American Revolutionary War Leaders: A Biographical Dictionary

American Revolutionary War Leaders

ALSO

BY

BUD HANNINGS MCFARLAND

AND FROM

Chronolog y of the American Revolution: Military and Political Actions Day by Day (2008) The Korean War: An Exhaustive Chronolog y (2007) Forts of the United States: An Historical Dictionary, 16th through 19th Centuries (2006)

American Revolutionary War Leaders A Biographical Dictionary BUD HANNINGS

McFarland & Company, Inc., Publishers Jefferson, North Carolina, and London

LIBRARY

OF

CONGRESS CATALOGUING-IN-PUBLICATION DATA

Hannings, Bud. American Revolutionary War leaders : a biographical dictionary / Bud Hannings. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-0-7864-4379-6 illustrated case binding : 50# alkaline paper 1. United States — History — Revolution, 1775–1783 — Biography — Dictionaries. I. Title. E206.H266 2009 973.3092' 2 — dc22 [B] 2009022306 British Library cataloguing data are available ©2009 Bud Hannings. All rights reserved No part of this book may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying or recording, or by any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher. On the cover: Charles Willson Peale painting, George Washington, 1776 ©2008 Pictures Now Manufactured in the United States of America

McFarland & Company, Inc., Publishers Box 611, Jefferson, North Carolina 28640 www.mcfarlandpub.com

Contents Preface 1 Introduction 3

The Biographies 5 Signers of the Declaration of Independence and Signers and Framers of the U.S. Constitution 507 Bibliography 509 Index 517

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Preface The primary purpose of this work is to provide for today’s readers and for posterity military and political biographies of the leaders who were responsible for the birth of the United States of America. Whenever possible, the biographies cover their lives from birth to death, and relate many anecdotes that open doorways into their personal lives, including their wives and children and, at times, their parents. The work includes not only the famous but also the unknowns whose experiences have been extricated from the shadows of obscurity thanks to the persistent efforts of reference librarians all across the thirteen original states. Over the course of completing other works, including Forts of the United States (2006) and Chronolog y of the American Revolution (2008), and researching other works in progress, it became apparent that facts relating to the leaders of the American Revolution were not centrally located. Biographies written in the nineteenth century were usually about the general officers of the Continental Army. Acquiring information on general officers of state militia was much more difficult as was tracking down information on legislators: details regarding the more prominent names were more readily available, while the less known required a series of searches. Here readers will find biographies of the Continental Army generals, state militia generals, and other officers of the Continental Army, as well as some Marine, Continental Navy, and state militia officers. Also included are biographies of the men who signed the Declaration of Independence and the men who framed and signed the U.S. Constitution, various diplomats, and war governors. Some of the leaders were doctors; one, Josiah Bartlett, a signer of the Declaration of Independence, found a cure for throat distemper that ended an epidemic that was ravaging New England and killing large numbers of children under the age of ten. The work, however, is not all inclusive. For the duration of the project, it was not uncommon to discover the name of an obscure general for whom a methodical search turned up no details. It seems that there must still remain some general officers (militia) who have truly been lost to history at least for now; there is the possibility that they will be discovered and brought back to the forefront to take their place alongside their fellow patriots in a place of honor for their selfless sacrifices.

The wives of the leaders played an equally important role in the building of the nation, but their deeds were seldom recorded. Therefore this work includes from that scarce supply of information a glance at their experiences and some of their contributions that brought victory and independence to the nation. The wives were one common thread: regardless of the status of the individual, whether an affluent planter in the South, an affluent shipping owner in the North, a prosperous or moderate farmer, a lawyer or soldier, no one appeared to have had a wife who did not fully support his endeavors, no matter the hardships. It is both fair and accurate to describe the wives of the leaders as the unsung heroes of the American Revolution. Through their unwavering support, ordinary men were able to conceal whatever fears they might have held and perform extraordinary tasks against all odds, while faced with nearly every conceivable disadvantage, to prevail in a conflict that raged for about eight years. With the help of reference librarians, historical societies, the National Archives, the National Park Service and the Armed Forces historical divisions, as well as other sources, including state archives, the work unravels some of the conflicting information that in some instances has been handed down since the nineteenth century. The use of the Internet, including the Web and e-mail, along with the use of the fax machine, made the task of confirming facts or invalidating erroneous information through considerable cross checking and research possible. In addition, Internet search engines provided a gateway to many original papers, family Bible records, last wills and testaments, and nineteenth century works on the leaders of the Revolutionary War period. The Internet also provided access to various universities and historical societies where many of the original papers have been preserved. The speed of e-mail and the timely responses from librarians and other historians greatly reduced the time required to acquire answers and fill in blanks. That communication was paramount when conflicting information was uncovered, and it clarified many uncertain items, including mixups in marriages, names and numbers of children, dates of births and deaths, and, at times, even where and when a particular person served or where they were interred. The depth of the individual biographies depended greatly

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Preface upon the amount of information available. Often, particularly with the less well known officers and legislators, the amount of information that was preserved was scattered, with a piece of the puzzle held where the subject was born and other pieces held where the subject relocated or served. Even more difficult was discovering information on the wives and families of the subjects, due to the lack of documentation. Sometimes even the Bibles of a man’s family did not provide the name of his wife. These problems were overcome through the efforts of the many librarians and historians. It would not be an exaggeration to state that librarians in nearly every county in which one of the men included here was born has helped bring to light factual and accurate depictions of the individual military and political leaders of the American Revolution. Many of the names, such as George Washington, Thomas Jefferson, Benjamin Franklin, John Hancock, Alexnder Hamilton and Patrick Henry, will be recognizable to most readers, and of those, countless volumes have been written and more will follow. In this work, the biographies of the more famous are not meant to be as comprehensive as a full book, but the details will provide the reader with a complete picture of the career of the individual. In contrast, there are those, such as Generals Seth Pomeroy, Daniel Roberdeau, Joshua Babcock, John Glover, Peleg Wadsworth and Nathaniel Freeman (who fathered twenty children), who are much less likely to be recognized, yet they too

2 and many others pledged their “lives, fortunes and sacred honor” to the cause of independence and suffered the same deprivations and sacrifices during that turbulent period in our nation’s history. Many of the experiences of the subjects are well known, and yet many others might surprise readers. Examples include General Palmer, who because of a bet with a friend caused his daughter to become fearful of even a thunderstorm for the rest of her life. And another about General Winds, who, through his eccentricities, caused his favorite niece to crippled for life. And yet another about General Roberdeau, who was fearful of no man, yet had trouble with cats and even drew his sword when one blocked his passage. Then there is General Glover, whose regiment of maritime soldiers three times ferried George Washington’s army out of harm’s way or carried the army to victory, and General Nathanael Greene, whose remains were lost for about seventy-five years. Genealogy was not initially intended to play a large part in the work; however, again, thanks to so many librarians and historians, historical societies, special collections and archives, and modern research methods, much more often than not, there is a complete listing of each subject’s parents, siblings, wife or wives and children, and whenever possible, their ancestors, but only when reliable sources were available.

Introduction Over the course of researching the military history of the United States, from its inception, several obstacles impeded progress, and one of those was a constant occurrence: the mention of a name of a high ranking officer with no details and often no first name provided. That sparked curiosity about who the leader was and where he came from, which in turn caused more interest in what type of life he led prior to becoming a soldier or diplomat and whether he had a family. Answers to those questions were reasonably easy to find for the more famous individuals, but for the more obscure individuals, it became a daunting task. Nevertheless, it also became a worthwhile challenge, one that would help complete the history of the American Revolution by placing the individuals responsible for the birth of the nation upon a pedestal of honor. After the quest was initiated, other surprises emerged, but the unexpected revelations seemed to make the challenge more worthwhile. A similarity between the individuals developed almost immediately. As the deeds, skills and virtues of the leaders surfaced, it became apparent that only a small number were professional soldiers. Most were family men leading ordinary civilian lives until they found their families and their liberty at risk. After completing research on a nominal number of the subjects was complete another similarity emerged. Epitaphs and eulogies gave brief biographical sketches and recounted accomplishments. And usually, a eulogy, epitaph and gravestone would state that the actions of the individual in the cause of his country would never be forgotten and that his name would be forever remembered in posterity. In some cases, that was true, but in many others, within a few years after the death of the individual, the place of burial was forgotten and he passed into obscurity, where he remained in solitary exile. In this work, an attempt was made to remove the cobwebs from the tombstones, uncover the long forgotten contributions of those patriots, and honor them for laying the foundation of the nation beginning with the Declaration of Independence and following the framing of the U.S. Constitution. The heroes of the American Revolution profiled here shared many characteristics, including a fervent desire for independence and a noble determination to achieve justice for their families and posterity; however, over and above their

gallantry and heroism, whether by actions in the field of war or in the legislature, most were devoted Christians who held their faith above all earthly treasures. Those same leaders, despite the ravages of the fighting and prolonged absences from home, were able to maintain their responsibilities as husbands and fathers. The fresh glance into the past to experience the sacrifices, trials, and tribulations of the heroic wives of the men who founded the nation adds to the laurels of the founding families, who exceeded the bounds of endurance to prevail and leave a legacy worthy of honor. Those families paid an extraordinary price for their liberty, and it was the wives, the unsung heroes of the American Revolution, who stood behind the patriots, encouraging them in the darkest hours under the dark clouds of war. Their lives speak for themselves and will give readers an introduction to the patriots who risked all to create the United States of America. Some of those most probably would not have been remembered if they had not signed the Declaration of Independence or the Constitution, and others stand out as the nation’s founders, and yet others have been forgotten. The latter is that group that readers can only imagine — the individual infantryman and cavalryman, the crewmen of the warships, the wagoneers, the drummers and fifers, the cannoneers, the farmers, the blacksmiths, the men who rowed the boats, the men who dug the trenches, the cooks, the men who manufactured the powder and ammunition, and the men in the medical field who tended the wounded, and last, but not least, the courageous chaplains who accompanied the troops into battle. Without their untiring efforts and undaunted faith, Congress would have folded soon after it convened, and the American dream as we know it would have been exactly that, a dream, out of reach and never attained. Destiny, however, turned out different than anticipated by the British. Consequently, without the great generation of the Revolutionary War period, no American generations would have been able to carry the legacy forward. This work was written to continue to carry the torch in memory of those long-departed Americans who fought for neither fame nor glory; rather for the preservation of liberty, and to reinstate the intent of those who engraved the tombstones with the words, to paraphrase, “His deeds will never be forgotten and his name will live forever.”

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THE BIOGRAPHIES

Adams, John (Continental Congress, Signer of the Declaration of Independence, President of the United States)

war and to restrict other freedoms. That year, John Adams, Sr., succumbed. Susanna later remarried, to become the wife of John Hall. In England during 1764, Parliament passed legislation that prohibited the colonies from issuing paper money that was legal tender. In March Parliament passed the Stamp Act and made it effective 1 November. Another act that incited the colonists was the Quartering Act. John Adams became one of the initial patriots to raise public opposition. He penned “Es- John Adams (Biographical Sketches of say on the Canon and Feudal the Signers of the Declaration of InLaw Writs” during 1765, dependence, Benson J. Lossing 1854) which essentially focused on the importance of educating the people to prevent tyranny. Other early pieces were penned by Adams under the pseudonym Humphrey Ploughjogger. In addition to his focus on the British actions, John had become interested in Abigail Smith (daughter of the Rev. William and Elizabeth Quincy Smith), whom he married on 25 October 1764. Abigail was one of four children. She had two sisters, Mary and Elizabeth, and one brother, William. John and Abigail had six children, four of whom would reach adulthood. They were: Abigail “Nabby” (1765–1813), John Quincy (1767–1848), Charles (1770–1800) and Thomas Boylston (1772–1832). The other children were Susanna, born December 1768 and died February 1770, and Elizabeth, stillborn in 1777. There was a constant exchange of letters between John and Abigail Adams. Abigail had often been in poor health as a child, and her parents arranged for her to be educated at home. Sensitive as an adult for her lack of mastering writing, particularly punctuation, she remained determined to increase her skills and to learn to speak French. She was extremely intelligent and greatly enjoyed reading. Despite her family’s involvement with high society, Abigail remained unpretentious. In 1768, John and Abigail left their farm in Braintree for a new residence on Brattle Square in Boston. The home became known as the White House. By that time, John found himself more strongly aligned with those in opposition to the king and his policies. That allegiance, combined with his superior skills as a lawyer, propelled him to a position of prominence within the growing numbers of the patriots in Boston. Meanwhile, word of Adams’ reputation had traveled to England,

John Adams was born in Braintree (later Quincy), Massachusetts, on 30 October 1735. His great-grandfather, Henry Adams, a Puritan, emigrated from Devonshire, England (according to the inscription on his tomb, which was written by President John Adams), and arrived in America during 1636. Two of Henry’s grandsons, Joseph of Braintree and John Adams (sea captain) of Boston, were the grandparents of John and Samuel Adams respectively. The Adams family initially settled at Mount Wollaston (Braintree). John’s grandfather was also named Henry; John’s parents were John (Sr.) and Susanna Boylston Adams. There were two other children, both boys, Peter Boylston (1738–1823) and Elihu (1741–1776). John’s early education included attending class in a one-room log cabin school operated by a woman known as Dame Belcher. During his mid-teens, he was accepted at Harvard College, from where he graduated in 1755. John’s consideration of becoming a minister was short-lived, and although he did work on the family farm, the labor in the fields did not entice him to be a farmer. During 1755, still with no particular profession charted, John became master of the grammar school at Worcester, but apparently life as a schoolteacher did not capture his imagination either. By 1756, John began leaning toward the law profession. He began to study law in Worcester under James Putnam. By 1758, through a combination of much studying and persistence, John was prepared to open a law practice. He was introduced to the bar by Jeremiah Gridley (leader of the bar in Boston) and, on 6 November 1758, John was admitted. By that time, he had become accustomed to maintaining a diary, a practice he continued (with some interruption) until 1777. By the early 1760s, his law practice was growing. At about the same time, the throne in England sustained a transition when King George II succumbed and was succeeded by his grandson, King George III, on 25 October 1760. John Adams would become one of the first future American leaders to contest the king’s radical policies that were thrust upon the colonies. Although John was a fervent patriot, he seemed paranoid in his youth due to his perception that his neighbors wished him failure, but he acknowledged his negative traits and in one instance was quoted: “Vanity, I am sensible, is my cardinal vice and cardinal folly.” Meanwhile, complications had developed during the ongoing conflict between Britain and France. Spain declared war against Britain during December 1761, followed by Britain reciprocating during January 1762. To further complicate the crisis, Portugal sided with Britain. Nevertheless, the conflict ended with Britain prevailing and France losing most of her possessions in North America. Britain afterward chose to place excessive taxes on the colonies to help pay the cost of the

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ADAMS and it was thought erroneously that he would become a valuable asset to the crown. Adams, shortly after he was in his new quarters, was offered the position of advocate general (Court of the Admiralty), by Jonathan Sewall (attorney general); however, John was able to see beyond the offer to discern the motives. He declined the appointment. Sewall, on the business of the crown, to eliminate Adams’ agitation, refused to accept John’s negative response. Nonetheless, a second visit had the same resulted: Adams again declined the position. The British remained determined to prevail in the colonies. In October 1768, two British regiments arrived in Boston, marched to the square and commandeered the public buildings. British presence did little to win the hearts of the citizens, but the Adams family became especially annoyed. The parade drilling and other activity of the British troops continued to harass the Adams family for about two years incessantly. In an attempt to negate some of the problems, the Sons of Liberty would arrive at the Adams home during the evening to serenade them in place of the constant daytime blare of British military music. The dangerous situation in the square finally culminated in violence with the Boston Massacre on 5 March 1770. In the meantime, in 1769, through some unfortunate circumstances, Adams found himself heading for the Massachusetts House of Representatives. James Otis, a member of the House, was badly beaten and incapacitated. John Adams was chosen during 1770 to replace him. Adams became involved with the controversial Boston Massacre. He was of the opinion that the British troops that had been charged with firing upon a mob and inflicting casualties (three dead and five wounded) should have proper representation. Adams, along with Josiah Quincy, represented the eight soldiers that had been charged. The prosecution was handled by Robert Treat Paine. Six soldiers, including Captain Preston, were acquitted at the end of the trial (October 24–30) and the remaining two men received minor sentences. Rumors spread that John Adams had accepted a bribe to represent the defendants. John responded in his diary, in which he had been keeping notations since about 1755, that his compensation for handling the case amounted to twenty guineas. The presence of the British in Boston continued to inflame the citizens, and as time passed the intimidation increased steadily, but it only succeeded in galvanizing the opposition. Meanwhile, by the latter part of 1770, John’s health had deteriorated, prompting him to move back to Braintree the following spring. John’s departure prevented him from representing his former Boston constituents in the general court. He later recovered from his poor health, and during fall of 1772, he and his family moved back to Boston and resided in a home on Queen Street near the court house. Determined to remain out of public life, John made a pledge to himself “to meddle not with public affairs of town or province. I am determined my own life and the welfare of my own family, which is much dearer to me, are too great sacrifices for me to make.” On 17 June 1774, the Massachusetts General Court selected five people to represent the colony at the First Continental Congress in what was a memorable meeting; the final vote was 117 yeas and 12 nays terminating the final provincial assembly under royal authority. John Adams, his cousin, Samuel Adams, James Bowdoin (declined), Thomas Cushing and Robert Treat Paine had been chosen. An infuriated governor, General Thomas Gage, sped to the courthouse and adjourned the session. John was stunned by the results, as he had been absent at Faneuil Hall on other business. He became quite concerned that the task was too great, and he made several entries in his diary that detailed his thoughts. One, penned several days after the vote, said: “We have not men fit for the times. We are deficient in genius, in education, in travel, in fortune, in everything. I feel unutterable anxiety. God grant us wisdom and fortitude! Should the opposition be suppressed, should this country submit, what infamy and ruin! God forbid! Death in any form is less terrible.”

6 Nonetheless, the delegates traveled to Philadelphia, where Congress convened from 5 September through 26 October. Just prior to entering the city, a party from the Sons of Liberty intercepted their coach and informed them that word had spread that the delegates were opportunists; the men cautioned Adams and the others about mentioning “independence” because in Pennsylvania and the southern colonies, the word was despised as much as the Stamp Act. The delegates from the respective colonies had no genuine authority to take action, but the Continental Congress did provide the opportunity for the delegates to galvanize. John had come down with a severe fever during spring of 1775 and he was still quite ill when he departed Massachusetts, but he arrived on the day Congress convened. On 10 May 1775, the Second Continental Congress met, again in Philadelphia. In line with the crisis, Congress took time to promote a day of prayer and fasting. John Adams was among those chosen to create a resolution, with the selected day being 20 July 1775. By that time, the conflict had already begun in earnest with the incidents at Lexington and Concord during the previous April. On 8 June, Adams was placed on a committee to examine papers that had been seized from a British major, Philip Skene, the commander at Ticonderoga and Crown Point. On 10 June, John Adams proposed a Continental Army, a follow-up to his call for an American navy during 1755. (He wrote, “It looks likely to me, if we can remove the turbulent Gallics, our people, according to the exactest computation, will, in another century, become more numerous than England herself. Should this be the case, since we have, I may say, all the naval stores of the nation in our hands, it will be easy to obtain the mastery of the seas and then the united force of all Europe will not be able to subdue us.”) Congress adopted Adams’ resolution on 14 June 1775. Patriotism permeated the city and the militia proudly exhibited its skills. The scenes to Adams were both captivating and contagious. After Adams observed the troops and General George Washington in uniform in Congress, he became overcome with enthusiasm, noting: “Oh that I were a soldier! I will be. I am reading military books. Everyone must, and will and shall be a soldier.” Soon after, when he realistically thought of his age and health, he simmered down and found himself where it was that he should be, in Congress. During the Congress, John Dickinson pressed for another attempt at reconciliation. He prevailed by a small margin against John Adams and others, bringing about the “Olive Branch” petition. John Adams’ sentiments about reconciliation were well known. His thoughts were that “powder and artillery are the most efficacious, sure, and infallible conciliatory measures we can adopt.” The debate turned nasty between Dickinson and John Adams, and it continued outside the hall, where Dickinson, uncharacteristically, began yelling some offensive words, which prompted Adams to retort. The two men from that day never again spoke to each other in private, only during debates on the floor. Adams was appointed to many committees; one of those was delegated to arm vessels for the defense of the colonies against the British navy. On 15 June, George Washington was selected as commander-inchief of the Continental Army. He was nominated by John Adams, who took to the floor and made the proposal. The move by Adams was a masterstroke that stunned Congress, but it was planned that way. The motion placed Congress in a position from where it had to be for or against. The idea of Washington, a Virginian, as commander of an army composed primarily of New Englanders, including officers, caused some shock. Those who were reluctant to take action found themselves checked after the formal proposal by Thomas Johnson of Maryland. John Hancock himself had some thoughts of becoming the commander-in-chief, but he, too, voted yea in what became a unanimous vote. During the remainder of 1775 and the first half of 1776, work was exhaustive for Congress, as they discussed and debated all aspects of

7 what the nation might face. During the August recess, John returned to Massachusetts, but the reprieve was not enjoyable. An epidemic of dysentery spread through the Boston region. His brother, Elihu, died from it, and his wife and three children came down with severe cases. In the following September, Abigail’s mother died from the disease. Afterward, on 9 December 1775, John returned to Massachusetts for a short visit. He conferred with General Washington and he ( John) agreed to accept the post of chief justice of Massachusetts, provided that he did not have to be on the bench, except for something extreme. Later on 24 January 1776, John, along with Elbridge Gerry, returned to Philadelphia. John continued to be disgusted with the wavering delegates from the South and with some representatives of the middle states. However, John became invigorated once he discovered that Virginia was prepared to swing toward independence. John wrote to Abigail on 29 May explaining that Maryland had “passed a few eccentric resolves, but these are only flashes which will soon expire.” On 5 June 1776 the subject before Congress was espionage, and John Adams was appointed to the Committee on Spies, which had earlier (November 1775) been delegated to revise the Articles of War due to the rules containing no heavy measures to deal with treason. Soon after, on 7 June, a motion was made by Richard Henry Lee “that these united colonies are, and of right, ought to be free and independent states; that they are absolved from all allegiance to the British crown and that all political connection between them and the state of Great Britain is, and ought to be, totally dissolved.” The motion was seconded by John Adams and the vote postponed until the following day. Nevertheless, on 11 June, Adams, along with Benjamin Franklin, Thomas Jefferson, Robert Livingston and Roger Sherman were commissioned to draw up a Declaration of Independence. The document upon completion was presented to Congress on 28 June. Afterward, subsequent to some modification by Franklin and John Adams, the motion (Declaration of Independence) was voted upon and passed on 2 July, with one abstention (New York). Adams, also on 28 June, was appointed to the Committee on Correspondence, developed to acquire alliances with foreign nations in the upcoming struggle with Britain. On the day following the vote, 3 July, John Adams wrote to his wife: “Yesterday the greatest Question was decided (Independence from Great Britain), which ever was debated in America, and a greater perhaps, never was or will be decided among Men.” Adams had great concerns for the new republic, but soon after independence was declared, he received distressing news from back home. Due to an outbreak of smallpox, Abigail and his children had to get inoculated. Adams wrote on 16 July: “It is not possible for me to describe, nor for you to conceive my Feelings upon this occasion. Nothing, but the critical state of our Affairs should prevent me from flying to Boston, to your Assistance.... I shall feel like a Savage to be here while my whole family is sick at Boston.” None of his family was struck with the disease. In September of 1776, Adams was one of three men sent to meet with British General William Hull on Staten Island, but no positive results came from the conference. From there, Adams finally got an opportunity to travel home to visit with his family. Meanwhile, during mid–December 1776, Congress was compelled to evacuate Philadelphia and reconvene in Baltimore. It reconvened in Philadelphia March of 1777, subsequent to the British threat having been eliminated by General Washington, who stunned the British with his victory at Trenton on 26 December. The victory at Trenton provided encouragement to the army, which until that time had not fared well against the seasoned British army. In August 1777, Adams was appointed to the committee to investigate the abandonment of Ticonderoga and Fort (Mount) Independence. By the following month, Congress was again compelled to flee Philadelphia. After a short stay in Lancaster, it reconvened in York. At York on 28 November, 1777, Congress appointed John Adams to

ADAMS replace Silas Deane as American agent in France. He and his son John Quincy embarked from Nantucket Roads aboard the Boston on 15 February 1778. During the initial part of the voyage, a terrible storm was encountered and the ship was nearly lost. One of the lightning bolts struck the captain of the mast with a fatal blow that burned a hole into his head. Later, on 11 March, the lookouts spotted a British warship, the Martha, which the Boston captured. Adams arrived in France on 1 April and soon after, on the 8th, his party entered Paris. During May, Adams met with John Paul Jones at L’Orient and reviewed the Marine complement of the Bonhomme Richard. Adams expected to return to the States aboard the Alliance, captained by the Frenchman Pierre Landais, but instead he learned that the Alliance was to join with Jones. Subsequently, during the summer of 1780, Adams departed France for the Netherlands to seek a loan from the Dutch, but although the Dutch would favor the downfall of Britain, they were not anxious to lend the United States money. John arrived back at Boston on 2 August 1779. On 29 December, Congress authorized Adams to negotiate a Treaty of Amity and Commerce with the United Provinces of the low countries. He remained there for about two years, but his efforts finally persuaded the Netherlands to officially acknowledge the United States as a nation in spring 1782. The treaty between the United States and the Netherlands was signed on 8 October 1782. In conjunction, Adams was dispatched to the Netherlands after the first emissary, Henry Laurens, had been seized by the British while he was en route and afterward detained in the Tower of London. After consummating the treaty with the Dutch, Adams returned to Paris. At Paris on 30 November 1782, John Adams, Benjamin Franklin and John Jay signed a preparatory peace treaty with Britain; the representative signing on behalf of Britain was Richard Oswald. The official treaty (Treaty of Paris) terminating the war was consummated by the same American ministers on 3 September 1783. The British representative was David Hartley. By that time John was anxious to return home, and on 4 December of that year he submitted his resignation, with a stipulation that if he was not notified within a “reasonable” time, he would return without authorization. Nonetheless, by spring John realized it would not be practical to depart before autumn. At the time, he had become severely ill from fever and required a long recuperation period in Paris. Afterward, he was appointed minister to Great Britain, further delaying his return to America. By that time his wife, Abigail, had arrived in France. Aboard the vessel Active on her first voyage, she remained seasick for most of the trip, but was relieved after arriving in London on 23 July 1784. John met with King George III during February 1785. The encounter was not too cordial because the king had still not been able to adjust to the loss of his colonies. Adams and the king were unable to come to amicable terms regarding the Treaty of Paris. Adams also encountered a representative from Tripoli who attempted blackmail to permit safe passage of American vessels through the Mediterranean Sea. Adams declined the extortion, but the U.S. was not equipped to actually defend itself at that time. During the summer of 1785, a vessel, the Maris, was seized and the ship and crew were freed after ransom was paid. Adams also worked to settle the matter of English troops remaining in the Great Lakes region, but the king refused to relent. Finally, during November 1794, the Jay Treaty was consummated, but it did not terminate the tension between the English and the Americans; rather it only postponed further conflict. Finally, on 20 April 1794, John and Abigail Adams embarked for the United States. On 30 September 1787, the U.S. Constitution was born. After ratification by nine states it became effective. New Hampshire had been the ninth state to ratify the Constitution on 21 June 1788. Rhode Island entered the union on 29 May to become the thirteenth. George Washington was inaugurated on 30 April 1789 as the first president and John Adams served as his vice president, giving the first presi-

