigadier General Robert Robert Irwin, the son of William Irwin, was born in Pennsylvania (Lancaster County) during 1738. During his youth, Robert received no classical education and he did not attend any institution of higher learning; however, he was blessed with above average intelligence, which he used to great advantage to become knowledgeable in matters of state and of church, and to the latter he devoted enormous time in his later years. Robert also had a superb talent for public speaking and the ability to naturally insert anecdotes to stir interest in what he had to say. Nevertheless, he also gathered sufficient skills with regard to the military, and when the great separation with Britain began, he was among the initial Patriots in the South. After his father passed away, he transferred his share of his inheritance (estate) to an older brother, and with the funds from the sale of his share, Robert departed Pennsylvania for North Carolina and settled in Mecklenburg County. After arriving in Mecklenburg, he met and later married Mary Alexander. Robert and Mary had the following children: Mary (married John Dinkins); Dorcas (married Andrew Herron); Margaret (married Hugh McDowell); William (married Lydia Birdsong); Robert (married Elizabeth Ray and later Martha Alexander); Sarah (married John Fincher); Eleanor (Nelly, married James Moore); and James. Robert Irwin was named a magistrate of Mecklenberg County, but as the clouds of war were drifting south from Boston, Irwin was in the forefront of the opposition to the policies of the Crown and Parliament. He was listed as one of the men who signed the Mecklenberg Declaration of Independence on 20 May 1775, more than one year before Congress declared independence. Irwin also was a delegate at the North Carolina Provincial Congress, which convened at Halifax on 4 April 1776 and again when the convention reconvened on 12 November 1776. Irwin served as a colonel in the militia. His record of service details meritorious actions in the field. Colonel Irwin participated in the campaign against the Cherokee who were ravaging the frontier (Kentucky, Tennessee and North Carolina) during 1776. During October of that year, Colonel (later general) Griffith Rutherford led a force into the interior after passing through Salem, burning much of the Cherokees’ corn crop and reducing the villages. By 4 July 1777, the Cherokee had been thoroughly defeated; the loss compelled them to relinquish their lands to the state of North Carolina (Treaty of Long Island). In August 1780, Colonel Irwin participated in the attack against British positions at Rocky Mount (South Carolina). The British held positions in fortified log cabins on 1 August at Rocky Mount. The Americans set the cabins afire to force the Redcoats to capitulate; however a summer storm developed suddenly and the flames were extinguished. The attack had only been a diversion, while the real objective was Hanging Rock (South Carolina). The main event erupted there on 6 August, and although Lt. Colonel Banastre Tarleton was not there, his forces were thoroughly defeated. Colonel Irwin’s command performed well, but there were problems. Some militia, without orders, began to focus on booty, while other militia became over-confident, leaving one unit to regroup and save the day, the contingent under Major William Richardson Davie. Davie mounted a cavalry attack that scattered the Redcoats. During the following year, the British seized Wilmington, North Carolina, on 29 January. Colonel Irwin participated in the campaign to regain the city; however, the British retained it for the entire year (1781) and evacuated it on 5 January 1782, nearly three months after the surrender of Lord Charles Cornwallis at Yorktown during October 1781.

195 Colonel Irwin was promoted to the rank of brigadier general at a time undetermined by the author. He referred to that rank in his last will and testament: “In the name of God Amen. I Gen. Robert Irwin, Esq., of Mecklenburg County, State of North Carolina, being through the abundant Mercy and goodness of God, Tho’ weak in body yet of a sound and perfect understanding and memory....” After the war General Irwin returned to his home. During 1798, General Irwin, a widower at the time, married, taking Mary Barry as his second wife on 28 March. He and Mary had one child, Anna Le Nira. General Robert Irwin died at Steele Creek, North Carolina, on 23 December 1800. General Irwin served in the North Carolina senate for twelve years and as the “ruling elder” of the Steele Creek Church for more than two decades. General Irwin was buried in the same grave site as his first wife, Mary, and their stone states: Great, noble, good and brave Characters he did justly claim, His deeds shall speak beyond the tomb And those, unborn, his praise proclaim.

Jackson, Brigadier General Henry Henry Jackson, the son of Colonel Joseph and Susannah Gray Jackson, was born in Boston during 1747 and was baptized on 25 October that year. Henry’s father had participated in the French and Indian War. During 1763, following the death of Colonel John Phillips, Joseph Jackson succeeded him as treasurer of the Ancient Artillery Company, and he held the post until the outbreak of the Revolution. In the meantime, Henry had also acquired a desire to join the military. By March 1776, Henry Jackson had decided to raise his own company. Just after the British abandoned Boston (17 March 1776), Jackson formed a company from men of Boston and became captain of the unit. On 18 July the president of council, James Bowdoin, requested that Jackson’s company assemble under arms at the state house, while the Declaration of Independence was read aloud to the citizens. The invitation was quite an honor; however, Jackson became embarrassed because he had to inform the president that his company, although formed, had not yet acquired uniforms. Nevertheless, an understanding president invited Captain Jackson and his company to attend the celebration. That humbling experience most probably became a driving force behind Captain Jackson’s propensity to maintain the appearance of his troops as an elite command without detracting from their fighting ability. Jackson’s troops were always smartly attired. By January 1777, Jackson received a commission from Congress as a colonel in the Continental Army. That April, Jackson was ordered to lead his company into Rhode Island. Following that short stint of a few weeks, he returned to Boston and began to raise the Boston Regiment (16th Massachusetts Regiment). The regiment remained intact until January 1781 when it was consolidated with the 9th Massachusetts Regiment. At that time, Colonel James Wesson retired after having held command for about four years. Colonel Henry Jackson (New England Histor- Henry Jackson assumed command of the regiment. On 30 ical Register, Vol. 46, 1892)

JACKSON

October 1782, while the army was again being scaled down, the unit became the 4th Massachusetts Regiment. In the meantime, Jackson departed Boston on 7 October 1777 en route to join with General Washington outside Philadelphia. At the time, the British had seized Philadelphia. In June 1778, the British, unable to totally dominate the Delaware River, abandoned Philadelphia and retired toward New York. Washington, at Valley Forge, Pennsylvania, broke camp and initiated pursuit. Jackson’s regiment participated in the major confrontation at the Battle of Monmouth on 28 June 1778, which became the final major battle in the northern states. Shortly thereafter, Colonel Jackson’s command was in Rhode Island participating with General John Sullivan during the ill-fated campaign to regain British-held Newport. Sullivan’s forces were left on their own by a French fleet and on 29 August 1778, the Americans fought a tenacious battle at Quaker Hill. After holding off the British for a few hours, the entire command made it back to the mainland, just before a British fleet approached he harbor. Doctor James Thacher, the surgeon attached to General Jackson’s regiment, noted certain incidents about the men of the regiment in his diary. He recorded their enthusiasm and ability: “They appear in handsome style, and are ambitious to display their taste for military life, and their zeal to contend with the enemies of their country....” Thacher also noted in his diary an incident at a tavern where a sign was hanging that displayed a man half-way through the globe with the caption “Oh, how shall I get through this world?” One of the troops, after glancing toward the sign, quipped: “List, damn you, and you’ll soon get through this world; our regiment will be through in an hour or two if we don’t halt by the way.” General Jackson’s regiment participated in the fighting in New Jersey, including the Battle of Springfield on 23 June 1780. At the close of hostilities, Henry Jackson was appointed by Congress a brigadier general. General Jackson remained in the service until July 1784. Afterward, he returned to his private life in Boston; however, he did not terminate his military career. He was major general of the 1st Division (Massachusetts militia) from 1792 through 1796. Subsequently, he became an agent of the U.S. government and during 1797, he oversaw the construction of the frigate Constitution, a warship from the War of 1812 era that remains an active warship in the United States Navy. The Constitution continues to be manned by sailors of the U.S. Navy and moored in Boston Harbor. General Jackson, through the years, had become a close friend of another prominent Bostonian, General Henry Knox who, subsequent to the ratification of the U.S. Constitution, was appointed secretary of war. General Jackson, like General Knox, was overly portly, but he was known to have carried himself well and to have possessed the demeanor of a gentleman and an appetite to match his robust build. At times, Jackson’s size became subject of humor, such as when General Nathanael Greene penned a letter to General Knox and inquired of Jackson: “How is my old friend Colonel Jackson? Is he still as fat as ever, and can he still eat down a plate of fish that he can’t see over. God bless his fat soul with good health and good spirits to the end of the war, that we may all have a happy meeting in the north.” During 1783, General Jackson was stationed at West Point, and at that time, the general weighed about 238 pounds. General Knox relied on General Jackson, while Knox was secretary of war, to handle many of his private affairs, particularly his lands in the east. One of General Knox’s children was named Henry Jackson Knox. Jackson became the first treasurer of the Massachusetts Society of the Cincinnati, a position he retained until his death. General Henry Jackson, a bachelor, succumbed during the evening of 4 January 1809. On Saturday, 7 January, a funeral parade departed General Jackson’s lodging house at the head of the mall on Common Street and marched to Dorchester, where the general was interred in a crypt. Later when the area was transformed into a park (Woodford Park), General Jackson’s

JACKSON

196

remains were extricated and re-interred at a new location. The inscription on his original tombstone included several verses and ended with the notation that he was a “Christian, Soldier, Patriot and Friend.” General Henry Jackson is sometimes confused with Henry Jackson of Newburyport, who was the son of Jonathan and Hannah Tracy Woodbridge ( Jonathan’s second wife). Henry Jackson (b. 1774) of Newburyport married Hannah Swett, the daughter of Samuel and Anna Swett of Exeter during 1799 and the couple had three children: Mary Wendell, John Barnard, and Henry.

Jackson, Brigadier General James James Jackson, a native of England and the son of James (1) and Mary Webber Jackson, was born at Moreton-Hampstead in Devonshire on 21 September 1757. James (1) and Mary had two other children, Abraham and Henry (Doctor Henry Jackson). When James reached about age fifteen, and having received permission from his father, he sailed for America during 1772. James settled at Savannah in Georgia under the supervision of a friend of the family, John Wereat. James received an excellent education in Savannah and afterward, he pursued a career in law by studying under Samuel Farley; however, the outbreak of war with Britain prompted James to postpone his studies and trade his books for a musket. During 1775, James Jackson was a volunteer under Colonel John Baker when Loyalists aboard armed vessels raided Tybee Island to confiscate livestock and supplies. The Patriots battered the enemy and compelled them to abandon the island. Jackson was not yet 20 years old when he participated in the defense of Savannah during 1776. Jackson’s actions under fire and at Tybee Island were conspicuously displayed and noted by Governor Archibald Bulloch, who rewarded Jackson with command of a light infantry company, which he led until General Robert Howe led the failed expedition into Florida. Toward the latter part of 1778, Jackson was appointed brigade major in the Georgia militia. Nevertheless, the militia became scattered at about the time of the fall of Savannah (December 1778). Jackson afterward volunteered to serve in another unit, one which had officers but no commander. While en route to South Carolina to join General William Moultrie, he and another Georgian, John Milledge, were badly attired. Jackson even lacked a pair of shoes and his funds were exhausted. But still, he continued his trek until he and Milledge were captured. Their captors, members of the unit he was attempting to locate, found them unrecognizable as Patriots, and their captors became convinced they were spies. Their fate was sealed. A trial was immediately held and both were sentenced to death, with the executions set for the following day. Just prior to being hanged, one of the Patriots, Peter Deveraux (Devaux), caught a close-up glimpse and immediately identified Jackson and John Milledge as men he knew. The timely encounter spared Jackson’s appointment with the noose. He resumed his military life, serving initially as a private. By October 1779, Jackson had returned to Georgia. In March of 1780, following a disagreement with Georgia’s lieutenant governor, George Wells, a duel ensued. James Jackson (Men of Mark in Geor- Jackson prevailed and George Wells was killed; however, gia)

Jackson was hit in both knees and doctors concluded that amputation was required. Jackson adamantly opposed the procedure and the doctors relented, but he was essentially left on his own and the prognosis leaned toward no recovery. However, once again, Jackson escaped a dreadful outcome. He suffered through a prolonged period of recuperation, but bounced back with both legs ably prepared to don a new uniform. Jackson’s recovery allowed him to return to the field. He participated at various engagements against the British, including the skirmish at Blackstocks, South Carolina, during August 1780, in which he served under General Thomas Sumter, and the contest at Long Cane, South Carolina, on 11 December 1780. It was Jackson’s initiative that preserved Colonel Elijah Clark’s contingent from scattering after Clark became wounded. During early January 1781, Jackson served as brigade major under General Andrew Pickens, who at the time had command of the Georgia and Carolina militia that was attached to General Daniel Morgan’s section of General Nathanael Greene’s army. Afterward, Jackson participated at the Battle of Cowpens (17 January 1781), where his dashing dare carried him straight into the positions of the 71st British Regiment and, upon his exit, he carried their colors. In addition, Major Jackson personally delivered Major McArthur, the commander of the 71st, to General Daniel Morgan. Jackson continued his bold exploits during the retreat of General Greene, who was at the time attempting to evade Cornwallis’ pursuit following the British unexpected defeat at Cowpens by Morgan. During the retreat, heavy skirmishing occurred at the Catawba, and for a while, it was thought that Jackson had been killed, but the information given to General Morgan had been erroneous. Jackson was in the midst of the fighting, but he escaped unscathed and crossed the river safely after being hit by a surprise attack by Tarleton’s Legion at Tennant’s Tavern. Subsequently, Jackson served with Andrew Pickens and Colonel Henry “Light Horse Harry” Lee when the Americans devastated John Pyle’s corps at the Haw River. Jackson was presented to General Greene at Salisbury by General Morgan and afterward, Greene awarded Major Jackson with the command of a corps and a commission as colonel; the commission was afterward confirmed by Congress. The corps was to be formed for service in Georgia. During the following year Colonel Jackson participated in the recapture of Augusta, Georgia, and after the British capitulated on 31 May 1781, Jackson was delegated to accept the surrender of the city. Colonel Jackson was given the key to the gates of the city and he was the first American to enter Augusta. In addition, Colonel Jackson received command of the recaptured city. For a while, the situation at Augusta was tenuous and Jackson had no communications with other American forces. During August 1781, a legislature convened at Augusta and Nathan Brownson was elected governor. A plot developed to murder Jackson while he slept and execute his officers with a bayonet party while they too were asleep, with the major objective being the capture of the governor to turn him over to the British. But, yet again, Colonel Jackson’s imminent demise was canceled. A loyal dragoon (David Davie) who was also Jackson’s waiter, once informed of the dastardly plot instigated through Jackson’s infantry, delivered the intelligence to Jackson. The colonel, unshaken by the distressing news, reacted in his usual impetuous manner and moved expeditiously to eliminate the danger. The infantry was directed to assemble without their arms for the purpose of getting new clothes issued. Those troops remained unaware that Jackson had prepared a fast-moving welcoming committee. Once the infantry was in place, the armed cavalry initiated a full gallop with the horses racing directly into the formation. With little effort, the infantry was corralled and the primary instigators were imprisoned and held for trial, which arrived quite quickly. The main instigators were sentenced to death, which was expeditiously carried out. The remainder of the infantry once again became loyal troops and no future murmurs of mutiny were raised.

197 Colonel Jackson continued his meritorious conduct throughout the war. During July 1782, when the British finally abandoned Savannah on the 12th, after having held it since 29 December 1778, General Anthony Wayne designated Colonel Jackson as the officer charged with accepting the keys and taking possession of Savannah. Shortly after regaining the city of Savannah, on 25 July Colonel Jackson engaged a British force on Skidaway Island in what became the final action of the war along the Georgia coast. That same month, July 1782, the Georgia general assembly conspicuously honored Colonel Jackson for his extraordinary contribution to the nation and the state of Georgia. The assembly awarded Colonel Jackson a house and land in Savannah. Once he returned from the war, James reinitiated his pursuit of a career in law and after acceptance by the bar in 1785, he began to practice. By July 1783, Colonel Jackson was elected to the Georgia legislature. In 1784 he was appointed colonel of the Georgia 1st Regiment (militia) (also known as Chatham County regiment). Two years later, at age 28, Colonel Jackson was made a brigadier general. That year, 1786, General Jackson was admitted to the Georgia Cincinnati Society as an honorary member. Subsequently, during 1788, General James Jackson was propelled into higher politics when he was elected at age 30 as the governor of Georgia. However, General Jackson declined the honor and explained that he believed he was too young and inexperienced to properly conduct the duties of the governor. However, Jackson proclaimed that he loved Georgia and referred to the state as his country. Jackson found himself running against a respected friend, General Anthony Wayne, for the same seat in the legislature in 1791. Wayne had relocated in Georgia. Wayne won the election and Jackson, during February 1792 (at the time he was a member of the house), appeared in front of the legislature to contest the results on the grounds that Wayne had not yet become a legitimate resident of the district. Jackson did not immediately prevail, but it was later determined that a judge involved in the election had acted improperly. Consequently, the judge was dismissed. During the investigation, General Jackson never accused Wayne of any improper conduct. He was elected to the U.S. Senate in 1793 and resigned during 1795. At the time, the Georgia legislature had become corrupt at all levels and Jackson exposed the improper conduct in a series of letters, which bore the signature “Sicilus.” Later during 1798, Jackson was a delegate to the convention that created the state’s constitution. In addition, Brigadier General Jackson was appointed major general of Georgia’s militia in 1792. General Jackson was again elected governor and served in that capacity from January 1798 until March 1801. Jackson was a Democratic-Republican (present-day Democrat) and was not an ally of President John Adams, a Federalist. Nonetheless, he was not considered an ally of President Thomas Jefferson, a Democratic-Republican, either. After Jackson completed his terms as governor, he returned to the senate and served during 1801–1806. A political argument developed between General Jackson and Colonel Robert Watkins, and the animosity turned into violence during 1802 when the men engaged in a duel (Watkins and Jackson reportedly had several duels). Jackson was wounded in the hip. After becoming wounded, Jackson intended to continue, but he was unable. While Watkins helped carry Jackson from the field, Jackson quipped: “Hang it, Watkins, I thought I could give you another shot.” Jackson and Watkins had also fought each other with fists and knives in the past. Watkins, a lawyer, had been involved with the Yazoo Land scheme (as a senator) and Jackson is the man who had the act (which was essentially giving land in western Georgia to the speculators) rescinded. Duels seemed to occur frequently with General Jackson, who had also engaged another lawyer, Thomas Gibbons, in a duel during 1800. Although both men fired three shots, no one was wounded. During his term as governor, a man named Zachariah Cox accused

JACKSON

General Jackson on impropriety in office regarding the Yazoo land fraud; but the charges were falsely claimed and both houses unanimously exonerated the governor. Meanwhile, General Jackson had married Mary Charlotte Young (known as Polly), the daughter of William Young (speaker of the Georgia House) of Savannah on 20 January 1785. James and Mary had the following children: William Henry (b. June 1786); James (birth date unknown, became a professor at University of Georgia); Jabez Young (b. July 1790); and Jacob Webber (b. December 1796, later member U.S. Congress). General James Jackson succumbed in Washington, D.C., on 19 January 1806. Initially he was interred about four miles outside the capital, but later he was re-interred in the congressional cemetery in D.C. Jackson’s wife predeceased him. His brother Abraham of Savannah also rose to the rank of brigadier general in the Georgia militia (post Revolutionary War). Another brother, Henry, was the father of Henry Rootes Jackson, a Yale graduate (1839), a colonel who fought in the Mexican War and later became a Confederate general.

