America's Top 101 Jobs For People Without A Four-Year Degree: Detailed Information On Good Jobs In Major Fields And Industries (America's Top 101 Jobs for People Without a Four-Year Degree)

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JOBS FOR PEOPLE WITHOUT A FOUR-Y EAR DEGREE Seventh Edition

An Essential Reference for Job Seekers ● Students ● Career Changers ● Teachers ● Employers ● All Working People A Winning Team: Thorough Job Descriptions and Proven Job Search Advice This time-saving book contains everything you need to research America’s top jobs for people without a fouryear degree and learn the seven steps to land a job in less time. The book covers jobs in many growing industries, including computer systems design; health services; manufacturing; education; and software publishing, which is projected to be the fastest-growing industry in the economy through 2012. The jobs in this book require a variety of levels of education and training, and many have high average earnings.

Easily Identify Jobs That Interest You First, browse the thorough, current, and interesting descriptions for 101 top jobs for people without a four-year degree in Section One, which is arranged in convenient alphabetical order. This section features diverse careers in computer and Web technology, education, construction, health care, business, communications, air transportation, and other industries. Each description includes details on skills required, education and training needed, salaries, working conditions, advancement opportunities, future growth, related jobs, Web sites for further research, and much more.

Counselors

Reduce Job Search Time with The Quick Job Search Check out Section Two, the special book-within-abook, which describes the seven steps that cut job search time in half. The results-oriented material helps you identify your skills, plan your career, write a resume, and prepare for interviews. It includes resumes by professional resume writers for some of the top jobs.

Get the Latest Labor Market Information Understand the trends that will affect your future— and learn how you can benefit from them—by reading the information-packed articles in Section Three: “Tomorrow’s Jobs,” “Employment Trends in Major Industries,” “The Changing Role of Community College,” and “Associate Degree: Two Years to a Career or a Jump Start to a Bachelor’s Degree.”

About the Author Mike Farr has been teaching, writing, and developing his job search techniques for more than 20 years. He has written more than 20 books that have collectively sold more than 3 million copies. Mike emphasizes practical methods that have been proven to help people find better jobs and to reduce the time it takes to find a job. His writing style is friendly and clear, and his commonsense advice has made his books the most widely used in career libraries and job search programs throughout North America.

Seventh Edition

8902 Otis Avenue Indianapolis, IN 46216-1033 1-800-648-JIST Fax 1-800-JIST-FAX www.jist.com

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America’s TOP 101 JOBS FOR PEOPLE W ITHOU T A FOUR-Y EAR DEGREE

America’s TOP 101

Farr

Part of the America’s Top Jobs™ series

An unbeatable combination of job facts and job search advice! ● Thorough, up-to-date descriptions of major jobs that do not require a four-year college degree ★ FREE BONUS SECTION with advice proven to cut job search time in half ● Information on pay, education and training needed, advancement opportunities, and more ● Targeted resume examples by professional resume writers ● Helpful articles on important labor market trends Michael

Farr

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America’s TOP 101 JOBS FOR PEOPLE WITHOUT A FOUR-YEAR DEGREE

Seventh Edition

Detailed Information on Good Jobs in Major Fields and Industries ★ ★

★ ★

Thorough, up-to-date descriptions of jobs for people without a four-year degree Information on skills needed, education and training required, pay, working conditions, advancement opportunities, and much more Special section providing proven career planning and job seeking advice Resume examples by professional resume Par t o f A mer ica writers for a variety of top jobs ’s Top Jo bs Ser ies Helpful articles on labor market trends ™

★

Michael Farr

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America’s Top 101 Jobs for People Without a Four-Year Degree, Seventh Edition Detailed Information on Good Jobs in Major Fields and Industries Previous edition was titled America’s Top Jobs for People Without a Four-Year Degree © 2005 by JIST Publishing, Inc. Published by JIST Works, an imprint of JIST Publishing, Inc. 8902 Otis Avenue Indianapolis, IN 46216-1033 Phone: 800-648-JIST Fax: 800-JIST-FAX E-mail: [email protected] Web site: www.jist.com

Some other books by Michael Farr:

Other books in the America’s Top Jobs series:

The Very Quick Job Search (selected as one of the top three career books of the year by the Publishers Marketing Association) Same-Day Resume America’s Top Resumes for America’s Top Jobs The Quick Resume & Cover Letter Book Getting the Job You Really Want (Ben Franklin award winner for best career book of the year) Seven Steps to Getting a Job Fast Best Jobs for the 21st Century (with database work by Laurence Shatkin, Ph.D.)