ADAMS dency to the Federalists. Adams, afterward, retained a dislike for Alexander Hamilton, the latter having engaged in holding down the vote for Adams. The mutual dislike between Adams and Hamilton continued to intensify. At the time, the vote was not specifically for vice president, but it was already concluded that Washington would be unanimously elected president. Washington and Adams served a second term, and during the campaign for the latter, the anti–Federalists selected George Clinton as their candidate. Adams received 77 votes and Clinton 50, to make Adams vice president. At the time, the candidate with the most votes became president and the candidate with the second highest number became vice president, with no individual distinction. On 4 March 1797, John Adams was inaugurated as the second president of the United States. Abigail was in Massachusetts taking care of John’s mother, who was seriously ill, unable to attend the inauguration. Nevertheless, she later joined her husband to become the initial First Lady to live in the White House, which at the time did not have many conveniences. The house was not complete, and although in the midst of woods for miles around, there was little firewood. Abigail is known to have mentioned in one of her letters that you couldn’t “see the wood through the forest.” The Federalist party leader, Alexander Hamilton, urged all Federalist votes be cast for Adams, or a lost vote could lose the election. Hamilton’s strategy proved correct, but buried in the plan was a covert operation that would have made Adams again vice president and Thomas Pinckney president. Adams received one more vote than was necessary for the majority (71 for Adams, 68 for Jefferson) and Thomas Jefferson received only three votes less than Adams, leaving Pinckney out of the equation and Thomas Jefferson as Adams’ vice president. Some of the southern voters went for Pinckney rather than Adams, and some New Englanders voted for Adams rather than Pinckney. When news of Adams’ victory reached France, the French Directory showed its disappointment by issuing even more harsh decrees against American maritime commerce. During May, the U.S. Navy, which had disbanded at the end of the American Revolution, was reinitiated with the launching of the United States. By the following month Congress prepared for a possible war with France and called for an army of 89,000 troops. During July 1797, President Adams approved of Marine complements aboard each of five new vessels. Simultaneously, the president authorized the Revenue Cutters (later U.S. Coast Guard). All the while, Congress and the president also focused upon the Barbary pirates that had been ravaging shipping in the Mediterranean. By spring 1798, President Adams authorized the sinking or capturing of French vessels that interfered with American shipping, and by July, the crisis had accelerated to the point where George Washington was recalled as commander-in-chief of the American forces. In the meantime, France essentially had ignored the American ministers and had attempted unsuccessfully to use Elbridge Gerry, one of the ministers, as a pawn. In addition, a clandestine operation known as the XYZ affair, a scheme of the French minister Charles Maurice de Talleyrand, was exposed. Conflict between American and French ships was occurring on the high seas, but war was never declared by either France or the United States. Nevertheless, a rift emerged in the Federalist Party, after Adams decided at a cabinet meeting during October 1799 to send a mission to France. The party departed on 5 November that year, but the rift became unsalvageable and ensured the failure of the Federalist Party in the succeeding election. The aggressions by France remained confined to the sea and the Undeclared War (Quasi War with France) terminated on 30 September 1800, with the Treaty of Morfontaine (Convention of 1800). Also that year, Congress relocated to Washington, D.C. A plan by Hamilton during the succeeding election cycle was exposed when Aaron Burr received a copy of it, sealing the fate of the Federalists, who remained di-

8 vided. Thomas Jefferson and Aaron Burr, both Democrats, each received 73 votes, while John Adams garnered only 65, with Pinckney receiving 64. A more galvanized Federalist party might have otherwise assured re-election for Adams. On 4 March, 1801, Thomas Jefferson was inaugurated as the third president of the United States. After leaving office, John returned to his residence at Quincy (formerly Braintree), where he and Abigail lived out of the public eye. Abigail, like John, lived pragmatically during their years out of public life, but their true devotion to each other remained strong. In a letter of 26 October 1814 from Abigail to one of her grandchildren, she exclaimed: “Yesterday, completes half a century since I entered the marriage state, then just your age.... The greatest source of unhappiness I have known in that period has arisen from the long and cruel separations which I was called, in a time of war, and with a young family around me to submit to.” Abigail was struck by fever and succumbed on 28 October 1818, leaving John without his most loyal and trusted friend. At the time of her death, after 54 years of marriage, John was about 83 years old. During his remaining years, he was able to witness his son, John Quincy Adams, inaugurated as the 6th president of the United States on 4 March 1825. John Adams died on 4 July 1826, on the fiftieth anniversary of the Declaration of Independence, and on that exact day, Thomas Jefferson also succumbed. John was interred near Abigail in Quincy (Norfolk County) at the First Parish Church (later First Unitarian Church). John Quincy Adams and his wife, Louisa Catherine Johnson Adams, were interred in the same cemetery in 1848 and 1852 respectively. Toward the latter part of his life, through the efforts of some friends, including Benjamin Rush, John Adams and Alexander Hamilton again began to correspond. Also, Adams was responsible for establishing the Marine Corps Band during 1798. The band, known as the President’s Own, made its debut at the White House on New Year’s Day and later at President Thomas Jefferson’s inauguration (1803). The Marine Corps Band has played at every subsequent inauguration and remains active, making it the oldest continuous musical organization in the country. John Quincy Adams had broken away form the Federalist party prior to his election, and his father had also become extremely close with Thomas Jefferson and supported his policies. John Q. Adams picked up one particular trait of his father. He began a diary while he was young and maintained it until 1848.

Adams, Samuel (Signer of the Declaration of Independence) Samuel Adams, one of twelve children, was born in Boston, Massachusetts, at noon on 16 September 1722. Samuel Adams’ father, also named Samuel, was the son of John Adams (great uncle of President John Adams), a sea captain who operated out of the port of Boston. His mother was Mary Fifield. Samuel and Mary invested in an estate on Purchase Street that contained waterfront property along the harbor. Samuel and Mary, both devout Puritans, had twelve children, including Samuel, Jr., but only three reached adulthood: Samuel (1722), Mary (1717) and Joseph (1728). The others, as listed in the Samuel Adams family Bible, were Richard (b. January 1715 or 1716, d. June 1716); Hannah (b. 13 January 1720, date of death unknown); John (b. 4 September 1724, d. 9 August 1725); John II (b. 28 October 1726, d. 15 June 1727); Abigail (b. 20 July 1730, d. 29 August 1730); Thomas (b. 22 December, 1731, d. 16 August 1733); Sarah (b. 18 November 1733, d. 28 February, 1735); Abigail II (b. 22 October, 1735, d. 3 March 1736) and Mehetable (b. 12 April 1740, d. 11 June 1740). Samuel, Sr., was for a while a justice of the peace and for a time a deacon in the Old North Church. In addition, he was a member of the colonial legislature. Samuel, Jr., entered Boston Latin School and then attended Harvard and received a bachelor of arts degree, followed by a master of arts degree in 1743. His thesis was “Whether it be Lawful

9 to Resist the Supreme Magistrate, If the Commonwealth Cannot Otherwise be Preserved.” Samuel lost interest in studying theology and instead studied law, to the disappointment of his mother. His entrance into the business world began with a firm owned by Thomas Cushing, Sr., but he remained there only a short time, having no interest in the business of trading. His father later backed him financially to permit him to establish his own business; however, that endeavor also was unsuccessful. In addition, he made a loan to a friend from the money he received from his father, but the loan was never repaid. Samuel was then made a partner with his father in a malt house established on the family estate. On 8 March 1747, Samuel’s father succumbed and Samuel inherited one third of the estate, which had been divided between himself, his brother and his sister. During the following year, Samuel and some friend established a newspaper, the Public Advertiser. The publication was conspicuously critical of British policies and played a part in planting thoughts of independence into the minds of the colonists. The columnists, known for probing articles, remained anonymous during the year the newspaper remained in circulation. Other types of agitation evolved and, seemingly, Samuel was always at or near the center of the storm. The initial patriots who raised opposition against the crown were forerunners of the Sons of Liberty, who crashed upon the scene soon after the introduction of the Stamp Act of 1765. The organizations included a secret society that became known as the Whipping Post Club, which had been engaged in newspaper attacks, the Caucus Club and another known as Loyal Nine. Adams was attached to each, along with the Sons of Liberty. On 17 October 1749, Samuel married Elizabeth Checkley, the daughter of the Rev. Samuel and Elizabeth Rolfe Checkley. Elizabeth’s father performed the marriage ceremony. Samuel and Elizabeth had five children, but only two, Samuel II and Hannah, survived to adulthood. The others were Samuel I (b. 14 September 1750, d. 2 October 1750) and Mary (b. 23 June 1754, d. 3 October 1754). A third child, an unnamed boy, was stillborn on 6 July 1757. Elizabeth’s mother had barely escaped capture or worse when she was a child at Haverhill. During 1708, the Indians raided the town, scalping and killing the inhabitants. Elizabeth’s mother was hidden in a cellar, along with her sister, Mary, but their father, the Rev. Benjamin Rolfe, was killed. About ten years after his marriage Samuel was confronted with a major problem. The government, without notifying him, set his estate up for public auction due to previous activity of his father, known as the “Land Bank Scheme,” which had occurred about seven years prior to Samuel Sr.’s death. The sheriff arrived at Samuel’s estate, but the sale never occurred due to the opposition of Adams. His various positions included checking chimneys, inspecting to ensure smallpox didn’t spread, and during 1756, he was elected as one of the tax collectors, a position to which he was repeatedly re-elected annually through 1764. By that time his hair began to show signs of graying, but his ability to show a gregarious personality or when necessary a piercing stare had not been Sam Adams (Biographical Sketches of lost with his approach to midthe Signers of the Declaration of Inde- dle age. The Tories tried to blemish pendence, Benson J. Lossing 1854)

ADAMS Adams’ record and impugn his integrity when, due to the financial condition of the citizens, the taxes were in arrears. The circumstances permitted the Tories to lodge charges of mishandling funds against him. Nevertheless, his record and reputation was known to be sterling, but his service as a tax collector was poor, because he was not willing to confiscate from the poor for the purpose of gaining tax revenue. Samuel had a difficult year during 1757. His wife, Elizabeth, died on July 25, soon after the stillbirth of their fifth child on July 6. Samuel noted in his family Bible, “God was pleased to support her under great weakness and continue her life till Lord’s Day.” He also stated that Elizabeth had been “as sincere a friend as she was a faithful wife.” Later in the same entry, he stated: “God grant they [children] may inherit her graces.” Samuel was left to the job of raising their two children. Like his cousin, John Adams, Samuel did not serve in the French and Indian War. During June 1764, two months after the Sugar Act was passed, Adams opposed it as part of a draft he prepared for the General Court of Boston, of which he was a member. His statement included: “For if our Trade may be taxed, why not our Lands, the Produce of our lands, and in short everything we possess or make use of?” He further stated in the same document that taxes without representation would transform “the Character of free Subjects to the miserable State of tributary Slaves.” Adams’ draft was written about one year prior to the “Resolutions” proclaimed by Patrick Henry in Virginia. On 6 December (1764), Samuel married for a second time, and his new wife, Elizabeth Wells, apparently came on the scene in time to maintain much of Samuel’s personal business to keep the family afloat. Samuel was known as an excellent politician and inexhaustible with regard to the nation’s affairs, but he was also known as bordering on incompetence with in his personal business and the welfare of his family. Elizabeth, similarly to his first wife, ignored Samuel’s shortcomings and took command of their personal business without complaint. She was presented with a slave named Surry in 1765 or 1766; however, Elizabeth immediately gave Surry her freedom. Nevertheless, Surry remained with the Adams family for about fifty years. By 1765, when British Parliament passed the Stamp Act, Adams was a member of the Massachusetts House of Representatives. The action by Britain infuriated the colonists, and in August in Boston, the assembly resolved to hang the designated stamp distributor, Andrew Oliver, in effigy. A meeting of the assembly was scheduled for the latter part of September 1765. Samuel Adams, a representative of Boston (and clerk of House of Representatives), was assigned the task of drawing up instructions for the “Boston seat.” He, along with his cousin, John Adams, who was occupied with a similar task for Braintree, worked on the separately, and after the document was completed, it spread rapidly. Due in great part to the overwhelming opposition in the colonies, the Stamp Act was repealed. Word of the action arrived at Boston on 16 May 1766 when a vessel, the brigantine Harrison, arrived in the harbor. Nonetheless, Adams continued to oppose Britain’s treatment of the colonies. Adams was in the forefront of the opposition during 1768, when the British naval fleet arrived at Boston and it was he, during May 1769, who wrote the remonstrance to Governor Francis Bernard demanding that British troops be withdrawn from Boston. After Governor Bernard was recalled to England, Samuel Adams renewed his opposition with Bernard’s successor, Governor Thomas Hutchinson. Again, Adams was out in front when a large British fleet and accompanying troops arrived at Boston during August 1771 on the pretense of possible war with Spain. The ruse was not successful; the patriots realized the British were there to suppress the American cause. Adams was also in the center of the activity when the patriots launched the Boston Tea Party during December 1773. The cargoes of tea aboard three ships (Dartmouth, Eleanor and the Beaver) were thrown overboard. Later, when the delegates from Massachusetts were selected

ADAMS to attend the First Continental Congress, Samuel Adams was among them, along with his younger cousin, John Adams. The governor during 1774, after succeeding Hutchinson, General Thomas Gage, attempted to persuade Samuel Adams to quit the patriot cause and to cease “further displeasure of the king.” After hearing the proposal from an emissary, Adams responded: “Sir, I trust I have long made my peace with the King of kings. No personal consideration shall induce me to abandon the righteous cause of my country. Tell Governor Gage it is the advice of Samuel Adams to him no longer to insult the feelings of an exasperated people.” In Philadelphia, on 6 September 1774, the second day in session for Congress, a resolution was passed that mandated that a prayer by a minister, Jacob Duche, be said at the beginning of the next day’s session. The Reverend Duche, nominated by Samuel Adams, was appointed as the first chaplain of the U.S. Congress. Prior to his departure for Philadelphia in August, Samuel’s wardrobe was so deplorable that friends of his moved quickly to provide him with new clothes to ensure that he would be presentable. That same group of friends replaced his dilapidated barn and seriously repaired his worn down house. They even included a new wig, shoes, and silk hose, and one of the men, assuming correctly that he was not holding much currency, convinced Samuel to accept a purse with some money in it to hold him over in Philadelphia. During October 1774, Adams was appointed to the committee designated to draw up a letter to General Gage regarding the “opposition to oppressive acts of parliament, calculated to deprive us of our most sacred rights and privileges.” By spring of the following year, Samuel Adams had been listed as one of the top enemies of the British in Boston. The British also despised another in the Adams family, Sam’s dog, named Queue. The dog had acquired a definite dislike for uniformed British troops and the English on more than one occasion had close encounters with their four-legged nemesis. Apparently, the dog frequently antagonized and bit British troops, and when he died, there were many scars (cuts and a few bullet wounds) to attest to the accuracy of the reports. On 18 April 1775 in Massachusetts, Paul Revere, William Dawes and Doctor Samuel Prescott rode to warn of the British advance against Concord. Revere was intercepted by the British, but he had already warned Samuel Adams, John Hancock and others. Hancock and Adams had been two primary targets during that excursion. Word spread about the British movements and most of the men — including Samuel Adams, Benjamin Lincoln, John Glover and John Hancock — had departed prior to the raid. Nevertheless, Azor Orne, Elbridge Gerry and Colonel Jeremiah Lee of the Massachusetts militia were staying overnight at the Black Horse Tavern. After being roused from their sleep from the noise of the approaching cavalry during the night (18th–19th), they sped to the back of the tavern and fled through the rear door to conceal themselves in a cornfield. None were properly dressed when they fled in their nightclothes. Colonel Lee, having become sick due to the chill while in the field, died not long afterward. In the meantime, while some who lived nearby had gone to their homes, John Hancock made his way to Lexington. The patriots moved to defend against the advance and the two sides clashed at Lexington and Concord. That was followed by the Battle of Bunker Hill during June. Adams grieved greatly when informed of the death of Doctor (General) Joseph Warren at Bunker Hill. He had admired him and they had been close friends. Samuel’s son, also named Samuel, studied medicine under Warren and served with the Continental Army. General Gage declared martial law on 12 June 1775 and offered pardons to all, except Samuel Adams and John Hancock, who would lay their arms down. Shortly thereafter, during the Battle of Breed’s Hill, Samuel wrote to his wife informing her of his concern for the family, being so close

10 to the fighting at Charlestown: “I pray God to cover the heads of our countrymen in every day of battle and over to protect you from Injury in these distracted times.” Meanwhile, the Second Continental Congress remained in session in Philadelphia, and Samuel Adams was one of the delegates who selected George Washington as commander-in-chief. The motion was made by John Adams and seconded by Samuel. Samuel returned to Massachusetts during the August recess and participated in the general assembly. During that session, the body elected Samuel secretary of state. At the time, Elizabeth had already departed Boston and along with her daughter and was living in Cambridge in her father’s house. On 12 September, Samuel departed Massachusetts to return to Philadelphia. He rode on a horse that he borrowed from his cousin, John Adams. In November 1775, Adams was appointed to the Committee of Correspondence (later, Committee of Secret Correspondence), which was the initial foreign intelligence organization. The work of the committee included putting out propaganda, creating secret codes and ciphers, and if deemed necessary, opening private mail. During 1777, when certain patriots moved to oust General Washington, Sam Adams was among Washington’s detractors. The incident is known as “Conway Cabal.” The plot intended to make General Horatio Gates commander-in-chief failed. Adams departed Congress during 1781. Samuel opposed the establishment of a war department and a foreign office as well as a secretary of finance. Nonetheless, he signed his name in acceptance of the Articles of Confederation on 1 March 1781, and that same month, he took leave and returned to Massachusetts. While he was gone, his wife and Hannah kept the house going, despite Elizabeth’s concern of sometimes being “low on cash,” by their sewing and the spectacular quality of Hannah’s embroidery. Samuel was later a prominent member of the Massachusetts convention that formed the state’s constitution. After the war, Samuel Adams became lieutenant governor of Massachusetts (1789), the year after his son, Doctor Samuel Adams, succumbed at about age 37. Samuel, Jr., had served in the war as a surgeon and it is thought that those years played a great part in his demise. Governor Samuel Adams took the loss with great difficulty. During 1793, upon the death of Governor John Hancock, Samuel became governor and remained in that post until 1797, when poor health compelled him to retire. During each of his elections for governor, he was strongly opposed by the Federalists. In the interim, after the war concluded, Adams sided with those who refused to forgive the Tories, whom he said had been traitors. Adams, acting on the authority of the city of Boston, instructed the Committee of Correspondence, Inspection and Safety to resist any attempt to restore the right of those who had participated in “so wicked a conspiracy against these rights and liberties by certain ingrates, most of them natives of these States....” Samuel also opposed the Jay Treaty in alignment with James Madison and others, but in opposition to Alexander Hamilton and other Federalists. During 1797, due to a deterioration of his health, Adams resigned from his governorship at the age of seventy-five. Adams’ skills as a businessman were poor, and he also lacked the credentials to properly perform the duties of a tax collector, but his rhetoric was extraordinary and his mind keen. Adams’ actions against the British oppression played an important role throughout the conflict. He is known to have remained quite religious all his life and frequently attended church. During his public service and afterward, he never acquired wealth. At the time of his death, Samuel would have been in genuine poverty, except for a bequest from his son. The old estate had been sold and he and his wife Elizabeth were living in a house on Winter Street, with his daughter and her children. The old statesman received a pleasant surprise during 1800 while watching a parade pass his home. The governor, Caleb Strong, halted the parade after he noticed Sam Adams watching through a window.

11 The governor graciously moved to the house while the bands remained silent. While the governor clasped Samuel’s hand, the soldiers in the parade presented arms. In the meantime, everyone else in the parade had removed their hats and in total silence stared in the direction of Sam Adams and the governor. It was a moving moment for the great patriot, a Republican, being so honored by the Federalist governor. Samuel’s final years brought a continued deterioration of his health. During the early morning hours of Sunday, 2 October 1803, Samuel Adams, the Father of the American Revolution, succumbed. The people of Boston quickly became aware of their loss when the church bells began to ring to signal his death. Nonetheless, due to politics, there was some confusion regarding his funeral train, but the confusion was eliminated and Samuel’s escort was impressive. He was interred at the Granary Burial Ground in close proximity to where victims of the Boston Massacre had been interred. Two other men who had signed the Declaration of Independence are also buried there, John Hancock and Robert Treat Paine. Another prominent patriot of the American Revolution, Paul Revere, was also interred there, and yet another patriot leader, James Otis. Hannah, the daughter of Samuel Adams, married Captain Thomas Wells, a younger brother of her stepmother. Elizabeth Wells Adams, his second wife, survived Samuel by about five years.

Alexander, Major General William (Lord Stirling) William was born in New York City in 1726 to James and Mary “Polly” Spratt Provoost (widow of David Provoost). James had arrived in America from Scotland during August 1715, after having supported the Stuarts in a failed attempt to regain the throne from the House of Brunswick. He was a surveyor and he practiced law. Mary at the time of her marriage to James in June 1721 had two children, John and David, from her previous marriage. That same year, the Alexanders had a child, Mary (Polly), and her birth was followed by the birth of their oldest son, James, during 1723. Mary would later marry Van Brugh Livingston. James, Jr., was struck by fever during 1731 and soon after died from the disease. The other children born to Polly and James Alexander were Elizabeth (Betsy), Catherine (Kitty), Anne and Susanna. During 1746, the family sustained another loss when Anne, only fourteen years old, succumbed. The region was again struck by an epidemic of fever again the next year; this one took the life of William’s cousin, Doctor William Alexander. His death left the title of Stirling to fall upon James Alexander. Correspondence between William’s father and the authorities in Scotland concluded with a confirmation that James was the rightful heir. During the following year, William married Sarah, known as Sally, Livingston, the sister of Van Brugh and the daughter of Philip (Lord of Livingston Manor) on 29 February 1748. William and Sarah had three children, Catherine, Mary and William. Soon after William’s marriage, his sisters, Betsy and Kitty, got married on the same day to John Stephens and Elisha Parker respectively. William and his mother worked together in the business initially begun by her first husband. This led to contracts with the army, and the association caused the commandeer-in-chief, General WilWilliam Alexander (Pictorial Field liam Shirley, to become Book of the Revolution, Benson J. Los- acquainted with William Alexander. His association with sing, 1860)

ALEXANDER General Shirley brought about military experience, which would later enable him to handle responsibility as a general officer. General Shirley appointed him as aide-de-camp and as his personal secretary. In 1755, William, with a commission as major, traveled to Albany with General Shirley, and that year journeyed to Virginia, where he began a long-lasting friendship with George Washington. Alexander and his mother entered into a business partnership in January 1756 with John Erving, Jr., Lewis Morris, Jr., and his brotherin-law, Van Brugh Livingston. They established the partnership to supply the expeditionary force that was to be sent against Niagara and later to supply the forces in Virginia. The enterprise was opposed by Lt. Governor James DeLancey, who expected the contract to be awarded to his brother Oliver, but General Shirley overruled Delancey. During April 1756, James, a member of council, had been ill from the gout, but he ignored his illness and attended a session. The outing caused him to come down with a miserable cold that essentially cost him his life. He succumbed on 2 April 1756. The New York Mercury on 5 April noted his passing with a long obituary: “To the unspeakable loss of our family and to the public, on Friday evening last, died the Honorable James Alexander, Esq., in the sixty-fourth year of his life...” James had, as one of his final requests, urged his son William to travel to Scotland to pursue his rightful claim to the earldom of Stirling. Also in 1756, General Shirley was recalled to England and William, at that time a major, accompanied the general, who had been recalled and replaced. William vouched for the character and leadership of General Shirley, who had been accused of “incompetency and mismanagement.” Alexander’s testimony played a key part in Shirley’s exoneration on all charges. William, while in England, traveled to Scotland to pursue his quest to gain the earldom of Stirling. He was able to verify his claim to the earldom by proving he was a descendant of John Gogar. William was seated in the House and was able to cast votes. He received the title 6th Earl of Stirling, Viscount Canada etc., and after completing his business in Scotland, he returned to London. Nonetheless, England never finalized his claim, despite the fact that there were no other claimants. While in London, he had his portrait drawn as a gift to his mother; however, she passed away before he returned home. Mary Alexander, known as the last of the Dutch matrons (she was of Dutch extraction and spoke English and Dutch fluently) succumbed on 18 April 1760. She was interred at Trinity Church in Albany alongside her husband and other family members. William returned to New York in 1761. For a while he lived in the house in New York in which his parents had lived, but he set his sights on other property in New Jersey that had also been inherited from his father. After transforming his summer house at New Jersey into his permanent residence about 1768, he became a member of the Provincial Council, a position he held until the war erupted. During the years that the French and Indian War consumed the colonies until to the outbreak of the Revolution, William had become friendly with many prominent Englishmen. In a letter from Lt. Colonel William Amherst during 1763, William was addressed as Lord Stirling, and later correspondence from Lt. General Thomas Gage, his title, Lord Stirling, had also been used. Nonetheless, by 1764, Lord Stirling joined with other prominent Americans to oppose the Stamp Act and the oppressive policies of Britain against the colonies. By September 1775, the governor of New Jersey, William Franklin (son of Benjamin Franklin), was less than pleased when he was informed that Lord Stirling had accepted an appointment as colonel of a patriot militia regiment and summoned Lord Stirling to attend a meeting. Lord Stirling responded by telling Franklin that he was suffering from gout and wouldn’t be able to attend, but he did inform Franklin that he had accepted the appointment. Heated letters were exchanged, but Lord Stirling brushed off Franklin’s arrogance. Lord Stirling, referred to as the “rebellious colonel” by Franklin, began to

ALEXANDER organize his unit immediately. On 18 October, the regiment received orders to shape up for a general review and muster, scheduled for 6 November. In the meantime, Lord Stirling’s plans were interrupted. Prior to the day he established for the review of his regiment, he received word that he had been given command of two regiments of the Continental Army. On November 7, Congress appointed field officers for the two New Jersey battalions. Lord Stirling and William Winds were elected as colonel and lieutenant colonel respectively of the 1st Battalion. Some of the officers and enlisted men from Alexander’s militia regiment joined the regulars to serve with him. After receiving his orders from Congress, he traveled from Philadelphia to nearby Burlington, New Jersey, to arrange for his regiments to receive arms from the New Jersey Committee of Safety. From there he moved to other towns acquire more items for his troops and during the course of the endeavor, more men joined his force. However, there was great apprehension due to the threat of the British arriving in New Jersey. While at Elizabeth, Lord Stirling was asked to provide protection from British incursions. His recruiting efforts had been impeded by local magistrates who were sending out warrants for some of his troops for minor infractions. Lord Stirling corresponded with Congress requesting help on the latter, and he informed the body that unless he was otherwise ordered, he would provide the necessary protection against the British. The communications also requested arms and ammunition. His letter to John Hancock, written on 18 December 1775, received a prompt response. It was read in Congress on 26 December. Congress took action by resolution: “Therefore, That it be recommended to the several legislatures in these colonies, whether assemblies or conventions, to pass acts or ordinances, prohibiting the arrest of continental soldiers for small debts; and in order that the same rule may pervade all the colonies, that no such soldier be arrested at the suit of any of his creditors, unless the said creditor makes oath, that the said soldier is justly indebted to him in the sum of thirty five dollars over and above all discounts....” Hancock also authorized Lord Stirling to confiscate any enemy gunpowder and arms that he could and to maintain it until further orders arrived from Congress. Colonel Lord Stirling seemed well fit for the position Congress awarded him, and his instincts often proved valuable. On 6 January, he dispatched a detachment to intercept what he thought would be enemy intelligence; the mission succeeded. A dispatch rider en route to New York was apprehended and packets intended for the Earl of Dartmouth were confiscated. In addition, letters for General Thomas Gage were also confiscated. More importantly, it was concluded that Governor Franklin was about to flee the colony. Troops were dispatched to his residence and guards were posted there. Eventually, Franklin was transported to Connecticut, where he was held until the hostilities terminated. On 8 January, a frustrated and disgruntled William Franklin, who was being detained, complained by letter to his guard that he had only done his duty as a “faithful servant of the crown.” On the 9th, in another letter he demanded that the guard be removed. Lt. Colonel Winds responded, “So I say, touching the sentinels placed at your gate, I have done nothing, but what was my duty to do as a faithful officer of the Congress.” On 10 January 1776, General Washington wrote to Lord Stirling informing him that General Gates was in the process of moving to New York to fortify the defenses and that he expected to get assistance from Lord Stirling’s command. On 22 January, Lord Stirling mounted a daring raid. His force, including regulars and volunteers, departed Elizabeth aboard a pilot vessel and a few other boats, then embarked for the New York Harbor, where the raiders succeeded in capturing a transport called the Blue Mountain Valley that held supplies intended for the British at Boston, off Sandy Hook.