Jackson, Brigadier General Michael Michael Jackson, the son of Michael Jackson, Sr., was born in Newton, Massachusetts, on 18 December 1734. Michael joined the militia during the French and Indian War and served as a lieutenant; however, later, when the colonies were in the process of breaking away from Britain, his initial service in the militia began with the rank of private. He was a member of the Minute Men when the clashes erupted at Lexington and Concord on 19 April 1775. On the day of the skirmish, Jackson’s company had been notified early in the morning of the British intent and the men assembled on the parade field, but no officers were present. A sergeant proposed that a captain of the day be chosen and Jackson was selected to lead the contingent. He immediately led the column to the Watertown meeting house. After arriving in Watertown, the officers gathered there admitted Jackson to the meeting and to their dismay, he was quite outspoken. He listened for a while and then took the floor. Jackson essentially accused the officers of being fearful, and he proclaimed that the time of discussion had passed and it was time to meet the enemy. He added: “Not now the wag of the tongue, but the pull of the trigger.” The meeting ended with some of the units following Jackson’s company, while others lingered near the meeting house and yet others departed in other directions. En route, Jackson’s column encountered a British force in the vicinity of Concord. An exchange of fire occurred and the militia was unable to retain its positions; however, shortly thereafter, Jackson rallied his men, and at about the same time, he was reinforced by militia from Watertown. From that point, the Patriots harassed the British column, commanded by Lord Percy, as it made its way back to Boston. On 3 June 1775, Jackson was appointed major of Colonel Thomas Gardner’s regiment and later participated at the Battle of Bunker Hill (Breed’s Hill) on 17 June 1775. Colonel Gardner was mortally wounded during the day’s fighting and died on 3 July 1775. Major Jackson was also among the wounded but survived. During the tenacious contest, Jackson engaged a British officer in close-quartered fighting and the latter was killed. Subsequently, on 1 January 1776, during the reorganization of the Continental Army, Major Jackson was appointed lieutenant colonel of the 16th Continental Infantry. Later that year, Jackson was wounded in the thigh during a battle with British forces on Montressor’s Island (24 September 1776). He recovered, but never completely. Command of Jackson’s regiment passed to Lt. Colonel John Brooks. The regiment under Brooks participated in various battles in the eastern region and later, during 1777, under Brooks, the regiment fought boldly against General John Burgoyne’s forces at Saratoga and sustained heavy casualties. In the meantime, on 1 January 1777, Jackson was appointed colonel

JAY

198

of the 8th Massachusetts Regiment, where he remained until 1783, when he transferred to the 3rd Massachusetts on 12 June. On 30 September Colonel Jackson received the rank of brevet brigadier general. His service in the army continued until 3 November 1783. General Jackson had married Ruth Parker, the daughter of Ebenezer Parker, on 31 January 1759. Five of their sons served in the military during the war. General Michael Jackson, who retired to his farm in Newton, succumbed on 10 April 1801. He was interred in Newton. His pall bearers included Governor William Eustace, Colonel Joseph Ward and General Henry Knox.

Jay, John John Jay, the son of Peter and Mary Van Courtlandt Jay, was born on 12 December 1745 in New York City. John’s paternal ancestors were Huguenots and his father ran a prosperous mercantile business. John’s great-grandfather, Pierre Jay, fled France for England after the Edict of Nantes was revoked, and he died there. His son Augustus, the grandfather of John, immigrated to New York during 1686 and married Anna Maria Bayard. Augustus and Anna Maria had four children, including Peter, John’s father. Peter later became a partner in his father’s business. He married Mary Van Courtlandt, the daughter of Jacobus Van Courtlandt. Peter and Mary had nine children in addition to John, who was their eighth child. During his first year, John was taken to Rye, where he was raised in the old Jay house. He became seriously ill from sore throat, but unlike his younger sister, he survived. John did not contract smallpox, but both his brother Peter and his sister Nancy became victims; both became totally blind from the ravaging disease. John was initially tutored by his mother, and when he was about eight years old, he was entered in a school run by the Rev. Peter Stoope at New Rochelle. The Reverend Stoope, described as an absent minded Swiss eccentric, was the pastor of the French Huguenot church that had joined the Episcopal Church at New Rochelle. The Reverend Stoope’s eccentricities affected his life and the parsonage. He focused on mathematics and ignored the parsonage, which fell into poor condition. John’s room was shared with the elements and to keep his bed free from snow during the winter, he would place boards against the broken window panes. Apparently, Mrs. Stoope was not absent minded, just uncaring and out of character from the great majority of women of the time. The kids under their care were “half-starved.” At the time John was receiving his education in New Rochelle, the villagers spoke French, and that became a bonus for John in later years when he became a diplomat. After two years, he again was educated at his home, but his continued studies were overseen by a private tutor. At age about fourteen, in 1760, John entered King’s College (later Columbia ), from where he graduated during May 1764. There was little time to celebrate. John began to study law about two weeks after graduation in the office of Benjamin Kissam. Four years later, he was admitted to the bar. Once he was authorized to practice law, he formed a partnership with Robert Livingston (later, chancellor of New York State). During February 1773, John Jay was appointed secretary to the Royal CommisJohn Jay (Pictorial Field Book of the sion, directed to settle the disputed boundary between Revolution, Benson J. Lossing, 1860)

Connecticut and New York. During the following year, he married Sarah Van Brugh Livingston, the daughter of William Livingston (later governor of New Jersey and a signer of the U.S. Constitution). The ceremony took place on 28 April 1774, in Elizabeth, New Jersey, at Liberty Hall. Jay’s practice was doing exceedingly well, but conditions throughout the colonies had been on a downward slide since the year following his graduation from King’s College, beginning with the passage of the Stamp Act during 1765, and subsequent legislation perceived to have been an unfair burden on British subjects. The ill feelings had simmered for nearly a decade when a burst of violence erupted in Boston during December 1773 in the incident known as the Boston Tea Party. The British retaliated with new measures; one was the Boston Port Act (25 March 1774), which ignited the fuse to galvanize the scattered opposition into a unified army of Patriots, composed not only of fighting men, but also the women and children. Subsequent to the closing of the port and the isolation of the Bostonians, Jay was among that first bold group that bolted to leadership among the opposition; however, during the initial period of the conflict, Jay, using a ruse of being a Loyalist, traveled about to gather intelligence about the Loyalists’ plans and strengths. Jay was appointed to the Committee of Correspondence. That same year, the First Continental Congress convened in Philadelphia and Jay was selected as a delegate. Jay was immediately placed on various committees, including one charged with preparing an address to the people of Great Britain (11 October 1774). Jay penned the address and Thomas Jefferson proclaimed it “a production, certainly, of the finest pen in America.” After the close of business in Congress, Jay returned to New York, where he was appointed to the Committee of Observation, established to devise methods to interfere with the commerce of Britain with the colonies. In a short while he was appointed to the Committee of Association, which essentially operated as a governing body in the absence of an authorized government; however, on 28 May 1775, the Provincial Congress convened, eliminating the need of the Committee of Association. On 10 May the Second Continental Congress convened, again in Philadelphia, and Jay was a delegate from New York. During the previous month, all chances of reconciliation were scrapped, although some still believed reconciliation possible after the clashes at Lexington and Concord on 19 April. Later that year, Jay was appointed as a colonel in the 2nd New York Regiment of Foot, a militia unit. Although he accepted the appointment, he was too active in government and saw no service in the field. That April, Jay had been elected to the New York Provincial Congress, which convened on 14 May at City Hall in New York. He simultaneously held his seat in Congress. Consequently, when New York was in session to establish a government, as resolved by Congress a few days earlier, Jay was called up to return to New York to participate. He proceeded to New York, which caused him to be absent when the Declaration of Independence was declared by Congress on the Fourth of July 1776. During August 1776, Jay remained as a member of Congress, but on 2 August he was one of a group who did not sign the parchment document of the Declaration of Independence. Others who refused to sign were John Dickinson (Pennsylvania), James Duane (New York), and Robert Livingston. Five other delegates were absent and engaged in other activity: General George Washington (Virginia), General George Clinton (New York), General Christopher Gadsen (South Carolina), General John Sullivan (New Hampshire), and Governor Patrick Henry (Virginia). That same year, Jay was a representative at the New York convention and, upon the call for a new convention, he was a delegate at that one also. The new convention was hurriedly moved from New York to White Plains due to the arrival of a British force. At White Plains on

199 9 July, after receiving a copy of the Declaration of Independence, Jay moved a resolution regarding a draft written by himself. It passed unanimously: “That the reasons assigned by the Continental Congress for declaring the United Colonies free and independent States are cogent and conclusive; and that while we lament the cruel necessity which has rendered that measure unavoidable, we approve the same, and will, at the risk of our lives and fortunes, join with the other colonies in supporting it.” On 17 July, Jay was appointed to the secret committee for New York, which was charged with the creation of obstacles on the Hudson to impede British warships. Jay was also appointed to the committee charged with drawing up a new constitution for the state in August 1776, and he chaired the committee. The final draft was completed by 12 March 1777 and it was adopted (with amendments) on 20 April 1777. Jay was absent when the state constitution was adopted. His mother had died on 17 April and he departed for home. Subsequent to the adoption of the state constitution, John Jay was appointed chief justice of the New York Supreme Court, which held its initial session on 9 September 1777. He was re-elected to Congress on 10 November 1778. The New York constitution prohibited Jay from holding any other office, but an exception permitted a man to be in Congress on a “special occasion.” At the time, the exception included a dispute between New York and Vermont. He arrived on December 7, but unexpectedly, in conjunction with the resignation of Henry Laurens as president on the 9th, Jay was elected president of Congress on the 10th. He held the presidency until the following September. On 29 September 1779, Jay was appointed minister to Spain and resigned as president of Congress. He was succeeded by Samuel Huntington. He sailed for Spain aboard the Confederacy on October 20, accompanied by Monsieur Gerard, the French minister. After a harrowing voyage, including a terrible storm that jeopardized the ship on 7 November, Captain Seth Harding was able to prevent disaster. The vessel sustained damage to the bowsprit and the rudder. After reaching St. Pierre in Martinique, John Jay and Gerard changed vessels and continued their journey on a French ship. Jay finally reached Cadiz, Spain, on 28 January 1780. From Cadiz, he proceeded to Madrid, but he was not given a hero’s welcome. Although Britain and Spain were engaged in a war, the Spanish were not anxious to conduct negotiations, nor were they willing to completely acknowledge the independence of the United States. During 1782, Jay was appointed as one of the peace commissioners charged with negotiating a treaty with Britain to end the war. Jay arrived in France, and he and Benjamin Franklin, the only other commissioner there at the time, initiated negotiations with the Crown’s representative, Richard Oswald. The British foreign secretary sent another representative to keep him informed. The French and Spanish were also involved. France and Spain collaborated on their own interests. Later Jay figured out the conspiracy. France was secretly in separate talks with Britain. During September, John Jay sent his representative to England to make sure America got a settlement that was in the nation’s good, not to the good of France or Spain. During October, John Adams arrived in France and Franklin relayed his indignation with Jay for sending a representative to England without informing either Franklin or the French, but Adams concurred with Jay’s actions, ending the problem. On 30 November 1782, Adams, Jay, Henry Laurens and Franklin consummated a preliminary peace agreement with Britain. The agreement assured America of recognition by Britain with or without agreement by France. In conjunction, France was caught in a corner and she had agreed not to settle with the British until they agreed to relinquish Gibraltar to the Spanish. On 16 May 1784, Jay embarked for home and arrived back in the States on 24 July. He wrote to a friend after arriving in New York: “At

JAY

length, I am arrived in the land of my nativity; and I bless God that it is also the land of light, liberty, and plenty. My emotions cannot be described.” That autumn, the state legislature appointed Jay to Congress; he took his seat on 6 December. At the time, Congress was meeting in Trenton, New Jersey. Afterward, Jay, having been appointed secretary of foreign affairs while he was still in Europe, accepted the post, which placed him back into the position of negotiator. Talks were renewed with Spain and subsequently, Jay also became involved with the process of creating a federal constitution. He was aligned with the Federalists, Alexander Hamilton and James Madison, and from their efforts, a string of essays (The Federalist Papers, 85 essays) championed the validity and necessity of the constitution and spelled out the dangers of foreign influence upon the nation. The primary authors, Madison, Hamilton and Jay, published the essays under the name “Publius” in various New York publications prior to the Constitutional Convention. The Federalist Papers remain a treasure of the nation and still they are referenced in contemporary times as the source to better understand the Constitution. Jay was not a delegate to the Constitutional Convention that convened in Philadelphia during 1787, but he was engaged in the ratification process at the New York State constitutional convention. New York ratified the Constitution on 11 July 1788 at Poughkeepsie to become the eleventh state to join the union. The new Congress, operating under authority of the Constitution, opened its initial session on 4 March 1789. The new United States of America got its first president on 30 April with the appointment of George Washington. On 26 September 1789, subsequent to the appointment of John Jay as the first chief justice of the United States Supreme Court, his appointment was confirmed by the U.S. Senate. Later he was dispatched to England to try to finalize unfinished business still hanging over the colonies since peace was restored. At the time of his mission, Britain still retained garrisons at forts on U.S. territory, and American sailors were still being pressed into the Royal Navy. Jay sailed to London during May 1794. The Jay Treaty was consummated on 19 November 1794, but there were opponents at home. The treaty, favored by the Federalists, was opposed by the Democratic-Republicans (present-day Democrats). The treaty guaranteed that Britain would abandon its post in the Northwest Territory, but it did not cover the large numbers of American sailors in English prisons or those aboard British warships. The treaty, however, did not avert war, it merely postponed it. It was ratified by the Senate during June 1795. In the meantime, New York elected John Jay governor while he was still at sea, two days before he arrived back in New York. Jay was the second governor. He succeeded George Clinton, who held the office since 1777. Prior to his inauguration as governor, George Clinton had served as a brigadier general in the Continental Army. John Jay remained as governor until he was succeeded by George Clinton during 1801. Jay declined running for re-election; he had already planned to retire to private life. Later that year, President John Adams nominated him chief justice of the Supreme Court, but that, too, he declined, preferring to remain at his country estate in Westchester. Jay’s health was less than fair for most of his retirement years and he attributed it also to his old age. He was troubled by rheumatism. During 1813, Gouverneur Morris asked Jay to become the godfather of his child, but Jay declined due to his age. While enjoying his retirement from public life, Jay did remain involved in some of his interests. However, he also found great enjoyment while smoking his “long clay pipe” and relating stories about the Revolution that he claimed were not written and would not later be written. Nevertheless, the particulars that he shared have not been preserved. During 1815, Jay accepted appointment as the president of the Westchester Bible Society, and during the following year, he was named

JEFFERSON

200

vice president of the American Bible Society. Subsequently, during 1821, upon the death of Elias Boudinot, Jay succeeded him as president. Jay’s other religious endeavors included being a member of the Tract and Sunday-school societies. He also devoted time to instructing young men for the ministry. As the years passed, Jay’s health continued to deteriorate, and during the final months of his life, he was unable to even walk without help. Most of his nights were spent in the same way, with his children gathered around him. The evenings were filled also with visitors and reading. One of the family would read a book or books out loud. Later, on 14 May 1829, Jay was struck by an attack of palsy that stripped him of his speech and soon after, on 17 September, he died. John Jay stipulated that “there should be no scarfs, no rings” at his funeral. He also stated that he would bequeath “two hundred dollars to any one poor deserving widow or orphan of this town, whom my children shall select.” Jay’s funeral service was held in Bedford; however, he was interred in the family cemetery at Rye, New York. His wife, Sarah Livingston Jay, predeceased him on 28 May 1802. Jay was tolerant of other religious beliefs, but he was not fond of atheists. While he was in Paris, the topic of conversation turned to religion and Jay, recalling the incident, related: “One of them asked me if I believed in Christ? I answered that I did, and that I thanked God that I did.” Jay also stated that once he answered the inquiry, the subject quickly changed once more away from religion. John Jay was survived by his children, Peter Augustus (b. January 1776, married Mary Clarkson, daughter of General Matthew Clarkson); Maria (b. in Madrid in 1782, married Goldsboro Banyer); Ann (b. in France during 1783); William (b. June 1789, married Augusta, daughter of John McVicker); Sarah (Sally, died unmarried at age twenty-six) and John (married Eleanor Field).

Jefferson, Thomas (Signer of the Declaration of Independence) Thomas Jefferson, the son of Peter and Jane Randolph Jefferson, was born 13 April 1743 in Goochland (later Albermarle County), Virginia. The family lived on a plantation known as Shadwell. In addition to Thomas, Peter and Jane had the following children: Jane (b. June 1740, d. October 1765); Mary (b. October 1741); Elizabeth (b. November 1744); Martha (b. May 1746); Peter Field (b. October 1748, d. November 1748); a son (b. March 1750, died on day of birth); Lucy (b. October 1752, d. September 1769); Anna Scott (twin of Randolph, b. October 1755); and Randolph (twin of Anna Scott, b. October 1755). When Thomas was about two years old, the family relocated closer to Richmond on a plantation named Tuckahoe. Peter, Thomas’ father, had earlier promised his wife’s first cousin, William Randolph, that he would become guardian for William’s son, Thomas Mann Randolph. By relocating, he was able to keep his promise. In 1752, the Jeffersons moved back to the Shadwell Plantation. Meanwhile, Thomas Jefferson’s initial education was received under private tutors. Thomas sustained a grievous loss during 1757 when his father died. From the estate, he inherited several thousand acres of land, but he was still quite young at about fourteen years old. Three years after the death of his father, Thomas entered William and Mary College at Williamsburg, Virginia. He completed his studies and graduated during 1762, but his studies did not end there. Thomas began to study law under George Wythe. Following several years of learning the law, he gained admittance to the bar during 1767 and then established a law practice. Later, Thomas Jefferson and his law tutor served in the Continental Congress together, and both became signers of the Declaration of Independence. Meanwhile, two years after he became a practicing lawyer, Thomas Jefferson was elected to the House of Burgesses, and he held his seat until 1775. During May 1769, Jefferson became a leader of the Reform Party. He introduced legislation that would have permitted owners to grant

freedom to their slaves; however, his proposal was rejected. Later, he was responsible for legislation that “introduced measures for the disestablishment of the Episcopal Church, formerly the Church of England,” which placed all religions in the state on an equal basis. In addition, he worked to establish a public library and a public school system and a mandate that the state provide a basic education for any students who were unable to afford a private education. During his terms in the House, Jefferson remained a promoter of the Thomas Jefferson (Pictorial Field Book colonists’ rights and a con- of the Revolution, Benson J. Lossing, spicuous opponent of the 1860) policies of the Crown. On New Year’s Day 1772, Thomas married Martha Skelton, the daughter of John and Martha Epes (third wife) Wayles and the widow of Bathurst Skelton. At the time of their marriage, Martha was twentythree and had been a widow for about four years. Martha’s only child from her previous marriage, John, had died while still an infant. The wedding ceremony took place at her father’s plantation, The Forest, in Charles City, Virginia, where Martha was living with her father. Thomas and Martha had five children: Martha (b. October 1748); Jane Randolph (b. April 1774, d. September 1775); a son (b. May 1777, died June 1777); Mary (b. August 1778, d. 1804); a daughter (b. November 1780, d. April 1781); and Lucy Elizabeth (b. May 1782). Martha was well educated and talented. One writer said she was “well read and intelligent, conversed agreeably, possessed excellent sense, and a lively play of fancy, and had a frank, warm-hearted, and somewhat impulsive disposition.” Martha also played the harpsichord, which she often played along with Thomas, who played the violin (while Thomas was in France, a fall broke his wrist and he was never able to play the violin after the accident). The wedding celebration was grand; however, following the party, Thomas and Martha experienced a harrowing trip to Thomas’ estate. As they headed for Monticello, a light snow was falling, but it soon became a blizzard. The weather had become so nasty that the carriage had to be abandoned and the trip was resumed with the newlyweds on horseback, but still the weather worsened and at some points the snow had reached a height of about eighteen inches before they finally completed the trip late into the night. Upon their arrival, they discovered that all the servants had returned to their quarters and all that was available was a half-bottle of wine, which became their first meal together in their home. In the spring of 1773, the royal governor, John Murray, Lord Dunmore dissolved the assembly after it established a committee of correspondence. The Patriots — including Jefferson, Richard Henry Lee, Patrick Henry and others—ignored the governor’s action and defiantly gathered to continue business. Jefferson was known as a dedicated Patriot, but he was not known for his eloquent rhetoric; rather, he focused on behind the scenes work of the committees. As the nation continued to slip away from the mother country’s leash, Jefferson was recognized as one of the bold leaders of the Patriots’ cause. He spent time authoring a number of the documents that were created through action of the House and other literary pieces, including, “A Summary View of the Rights of British America,” which he penned during 1774. The essay was explosive and spelled out the

201 rights of the colonists and the invalid control of the colonies by the British Parliament. In his essay Jefferson declared that the colonies were connected to the Crown only because of their own conscious choice. His masterpiece followed when he was delegated to write the Declaration of Independence; however, early on, while he was a new member of Congress, a few of his documents were declined as other delegates determined that they were too volatile and subject to inciting the British. Martha’s father died during May 1773. She inherited about 43,000 acres of land and was bequeathed her father’s one hundred and thirtyfive slaves. At the time Jefferson held fifty-two slaves. By that time, he had already accumulated wealth from his prosperous farming endeavors and his growing law practice. He did not flaunt it; however, he was not totally frugal. He enjoyed fine horses, particularly Virginia race horses, but he did not ride in the races. He also built up an extraordinary library. During May 1774, the Boston Port Act was denounced by the House of Burgesses. Thomas Jefferson drafted the resolution: This House, being deeply impressed with apprehension of the great dangers, to be derived to British America, from the hostile Invasion of the City of Boston, in our Sister Colony of Massachusetts bay, whose commerce and harbour are, on the first Day of June next, to be stopped by an Armed force, deem it highly necessary that the said first day of June be set apart, by the Members of this House, as a day of Fasting, Humiliation and Prayer, devoutly to implore the divine interposition for averting the heavy Calamity which threatens destruction to our Civil Rights, and the Evils of civil War; to give us one heart and one Mind to firmly oppose, by all just and proper means, every injury to American Rights; and that the Minds of his Majesty and his parliament, may be inspired from above with Wisdom, Moderation, and Justice, to remove from the loyal People of America, all cause of danger, from a continued pursuit of Measure, pregnant with their ruin.