America’s Top 300 Jobs America’s 101 Fastest Growing Jobs America’s Top 101 Jobs for College Graduates America’s Top 101 Computer and Technical Jobs America’s Top Military Careers Career Guide to America’s Top Industries

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About career materials published by JIST. Our materials encourage people to be self-directed and to take control of their destinies. We work hard to provide excellent content, solid advice, and techniques that get results. If you have questions about this book or other JIST products, call 1-800-648-JIST or visit www.jist.com. Quantity discounts are available for JIST products. Please call 1-800-648-JIST or visit www.jist.com for a free catalog and more information. Visit www.jist.com for information on JIST, free job search information, book excerpts, and ordering information on our many products. For free information on 14,000 job titles, visit www.careerOINK.com.

Acquisitions Editor: Susan Pines Editors: Stephanie Koutek, Annie Stalling Cover and Interior Designer: Aleata Howard Page Layout Coordinator: Carolyn J. Newland Proofreaders: Linda Seifert, Jeanne Clark Printed in Canada 06 05 04

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication data is on file with the Library of Congress.

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form or by any means, or stored in a database or retrieval system, without prior permission of the publisher except in the case of brief quotations embodied in articles or reviews. Making copies of any part of this book for any purpose other than your own personal use is a violation of United States copyright laws. For permission requests, please contact the Copyright Clearance Center at www.copyright.com or (978) 750-8400. We have been careful to provide accurate information throughout this book, but it is possible that errors and omissions have been introduced. Please consider this in making any career plans or other important decisions. Trust your own judgment above all else and in all things. Trademarks: All brand names and product names used in this book are trade names, service marks, trademarks, or registered trademarks of their respective owners. ISBN 1-59357-072-4

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Relax—You Don’t Have to Read This Whole Book!

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his is a big book, but you don’t need to read it all. I’ve organized it into easy-to-use sections so you can browse just the information you want. To get started, simply scan the table of contents, where you’ll find brief explanations of the major sections plus a list of the jobs described in this book. Really, this book is easy to use, and I hope it helps you.

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America’s Top 101 Jobs for People Without a Four-Year Degree

Who Should Use This Book?

Source of Information

This is more than a book of job descriptions. I’ve spent quite a bit of time thinking about how to make its contents useful for a variety of situations, including

The occupational descriptions in this book come from the good people at the U.S. Department of Labor, as published in the most recent edition of the Occupational Outlook Handbook. The OOH is one of the best sources of career information available, and the descriptions include the latest data on earnings, growth, education required, and many other details. So, thank you to all the people at the Labor Department who gather, compile, analyze, and make sense of this information. It’s good stuff, and I hope you can make good use of it.

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Exploring career options. The job descriptions in Section One give a wealth of information on many of the most desirable jobs in the labor market.

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Considering more education or training. The information helps you avoid costly mistakes in choosing a career or deciding on additional training or education—and it increases your chances of planning a bright future.

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Job seeking. This book helps you identify new job targets, prepare for interviews, and write targeted resumes. The career planning and job search advice in Section Two has been proven to cut job search time in half!

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Mike Farr

Career planning. The job descriptions help you explore your options, and Sections Two and Three provide career planning advice and other useful information.

© 2005

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Table of Contents Summary of Major Sections Introduction. The introduction explains what is included in each job description, gives tips on using the book for career exploration and job seeking, and provides other details. The introduction begins on page 1. Section One: Descriptions of 101 Top Jobs for People Without a Four-Year Degree. This section presents thorough descriptions of 101 jobs that don’t require a four-year college degree. Each description gives information on nature of the work, working conditions, employment, training, other qualifications, advancement, job outlook, earnings, related occupations, and sources of additional information. The jobs are presented in alphabetical order. The page numbers where specific descriptions begin are listed here in the table of contents. Section One begins on page 11. Section Two: The Quick Job Search—Seven Steps to Getting a Good Job in Less Time. This brief but important section offers results-oriented career planning and job search techniques. It includes tips on identifying your key skills, defining your ideal job, using effective job search methods, writing resumes, organizing your time, improving your interviewing skills, and following up on leads. The second part of this section features professionally written and designed resumes for some of America’s top jobs for people without a four-year degree. Section Two begins on page 269. Section Three: Important Trends in Jobs and Industries. This section includes four well-written articles on labor market trends. The articles are short and worth your time. Section Three begins on page 327. Titles of the articles in Section Three are “Tomorrow’s Jobs,” “Employment Trends in Major Industries,” “The Changing Role of Community College,” and “Associate Degree: Two Years to a Career or a Jump Start to a Bachelor’s Degree.”