12 Colonel Lord Stirling wrote to Washington on 24 January informing him of the raid and that the prize was being taken to Amboy, New Jersey. Soon after, orders arrived for Colonel Maxwell to repair to New Albany, and afterward Colonel Lord Stirling also received orders to march to New York. On 1 March, Lord Stirling was among six officers promoted to the rank of brigadier general by Congress. The others were John Armstrong, William Thompson, Andrew Lewis, James Moore and Robert Howe. By that time, General Charles Lee’s orders to move to Canada had been cancelled and he was assigned command in the Department of the South, which left the Middle Department under the command of Lord Stirling. Intelligence dispatched by General Washington reached General Alexander (Lord Stirling) on the 13th of March. The message stated that British forces had embarked from Boston and were most probably en route to New York. Meanwhile, on 10 March, General Alexander wrote to Major General Philip Schuyler informing him that General Charles Lee had departed for the South and that he (Alexander) would require 8,000 troops to prepare to defend New York and Long Island. General Thompson arrived from Philadelphia on the 20th and took command. General Alexander then prepared to return to New Jersey. Nevertheless, General William Thompson received orders instructing him to journey to Canada, which caused Alexander to return to assume command at New York. The Americans continued to build the defenses and by mid–July, the British arrived at Staten Island. On 27 August, General Alexander was cornered during fierce fighting (Battle of Long Island). He surrendered to General De Heister. General Washington, aware of the loss of Alexander, moved to exchange a Tory general, Donald McDonald, for him, but British general Howe declined. However, Howe did accept an exchange of Alexander for Governor Montford Brown of Florida. While Washington was retreating through New Jersey, General Alexander rejoined the Continental Army. Afterward, General Alexander intercepted a large force of British troops en route from Amboy to disperse Washington’s encampment at Morristown and succeeded in foiling the plan. On 19 February 1777, Brigadier General Alexander was promoted to major general. Later, when General William Howe ordered troops from Staten Island to attack Washington, General Alexander again moved to intercept the column, while Washington moved to the vicinity of Middlebrook, New Jersey. Howe forced Alexander to fall back, but the stiff resistance forced Howe to halt the advance and return to Staten Island. General Alexander participated in the fighting south of Philadelphia in 1777 and at the Battle of Germantown in present-day Philadelphia. Afterward, Alexander moved with Washington to Valley Forge, where the winter encampment (1777–1778) was established. General Alexander continued to Reading, Pennsylvania. During June 1778, following the fighting at Monmouth, New Jersey, General Charles Lee requested a court-martial. General Alexander presided and Lee, after the facts had been presented, was suspended from the service. At the time, the British had been heading for New York after evacuating Philadelphia. General Alexander moved to White Plains and established camp. Later, on 15 October, he moved back to New Jersey and established headquarters at Elizabethtown. Spring of 1779 brought orders for General Alexander to advance to Pompton Plains, and from there to cover the area to the Hudson to shadow British movement. During that period and throughout the summer, General Alexander continued to send a constant flow of messages regarding the British to Congress. On 24 September 1779, Congress, subsequent to the successful mission against Paulus Hook, New Jersey, expressed thanks to General Washington for ordering the attack and to Major General Lord Stirling for his strategic part in the operation. Later, while the Continental Army remained at its winter quarters at Morristown, General Alexander on 14 January 1780 attacked the British at Staten Island.

13 The British, however, had been reinforced and Alexander was compelled to retreat. After arriving at Albany, Alexander assumed command of the Northern Department on 15 October 1781. He succeeded General John Stark and held the position until 21 November 1781. During that time, General Alexander was faced with a threatening force under General St. Leger. Alexander deployed a formidable defensive force at Saratoga and on 1 November the defenses were completely prepared, but word of Lord Cornwallis’ surrender at Yorktown reached Alexander and the battle never erupted. The British retired. Subsequent to the surrender of Cornwallis at Yorktown in October 1781, General Alexander returned to Baskenridge. During January 1782, he moved to Philadelphia, which was included in his department, and established winter headquarters there. On 29 August, 1782, General Alexander again succeeded General Stark and resumed command of the Northern Department to become its final commander. General Alexander retained the post until 15 January 1783, the day of his death. He was interred in a crypt located in the Dutch church at Albany that held the ancestors of his wife. His wife, Sarah, lived until March 1805. William was later re-interred in a family crypt with his father and other family members in the cemetery at the Episcopal Trinity Church in Manhattan, to which he had belonged.

Allen, Ethan Ethan, named after his paternal grandfather, the son of Joseph and Mary Baker Allen of Coventry, Tolland County, Connecticut, was born on 10 January 1738 (some sources say 21 January). Ethan’s parents relocated at Litchfield subsequent to their marriage during 1736 and settled on a farm near the Housatonic River just outside of the town of Ellsworth. It was there that the family began to grow by seven additional children: Heman, Lydia, Heber, Levi, Lucy, Zimri and Ira. Around 1772 or 1773, Ethan moved to nearby Bennington, Vermont. Ethan had married Mary Brownson, with whom he had five children: Loraine (b. 1763, died at age 20); Joseph (b. 1765, died of smallpox, 1777); Lucy Caroline (b. 1768); Mary Ann (b. 1772, died at about age 18); and Pamela (b. 1779). The marriage was apparently less than perfect due in great part to Ethan’s traits; he was cantankerous, an excessive drinker and not untypically for a frontiersman, he was frequently away from the family for prolonged periods of time. During the early 1770s, New York was claiming the New Hampshire Grants, and at Bennington, resistance was quickly raised. Ethan Allen and Seth Warner led the opposition against Governor William Tryon. The group, which opposed the attachment to New York, became known as the “Green Mountain Boys.” In 1771 an Order of Council made Vermont part of New York and the people of Vermont were adamantly opposed to the action. A military organization was later decided upon; Ethan Allen was selected as colonel-commandant. Captains were also appointed: Remember Baker, Robert Cochran, Gideon Warner and Seth Warner. The reaction by Governor William Tryon of New York was swift. He placed a price on their heads, offering a reward for Ethan Allen and the others. Once word arrived of the price of one hundred and fifty pounds for the arrest of Allen and fifty pounds for the others, the Vermonters responded. They offered a reward of five pounds to anyone who would seize and deliver the attorney general of New York to the “Green Mountain Boys.” The dispute continued, and there was no resolution, as those in Vermont refused to submit to New York. By 1774, the imminent conflict with Britain began to overshadow the attempt by New York to dominate Vermont, but still the tension was high. On 13 March, a confrontation occurred at the courthouse when a group of armed men ordered the people to disperse. Later that day, at about midnight, shots were fired, and from that point forward, the Green Mountain Boys received help from many other towns. By

ALLEN the 14th, the leader of the Tories, Squire Patterson, was arrested and held for the murder of William French on the 13th. The ongoing dispute between the Vermonters and New York slipped to the shadows as the greater problem with Britain came to the forefront with the clash that occurred at Lexington and Concord during April 1775. Word of the confrontation with the British at Lexington spread rapidly. The Green Mountain Boys were among the first to react. Allen received orders from the Connecticut Committee of Safety to capture Fort Ticonderoga, New York. On 7 May, a contingent of men under Edward Mott and Noah Phelps, numbering about 250 men, moved through Connecticut en route to Pittsfield, where they were joined by Allen and his contingent. Allen, his Green Mountain Boys and the other patriots reached Castleton, Vermont, within striking distance of the objective on the opposite bank of the lake during the evening of 9 May. The first wave crossed Lake Champlain and afterward, the rear guard under Seth Warner was ferried across. Allen took the objective effortlessly and when asked by the commander, Captain de Place, in whose authority he demanded the surrender, he responded: “In the name of the Great Jehovah and the Continental Congress.” Allen’s contingent, which included a separate group under Benedict Arnold that joined with Allen on the 8th, also secured Crown Point, with its garrison of less than fifteen troops. The fall of the two posts and a sloop, the only naval presence on the lake, gave the Green Mountain Boys domination of the lake. Allen, while at Fort Ticonderoga, although not commissioned by Congress, accompanied General Richard Montgomery on the Canadian Expedition during fall of 1775. On 30 June 1775, the Green Mountain Boys, unwilling to serve under commanders except their own, received permission from Congress to form their own companies and select their own officers. The troops were drawn from the Hampshire Grants (modern-day Vermont) to form seven companies and select their own officers. The Vermonters would not accept officers from outside Vermont. Seth Warner, however, was appointed colonel and Ethan Allen was appointed lieutenant colonel. During the Canadian Campaign, Allen was captured on 25 September 1775 by the British under General Guy Carleton. On 20 November, while still in Canada, Benedict Arnold wrote to General Montgomery and noted that Ethan Allen had been caged and sent to England. He spent about six weeks in leg irons aboard the vessel HMS Gaspee. Allen remained in England until January 1776, when he was transported to Halifax. He was held there until being transferred to New York during October of that same year in the sloop on which he had been held (a floating prison) at Halifax. Allen was paroled during the latter part of November 1776. He was restricted to New York, but later (26 August 1777) he was again imprisoned. While in New York, he was witness to much of the brutality of the British, particularly that doled out by the Hessian troops. Allen noted how the churches were full of starving and dying prisoners who pleaded in vain for food, and how some prisoners were hacked to death. On 2 March 1778, Congress authorized General William Heath to permit Lieutenant Colonel Anstruther, of the 62nd British Regiment, and Lord Napier, lieutenant of the 31st Regiment, to go on his parole to Rhode Island to attempt to bring about an exchange for Colonel Ethan Allen, if the latter had not already been exchanged. Congress learned of Allen’s capture on 2 December 1775 and immediately directed General Washington to contact British General William Howe to attempt to win his freedom through a prisoner exchange. Meanwhile, on 27 December, Allen, the sole American officer seized at Montreal, was transferred to the HMS Solebay, which then transported him and thirty-three other Americans to Boston. From there he was taken to England. On 3 January 1777, the effort to gain freedom for Ethan Allen continued. Congress authorized General Washington to propose exchanging a German officer for him, but no results were forthcoming.

ARMAND Allen was finally exchanged for Colonel Archibald Campbell on 6 May 1778. After his release, he traveled to Valley Forge to meet with General Washington and from there he accompanied the force of General Gates to Fishkill, New York. On 14 May, he was promoted to the rank of brevet colonel by Congress. Allen arrived back at Bennington on 31 May, to the great jubilation of the citizens. He was rewarded by the Vermonters with an appointment as major general of the militia, but his poor health prevented any active participation. Congress, on 24 September 1778, resolved “that 75 dollars per month be allowed to Colonel E. Allen, from the date of his brevet, during the pleasure of Congress, or until he shall be called into actual service.” During the following year, 1779, Allen and other associates received a land grant from the Republic of Vermont. The land known as Two Heroes was later divided into North Hero and South Hero. South Hero was itself divided to create Middle Hero. At North Hero, the British fortified a blockhouse known as Dutchman’s Point (later Blockhouse Point), and when the War for Independence ended, they refused to abandon it. Ethan Allen remained active in politics. During 1780, there was a period of turbulence between Vermont and the United States, regarding Vermont’s quest for independence. Allen informed the U.S. Congress that he would fight for the independence of Vermont with the vigor as that of the U.S. against Britain. Great Britain attempted to interfere and create a wedge between the two parties. The dilemma nearly caused civil war. In 1783–1784, Allen commanded the Vermont military. He called out the militia to quell disturbances in Windham County and proclaimed that he would “make the town as desolate as were the cities of Sodom and Gomorrah” if the citizens of Guilford did not “submit to the authority of Vermont.” Allen’s forces commenced fire on the “Yorkers” and afterward several skirmishes occurred before Allen declared martial law. Ethan also became troubled with a personal family problem. His brother, Levi, sided with the Loyalists and headed for Canada. Ethan moved to confiscate his brother’s property. Levi challenged Ethan to a duel, which Ethan rejected, claiming “it would be disgraceful to fight a tory.” Allen, after the war, lived at Bennington, Tinmouth and Arlington, and finally settled outside of Bennington with his second wife, Fanny Buchanan, whom he married in 1784. Ethan and Fanny had three children: Fanny Margaret (b. 1784); Hannibal (b. about 1785–1786) and Ethan (b. 1787). Ethan’s property was located near the Winooski River. His first wife, Mary, died at her daughter Lucy’s home in Vermont in 1783. During his lifetime, Allen penned “Oracle of Reason” and an account of his time in captivity by the British. Allen assumed there was no revelation and argued against the Christian Revelation as well as against the Old Testament. Allen succumbed on 12 February 1789. At his grave site near Winooski, a marble store was set with the inscription: “The Corporeal Part of General Ethan Allen Rests beneath this stone, the 12th day of February, 1789 Aged 52 years. His spirit tried the mercies of God, In whom he believed, and strongly trusted.”

Armand, Brigadier General Tuffin Charles Marquis de la Rouarie Charles’ actual surname had been Tuffin, but upon his arrival in America, he modified his name due to his perception that his aristocratic birth would prove detrimental to his success in his new land. Sources vary on the exact date of his birth; however, Colonel Charles Armand, as he came to be known, according to the National Park Service, was born during 1750. Little information is available regarding his early life, but he was described as a French gentleman in a sketch written in 1898 by T.G. Lenotre in the Pennsylvania Magazine of History: “Armand de la Rouerie was the complete personification of a gentleman of the ancien regime

14 of the old school of France. He had alike their faults and their virtues, easy morals, carelessness, bravery, pride, imprudence, chivalric heroism, and an absolute contempt of death.” Although the name of Colonel Armand is not very well known and his achievements during the Revolution have been often overlooked, he was considered one of the founders of the United States Cavalry. While still a boy, Charles was accepted into the elite unit (Garde de Corps) that protected the king and served with it for about ten years. The members of the unit were known as the royal household troops. Charles, after a while, found a way to exit from the corps. He engaged in a duel with the Comte de Bourbon Besset and wounded his opponent, who coincidentally was a cousin to the king. The cost of prevailing in the duel was high. It terminated his military career in the French service. For a while after the incident, Charles is thought to have sought refuge in a monastery. Subsequently, he made it to America and once there he moved to reinitiate his service in the military by gaining a commission in the Continental Army. He arrived in America with a literal splash during April 1777, following an uneventful two-month journey. When the vessel carrying Charles and his party (several servants) approached shore, it was intercepted by a British warship that opened fire and sank the ship. Charles and his servants survived and swam to shore, but they lost all of their possessions. On 10 May 1777, Congress resolved that Monsieur Armand receive a commission “with the rank and pay of a major or colonel, and that he be directed to repair to General Washington.” Colonel Armand was authorized to raise a legion of volunteers; however, the effort proved less than successful, but Armand remained undaunted. He made contact with a Swiss officer who had already formed a legion and persuaded the officer to sell him the legion. The volunteers became known as Armand’s Legion. Armand’s contingent participated with Washington in the Northern Theater, including the battles of Brandywine (11 September 1777) and Germantown (4 October 1777) while the British advanced from the Chesapeake to seize Philadelphia. Armand had authorization to act independently and his legion under his leadership played key parts in the northern campaign by launching stinging raids. Similarly to Francis Marion, the Swamp Fox, except for the swamps, Armand’s raiders continued to move about and strike the enemy when they were least expected. On 3 February 1778, Congress, after receiving a report from the Board of War, accepted the resignation of Colonel Armand. However, after considering another report regarding Armand, it resolved on 25 May “that the independent corps raised by Colonel Armand, in consequence of General Washington’s permission, be taken into continental pay; the pay to commence from the time of the respective inlistments of the non-commissioned officers and privates engaged in the same: That General Washington be authorized to officer this corps with such foreign and other officers of merit as at present hold commissions, and who are not already and cannot be annexed to other corps on the proposed arrangement of the army....” Colonel Armand, after being commissioned, worked to gain promotion to brigadier. His first official attempt at promotion was rejected by Congress on 4 February 1779. On 5 February, after considering yet another letter from Armand, in which he requested permission to return to France, Congress resolved that it “extends its thanks for his service and accepts his resignation.” Colonel Armand apparently never left the service. Shortly after his resignation was accepted, Congress, during a Friday session on 12 February, received a letter and a report that dealt with the corps of Armand and Count Casimir Pulaski directing “that the same be returned, and that the Board of War be informed that Congress only means that the infantry of Count Pulaski and Colonel Armand’s corps be recruited to their original establishment, and that the Board be directed to report

15 accordingly.” On the following day, Congress authorized a payment of “$94,000 to the paymaster of the Board of War and Ordnance for Colonel Armand to use in recruiting his corps.” Later, on 6 November 1779, Colonel Armand, while at Peekskill, New York, led an infantry-cavalry contingent to Kingsbridge and succeeded in seizing six British prisoners, including Major Bearmore. During the first part of the following year, Congress received yet another request regarding promotion from Colonel Armand. On 19 January 1780, Congress received a letter from the Board of War dealing with Armand’s request, but no action was taken. On 21 January, Congress referred the matter of Armand’s request to General Washington to seek his counsel. Meanwhile, Colonel Armand took another course of action; rather than offering his resignation, he requested a leave of absence to return to France. On 10 February, Congress took a letter from Armand, dated 9 February, under consideration and afterward resolved “that Congress entertain a high sense of the merit and services of Colonel Armand, and that his application for leave of absence for six months after the end of the next campaign be complied with.” Yet again, Colonel Armand, moved to get a promotion. On 23 February, 1780, Congress received a report from the Board of War regarding the request with a recommendation that his request be rejected because other colonels had collected more time in the service. However, Congress resolved “that the remains of the legion of the late Count Pulaski be incorporated with the corps of Colonel Armand, Marquis de la Rouerie, in such manner as the commander in chief of the southern army shall think proper: the united corps to be formed into a legion to be commanded by Colonel Armand; provided, however, that General Lincoln has not already entered into measures for complying with the resolution of Congress of December 29th, 1779.” After the death of Count Pulaski, who was mortally wounded on 9 October 1779, while defending Savannah, Colonel Armand received command of Pulaski’s Legion. On 16 August 1780, Colonel Armand’s corps participated at the Battle of Camden, where General Gates sustained the defeat that terminated his military career. Armand’s Legion sustained severe casualties during the contest. However, Armand’s corps performed with distinction and, soon after, Congress acknowledged the effort. On 14 October 1780, Congress resolved “that the thanks of Congress be given to Generals Smallwood and Gist, and to the officers and soldiers of the Maryland and Delaware lines; the different corps of artillery; Colonel Porterfield’s and Major Armstrong’s corps of light infantry, and Colonel Armand’s cavalry; for their bravery and good conduct, displayed in the action of the 16th of August last, near Camden....” During the following year on 2 January, Congress, after considering a letter from Colonel Armand, resolved “that General Washington be informed, that Congress consent to his permitting Colonel Armand to take from the line of infantry in the army of the United States, when the state and strength thereof will admit, a sufficient number of volunteers to complete his partizan corps for the next campaign, provided he be not allowed to take more than six men from a regiment.” That same month, on the 23rd, Congress authorized Colonel Armand to travel to France to acquire clothing and equipment for his corps on his personal credit. Congress advanced the money with the stipulation that it get repaid in four years with interest (5 percent per annum). Colonel Armand completed the voyage and returned to America in time to participate in the Yorktown Campaign. Once back in the country, he repaired to Virginia to rejoin his legion, which had earlier been dispatched there. Colonel Armand participated in the fighting against Redoubt 10 and afterward, in appreciation of his contribution, General Washington added fifty volunteers to further augment Armand’s striking power. Subsequent to the defeat and surrender of Lord Charles Cornwallis at Yorktown in October 1781, Colonel Armand was dispatched farther south to support General Nathanael Greene during the campaign

ARMAND to eliminate the remaining forces in the South; however, the tour was short-lived. Armand and his legion were back in the tranquil northern theater by Christmas 1781. Colonel Armand remained in the army for the duration. During 1783, on 23 March, Colonel Armand finally achieved his original goal. His exploits and exemplary service during the war were recognized by Congress, which promoted him to the rank of brigadier general. General Armand retired from the army during November 1783, and afterward embarked for France. Prior to his departure, General Armand became a member of the Society of Cincinnati. When he first arrived in America, he landed with no possessions due to the loss of the vessel that transported him from France, and upon his arrival back in France, he carried with him a huge debt from expenditures accumulated for the upkeep of the legion. An American officer, Major George Shaffner, previously with the German Battalion and a friend of General Armand, accompanied Armand back to France. Congress paid tribute to the French cavalry commander who had served America heroically during the struggle for independence. A resolution of 27 February 1784 said: Whereas, the United States in Congress assembled are well informed, and entertain a just sense of the great bravery, intelligence, zeal and activity manifested during the cause of the late war with Great Britain, by Brigadier General Armand, Marquis de Roueire, in the service of the United States, and, whereas, it also appears by a letter from the late commander-in-chief, dated at Philadelphia, 15th December, 1783, addressed to the said General Armand, that superadded to general merit for good conduct, vigilance, and bravery, General Armand has, in a variety of instances, particularly signalized himself as an excellent officer and great partisan, and frequently rendered the United States very valuable services. Resolved, that the President write a letter to General Armand, Marquis de la Roueire, expressive of the high sense Congress are impressed with, of the services he has rendered the United States in the course of the late war with Great Britain, and of the entire approbation the United States in Congress assembled entertain of his bravery, activity, and zeal so often evidenced in the cause of America.