During June 1775, Jefferson arrived to take his seat in the Second Continental Congress. Within a few days, he was appointed to the committee charged with expanding the military. Later that same year, during autumn, Jefferson was appointed to the committee delegated to settle the dispute between Connecticut and Pennsylvania regarding conflicting claims on territory in the Wyoming Valley in Pennsylvania. The issue did not get settled quickly due to the outbreak of the Revolutionary War; however, eventually it was settled in the courts and Pennsylvania prevailed. In November 1775, Congress was informed that Ethan Allen had been captured in Canada by the British. Jefferson made a motion to direct General George Washington to contact British General William Howe to negotiate a prisoner exchange to gain the release of Allen; the motion passed. Jefferson returned to Congress during 1776, but did not take his seat until 13 May. It is believed his absence was due in part to the death of his mother on 31 March 1776. On 5 June, after Congress established the Committee on Spies, Jefferson was appointed along with John Adams and Edward Rutledge. The committee was directed “to consider what is proper to be done with persons giving intelligence to the enemy or supplying them with provisions.” Shortly thereafter, on 10 June, Richard Henry Lee, after being informed of serious sickness of a family member, returned to Virginia. Jefferson replaced him as chairman of the committee established that day to draw up a declaration of independence. The next day Congress directed Thomas Jefferson, John Adams, Benjamin Franklin, Robert Livingston and Roger Sherman to create the document. It was Jefferson who was designated to write the initial draft. It was completed on 21 June and at that time, Jefferson shared it with some members of the committee. On 28 June the document was presented to the full Congress. Some modifications were offered by Benjamin Franklin and John Adams.

JEFFERSON

On 2 July 1776, Richard Henry Lee’s motion to accept the Declaration of Independence passed twelve to zero, with New York abstaining. Two days later, on the Fourth of July, the Declaration was formally adopted. Jefferson signed the document in August 1776. The only member of Congress to affix his name on the document on 4 July was John Hancock, but it was also signed that day by Charles Thomson, the secretary. On 25 July 1776, Congress took under consideration the Articles of Confederation and the subject of boundary lines of the respective states, but there was opposition. Jefferson was among those who thought Congress should not be responsible for drawing the boundaries, while others, including Samuel Chase and James Wilson, favored Congress taking responsibility for the task. In September 1776, Congress named Arthur Lee and Silas Deane commissioners to France. Thomas Jefferson had been selected, but he was unable to accept the position. Consequently, Arthur Lee, who was already in London, replaced him. The next month, Jefferson resigned from Congress and returned to Virginia to take a seat in the newly established House of Delegates. He was succeeded by Benjamin Harrison. Harrison was a member of Congress and signed the Declaration of Independence, but his term ended during August 1776; however, upon the resignation of Thomas Jefferson, Harrison was returned to Congress. Once Jefferson arrived back in Virginia, he assumed his duties in the legislature’s lower house, where he served until 1779. Meanwhile, Patrick Henry had departed Congress prior to the Declaration of Independence to assume the position of Virginia’s governor. Henry served three successive terms and was succeeded by Thomas Jefferson. Prior to becoming governor, Jefferson, while in the legislature, worked to improve and revise the laws of Virginia. He was closely aligned with George Wythe, his former law tutor, and Edmund Pendleton as they combined their sentiments and talents to draw up a bill that would have guaranteed religious freedom in Virginia. Passage was not effortless. It took about seven years before the legislation was finally enacted. Governor Jefferson was not able to accumulate as governor the laurels that he had gained in Congress. He was faced with obstacles due to the war, and the situation in Virginia was desperate due to various problems including shortages of supplies and ammunition and, at times, even troops. Governor Jefferson seemed to be less than decisive, slow to use his authority and at times too timid when difficult decisions had to be made. During 1781, his last year in office as governor, the British arrived in force and immediately wreaked havoc. On 3 January 1781, Benedict Arnold arrived at Hood’s point near Jamestown and was met by only a solitary battery, but it was soon abandoned, leaving Arnold easy access to the shore at dawn on the following day. From there Arnold advanced to Richmond and seized it. In March another force, composed of about 2,000 troops under General William Phillips, arrived. Meanwhile the government moved to Charlottesville. On 3 June 1781, the legislature was in session and at that time, Governor Jefferson chose to pass off responsibility of leadership by suggesting that the legislature combine the government and military agencies and place General Thomas Nelson, Jr., in charge of both. Governor Jefferson, while entertaining a group of friends at Monticello on 4 June, nearly became a guest of the British. A British contingent advanced to capture him, but Governor Jefferson and his guests escaped. At the time, many of the Virginia troops were operating farther south in the Carolinas and with George Rogers Clark in the Northwest Territory, but Continental troops in the north under Marquis de Lafayette were sped to Virginia to neutralize the British. Afterward, General Washington and a French fleet arrived to complete the Virginia effort with a successful siege at Yorktown, which compelled General Lord Charles Cornwallis to surrender his entire army during October 1781. Following the victory over Cornwallis, Thomas Jefferson withdrew

JENIFER

202

from his former high profile and remained relatively out of the public eye for about two years before he was sent back to Congress. During that time, his wife, Martha, died on 6 September 1782. In 1783 he re-entered Congress and during the following year, Congress sent him to Paris to aid Benjamin Franklin and John Adams in their attempts to negotiate commercial treaties with European nations. Jefferson remained in Europe for about five years. While there, he replaced Benjamin Franklin as minister to France, a post he held from 1785 through 1789. While Jefferson was in Europe, the United States Constitution was adopted in Philadelphia on 17 September, and subsequent to ratification by nine states it became effective. The new Congress convened during March 1789, then on 30 April, George Washington was inaugurated as the first president of the United States. Thomas Jefferson served as the first secretary of state and later was vice president under President John Adams, the second president. In 1800, Thomas Jefferson was elected as the third president of the United States, essentially ending the Federalist hold on the White House; however, it was not an easy victory. Alexander Hamilton disliked both Jefferson and his opponent, Aaron Burr, but Burr would have been worse in the eyes of Hamilton. He urged a vote for Jefferson. Thomas Jefferson and Aaron Burr, both Democrats, each received 73 votes, while John Adams garnered only 65. The choice became the responsibility of the House of Representatives. After thirty-six ballots Jefferson was elected. He was inaugurated on 4 March 1801. The Marine Corps band, established by President Adams during 1798, played during the inauguration celebration, and since then it has played at every inauguration of a president. It is the longest operating band in the history of the nation and has become known as The President’s Own. President Jefferson served from 1801 to 1809. Just prior to the election during 1800, Thomas Jefferson in a letter dated 23 September to Doctor Benjamin Rush stated: “I have sworn upon the altar of God. Eternal hostility against every form of tyranny over the mind of man.” Several months after his inauguration, President Jefferson was aced with tyranny when the bashaw of Tripoli, after learning that Ali Babba (dey of Algiers) had succeeded in getting the United States to pay more tribute to assure the safety of its ships in the Mediterranean Sea, also demanded more tribute, but the U.S. declined. Consequently, the ambassador was forced to depart the country and the pirates hauled down the American flag. The next month, Tripoli declared war against the United States. During February 1801, Congress had ordered the Navy to sell nearly its entire fleet, leaving only fourteen vessels in active service. While Tripoli tried to intimidate the United States, Morocco sensed opportunity, and during June 1802, it too declared war upon the United States. Nevertheless, by 1805, the antagonists along the Barbary Coast were subdued. Naval squadrons had moved to the region, but still more ships were seized and more sailors were held for ransom. On 25 April 1805, a contingent of Marines and a mercenary force captured Derne, Tripoli, and hoisted the American flag, the first time Old Glory flew over a captured fort in the Old World. In the meantime, President Jefferson was involved in other significant events. During 1803, the United States officially assumed control of the Louisiana Territory, which it purchased from Napoleon. With the acquisition, the United States finally received total control of the Mississippi River, the waterway that led to the Gulf of Mexico. The next May, pursuant to instructions from President Jefferson, Meriwether Lewis and William Clark set out to map the route to the Pacific Ocean and explore the territory in between. The Lewis and Clark Expedition team reached the Pacific in the Oregon Territory and afterward returned to St. Louis on 23 September 1806. In the meantime, President Jefferson was elected to a second term and was inaugurated on 4 March 1805. During his second term, President Jefferson continued to be faced

with international problems with the British and the French. During June 1807, a British warship, the HMS Leopold, arrived off Norfolk, Virginia, and harassed the Chesapeake. The British were refused when they requested the surrender of four sailors. After they were ignored, the British opened fire and caused casualties, including three fatalities. Soon after, the captain of the Chesapeake received a five year suspension. On 2 July the president ordered all British warships to depart American waters. Later that year, during December, Napoleon issued the Milan Decree which led to the French moving to seize American vessels. By April 1808, France, by authorization of the Bayonne Decree, ordered that all American vessels entering French ports were to be seized. The United States came close to war with France, but it was avoided. President Jefferson served out his term without hostilities, but he was followed by President James Madison, who inherited the international problems. It was during his term that the War of 1812 erupted. By the end of his term as president, Thomas Jefferson’s health had declined. He was exhausted when he retired in 1809 and returned to Monticello. During his long political career he had made many friends, but his political adversaries had also grown in large numbers, particularly among the Federalists. His most well known nemesis was Alexander Hamilton, but Hamilton was killed in a duel by Aaron Burr during 1807. One of his closest allies was James Madison. It was Madison who, along with Jefferson, founded the Democratic-Republican Party (present-day Democrats). The combination of the Revolutionary War and his time in public service left his personal fortune in poor condition, but his dwindling finances sustained more losses due to debts his late wife had incurred that he had to settle. Nevertheless, he attempted to cope with the financial crisis. Jefferson spent time at Monticello and at his other home, Poplar Forest, near Lynchburg. He had the retreat constructed during 1816, but it was not completed until 1819. Later, his finances deteriorated further and he was compelled to sell much of the land he had acquired early in life, but still, he was unable to extricate himself from the debts. He continued the struggle expecting to regain financial stability, but to no avail. Despite his personal hardships, Jefferson was able to complete another of his quests. He was responsible for the founding of the University of Virginia. Nonetheless, due to a friend reneging on note of substantial value, Jefferson was unable to recover. As a last resort he was forced to sell his extensive library to the government of the United States, a huge loss for him, but a treasure for the country, as it became the center point of the Library of Congress. On the Fourth of July 1826, Thomas Jefferson died. It was the fiftieth anniversary of the adoption of the Declaration of Independence. On that same day, several hours later, John Adams died. This coincidence led to the idea of Divine Providence being involved, and from that came the thoughts of Manifest Destiny (westward expansion). President Thomas Jefferson was interred at Monticello. The estate has been preserved and is open to the public.

Jenifer, Daniel of St. Thomas (Signer of the U.S. Constitution) Daniel Jenifer was born on the eastern shore of Maryland during 1723 on the family estate known as Coates Retirement (later Ellerslie). The estate was in Charles County near Port Tobacco. Daniel’s father was a planter. At the time of Daniel’s birth, Maryland was under proprietorship, and as he grew into manhood he became a “receiver-general,” essentially the agent of the proprietor in his locality. He held the position during the final two proprietors. There is no indication that he served in the military during either the War of Spanish Succession or the French and Indian War. However, he did become a prosperous planter and a prominent citizen. Jenifer also became closely aligned with the colonial government and later was appointed a justice of the

203 peace of Charles County, and afterward his jurisdiction was expanded to include the western sector of Maryland. During 1760, Jenifer was appointed to a committee charged with clearing up a boundary dispute between Pennsylvania and Maryland. Other positions included his appointment to the royal governor’s council, and he served in the legislature (upper house). Later, Jenifer was elevated to the position of judge on the Maryland Court of Appeals. During 1773, he became a senior advisor to the governor at a time when the colonists were becoming dissatisfied with the Crown and Parliament. The Stamp Act of 1765 ignited a series of incidents that began to cause the colonists to rethink their position as loyal subjects of the king. The Stamp Act was repealed the following year, but the damage had been inflicted, and the murmurs of independence continued to become much more pronounced. Jenifer remained as an advisor until 1776, but all the while, he had been sympathetic to the plight of the colonists and had no inclination to join with the Loyalists. At the outbreak of hostilities he was more than fifty years old, but there was no hesitation about which side he was on. In 1775, Jenifer was appointed to Council of Safety. In 1777, subsequent to the establishment of the state’s constitution during the previous year, Jenifer served as president of the Maryland Senate from its inception until 1780. In the meantime, he was sent to the Continental Congress during 1778. His served in the Senate and Congress concurrently until 1780, then remained in the Continental Congress until 1782. By that time, the war was winding down with only some activity in the South. General Lord Charles Cornwallis had been trapped in Yorktown, Virginia, during the previous year and compelled to surrender his army in October 1781. In addition, no major battles had been fought in Maryland during the war. Consequently, the state was not forced to rebuild from destruction. After leaving Congress, Jenifer assumed the position of managing the state’s finances, a responsibility he retained until 1785. Nevertheless, despite having sustained no major financial loss from damage and destruction by the enemy, Maryland still suffered from an ongoing economic depression. After leaving the position of overseeing the financial affairs of the state, Jenifer focused on his private affairs. In March 1785, he attended the Mount Vernon Conference, called to devise a way to navigate the Potomac River by building a canal that would eventually link the interior of the country with the sea. Jenifer attended and the representatives from Maryland and Virginia consummated the Mount Vernon Compact, but afterward more complications developed because the agreement was not valid under the Articles of Confederation, specifically that no state could enter into a treaty with another state unless authorized by Congress. Other problems also emerged after the compact was transferred to the respective legislatures. It became clear that the government had to be modified. That conclusion led to the Annapolis Convention held during 1776. At Annapolis, the discussions centered around interstate commerce and the construction of the canal. Although each state was asked to send a representative, only Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland, New York and Virginia delegates attended. Delegates concluded that a Constitutional Convention was needed to work out the difficulties being encountered under the Articles of Confederation. The Constitutional Convention was scheduled to be held in Philadelphia the following year. Daniel Jenifer, along with James McHenry, Luther Martin, John F. Mercer and Daniel Carroll were selected as delegates representing Maryland. The Constitutional Convention convened in May 1787 and adjourned during the following September. Jenifer supported adoption of the constitution, but one of the Maryland delegates, Luther Martin, was fearful and refused to sign, claiming that he feared “being hanged if the people in Maryland approved the Constitution.” Jenifer, upon hearing of Martin’s trepidation, quipped that Martin should remain in Philadelphia to prevent being hanged in Maryland.

JOHNSON

Following the debates and discussions that eventually led to the “Great Compromise,” the delegates were able to gain momentum, with the smaller states content that the document would protect their interests as equals with the large states. The United States Constitution was adopted on 17 September 1787, effective after being ratified by nine states. Maryland ratified on 28 April 1778, to become the seventh state. Afterward, Daniel of St. Thomas Jenifer retired to private life on his plantation, Stepney, outside Annapolis. He died on 16 November 1790 in Annapolis. He was interred on the estate (Ellerslie), but the exact place of his grave has never been determined. Jenifer never married.

Johnson, Brigadier General Thomas, Jr. Thomas Johnson, the son of Thomas and Dorcas Sedgwick Johnson, was born on 4 November 1732 in Calvert County, Maryland. Thomas, who would become the first governor of Maryland, was also a descendant of Thomas Johnson of Yarmouth, who arrived in America during 1660. Thomas’ mother was the daughter of Joshua Sedgwick. While Thomas was young, his family moved to Frederick County, where he received an education from private tutors. He was employed in Annapolis at the office of the Provincial Court, studied law under a Mr. Bordley, and was admitted to the Maryland bar. During 1762, Thomas Johnson was a delegate from Anne Arundel County to the provincial assembly. While relations between Britain and the colonies were beginning to worsen with the enactment of the Stamp Act (1765), Johnson was a fervent advocate of the Americans’ cause. In 1766, Thomas married Ann Jennings, the daughter of Thomas Jennings of Annapolis. Sources vary on the number of children (ranging from 5 through 11) that came from the marriage. In addition, the year of death of Ann remains uncertain with sources differing and most stating that she died during the early part of the war. Nevertheless, Ann Jennings Johnson is known to have been the first lady of Maryland during Thomas’ service as governor. In June 1774, Johnson was a member of the Annapolis Convention, and that year, he was elected to the Continental Congress, where he served into 1776. While in Congress, Johnson was a member of the Secret Committee. It was Johnson who made the motion on 15 June 1775 that was passed unanimously to make George Washington the commander-in-chief of the Continental Army. The next year, 1776, Johnson departed Philadelphia for Maryland prior to the vote on independence, but he was a strong supporter of independence. He was also a member of the first constitutional convention that convened in Maryland that year. Following his return to Maryland (by then, Johnson was a brigadier general of Maryland militia), he responded to an urgent call from General Washington, who desperately needed reinforcements. General Johnson participated with George Washington’s campaigns in New Jersey until February 1777. At that time, while Johnson was in command of his militia, he was elected as the first governor of Maryland (13 February 1777). Shortly thereafter, on 21 March, his inauguration was held in the state house at Annapolis. The event was memorable and included participation of the military and a thirteen-gun salute. General (Governor) Johnson’s first proclamation was a call to the militia as follows: “To defend our liberties requires our exertions; our wives, our children and our country implore our assistance. Motives amply sufficient to arm every one who can be called a man.” The interior counties answered promptly. General Johnson served as governor until 1779, and at that time he was no longer eligible to serve another term. Johnson was succeeded by Governor Thomas Sim Lee. General Johnson retired from public life and lived in Fredericktown; however, he re-entered politics and served in the House of Delegates (1780, 1786 and 1787). In 1788, General Johnson was a delegate of the Maryland convention that ratified the U.S. Constitution. Later, during 1790, he was appointed chief judge of the general court, where he served into 1791.