The 101 Jobs Described in Section One The titles for the 101 jobs described in Section One are listed below in alphabetical order. The page number where each description begins is also listed. Simply find jobs that interest you and then read those descriptions. An introduction to Section One begins on page 11 and provides additional information on how to interpret the descriptions. Actors, Producers, and Directors................................12 Administrative Services Managers..............................15 Air Traffic Controllers ................................................17 Aircraft and Avionics Equipment Mechanics and Service Technicians ..........................................20 Aircraft Pilots and Flight Engineers ............................23 Animal Care and Service Workers ..............................26 Assemblers and Fabricators ......................................29 Automotive Service Technicians and Mechanics ........31 Barbers, Cosmetologists, and Other Personal Appearance Workers ..............................................35 Bookkeeping, Accounting, and Auditing Clerks ........38 Brickmasons, Blockmasons, and Stonemasons ..........39 Broadcast and Sound Engineering Technicians and Radio Operators ..............................................42 Bus Drivers ................................................................45 Carpenters ................................................................48 Chefs, Cooks, and Food Preparation Workers ............50 Childcare Workers ......................................................54 Clinical Laboratory Technologists and Technicians..............................................................57 Computer and Information Systems Managers..........60 Computer-Control Programmers and Operators ........62 Computer Programmers ............................................65 Computer Support Specialists and Systems Administrators ........................................................69 Computer, Automated Teller, and Office Machine Repairers ..................................................72 Construction and Building Inspectors ........................74 Construction Equipment Operators ..........................77

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America’s Top 101 Jobs for People Without a Four-Year Degree Construction Managers..............................................79 Court Reporters ........................................................82 Customer Service Representatives..............................85 Data Entry and Information Processing Workers ......88 Dental Assistants........................................................90 Dental Hygienists ......................................................92 Dental Laboratory Technicians ..................................93 Designers ..................................................................95 Desktop Publishers ....................................................99 Diesel Service Technicians and Mechanics ................102 Dispatchers ..............................................................104 Drywall Installers, Ceiling Tile Installers, and Tapers ............................................................107 Electrical and Electronics Installers and Repairers ..............................................................109 Electricians ..............................................................112 Elevator Installers and Repairers ..............................114 Emergency Medical Technicians and Paramedics ....116 Engineering Technicians ..........................................119 Financial Analysts and Personal Financial Advisors ................................................................122 Firefighting Occupations..........................................125 Flight Attendants ....................................................128 Food Service Managers ............................................130 Forest, Conservation, and Logging Workers ............133 Heating, Air-Conditioning, and Refrigeration Mechanics and Installers ......................................136 Industrial Production Managers ..............................140 Inspectors, Testers, Sorters, Samplers, and Weighers ..............................................................142 Insurance Sales Agents ............................................144 Interviewers ............................................................147 Jewelers and Precious Stone and Metal Workers ....150 Job Opportunities in the Armed Forces ..................153 Library Assistants, Clerical........................................160 Library Technicians ..................................................162 Licensed Practical and Licensed Vocational Nurses ..................................................................164 Machinists................................................................165 Maintenance and Repair Workers, General ..............167 Medical Assistants ..................................................169 Medical Records and Health Information Technicians............................................................171 Meter Readers, Utilities ............................................173 Office and Administrative Support Worker Supervisors and Managers....................................173