During 1785 General Armand married an affluent woman; however, the marriage was short lived. His wife succumbed during 1786. After returning to his homeland, General Armand, having become known as a hero for his exploits in America, retired to a quiet life, which he maintained until 1788. At that time, he was one of a group of elected deputies (Ffrom Brittany) charged with persuading King Louis XVI to continue to allow the privileges that his province had enjoyed. The king’s response was less than enthusiastic, and Armand’s efforts caused him to be detained for a short period in the Bastille. After being released several weeks later, he headed back to Brittany. During that period, the peasants were becoming the pawns of instigators that were conspiring to oust the monarchy. Armand was among those who rejected the revolutionaries; he became incensed when the revolutionaries began to liquidate Catholic priests and nuns, while working to eradicate Catholicism and the monarchy. During the latter part of 1791, Armand received official command of the Breton association from the exiled princes, brothers of King Louis XVI. The objective was to advance against Paris to oust the assembly, extricate the royal family from imprisonment and restore the monarchy. A huge number of muskets had been acquired in England and Armand’s chateau became the base of operations. Armand’s force, composed of peasants and aristocrats, was to be bolstered by the Duke of Brunswick, who committed his army to the cause. The plan called for Armand, with about 10,000 men, to strike from the west, while the Duke attacked from the north. The attack to regain Paris by the royalists was scheduled to occur in March 1793. In the meantime, Armand maintained headquarters at his chateau and continued to increase his numbers. However, one of his trusted men, Valentine Chevetel, had been a spy

ARMSTRONG for the republicans and maintained continuous communications with the convention to keep the revolutionaries appraised of Armand’s progress. The convention dispatched troops to seize Armand, but the mission failed and Armand was able to remain concealed by rapidly moving from one sanctuary to another, often finding sleeping quarters in a cave or on open ground. Armand also used disguises, including an eye patch, while he hid at Rennes, a republican stronghold. Although Armand succeeded in evading capture, the Brittany insurrection never materialized. The king, Louis XVI, was executed by guillotine on 21 January 1793. On 30 January, General Armand succumbed from a fatal illness while he was at the castle La Guyomarais. Later that year, the queen, Marie Antoinette, suffered the same fate as her husband, decapitation by guillotine. Following the death of the king an d the leader of the Royalist rebellion, General Armand, the Revolution continued to flourish and the nation was ravaged. Royalist and Catholic clergy were specifically targeted for extinction as the period known as the Reign of Terror emerged to nearly destroy France. The cathedral of Notre Dame was taken over by the convention, stripped of its name and dedication to the Blessed Mother and rededicated as the “Temple of Enlightenment.” General Armand was buried by his supporters, but the spies, Valentine Chevetel and another man, who prevented the planned rebellion, informed the revolutionaries where his body was buried. The two spies arrived at the chateau to arrest the friends and associates of Armand and the family who sheltered Armand during his final illness. Those seized were carried to Paris and executed. The spies, having given away the location of Armand’s burial site on the grounds of the chateau, caused more grief even after the general died. His body was extricated and his head was severed and attached to a stake to mortify and intimidate others. At the time of his death, his friends buried his death certificate in the vicinity of an oak tree. The document was discovered in 1835 and preserved.

Armstrong, Major General John John was born in Northern Ireland about 1717–1720. In the 1740s (About 1745–1748), he emigrated to America and took up residence in Pennsylvania on the frontier where he continued his work as a surveyor. John, the son of James Armstrong, prior to departing for America, according to the papers of John Armstong at Dickinson College in Carlisle, married Rebecca Lyon, the daughter of James Lyon of Enniskillen, County Fermanagh. John settled in the Kittatinny Valley in the area west of the Susquehanna River, where he and Rebecca raised three children — John, Jr., James, and Margaret Rebecca. After a group of settlers from Connecticut acquired land in Pennsylvania from Indians, an agreement deemed illegal by Pennsylvania, Armstrong was dispatched in 1754 to Connecticut to attempt to settle the dispute with the Susquehanna Company. During the following year, Armstrong received another precarious assignment when he was selected to survey roads leading from Carlisle to the town of Confluence and to the town of Will’s Creek in an effort to expedite the transportation of supplies to General Edward Braddock’s army, which was involved with the expedition to seize Fort Duquesne from the French. The English under Braddock sustained a severe defeat, and afterward the frontier was transformed into an inferno as many of the Indians that had been friendly to the English switched their allegiance to the French. John set his surveyor’s equipment to the side and joined the militia as a private, but by January 1756 he was appointed captain and assumed command of a company in the Second Battalion (Provincial troops). Shortly thereafter, he began to rise rapidly in rank. On 11 May, he was promoted to lieutenant colonel. Armstrong’s strategy after taking command was to bolster the defenses against Indian attack by erecting a series of spaced blockhouses that stretched from the Susquehanna River to the border with Maryland. His strategy was linked to offen-

16 sive moves to eradicate the pernicious raids originating in Kittanning, an Indian stronghold that had been unmolested. All the while, the Indians were crossing the mountains and descending upon the settlements in the Juniata and Cumberland Valleys, wreaking havoc and instilling fear into the settlers. Armstrong, after conferring with Governor Morris, assembled a force of about three hundred men at Fort Shirley at Shirleysburg (Huntington County). The region also had been suffering from John Armstrong (Pictorial Field Book a lack of ammunition due to of the Revolution, Benson J. Lossing, the raids, including two 1860) against Fort Granville, which surrendered during early August after being assured of protection by the French, but the French permitted the Indians to massacre the garrison. Colonel Armstrong’s brother was among the troops killed there. The force assembled during late August and marched out of the post on 30 August to spring the surprise raid. The column reached the village by traveling the Kittanning Road without being discovered and devastated the Indians, inflicting many casualties, including Chief Jacobs. The victory by Armstrong brought eventual peace to the area when the Treaty of Eaton was signed the following year. Armstrong, promoted to colonel on 27 May 1758, led a division in General John Forbes’ army that succeeded that same year in wresting Fort Duquesne from the French when the French garrison abandoned the post during November. During the expedition, Colonel George Washington commanded troops from Virginia and Maryland, and during the operation the two men became friends. Colonel Armstrong again faced a hostile enemy during 1763 (Pontiac’s War). At that time, again using Fort Shirley as a base, his forces marched out to attack Indian strongholds at Great Island and Myanquie along the west branch of the Susquehanna. The attack was successful, but only in destruction. Both villages were devastated, but the Indians had abandoned them upon the approach of the column. Following the conclusion of the hostilities with the Indians, John reinitiated his work as a surveyor (he had been appointed deputy-surveyor in Cumberland County in 1762 and he was also a justice of the peace). His office in Carlisle was ruined by fire in 1766. By that time, Britain had initiated the Stamp Act of 1765. Throughout the colonies, the patriots were reacting with opposition of varying degrees. It seems as if John’s initial participation in the opposition to the policies of the king and Parliament began during 1774 when he, along with another prominent patriot, James Wilson (a future signer of the Declaration of Independence), was appointed to the Cumberland County committee of correspondence and that was followed by his later military service. Prior to Congress proclaiming the Declaration of Independence, the citizens of Cumberland County offered to raise a battalion of troops for the Continental Army. On 1 March 1776, Colonel Armstrong, who had become friendly with General Washington during the French and Indian War, was appointed brigadier general in the Continental Army. He was the first of six men selected that day. After the selections, Congress resolved “that General Armstrong be directed to repair to South Carolina, General Andrew Lewis and General (Robert) Howe to Virginia, and General James Moore to North Carolina, there respectively to take the command of the forces until they receive further orders from Congress or a superior officer.”

17 Armstrong arrived in Charleston during April and was there with Colonel William Moultrie when the British fleet appeared off the coast on 31 May, but he relinquished command on 4 June, upon the arrival of General Charles Lee, commander of the Department of the South. Nonetheless, Armstrong remained in the city and commanded the defenses on Haddrell’s Point when the British attacked on 28 June. The fort, which until that time had no official name, became Fort Moultrie in honor of Colonel Moultrie’s heroic actions in defense of Charleston. On 21 December 1776, Congress proclaimed its concurrence with General Washington’s decisions to dispatch General Armstrong from Philadelphia to select a secure location to store the magazines and work on increasing enlistments. Congress, which was in session in Baltimore after fleeing Philadelphia, on 31 January directed the Board of War to meet with General Armstrong, who was in Baltimore on other business. Subsequently, during 1777, General Armstrong resigned his commission (4 April) in the Continental Army; however, Pennsylvania appointed him “first brigadier general” of the state on 5 April. On 5 June he was promoted to the rank of major general and the Supreme Executive Council of Pennsylvania, at the same time, placed him in command of all Pennsylvania forces. General Armstrong was not an armchair general. While in Philadelphia, he oversaw the work at the forts along the Delaware River, including Fort Mifflin, Fort Billings and Fort Mercer. He commanded troops at Brandywine in September 1777, but his unit was not directly involved in the fighting due to where they were deployed, a point below Chadd’s Ford. After the American loss and during the retreat, Armstrong’s forces were employed in strengthening the defenses along the Schuylkill River. On 18 September 1777, Congress, in Philadelphia for its final session prior to evacuating due to the British thrust to take the city, resolved that “Major General Armstrong be directed, forthwith, to cause all the printing presses and types in this city and Germantown, forthwith to be removed to secure places in the country, excepting Mr. Bradford’s press in this city, with English types.” In October, Armstrong’s force was committed at the Battle of Germantown (present-day Philadelphia) and was directed to command the defenses at Philadelphia to meet the anticipated invasion. In addition, General Armstrong was elected by the Pennsylvania General Assembly on 20 November 1778 as a member of the Continental Congress for the years 1778–1779. After the close of hostilities, Armstrong again served in Congress (1787–1788). He was a Presbyterian and was involved with the other members of his congregation in establishing the initial church in Carlisle during 1757. He succumbed in Carlisle; however, there is some confusion regarding the time of his death. Most sources specify March 1795, and those sources include Dickinson College, which holds many of Armstrong’s papers. However, the date of John’s death marked on his tombstone in the “Old Graveyard” in Carlisle is 8 March 1793. The same gravestone states that his wife, Rebecca (born May 1719), survived him until 16 November 1797. Their three children, John, Jr., James (became a doctor), and Rebecca Margaret (married the Rev. George Duffield, formerly DuField) also survived him. Some years prior to his death, during 1779, troops under Colonel Stephen Bayard established a fort in Kittanning named Fort Armstrong in his honor. Initially, the fort was to be named Fort Brodhead, but General Brodhead forbid the action. General Armstrong’s son John served in the Continental Army as an officer and rose to the rank of brigadier general during the War of 1812. In 1813, John Armstrong, Jr., was appointed secretary of war by President James Madison.

Arnold, Benedict Benedict was a descendent of one of the initial settlers of Rhode Island, and one of the proprietors, William Arnold, who had three sons, one of whom was named Benedict. The latter became the president of

ARNOLD the colony when he succeeded Roger Williams. The Arnold family expanded throughout the colony at places such as Newport. Around 1730, two brothers, Benedict and Oliver, chose to move from Newport to Norwich, with the former arriving there first, followed by Oliver later. In Norwich, Benedict engaged in commerce, but he was not highly thought of; his enterprises fared poorly and his integrity was not above repute. Nevertheless, he married a respectable widow, Hannah WaterBenedict Arnold (National Archives) man King. The Arnolds had six children, but of those only two survived to adulthood, Benedict and his sister Hannah. Benedict was born in Norwich, Connecticut, but historians differ on the date. Some reliable sources claim 3 January 1740, while others sources specify 14 January 1741. As a young boy he was able to attain a good education, as his father’s enterprises had done well since his marriage to Hannah. However, Benedict seemed not to acquire the fine disposition of his mother and was known to be cruel at times and indifferent to the feelings and opinions of others, but one peculiar trait that he had was to maim young birds after taking them from their nests. For a while, he was offered a position at a pharmacy in Norwich, operated by the Lathrop brothers (Daniel and Joshua), distant relatives of his mother. Later he operated a pharmacy and was a bookseller. Afterward, Arnold became involved in shipping, but the endeavor brought him to bankruptcy and with a tarnished reputation. During one incident, a sailor accused Arnold of smuggling. The man was beaten, and several days later, when the sailor reappeared, he was collared by Arnold and others and given forty lashes. By that time, Benedict had settled in New Haven and married Margaret Mansfield (1767). The Arnolds had three children, Benedict, Richard and Henry; however, Margaret succumbed at an early age during 1775. As a young boy of about fifteen, Benedict served for a short while with the militia, but entered his military life during April 1775 when he arrived at Cambridge with the New Haven Militia Company. Arnold presented a plan to seize Fort Ticonderoga; it was approved by the Committee of Safety. On 3 May he received a commission as colonel. The fort was seized on 10 May, but the attack was under the command of Ethan Allen, rather than Arnold, who lacked troops. Shortly thereafter, on 16 May, Arnold, selected during a recent war council, led a thirty-man force (Improvised Marines) from Ticonderoga to seize St. Johns, Canada. The contingent was followed by the captured schooner Liberty with other troops. The post was seized on the 18th and with it the sloop George III, which was renamed the Enterprise and gave Arnold domination of Lake Champlain. Although the fort was seized without casualties on either side, Arnold quickly abandoned it after becoming aware of British reinforcements en route. The Americans moved to Crown Point. On 27 June, Congress, convinced the Canadians would join the cause, authorized an invasion of Canada to intercept a large army being assembled there by General Guy Carleton. The ill-fated Quebec Campaign was initiated on August 28. By the end of the year, it turned into a devastating defeat at Quebec City. On 11 September, General Arnold received command of an elite force, composed of more than 1,000 troops detached from the Main

ARNOLD Army with orders to reinforce Montgomery. Arnold reached the vicinity of Quebec during early November; however, the march was arduous due to snow, ice and high winds. The forces of Montgomery did not meet with Arnold until 3 December at Point aux Trembles. The attack to gain Quebec City on 30–31 December failed; General Montgomery was struck by a fatal wound and Brigadier General Arnold was seriously wounded. Arnold maintained a siege, but his force numbered only about 450 troops. On 5 January, from his bed in a convent hospital, Arnold sent a dispatch to General David Wooster with a request to send all deserters back to Quebec, but he also requested “four hundred pair of snowshoes, sugar for the Hospital and fifty light shovels.” Soon after, on 10 January, Congress promoted Colonel Arnold to the rank of brigadier general. The expected reinforcements from Montreal failed to arrive, although a small contingent did arrive during February. By that time it became inevitable that a retreat was necessary. Prior to withdrawing, Arnold dispatched a contingent, including Canadians loyal to the Americans, to intercept a force of Canadian Loyalists, but the enemy offered little resistance and surrendered on 25 March. By the end of March, Arnold’s force, never more than 700 men since the beginning of the year, was further ravaged by sickness. Arnold notified Silas Deane that the men from New England were of no value due to smallpox, and he informed Deane that the snow stood at about five feet deep. On 31 March the Americans launched an attack against Quebec City. It failed and the contingent was captured. Another attack was launched after reinforcements under General Wooster arrived during April, but it too failed. The Americans suffered another loss at the Ceddars during mid–May. By June, lacking supplies, food and able-bodied troops, the Americans initiated a retreat. Arnold departed Montreal on the 13th. Soon after, he noted the story of how he dealt with his horse that had, as he described, been so loyal upon the approach of the British, stating that he “stripped the poor mare of her saddle and bridle, and then with my own hand shot her, rather than have her fall into the hands of the enemy.” After returning to New York, Arnold on 30 July sent a flotilla down Lake Champlain under a flag to deliver a copy of the Declaration of Independence to British general Sir Guy Carleton. The British responded by preparing to advance. Arnold was ordered by General Horatio Gates on 7 August to use his diminutive fleet to intercept the British on the lake. Arnold’s flotilla sailed on the 24th. The British embarked from St. Johns on the 4th of October. The two fleets clash on the 11th and, despite the massive advantage, the British were unable to destroy Arnold’s fleet. The battered American fleet slipped past the British fleet during the night. On the following day, Arnold continued the struggle despite the loss of several vessels, including the Washington, commanded by General David Waterbury, until forced to abandon the fight. He ordered his ship, the Congress, to be run aground. Nonetheless, the British were stalled long enough to prevent the 13,000 reinforcements from joining with General William Howe. Arnold succeeded in halting the advance. Carleton reached Crown Point, but then withdrew to Canada, sparing Ticonderoga. Having eliminated the threat against Ticonderoga, on the 20th of November, Generals Gates, Schuyler and Arnold decided to let the troops return to their homes for the winter. Arnold returned to Connecticut. During the following spring, he engaged the British at Ridgefield on 27 April and escaped unharmed, although his horse had been hit nine times during the same volley. General David Wooster at that time received a fatal wound. While Arnold was on the ground near his horse, a British soldier attempted to capture him, but Arnold, using his pistol, eliminated him. On 2 May 1777, Congress promoted Arnold to major general. It

18 awarded him a horse on the 20th as a gift for “his gallant conduct in the action against the enemy in their late enterprize to Danbury, in which General Arnold had one horse killed under him, and another wounded.” During the following month, on the 10th, Arnold was directed by Congress to proceed to Trenton and upon arrival to “conduct himself agreeable to the orders of the commander in chief.” Shortly thereafter, on the 14th of June, Congress directed Arnold to assume command of all militia troops in Bristol, Pennsylvania, and “on every other part of the river to the eastward of Philadelphia, which have been called forth into service by a requisition of the twenty-fourth day of April last.” By August 1777, General Arnold volunteered to lead reinforcements to lift the siege of Fort Stanwix (August 3–22). Using a ruse executed by a captured Loyalist in trade for his life, Arnold sent a false message of a large force en route to the fort. It worked, and the Indians had also abandoned St. Leger, the British commander. In the meantime, news of the defeat of British Major General John Burgoyne’s forces at Bennington arrived, prompting St. Leger to abandon the siege on 22 August. The British during their retreat were ambushed by the Indians who had just abandoned them, leaving the Redcoat officers without baggage or supplies. Afterward, using British bayonets, they killed the ambushed troops and stragglers who were unable to maintain the rapid pace. During the following month, under the overall command of General Horatio Gates, General Arnold and Colonel Daniel Morgan engaged Burgoyne at the First Battle of Saratoga. After the battle, Arnold found himself without a command, and it remained so when the Second Battle of Saratoga erupted on 7 October. Arnold, despite having no command, left General Gates’ headquarters for the field. Attempts by Gates to intercept him failed. Joining with Colonel Morgan, Arnold rallied the troops. Meanwhile, Gates and Arnold exchanged words at headquarters, but Arnold ignored Gates and returned to the field, despite Gates saying: “I have nothing for you to do. You have no business here.” On the 17th Arnold and Morgan had outwitted the British, which compelled Burgoyne to surrender his force of just under 6,000 men. Earlier, during 1775, Burgoyne at Boston had boasted: “What, ten thousand peasants keep five thousand king’s troops shut up! Well, let us get in and we’ll soon find elbow room.” During June 1778, General Arnold, renowned for his heroism on the field, arrived at Philadelphia. While recuperating from a wound sustained at Saratoga, he married Peggy Shippen, the daughter of Edward Shippen. He began living well above his means, and soon after, he began his espionage to betray the nation. For a while, he attempted to engage in privateering, but when the endeavor failed, he began to communicate with an agent of Great Britain, which led to Arnold selling himself to the British Crown. On 10 May 1779, Benedict Arnold initiated talks with General Sir Henry Clinton, the British commander in New York. Intelligence was passed from Arnold to Clinton and by 1 June, based on the information, Clinton initiated an offensive to seize West Point; however, the attack failed. While still undiscovered, Arnold received a court-martial regarding charges made against him by Pennsylvania. On 20 January, the court acquitted him of all serious charges, leaving him to receive only a reprimand from General Washington. During the summer of 1780 Arnold remained undiscovered and a trusted officer of Washington, the latter appointing him as commander of West Point (Department of the Highlands) on 3 August. By that time, Arnold had agreed to accept a commission in the British army and cash for his actions to assist the English seizure of West Point. Earlier during 1776, a Prussian officer, Colonel Zedwitz, had commanded the Point and he, too, tried to help the British seize it, but the plan was foiled and Zedwitz was imprisoned. The plot unfolded on 21 September when the HMS Vulture, transporting Major John Andre, arrived at Haverstraw Bay about five miles below King’s Ferry. On the

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19 22nd, Andre and Arnold met at the residence of Joshua Smith and completed the details of the plan. Afterward, Arnold presented Andre with an authorized pass with the alias of Anderson. Nevertheless, later on that same day, Andre was unable to re-board the ship due to American artillery that compelled it to retire. He escaped the scrutiny of sentinels near King’s Ferry, but they insisted that he not travel further at night. On the following day, Arnold’s conspiracy blew up when other militia were less cordial. Andre, still in civilian clothes, was stopped and at first elated when be believed the troops to be Loyalists, but to his surprise, after he identified himself as a British officer, he was seized, along with his secret documents. Andre attempted unsuccessfully to bribe the three troops ( John Paulding, Isaac Van Wart and David Williams). If not for the absolute integrity of those three soldiers, who were willing to turn down a high ransom, the fate of the nation might have turned out much differently; however, they could not be bought at any price and together foiled the grand scheme of Howe and Arnold. The prisoner was taken to the nearest military installation, North Castle, but astonishingly, the commanding officer, Lt. Colonel John Jameson, decided to deliver Andre to Arnold at West Point. However, he also sped a rider to inform General Washington about the treachery of Arnold. Meanwhile, another officer, Major Benjamin Tallmadge, convinced Jameson to hold Andre, but unexplicably he sent a messenger to inform Arnold, giving him time to escape. On the 25th, Arnold, while in conversation with Washington’s advance party at the Robinson House, was informed of Andre’s capture. Before the officers were appraised, he, leaving his wife at his quarters, escaped to the Vulture. Washington arrived shortly after his flight. Arnold later dispatched a letter to Washington claiming that his wife had been totally innocent. Meanwhile, Major Andre, wearing his regimental uniform, was hanged as a spy on 2 October. He had requested a firing squad. Arnold, by December, began to ravage the nation that he had been defending. He led a command that landed in Virginia at Hampton Roads on 30 December, on a mission to seize Richmond. On 3 January, Arnold was aboard one of the boats debarked at Jamestown, but the diminutive force at the battery (Hood’s Point) there withdrew. On the 4th, Arnold reached Westover, about 25 miles outside of Richmond, and entered the capital on the following day. Against nominal opposition at best, due in great part to large numbers of Virginians attached to George Rogers Clark on the frontier, Arnold moved to Portsmouth by the 20th, inflicting much damage along the way. However, the primary goal, capturing Governor Thomas Jefferson, failed, as he escaped. Arnold remained at Portsmouth unscathed and was reinforced on the 6th of March by about 2,000 crack troops under General William Phillips. Upon his arrival, Phillips assumed command of all British troops. In the meantime, General Washington had directed troops from the Northern Theater to move to intercept Arnold. On 18 April, a British force moved up the James River from Portsmouth to wreak more havoc as far as Williamsburg, City Point and Petersburg. Between the 25th and the 28th, the devastation continued without stiff resistance, and on the 27th, the Patriots battled the British at Osborne’s Landing, where the skirmishing continued into the following day. Other towns struck included Manchester and Bermuda Hundred. Finally, General Marquis de Lafayette arrived at Richmond aboard a French warship on the 25th to neutralize the British and if possible seize Arnold. Lafayette anticipated arriving earlier, but the French aborted the voyage. The British lost General Phillips to fever on 25 May, but Arnold resumed command. Nevertheless, shortly after the death of Phillips, Arnold abandoned Virginia for New York, which saved him from being snagged with Cornwallis at Yorktown. From his base in New York, Arnold swept into Connecticut during September and again spread

destruction, striking New London on the 6th. The town was burned, but the 23-man garrison at unfinished Fort Trumbull escaped capture. Another force on that same day massacred many of the garrison, including wounded, at Fort Griswold after the fort was surrendered. In the meantime, General Washington permitted Peggy Shippen Arnold to travel with her baggage to New York. Arnold showed thanks by declaring the Declaration of Independence treasonable, claiming that the rebels were attempting to “enslave the people” and that the American troops were being duped by the French. Subsequent to the end of hostilities, Benedict Arnold publicized his reasons for treason, blaming it on the French, a Catholic monarchy joining the American cause. Although he was considered a hero by many in England, not all Englishmen held that sentiment. One man, Lord Lauderdale, upon noticing Arnold being seated close to King George III at his immediate right, proclaimed, “His majesty is supported by a traitor.” Another, Lord Surry, was preparing to speak in the House of Commons, but upon spotting Arnold, he retook his seat, saying: “I will not speak while that man is in the House.” Back in America, word of Arnold’s treachery spread quickly to Philadelphia. People constructed a life-size effigy of him, with the devil at his side, and had the cart pulled through the streets to exhibit their evil pair with a huge sign that spelled out only two words in capital letters: “TRAITOR ARNOLD.” Benedict Arnold succumbed in 1801 on 14 June, the date set aside as the birthday of the U.S. Army in 1775 and the date he assumed command of all troops at Bristol, Pennsylvania in 1777. Few remember Arnold on that date, but it is grand day in the United States when the nation celebrates Flag Day.