JOHNSON

204

General Johnson was named an associate judge of the U.S. Supreme Court during 1791 to fill a vacancy on the court that occurred when John Rutledge (former general and governor of South Carolina) resigned. Two years later, General Johnson, suffering from poor health, was compelled to resign his position on the Supreme Court. Poor health also prevented General Johnson from accepting an appointment to President Washington’s cabinet. Subsequent to the departure of Thomas Jefferson from Washington’s cabinet, Washington offered the post of secretary of state to General Johnson. Nonetheless, General Johnson did accept the post as a commissioner of Washington (D.C.), and while serving in that capacity, he was one of the commissioners who established the site of the federal capital and was responsible for the blueprint for the city. General Johnson had been a close friend of George Washington. In 1800, he delivered a eulogy for General Washington at Frederick. On 28 February 1801 President John Adams appointed General Johnson as chief judge “of the Territory of Columbia” (Washington, D.C.). General Johnson retired to Rose Hill, which he purchased during 1778 and afterward gave to his daughter, Ann Jennings Johnson Grahame. He lived there with his daughter and son-in-law, Colonel John Grahame, until his death on 26 October 1819. General Thomas Johnson was initially interred at All Saints’ Episcopal Churchyard, but subsequently, he was re-interred at Mount Olivet Cemetery in Frederick, Maryland. One of General Johnson’s sons, Colonel Baker Johnson (married Catherine Worthington), participated in various actions during the war, including the defense of Philadelphia in 1777.

Johnson, William Samuel (Signer of the U.S. Constitution) William Samuel Johnson, the son of the Rev. Samuel and Charity Nicoll Floyd, was born in Stratford, Connecticut, on 7 October 1727. In addition to William Samuel, the Reverend Samuel and Charity had another son, William, who was born 9 March 1731. William Samuel’s father, the Reverend Samuel (2), was a descendant (great-grandson) of Robert and Adaline Johnson, who emigrated from England during 1641 and arrived in New Haven that year. His grandfather (William Samuel’s great-grandfather), William (1), married Elizabeth Bushnell, the daughter of Francis Bushnell and they had ten children, eight daughters and two sons, one of whom, the youngest, Nathaniel died soon after birth, just after the death of his mother, who died at childbirth. The surviving son, Samuel (1), became the grandfather of William Samuel. Samuel (1) married Mary Sage, the daughter of David Sage of Middletown. From that marriage, five daughters and six sons were born, one of whom was Samuel (2), the father of the William Samuel. William’s father, the Reverend Samuel, was the first president of King’s College (later Columbia University) in New York. William’s mother, Charity, was the daughter of Colonel Richard Floyd of Brookhaven (Long Island), New York, and the widow of Benjamin Nicoll. A daughter and two sons, William and Benjamin Nicoll, were born through her marriage to Benjamin. Samuel assumed responsibility for all of her children from her first marriage William Samuel Johnson (Life and and treated them as his own, Times of William Samuel Johnson, E. with both of his stepsons becoming graduates of Yale. Edwards Beardsley, 1876)

William initially received his education at the family residence. He graduated from Yale in the class of 1744. At the time, William was about seventeen years old, yet he excelled at school and was designated as a “scholar of the House, under the bounty of Dean Berkeley.” William’s family anticipated having another Anglican minister among them, but he chose a different course. Following graduation, he continued his studies and earned a master’s degree at Yale in 1747; that year, Harvard gave William an honorary degree. Afterward, William, having eliminated becoming a minister, took it upon himself to study law and establish a career as a lawyer. Although William seemed to be following a path of a perpetual student, he had also been a participant in the military. William’s career as a lawyer continued to progress and his practice expanded. After establishing his practice, upon admittance to the bar, he began to establish business relationships outside of Connecticut and of those, some were in New York. There he met Anne Beach, the daughter of William and Anne Beach of Stratford and a sister of the Rev. John Beach of Newtown. William Samuel married Anne during 1749 and they had eleven children, five daughters and six sons, but only a few reached adulthood. William Samuel Johnson also entered the military. He was commissioned as a lieutenant in the Stratford militia by the general assembly during 1754, and he eventually rose to the rank of colonel. Johnson’s father, the Reverend Samuel, was compelled to leave the college in 1756 due to an outbreak of smallpox in New York. He moved to Westchester and did not return to King’s College until March 1758. Shortly thereafter, on 1 June 1758, his wife, Charity, died. He remained at the college, but during October 1759, yet again the city was ravaged by smallpox and the Reverend Samuel returned to Stratford to live with his son, William Samuel. William Samuel’s younger brother William died of smallpox on 20 June 1756, and Benjamin Nicoll, William Samuel’s step-brother, a lawyer and tutor at Kings College, died during April 1760, delivering further blows to the family. The losses caused the Reverend Samuel to fall prey to depression, but he did return to the college. During May of 1762, following the commencement ceremony, the Reverend Samuel returned to Stratford, then In June married Sarah Beach, the widow of his late friend William Beach, and the mother-in-law of his son, William Samuel. Sarah died of smallpox on 9 February 1763. In the meantime, William Samuel Johnson became interested in politics. He was elected to the Connecticut legislature (lower house) in 1761 and again in 1765. The British Parliament passed the Stamp Act in 1765 in expectation of replenishing the treasury with an influx of tax money by merely adding another tax on the colonists. The legislation provoked open defiance. Stamp collectors were harassed and some were forced to flee for their safety. Some others swore not to distribute the stamps. Word spread regarding a congress that was called to deal with the crisis, and delegates from nine colonies the Stamp Act Congress, held in New York during October 1765. Johnson attended the congress, which became the first general meeting of the colonies in open defiance of King George III, the successor of his grandfather, King George II, who succumbed during 1760. Johnson was solidly against the Stamp Act and was one of those chosen to draw up a letter in which the colonies would assert their right to determine their own policies of taxation. The pressure forced Parliament to repeal the Stamp Act during 1766, but Britain, determined to subject the colonies to higher taxes to help pay the expenses of the late French and Indian War, replaced it with the Townshend Acts in 1767. Meanwhile, Johnson was inadvertently becoming caught between the opposing causes. He traveled to England during 1766 and, as Connecticut’s representative charged with settling the colony’s title to Indian lands, Johnson did not return to Connecticut until 1771. That year he was returned to the legislature (upper house), where he

205 remained until 1775. In the meantime, during 1772, Johnson was appointed to the Supreme Court of Connecticut, a post he held until 1774. All the while, the relations between Britain and the colonies continued to worsen. The crisis for Johnson on a personal basis was overwhelming. He had been a prominent advocate of the rights of the colonists, but as the nation moved closer to war, he was reluctant to sever his longstanding ties with the British. While he spent time in the mother country, many new relationships developed to accompany the family ties to the Anglican Church. He even received an honorary degree from Oxford University before sailing for home. Not too long after Johnson’s arrival back in Connecticut, his father died on 6 January 1772. The crisis in the colonies continued to deteriorate, creating more pressure upon Johnson. During May 1773, Parliament enacted the Tea Act, which led to open resistance (Boston Tea Party) in December. Britain retaliated with the Intolerable Acts of March 1774, which included the Boston Port Act, which sealed the port of Boston. Afterward, the colonies galvanized to support the Bostonians. In the meantime, the colonists sought reconciliation with Britain, but simultaneously they began to establish a war footing. Johnson preferred reconciliation, but his stance carried severe repercussions. He declined election to the First Continental Congress, an action looked upon by his fellow townsmen as anti–American and pro–Loyalist; however, it was noted in his biography that he declined due to a previous commitment as arbitrator on a case involving the van Rensselaer estate in Albany and was excused from serving. Johnson was replaced at the First Continental Congress in September 1774 by Silas Deane. Afterward, his political fortunes spiraled downward. Soon after declining service in Congress, his commission as colonel of militia was invalidated. Nonetheless, Johnson continued to work to bring about reconciliation, but his efforts only increased his unpopularity. On 19 April 1775, the British clashed with the Minute Men at Lexington and Concord. The British were chased back to Boston with militia harassing the column as it retreated. Troops from other colonies began to hurriedly speed to Boston. Reconciliation had reached the breaking point and the war commenced, but some, including Johnson, remained convinced negotiation could resolve the hostilities. The assembly selected Johnson and Erastus Wolcott (House member) as a delegation to carry a message to the British that contained the imprint of the seal of the colony and the signature of George Wyllys, secretary. Initially the mission was interesting. As they reached Enfield and encountered a contingent of delegates traveling to the Second Continental Congress, Johnson noted their enthusiasm, including the jubilation of one of the men who was overjoyed that the battle was finally underway. Later, Johnson and Wolcott paused at a tavern in Springfield where they encountered yet another delegate, John Adams, who was also en route to Philadelphia. After spending the night in the company of Adams, they resumed their trek and finally arrived at Charlestown, only to discover that their entry into Boston was blocked by British sentries. Word was sent out to a warship in the harbor and afterward a barge was sent to transport the two Americans out to ferry them to their destination. After reaching Boston, Johnson was astonished at the sight. The streets were completely deserted. By chance they encountered a British officer, Major Monchief, who knew Johnson from days gone by, and only through his efforts were they able to find where British General Thomas Gage was headquartered. They delivered the message from Connecticut and he greeted them enthusiastically; however his official response was not handed to Johnson and Wolcott for about two days. Once they received his reply they started back to Connecticut, totally unprepared for the greeting that awaited them. Once back in Charlestown, they returned to the inn to retrieve their

JOHNSON

horses, but the innkeeper ignored their repeated requests to bring their horses so they could continue their journey. While they were being detained, Johnson and Wolcott were greeted by the local sheriff, who escorted the pair to the Massachusetts Convention then in session. After some interrogation, Johnson and Wolcott were sent on their way. At Windsor, Johnson continued to Hartford while Wolcott remained, having reached his hometown. In 1779, subsequent to the incursions by Governor William Tryon, some citizens of Stratford, Connecticut, became fearful of another invasion by the New Yorkers under Tryon. Johnson was approached and asked to travel and confer with Tryon to persuade him to not invade and destroy Stratford. Johnson declined, but the citizens persisted, and not having learned his lesson from his visit with General Gage, he acquiesced. After the townsmen created a formal document dated 12 July 1779 detailing the purpose of the mission and establishing the authenticity of the town meeting, he agreed to go to see Tryon. Word of the mission was carried to Major General Oliver Wolcott at Horseneck and he reacted instantly by dispatching a contingent under Colonel Jonathan Dimon. The incident was investigated and a report was sent to General Wolcott, who again responded rapidly, instructing Colonel Dimon: “You are, therefore, Sir, directed to send, under guard or otherwise, Dr. William Samuel Johnson, of Stratford, to the town of Farmington, and deliver him to the care and custody of the civil authority of that town, and request of them that they would secure or keep him under such proper restraints as to prevent his having any correspondence with the enemy.” Johnson convinced the escort party that he would travel alone to Falmouth and surrender himself. Afterward he arrived and appeared in front of the civil authorities, who granted him parole to travel to Lebanon to meet with Governor Jonathan Trumbull. After meeting with the governor, Johnson met with the council and presented his case, which clearly laid out his innocence with regard to conspiring with the enemy. He explained how he had also encouraged enlistments in the American military and he offered to take the oath of allegiance and that he had personally contributed to the cause, offering his property in assistance of the army. Johnson was permitted to return to Stratford and no further proceeding regarding the matter ever occurred. The earlier charges against him faded away and his reputation within Connecticut and the other colonies remained unscathed. After the war, in late 1782, Johnson was appointed to a committee composed of Connecticut representatives to settle the ongoing controversy regarding the Wyoming Valley, coveted by Connecticut and Pennsylvania. The respective commissioners, acting pursuant to directions from Congress, met in Trenton, New Jersey. Johnson was accompanied by Colonel (later general) Eliphalet Dyer and Jesse Root, the other two commissioners from Connecticut, and they presented their case in a trial that became known as the “Great Susquehanna Case.” Johnson staunchly presented Connecticut’s claims, but the court ruled in favor of Pennsylvania. Johnson was elected to the Continental Congress and served from 8 November 1784 until 8 May 1787. He was also selected as a delegate to the Constitutional Convention, which convened in Philadelphia during May 1787. Although he was essentially a pacifist during the war and unable to sever his roots in England, that decision was no longer a problem for him; his new task was to help formulate a new government with an effective and fair rule of law. Johnson supported the adoption of the Constitution, and he used his skills on and off the floor to bring about compromise and a successful conclusion to the convention. Another of the delegates, William Pierce, one who did not sign the U.S. Constitution, described Johnson as follows: “Johnson possesses the manners of a Gentleman and engages the Hearts of Men by the sweetness of his temper, and that affectionate style of address with which he accosts his acquaintance ... eloquent and clear, always abounding with

JONES

206

information and instruction.... [He is] one of the first classics in America.” Johnson, throughout the convention, took the floor and made speeches. While he favored extended federal authority, he retained his belief that each state should be equal, rather than a small state like his, Connecticut, being dominated by the larger ones. A compromise brought forth by New Jersey proposed equal representation by two senators for each state, but representation by population in the House, known as the “Great Compromise.” The United States Constitution was adopted on 17 September 1787, effective upon ratification by nine states. Johnson was a member of the Committee of Style, which composed the final document. Connecticut ratified the Constitution on 9 January 1778 to become the fifth state to join the union. Later, New Hampshire ratified on 21 June 1788 to become the ninth state. Johnson supported the ratification of the Constitution during the state convention, and he is known to have been especially pleased with the Constitution’s legal clause, to which he contributed, particularly regarding governmental use of force as follows: “The force, which is to be employed, is the energy of Law; and this force is to operate only on individuals, who fail in their duty to their country.” Also in 1787, Johnson became the president of Columbia College. He succeeded Joseph Reed, the latter having recommended Johnson for the position that his father once held. The new Congress, operating under the authority of the Constitution, convened in March 1789 and with its inception, the Congress that operated under the Articles of Confederation was terminated. William Samuel Johnson was among that initial group that formed the new Congress. He served as senator from 1789 until 1791. While in the Senate, Johnson was a proponent of the Judiciary Act of 1789, which defined the powers and limitations of the federal judicial system. Johnson usually aligned himself with the Federalists; however, when the discussions and debates centered around presidential power regarding authority to dismiss cabinet members without concurrence from the Senate, Johnson opposed the action. Nevertheless, the side on which Johnson stood failed to prevail on that issue. When Congress relocated to Philadelphia at the close of the First Congress in 1790, Johnson chose to remain in New York to continue his work as president of the college. He remained in that post until 1800. During his tenure the school’s educational credentials were improved, but in addition, because of his status in the Anglican Church as an active lay member, the college also retained its conspicuous pride in its religious atmosphere. Prior to his retirement, his wife, Anne, died. However, he remarried. Johnson noted in his diary (entry 8 December 1800) that he, accompanied by his son Charles, traveled to Kent by carriage. On the following day, 9 December, he “executed contract of marriage to Mrs. [Mary Brewster Beach, a relative of his first wife] Beach.” From Kent, they traveled to Newtown, and from there they returned to his estate on the 10th, and then they got married, with the Reverend Baldwin officiating at the ceremony. Following the termination of his service at Columbia, Johnson returned to Connecticut, where he resumed his private life in Stratford. By that time, his health had become poor due to several ailments, including feebleness, loss of hearing and a recurrent tremor in his hand; however, despite his ill health, his faculties remained intact. One of Johnson’s immense pleasures was the time spent reading books from the vast supply of classics held in his personal library. Johnson succumbed at his estate on 14 November 1819 at age ninetytwo. He was interred in Stratford in the family vault, alongside the remains of his first wife at the Old Episcopal Cemetery. During his lifetime, he had composed a book of prayers that were preserved, and some give a vivid picture of his religious fervor and convictions. One was probably composed during the French and Indian War. It stated in part:

Bless thy universal Church, and preserve it from all error. Defend the Protestant cause. Preserve the life of our sovereign, King George [George II]. Bless his counsels at home and his arms abroad, and give to him, and all other Christian kings, princes, governors, magistrates, and ministers, both of State and religion, wisdom, virtue and integrity and make them real blessings to mankind in the exalted stations they possess. Send thy blessing upon the British nation and colonies in general and this colony in particular. Defend us from our enemies now in arms against us, and give us to triumph over them, and to reduce them to reasonable terms of peace.

Jones, Brigadier General Allen Allen Jones, the son of Robert (known as Robin) and Sarah Cobb Jones, was born in North Carolina (Halifax County) on 24 December 1739. Allen’s father was a lawyer and an agent of Lord Grenville, a proprietor of North Carolina. Having been raised in an affluent family, Allen and his brother William (also a brigadier general) were sent to England to receive their education. Nevertheless, despite the strong family ties with the mother country, Allen returned to North Carolina and established himself in Northampton County (Mt. Gallant). Allen later became a lawyer, a profession he practiced before and after the Revolutionary War. Allen’s brother, Willie, settled on the opposite side of the Roanoke River at Halifax. Although Allen and Willie spent time in England to receive their respective educations at Eaton, neither displayed any signs of siding with the Loyalists in America when relations with Great Britain began to deteriorate. North Carolina Patriots defied the royal governor, Josiah Martin, and held four provincial congresses before independence was declared on 4 July 1776. Soon after the declaration, another congress convened. In each of the five congresses, Allen Jones was a delegate representing Northampton County. These included the state convention that convened at New Bern on 25 August 1775 and the convention that followed at Halifax during early April 1776. Meanwhile, on 9 September 1775, Jones was appointed colonel of militia (Northampton) and he was also on the identical day, appointed to the committee of safety (Halifax district). On 4 April 1776, not long after the victory over the Highlanders at Moore’s Creek Bridge (27 February), a new convention convened. Allen, who lacked military experience, was appointed a brigadier general of North Carolina militia (Halifax District) on 5 May. Others appointed brigadier generals at that time were John Ashe (Wilmington District); Edward Vail (Edenton District); Griffith Rutherford (Salisbury District); Thomas Person (Hillsborough District); and William Bryan (New Bern District). Meanwhile, on 8 April, a committee was formed to investigate the “usurpations and violences committed by the King and Parliament of Britain.” The members included Cornelius Harnett, Allen Jones, Thomas Jones, General Thomas Person and others. Later that year, another provincial congress convened (12 November 1776 to 10 December 1776) and General Jones also attended it as a delegate. He was appointed to a committee charged with drawing the state constitution and its bill of rights. During the following year, on 7 April 1777, the North Carolina Senate held its first session, According to state records, General Jones was a senator representing Northampton County, and he served for several terms. On 12 August 1778, General Jones was elected as speaker in place of senator Whitmel Hill, who had been elected to the Continental Congress. On 25 October 1779, General Jones was elected to the Continental Congress. Soon after, on 1 November 1779, General Jones penned a letter to the North Carolina Assembly that contained a recommendation (which was approved) that Colonel Thomas Eaton, the senior colonel in Jones’ brigade, be appointed brigadier general. Eaton commanded the brigade in various contests, including the Battle of Guilford Court House. General Jones did not spend a lot of time in the field; rather, most of his accomplishments were in his service as a statesman; however,

207 despite his reluctance to move into South Carolina, he did lead a 5-man contingent to join with General Horatio Gates during 1780. In the meantime, during 1779, General Jones was elected to Congress. He served into 1780, when he was succeeded by his brother Willie (William). After the war, General Jones was elected to the North Carolina Senate during 1784. He remained in the Senate until 1787. General Jones was a delegate to the state convention that met in Hillsborough during July 1788 when the North Carolinians, against the feelings of General Allen, postponed the adoption of the U.S. Constitution. General Allen was a fervent advocate of the Constitution. North Carolina finally ratified the Constitution on 21 November 1789 at Raleigh to become the 12th state in the union. General Allen Jones succumbed on 10 November 1798. Throughout his political career (post Revolution), General Allen Jones, unlike his brother, General Willie Jones, remained a staunch Federalist. Through the marriages of his daughters, Jones’ sons-in-law included Governor (General) William Richardson Davie, General Thomas Eaton, Colonel William R. Davie (later governor and brigadier general, U.S. Army, married Sarah Jones) of North Carolina and Judge Sitgreaves. Also, John Paul Jones is known to have spent time in North Carolina, where he became friends with Allen and Willie Jones. Various nineteenth century sources have recorded that John Paul Jones added Jones to his name, which had been John Paul, out of his admiration of the Jones brothers. General Allen Jones married at least twice, with Rebecca Edwards becoming his first wife. Rebecca died during 1782. In his will, dated 4 July 1807, his wife Mary Jones was mentioned. (See also, Jones, Brigadier General William [Willie].)