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Office Clerks, General ..............................................176 Ophthalmic Laboratory Technicians ........................177 Opticians, Dispensing ..............................................179 Painters and Paperhangers ......................................180 Paralegals and Legal Assistants................................182 Personal and Home Care Aides ................................185 Pharmacy Aides........................................................187 Pharmacy Technicians ..............................................188 Photographers ........................................................190 Physical Therapist Assistants and Aides ..................193 Pipelayers, Plumbers, Pipefitters, and Steamfitters ..........................................................194 Plasterers and Stucco Masons..................................197 Police and Detectives ..............................................199 Postal Service Workers ............................................204 Prepress Technicians and Workers............................206 Probation Officers and Correctional Treatment Specialists ............................................................209 Property, Real Estate, and Community Association Managers ..........................................212 Radio and Telecommunications Equipment Installers and Repairers ........................................215 Radiologic Technologists and Technicians ................218 Real Estate Brokers and Sales Agents ......................220 Receptionists and Information Clerks ......................223 Retail Salespersons ..................................................224 Sales Representatives, Wholesale and Manufacturing......................................................227 Sales Worker Supervisors ........................................230 Science Technicians ..................................................232 Secretaries and Administrative Assistants ................236 Securities, Commodities, and Financial Services Sales Agents ............................................239 Semiconductor Processors ......................................242 Sheet Metal Workers................................................244 Shipping, Receiving, and Traffic Clerks ....................247 Social and Human Service Assistants ......................249 Stock Clerks and Order Fillers ..................................251 Teacher Assistants ....................................................252 Television, Video, and Motion Picture Camera Operators and Editors ..........................................254 Tellers ......................................................................256 Travel Agents ..........................................................258 Truck Drivers and Driver/Sales Workers ....................260 Veterinary Technologists and Technicians ................264 Welding, Soldering, and Brazing Workers................266

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Introduction T

his book is about improving your life, not just about selecting a job. The career you choose will have an enormous impact on how you live your life. While a huge amount of information is available on occupations, most people don’t know where to find accurate, reliable facts to help them make good career decisions—or they don’t take the time to look. Important choices such as what to do with your career or whether to get additional training or education deserve your time. If you are considering more training or education—whether additional coursework, an apprenticeship, or a degree—this book will help with solid information. Training or education beyond high school is now typically required to get better jobs, and the education and training needed for the jobs in this book vary enormously. This book is designed to give you facts to help you explore your options. A certain type of work or workplace may interest you as much as a certain type of job. If your interests and values lead you to work in healthcare, for example, you can do this in a variety of work environments, in a variety of industries, and in a variety of jobs. For this reason, I suggest you begin exploring alternatives by following your interests and finding a career path that allows you to use your talents doing something you enjoy. Also, remember that money is not everything. The time you spend in career planning can pay off in higher earnings, but being satisfied with your work—and your life—is often more important than how much you earn. This book can help you find the work that suits you best.

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America’s Top 101 Jobs for People Without a Four-Year Degree Earnings for Year-Round, Full-Time Workers Age 25 and Over, by Educational Attainment

Keep in Mind That Your Situation Is Not “Average” Projected employment growth and earnings trends are quite positive for many occupations and industries. Keep in mind, however, that the averages in this book will not be true for many individuals. Within any field, many people earn more and many earn less than the average. My point is that your situation is probably not average. Some people do better than others, and some are willing to accept less pay for a more desirable work environment. Earnings vary enormously in different parts of the country, in different occupations, and in different industries. But this book’s solid information is a great place to start. Good information will give you a strong foundation for good decisions.

$56,600

$34,200

2.8

Bachelor’s degree

47,000

24,600

3.1

Associate degree

36,400

14,000

4.0

Some college, no degree

34,300

11,900

4.8

High school graduate

29,200

6,800

5.3

High school dropout

22,400

9.2

As you can see in the table, the earnings difference between someone who holds an associate’s degree and someone with a high school education is $7,200 a year, money that could be used toward a car, a down payment on a house, or even a vacation. As you see, over a lifetime, this earnings difference will make an enormous difference in lifestyle. The table makes it very clear that those with more training and education earn more than those with less and experience lower levels of unemployment. Jobs that require education and training beyond high school are projected to grow significantly faster than jobs that do not. People with higher levels of education and training are less likely to be unemployed, and when they are, they remain unemployed for shorter periods of time. There are always exceptions, but it is quite clear that more education results in higher earnings and lower rates of unemployment.

Our economy has changed in dramatic ways over the past 10 years, with profound effects on how we work and live. Section Three of this book provides more information on labor market trends but, in case you don’t read it, here are four trends that you simply must consider.

2. Knowledge of Computer and Other Technologies Is Increasingly Important

1. Education Pays I’m sure you won’t be surprised to learn that people with higher levels of education and training have higher average earnings. The data that follows comes from the U.S. Department of Labor and the U.S. Census Bureau. I’ve selected data to show you the median earnings for people with various levels of education. (The median is the point where half earn more and half earn less.) Based on this information, I computed the earnings advantage of people at various education levels over those who did not graduate from high school. I’ve also included information showing the average percentage of people at that educational level who are unemployed.