Ashe, General John John was born in England during 1721, but when he was about six years old, his parents, John Baptiste and Elizabeth Swann Ashe, emigrated to America and settled in North Carolina along the Cape Fear River. Elizabeth was the daughter of Major Alexander Lillington and the widow of Samuel Swann. Prior to his departure, he had been a friend of Lord Craven, and it was through the support of the latter that enabled John Baptiste to head for the colonies. After his arrival, John Baptiste served on the council (1733) while Governor George Burrington was the royal governor. John Baptiste and Elizabeth had two other children, Mary (1723) and Samuel 1725). Later, the younger John married his cousin Rebecca Moore, the daughter of Colonel Maurice Moore. With his marriage to Rebecca, he became the brother-in-law of General James Moore and Judge Maurice Moore. Later, John, like his father, entered politics. He was elected to the colonial assembly, where he was speaker from 1762 to 1765. During that same year, parliament passed the Stamp Act, which was staunchly opposed by the patriots, but the North Carolinians also became aggravated due to their mistrust of the government officials. John was one of the patriots who opposed the Stamp Act of 1765, but several years later, he opposed one group, the Regulators, formed during 1768. Nonetheless, as the relations with Britain deteriorated further, John became one of the leaders of the patriots in North Carolina. By 1771, Regulators had included violence in their opposition, ignited because of the taxes and their belief that the officials were embezzling. Governor William Tryon led a militia force, which included John Ashe, during May of 1771, against the settlers, most of whom had no weapons. The settlers lost a few hundred men, killed or wounded. Of the captured, 12 men were tried and convicted of treason and sentenced to death, but only six were executed. The militia force, composed of more than 1,000 men, sustained about 70 casualties. The Regulators by 1771 had become more violent and had intended to terminate all public officers and kill every lawyer. In May 1775, word of the clash at Lexington and Concord reached North Carolina. Patriots gathered in Mecklenburg County and during

ASHLEY the convention, proclaimed independence from the British crown. The resolution (five resolutions) became known as the Mecklenburg Declaration of Independence. Soon other patriots at Charlotte concurred with those at Mecklenburg, which signaled danger for the royal governor who had replaced Governor Tryon. He was Josiah Martin, who on 31 May 1775 fled New Bern aboard the HMS Cruzier and headed for Fort Johnston, but soon his sanctuary was lost. On 18 July, a group of patriots led by Colonel (later general) Robert Howe and Colonel John Ashe moved to seize the governor, but again, he escaped aboard the British warship. On the following day, from his position on the Cape Fear River, Martin observed Fort Johnston as it burned. The action against the fort and the royal governor was considered treasonous by the British; however, the patriots were not concerned. Their aggressive move terminated the line of royal governors. After Martin absconded, Cornelius Harnett, Jr., became president of the Council of Safety (government of the province). John was appointed colonel of the New Hanover County militia. The next April he was promoted to brigadier general (Wilmington District). The assembly that promoted Ashe at the same time promoted Richard Caswell to brigadier general (New Bern District). During February 1779, General Ashe, in command of about 1,500 militia troops, moved toward the positions of General Williamson’s force that was opposite Augusta and arrived there on the evening of the 13th. Upon the arrival of Ashe, the British prepared to abandon the city. Ashe was later directed by General Benjamin Lincoln to intercept the retreating columns at Briar (Brier) Creek, Georgia. Ashe arrived at Briar Creek on the 27th and traveled to Twin Sisters to confer with General Lincoln, while Generals Bryan and Elbert deployed at the creek, where they discovered a destroyed bridge. Ashe returned to camp on 2 March and the bridge had still not been repaired. On the following day, British reinforcements under Lt. Colonel James M. Prevost, the brother of British General Augustine Prevost, arrived in the rear of the Americans to bolster Colonel Archibald Campbell. American cavalry returned to camp as British infantry moved to the area and, during the afternoon, the Battle of Briar Creek ignited. General Ashe, lacking confidence after spotting about 500 Redcoats, directed General Samuel Elbert to attack: “Sir, you had better advance and engage them.” Meanwhile, Ashe and his force remained in place and made no attempt to support the Georgians. Elbert’s force, composed of barely 100 Georgians, advanced, while Ashe’s North Carolinians fled. Consequently, the Georgians were surrounded. The Americans lost about 350 men killed or captured, with many of the men drowning while trying to cross the Savannah River. General Elbert was among the captured. The loss gave the British control of Georgia, while costing General Lincoln a large portion of his army. On that same day, General Ashe, at Matthew’s Bluff, after leaving the scene, reported to General Lincoln: “Sir — I am sorry to inform you that at 3 o’clock p.m., the enemy came down upon us in force, what number, I know not. The troops did not stand fire five minutes; many fled without discharging their pieces. I went with the fugitives half a mile, and finding it impossible to rally the troops, I made my escape into the river swamp....” On 9 March, General Lincoln ordered a court-martial at the request of General Ashe. The court was held March 13–16, 1779 and included General William Moultrie as president and General Griffith Rutherford. It ruled “that General Ashe did not take all the necessary precautions to secure his camp, and to obtain timely approach of the enemy,” but the court acquitted him of all imputations as to want of personal courage, and ruled that he remained on the field “as long as prudence and duty required.” Subsequent to the court-martial, Ashe returned to his residence near Wilmington, North Carolina, which at the time was controlled by a British force under Major James Craig. Afterward, one of his servants

20 divulged his presence and location to the British. He was arrested and imprisoned and treated quite harshly. While detained, he came down with smallpox, prompting the British to grant him parole; however, shortly thereafter, her succumbed from the disease in October 1781. General Ashe’s son, Samuel, served for a while as a captain of Light Horse and later resigned, but he then served in the state militia. General Ashe’s brother, Samuel, born in 1725, also served throughout the war in a series of capacities, including military and civilian, and later became the governor of North Carolina. In addition, Samuel’s sons, Colonels John Baptiste and Samuel Ashe also served, adding five officers to the American cause from the Ashe family. Colonel Maurice Moore (father-in-law of General Ashe) and his brothers Nathaniel and Roger, the sons of Governor James Moore, established Brunswick Town along the Cape Fear River. Maurice married Elizabeth Lillington, daughter of Major Alexander Lillington and widow of Colonel John Fendall and Samuel Swann. Maurice and Elizabeth had four daughters, Margaret (married Thomas Jones), Mary (married her cousin John Porter and afterward, her cousin Maurice Moore, son of her uncle Nathaniel Moore), Elizabeth (married a Mr. Brown and afterward, George Minot), and one other daughter, Ann (mentioned in his last will and testament). Following the death of Elizabeth, Maurice married Elizabeth Porter, the daughter of John Porter. Through that marriage three children were born, Maurice (judge), James (general) and Rebecca (Mrs. John Ashe).

Ashley, Major General John John, the only son of Judge John and Hannah Hogaboom Ashley, was born in Sheffield, Massachusetts, on 26 September 1736. Like his father, John entered Yale, graduating in 1756. His father graduated in 1730. John settled in Sheffield and established himself as a merchant. He also served in the General Court and the militia. John married Louisa Ward on 20 May 1782. They had two children, Louisa (b. March 1763) and John (b. January 1767). Two years later, on 2 April 1769, Louisa died, leaving John with two young children. He took Mary Ballantine as his second wife on 17 October. Mary was the daughter of the Rev. John Ballantine (Bollentine) of Westfield, Massachusetts. John and Mary’s children were Ballantine (Bollentine, b. December 1770); William (b. January 1773); Roger (b. March 1775, died young and unmarried); Samuel (b. November 1778, died young and unmarried); Mary (b. March 1781); Hannah (b. September 1782); Jane (b. March 1784) and Ashley (b. November 1788). John was commissioned colonel of the 1st Berkshire Regiment on 4 April 1777. He succeeded Colonel Mark Hopkins, who led the regiment until his death in October 1776. John led his regiment to bolster the forces along the Hudson during July, subsequent to the abandonment of Ticonderoga and Mount Independence. The regiment also arrived at Bennington during the campaign that halted British General John Burgoyne’s advance toward Albany. Subsequent to the close of hostilities, Colonel Ashley participated in the suppression of Shay’s Rebellion (1786–1787), and during the campaign, Ashley’s force engaged the insurrectionists on 27 February 1787 and dispersed them in short order. Prior to the action, Colonel Ashley spoke to his troops and made it clear that he did not want any cowards or weak men in his ranks, then he continued, saying, “I am going to see who are the brave men, and who are the cowards among you. I wish you to give me your attention. When I give the word, shoulder arms, let every brave man bring his musket promptly to his shoulder, and let every coward slink back out of the ranks.” After a brief pause, he added as he drew his sword from its scabbard: “But, remember that I’ll run the first man through the body that leaves the ranks!” He gave his order, “Shoulder arms.” The muskets were snapped into place with no one breaking ranks. During the following year, Colonel Ashley was commissioned as a brigadier general. He was promoted to major general during 1789 and

BAILEY

21 at that time he assumed command of the Massachusetts 9th Division (militia). General Ashley, in addition to serving in the military, was in the Massachusetts legislature subsequent to the close of hostilities with Britain. He died unexpectedly on 5 November 1799.

Babcock, Major General (Doctor) Joshua Joshua Babcock was born in Westerly, Rhode Island, on 17 May 1707. His grandparents had arrived there with the initial settlers. Joshua, the son of James and Elizabeth Babbett Babcock, was raised on the family plantation located on the old country road in Westerly, about one mile from Pawcatuck village. Joshua received an excellent education, which included graduation from Yale during 1724. Subsequent to completion of his studies at Yale, Joshua began to study medicine, including surgery in Boston, and in 1730, he journeyed to England to increase his medical skills in London. Upon his return to the colonies, about 1734, Joshua initiated his medical practice in Westerly, but he also became a merchant by opening a country store. During the following year, Joshua married Hannah Stanton. Joshua owned a vast plantation slightly more than 25 miles west of Newport. From their marriage, nine children were born, four sons and five daughters: Henry (1736, also known as Harry), Luke (1738), Adam (1740), Hannah (about 1741 or 1742), Frances (1745, married), Paul (1748), Amelia (1751), Sally (1753) and Harriet (1756). Later, Joshua entered politics and the judiciary, as well as serving in the military. Joshua’s commercial endeavors brought about financial success, and his participation in the affairs of the colony expanded his reputation throughout the colony and beyond. Joshua’s entry into politics can be traced to his election to the Rhode Island Assembly during 1740. He continued to serve in that body intermittently (including 1747–1749, 1752, and 1758–1759). Before the revolution, Joshua served several terms as a justice of the Rhode Island Supreme Court (1747–1749, 1750–1751, and from August 1763 to May 1764). During those terms, twice he sat as chief justice. Joshua did not serve in the French and Indian War, but the Babcock family was represented by his son, Henry (later colonel). Henry Babcock had graduated from Yale in 1752, the same year that Joshua’s step-brother James graduated from the institution. As the relationship between the colonies and Britain began to deteriorate, Joshua stood firmly on the side of the patriots and by that time had become quite friendly with Benjamin Franklin, the latter being a frequent visitor at the Babcocks’ home during his annual visits to Boston. Joshua is known to have personally contributed financially to the cause. During 1774, when the English pressure caused severe hardships to the citizens in Boston, he donated about $100. In addition, he is known to have been involved in acquiring arms, and he also provided cash to be used as bounties for the troops at Westerly. On a larger scale, Joshua lent substantial amounts of money to the state. By April of the following year, conflict was ignited by the clash at Lexington and Concord. During a session of the Rhode Island Assembly (May 1775), a resolution authorizing the raising of an “army of observation” passed, and it was Joshua who carried a copy of it to the Connecticut assembly and requested that the Connecticut assembly forward its “proceedings and transactions” to Rhode Island. Joshua traveled to Massachusetts the following month and while there visited with his step-brother, James, an officer of the Massachusetts militia. His primary purpose of going to Cambridge was to deliver a message from Governor Nicholas Cooke of Rhode Island to the headquarters of the American Army. Joshua also carried an introduction message for General Washington, which read: “This letter waits on you by Joshua Babcock, Esq. He is a gentleman of a genteel fortune, a member of our General Assembly, and hath highly distinguished himself in the glorious cause in which America is embarked.”

Upon his return to Rhode Island, Joshua, although having reached his senior years, remained active. During the following year, the assembly selected Joshua as major general of the “Colony’s Brigade,” which most probably was received as quite an honor to the doctor who was about 70 years old at the time (May 1776). As major general, he commanded the ten regiments designated as the defenders of the state. During September, Joshua and two others traveled to New York to confer with General Washington on the strategy needed to defend Rhode Island. On 13 September 1776, the party arrived at General Putnam’s headquarters (No. 1 Broadway), where they received quarters, and by the following day, the conference began. On 15 September, General Babcock inadvertently became a primary observer of the scene when the city was abandoned that day. Arriving back in Rhode Island, Joshua resumed his military responsibilities. During the following month, the Rhode Island assembly renewed Joshua’s rank as major general. Despite his age, Joshua served in more than a ceremonial role. During December 1776, the situation in Rhode Island changed drastically when the British seized control of Newport. General Babcock was appointed to the state council of war. On 31 December, Joshua, in a letter to General Putnam at New York, stated: “Our small but, in the cause of liberty, loyal colony, approachable by vessels of war by its extent of sea coasts, within twenty miles of any port, have now enlisted, and are spiritedly enlisting above half its militia, and one-fourth the remainder on the Alarm List bound to hold themselves in readiness for action on an emergence of Minute men.” Joshua made known his need for ammunition and included the following: “In nowise do we despair; for as Providence has signally smiled on our attempts, we hope from the justice of our cause, the issue will be crowned with success. Joshua remained on the Board of War through 1778, then during 1779, he became a member of the House of Assistants (assistant to the governor, actually upper house). Joshua’s wife, Hannah, at about age 65, succumbed on 19 September 1778 while on a visit to Greenwich, Connecticut. Joshua later married Anna Maxson. Subsequently, on 1 April 1783, Doctor (and major general) Joshua Babcock succumbed. He was survived by his sons Adam (married Abigail Smith and later Martha Hubbard) and Colonel Henry (also known as Harry, married Mary Stanton, daughter of Robert and Anna Stanton of Stonington), and three daughters, Hannah (married John Bours of Newport), Harriet (married Gilbert Saltonstall, the brother of Commodore Dudley Saltonstall) and Frances (married Commodore Dudley Saltonstall, the son of General Gurdon Saltonstall). Luke, the son who became a minister, was halted by rebels, and when they inquired whether he owed allegiance to the king, he responded in the affirmative, which prompted the interrogators to detain him. His imprisonment took a severe toll on his health. After about four months of confinement, he was released and succumbed at Philipse Manor on the Hudson. The dates of the deaths of Joshua’s other children were not discovered by the author. The epitaph on Joshua’s gravestone read, in part: “The public records of his country testify, as do all who knew him, that as a physician, he was eminent in his profession, As A Christian exemplary, As a gentleman, polite and engaging, As a husband and father, a master and friend, worthy of imitation.” The Babcock House, known later as the Babcock-Smith House, at 124 Granite St., in Westerly has been preserved. The mansion, which was built during the 1730s, contains a museum that is open to the public.

Bailey (Bayley), Brigadier General Jacob Jacob Bailey, the son of Joshua and Sarah Coffin Bailey, was born in Newbury, Massachusetts, in July 1726 (some sources including Appleton’s Encyclopedia and the Bailey genealogy of nineteenth century, state 2 July 1726. Others, including History of Newbury, Vermont by F.P. Wells, 1902, state 19 July). Jacob’s mother was the daughter of Stephen

BAILEY and Sarah Atkinson Coffin. Jacob’s parents had eight other children: Stephen (b. 1708); Joshua (b. 1712); Abner (b. 1715); Enoch (b. 1719), Sarah (b. 1721); Judith a twin to Abigail (b. 1724); Abigail (b. 1724) and John (b. 1729). As a boy, Jacob is thought to have had only a fundamental education. On 15 October 1745 at age 19, Jacob married Prudence Noyes, the daughter of Ephraim and Prudence Stickney Noyes. Jacob and Prudence established residence at Timberland (formerly part of Haverhill, Massachusetts) about 1747. The Timberland part of Haverhill and a sector of Amesbury were involved with the drawing of a state line during 1741, which placed them in New Hampshire. On 12 January 1749, Timberland and that previously mentioned sector of Amesbury became Hampstead, New Hampshire. Jacob and Prudence had a large family that included the following children: Ephraim (b. October 1746, died young); Abigail (b. January 1749, died young); Noyes (b. February 1751, died young); Joshua (b. June 1753, married Anna Fowler, rose to the rank of colonel during the Revolutionary War); Jacob (b. October 1755–56, married Ruth Bedell, daughter of General Timothy Bedell and later married Mary Ladd, daughter of Ezekiel and Mary Hutchens Ladd); James (b. October 1757, twin brother to Ephraim); Ephraim b. October 1757 — twin brother of James) According to church records, Ephraim also married a woman named Anna Fowler and afterward he married Lucy Hodges; Amherst (b. January 1760, married Sally Stevens); Abner (b. December 1762–63, died 1788); John (b. May 1765, married Betsy Bailey and later Hannah Ladd); and Isaac (b. 1767, married Betsey Johnson, daughter of Thomas Johnson). Jacob became a prominent man in the town and he was involved with its governing process. He was among those who constructed the town’s first church (1752), in which he and two others, Jacob Kent and James Abbott, became the church’s initial deacons; he held the position until his death. Later, when war broke out with the French, he was appointed a lieutenant in Captain Alcott’s militia company. During 1756, the same year Joshua served with Alcott, he raised a separate company and was elected as its captain. The unit was attached to a regiment commanded by Colonel Meserve. Jacob’s company was active at Lake George and was part of the defending force at Fort William Henry when it was attacked on 4 August 1757 and forced to capitulate on 9 August. Despite assurances from the French General Montcalm that the garrison would be protected, after the English surrendered their arms, the Indians began to slaughter the garrison, including women and children. At the time, between 3,000 and 4,000 troops were at Fort Edward, but the commander, General Daniel Webb, refused to send help. Some, including Israel Putnam, escaped torture or death. Jacob broke away when the Indians attacked the column on the 10th while it was under French protection. He outdistanced his pursuers and made it to Fort Edward. Afterward, Jacob remained in the militia for most of the remainder of the conflict. He participated in General Jeffrey Amherst’s campaign that began after he replaced General James Abercrombie, who sustained a devastating defeat at Ticonderoga during July 1758. Jacob was at Montreal during September 1760, when the French surrendered to end the war and terminate France’s hold on North America. At that time General Amherst signed the surrender document on behalf of the British. Jacob had served as a lieutenant colonel in Colonel John Goff ’s regiment, until he was promoted to colonel and assumed command of the regiment when he succeeded Goff. While the men in the army were returning to their homes, a small party ( Jacob, Timothy Bedel, John Hazen and Jacob Kent) passed through a tract (later Newbury, Vermont) in the Connecticut Valley that the Abenaki (Abenaqui) Indians called “Co-os,” which translated meant “pines.” Upon their arrival back in Massachusetts, the men immediately set a plan in motion to acquire the land and establish two towns, Newbury and Haverhill, on opposite sides (east and west) of the

22 Connecticut River. In an effort to expedite the complicated endeavor, two others were sought out for help, General Moses Hazen, the brother of John Hazen and Colonel Moses Little, who was Jacob’s brother-inlaw (married Jacob’s sister, Abigail). Through the cooperation of Governor Benning Wentworth, charters for the towns of Newbury and Haverhill were issued on 18 May 1763. Jacob Bailey, Timothy Bedel, John Hazen, Jacob Kent and more than seventy others received the charter for Newbury. John Hazen and a group of about equal size received the charter for Haverhill, Vermont. Jacob relocated his family in Vermont and by the following year, 1765, the colonies were about to be burdened by the Stamp Act, followed by other taxes that ignited opposition to the crown’s policies, perceived by the colonists to overtax them to pay for the costs of the late war. Although the war with France had ended, the region remained turbulent due to difficulties with the Indians. The newly settled towns wasted no time establishing militia units, which remained in service until the opening of hostilities with Britain. At the time the charters were issued, the colonists had not given much thought to the location of their towns, which stood as a gateway between Massachusetts and Canada, but later, it became apparent that any invasion by the British from Canada would place them in jeopardy. During the transition period between the end of the late war and the ignition of the Revolution, additional colonists continued to move into the region. Among those were Scotsmen who settled at a place called Ryegate, but they too were staunchly committed to the Patriot cause rather than that of the Loyalists. During 1766, the New York Assembly appointed Jacob as justice of the peace and quorum (New Hampshire Grants). Later, during 1772, he was appointed as a judge of the Court of Common Pleas, a position he retained until 1777. In the meantime, as the colonies steadily moved away from the mother country and slipped closer to open hostilities, Jacob remained a staunch Patriot. Following the outbreak of hostilities, Jacob was again in the forefront as a leader. During 1775, he was elected as a delegate to the New York Congress, and in May of the following year he was nominated to receive a commission as brigadier general (militia of Cumberland and Gloucester counties). On 1 August 1776, he was commissioned brigadier by the New York Provincial Congress. While Jacob was at Boston, after deliberation with General George Washington on the ill-fated Canadian Campaign, he suggested and Washington authorized cutting a road to expedite the flow of reinforcements to cover the retreat of the American expeditionary force and shorten the distance of the arduous route. The mission was given to Captain Thomas Johnson and others from Newbury, Jacob Bailey, Frye Bailey ( Jacob’s nephew), and the Chamberlain brothers, Abial and Silas. The party was also accompanied by an Indian guide as they hacked their way forward, marking trees as they advanced to St. John’s, Canada, a journey of more than 90 miles that began on 26 March 1776 and ended on 1 April. Bailey’s route, as Washington had hoped, cut the distance by about 73 miles. From Boston to St. John’s on the new route through Newbury, the distance was 237 miles, while from Boston to Charlestown and Crown Point to St. John’s it was about 310 miles. The route was afterward used by reinforcements speeding to aid the beleaguered force; their journey was cut by about ten days, despite the necessity of using snowshoes through the wilderness. By spring of 1776, when the inclement weather ended, surveyors moved to begin establishing a road from Newbury to St. John’s, and as planned General Bailey led a large force to construct the highway. The British interfered with the project by moving down from Canada to destroy the markings along the route. Scouts returned to camp and informed General Bailey that a formidable force of British troops were en route to terminate the construction and they were following the route earlier marked on the trees. General Bailey’s progress by that

23 time had advanced beyond Peacham, but the enemy compelled him to order an expeditious retreat. Subsequently, the highway (Bailey-Hazen Military Road) was completed by Colonel (later general) Moses Hazen. The next year, General Bailey was one of a group of delegates appointed to deliver a remonstrance and petition from Vermont to the Continental Congress. On 2–8 July 1777, General Bailey was a delegate at the Windsor Convention, which drew up the state constitution. He was appointed to the Vermont Council of Safety. Also in 1777, he was also appointed as an agent to the Continental Congress. Despite the accumulation of various responsibilities that give the appearance of non-eventful duty, the general was often in danger, and the enemy had a price on his head. Although General Bailey is not among the more famous leaders who served the country during the war, at the time, he was well known by the British, particularly those in Canada, who were anxious to nab him for his repeated acts of sending spies to monitor British movements across the border. The British sent scouts, Tories and Indians to capture or kill the general, but despite several close calls, General Bailey was able to evade his enemies, preventing them from being awarded the 500 guineas offered for his capture or death. During the campaign in New York against General John Burgoyne, General Bailey was a participant as both commissary general of the Northern Department and as the commander of a militia brigade, in which several of his sons served. Once the supplies had been attended and distributed, General Bailey took command of the troops from western New Hampshire and eastern Vermont. During that time, General Bailey contributed much of his personal funds to the cause to support the campaign, and by the end of the conflict, Jacob had lost his fortune. Another of General Bailey’s notable accomplishments was his ability to befriend the St. Francis Indians and consummate a treaty of friendship. Their trust in Bailey persuaded them to support the Patriots against the French. During June of 1782, the British again attempted to snatch General Bailey. On the 17th of that month, only the timely message on a paper dropped off in front of the general at his residence prevented him from being captured. The succinct message from Colonel Thomas Johnson (on parole as a prisoner of the British) penned the letter after being informed by British spies and gave it to his brother-in-law, Dudley Carleton. Johnson was sworn by the parole not to inform of any British contact. Nevertheless, he instructed Carleton to inconspicuously drop the letter without saying a word. The message, “The Philistines be upon thee, Sampson,” was warning enough from his friend to allow Jacob to make a hurried exit. General Bailey slipped away and made it across the river to Haverhill. Seven guards, including Captain Frye Bailey, were on duty at his house, but they were too few to engage the enemy. They scattered into the woods, with one man being wounded, while Mrs. Bailey took cover in a concealed place under their noses in the garden, hoping the darkness would prevent the British from discovering her. Meanwhile, a servant, Sarah Fowler, remained in the home with one of the children in her arms. She annoyed the British intruders and even extinguished the candle several times to infuriate the search party. She was threatened with certain death if she persisted, prompting her not to again interrupt their candlelight, but the British inflicted no harm to her and to their dismay missed catching the general. The raiding party returned to Canada empty-handed and while on the property, they were not able to even intimidate the lone defender, Sarah, who ignored their loaded weapons and threats to prevail and be there to greet the guards when they returned. General Bailey was also involved in government. He was a member of the first state council (1778), and he served as a member during 1779 and yet again from 1784 to 1794. Nevertheless, the financial burden of General Bailey could not be overcome after the conclusion of the war.

BALDWIN His appeals to General Washington, with whom he remained friends after the war, had no effect upon Congress, and his applications to Congress for reimbursement were never approved. Consequently, what General Bailey still had as his estate had to be liquidated to pay his debts, causing him to live out his last years in poverty; however, he was not an isolated case. Congress often fell short of its responsibilities to the warriors who preserved their institution. General Bailey retained his faculties until the moment of his death, which occurred on 1 March 1816, while he was living with Isaac, one of his sons. General Bailey’s wife, Prudence, had succumbed on 1 June 1808.

Baldwin, Abraham (Signer of the U.S. Constitution) Abraham Baldwin, the son of Michael and Lucy Dudley Baldwin, was born in Guilford, Connecticut, on 23 November 1754. His family was not affluent or prominent. His father was a blacksmith, but despite his position in life regarding wealth, he was acutely aware of the necessity of receiving a good education to get ahead in the world. Consequently, Abraham’s father committed his total efforts to assure that Abraham attended college. Abraham entered and graduated from Yale through the resourcefulness and determination of his father, who went deeply into debt to borrow the money needed to pay the college expenses. During 1772, Abraham re-entered as a graduate student to further his education and prepare himself for life as a minister. By 1775, after the three additional years at Yale, he received a license to preach. Nevertheless, full time duty as a minister was postponed while he accepted a position as a tutor at Yale. Although in his early twenties, he was an accredited minister and due to the heavy emphasis on faith in the military, it was not unusual that he also served as a chaplain for Connecticut forces. Yale was considered a major source of chaplains for the army, and a high number of graduates scheduled for the ministry joined the army with the blessing and encouragement of the institution. At the time, patriotism was considered a natural part of the curriculum and the college’s reputation for producing Christian ministers was renowned. Initially, Baldwin’s commitment as a chaplain was on a part-time basis, but by 1779, as the Reverend Baldwin, he succeeded the Rev. Timothy Dwight as a brigade chaplain in General Samuel Holden Parsons’ brigade. The Reverend Baldwin held the post as chaplain until 1783, when the army was essentially disbanded, except for one artillery unit and one infantry unit. By the time Baldwin succeeded Dwight, the major fighting in the northern states had ended. Consequently, he was not present at any major battles; however, his task as spiritual director of the brigade remained heavy and constant while the brigade was deployed at West Point and other places along the Hudson River to deter the British from attempting a major advance from New York. The Reverend Baldwin, similarly to the other chaplains, also tended to the personal needs of the troops. He played a part in maintaining their understanding of morality, during and after his sermons. While serving as a chaplain, Baldwin began to study law, and prior to being released from the army, he gained admittance to the Connecticut bar, which permitted him to practice law. Duty in the Northern Department for the Connecticut brigades was often tedious and boring, but their mission was of great importance and defended Albany and the frontier from the British. Plans were set to launch an attack against the British in New York and the brigades practiced for the anticipated amphibious invasion; however, circumstances changed in the South, making the invasion unnecessary. General Lord Cornwallis had departed the Carolinas for Virginia, but he was outfoxed by General George Washington, who had successfully moved the main body of his army from the north, and from Philadelphia, the force was transported to join with Lafayette, who led the vanguard to oppose the British in Virginia. In October 1781, Cornwallis surrendered his entire army at Yorktown.