Jones, John Paul John Paul, Jr. ( Jones was added later), the son of John and Jean MacDuff Paul, was born on 6 July 1747, at the Arbigland estate, located in Kirkbean Parish, Kirkcudbright County (formerly Royal Stewartry), Scotland. John’s father, a Calvinist, was a gardener and his mother was the daughter of a peasant farmer. In addition to John, his parents had two children who died in infancy, and then William, Elizabeth, Janet, and Maryann. John worked the farm as a young boy, but in 1759, while he was only about twelve years old, with permission from his parents, John traveled to Whitehaven, the primary English port at Firth. Once there, John became an apprentice to a Mr. Younger, a merchant. His land-locked days soon after came to an end when he was assigned to the vessel, Friendship, which was commanded by Captain Benson. The ship’s destination was Virginia, where coincidentally, John’s older brother William was living in Fredericksburg. While the ship remained in port, John was able to spend the time at the home of his brother. Upon his return to England, he continued his service with Mr. Younger, but the business failed. John was released from his indenture. From his early youth, John was drawn to the sea, and he continued to learn navigation techniques, which helped him to get started as a mariner, but since his visit to America, he had also determined that he would return. In the meantime, he gained a position on the slaver King George as third mate. The vessel operated out of Whitehaven. He remained in that position until 1768. That year he was a passenJohn Paul Jones (Life of John Paul ger on another vessel, the Jones, James Otis, 1900).

JONES

John, a brigantine that was en route to Kirkcudbright. During the voyage, tragedy struck when the captain and the mate both died from fever. The crew asked John to get them safely back to port. With John Paul in command, the vessel returned to port and the owners of the vessel were jubilant that it was not lost. They showed their appreciation by appointing him the master. Afterward, he made two voyages to the West Indies, but upon his return from the second trip, the partners in the company, Currie, Beck and Co., dissolved the partnership. The owners, however, gave John Paul a letter, dated 1 April 1771, affirming his skills and ability to command a ship. He then switched careers and became a trader. He commenced his business with the Isle of Man (Great Britain in the Irish Sea) and after that venture, he returned to the sea after receiving command of a ship, the Betsy, which operated out of London. During that endeavor, he initiated trade for himself with Tobago and Grenada in the West Indies. However, his business was abruptly interrupted during 1773 upon the death of his brother, who had no heirs. John Paul traveled to Fredericksburg, Virginia, to settle his brother’s affairs. Details of his activity prior to his entrance into the Continental Navy are unclear, but it is known that he had some financial setbacks, due in part to being unable to collect on his investments in the West Indies and problems incurred with settling his brother’s estate. At some point during that period John Paul added Jones to his name. According to the Jones family, John became acquainted with two brothers, Allen and Willie Jones, friends of his brother William, and because of his admiration for them, he added their name to his. While John Paul Jones stayed in Virginia he was introduced to other prominent Virginians, including Joseph Hewes. Those contacts secured a position for Jones in the Continental Navy. On 22 December 1775, he was appointed as a first lieutenant along with others, including Rhodes Arnold, Lieutenant (first name unknown) Stansbury, Hersted (Hoysted) Hacker and Jonathan Pitcher. On that same day, according to legend, Jones boarded the Alfred, and in the absence of the captain, Dudley Saltonstall, Jones hoisted the American flag and, according to legend, remarked: “I hoisted with my own hands, the flag of freedom the first time it was displayed on board the Alfred.” Just prior to that, Congress established a Naval Committee on 13 October 1775, considered the day the U.S. Navy was established. During the following year, Jones participated when an American fleet sailed to New Providence in the Bahamas and on 3 March sailors and Marines landed, captured the powder and seized the royal governor. The troops raised the American flag, the first time Old Glory was raised in a foreign land. While returning to America, the fleet encountered a British warship, but at the time on some of the American ships, the crew had become inebriated and the fleet sustained damages and casualties. The HMS Glasgow was able to escape. After the fleet arrived back in port, Captain Tom Hazard of the Providence was dismissed from the service for his actions during the contest. In his place, Jones was promoted to captain and given command of the Providence. On 12 May, Jones, aboard the Providence, sailed from Providence, Rhode Island, en route to New York to deliver a contingent of troops which had been loaned to Commodore Esek Hopkins from General Washington. Afterward, the sloop Providence set out to sea. During the cruise (spring–summer), the HMS Solebay, while cruising off Bermuda, spotted the Providence, but Jones went into action. The American warship fired upon the British ship, then sped away and safely avoided a major battle. Later, while the Providence was off Nova Scotia, it encountered the HMS Milford, but again, the Providence avoided getting snagged and the pursuit by the Milford was fruitless. The British fired repeatedly, but none of their shells hit the mark. After outwitting the Milford, the Providence resumed its hunt for British vessels. The Providence encountered a British schooner and sank it, then moved against another British vessel and sank it before spotting yet a third British vessel, which was

JONES

208

captured off Canada in Canso Bay. All the while, the fleet under Esek Hopkins remained in port at Newport, Rhode Island. Before returning to port, Jones had captured eight British vessels, sunk eight others and devastated the British Ile Madame fishing fleet. By November 1776, Jones became captain of the Alfred when he succeeded Captain Saltonstall (reassigned). On 1 November the Alfred and the Providence embarked to raid Cape Breton (formerly Isle Royale). During the cruise, on 10 November, the diminutive squadron encountered the British merchant ship, the brigantine Active, and seized it the next day. On 12 November, Jones seized the Mellish, a 350-ton armed transport which was carrying valuable cargo. According to Marine Lt. Trevett, it included “10,000 suits of Soldiers Clothing, ready made 1 set light horse accoutrements with carbines and a valuable invoice of medicine chests! ... trunks of Silk gowns and dry goods suitable for General Burgoyne’s army at Quebec.” In conjunction with the seizure, John Paul Jones noted: “Her capture will make Burgoyne shake a cloth in the wind and check his progress on the lakes.” The bonanza was transferred to George Washington’s troops. The cruise terminated successfully and the Alfred arrived at Boston on 14 December 1776. During January 1777, Jones received command of a squadron (Alfred, Cabot, Columbus, Hampden and the sloop Providence); however, Esek Hopkins interfered by raising opposition, which prompted the Marine Committee to side with Hopkins and order the mission to be aborted. Later, on 14 June 1777, Congress suspended the command of Captain John Roach, commanding officer of the Ranger, and appointed Jones captain. Congress resolved to dispatch him to raid the coast of England, and his instructions included the following: “We shall not limit you to any particular cruising station but leave you at large to search for yourself where the greatest chance of success presents.” Although Jones received command of the Ranger, Congress also promised Jones the command of the America (74 guns), but it was two years from completion. Meanwhile, the Ranger was short crew members, which caused the cruise to be delayed until November. On 2 November 1777, the Ranger sailed from Portsmouth on its cruise into enemy waters. According to legend, after Jones boarded the vessel, he raised the colors and stated: “That flag and I are twins born in the same hour from the same womb of destiny. We cannot be parted in life or death. So long as we can float, we shall float together. If we must sink, we shall go down as one.” The Ranger was the first warship to fly the Stars and Stripes. The ship reached Lower Brittany on 2 December and moved into the port at Nantes with two additional vessels, which were captured while the Ranger crossed the Atlantic. Once in France, Jones traveled to confer with Benjamin Franklin and acquire a new ship, the L’Indien; however, his inquiry received no straight answers and he did not get the ship. Instead, the American ministers gave the ship to the French. On 14 February 1778, the Ranger arrived in Quiberon Bay (Brittany) and encountered a French fleet. The Ranger rendered a salute to the French commander and soon after, the French returned a ninegun salute, which was France’s official acknowledgment of the American flag as a national flag. If the French did not return the salute, it would have effectively dismissed the United States as a sovereign nation. During that incident, John Paul Jones had been the first American to dip the colors; however he was also the last to dip the colors to another country’s naval ship. The United States never again dipped the colors except to return the salute to another ship. The Ranger launched its raids against the British coast and included a strike against Whitehaven. When the Ranger arrived back at Belfast Lough in hope of discovering the HMS Drake, Captain Jones’ crew was reluctant to initiate an attack and some of the crew incited mutiny. However, a Marine lieutenant learned of the scheme and informed Captain Jones. When a mutineer closed upon Jones, he suddenly found

that Jones’ pistol was pressed against his head. The mutiny was immediately terminated. Afterward, Jones made his move and approached the British warship innocently with the guns of the Ranger concealed and no outward signs of being an enemy warship. The British sent a boat to board the Ranger and once aboard, they were informed that they were prisoners of the United States Navy. Afterward, the Ranger moved away sheepishly, leaving the British to wonder what happened to their boarding party. The Drake moved to identify the Ranger and demanded that the ship raise the British ensign, but to their surprise, they were unable to identify the flag and inquired about its origin. A response was immediately returned: “The American Continental ship Ranger.” Just as the Drake was introduced to the Stars and Stripes, a battle ensued, and after being pummeled by the Ranger’s guns and Marine sharpshooters, the British ensign was lowered. By then, the British captain had been killed. The Drake was the first major British warship to be captured by the U.S. Navy. After concluding another successful cruise, John Paul Jones and the Ranger arrived back at Brest, France, on 8 May. Lt. Thomas Simpson, the instigator of the mutiny, was released from custody and he was given command of the Ranger, under orders to sail back to the United States. The American minister ignored the charges lodged against Simpson and authorities in the United States concurred. Meanwhile John Paul Jones, having been belittled by the action of the ministers, was stranded in Paris, France, without a ship. Captain Jones, after languishing in Paris for the remainder of the year, finally received a ship, a worn out French vessel, the Duc de Duras (Bonhomme Richard) on 10 January 1779. Meanwhile, another vessel, the Alliance, captained by a Frenchman, Captain Pierre Landais (in the Continental service), was en route to France to join with Jones. Prior to embarking on a cruise, Captain Jones requested a Catholic chaplain to tend to the spiritual needs of his crew, but the request was ignored. On 13 May, John Adams arrived in France and joined with Captain Jones for dinner at L’Orient. Adams, prone to having a condescending opinion of others, referred to Jones as “impertinent and ambitious.” Adams while at dinner also reviewed the contingent of Marines, who were “dressed in the English Uniform, red and white.” Adams was not pleased with the uniforms. On 17 June, Jones’ squadron, including the Bonhomme Richard and the Alliance, embarked from L’Orient to escort a convoy of merchant ships and afterward to move against English vessels, but the Alliance and Jones’ ship later collided, forcing Jones to lead the squadron back to port for repairs. The remainder of the squadron was composed of French ships in the Continental service. It was later determined that the Frenchman, Landais, refused to grant the Bonhomme Richard the right of way, but Landais’ mischief had only just begun. After getting the repairs, the squadron resumed its cruise and returned to L’Orient on 1 July. At that time, Benjamin Franklin ordered Captain Jones to raid the English coastal towns. Meanwhile, Captain Jones was again faced with mutiny by British prisoners who had signed on as members of the crew. Jones once again quashed it, and the ringleader, Robert Towers, was the recipient of 100 lashes by a cat-’o-ninetails. The others involved in the mutiny were sent back to their prisons. To fill out the crew, Jones replaced the British with American prisoners and some foreigners (Dutch, Danish and Portuguese). On 14 August Captain Jones’ squadron sailed toward England; he was the only American captain. On the 23rd of September the squadron encountered a British convoy escorted by two warships, the frigate Serapis, armed with fifty guns, and the 20-gun sloop Countess of Scarborough. Captain Jones ordered an attack and the French warships failed to move forward. The Alliance, captained by Landais, swerved away, while the Vengeance held back in the rear. Meanwhile, the Bonhomme Richard faced both of the British ships until the Pallas decided to

209 engage the Countess of Scarborough. Up to that time, the American flag had been concealed. The captain of the Serapis called for the Bonhomme Richard to identify itself and a response was sent back: “Come a little nearer and I will tell you.” British Captain Richard Pearson then inquired about the cargo and got another succinct reply: “Round, grape and double-headed shot,” and before the British digested the response, verification of the cargo arrived as the Bonhomme Richard’s guns commenced firing and the Marines in the masts also began to rake the Serapis. Both ships clobbered each other in a tenaciously fought battle. The Bonhomme Richard was able to hold its own, despite its disadvantage in firepower. To gain the advantage Captain Jones’ rammed the Serapis. Then while Captain Jones was attempting to again gain an advantage, the Alliance approached to provide additional firepower. The Alliance closed and commenced fire from point-blank range, but the guns were aimed at the Bonhomme Richard. After damage to the Bonhomme Richard, the Alliance pulled back. Following the devastating barrage by the Frenchman Pierre Landais, the word “surrender” emerged. The Bonhomme Richard was afire. The British became convinced that the battle was about to end with the capitulation of the Bonhomme Richard. As the Bonhomme Richard struggled to remain in the fight, British Captain Pearson bellowed instructions to Captain Jones, directing him to surrender. Undaunted, Jones yelled his response: “I have not yet begun to fight.” Both ships continued to batter each other from close range, when the Americans spotted the Alliance returning to the fight, relieving their trepidation of the last run by the Alliance, which the crew believed was accidental friendly fire. The jubilation ended soon after when the Alliance again fired upon the already decimated Bonhomme Richard. At nearly the same time, British prisoners seized earlier in the cruise broke from their detention cell, handing Captain Jones an insurmountable task. Undaunted, his presence of mind and lightning-quick thinking suppressed the British prisoners and, as if nothing had occurred, he returned to the business of winning the battle. At about 2200, just as the Bonhomme Richard was in even more peril, some of the crew proposed capitulation; however, the Marines and other seamen rejected the idea and Captain Jones sided with his fighting men. Soon after, one enterprising Marine undertook a dangerous task and at great risk to his life, he turned the tide of the battle, while the Bonhomme Richard remained afloat because it was clinging to the Serapis. Lt. William Hamilton crawled out to the far end of the yardarm, which was over the deck of the Serapis. While he crept forward, he was also dragging some hand grenades and astonishingly, a lit match. Hamilton dropped a solitary grenade and it descended through an open hatch to score a tumultuous bulls-eye after it landed on powder cartridges. The explosion caused the main mast to shake continuously. Captain Pearson had been unable to fire any of his cannon because they were locked against the Bonhomme Richard. Within that short time span, Pearson, who was confident of victory, saw it slip thorough his hands because of one grenade thrown by one of Captain Jones’ Marines. Captain Pearson, who had demanded surrender, was suddenly demoralized. During what was still a raging contest, Captain Pearson yelled “Surrender!” and it was Pearson who struck the colors. Shortly after Captain Jones acknowledged the surrender, a contingent took control of the Serapis and then brought Captain Pearson aboard the battered Bonhomme Richard, where Jones accepted his surrender and his sword. Afterward, both officers moved to Jones’ quarters and together they shared some wine from a bottle that had survived the incessant fire. The short meeting was the last aboard the Bonhomme Richard. Both ships were devastated, but the Serapis remained operable, while the Bonhomme Richard had neither rudder nor rigging and held about five feet of water. The Countess of Scarborough was taken by

JONES

the Pallas. The Serapis was worked tirelessly to make her seaworthy, while the Bonhomme Richard sank. After the stunning victory, Jones had more difficulty with the Frenchman Landais, but he also inherited another problem when he assumed command of the Serapis. Its hold was infested with rats. Captain Jones, who made the Serapis his flagship, gave orders to the squadron to sail for France, but Landais and the other French captains insisted that the squadron had to sail to the Netherlands to follow the original orders. Finally, during February 1780, Captain Jones arrived back at France, where he underwent another humiliation. After he arrived, again Jones lost his command, but even more distressing, the ministers directed Captain Landais to sail the Alliance back to America. Captain Jones once again found himself stranded in France without a ship. Inexplicably, he did not receive another ship until the following year. Finally he was given command of the Ariel and with it he embarked for the United States and arrived there during September 1781, one month prior to the surrender of British General Lord Charles Cornwallis. Back in the United States, Jones was anxious to get command of the America, which was promised to him by Congress about two years earlier. Astonishingly, while waiting for the final work to be completed, Congress once again mistreated Captain Jones. Rather than fulfill their word, Congress gave the America to the French to replace a French ship that was accidentally lost while in an American port. Congress named Captain Landais as the officer charged with sailing the vessel to France, while Captain Jones was left stranded once again, while the battered Continental Navy was desperate for more firepower. The actions of Congress disappointed John Paul Jones, who had been undefeated against the English and discarded by Congress. Nonetheless, Captain Jones requested permission to join on a cruise with a French fleet as a volunteer and Congress approved with the following: “Resolved, That the agent of marine be informed that Congress, having a high sense of the merit and services of Captain J. P. Jones, and being disposed to favor the zeal manifested by him to acquire improvement in the line of his profession, do grant the permission which he requests, and that the said agent be instructed to recommend him accordingly to the countenance of his Excellency, the Marquis de Vaudreuil.” In April 1783 at Porto Cabelio, word arrived informing Captain Jones that the English had signed a peace treaty. Afterward, Captain Jones expressed his sentiments in a letter, stating: “The most brilliant success, and the most instructive experience in war, could not have given me a pleasure comparable with that which I received when I learned that Great Britain had, after so long a contest, been forced to acknowledge the independence and sovereignty of the United States of America.” Shortly thereafter, on 18 May 1783, Captain Jones arrived back in the States at Philadelphia, but he had gotten severely ill while on the cruise and he remained in poor health. Captain Jones repaired to Bethlehem, Pennsylvania, and remained there throughout the summer to recuperate from the lingering fever. On the 10th of November, after being named as a commissioner (1 November 1783) to acquire prize money owed by the French for the prizes seized by the Bonhomme Richard and the other ships in the squadron, Captain Jones sailed to England and from there to France. Due to procrastination, John Paul Jones was not able to settle the accounts until September 1785. After completing his task in France, John Paul Jones traveled to Denmark on a similar mission and returned to the States during 1787. That year, Congress resolved “that a medal of gold be struck, and presented to the Chevalier Paul Jones in commemoration of the valor and brilliant service of that officer in the command of a squadron of American and French ships under the flag and commission of the United States, off the coast of Great Britain, in the late war; and that the Honourable Mr. Jefferson, Minister Plenipotentiary of the United States

JONES

210

at the court of Versailles, have the same executed with the proper devices.” Nonetheless, Congress never offered him a new command. He remained loyal to his country, but he was deeply disappointed at his treatment during the war. In autumn of 1787, he departed America for Europe. Captain Jones, with authorization of Congress, traveled to Russia to serve under Catherine the Great in the Russian Navy. He made the journey, but shortly thereafter, he discerned that he disliked the Russians and their tactics. Consequently, John Paul Jones, known as the Father of the American Navy, departed Russia and traveled to France, where he later died in total poverty and obscurity. Jones might have languished in obscurity forever; however, another American Patriot, President Teddy Roosevelt, did not forget John Paul Jones. Through his efforts, Jones’ grave site was located and during 1905, John Paul Jones’ remains were extricated and carried back to the United States by the U.S. Navy. John Paul Jones, after being interred at the Naval Academy in Annapolis, has not been alone since his remains were received by the sailors who brought him home. A naval guard remains on duty at his tomb twenty-four hours a day. Captain Pierre Landais, John Paul Jones’ nemesis, went insane during a trip to France.