© 2005

Master’s degree

Source: Unemployment rate, BLS; annual avg., BLS; earnings, Census.

Four Important Labor Market Trends That Will Affect Your Career

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Level of Education

Premium Median Over High UnemAnnual School ployment Earnings Dropouts Rate

As you look over the list of jobs in the table of contents, you may notice that many require computer or technical skills. Even jobs that do not appear to be technical often call for computer literacy. Construction managers, for example, are often expected to understand and use scheduling and estimating software. In all fields, those without job-related technical and computer skills will have a more difficult time finding good opportunities because they are competing with those who have these skills. Older workers, by the way, often do not have the computer skills that younger workers do. Employers tend to hire people who have the skills they need, and people without these abilities won’t get the best jobs. So, whatever your age, consider upgrading your job-related computer and technology skills if you need to—and plan to stay up-to-date on your current and future jobs.

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Introduction

3. Ongoing Education and Training Are Essential

Tips for People Exploring Career, Education, or Training Alternatives

School and work once were separate activities, and most people did not go back to school after they began working. But with rapid changes in technology, most people are now required to learn throughout their work lives. Jobs are constantly upgraded, and today’s jobs often cannot be handled by people who have only the knowledge and skills that were adequate for workers a few years ago.

America’s Top 101 Jobs for People Without a Four-Year Degree is an excellent resource for anyone exploring career, education, or training alternatives. Many people do not have a good idea of what they want to do in their careers. They may be considering additional training or education but may not know what sort they should get. If you are one of these people, this book can help in several ways. Here are a few pointers.

To remain competitive, you will need to constantly upgrade your technology and other job-related skills. This may include taking formal courses, reading work-related magazines at home, signing up for on-the-job training, or participating in other forms of education. Upgrading your work-related skills on an ongoing basis is no longer optional for most jobs, and you ignore doing so at your peril.

Review the list of jobs. Trust yourself. Research studies indicate that most people have a good sense of their interests. Your interests can be used to guide you to career options you should consider in more detail. Begin by looking over the occupations listed in the table of contents. Look at all the jobs, because you may identify previously overlooked possibilities. If other people will be using this book, please don’t mark in it. Instead, on a separate sheet of paper, list the jobs that interest you. Or make a photocopy of the table of contents and use it to mark the jobs that interest you.

4. Good Career Planning Is More Important than Ever Most people spend more time watching TV in a week than they spend on career planning during an entire year. Yet most people will change their jobs many times and make major career changes five to seven times. For this reason, it is important for you to spend time considering your career options and preparing to advance.

Next, look up and carefully read the descriptions of the jobs that most interest you in Section 1. A quick review will often eliminate one or more of these jobs based on pay, working conditions, education required, or other considerations. After you have identified the three or four jobs that seem most interesting, research each one more thoroughly before making any important decisions.

While you probably picked up this book for its information on jobs, it also provides a great deal of information on career planning. For example, Section Two gives good career and job search advice, and Section Three has useful information on labor market trends. I urge you to read these and related materials because career-planning and job-seeking skills are the keys to surviving in this new economy.

Study the jobs and their training and education requirements. Too many people decide to obtain additional training or education without knowing much about the jobs the training will lead to. Reviewing the descriptions in this book is one way to learn more about an occupation before you enroll in an education or training program. If you are currently a student, the job descriptions in this book can also help you decide on a major course of study or learn more about the jobs for which your studies are preparing you.

Tips on Using This Book

Do not be too quick to eliminate a job that interests you. If a job requires more education or training than you currently have, you can obtain this training in many ways.

This book is based on information from a variety of government sources and includes the most up-to-date and accurate data available. The entries are well written and pack a lot of information into short descriptions. America’s Top 101 Jobs for People Without a Four-Year Degree can be used in many ways, and I’ve provided tips for these four major uses: ●

For people exploring career, education, or training alternatives

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For job seekers

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For employers and business people

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For counselors, instructors, and other career specialists

© 2005

Don’t abandon your past experience and education too quickly. If you have significant work experience, training, or education, these should not be abandoned too quickly. Many times, after people carefully consider what they want to do, they change careers and find that the skills they have can still be used. America’s Top 101 Jobs for People Without a Four-Year Degree can help you explore career options in several ways. First, carefully review descriptions for jobs you have held in the past. On a separate sheet of paper, list the skills needed in those jobs. Then do the same for jobs that interest you now. By comparing the lists, you will be able to identify skills you used in previous jobs that you could also use in jobs that interest you for the future. These “transferable” skills form the basis for moving to a new career.