BARNEY Although the Reverend Baldwin’s participation was centered around spirituality, he became acquainted with many of the military leaders and he shared their devotion to the nation. The new relationships that he developed played a part in his life after the war and increased his awareness of new opportunities. After his separation from the service, Baldwin declined an offer accept the post at Yale as professor of divinity. He remained in Connecticut for a short while, and then he relocated in Georgia, where he established his law practice. Baldwin was apparently drawn to Georgia from separate directions. He had become familiar with General Nathanael Greene during the war and it was common conversation that Greene was working to get other retired officers to make the move to Georgia, where he intended to relocate. But also, Governor Lyman Hall (signer of the Declaration of Independence and a Yale graduate) had been interested in expanding the educational opportunities in Georgia, and he was in search of a man to take responsibility for the oversight of the program. As a Yale graduate, he sought counsel with Ezra Stiles, the president of Yale, and it was Stiles who spoke with Baldwin about the position and convinced him it would be a great opportunity. Consequently, Baldwin operated his law practice outside of Augusta, and he worked with the governor to improve education in the state. While in Georgia, Alexander was elected to the state legislature during 1794 and held the seat until 1789. He immediately injected his weight into the education agenda and succeeded in getting approval of a detailed plan that he had authored to advance the secondary educational system, but the plan also included institutions of higher education. He also proposed making land available for Franklin College (later University of Georgia). Although the execution was not immediate, it was carried out over prolonged period of time. His service in the legislature was a launching pad for utilizing his abilities as a minister and a lawyer. Abraham’s skills allowed him to accomplish more for education in the state, and he was elevated to chairman on a series of committees. The gentleman from Connecticut mixed well with the adventuresome frontiersman and a mutual respect grew between them. Alexander was an example of a colonial boy who moved from rags to riches while retaining his roots, his character and his piety. By 1785, he had become well known and his accomplishments in the legislature paid dividends when he was elected to the Continental Congress. Two years later, Baldwin was selected as a delegate from Georgia to attend the Constitutional Convention in Philadelphia for the purpose of restructuring the government. He initially supported the proposal that representation would be distributed in relationship with property, but that idea had great opposition, particularly from the smaller states. After considering the opposition’s position and becoming aware that some states would not cooperate with such a proposal, Alexander shifted his stance and supported the proposal that passed, a House of Representatives with representation based on population and the U.S. Senate that gave each state equal representation regardless of size. During the deliberations, Baldwin’s vote, after changing his opinion, threw the vote into a tie, which interrupted the momentum that had been behind the original proposal. Afterward, the item was handed to a committee, which led to what became known as the “Great Compromise.” Had the former been adopted, small states among the original thirteen—like Delaware, Connecticut and Rhode Island — would have been left in the dust. Legislation would have been tilted toward the bigger states like New York and Pennsylvania. Alexander Baldwin was instrumental in drawing up the compromise, and he considered it as “his most important public service.” The U.S. Constitution was adopted in Philadelphia on 17 September 1787. Following adoption by nine of the thirteen states, the Constitution became effective. That occurred on 21 June 1788 when New Hampshire became the 9th state to ratify the Constitution.

24 Baldwin had completed his service in the Continental Congress when the Constitution took effect; however, his service was not terminated. Under the Constitution he was elected to the House of Representatives and served there for five terms. Afterward, he was elected to the U.S. Senate for two terms. During his service in the Senate he was president pro tem. While in Congress, Alexander aligned himself with the Democratic-Republicans (present-day Democrats). Alexander Baldwin died while serving in the Senate on 4 March 1807. His funeral was held two days after the Senate adjourned; however, many of his colleagues remained in town to attend his interment. He was interred in the Congressional burying ground next to one of his close friends, General James Jackson, who had died the previous year while serving in the Senate. Baldwin never married. His father, who died during 1787, left six orphaned children from the marriage with his second wife. Alexander is known to have greatly aided his half brother and half sisters after the death of his father. The children were all well educated and Alexander cared for them as if they were his own children. Also, through his philanthropic activities, he often provided financial aid to help young men receive an education.

Barney, Joshua Joshua Barney was born in Baltimore, Maryland, on 6 July 1759. He received experience on the sea while still a teenager, and by the time hostilities broke out with Britain, Joshua sided with the Patriots. He became a crew member of the Hornet and participated in the mission of invading New Providence during February–March 1776, when Marines landed and confiscated military stores. Later, on his birthday, 6 July, he was appointed a lieutenant in the Continental Navy, following his actions while engaged against the British in Delaware Bay. He became executive officer on the captured vessel Sachem (formerly HMS Edward ). In spring 1777 he was stationed on the Andrew Doria, one of the vessels assigned to defending Philadelphia. He sailed on 23 October, en route to St. Eustatius to pick up military supplies, and on the return trip, the Andrew Doria seized the 12-gun HMS Racehorse and a British snow, the Thomas. Barney was placed aboard the Thomas as prize master, but it never reached port. The British recaptured it on 4 January 1777. After being exchanged (October 20, 1777), Barney transferred to the Virginia, but almost immediately he was captured for the second time when the vessel ran aground in Chesapeake Bay near Annapolis on March 30–31, 1778. The captain of the Virginia, James Nicholson, abandoned the ship so fast that he left his trousers behind. Joshua Barney attempted to control the ship and maintain order among the crew, but many of them had become inebriated and Barney was overpowered by them before the ship was seized. Nicholson actually returned to the captured vessel under a white flag to request that his trousers be returned. During August, Barney was again exchanged. Undaunted, he again went to sea, but yet again, while serving on a privateer in 1779, he became a temporary guest of the British. After being exchanged during that same year, he resumed his naval career. He served aboard the Saratoga, which was launched in 1780. During that tour of duty, while in charge of a prize, Barney had the dubious honor of being captured for yet a fourth time; however, in retrospect, serving in a British prison saved his life. The Saratoga disappeared without a trace at some point beyond 18 March 1781. The British, after seizing Barney, chose no exchange. He was transported to New York and for a while received good treatment, including being permitted to venture ashore with the stipulation that he had to return to the Ardent at night. But the British officer responsible for his fair treatment was transferred, leaving Barney to a different fate. He, seventy other officers and some enlisted men were squeezed aboard the Yarmouth during December 1780 and taken to England. During the voyage the officers were held in dungeon-like conditions, cramped in

25 a space with a height of only three feet, and given putrid water and terrible food. No doctors were permitted to check on them, and before the ship reached England, following fifty-three days at sea, eleven officers had perished after losing their senses. One of the officers who survived along with Barney was Silas Talbot. And for the others, the conditions were equally deplorable. The British informed them that they were to be hanged. About eleven men died en route to Mill prison in Plymouth. Nonetheless, the young and agile naval officer began to plan a daring escape. The British suspected Barney as a high risk and for some time he was placed in solitary confinement, but rather than break his spirit, he became more determined to break out, despite a double wall and high security. Barney faked an injury and began to use crutches to lessen the scrutiny placed upon him. His ruse worked to perfection. While he hobbled about, he detailed in his mind how the security worked and in the process, by some luck, he encountered a British guard who had earlier been a captive of the Americans and, having been treated well, he naturally reciprocated, giving Barney the opportunity to befriend him. The guard condoned the escape and with the help of a few other Americans, the escape plan unfolded on 18 March 1781, while the guard had duty at the spot between the double wall. The guard signaled “Dinner,” meaning the jailers would be at dinner at 1300, leaving only sentinels on guard. While a few prisoners distracted the other guards in the yard, Barney passed by the friendly guard, then bolted upon a very tall American at the wall and catapulted to the top and from there landed to begin the great escape in the clothes of a British officer. An Englishman, known to be an American sympathizer, was stunned to answer a knock at his door and discover a British officer, and he was more startled when he found out the Barney was an American escapee, knowing that harboring a prisoner could have gotten him hanged. Nevertheless, arrangements were made to conceal him temporarily, and then Barney was hurried to the man’s father, a minister and friend of the Americans. All the while, the British had not yet discovered that Barney had been gone for a second day. Under the pretense of being a fisherman, Barney was put aboard a vessel and still no alarm had been sounded as the craft moved past the British fleet. However, after the vessel reached the open sea, a privateer pulled alongside to question the men on the fishing boat. Barney discarded his fishing attire, donned his British uniform and met the officer from the privateer with great authority, demanding that the privateer let him pass due to a secret mission that could not be interrupted without great peril. The astute officer required proof and Barney continued his rant, exclaiming that he could not expose the mission, but he would be glad to head back to Admiral Digby for him to explain. The officer was not too keen about that idea for fear the British Navy would press some of his crew in to service. Nonetheless, the officer insisted that they return to Plymouth. Still showing no signs of stress and continuing his impersonation of a British officer, Barney agreed, and both vessels moved toward Joshua Barney (Pictorial Field Book of port, reaching shore on the the Revolution, Benson J. Lossing, following morning. With Barney remaining aboard, still 1860)

BARNEY thought to be a British officer on a secret mission, the officer headed for Admiral Digby’s fleet. In the meantime, Barney was able to grab a rope and slide down the vessel and into a boat, injuring himself in the process, but he made it to shore and after a precarious encounter with a British customs officer made it safely back to the house of the minister, where he met two other former prisoners (Colonel Richardson and Doctor Hindman). At about that time, Barney’s ruse was discovered and the alarm was sounded. Barney remained at the minister’s home without being discovered for several days, and from there he was again given assistance. Having changed his appearance and dress, his coach was permitted to pass through the gate of the town and proceed to Exeter. From there, Barney continued his escape by riding a public stagecoach to Bristol and, still without being discovered, he was able to travel to London, bid it a fond farewell and sailed to France. From there he went to Holland and boarded the privateer South Carolina. After a turbulent voyage, Barney and some others boarded the privateer Cicero, out of Beverly, Massachusetts. Finally, Barney completed his bold escape and reached America. At Boston, he met other Americans who had also escaped from Mill prison. After his return to the U.S., Barney married (1781) Ann Bedford (sister of Gunning Bedford). Barney declined offers to command a privateer and traveled to Philadelphia where he took command of the 16gun Hydor Alley (armed by Pennsylvania) during March 1782. Although Lord Cornwallis had surrendered at Yorktown, Virginia, during the previous October and the major fighting in the North had ended, Pennsylvania was concentrating on terminating the British privateers that had been operating on the Delaware River. On 8 April Barney vanquished the HMS General Monk (formerly the George Washington) in Delaware Bay following a brief but tenacious battle that compelled the British to strike the colors. An accompanying privateer, the Fair American, offered no assistance to the General Monk. Lieutenant Barney was promoted to captain by Congress following the victory. The General Monk, operating in the vicinity of the Delaware Capes since 1780, had devastated or captured about sixty vessels while under command of Captain Rogers, until Barney knocked her from the British service. Barney became the commander of the prize, renamed the General Washington, and sailed for France during November 1782. Upon his return, he carried dispatches from Benjamin Franklin indicating the imminent termination of hostilities, following the recent signing of preliminary peace terms. Nonetheless, Barney seemed unable to lose his propensity for capture. During 1793, he again spent some time in captivity after being seized by the British on charges of piracy. Subsequently, Barney served as a captain in the service of France, coincidentally during the Quasi War with France, but he returned to the United States during 1800. When war again erupted with England in 1812, Joshua Barney spent time as a privateer. His exploits in the Rossie, beginning on 15 July 1812 when he sailed from Chesapeake Bay, resulted in the seizure of eighteen vessels; one was the HMS Princess Amelia. The successful cruise ended on the 21 November 1812. Barney, after becoming aware of the British warships in the Chesapeake, proposed (4 July 1813) constructing a small fleet of gunboats that could be flexible enough to take on the Royal Navy’s blockade of Chesapeake Bay. His blueprint included gunboats that could also be rowed, to permit his men to navigate the rivers and outmaneuver the large warships. His blueprint was approved by William Jones, the secretary of the navy, making Barney’s fleet a temporary part of the U.S. Navy. Consequently, Barney, who had retired after the War for Independence, was reactivated. He received the rank of commodore. A naval battery at St. Leonard’s Creek, Maryland, was established to provide protection of the gunboats on the Patuxent River. The fleet was constructed and was activated at Baltimore during May 1814. The following month, Barney’s squadron of eighteen light-draft gunboats

BARNWELL engaged the British, but soon after, the outmatched Americans disengaged and broke for the Patuxent River. On 8–10 June, the British, having failed to destroy Barney’s squadron on Chesapeake Bay, moved to destroy it at Leonard’s Creek. Despite the unyielding pounding, Barney’s squadron refused to capitulate and the British once again failed to eliminate the threat. Barney broke through the blockade and headed farther up the Patuxent River. At Pig’s Point on 22 August, Barney ordered the squadron (16 gunboats and 13 schooners, including Barney’s sloop Scorpion) destroyed to prevent capture by the British. Barney afterward moved with his force to the defense of Bladensburg, where the British were pressing toward Washington. At Bladensburg, the British introduced a new and mysterious weapon — rockets — that caused panic among the American defenders, most of whom were fresh troops with no experience. The Americans, numbering about 6,000 men against 2,600 of the enemy, deserted their positions and headed back to Washington, but without pause they kept moving into Virginia, leaving the capital without defense except for one battalion of U.S. Marines, who held their ground at Bladensburg, and the contingent of sailors under Captain Joshua Barney, which also was prepared to fight. As it turned out, the British had not introduced a pernicious weapon; rather, they had catapulted pyrotechnics (fireworks) that exploded in midair, but caused no harm. The ruse had not fooled either the Marines or Barney’s men. The British attempted to overrun the thin line of Americans, but Captain Samuel Miller USMC and his force held the line and inflicted more than 225 casualties upon the British. Finally, after two hours of preventing passage, the Marines and Barney’s force withdrew. However, the time bought allowed President James Madison to get back to the White House and get his wife to safety. British General Robert Ross was able to move into Washington, but he failed to nab the president. During the attack at Bladensburg, Captain Barney was wounded in the thigh, making it difficult to escape. He once again became a reluctant guest of the British, but he was soon after released. The fighting at Bladensburg ended Captain Barney’s service in the field; however, following his recuperation, Barney again took command of his squadron during October of 1814 and retained it until October of 1815, when it was deactivated. Although the British took Washington in the War of 1812 and burned parts of it, they were driven from the town, not by the American army; rather by a tremendous storm that terrified the British as much as their rockets had scared the Americans. Captain Barney carried the ball that struck him in the thigh until his death. During 1815, he traveled to Europe, but he was compelled to cut his mission short due to his health. During 1818, Captain Barney had been in the process of relocating from Elkridge, Maryland, to Kentucky, but while traveling, he became seriously ill at Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. He succumbed there on 1 December 1818.

Barnwell, Brigadier General John John Barnwell, the son of Nathaniel and Mary Gibbes Barnwell, was born in Charleston, South Carolina, during July 1748. He was one of ten children. John’s mother was the daughter of Colonel John and Mary Woodward Gibbes and the granddaughter of Governor Robert Gibbes. John’s father was the son of Colonel John Barnwell, known as “Tuscarora” from his exploits against the Indians. The other children of Nathaniel and Mary were Nathaniel (b. August 1739); John (b. May 1741, died October 1748); Anne (b. September 1743, married Colonel Thomas Middleton to become his second wife, afterward married Colonel (later General) Stephen Bull of Sheldon); Mary (b. April 1745, married William Elliott); Nathaniel (b. February 1746); Robert (b. August 1749, died September 1749); Bridget (b. October 1750, died May 1751); Robert (b. March 1752, died July 1752); Elizabeth (b. 1753, married Richard Gough); Richard (b. January 1755, died October 1766);

26 Edward (b. November 1757, died 1808); Robert Gibbes (b. 1761, died 1814) and Sarah (b. 1764, married James Hazzard Cuthbert). At about age eighteen, John married Elizabeth Fenwick, the only child of Edward and Martha Izard Fenwick, during early 1766. Elizabeth succumbed that same year. By that time, Elizabeth’s mother had succumbed and her father had remarried in 1753 to Mary Drayton, the daughter of Thomas Drayton. Elizabeth’s father and her step-mother had a large family, including Edward, John, Martha, Mary and Sarah. Following Elizabeth’s death, John remained a widower for about ten years before he remarried, taking Ann Hutson, the daughter of the Rev. William Hutson, as his second wife. In the meantime, the colonies remained on a collision course with Britain. Soon after the clash at Lexington and Concord during April 1775, John was among those in Charleston who took up arms to support the Patriots’ cause. On 17 June 1775, he received his commission as captain of the 1st South Carolina Regiment. As the conflict was unfolding on a larger scale, the South Carolina Secret Committee, informed of the imminent arrival of an English transport laden with powder, sprang into action. The committee expeditiously communicated with Patriots in Georgia and armed a vessel to intercept the armed escort sent out by Governor James Wright. The two colonies coordinated, and the Georgia provincial government commissioned an armed schooner. Two Georgians, Captains Oliver Bowen and Joseph Habersham, along with Captain John Barnwell and Captain John Joyner, both South Carolinians, led the mission. The vessel embarked in timely fashion and Wright’s vessel chose not to fight. It took flight, leaving the hefty cargo on the transport to its fate. The munitions were taken and divided in such fashion that a fair portion was sent to Massachusetts. The vessel and cargo were taken to North Edisto Inlet, where the Georgians re-packed a liberal supply of the gunpowder, then camouflaged it by covering the powder with sacks of rice. Barnwell’s initial mission in the conflict ended with spectacular success, although it was not generally known at the time. The floating powder keg embarked and safely reached its destination. The cargo was desperately needed and was jubilantly welcomed upon its arrival subsequent to the Battle of Bunker Hill. Unknown to John Barnwell and the others aboard the ship that seized the powder, their daring raid enabled the Patriots at Boston to maintain the siege and their captured powder paved the way for the invasion of Canada. Later that same year, John resigned his commission (December 1775), but afterward he served first as captain in Colonel Benjamin Garden’s regiment (Granville County militia) and then as major. On 3 February 1779, a British contingent of about 200 troops under Major Gardener clashed with Colonel William Moultrie’s forces at Beaufort (Battle of Port Royal). The British dispatched by General Augustine Prevost were repelled and driven back to Georgia. John Barnwell participated in the action and two other prominent leaders also fought in the battle, Captains Thomas Heyward and Edward Rutledge (both were signers of the Declaration of Independence). The victory by Moultrie’s militia deterred Prevost from initiating any further action into South Carolina for a long time. The militia afterward focused on defending Charleston. John Barnwell also participated in the defense of Charleston during 1780. He and his brothers Edward and Robert were among the thousands captured when the city fell on 12 May 1780. The British restricted their hospitality for Major Barnwell and his brothers to the prison ship PackHorse. During that period, the British, without justification, executed Colonel Isaac Hayne, and the action caused General Nathanael Greene to retaliate. At Charleston, John Barnwell and his two brothers were informed they could be among other prisoners to be executed if Greene carried out his threat. In reaction, John, Edward and Robert as well as other captives signed a message to Greene (that was forwarded to the general)

27 that they should not interfere with his actions and that “they were ready to die in the cause of their country.” Greene’s intent was taken seriously and no harm came to the Barnwells. John’s release occurred during June of the following year as part of a large prisoner exchange. Soon after his exchange, Barnwell was appointed brigadier general by Governor John Rutledge, and with his appointment he received command of a recently raised militia brigade (4th). After the close of hostilities, General Barnwell was promoted to major general with command of the 2nd South Carolina Division. Rutledge selected Barnwell over another officer, Colonel William Harden. General Barnwell also served in the South Carolina Senate. John Barnwell succumbed during August 1800 and was interred at St. Helena’s Episcopal Church in Beaufort, S.C. General Barnwell and his second wife, Anne Hutson, had eight children: John Gibbes Barnwell (b. February 1778, died 1828); Nathaniel (b. May 1779, died 1795); Mary Hutson (b. 1781, married Robert Means); Anne Middleton (b. December 1783, married John Habersham); Elizabeth (b. March 1786, married James Cuthbery); Sarah (b. April 1788, died unmarried); Esther Wigg (b. 1790, died in infancy) and William Washington (b. 1793, died in infancy).

Barry, Commodore John John Barry was born in Ballysampson in County Wexford, Northern Ireland, about 1746 and was raised in Rostoonstown, parish of Tachmshin, Barony of Forth, Leinster Province. Barry’s father was also named John. His mother, Catherine, married twice more during her lifetime; however, her marriage to John Barry, Sr., resulted in the births of three other children, Peter, Thomas and Catherine. During 1760, John immigrated to America. He settled in Philadelphia, where he initially lived with Thomas Willing (a merchant), and afterward, General John Cadwalader, prior to acquiring his own residence, where he settled with his first wife (name uncertain), who died during the war. He remarried in 1777, but neither marriage brought about children. Barry’s second wife was Sarah Austin, a Protestant who converted to Catholicism during 1779. One of Sarah’s two brothers, William Austin, became a Loyalist and was renounced as a traitor. By the time Barry arrived in America he had already acquired experience on the seas as a captain of a merchant ship. One of the vessels under his command was the Barbadoes, and after relinquishing command in 1771, he commanded the schooner Patty and Polly. Others included the schooner Industry, the Frugality, the Peggy and, during 1774, the Black Prince (later the Alfred ), the latter owned by John Nixon. During the initial days of the conflict with Britain, prior to the Declaration of Independence, Congress appointed Barry as commander of the first ship of the Continental Navy, the Wild Duck, an armed brigantine that had arrived at Maryland with a cargo of gunpowder. The ship, acquired by Congress, was renamed the Lexington, and on 13 March 1776, Barry received command. He actually received his commission on 7 December 1775, two weeks prior to the formal organization of the Continental Navy. The move was unusual for the time and a testament to Barry’s skills. On 28 March, Congress John Barry (Pictorial Field Book of the took action to bolster Barry, who had been assigned duty Revolution, Benson J. Lossing, 1860)

BARRY on the Delaware River, by resolving “that the Marine Committee be empowered to purchase, on the most reasonable terms, for the use of the continent, the ship, Molly [renamed the Reprisal and commanded by Lambert Wickes], and to fit her out, with all possible expedition, to join Captain Barry, on his cruize along the coast, between New York and Virginia.” Off the coast of Cape Charles, Virginia, on 7 April, Barry engaged and seized the HMS Edward, tender to the HMS Liverpool. Congress was elated with Barry’s success and awarded him (6 June) the yet unfinished Effingham, named in honor of Lord Effingham, who resigned his commission in the British army rather than take up arms against the Americans. However, the Effingham was never completed and the Americans destroyed it in May 1778. In the meantime, the Edward, renamed the Sachem, began its service in the Continental Navy by accompanying the Lexington. On the 9th of April 1776, while at Egg Harbor, New Jersey, Barry was directed to move to Cape May to rendezvous with the sloop Betsy and accompany it to France for the purpose of transporting Silas Deane, the American minister, to the French court. Upon arrival, Barry found that the Betsy had sailed alone. Following some action along the Delaware, he returned to Philadelphia aboard the Lexington on the 26th of September, and at that time, relinquished his command of the Lexington. During December 1777, Barry was summoned to appear before Congress at York, Pennsylvania, to respond to charges of disrespect to a member (Francis Hopkinson) of the Navy Board at Bordentown, New Jersey. On 29 January 1778, Congress resolved that “Captain Barry be not employed on the expedition assigned to his conduct by the Marine Committee, till further orders of Congress.” In February 1778, Barry, using boats, descended the Delaware to harass the British at Philadelphia and destroy their vessels. The mission succeeded and in addition, Barry’s party aided General Anthony Wayne’s army by ferrying contingents across from Delaware and aiding them during a cattle roundup to provide food for the troops at Valley Forge. Wayne, like Barry, was a member of the Friendly Sons of Saint Patrick. Apparently, General George Washington, although not a member, had good feelings for the saint. On St. Patrick’s Day 1778, Washington proclaimed: “I too, am a lover of St. Patrick.” He authorized distribution of extra grog as a friendly gesture to the Irish in response to the ones responsible for constructing a “Stuffed Paddy.” During March of 1778, Barry encountered British warships. In the meantime, the Marine Committee, on 21 February, reported that “Captain Barry hath treated the said board [navy], in the person Mr. Hopkinson, one of that board, with indecency and disrespect, and that he ought, within twenty days after this resolve shall have been notified to him by the said board, make such acknowledgment as shall be satisfactory to them.” On the 7th of March, Barry, still operating south of Philadelphia, captured three British vessels, but two days later, more British warships arrived, and during an attempt to escape, one of the captured vessels was not fast enough, compelling Barry to beach it. Barry and his contingent escaped capture, but they were forced to remain in Delaware until May. During September 1778, Barry, having never gained command of the Effingham due to the British occupation of Philadelphia and the selfdestruction of the warship, received command of the Raleigh at Boston on 25 September. Part of Barry’s crew was composed of fifty British captives who served as Marines. During the Raleigh’s first day at sea it encountered warships, the 50-gun HMS Experiment and the 22-gun Unicorn, off the coast of Maine. On the 26th, after having evaded the two stronger ships on the previous day, contact was again made. During the battle the Raleigh grounded near the mouth of the Penobscot River and came under bombardment by both British ships. Barry and the crew, following nine hours of combat, made it to dry land, but the ship was not destroyed as ordered. Just as the British begin the bombardment at dawn on the 26th, Midshipman Jeacocks,

BARTLETT in defiance of orders, struck the colors and failed to burn the ship. The British dispatched a boat under a white flag and took possession of the Raleigh and the crew members who had not yet made it to the mainland. On 10 November 1778, Congress authorized an expedition to seize East Florida and, as part of the resolution, officers of the Continental Army who served until the seizure of St. Augustine were to receive land grants. Congress also selected Captain John Barry to command all vessels involved with the expedition, “pursuant to the orders of General Washington.” Barry was not jubilant about his selection; however, the expedition never occurred. Barry, without a command, took command of a privateer, the Delaware, with a commission from Congress of February 15, 1779. During August 1780, the Frenchman, Captain Pierre Landais, serving in the Continental Navy, was forcefully removed from the Alliance after it arrived back from France. Captain John Barry was appointed the Alliance’s new commander. Landais, accused of being insane, received a court-martial and was dismissed from the service. In February 1781 the Alliance departed for France with passengers Colonel John Laurens, Thomas Paine and the Viscount de Noailles (Lafayette’s cousin). On the 4th of March it seized a British privateer, the Alert. After delivering the passengers, Barry embarked for the United States on 29 March. A mutiny was planned by some of the British crew members soon after the Alliance departed, but Barry was informed and was able to quickly suppress it. Soon after, on 2 April, the Alliance, accompanied by a French warship, the Marquis de la Lafayette, spotted two British warships and the British chose to fight rather than run. Both vessels were captured, but the French captain disobeyed Barry’s orders and sailed the prizes (Mars and Minerva) to France rather than Philadelphia. In the latter part of March, the Alliance encountered the British vessels Atlanta and Trepassy off Nova Scotia, but prior to reaching Boston, the Atlanta was recaptured by the British. The Alliance reached port at Boston on 6 June. During December 1781, Captain Barry left Boston aboard the Alliance en route to France to deliver the Marquis de Lafayette, returning to the United States on 16 March with dispatches from Benjamin Franklin. The voyage remained uneventful until it reached the Delaware Capes on the 10th of May. After spotting British warships, Barry took a circuitous route to avoid a contest with the more powerful squadron and arrived at New London instead of Philadelphia on the 13th of May. Three days later, a mutiny occurred, due to orders forbidding liberty, but Barry returned to the ship and it was subdued. The Alliance once again departed on 4 August, en route to Bermuda in search of prizes. From there the vessel moved to Newfoundland and arrived on 10 September. From there, Barry sailed to France and remained there until 13 January 1783, when he embarked for Havana, Cuba. He arrived there on 31 January, but his orders were changed and he was stuck there until the 6 March. En route to the United States, the Alliance and the Duc de Luzon encountered the HMS Alarm, the HMS Sybil and the HMS Tobago in the Straits of Florida. Within a short while another vessel arrived, but it was French. The Alliance and the Sybil pounded each other, but the other British ships failed to enter the fight. The Sybil then disengaged and headed north while the Alliance continued to sail toward Philadelphia. Upon discovering a British squadron there, Barry switched course and sailed to Rhode Island, reaching it on 20 March. On the 31st, Barry and the crew were informed that the war had ended. Consequently, the Alliance had engaged in the final naval confrontation of the conflict. En route to Philadelphia, the Alliance paused at New York and Barry had a cordial visit with the captain of the Sybil. During the Constitutional Convention of 1787 in Philadelphia, Barry became involved with some who were attempting to delay action on forming the new government. The body lacked a quorum. Consequently, Barry and others sought out those who tried to cause the delay and compelled them to attend the meeting at the State House (In-

28 dependence Hall). Action was pending against Barry, but nothing came of it. Captain Barry sailed to China as captain of a merchant ship, the Asia, during January 1788. Then, on 5 June, 1794, in conjunction with the re-establishment of the U.S. Navy, John Barry was appointed the first captain, followed by Samuel Nicholson, Silas Talbot, Joshua Barney, Richard Dale and Thomas Truxton. Barry, who was the first to receive command of a ship during the Revolution, was also the first to get command of a ship in the new navy. Barry commanded the United States at a time when war with France seemed inevitable. John Barry succumbed at Philadelphia on 30 September 1803 and was interred in the cemetery at St. Mary’s Roman Catholic Church. The name of his first wife is uncertain and records are unclear; however, on 31 October 1767, a marriage license, according to the Pennsylvania Archives, was issued to a John Barry and Mary Farrell. On 10 October 1777, a marriage license was issued to a John Barry and Mary Cleary. Nonetheless, a relative of Barry claimed he married Mary Burns. The exact date of the death of his first wife is also uncertain, and the markings on the grave site are missing a number, but it is thought that the year 1774, supplied by the Sons of St. Patrick, is accurate. Captain Barry’s second wife, and his widow, Sarah, converted to Catholicism during 1779. Both of his wives were interred at St. Mary’s. The Alliance was sold after the close of hostilities, but her total destruction did not occur until 1901, when the American Dredging Company destroyed the ruins of the ship to widen the channel at Petty’s Island, across the Delaware from Philadelphia.