Jones, Brigadier General William (Willie) Willie Jones, the son of Robert (known as Robin) and Sarah Cobb Jones, was born in North Carolina (Halifax County) during 1731. The Jones family was connected to Lord Grenville, one of the proprietors of North Carolina, through Robin, a lawyer who acted on behalf of Lord Grenville’s interests in the colony. Robin sent William and his younger brother Allen (also a brigadier general) to England. where they both received a formal education at Eaton. Returning to North Carolina, Willie settled in Halifax, across the Roanoke River from Northampton, where Allen settled. Willie, like his brother, remained a staunch supporter of the Patriots’ cause; however, Allen was known more for his statesmanship than his military expertise. During 1775, Willie Jones attended the Provincial Congress held at New Bern on 25 August. That year he was appointed as chairman of the North Carolina Safety Committee, which at the time was equivalent to being appointed governor of the state. During the following year, Jones was a delegate at the initial state constitutional convention that convened on 18 December 1776 and succeeded in framing the state’s constitution. Jones served in the North Carolina House of Commons from 1776 through 1778. His service in the legislature was followed by a term in the Continental Congress when he succeeded his brother Allen during 1780. After that, General Willie Jones was appointed as a delegate to the Constitutional Congress of 1787, but he declined the position. Nevertheless, during 1788, General Willie Jones did attend the constitutional convention held at Halifax, and he was an opponent of ratification. Willie Jones favored states rights, while his brother Allen was a staunch supporter of ratification of the Constitution. Willie’s position prevailed and ratification was postponed. Subsequently, North Carolina entered the union on 21 November 1789 to become the twelfth state. General Willie Jones married Mary Montford, the daughter of Colonel Joseph Montford of North Carolina. Mary is remembered for her confrontation with Colonel Banastre Tarleton, who was wounded and scarred by Colonel William Washington’s sword. While staying with members of the Jones family along the Roanoke during 1781, Tarleton spoke badly of William Washington in Mary’s presence and described him as an “illiterate fellow, hardly capable of writing his name.” Mary Montford Jones, without flinching retorted: “Ah colonel, you ought to know for you bear on your person the proof that he at least knows very well how to make his mark.” General Willie Jones succumbed during 1801. Captain John Paul Jones spent much time with the Jones families in North Carolina, and

according to various sources, including descendants of the Jones, John Paul added Jones to his name due to his admiration for Allen and Willie Jones. (See also, Jones, Brigadier General Allen.)

King, Rufus (Signer of the U.S. Constitution) Rufus King, the son of Richard and Isabella Bragdon King, was born on 24 March 1755 at Scarboro, Massachusetts, a section of the colony along its northern frontier that later became Scarborough, Maine, when Maine became the 23rd state on 15 March 1820. Rufus’ father was a veteran of the French and Indian War and a prosperous merchant who initially resided in Watertown beginning about 1740. It was in Watertown that he entered into a business relationship with Ebenezer Thornton. In 1745, Governor William Shirley appointed Richard King as commissary of the units delegated to participate in the Annapolis Royal Campaign. After the termination of the campaign that seized Louisbourg (1745), Richard returned home, then resettled on the frontier in the northern sector of the colony at Scarboro, Massachusetts. Richard prospered from his farming interests and from his business as a merchant. The prosperity permitted him to acquire large tracts of additional land. His endeavors included lumber that was sold to the shipbuilding industry. In addition to Rufus, Richard and Isabella had two daughters, each of whom married a physician: Mary (known as “Pretty Polly,” married Doctor Robert Southgate) and Paulina (married Doctor Aaron Porter). Rufus received an excellent education that began in a common school. Afterward, he was tutored in the classics at Byfield (Dummer Academy) by Samuel Moody; however, it came about primarily because of his stepmother. Rufus’ mother, Isabella, died during 1759, when Rufus was quite young. His father remarried, taking Mary Black, the daughter of Samuel Black of York, as his second wife. The couple was married on 31 January 1762, when Rufus was about seven years old. Rufus’ stepmother was a cousin of his deceased mother. She took a deep interest in her new family and became a force behind them as well as her own children, who followed. They were Richard, Isabella, Dorcas, William (became first governor of Maine), Betsey, and Cyrus (member of Congress and also major general, 6th Massachusetts militia). Rufus later became aligned with the Patriots, but circumstances and events in Scarboro during his youth made his choice somewhat extraordinary. His father, after moving to Scarboro and acquiring wealth and prominence, caused difficulties with some of the townspeople who resented his dominance with regard to the affairs of the town, but worse, he remained solidly behind the British Crown and Parliament as far back as the infamous Stamp Act of 1765. Richard’s allegiance to Britain and the act was costly. A group of Patriots raided his residence during 1766 and wrecked it. Rufus was about eleven years old and although no physical harm was inflicted, the sight of seeing his home being plundered left an indelible mark on the youngster. Afterward, Rufus’ father became more entrenched and he maintained Rufus King (Our Countrymen, or Brief his Tory views, which would Memoirs of Eminent Americans, Benlater bring down more grief son J. Lossing, 1855)

211 upon the family as the relations between the British Empire and the colonies deteriorated. Rufus entered Harvard in 1773, the year the Boston Tea Party was held in December. In 1774 the militia arrived at the King residence to coerce Richard King into disavowing his Loyalist sympathies. The incident caused irreparable damage to the health of Rufus’ father and the frightful event was directly linked to his cause of death. Richard died at his residence in the vicinity of Dunstan Landing on 27 March 1775, the month prior to the ignition of war at Lexington and Concord. Nevertheless, Rufus King never switched his allegiance; however, it did instill in him the necessity of “law and order” to ensure that a nation could survive and avoid mob rule. But even more complications developed when open hostilities occurred at Lexington and Concord on 19 April 1775. Other Patriots became incensed that Rufus King did not immediately rush to join the military. King, however, had other priorities due to the unexpected death of his father, which left him with responsibility of taking care of the family, which included his step-mother, the younger children, and the financial burden of his college education. To alleviate the pressure, King, while overseeing the estate, invested his share of the inheritance in the lumber industry. In the meantime, King did join an organization in 1775 in Boston, but it was not the military; rather it was political. The club that he joined became the forerunner of the Massachusetts Federalist Party. King’s education was temporarily interrupted during 1776 with the outbreak of war when the college was closed to become quarters for a short time by American troops. At the time, King turned to Samuel Moody and resumed studies in Byfield under his supervision in the interim. In 1777, he returned to Harvard and completed his studies and graduated as a scholar of the classics. By that time, King had also become an eloquent orator. Subsequent to graduation, he continued his studies, selecting law. He studied under Theophilus Parsons (later a chief justice of Massachusetts) at Newburyport and after completing his studies, King was admitted to the bar during 1780. In the meantime, at Scarboro, King’s name entered the rumor mill during 1777, due to his absence from the military. His character and patriotism came under question, but the calumny did not compel King to divert from his family responsibilities and his education. The false accusations did inflict harm, but King concealed his anger and followed his conscience. During the following year, having satisfactorily settled his family affairs, King took leave of his education and switched from scholar to soldier. By that time, the situation in New England had changed drastically since the evacuation of Boston by the British during March 1776. The British had been halted at Saratoga during the previous October, and the British in New York under General Henry Clinton were unable to penetrate the American forces along the Hudson to gain Albany. Nevertheless, despite the threat of another invasion from Canada having been eliminated, the British, who still retained Newport, Rhode Island, were a continuing threat against New England. King joined the militia to participate in the Rhode Island Campaign under General John Sullivan. Upon his arrival in Rhode Island, King was fortunate on two fronts. He was commissioned a major in the Continental Army and assigned to the seasoned regiment of Brigadier General John Glover as an aide to the general. Glover’s Marblehead Regiment had been responsible for the safe evacuation of the Continental Army from New York, and it was his mariner-soldiers who carried the army to safety in Pennsylvania after being chased out of New Jersey. That same regiment carried the army back across the Delaware River during December of 1776 during a raging storm to safely land the troops ashore on Christmas night from where they seized Trenton on the 26th of December. The offensive to gain Newport failed in great part due to the absence of the French fleet that was to provide support, but was at Boston for repairs to storm damage. General Sullivan terminated the siege on 26

KING

August and engaged the British during the retreat to the mainland. Sullivan managed to get the entire force back to the mainland on the 30th. It was General Glover’s brigade that covered the retreat. After the campaign, King resumed his studies and was accepted to the bar during 1780. His service in the Continental Army as an officer doused the false allegations regarding his loyalty to the American cause. Subsequent to the close of hostilities, in 1783, King was elected to the state legislature, but his time there was short. The next year he was elected by the legislature as a delegate to the Continental Congress. Subsequent to the close of hostilities, the nation continued to seek solution to the nation’s financial plight, and as the government continued to operate under the Articles of Confederation, the document’s shortcomings began to surface. The thirteen states were actually operating without a central government that held effective authority and contained articles such as the prohibition of one state consummating a treaty with another without the consent of Congress. In addition, there were obstacles that impeded interstate commerce. In New England, an insurrection known as Shay’s Rebellion erupted (1786–1787) in the western sector of Massachusetts. The insurrectionists, primarily disgruntled farmers, tried to halt court proceedings. The militia under General Benjamin Lincoln and others was called out to quash the rebels. During early February 1787, rebels were gathered at Petersham, Massachusetts, when they were struck by a surprise attack. The insurrection was ended and the leader, Daniel Shay, escaped to Canada. Some others made it into New York, where they were confronted by forces ordered out by Governor George Clinton. The period of turbulence once again made it clear that the Articles of Confederation had to be modified. Farther south, George Washington was in favor of building a canal along the Potomac to connect the western interior with the coastal states to increase trade, but there too the Articles interfered. Maryland and Virginia concluded an agreement that was afterward found to be invalid. A convention was called and scheduled to be held in Annapolis, Maryland, but only a few states attended (1786). Nevertheless, it was at the Annapolis Convention that it was decided to call for a Constitutional Convention to be held in Philadelphia during 1787 for the purpose of establishing a new government. King was elected as a delegate from Massachusetts, and he arrived in Philadelphia prior to the other New England delegates, but he wasn’t in need of any advice. His life experiences prior to the American Revolution and his later experiences during and after the war totally prepared him to defend his positions. In addition, he was a skilled lawyer as well as an orator. King joined with others who supported a strong, effective government and believed in the rule of law that would be fair to all. Aligned with James Madison, a fervent advocate of a strong central government, and other Federalists, King utilized his skills as an orator and as a compromiser to help bring about adoption of the United States Constitution. This occurred on 17 September following deliberations that began during the previous May. King was also on the Committee on Postponed Matters and the Committee of Style; the members of the latter were charged with drawing up the final document. The activity of the convention was done without documentation, leaving posterity no record, but Rufus King maintained notes that were preserved, giving at least a partial view of what occurred at the Constitutional Convention, which has been described as the “Miracle in Philadelphia.” After the convention adjourned, King returned to resume his congressional duties, which included ensuring that Congress concurred with the convention. Afterward, King played a strategic leadership role at the Massachusetts state Constitutional convention. Massachusetts ratified the U.S. Constitution on 6 February 1788 to become the sixth state to enter the union. During the deliberations, King, in response to concerns regarding items not included in the Constitution, acting

KING

212

as floor leader, supported a bill of rights, which helped the momentum of those seeking ratification. On 15 December 1791, Congress did ratify the first ten amendments, which afterward became known as the Bill of Rights. The amendments included freedom of religion, freedom of the press and the right to bear arms. Nine states had to ratify the Constitution to make it effective as the law of the land. New Hampshire ratified on 21 June 1788 to become the ninth state to enter the union. The new Congress convened during March 1789, and as it opened under authority of the Constitution, the old Congress terminated. In the meantime, during 1786, Rufus married Mary Alsop, the daughter of John Alsop, a prominent and affluent merchant who lived in New York. Rufus and Mary had the following children: John Alsop (b. 1788, later governor of New York, married Mary Ray); Charles (b. March 1789, married twice, Miss Gracie and afterward Miss Low); James Gore (b. 1791, assistant adjutant general of New York state militia during War of 1812 and U.S. congressman); and Edward (b. 1795, relocated to Ohio and married a daughter of Governor Thomas Worthington). Mary’s father had earlier served as a member of the New York colonial legislature and John Alsop was elected as a delegate to the First Continental Congress that convened in Philadelphia during 1774. King relocated to New York in 1789, and although his political career in New England was terminated, shortly after he resettled, he was elected to the New York state legislature. Once again, he had little time to adjust to the new post. Less than two weeks into the sessions, King was elected to the U.S. Congress as a senator. King entered the senate as a Federalist and served two terms. During that time the infant republic was still under pressure from several points. King was a strong supporter of rebuilding the armed forces, particularly the U.S. Navy. He also supported placing the security of the nation’s coastal regions under the jurisdiction of the federal government to bolster the defenses against any potential enemy threat from the sea. Meanwhile, the British continued to instigate the Indians along the frontiers, while the Spanish worked to persuade some areas in the territory west of the Ohio River to break away and align themselves with Spain. Simultaneously, the French, an ally during the Revolution, had initiated aggressive activity that erupted into open hostilities (Quasi War with France) in the late 1790s. In the midst of that tumultuous period, King lent his support to the Jay Treaty (1794), which had many opponents, but it was ratified by the Senate on 24 June 1795. The treaty mandated that Britain abandon its post in U.S. territory by 1996, but the treaty did not avert war; rather it postponed it. That year, Congress did resolve to rebuild the U.S. Navy. The hostilities with France were confined to the high seas and the conflict was settled during 1800 by the Treaty of Morfontaine, but the British continued to meddle in American affairs. Congress, at the conclusion of the American Revolution, gutted the armed forces, reducing the army to a small contingent of infantry and one unit of artillery. It also disbanded the Continental Navy and the Continental Marines and sold the remaining warships that had remained afloat. Subsequently the army was rebuilt, but the navy remained a low priority, despite Congress’ actions of 1794. King was offered a post in President George Washington’s cabinet, but he chose not to accept. When the president offered him the post as ambassador to England in 1796, he accepted. He remained as ambassador until 1803. At nearly the same time, his advocacy for a re-established U.S. Navy while in the Senate proved to be prophetic. President Thomas Jefferson was inaugurated as the 3rd president on 4 March 1801. One month earlier, Congress ordered the navy to sell every vessel except fourteen. In May, the bashaw of Tripoli demanded more tribute from America to permit passage of American shipping in the Mediterranean Sea. The American treasury had been paying the bribes since a peace treaty

was consummated with Tripoli during 1797. On 10 June 1801, Tripoli declared war on the United States, and less than two weeks later, Morocco declared war. During the Jefferson administration, the U.S. lacked a strong navy, but following the declarations of war by the Moslem pirates, a squadron sailed toward Tripoli. The conflict ended on 4 June 1805 when a contingent of Marines, supported by mercenaries, seized Tripoli on 25 April 1805. Soon after, Tripoli signed a peace treaty that included no tribute. Meanwhile, King, having retired as ambassador during 1803, returned to New York and resumed his interest in politics; however, the election of Jefferson terminated the reign of the Federalists. King failed in several attempts to gain office as a Federalist, including bids for vice president in 1804 and 1808. During those campaigns, Charles Coatesworth Pinckney was on the Federalist ticket as president; however, during 1804, the Democratic-Republican ticket with Thomas Jefferson at the top and George Clinton as his vice president overwhelmed the Federalists. Later, during 1808, Pinckney and King were decisively defeated by James Madison and George Clinton. Outside of politics, King spent much time at his estate (King Manor) on Long Island, a property he purchased during 1805. In 1813, when the country was engaged yet again against Britain in the War of 1812, King, still a Federalist, was elected to the U.S. Senate. He again assumed a position of prominence and maintained a full commitment to the causes he believed important to assure that the nation would survive. He and other Federalists in the Senate joined together to support the war, but not until after the British sacked Washington in 1814 and Congress was compelled to flee the capital. At the time, while the politicians fled the advance of the Redcoats, President James Madison was at Bladensburg observing the battle. The militia fled after seeing rockets, unaware that it was a ruse and the rockets were actually pyrotechnics. A small band of Marines and sailors held firmly for a while and then retreated, but that stand held sufficiently to allow Washington to be abandoned. Nevertheless, one person refused to leave. She was Dolly Madison. She ignored the danger and awaited the return of her husband, the president. It was Dolley Madison who saved a priceless portrait of George Washington from being destroyed, and she also saved an original copy of the Declaration of Independence. Once President Madison returned to the White House, they departed together. Shortly thereafter, the British arrived and burned the White House. The actions of the British caused King and some other opponents of the war to change their position and support the president. King later declared: “When the efforts for peace were rejected and a barbarous warfare proclaimed against us, it became the duty of all to resist, and thereby preserve the country from ruin.” After the war, King became the Federalist candidate for president, but yet again, he was soundly defeated by James Monroe. In addition to his strong support for the armed forces and for the war against the British, he was also an opponent of slavery. King proclaimed that slavery was an “anathema to the principles underlying the Declaration of Independence and the Constitution.” He also backed his positions with action. From the floor of the Senate in 1820 he spoke with great emotion to oppose the entry of Missouri into the union as a slave state. Nevertheless, Missouri was admitted and became the twentieth state on 10 August 1821. Subsequently, during 1825, John Quincy Adams, the 6th U.S. president and the son of President John Adams, requested that King again return to England as U.S. ambassador. King accepted; however, after about one year abroad, his health became poor and he was compelled to relinquish the post. Rufus King succumbed at his residence on 28 April 1827. He was interred at the Grace Episcopal Church Cemetery, in Jamaica, New York.

213 Knox, Major General Henry Henry Knox, the son of William and Mary Campbell Knox, was born on 25 July 1750 in Boston, Massachusetts. He was the seventh of ten children. His family’s ancestors originally came from the Lowlands in the southern sector of Clyde, Scotland, and went from there to Northern Ireland. During the reign of King James I, pressures forced many Presbyterians to flee Scotland. Henry’s father had been a native of St. Eustatia in the West Indies prior to coming to America. After his arrival in the colonies, he met and married Mary, the daughter of Robert Campbell, on 11 February 1735. Henry’s father was a ship master who also owned a wharf. However, during 1756, William’s fortunes turned and he lost his estate. Afterward, Henry’s father departed for the West Indies, where he died at St. Eustatia during 1762. At the time, Henry was completing his studies at the Boston Latin Grammar School. Nonetheless, Henry became responsible for his mother and his younger brother. Henry’s formal schooling ended after the death of his father. He became employed in Boston at Wharton and Bowes, bookstore in Corllhill. One of the partners, Stephen Bowes, took Henry under his wing and watched over him like a father. Although Henry had ended his formal schooling, his employment provided him with a grand opportunity to enrich his knowledge though books of every sort. Henry took advantage and taught himself the French language and spent much time studying military science. All the while, Henry was an active youth. On one occasion, on a day celebrated annually in Boston on 5 November (Guy Hawkes Day, known as Pope’s Night), he was among the youths who duplicated a celebration of the English to express their anti–Catholicism by pulling wheeled displays (effigies) of the pope and the devil through the town of Boston with the accompaniment of derogatory screaming and burning gunpowder. Two rival groups always participated, the Northenders and the Southenders. The float belonging to a group with Henry became disabled. Rather than let his group be humiliated by not finishing the parade, Henry lifted the float and carried it on his shoulders to the finish line and then participated in the usual fight between the two factions. Henry Knox was a large youth and during his later years he remained a big man, weighing in at about 280 pounds. Meanwhile, the colonies were becoming restless due to the policies of the king and Parliament. By 1770, British troops had been posted in large numbers in Boston and on 5 March of that year, violence erupted on King Street when a mob taunted the Redcoats. Henry was on the scene and acted to calm the situation, but casualties occurred when the British, after being hit by snowballs that contained stones, fired upon the crowd. During the following year, 1771, Henry left his employment to establish his own bookstore. His mother died that year on 14 December. Henry opened his business in the vicinity of Williams’ Court in the Cornhill section of Boston. As the situation between Britain and the colonies deteriorated, Henry Knox’s prosperous venture, along with other businesses, began to suffer financially. At the time, Knox was clearly aligned with the Sons of Liberty, and by the time he opened his Henry Knox (Pictorial Field Book store, he had been a member of the Revolution, Benson J. Lossing, of the Boston Grenadier Corps for several years. The 1860)

KNOX

unit was established by Captain Joseph Pierce and Knox was one of the other founders. Within the corps, Knox was second in command. During a military training exercise on 23 July 1773 on Noddle Island in Boston Harbor, his fowling-piece burst, and the accident cost Knox two fingers on his left hand. From that day he camouflaged his damaged hand by covering it with a folded handkerchief. Shortly after he was wounded, he began to receive special treatment from the ladies of the town and one particular woman sparked a friendship during her visits to the store. The conversations became more frequent with each visit and suddenly, Henry found himself enamored with Lucy Flucker, the daughter of Thomas Flucker, a staunch Tory and the secretary of the province. The relationship ignited instant fireworks. Lucy’s circle of friends and relatives were Tories and their disapproval of her sentiments for Henry rang out continuously, but to no avail. Lucy was told that she was destined to a life of poverty while her sisters would be enjoying lives of luxury. Despite the warnings, she accepted the proposal and the couple was married in Boston on the 16 June 1774. On the 20th of June, Gazette informed all of Boston that the secretary of the province had a new son-in-law. The ceremony was celebrated by the Reverend Henry Caner. Despite Knox’s new connection to the Tories, he remained loyal to the Patriots’ cause and in the process, he declined offers designed to persuade him to remain loyal to the Crown. The clashes at Lexington and Concord on 19 April 1775 severed the remaining chances of reconciliation with Britain. Shortly after the battles, Knox and his wife donned disguises to depart from Boston to evade General Thomas Gage’s attempt to prevent Patriots from exiting the city to rejoin elsewhere. Part of the operation included disarming all males. Knox’s sword was hidden within the lining of his wife’s cloak. The couple safely got through the guards and headed straight to Cambridge, where Knox joined with General Artemus Ward. Lucy Knox was taken to Worcester and out of harm’s way when the Battle of Bunker Hill erupted during June. Knox participated in the battle, but only as a volunteer. He held no rank. During November 1775, it was determined by a council of officers that Colonel Samuel Richard Gridley, a heroic veteran of the French and Indian War, had become too incapacitated by old age and infirmity to retain command of the artillery. On 17 November, Congress appointed Henry Knox commander with the rank of colonel. Despite his lack of military service, it was by unanimous choice that the officers chose Knox with the confidence that he was capable of the task and offered his name to Congress. Henry Burbeck was appointed first lieutenant colonel. When the commission was issued, Knox was involved with getting the cannon at Fort Ticonderoga and transporting it to Cambridge for use by the army, which had raised a siege of British-held Boston. Colonel Knox arrived at headquarters in Cambridge on 24 January 1776, and received congratulations from General George Washington. Colonel Knox deployed artillery in defense of New York City, and the artillerymen were bolstered by about 10,000 troops dispatched by General Washington. On August 11, in a letter to Lucy, Henry mentioned how happy he was that she was not with him, and he related the presence of the British. Then wrote in response to her question: “You wish to know how I pass my time. I genereally rise before the sun, and immediately with a part of the regiment attend prayers, sing a psalm, and read a chapter in [the Bible at] the Grand Battery. General Putnam constantly attends.” On the 28 August he wrote to his wife describing the defeat at Long Island on the 27th. On the 15th of September, the British landed at Kip’s Bay several miles above the city and he evaded capture by a slim measure by jumping into a boat and escaping to Harlem. That period was exhausting for both sides. On the 19th of September in a letter to his younger brother, Billy, Knox wrote that he had not taken his clothes off for “forty days.” October and November were no less strenuous for the badgered American army, which was hit hard at White Plains on 28 October

KNOX

214

and lost several forts that had to be abandoned. The tide began to turn after the expeditious retreat into Pennsylvania when the Americans stunned the British with the spectacular seizure of Trenton on 26 December and the victory at Princeton on 3 January 1777. In the meantime, Colonel Knox was promoted to the rank of brigadier general on 27 December. Subsequent to the fighting at Princeton, General Knox was dispatched on a special mission to inspect the manufacturing of cannon and to establish laboratories. The task enabled him to visit his wife in Boston. The following May, Henry Knox was involved with fortifying the North (Hudson River). On 8 May, Lucy Knox wrote to her husband that she and their baby were being inoculated for smallpox, but she added a story about a Frenchman she had met who was boasting that he was commissioned as commander of the Continental Army artillery and that he was en route from Sewall’s Point to headquarters to assume command. The letter stated that he had the rank of major general. Lucy’s letter was quite supportive of her husband and noted: “Who knows, but I may have my Harry again? This I am sure of, he [Henry] will never suffer anyone to command him in that department. If he does, he has not the soul which I now think him possessed of.” The thought of yet another French officer in command of American officers was not received well. Several general officers, including General John Sullivan, threatened to resign if Colonel Knox was replaced. Initially Congress attempted to squash the opposition, but the problem was solved when the French officer, General Du Coudray, drowned accidentally while attempting to cross the Schuylkill River during August 1777, when the British were moving against Philadelphia. Upon discovering he might be replaced, Colonel Knox wrote to Congress on 1 July 1777: “SIR,— From the information I have received I am induced to believe that Congress has appointed a Mr. Ducoudray, a French gentleman, to the command of the artillery. I wish to know of Congress whether this information be true: if it is, I beg the favor of a permission to retire, and that a proper certificate for that purpose be sent immediately. I am, sir, your most humble servant, HENRY KNOX.” The British occupied Philadelphia on the 26th of September. Meanwhile, the Americans attempted to fortify several posts in the area, including those in New Jersey and at Fort Mifflin, just outside of the city. Following a defiant stand, Fort Mifflin was abandoned on the night of 15–16 November and Fort Mercer was lost on the 18th. On the 3rd of December a war council was held and General Knox was adamantly opposed to a direct attack to regain the city, due to insufficient supplies and clothing and because he believed it was impossible to surprise a fortified city defended by about 10,000 troops. Knox’s opinion was with the majority and no attack was launched. Nonetheless, the British were not able to dominate the Delaware River, making their hold on the city tenuous. During the following spring, Knox’s wife joined with him at Valley Forge on 20 May just prior to the arrival of news that France decided to align with the Americans against Britain. On 18 June, the British abandoned Philadelphia and the Americans gave pursuit. They intercepted General Henry Clinton and clashed in a major battle at Monmouth on the 28 June 1778. General Knox’s artillerymen fought there with distinction. The battle has been described as a stalemate; however, the British were compelled to continue the retreat back to New York and it became the final battle in the northern states. Subsequently, during July of 1780, a French fleet transporting an army under Count de Rochambeau arrived at Newport, Rhode Island. The next month, General Knox accompanied General Washington and the Marquis de Lafayette when they visited with de Rochambeau and French admiral de Ternay at Hartford, Connecticut, to plan a strategy to continue the fight against the British. At about the same time, word of Benedict Arnold’s treason reached the party and they sped to West Point.

General Knox, who had previously met Jon Andre, the British officer who was an accomplice in Arnold’s conspiracy to take West Point, was a judge at Andre’s trial. During the early part of the conflict, Major Andre had been captured when the Canadian expedition was unfolding and while Andre was en route to Lancaster on parole, he and Knox shared a cabin after they were both caught in a nasty winter storm near Lake George. The familiarity with Andre caused General Knox some additional stress during the trial. Nonetheless, Andre was convicted and hanged as a spy during October 1780. Major General Benedict Arnold, the traitor, escaped aboard a British warship, the Vulture. During the latter part of November 1780, General Rochambeau and General Washington arrived at New Windsor, Connecticut, and were greeted first by General Knox’s silent artillery as they approached camp. Each of the guns were prepared to fire a salute, but Knox apologized for the silence, explaining that troops on the opposite side of the river were on the alert pursuant to a previous order and he did not want to cause alarm. After conferring with Knox and Lafayette, the party was taken to Knox’s residence, where the French general was introduced to Knox’s family, his wife Lucy and their two small children. By that time, the army was suffering greatly and morale was dipping feverishly. Mutinies, caused in great part by lack of clothing and pay, were beginning to erupt in the New Jersey and Pennsylvania lines. Soon after, during January 1781, General Knox was dispatched to the eastern states to lay out the severe problems facing the army. He arrived in Boston on 14 February and announced the problems that beset the Pennsylvania Line. Despite the hardships, most of the troops persevered. On 16 February, General Washington wrote to General Knox directing him to prepare for a new campaign, with the precise objective not yet specified, but potential targets were Charleston, New York, Penobscot or Savannah. However, due to the success of General Nathanael Greene in the South, Lord Cornwallis was pushed to Virginia and that became the objective. General Knox undertook the Herculean task of transporting the artillery to Virginia, and it proved invaluable in the reduction of the British at Yorktown. Following the surrender of Cornwallis, General Washington reported to Congress “The resources of his [General Knox] genius supplied the deficit of means” which brought victory. Subsequent to the defeat of the British, General Knox was appointed as a commissioner along with Gouverneur Morris during March 1782 and charged with negotiating a cartel for an exchange of prisoners. The British negotiators were General William Dalrymple (former commander of British 14th Regiment during occupation of Boston) and Andrew Elliot. The two sides met at Elizabethtown, New Jersey, but failed to reach an agreement. That month, on the 22nd, General Knox was promoted to the rank of major general, effective retroactively to 15 November 1781. Following his duty as a negotiator, General Knox repaired to West Point. Upon inspection, he discerned that the fortifications could not withstand a siege and concluded the magazines and other structures were in very poor condition. Later, on 29 August, General Knox was appointed commander of the post. In December while discontent was worsening, a group of officers formed a committee and selected General Knox as chairman to address the problems and present the petitions to Congress. Congress considered the proposals, which included a request that the government should commute the half-pay for life into a specific amount backed by the government. The proposals were acted upon, but to the dissatisfaction of the officers. By early 1783, the situation had risen to a dangerous point and jeopardized the nation. A general mutiny threatened the army and prompted the Newberg Addresses. The personal actions of General Washington in conjunction with General Knox calmed the situation and derailed a mutiny. Congress afterward took action that was accepted by the officers. On 26 August 1783, General Washington placed General Knox in command of the army and shortly thereafter, Knox

215 was charged with disbanding it. On 25 November 1783, the British army evacuated New York City, while the American force under General Knox re-occupied it, terminating the only time an enemy force held the city. On 4 December, the majority of officers gathered at Fraunce’s Tavern to say farewell to their commander-in-chief, General Washington. That day was a blend of nostalgic sentimentality as old memories of the trying days of war mixed with the exhilaration of what they had achieved through the determined leadership of Washington. General Knox remained a close friend of Washington and kept contact that ended only upon the death of Washington. In January 1784, General Knox arrived at Boston and established his residence in Dorchester. Later that year, the general court of Massachusetts appointed General Knox, along with General Benjamin Lincoln and George Partridge, as commissioners to negotiate with the Penobscot Indians to persuade them to give up some of their lands. The same committee was directed to investigate whether people from Nova Scotia had encroached upon the boundaries of Massachusetts, while simultaneously working with English representatives to settle the eastern boundary line of the state. On 20 June 1784, Congress accepted the resignation of General Knox. Then, on 8 March 1785, Congress appointed General Knox as successor to General Benjamin Lincoln in the War Department. Later, following the adoption and ratification of the federal Constitution, he became the initial man to serve as secretary of war under the new United States Constitution. After his appointment to secretary of war, Knox moved his family to New York and resided in a house next to the one in which George and Martha Washington resided. In 1786, Secretary Knox provided Congress with an outline of his plan for the militia of the United States. The document, received on 18 March, divided the male citizens (ages 18 to 60 into three sections, the Advanced Corps, the Main Corps and the Reserved Corps; however, the plan was not adopted, as it was considered unacceptable by the people. During 1790, Secretary Knox negotiated a treaty with the Creek Nation, and on 7 August it was signed by him on behalf of the United States and by Alexander McGillivray and twenty-three other chiefs of the Creek Nation. By terms of the treaty, the Creeks relinquished vast amounts of land to the state of Georgia. Chief McGillivray on that same day was commissioned as a brigadier general in the United States Army. Later, Knox, a staunch supporter of President George Washington, came under fire by associates of John Adams and partisans who supported the French Revolution and viciously and relentlessly attacked President Washington and his supporters during a period of turbulence. Two expeditions against the Northwestern Indians terminated in failure, General Josiah Harmar’s (1790) and General St. Clair’s (1791). Finally, during 1794, General Anthony Wayne devastated the Indians and brought peace to the region with the Treaty of Greenville, August 1795. General Knox retired from his post during 1794. He retired to Maine, where he had a mansion (Montpelier) in Thomaston at the head of St. George’s River. The architect was Ebenezer Dunton of Boston. The residence was later demolished and replaced by a railroad station of the Knox and Lincoln Railroad. While in the military, General Knox invested in some privateers, but with no success. Apparently, the ships that went out to sea under his endeavor were captured. While in retirement, General Knox entered the business of manufacturing bricks, and he produced lime and lumber, but he also bolstered his venture by entering the mercantile business. His manager, Thomas Vose, later became his partner. The Knox family also sustained tragedy. On 15 January 1797, General Knox wrote in response to a letter from George Washington: “The loss of two children on which you condole in your letter has been recently renewed and increased by the death of our son [Washington], of seven years old.

KOSCIUSZKO

Unfortunate, indeed, have we been in the loss of eight children, requiring the exercise of our whole stock of philosophy and religion....” During the Quasi War with France, President John Adams called George Washington in 1798 to active service with the rank of lieutenant general. Washington named Alexander Hamilton, Charles Coatesworth Pinckney and Henry Knox as his seconds in command, but General Knox was stunned by the rank and astonished that his juniors during the American Revolution would hold rank over him. Despite his retirement, his later years still had him involved in government. In April 1796, Knox was appointed as a commissioner of the United States to arbitrate the eastern boundary on the “true river St. Croix.” Knox became a member of the general court in 1801 was appointed in 1804 as a member of the council of Massachusetts Governor Caleb Strong. Throughout his life, the general retained his love of books. At the time of his death, his personal library contained about 1,600 books and of those, more than 350 were written in French. Dartmouth College awarded General Knox an honorary master of arts degree in 1793, and during 1805, he was admitted as a fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences. General Knox also founded the Cincinnati Society. General Washington became its initial president and Knox the secretary. During October 1806, unexpected tragedy again struck. General Knox swallowed a chicken bone, which lodged in his intestinal system and caused his death. Henry Knox was interred on 28 October following services at the mansion. His remains were carried in procession led by contingents of artillery, cavalry and infantry, while his casket was carried by infantrymen to his resting place under what was described as his favorite oak tree on the grounds of Montpelier. Subsequently, the mansion was acquired by other owners and his burial place changed several times until eventually he was re-interred in Elm Grove Cemetery. His wife, Lucy, who was with him during nearly every campaign, survived him and lived until 20 June 1824. Of their twelve children, nine died during infancy or during childhood. Three survived, Lucy (married Ebenezer Thatcher); Henry Jackson; and Caroline (married James Swan of Dorchester and later John Holmes of Maine). One of Lucy’s children was Admiral Henry Knox Thatcher. With regard to General Knox’s siblings, he was one of ten sons, and of those only four survived to adulthood. His two older brothers, Benjamin and John, became sea men and both were lost. His younger brother, William “Billy,” lived beyond the war and was in the employ of Henry while he was secretary of war; however, William went insane and died about 1797. One of the many stories surrounding General Knox centered around a time when he had a large group of guests at the mansion. He ordered that horses be saddled and brought to the residence, but a problem developed when Mrs. Knox spotted her favorite horse in the group. She inquired about why her horse was there and received a reply that it was for one of the guests to ride. Mrs. Knox, in the presence of everyone, demanded that no one ride her horse. General Knox, conspicuously embarrassed, called to the groom and proclaimed: “John, put Mrs. Knox’s horse in the stable, and do not take it out again until God Almighty, or Mrs. Knox, tells you to.”

Kosciuszko, Brigadier General Thaddeus Thaddeus Kosciuszko was born in Lithuania (Mereszowszczyzna, Polesie, present-day Kosova in Belarus) on 12 February 1746 at the Chateau of Mercez Wczyzua. Thaddeus’ parents were Ludwik and Teklanee Ratomska Kosciuszko. In Poland and other European countries, it was natural for a son to become a soldier, and Thaddeus did pursue a military career. Following his graduation from the cadet school when he was eighteen years old, his school achievements reached even King Stanislaus. The king selected Thaddeus to go to France to further his studies and hone his skills as an engineer. Thaddeus initially attended school in Versailles, then he took advanced courses in Paris.