Bartlett, Josiah (Signer of the Declaration of Independence) Josiah Bartlett was born in Massachusetts on 21 November 1729. His parents were Stephen and Hannah Webster Bartlett, who settled in the town of Amesbury (Essex County). The Bartletts had four other sons and one daughter: Joseph, Stephen, Simon, Levi and Hannah. As a youngster, Josiah, having been blessed with a superior mind and an excellent memory, effortlessly mastered several languages in addition to English. He became fluent in Greek and Latin, which seemed to place him on a path toward medicine. At about age sixteen, Josiah’s interest in medicine became serious; however, he did not enter college. Rather, he studied medicine in Amesbury under the tutorship of a relative, Doctor James Ordway. The doctor had married Tirzah Titcomb Bartlett, the widow of Thomas Bartlett. By the time Josiah reached his twentyfirst birthday, he had initiated his own medical practice in Kingston, New Hampshire. He resided with a cleric, the Rev. Joseph Secumbe. During 1752, Josiah was struck down with fever and the medications he received from his doctor apparently caused his condition to worsen. For a while, the prognosis suggested Josiah’s sickness was fatal. Nevertheless, from his deathbed, Josiah startled the two men who had been keeping vigil with him through the night, when he sent them to acquire cider and further directed them to follow his instructions in feeding the cider to him in increments. Surprisingly, to the astonishment of all, the cider broke the fever and by dawn, Bartlett was in the process of making a remarkable recovery. Josiah Bartlett (Biographical Sketches After his brush with death, of the Signers of the Declaration of Bartlett found his practice Independence, Benson J. Lossing, 1854)

29 expanding, and at about the same time, he was moving closer to ending his bachelorhood. Josiah Bartlett married a cousin, Mary Bartlett, the daughter of his father’s brother, Joseph Bartlett of Newton, during 1754. Josiah and Mary had a large family. As listed in “Forefathers and Defendants of Willard and Genevieve Bartlett” (by Genevieve W. Bartlett, 1952) eight of their children survived infancy. They were Levi (b. 15 September 15 1763, d. 1828), Josiah II (b. 29 August 1768, d. 1838), Ezra (b. 13 September 1770, d. 1848), Mary (b. 2 December 1754), Miriam (b. 19 June 1758), Rhoda (b. 22 May 1760), Sarah (b. 29 July 1773) and Lois (b. 2 June, 1756). In the same years that Josiah and Sarah were born, Josiah Sr. lost his mother (1768) and father (1773). In the meantime, Josiah’s practice continued to flourish. All the while, he continued his investigative work and later his perseverance paid a huge dividend. A reappearance (1754–1755) of an epidemic known as “throat distemper” was rapidly wiping out children under ten years of age, and there was no cure. After one of Doctor Bartlett’s own children came down with the disease and known remedies failed to cure his child, he discovered an antidote using Peruvian bark. Josiah, a skilled physician, was held in high esteem in the province, both as a physician and as a leader. He was called upon to command a regiment (militia) as tensions grew between the colonists and the English. Having been elected as a selectman in 1757, Josiah entered politics on a higher scale during 1765, when he was elected as the Kingston delegate to the provincial legislature, during the term of Governor Benning Wentworth, the latter being succeeded by his nephew, John Wentworth, two years later. John Wentworth attempted to bring Bartlett into his circle; however, Doctor Bartlett, despite his appointment as magistrate (1767), was not fooled nor swayed by the attempts to gain his sympathies. He remained adamantly opposed to the practices of the royal governors, who had favored their friends with grants and other perks. The royal governors also favored the Episcopal Church (Church of England), while many of the inhabitants, including Bartlett were Calvinists. The tension between Britain and the colonies intensified. By spring of 1774, the gap was rapidly widening and reaching a point from where there was no path left to lead toward reconciliation. The New Hampshire legislature assembled and established a committee of correspondence, of which Josiah became a member. The action incited the governor, prompting him to resort to swift retaliation. He dissolved the body, but to no avail. The patriots ignored the governor and his directives. They defiantly assembled at Exeter on 21 July to chart their destiny. With eighty-one patriots in attendance, Josiah Bartlett and John Pickering were selected as delegates to the Continental Congress in Philadelphia. However, Pickering declined the appointment, and Bartlett had just lost his home to fire, prompting him to also decline. The fire followed coercion by the governor and some Loyalists to compel Josiah to stop his activity with the patriots. Their actions, however, intensified Josiah’s opposition and increased the fire in his heart. In their stead, Nathaniel Folsom and John Sullivan were appointed. Bartlett’s public career came to a halt during 1775, when he was notified that the governor rescinded his commission and he lost his position as justice of the peace (magistrate). Following the loss of their home, Mary encouraged Josiah to press forward. She and the children sought temporary shelter and then removed to their small farm, which she tended while Josiah tended to the patriots’ cause. Other American patriots were tossed out of the militia. On 11 July 1774, the governor suspended the legislature until September, but afterward, he postponed it until the following April, in what became his final act as royal governor. At the time of the governor’s action, he had already fled to a British warship in Portsmouth Harbor and from there, he moved to the Island of Shoals. Shortly after the governor’s hurried departure, a provincial congress assembled, with Matthew Thornton

BARTLETT sitting as president. Without delay, a new government was established and as part of its formation, each member was required to take an oath of allegiance. This permanently terminated the governing of New Hampshire by royal governors, who had been in place for about ninety years. In the meantime, other Patriots across the land had been assembling in reaction to the skirmishes at Lexington, Concord and Bunker Hill, essentially severing any remaining chances of reconciliation with Britain. Bartlett was appointed as a delegate to the Continental Congress (August 1775) in place of John Sullivan, who by that time had become a general officer in the Continental Army. Soon after, during September, Bartlett was back with military duty after being appointed colonel of a militia regiment by the New Hampshire Provincial Congress. Bartlett, however, had no available time to serve in the field. He arrived in Philadelphia to represent New Hampshire on 16 September 1775. During January 1776, Bartlett again was elected as a delegate to the Continental Congress, along with John Langdon and William Whipple; however, Langdon, due to another appointment, although a strong proponent of independence, had to decline to accept the position as naval agent. As the major break became more imminent, Bartlett, on February 19, noted in a letter to his family: “We have nothing to expect from Britain but war and bloodshed.... Indeed it seems very hard that Britain is seizing all American vessels, and the Americans are not permitted to return the compliment.” On July 2, upon agreement that the northernmost colony was to begin the vote, New Hampshire was the first called upon to finalize the break. The first New Hampshire delegate to vote was Doctor Bartlett, who voted “Yea and Amen!” His vote started the tumultuous and unanimous decision to declare independence. During that stressful year, Bartlett’s health began to deteriorate, and although he was re-elected to Congress on Christmas Eve 1776, he was compelled to return to his home prior to the end of 1777 and was unable to return to Congress until 1778, after being elected yet again on 14 March 1778, along with John Wentworth, a son of the former lieutenant governor also named John. Soon after arriving at York, Pennsylvania, where Congress was in session, John again became ill. He was forced to return to his home and family, ending his congressional service. Although Bartlett was absent when the Articles of Confederation were adopted on 15 November 1777, he did support and later sign them. Each of the states later ratified the articles, and the confederation became effective on 1 March 1781. On that day, the Congressional Journal listed the signers. When the articles were adopted in 1777, the Congress was meeting in York because the British controlled Philadelphia. Following the British evacuation, Congress returned to Philadelphia in groups rather than as a whole body, and by that time Bartlett had arrived in York. En route to Philadelphia, he traveled only with a servant, and at a stop along the way, he was warned of the dangers due to robbers. Josiah was warned that the bandits had recently held up a paymaster who was transporting Continental currency (paper) to General George Washington, but the paymaster successfully posed as a “poor Quaker” and was allowed to continue his journey. Josiah disregarded the danger and after a short pause continued his journey, which he completed without harm. After his arrival in Philadelphia, Josiah noted in his letters home that the state house (Independence Hall) had been left in uninhabitable condition and that the British had also destroyed many of the finer homes in the city. In August 1778, Bartlett yet again was elected to Congress, but his contribution to the American cause had cost him a great deal in his private affairs and carried his family close to financial ruin. He was compelled to return home to attend to his affairs. He took a leave of absence, departed Congress on 31 October 1778, and never returned. Doctor Bartlett remained active in New Hampshire and was quite aware of the dire circumstances of the army and of the citizens. In his state, prices skyrocketed, troops were in short supply and Loyalists and

BARTLETT others were circulating counterfeit money. Bartlett’s emotions were clearly stated in a letter written on 13 March 1779: “I grow perfectly weary of the war; it is enough to make one sick of human nature, to think mankind should be such fools as to distress, wound, maim, kill, and destroy one another, for no other reason but to gratify the will and pleasure of tyrants, who will take care to remain in a whole skin themselves.” During that same year, 1779, Doctor Bartlett was appointed chief justice in the Court of Common Pleas, and during the following year, he was appointed muster-master of the troops being raised in New Hampshire. In 1782 Bartlett was raised to a justice of the Superior Court to succeed Judge Matthew Thornton and later, during 1788, he became chief justice of New Hampshire. He was one of the prominent men of New Hampshire who attended the convention in New Hampshire at Concord to ratify the Constitution on 21 June 1788 and cause New Hampshire to become the ninth state in the union. Nevertheless, Doctor Bartlett’s contribution to the nation did not end with ratification of the Constitution. He was selected as a member of the U.S. Senate (1789), but his poor health at the age of sixty years compelled him to decline the position. His wife, Mary, died that year, increasing the burden he was carrying. Mary hardly had time to enjoy her new house, which had finally been constructed. During the following year, 1790, Josiah was selected as the president of New Hampshire, a post he accepted and retained until June 1793, when he was elected governor just as the post was renamed from president to governor. That same year, Dartmouth awarded Bartlett an honorary doctor of medicine degree. In 1794 Bartlett persuaded the legislature to grant a charter for the New Hampshire Medical Society, of which he became its initial president. Despite his eagerness to serve, his health continued to deteriorate and on the 29 January 1794, he resigned his office as governor. His resignation letter to the legislature said: “After having served the public for a number of years, to the best of my ability, in the various offices to which I have had the honour to be appointed, I think it proper, before your adjournment, to signify to you, and through you to my fellow citizens at large, that I now find myself so far advanced in age, that it will be expedient for me, at the close of the session, to retire from the cares and fatigue of public business, to the repose of a private life.” Doctor Josiah Bartlett, who had been among that select few who formally declared independence on the Fourth of July, 1776, and offered their lives, fortunes and sacred honor, succumbed at the age of 66 on 19 May 1795. He was interred at the Plains Cemetery in Kingston, alongside his wife, Mary. A statue dedicated to Bartlett was later erected in the town square of Kingston. Josiah was survived by six of his children, including his three sons, Levi (married Sarah Hook, November 1781, and Abigail Stevens, April 1807), Josiah (married Miss E. Wingate in 1792 and Hannah Weeks during 1812), and Ezra (married Hannah Gale in April 1796). In addition, he was survived by his daughters Mary (married Jonathan Greeley, March 1780), a widow since the death of her husband during 1789, Sarah (married Doctor Amos Gale, April 1796) and Lois (unmarried, date of death uncertain). His daughters, Rhoda (married Reuben True, February 1789) and Miriam (married Joseph Calef, June 1781), predeceased him, succumbing during 1784 and 1785 respectively. Hannah had died prior to reaching maturity. At the time of his death, Doctor Josiah Bartlett was also survived by five grandchildren, Polly and Josiah Greeley, Josiah and Miriam Calef and Josiah Bartlett True. The “Josiah Bartlett House” in Kingston was designated a National Historic Landmark during 1971.

Bartlett, Brigadier General Thomas Thomas Bartlett, the son of Israel and Love Hall Bartlett, was born in Nottingham, New Hampshire, on 22 October 1745. Israel and Love had five other children: Joseph Hall (named after Love’s father); Sarah (b. November 1741); Israel (b. 1748); Mary (b. August 1751) and Josiah

30 (b. March 1753). Thomas later married Sarah, a daughter of General Joseph Cilley. Together, Thomas and Sarah had the following children: Israel (married a sister of General Butler of Deerfield); Joseph; Thomas of Nottingham; Jonathan of Mt. Vernon; Bradbury of Nottingham (later New Hampshire senator and representative and brigadier general of militia) and Josiah of Lee (served as U.S. Army officer during War of 1812). Thomas served during the revolution and rose to the rank of colonel by 1778, when he participated in the Rhode Island Campaign. During that same year, Colonel Bartlett served on the New Hampshire Committee of Safety. In 1780, Colonel Bartlett and his regiment were deployed at West Point. After the war Colonel Bartlett became a major general of militia and succeeded his father-in-law, Major General Joseph Cilley. During 1790, Thomas was appointed as a judge on the Court of Common Pleas, a position he retained until his death in 1805. Thomas’ son, Bradbury, also became a judge of the Court of Common Pleas.

Bassett, Richard The son of Arnold and Judith Thompson Bassett, Richard Bassett was born in Cecil County, Maryland, on 2 April 1745. Richard’s early life became complicated after his father, who was a farmer and the operator of a tavern, abandoned the family. Richard fared well because of the generosity of a relative, Peter Lawson, who ensured that the family was not further damaged. Through the support of Lawson, Richard received an excellent education, and upon the death of his benefactor, he inherited his estate, “Bohemia Manor.” By 1770, Richard had completed his studies and gained admittance to the bar at Dover, Delaware. (At that time the state of Delaware was considered the lower part of Pennsylvania.) Richard’s law practice continued to grow, which elevated him to a position of prominence. As his law practice prospered, he acquired more land in the vicinity of Dover and at Wilmington, Delaware. Richard also engaged in farming, but while accumulating his wealth, he possessed philanthropic tendencies and frequently helped others in need. Bassett served in the militia during the Revolutionary War, but his service was confined to Delaware. With the rank of captain, he commanded a contingent of cavalry (Dover militia) and was a member of the Delaware Committee of Safety. Nevertheless, through his military service, Captain Bassett gained valuable experience; the perils of the war actually affected his lifestyle. He became much more conservative with his spending and his days of entertaining were curtailed. The severity of the crisis that overcame the nation transformed Bassett into a much more serious man. His military service focused primarily on mobilizing troops and logistics to maintain the units that were in the field. He was involved in communicating with the other nearby militias and civil leaders in Maryland and Pennsylvania. In addition, he was often in communication with the Continental Army, particularly during that dark period, the summer of 1777, when the British landed at the Head of the Elk and advanced toward Philadelphia. Regarding travels, he would be considered as a recluse, with only infrequent trips out of Delaware. The experiences of the war and as a lawyer-farmer further Richard Bassett (National Archives)

BAXTER

31 expanded his abilities. Following the close of the war he became a political leader, concerned about the state and the nation. During 1786, Bartlett was a delegate representing Delaware at the Annapolis Convention, which convened during September to discuss interstate trade and navigation on the Potomac River. Representatives from all states were invited, but only delegates from Delaware, New Jersey, New York, Pennsylvania and Virginia attended. It was agreed that a convention in Philadelphia during the following year would be held to design a blueprint for a new government in place of that which was operating under the Articles of Confederation. Bartlett was selected as one of the three delegates from Delaware, along with John Dickinson and Jacob Broom. At the convention, remembered as “The Miracle in Philadelphia,” Bartlett, aligned with John Dickinson and others, considered maintaining equality for Delaware and other small states paramount, to prevent the larger states from gaining advantage. Richard was not among the orators who took to the floor to press for their agendas to gain acceptance; however, he was diligent in his efforts to come up with an outstanding blueprint for the infant republic. A compromise intended to level the field proposed by John Dickinson and his supporters to guarantee equal status for the smaller states prevailed. It was agreed that the national government would consist of a House of Representatives in which population of the respective states would dictate the number of representatives, but that inequality was to be offset by the Senate, which was to consist of two senators per state regardless of population. The compromise assured states like Delaware and Rhode Island that they would not be overpowered by states such as New York and Pennsylvania. The U.S. Constitution was adopted on 17 September 1787, to take effect upon ratification by nine states. New Hampshire became the ninth state to ratify on 21 June 1778. Objections by some, including delegates who voted yea and others who voted nay, were later addressed in the Bill of Rights, which was ratified by Congress on 15 December 1791 with the creation of the original ten amendments. Richard Bassett, while low key during the convention, exerted all of his energy upon his return to Delaware to assure ratification by his home state. His efforts proved successful in a short span of time. Delaware unanimously ratified the Constitution on 7 December 1787, to become the first state in the union. Afterward, Bassett was elected to the first United States Senate and served from 1789 to 1793. While in the Senate, he supported President George Washington and his executive powers within the executive branch of the government, but his insistence on states’ rights placed him as an opponent of expanding the powers of the president too much, such as Alexander Hamilton, the secretary of the treasury, advocated. Another of Hamilton’s proposals, that the federal government have the authority to assume state debts, was adamantly opposed by Bassett. As a Federalist, Bassett was aligned with John Adams and, although a firm believer in a strong, effective federal government, he was especially anxious to remove the capital to neutral ground, outside the boundaries of both New York and Pennsylvania. Land was donated from Maryland and Virginia to accommodate the seat of government on federal ground, unaffiliated with any state. That land donation included a stipulation that it remain under the jurisdiction of the federal government and at such time that those circumstance would change, that the land would revert back to the respective states. The caveat ensured that the land could never become a state, nor could it have representation in the House of Representatives or the U.S. Senate. Richard Bassett became the first senator to cast the vote to relocate the capital to the tracts along the Potomac River that became Washington, D.C. While Richard served in the Senate, he also remained close to the affairs of Delaware. He was involved with others in the state government, including John Dickinson, in establishing a new state constitution. Subsequent to his service in the Senate, Richard returned to

Delaware. He was elected to the Court Of Common Pleas during 1793 to become its initial chief justice, a post he held for six years. Meanwhile, during 1796, he was selected as a member of the Electoral College when John Adams, a Federalist, was elected president. In 1799, Bassett was elected governor of Delaware. His prior service in Congress and before that in the military became solid assets as he took the reins of the state government. Bassett, as governor, became commander-in-chief of the state’s militia. He retained a close association with the militia and maintained good communications with the neighboring states. His term as governor ended during 1801. That year, President John Adams appointed Bassett as a justice to the U.S. Circuit Court in what was known as Adams’ “Midnight Appointments” during the waning days of his term. Richard got caught between the animosity that arose between two old allies, Adams and Jefferson. Adams refused to attend the inauguration. Once in office, Jefferson, a Democratic-Republican (present-day Democrat), invalidated some of the last-minute appointments, which had been authorized by the Federalist majority in Congress with passage of a rushed Judiciary Act. Richard Bassett was one of those affected. His judgeship was eliminated by the Jefferson Democratic-Republicans. Another appointment, that of John Marshall, escaped elimination. Marshall moved on to become a prominent Supreme Court judge. In his private life, Richard Bassett had married twice, first to Ann Ennals, and from that marriage four children were born. Afterward, he married Betsey Garnett, but no children were born during the second marriage. Bassett was a practicing Methodist and the church at Bohemia Manor was a recipient of his philanthropy. The governor also held prayer meetings at the manor. Through his relationship with Joshua Clayton (later the first president/governor of Delaware), the two combined to expand Bohemia Manor to about 20,000 acres spread across the Maryland-Delaware state line slightly northwest of Middletown, Delaware. Joshua Clayton also served during the war, but he was a doctor and it is thought that he was with General George Washington at the time of the Battle of Brandywine (September 1777) in his capacity as a surgeon. About 1765, Joshua married Rachael McCleary, the adopted daughter of Governor Bassett, and they settled at Bohemia Manor on the Delaware sector of the estate in a section known as Locust Grove Farm. Richard Bassett died in 1815 and was interred on the grounds of the Wilmington and Brandywine Cemetery in Wilmington, Delaware.

Baxter, Captain Seth Seth Baxter, the son of John and Mehitable Willard Baxter, was born in Braintree (later Quincy), Massachusetts, in 1732. In addition to Seth, his parents had eleven other children. He married Elenor (daughter of Jonathan Allen) on 26 October 1758 and together they had three children. Subsequently, he married Mary Saunders on 20 December 1767, and from that marriage, four children were born. After the Revolutionary War began, Seth, during 1776, joined the Marines. He was commissioned a captain on 10 October 1776; however, he was in Boston and unattached to a ship until late 1776 or early 1777, when he was appointed as senior Marine officer aboard the Hancock (commanded by Captain John Manley), launched in June 1776 and commissioned on 23 June 1777. In the meantime, the Hancock left Boston with the frigate Boston during May 1777. Later, while off Nova Scotia, they ran across a British warship, the HMS Fox, and seized it on 7 June. While sailing toward Massachusetts, the Hancock, Boston and the prize encountered a British squadron — HMS Rainbow, HMS Flora and HMS Victor— on 7 July. The American squadron fled, each moving in separate directions, and by the following day, the Boston had safely escaped, but the captured Fox was seized by the Flora, while the

BAYLOR Hancock was intercepted by the Rainbow and forced to lower the colors. Captain Baxter was captured along with the remainder of the crew and sent to Halifax, where he was held until exchanged on 9 November for a British officer, Captain John Aire. During February 1779, Captain Baxter was attached to the frigate Boston, commanded by Captain John Tucker. Baxter succeeded Richard Palmes as captain of Marines aboard the Boston. Details of Captain Baxter’s service in the Marines beyond his service on the Boston remains unknown. Captain Baxter, at age 74, died on 8 August 1805.