KOSCIUSZKO

216

In addition, he traveled to Brest and other French ports, and at each location, he examined the construction of the forts, which often were the work of Marshal Vauban, the preeminent military engineer of that period. Thaddeus also got an opportunity to travel to England prior to his return to Poland, subsequent to a seven-year absence. Upon his return to Poland, Thaddeus received a captain’s commission in the Polish army and was assigned command of the fortifications at Cracow. Thaddeus’ reputation as a soldier and engineer was well known in Cracow, and his credentials prompted the head of the university there to offer Thaddeus a position as professor of mathematics; however, Thaddeus rejected the idea of becoming a university teacher. During early 1776, while the Americans across the sea were desperately attempting to forestall defeat by the British, Thaddeus was still in the military and stationed in the vicinity of Somowice Manor, where the Marshal of Lithuania, the Palaine Sosnowski of Sosnowica, resided. Thaddeus fell in love with Louise (Ludwika), a daughter of the marshal, but her parents objected to their daughter’s marriage to someone they perceived as being too poor. Nevertheless, Thaddeus and Louise solved the dilemma; they eloped. Louise’s enraged father and an armed escort pursued the couple. The chase culminated when Thaddeus was intercepted. The encounter was tenacious, but Thaddeus was alone and the odds were too great. The armed escort wounded him severely and, believing him to be mortally wounded, left him along the road. But he survived. Thaddeus later snapped out of unconsciousness, but the only memento of the incident was Louise’s blood-soaked handkerchief on his chest when he awoke. By then, Louise had been carried back to the castle. Within a short while after recovering, Thaddeus resigned his commission in the Polish army, set out for France to confer with Benjamin Franklin, and from there he departed for America, carrying a letter of introduction from Franklin. Thaddeus Kosciuszko arrived in Philadelphia during the summer of 1776. When he first met General Washington, the latter inquired what Kosciuszko wanted, and he responded: “To fight for liberty.” General Washington asked Kosciuszko what he could do and Kosciuszko retorted: “Try me. I am ready to do anything.” The initial encounter with Kosciuszko impressed Washington, and as the war progressed, they became close friends. General Washington placed Kosciuszko on his staff. Although Kosciuszko first served as a volunteer, on 18 October 1776 Congress passed a resolution appointing him an “engineer in the service of the United States, with the pay of sixty dollars a month, and the rank of colonel.” By that time, Colonel Kosciuszko had performed meritoriously and his achievements had been noted. Washington directed Kosciuszko to repair to Ticonderoga, and it was there and afterward at Mount Independence where his engineering skills first served the Patriots’ cause. During the haphazard retreat from Ticonderoga, Colonel Kosciuszko was one of many officers who were unable to find his horse in the darkness. He selected another that was nearby, but on the following day, its owner, Caleb Stark, the son of General John Stark, claimed his horse and Kosciuszko was unwilling to relinquish it. Stark challenged him to a duel, but Kosciuszko declined, saying that Stark was not high Thaddeus Kosciuszko (Pictorial Field enough in rank to challenge. Book of the Revolution, Benson J. Los- Nearby, Colonel Cilley walked over and informed Kosciuszko sing, 1860)

that he (Cilley) held proper rank. The issue was settled peacefully, and on the following day, Start was reunited with his horse. Later, Kosciuszko served in the army under General Philip Schuyler and his successor, General Horatio Gates. Kosciuszko, while under Gates, reconnoitered the area around Fort Edward and concluded that the perfect spot to impede the progress of General John Burgoyne’s force as it plowed through New York en route to Albany to join with General Clinton was Moses Creek, a point slightly less than five miles from Fort Edward. Colonel Kosciuszko also designed the defenses (embankment) at Bemis Heights, yet another formidable obstacle intended to derail Burgoyne’s advance. At Bemis Heights (Second Battle of Saratoga) on 7 October 1777, Burgoyne sustained a devastating defeat on the battlefield and a humiliating political defeat. Burgoyne repeatedly moved to escape entrapment and retreat, but all routes were sealed. General Burgoyne capitulated on 17 October and his entire army was captured. The colossal loss opened the floodgates and the French, who had been reluctant to openly support the Americans, publicly proclaimed an alliance with America once word of the victory reached France. After the campaign closed, Colonel Kosciuszko was sent to West Point with instructions to fortify the defenses there along the Hudson. Pursuant to orders of Washington (14 March 1778), Colonel Kosciuszko succeeded Colonel Radiere at West Point and completed the construction of Fort Putnam, which had begun prior to his arrival. Colonel Kosciuszko’s efforts had been superlative. Eleven forts were established at West Point according to a map drawn at the time by Major Villefranche; however, the number built by Kosciuszko remains uncertain, although it is thought that he was most probably involved with each one. Governor George Clinton and General Samuel Holden Parsons were so pleased with Kosciuszko that they asked General Washington have him remain at West Point. During September 1778, a disagreement between General Gates and General James Wilkinson became more serious when Wilkinson challenged Gates to a duel. Colonel Kosciuszko acted as Gates’ second and Colonel John Carter acted as second for Wilkinson. Apparently, the duel never commenced because Gates said that firing at Wilkinson would be “like firing at his own son.” Nonetheless, the incident nearly brought about a duel between Carter and Kosciuszko, but only cross words were exchanged. In August 1780, General Washington offered Colonel Kosciuszko the position of engineer in the Army of the South and the offer was immediately accepted. On 12 August 1780, Washington penned a note to General Gates stating that Kosciuszko had been an immense help at West Point and that he (Washington) was “reluctantly” releasing him for service in the Southern Department. Three days after Washington penned the letter, General Gates sustained a severe defeat at the Battle of Camden. The debacle ended Gates’ military career. Nevertheless, Kosciuszko was sent south and he served under Gates’ successor, General Nathanael Greene. During December 1780, General Greene became concerned about the positions he held at Charlotte, North Carolina. On 8 December he directed Colonel Kosciuszko to seek a more tenable location to ensure Cornwallis would be prevented from gaining an advantage. Kosciuszko selected a location along the Pee Dee River opposite Cheraw, South Carolina. Nonetheless, inclement weather prevented Greene from advancing from Charlotte until 29 December. General Greene continued to depend upon Colonel Kosciuszko’s engineering abilities for the duration of the Southern Campaigns. Colonel Kosciuszko never faltered and his confidence in the American cause never wavered. Colonel Kosciuszko’s admirable contributions that led to the final victory were rewarded on 13 October 1783, when Congress approved the recommendation of General Washington that he be promoted to brigadier general for his “long, faithful and honorable services in the American Army.”

217 After the close of hostilities, General Kosciuszko returned to Poland. One of close friends from Poland, Count Julian Niemcewicz, who was a college classmate of General Kosciuszko, later arrived in America, joined with the general and served as an aide for the duration, but there is no record of him joining the Continental Army as an officer. The count returned to Poland with General Kosciuszko. General Kosciuszko lived to retirement, but during 1789, Poland became threatened by Russia and Austria, prompting King Stanislaus Poniatowski to appoint Kosciuszko as a major general of the Polish forces. The Russians had essentially controlled Poland for decades. It was Catherine the Great who installed Stanislaus Poniatowski (one of her former lovers) as king. He reigned as King Stanislaus Augustus, but actually he was no more than a stooge of the queen. Catherine’s ambassador had actually ruled Poland. The chances of Poland retaining its sovereignty were slim, but the odds increased when Frederick William of Prussia committed to support the Poles if attacked. Unfortunately, Frederick William’s offer of support was worthless. The Prussians intentionally remained passive while Poland was being carved up in anticipation of receiving a part of the country from Russia in thanks for not intervening. A nephew of the king, Prince Joseph Poniatowski, rallied the Poles and despite the odds, he became a formidable general who was unwilling to submit to the enemy. The Poles fought valiantly at the Battle of Zielemce on 18 June 1792 and at Dubicnska on 17 July that year. At the latter, the Poles numbered only about 4,000 against about 15,000 Russians. Nevertheless, they resisted tenaciously for about six hours, but in addition to being surrounded, the patriotic Poles were also faced with traitors within and their king was counted among them. Lithuania fell to the Russians and Prussia sent its forces into other sections of the country. Embittered Polish officers left the army and most departed the country and relocated in France and Germany. General Kosciuszko relocated in Leipsic, and while there, the French assembly awarded him with French citizenship. In the meantime, the former Polish officers, including their commander-in-chief, Prince Joseph, continued to hold deep resentment at the loss of their homeland and a desire to take it back from the invaders. The officers met during early 1794 and chose General Kosciuszko as their commander-inchief. Prince Joseph concurred, and the remnant Polish army was reformed. Poles began to converge in the northern sector of the kingdom and from there, General Kosciuszko advanced toward the first major objective, Cracow, and occupied it on 24 March 1794. Once the city was retaken, General Kosciuszko advanced against the Russian positions. The Poles’ heavy weaponry was limited to their desire to reclaim their liberty. General Kosciuszko’s army had only about 5,000 men and the force lacked artillery and cavalry. The two sides clashed at Wraclawice on 4 April and the Poles were outnumbered by 2 to 1. Nonetheless, following a gruesome contest that lasted about four hours, the ragtag Poles inflicted a humiliating loss upon the Russians. The Poles had achieved a tremendous victory and the Russian forces were shattered, unable to easily regroup. Victory seemed close at hand as the Poles moved back toward Cracow. Meanwhile, Frederick William, who earlier betrayed the Poles, was again selfishly plotting as other Polish cities were being reclaimed by General Kosciuszko’s legions. The citizens of Warsaw, inspired by the spirit of the Polish forces, rose up. Following yet another agonizing battle that lasted three days, the Poles prevailed and the Russians were evicted. The lights of liberty were spreading throughout the kingdom. In Lithuania and in Samogitia, the enemy was overcome by the end of April. Other Polish troops at Volhynia and yet others at Podolia sped to join with General Kosciuszko’s main body to bolster it against the remaining Russian forces. By that time even more progress had been made, and the accomplishments of the Poles surpassed all expectations. General Kosciuszko, who had been handed dictatorial powers when

KOSCIUSZKO

he assumed command of the Polish forces, began to form a government. Soon he initiated another offensive to eradicate the remaining enemy forces in Poland, but unexpectedly, while en route, his diminutive force encountered a Prussian army. Frederick William had silently led about 40,000 Prussian troops into Poland without issuing a declaration of war. Undaunted, General Kosciuszko’s 13,000 troops unabashedly continued their advance and attacked the Prussians on 8 June at Szcekociny. The Poles plowed into the Prussian lines and a donnybrook ensued. Close-quartered combat continued unabated for hours, with the two sides battering each other. During the melee, two horses were shot out from under General Kosciuszko. Finally, the Poles were compelled to withdraw to Warsaw, but the Prussians sustained sufficient punishment that no genuine pursuit was initiated. Eventually, the Prussians laid siege on the city; after six weeks, the Poles still controlled the city and the Prussians, about 50,000 strong, withdrew. Although victory still seemed within reach for the Poles, Kosciuszko’s plan to attack the Prussians got waylaid when an Austrian army crossed the border to support the Prussians while the Russians struck Lithuania. Nonetheless, the Poles defiantly took the offensive and advanced against a powerful combined force of Prussians and Russians positioned near Macieiowice. Fighting erupted on 10 October 1794 and escalated into a conflagration, in which Kosciuszko had several horses shot from under him; however, the persistent general mounted yet another and led a charge directly into the enemy lines. The attack was costly, with many officers either killed or wounded and captured. Kosciuszko was among the wounded (struck by a sabre), but in the midst of the bloodied field, he appeared to be one of the dead. The enemy noticed that he was alive and afterward recognized him as the fearless General Kosciuszko. He was immediately taken from the field by a party of Cossacks and afterward taken to St. Petersburg where Catherine ordered his confinement in a dungeon within GregoryOrloff castle. General Kosciuszko languished in his cell until after the death of Empress Catherine (6 November 1796). Czar Paul succeeded Catherine. As emperor of Russia, he arranged for the release of about 12,000 imprisoned Poles who were held in Siberia, and he personally visited General Kosciuszko at the castle. Czar Paul ordered Kosciuszko’s release without conditions, and in addition, the general received land grants and money. The czar also offered Kosciuszko a commission in the Russian army, but the offer was declined. Kosciuszko replied: “I have no use for a sword, I have no longer any country to defend.” Afterward, Kosciuszko stated: “I have never fought except in the cause of human freedom, in America and Poland, and I can never serve in any other cause.” During May 1797, a British publication, The Gentleman’s Magazine, published a story of Kosciuszko’s arrival on a Swedish ship accompanied by a number of other Polish officers who were also sailing for America. The article mentioned that General Kosciuszko was “incurably wounded in the head, has three bayonet wounds in the back and a part of his thigh carried away by a cannon shot....” The magazine also stated that Kosciuszko had praised Czar Paul. Prior to embarking for America, General Kosciuszko traveled to Bristol to spend time with an old friend and expected to find some solitude there, but he was greeted with military honors and frequently received visitors, including nightly visits by a British band. Upon his departure, great crowds lined the cliffs as a barge transported him to the ship that sailed for America. Once in America, Kosciuszko visited George Washington, who was in Philadelphia and he stayed, living in a boarding house operated by Mrs. Relf, near the Delaware River at 3rd and Pine (present-day Society Hill). While living in Philadelphia, General Kosciuszko continued to suffer from his battle wounds, which had not healed. He frequently wore a head scarf to conceal a wound inflicted on his forehead. Rarely did the general venture out in public; rather, he spent his time

LACEY

218

receiving visitors and painting, often portraits of those who frequented his residence. On 23 January 1798, Congress again honored General Kosciuszko by awarding him the sum of $20,000 for principal and interest of five years service. While in America, General Kosciuszko became a close friend of Thomas Jefferson and referred to Jefferson as his Aristides (a soldier statesman and Christian apologist who lived in Greece during the second century). In turn, Jefferson, in a letter to General Gates, penned on 21 February 1798, said of General Kosciuszko: “He is as pure a son of liberty as I have ever known, and of that liberty which is to go to all, and not to the few and rich alone.” Later when Kosciuszko was preparing to return to Europe, Thomas Jefferson procured him passports from the foreign ministers under the name of Thomas Kamberg, as a “native of the north of Europe, and vouched for his political innocence.” Kosciuszko returned to Europe in 1798 and, according to his memoirs, lived in France for fifteen years, mostly at the estate of his friend Zeltner (former Landvogt of Lugano, and Swiss ambassador to the Republic of France) at the Chateau de Berville outside Fontainbleau. During that time, when Napoleon was preparing to invade Russia, the emperor dispatched Minister Fouche (1807) to gain the support of Kosciuszko; however, the general was able to clearly read the intent of Napoleon, which was not to free Poland; rather to conquer Russia and enslave the Poles. Upon receiving Kosciuszko’s rejection, the minister replied: “I only wish, General, that you may never repent your refusal.” Nevertheless, Napoleon, while in Poland en route to Russia, issued a proclamation, but he forged Kosciuszko’s name, and the Poles were tricked into believing their renowned general had published it. The truth remained buried for many years, but eventually, Napoleon was exposed, clearing the honor of Kosciuszko. After Napoleon was vanquished, Emperor Alexander, the son of the late Emperor Paul, entered Paris and met with General Kosciuszko. The general requested that the Poles receive fair treatment. The emperor responded affirmatively, but said that he required a “favor.” The emperor requested that Kosciuszko “be reconciled with the spirit of my deceased father, the Emperor Paul, by accepting the little present he bestowed on you when he ascended the throne, and gave you your liberty, but which you have steadfastly refused to this day.” Emperor Alexander was referring to the money that Czar Paul had placed in a bank for General Kosciuszko and where it remained. At that time, to the great pleasure of Emperor Alexander, Kosciuszko agreed to take the gift, which by that time had grown immensely due to accumulated interest. General Kosciuszko retired to Switzerland and devoted the remainder of his life to performing charitable works in the region where he resided, Soleure. General Kosciuszko roamed the Jura Mountains on a daily basis regardless of the weather to visit the poor and distribute money to them. According to the memoirs of General Kosciuszko, his horse became used to being halted every time the general came upon a poor person and after awhile, the horse would pause on its own when passing a poor person. General Kosciuszko succumbed on 15 October 1817, following a fall from his horse and a severe fever, the latter having struck on 1 October. Having never married, Kosciuszko’s niece, Catherine Estkowa, and her children became the beneficiaries of his estate. Prior to his death, he requested that his pallbearers be composed of six “poor men.” General Kosciuszko’s body was embalmed and he was interred in a Jesuit church; however, his heart was buried separately beneath a monument in his honor at Zuchwil. General Kosciuszko’s remains were taken to Cracow in 1818 and interred in a crypt in the Wawell Cathedral. Many of the Polish royalty families are interred there as well as four saints, including St. Stanislaus, the patron saint of Poland. Kosciuszko’s contribution to the fortress at West Point along the

Hudson was greatly appreciated by the cadets that later attended the U.S. Military Academy. During 1828, a section of the Point on a slope along the parade ground was selected as a place of honor in memory of the Polish general. The corps of cadets contributed $5,000 to create what became known as “Kosciuszko’s Garden.” The boarding house in which General Kosciuszko resided while in Philadelphia had fallen into disrepair during the twentieth century, but a group of PolishAmerican patriots, aware of its tremendous historical significance, succeeded in convincing Congress to rescue the home. The National Parks System oversaw the operation and during 1976, the colonial home of the Polish Patriot was restored and opened as a museum. General Kosciuszko’s memory has been honored in various places throughout the word, including Australia at its Kosciuszko National Park, which contains Mount Kosciuszko. In the United States, two states, Indiana and Mississippi, named counties in honor of General Kosciuszko. In New York state, two bridges are named in his honor, one above Albany and another along the Brooklyn Queens Expressway. And in Poland, the streets and various places named in his honor are too numerous to mention.

Lacey, Brigadier General John John Lacey, the son of John and Jane Chapman Lacey, who were Quakers, was born in Bucks County, Pennsylvania, on 4 February 1755. John’s father inherited a plantation from his father and a share in a grist mill. Later, John, Sr., purchased the other share in the grist mill and expanded the family business by establishing a sawmill. John Jr.’s mother was the daughter of Abraham and Susan Chapman. John, Jr., received only a fundamental education, which was not unusual at the time in a family of Quakers. John mentions in his memoirs that his teacher was not very good at spelling or mathematics and had no knowledge of grammar. The primary books in the country Quaker schools where John resided consisted of the “Bible and Testament and Dilworth’s spelling book.” When John reached about age fourteen, his schooling ended and he began to work with his father on the farm and at the grist and saw mills. During the early 1770s, John got to see part of the frontier when he accompanied his great uncle, Zebulin Heston, when he traveled to the Ohio River to visit the Delaware Indians who had relocated along the Ohio River after being pushed out of Bucks County by the colonists. In 1775, John Lacey was appointed captain of a unit of the Associators (formed by men from Buckingham and Wrightstown). He later described himself at that time as “being young and full of fire; Patriotism beat high in my breast.” Lacey’s commission was dated 5 January 1776. Congress had ordered the recruitment of several regiments and Captain Lacey, by 12 February 1776, had raised his contingent, composed of 85 non-commissioned officers and privates. Other Quakers joined with Lacey, but due to their religious convictions and interference with their Quaker meetings, they withdrew. Lacey, however lost no enthusiasm for the Patriots’ cause, and his determination to fight for his country caused him to be excommunicated from the Society of Quakers. He was visited several times in an attempt to convince him to lay down his arms, but he refused. Afterward, he was informed of his excommunication by the following message: “Whereas John Lacey Jr., hath had his birth and education amongst Friends; but hath so far diviated from the principles of Friends to learn the art of War; and having been treated with on that account, but not coming to a sence of this error, we give forth this our Testimony against such practices and can have no further Unity with him as a Member of our Society untill he comes to a sence of his Misconduct, and condems the same to the satisfaction of Friends, which he may do is our desire for him. JOSEPH CHAPMAN, Clerk.” Lacey’s company was attached to Colonel Anthony Wayne’s regiment, the 4th Pennsylvania Line. Shortly thereafter, Captain Lacey,

219 pursuant to orders from Colonel Anthony Wayne, marched southward to Chester, Pennsylvania, just below Philadelphia. The column paused at Darby on 14 March and intended to take quarters there for several days, but disagreements arose between the citizens and the military on the amount to be paid, which was more than Congress allotted for the purpose. However, Colonel Wayne personally agreed to take care of the bill, but the transaction never occurred and when Wayne arrived on Long Island, Lacey was ordered back to Darby to settle the debt. Upon his arrival there, the citizens who housed the troops laid no blame on Lacey, but they refused to accept the money allotted by Congress. Afterward, Lacey received more money from the committee of safety, paid the debt and returned to Long Island during May 1777. Meanwhile, the column arrived at Chester on the 22nd of March and the men received their arms. Captain Lacey acquired cloth for uniforms at his expense, and his unit was the first prepared to move to join the defenders in New York. He later described the uniforms: “Our Regimental Coats were Deep blew faced with white, white Vests & Overalls edged with blew Cloth. A very beautiful uniform, but on experience was found much better adapted for parade than utility in the hardships of a Camp, as they too easily became soiled, and hard to clean.” Prior to departing Bucks County, Lacey had acquired about twenty rifles, but they were later given to another company and Lacey’s men received muskets. At about the same time, the regiment was ordered to repair to New York, initially to be transported aboard shallops to Trenton and from there, the regiment moved overland. Lacey’s company had little training in military exercises, and they had no instructors, which complicated the operation, but the troops were the first unit ready to move out. In the meantime, another company, that of Captain Thomas Robinson, arrived in New York during April 1776 and on the 18th, both units were ordered to redeploy on Long Island. The regiment under Colonel Wayne was afterward ordered to Canada. Wayne led the regiment to Canada and participated in the tail end of that ill-fated campaign in which General Richard Montgomery was killed at Quebec on 31 December 1775 and Colonel Benedict Arnold received a serious wound. When Captain Lacey arrived back at Long Island in May, Colonel Wayne had already departed for Canada with two companies, including Lacey’s. The five remaining companies afterward trailed the vanguard. Wayne left orders for Lacey to command Captain James Moore’s company until the trailing units joined Wayne. Moore departed with Wayne and commanded Lacey’s armed company. After acquir