Baylor, Brigadier General George George Baylor, the second son of Colonel John and Frances (Lucy) Walker Baylor, was born in Newmarket, Virginia, on 12 January 1752. George’s father was the 3rd John in line from John Baylor (Elder) of Tiverton. John the Elder had a son also named John (b. 1650) who immigrated to America. Afterward, John the Elder, by then in his later years, followed and resided in Virginia too. John (2) married Lucy Todd O’Brien and they had two children; however, the name of only one, John (3), George’s grandfather, who was born during May 1705, remains known. George Baylor’s parents married on 2 January 1744 in Yorktown, Virginia. On that same day and in the same place, Lucy’s sister married John Norton of London. John and Frances (Lucy) had twelve children: John (b. August 1744, died that same year); Elizabeth (b. October 1745, twin of Frances, died that year); Frances (twin of Elizabeth, b. October 1745, died that year); Lucy (b. October 1746, married John Armistead and became the mother of Colonel George Armistead, who received fame at Fort McHenry during the War of 1812); John (4) (b. September 1750); George Walker (b. January 1752); Robert A. (b. January 1754); Frances Courtenay (b. July 1756); Courtenay (b. April 1758); Bernard (b. June 1759, died that year); Walker Keith (b. October 1762) and Elizabeth (b. December 1766). George’s father, Colonel John Baylor, served in the militia with George Washington and was a member of the House of Burgesses for a long time, thought to have been from about 1740 through 1760. About 1726, John relocated to Newmarket, where George and his older brother John (4) were born. George later married Lucy Page, the daughter of Mann Page and his second wife, Anne Corbin Tayloe. The relationship between Colonel John Baylor and Colonel George Washington most probably had been influential in George Baylor becoming an aide to Washington during those first trying days of the revolution. George’s military service began when he was appointed aide-de-camp to General George Washington during 1775. Baylor remained with Washington through the days leading up to the eviction of the British from Boston and from there he served alongside Washington through the desperate campaigns in New York and New Jersey, when the British forced Washington to move across the Delaware River into Pennsylvania. At the time, Congress was preparing to abandon Philadelphia, as the British under General William Howe were threatening the capital. However, General Washington outmaneuvered the British, prevented annihilation of his army and when least expected, re-crossed the Delaware on Christmas night 1776, then surprised the British at Trenton on the following day. It was a turning point for the Continental Army, but for George Baylor, it was also a day of jubilation. Washington chose Baylor to carry a captured flag and word about the success at Trenton to Congress, which was prompted to celebrate the victory. There was no longer any necessity to abandon the city, because of the victory, which would soon be followed by another stunning victory over the British at Princeton on 3 January 1777. On 1 January, after hearing from Baylor, Congress presented him with a horse and a promotion. He was also promoted to the rank of colonel and given command of the 3rd Continental Dragoons on 9 January. Colonel Baylor’s good fortune ended the following year when his forces were deployed in the vicinity of Tappan (Bergen County,

32 New Jersey) during the latter part of the summer. At about midnight on 17 September 1778, while the main body of the Continental Army was at Fredericksburg (New York) slightly more than 25 miles from West Point, a British force under General Charles Grey launched a raid and caught one contingent, that under Colonel Baylor, by total surprise. Baylor had moved from Paramus, New Jersey, on the 27th to River Vale the vicinity of Tappan, where General Anthony Wayne’s militia was deployed. Lord Cornwallis and Patrick Ferguson moved against the militia, while Baylor at Harrington (Herrington), later River Vale in Bergen County, New Jersey, was the objective of General Grey. At Baylor’s positions, the Redcoats unleashed their bayonets and the regiment was devastated. Sixty-seven troopers were killed, wounded or missing, and Baylor, who sustained a bayonet wound, was among the captured. The incident is remembered as the Baylor Massacre. A marker stands at Rivervale Road and Red Oak Drive in River Vale to commemorate the incident. Command of Baylor’s regiment was afterward assumed by Colonel William Washington. While under Baylor’s command, the dragoons were depended upon by General Washington to escort and defend his wife while moving from place to place. The unit was sometimes referred to as “Lady Washington’s Guards.” After taking a letter dated 2 December from General Washington under consideration, Congress resolved on 6 December that “General Washington be informed that Congress approve of Colonel Baylor’s regiment of dragoons, at present commanded by Lieutenant Colonel Washington, being sent to South Carolina, and that the Board of War order them to proceed immediately to join Major General Lincoln.” Colonel Baylor was later exchanged and afterward he rejoined the army and served for the duration; however, he had sustained a severe bayonet wound to the lungs when his command was attacked, and he never fully recovered. On 9 November 1782, Baylor’s regiment was merged with the 1st Continental Dragoons and he commanded it for the duration. On 30 September 1783, Colonel Baylor was promoted to the rank of brevet brigadier general. That year he also sailed to the West Indies in an attempt to improve his health, but to no avail. He succumbed while there during March of 1784. His widow, Lucy Page Baylor, later married Colonel Nathaniel Burwell. During the 20th century, when municipal plans in New Jersey were underway to construct housing in the area where the Baylor Massacre occurred, a move was started to suspend the project until the area could be examined, due to the handed-down story of American troops being buried there by Bergen County militia. In 1967, based on the tales that had remained fresh in the memories of some, a man named Thomas Demarest was convinced he knew where the soldiers were interred. His instincts were correct and the remains of a soldier were discovered, followed by the discovery of others, and the searchers found artifacts of the period. In 1970 the burial site was transformed into a memorial park and afterward, in spring of 1973, the fallen soldiers were re-interred. Some nineteenth century sources indicate that General George Baylor and his wife Lucy had more than one child; however, according to the records of the accounting offices of the treasury (1832), while attempting to settle his affairs, the action was listed as follows: “Be it enacted, That the accounting officers of the Treasury be, and they hereby are, authorized, directed, and required to settle the account of Ann D. Baylor, widow of John Walker Baylor, Esq., deceased, who was only son and heir at law of Colonel George Baylor, late of the army of the United States in the revolutionary war, deceased, for all such loan office certificates as were issued from the loan office of the United States, in Virginia, in the name of the said George Baylor, payable to him, and now remain on the books of the Treasury outstanding and unpaid, and not transferred to any other person by him; and that they pay to her, the said Ann D. Baylor, as trustee for the heirs at law and

33 distributees of the said John Walker Baylor....” Ann D. Baylor was entitled to “five years’ full pay as a colonel of cavalry in the war of the Revolution, together with such interest as would have accrued on said five years’ full pay, if a certificate for that amount had been issued by the United States on the fifteenth of November, seventeen hundred and eighty-three.”

Beall, Brigadier General Rezin (Reazin) Rezin Beall, the son of William and Elizabeth Stockett Beall, was born in the vicinity of Frederick, Maryland, in 1723. Rezin married Amelia Beall in 1763; she was the daughter of Colonel Joshua and Elinor Greenfield Beall and about age fifteen at the time of their marriage. Rezin and Amelia had the following children: Aletha Elizabeth (b. 1764); Eleanor (b. 1766); Rezin (b. 1768); Thomas (b. 1778); Elinor (b. 1770); John (b. 1772); Elizabeth (b. 1772); Martha Jane (b. 1774); Mary (b. 1774); Elinor (b. 1776); Althea (b. 1776); Rachel (b. 1778); Charles (b. 1780) and Ellen (b. 1782). After the outbreak of war with Britain, Beall was appointed captain of a Maryland militia company on 14 January 1776. On 16 August, he was appointed brigadier general of the 1st Maryland Battalion section of the Flying Camp, a position he held until 1 December that year. Charles G. Griffith was appointed colonel of Beall’s battalion of the Flying Camp and Henry Shrycock was appointed lieutenant colonel. General Beall commanded his forces in the campaign of 1776 and participated in the battle of Long Island and White Plains. His forces, while in Maryland, defended the region near Drum’s Point in Calvert County at the convergence of the Patuxent River and the Chesapeake. General Beall was credited with preventing a British landing there, and he was credited with Maryland being spared from a major battle during the Revolution. General Beall succumbed during October 1809. One of his sons, also named Rezin, became a brigadier general during the War of 1812 era.

Bedel, Brigadier General Timothy The son of Robert and Anna Carr Bedel, Timothy Bedel was born in Amesbury, Massachusetts, on 21 July 1724, but by 1757, according to tax records, Timothy was a resident of Salem, New Hampshire. He served in the militia as early as 1745, when he participated in the mission under Captain (later Colonel) John Goff that scouted terrain along the Connecticut and Merrimack Rivers. Also that year, Bedel served with Colonel Joseph Blanchard’s regiment, which was part of General Benjamin Bellows’ command. Early in the French and Indian War, Bedel was attached to General Johnson’s command during the campaign against Crown Point. Afterward, during 1756, Bedel was attached to a ranger company led by William Stark during a second operation against Crown Point. His service during the French and Indian War also included participation with Colonel Nathaniel Meserve when the English moved against Halifax (1757), with General Jeffrey Amherst on the campaign that seized Louisbourg. Bedel also participated as a lieutenant in the campaign of General James Wolfe, in which the general lost his life, but Quebec was seized, which led to the surrender of the French at Montreal during September 1760. At that time Bedel was attached to Captain John Hazen’s company (Goff ’s regiment). In 1762, Bedel was commissioned as captain by the provincial governor, Benning Wentworth. That same year, he participated in the British invasion of Havana, Cuba, where the occupation force sustained heavy losses from sickness, which forced them to abandon the island of Cuba. During his return home from Canada, Bedel was accompanying a small group that included Colonel Hazen and Jacob Bailey. The men paused in the vicinity of present-day Newbury, Vermont, and after returning home, they acquired grants that led to new settlements there

BEDFORD (Newbury and Haverhill during 1763) along the Connecticut River (see also, Bailey [Bayley], Brigadier General Jacob). Subsequent to the close of hostilities with France, Britain started to implement policies that the colonists saw as an overburden of taxes and restrictions. They objected, but their petitions were ignored until eventually, the calls for independence rang from town to town. During 1766, John Wentworth became the final royal governor of New Hampshire. In 1775, Bedel participated in the Provincial Congress held at Exeter. During May of that year, following the clashes at Lexington and Concord, he was appointed captain and soon colonel of a regiment of rangers. Colonel Bedel’s rangers participated in the Canadian Campaign. On 15 May 1776, a British force of about 600, commanded by Captain George Foster, moved against American positions near Montreal. Major Isaac Butterfield, the commander in the absence of Colonel Bedel, surrendered without a fight. Reports regarding Bedel’s absence vary between sickness including smallpox and that he moved to Montreal to get reinforcements. Other nineteenth century sources place him at a parley with friendly Indians at Caughnawaga to seek their support. A relief force under Major Henry Sherburne was dispatched from Montreal by Benedict Arnold, but Bedel was not among the contingent. The British-Indian force ambushed the reinforcements, overwhelmed it and afterward, once disarmed, Indians, using tomahawks and knives, mutilated about twenty soldiers. Subsequent to the capitulation of Butterfield and the massacre, Colonel Bedel and Major Butterfield each received a court-martial and both were dismissed from the service. Colonel Bedel was later reinstated. Despite being dismissed from service, Bedel continued to support the cause, without rank, while back in Haverhill. Later, during 1777, Timothy Bedel, with a rank of lieutenant, joined a company under Colonel Joseph Hutchins (who served as a captain) that served with General John Stark’s force during the Saratoga Campaign. Bedel was again commissioned as a colonel on November 10. It was reported that he was appointed brigadier general later; however, no official reports on this promotion exist. After rejoining the military, Colonel Bedel participated in the defense of the frontier, and his command assisted in the construction of the Bailey-Hazen Military Road. On 13 April 1781, Timothy was appointed to the Vermont Board of War along with Captain Ebenezer Brewster. After the war, Bedel served in the New Hampshire House of Representatives (1784). General Bedel succumbed during February 1787. He was interred in Haverhill. Colonel Bedel married Elizabeth Merrill, and after her death in August 1779 he married Mary Johnson, the daughter of Captain James and Susanna Johnson. Timothy and Elizabeth had seven children: Cyrus, Moody (later lieutenant colonel, 11th U.S. Infantry, and brigadier general, Vermont militia), Ruth, Anna, Mary and two other daughters who died young. Timothy and his second wife, Susanna, had two children, Hazen and Abigail. Susanna succumbed during 1789.

Bedford, Gunning, Jr. (Signer of the U.S. Constitution) Gunning Bedford, the son of Gunning and Susanna Jacquett Bedford, was born in Philadelphia during 1747, but the exact date is unknown. Gunning’s father and grandfather were also named Gunning; however, Gunning, the subject usually preferred Jr., due to having a cousin also named Gunning Bedford who lived in the same state at the same time, served in the Revolution, reaching the rank of colonel and later became governor of Delaware. In addition, their wives are often confused. It was Colonel Gunning Bedford (the son of William Bedford, a farmer) who married Mary Read, the sister of George Read (signer of the Declaration of Independence), not Gunning Bedford, Jr. Gunning, Sr., and Susanna also had the following children: Mary

BEDFORD Ann (b. 1744, married John Young); Susannah; William; Catherine; Elizabeth (b. April 1744, married Jacob Bankson) Ann (sometimes erroneously listed as marrying Commodore Joshua Barney); Peter (b. 1759); Joseph (b. 1766); Martha (b. 1766, married John Stricker); and Benoi (died young). Gunning received an excellent education, including graduation from the College of New Jersey (later Princeton) during 1771 in the days just prior to the Revolutionary War. He was valedictorian of his class. While he attended college, other future prominent leaders of the American cause were enrolled there. The school was known for graduating many to the ministry promoting the military through its strong sense of patriotism. One of Bedford’s friends and classmates was James Madison, a future president of the United States. Following graduation, Bedford pursued a career as a lawyer by studying under yet another prominent Patriot, Joseph Read, a general during the war, who also became the president (governor) of Pennsylvania during the conflict. The details of Bedford’s early life have not been well preserved until his post-college days. He established his law practice in Dover, Delaware, about 1779. In the meantime, Gunning married Jane Ballaroux Parker, the daughter of James Parker (editor of a New York publication, the Post Boy). Bedford’s father-in-law was also a friend of Benjamin Franklin and the two men worked together as printers in Boston. Gunning, Jr., and Jane had two children, Gunning James and Henrietta Jane. Their son Gunning James never advanced mentally and spent his entire life with that disability. Gunning, Jr., quickly tired of Dover and became anxious to leave the city, primarily because he was not fond of the climate there. He later relocated in Wilmington, Delaware, at 606 Market Street. He continued to expand his practice and became interested in entering politics. Following the close of hostilities, during 1783, Bedford was elected to the Delaware state legislature; however, he retained his seat only for a short while due to being elected to the Continental Congress in 1783. He served in Congress until 1785, but during his final term, he was appointed (1784) as the attorney general, and for the duration of his congressional term, he served concurrently in both offices. Then from 1785 through 1789, he held the post of state attorney general. In the meantime, a meeting was called requesting delegates to converge on Annapolis to discuss navigation and interstate commerce, but only Delaware, New Jersey, New York, Pennsylvania and Virginia sent delegates. Bedford, who was appointed as a delegate, did not attend any sessions. General George Washington, although not a delegate, did attend the convention. The convention’s primary achievement was the decision to call for a constitutional convention to be held during the following year to form a new government from the existing government that operated under the Articles of Confederation. The convention was held May through September 1787 in Philadelphia and 59 delegates attended, but some frequently missed sessions, some because of dual responsibilities with other posts. Of the attendees, thirty-nine members, including Gunning Bedford, signed the Constitution upon its adoption on 17 September 1787. Bedford was a supporter of the new federal government, but he cautiously followed the procedures with a focus on working to prevent the central government from acquiring too much power and authority, which would lead to a weakening of state’s rights. And he remained concerned about equal treatment and authority for the smaller states, of which Delaware led the list. As negotiations and debates stalled progress, Bedford leaned toward the “Great Compromise,” bringing population representation into a House of Representatives and equal representation into the Senate, with the latter mandating two senators per state regardless of size or other measures that had been previously discussed, such as the amount of representatives being apportioned according to wealth. It was not unusual for Bedford to have strong disagreements with

34 other members, including James Madison and Alexander Hamilton. Initially he was prepared to merely modify the Articles of Confederation to strengthen them, but as the blueprint of a new Constitution emerged in place of the articles, Bedford altered some of his positions. He participated as a member of the committee that drew up the “Great Compromise.” Consequently, with adoption of the plan (New Jersey plan), Delaware and the other small states like Rhode Island and Connecticut could not be overshadowed by states like Pennsylvania or New York. Another opinion of Bedford’s was unabashedly presented to the delegates when he informed the convention of a possibility that the smaller states could face alternatives such as seeking out foreign assistance to ensure their protection. Bedford was not shy about speaking his mind, nor did he participate without taking the floor; rather, he was among those who made speeches to impress upon the other delegates which ideas he believed to be the best for the nation. The Constitution was adopted on 17 September 1787 and required ratification by nine states to become effective. Gunning Bedford was also a delegate to the Delaware state convention. His efforts to achieve ratification were bolstered by John Dickinson, a Patriot who as a delegate to the Continental Congress refused to support the Declaration of Independence, but immediately thereafter resolved to fight for the cause. Other delegates, Richard Bassett and Jacob Broom, both signers of the Constitution, also strongly supported ratification, which brought about quick results. Before the end of the year, on 7 December, 1787, Delaware ratified the Constitution to become the first state in the union. Bedford is known for remarking that he believed that “ratification was legal emancipation,” as he proclaimed that “as the foundation is laid so must the superstructure be built.” On 21 June 1778, New Hampshire ratified the Constitution to become the ninth state in the union. Also in 1788, Bedford was elected to the state council (New Castle County) and he held that post for one year. Afterward, he became a presidential elector and was among those who elected George Washington as the first president by unanimous vote. Washington was inaugurated on 1 April 1789. Four years later Bedford again became a presidential elector and cast his vote once again for President Washington, who was re-elected unanimously. In September 1789, Washington appointed Gunning Bedford as a federal judge (Delaware district), a post that Bedford held for the remainder of his life. In addition to his professional career, Bedford also devoted time to his belief in education by working to improve the state’s educational system, particularly in Wilmington. He served as president of the Board of Trustees of Wilmington Academy and when it was transformed into Wilmington College, he became its first president. Gunning Bedford, Jr., succumbed on 30 March 1812 in Wilmington. He was interred in the cemetery of the First Presbyterian Church in Wilmington, but later, he was in re-interred in Christiana Hundred at the cemetery of the Masonic Home. Some sources list Commodore Joshua Barney as the husband of a daughter (Ann) of Gunning Bedford, Jr., but as noted above, Gunning, Jr., only had two children. Joshua Barney married Ann Bedford, the sister of Gunning Bedford, Jr., making Joshua the brother-in-law of Gunning, not his son-in-law. Gunning’s daughter later directed the erection of a marble monument over his grave, which stated in part: “In hope of a joyful resurrection through faith in Jesus Christ, here rests the mortal part of gunning bedford. Born in Philadelphia, A.D. 1747. Graduated at Nassau Hall, New Jersey. A.D. 1771, with great distinction.” His widow, Jane Bedford, lived until 1831, about nineteen years as a widow, and for about her final three years she was blind. Her son, Gunning James, lived until 1845. Daughter Henrietta succumbed in 1871. In her last will and testament, she stipulated that a portrait of her father was to be given to the

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35 capital to hang near that of her father’s classmate and roommate, President James Madison, and it did occur. She will also bequeathed a pair of “pocket pistols” to be given to the Smithsonian Institution or, if that wasn’t possible, to the Delaware Historical Society; they were given to the latter. The will detailed the origin of the pistols as follows: “During the Revolutionary war General Washington, desiring my father to go from Trenton to New York on some important secret embassy at night, and fearing that he was not sufficiently armed with the pistols in his holsters, presented him with a pair of pocket-pistols with a view to his protection and greater security.” There is no precise evidence to validate Gunning Bedford’s service in the army during the war, but it is thought that he might have served for a time as an aide to General Washington, but most probably if he did, it would have been while he was still a resident of Pennsylvania. Bedford did not arrive in Delaware until about 1779.

Bellows, Brigadier General Benjamin Benjamin Bellows (3), the son of Colonel Benjamin (2) and Abigail Stearns Bellows, was born in Walpole, Cheshire County, New Hampshire, on 6 October 1740. Benjamin’s (2) grandfather, Benjamin (1), was the son of John and Mary Wood Bellows of Concord and later Marlborough. John Bellows was the first of the family to arrive in the colonies from Britain; he was aboard the Hopewell during 1635. In 1655 he married Mary. Together they had ten children, one of whom was Benjamin (1), the grandfather of the subject. Benjamin (1) married Dorcas Cutler Willard, the widow of Henry Willard, who had been a son of Major Simon Willard. Benjamin (1) and Dorcas had one son (Benjamin 2) and three daughters; however, Dorcas had one son, Colonel Josiah Willard, from her first marriage. Benjamin (2), the subject’s father, was born in Lancaster in May 1712 and later became well known in the colony, particularly in Lunenburg, Massachusetts, as Colonel Benjamin Bellows. In 1752, Benjamin (2) and his wife Abigail, whom he married during 1735, relocated in Walpole, New Hampshire, the town he founded. Colonel Bellows and Abigail had four other children: Abigail (b. December 1736); Peter (b. January 1739); John (b. November 1743); and Joseph (b. June 6, 1744). Abigail, the daughter of John and Abigail Fiske Stearns, succumbed during November 1757 when the future brigadier general was seventeen years old. Benjamin’s mother became the first person to be interred in the old burial ground in Walpole. Colonel Bellows remarried by spring of the following year, taking Mary Hubbard Jennison, the widow of John Jennison, as his second wife during April 1758. She was the daughter of Major Jonathan and Rebecca Brown Hubbard. Mary Jennison, at the time of her first husband’s death, had six children, four girls and two boys ( John and Jonathan Jennison), all of whom were taken into the family of Colonel Bellows. After the marriage, Colonel Bellows and Mary had five additional children: Abigail, Theodore; Mary; Thomas and Josiah. Benjamin (3) later married Phoebe Strong, the sister of Governor Caleb Strong of Northampton, Massachusetts. Benjamin and Phoebe had five children: Caleb (b. July 1767, married Maria Hartwell); Phebe (b. August 1770); Mary (b. April 1774); Esther (b. December 1775); and George (b. October 1779). During 1759, Benjamin, having succeeded his father, became the town clerk of Walpole prior to his 20th birthday, and he held the position for about seventeen years, relinquishing the post at about the same time the country was declaring independence from Britain. Benjamin Bellows initially served in the militia as a corporal, and he, like thousands of others, sped toward Boston as soon as he received news of the clashes at Lexington and Concord on 19 April 1775. Corporal Bellows advanced to the rank of colonel. During October Colonel Bellows moved his regiment to Ticonderoga, but only for a short time, remaining there for about 25 days. He again moved to Ticonderoga during June 1776, but after another short stay, his command was

sent to Saratoga during September of that year to bolster the forces under General Horatio Gates against British General John Burgoyne. During that campaign, while Burgoyne was attempting to retreat, his passage to the Hudson was blocked by New Hampshire militia, including the regiments under Colonels Bellows and John Ashley. On 9 November, General Gates dispatched a congratulatory letter to Ashley and Bellows for the actions of their respective regiments and dismissed them from duty at Saratoga. Later, during 1780, Benjamin Bellows was appointed as a brigadier general. Bellows spent little time in the field as a general officer and devoted most of his service to recruiting. In addition, he served in the colonial and state legislatures. In 1781 he was elected to the Continental Congress but declined the post. Following his military career, the townspeople always referred to Bellows as “the general.” He was highly respected and a man of high standards. Once, a man in town who had only one cow, was losing it to a sheriff ’s sale. General Bellows bid highest on the cow and after accepting it, he gave it back to the owner. General Bellows also had a low tolerance for ungentlemanly behavior and, upon his approach, any such activity usually halted immediately. General Bellows was a delegate to the state convention during 1788 in which the federal Constitution was ratified. Afterward, he served as the president of the New Hampshire for the Electoral College that selected George Washington as president of the United States. General Benjamin Bellows succumbed on 4 June 1802. His father, according to his great-grandson, the Rev. Henry W. Bellows, recorded in his “Memorial Monograph” that Colonel Benjamin (2) Bellows departed Lunenburg hurriedly with the sheriff in pursuit. Henry Bellows described the incident as follows: “The immediate cause of my great-grandfather’s leaving Lunenburg was that he had become embarrassed in pecuniary matters, by being bound for others, and, in the great scarcity of money, was unable to meet the demands of his credits. That he was pursued by the sheriff to the state line, and, once fairly over it, stopped and held a parley with the sheriff, stating that he had no disposition to avoid his obligations, but that a jail was a poor place to find means to pay debts; that he would soon return and liquidate all his obligations.” It is most certain that Benjamin (2) lived up to his word, for he soon returned to Lunenburg.

Biddle, Captain Nicholas Nicholas Biddle, a descendant of William Biddle of New Jersey, was born in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, on 10 September 1750. His maternal grandfather was Nicholas Scull (surveyor-general of Pennsylvania). Nicholas received a fine education, but his goal was to go to sea. Prior to his fifteenth birthday, Nicholas ventured on his initial voyage, which took him to Quebec, and afterward, during 1765, he sailed to Jamaica and the Bay of Honduras. Later Nicholas sailed from the Bay of Honduras toward Antigua and encountered a horrific storm that brought the vessel to the brink of destruction on 2 January 1766 at the Northern Triangles shoal. Only the skill of the crew preserved their lives. After spending about three days in the precarious reef in Nicholas Biddle (Pictorial Field Book the shattered vessel, the men of the Revolution, Benson J. Lossing, made it to shore. They lacked 1860)

BIDDLE proper amounts of food and supplies after being marooned. Due to having only a yawl, and after drawing lots, Nicholas and three others remained on the deserted island while the others attempted to return to England and then back for a rescue. Biddle and the others were stranded for about two months and nearly perished while awaiting rescue; however, finally, a ship arrived and they were saved. Despite the life-threatening experience, Nicholas lost none of his love for the sea. He later made voyages to Europe. In 1770 he sailed to London in an attempt to join the Royal Navy, which at the time was preparing for a possible conflict with Spain over the Falkland Islands off Argentina. Nicholas sought out Captain Sterling, the brother-inlaw of Thomas Willing of Philadelphia. The introductory letter from Willing succeeded in helping Biddle acquire his goal. He was accepted as a midshipman. The Falkland Islands mission was aborted when the dispute was settled amicably. Instead, Biddle served as a coxswain on a mission by the HMS Carcase (Carcass) to attempt to find the Northwest Passage; however, it was without Sterling’s permission, because he wanted to keep Biddle with his ship. Nevertheless, Biddle, without mentioning his officer status, went aboard as a seaman. The mission carried them to a point within nine degrees (about 1,150 miles) of the North Pole. The Carcase and Racehorse reached 81° 39" (Eighty-one degrees and thirtynine minutes) north latitude. Coincidentally, during this tour, Biddle was with another young officer, Horatio Nelson, who also sailed as a coxswain. Nelson, later a renowned British naval officer, spent the years during the American Revolution in Jamaica preparing to defend against an invasion from the French, which never materialized. Meanwhile, Biddle, who had already suffered the hardships of being marooned, soon discovered the cruelty of sailing northward. At times the vessels in the squadron were caught within a ring of icebergs from which they were unable to break out for about five days. While on the dangerous voyage, they reached a northward point where the sun never set, yet the temperatures remained frigid. Nonetheless, the squadron, commanded by Captain Phipps (later Lord Musgrave) survived its frequent brushes with death and returned safely to England. Biddle’s service in the Royal Navy soon terminated, as the tension continued to rise between the Crown and the colonies. Biddle’s patriotism remained with the Americans. He arrived back in Philadelphia during 1775. Shortly after he returned home, he was appointed by Pennsylvania to command a