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America’s Top 101 Jobs for People Without a Four-Year Degree employees. The information can also help you conduct more-effective interviews by providing a list of key skills needed by new hires.

You can also identify skills you have developed or used in nonwork activities, such as hobbies, family responsibilities, volunteer work, school, military, and extracurricular interests. If you want to stay with your current employer, the job descriptions can also help. For example, you may identify jobs within your organization that offer more rewarding work, higher pay, or other advantages over your present job. Read the descriptions related to these jobs, as you may be able to transfer into another job rather than leave the organization.

Tips for Counselors, Instructors, and Other Career Specialists Counselors, instructors, and other career specialists will find this book helpful for their clients or students exploring career options or job targets. My best suggestion to professionals is to get this book off the shelf and into the hands of the people who need it. Leave it on a table or desk and show people how the information can help them. Wear this book out—its real value is as a tool used often and well.

Tips for Job Seekers You can use the job descriptions in this book to give you an edge in finding job openings and in getting job offers—even when you are competing with people who have better credentials. Here are some ways America’s Top 101 Jobs for People Without a Four-Year Degree can help you in the job search.

Additional Information About the Projections

Identify related job targets. You may be limiting your job search to a small number of jobs for which you feel qualified, but by doing so you eliminate many jobs you could do and enjoy. Your search for a new job should be broadened to include more possibilities.

For more information about employment change, job openings, earnings, unemployment rates, and training requirements by occupation, consult Occupational Projections and Training Data, published by the Bureau of Labor Statistics. For occupational information from an industry perspective, including some occupations and career paths that America’s Top 101 Jobs for People Without a Four-Year Degree does not cover, consult another BLS publication, Career Guide to Industries. This book is also available from JIST under the title Career Guide to America’s Top Industries.

Go through the entire list of jobs in the table of contents and check any that require skills similar to those you have. Look at all the jobs, since doing so sometimes helps you identify targets you would otherwise overlook. Many people are not aware of the many specialized jobs related to their training or experience. The descriptions in America’s Top 101 Jobs for People Without a Four-Year Degree are for major job titles, but a variety of more-specialized jobs may require similar skills. The “Other Major Career Information Sources” section later in this introduction lists sources you can use to find out about more-specialized jobs. The descriptions can also point out jobs that interest you but that have higher responsibility or compensation levels. While you may not consider yourself qualified for such jobs now, you should think about seeking jobs that are above your previous levels but within your ability to handle.

Other Major Career Information Sources

Prepare for interviews. This book’s job descriptions are an essential source of information to help you prepare for interviews. If you carefully review the description of a job before an interview, you will be much better prepared to emphasize your key skills. You should also review descriptions for past jobs and identify skills needed in the new job.

The information in this book will be very useful, but you may want or need additional information. Keep in mind that the job descriptions here cover major jobs and not the many more-specialized jobs that are often related to them. Each job description in this book provides some sources of information related to that job, but here are additional resources to consider.

Negotiate pay. The job descriptions in this book will help you know what pay range to expect. Note that local pay and other details can differ substantially from the national averages in the descriptions.

Tips for Employers and Business People

Occupational Outlook Handbook (or the OOH): Updated every two years by the U.S. Department of Labor, this book provides descriptions for more than 270 major jobs covering more than 85 percent of the workforce. The OOH is the source of the job descriptions used in this book, and the book America’s Top 300 Jobs includes all the OOH content plus additional information.

Employers, human resource professionals, and other business users can use this book’s information to write job descriptions, study pay ranges, and set criteria for new

Enhanced Occupational Outlook Handbook: Includes all descriptions in the OOH plus descriptions of more than 7,000 morespecialized jobs that are related to them.

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Introduction O*NET Dictionary of Occupational Titles: The only printed source of the more than 1,100 jobs described in the U.S. Department of Labor’s Occupational Information Network database (O*NET).

those jobs that seem interesting. If you are interested in medical jobs, for example, you can quickly spot those you will want to learn more about. You may also see other jobs that look interesting, and you should consider these as well.

Guide for Occupational Exploration: An important career reference that allows you to explore all major O*NET jobs based on your interests.

Your next step would be to read the descriptions for the jobs that interest you and, based on what you learn, identify those that most interest you. These are the jobs you should consider, and Sections Two and Three will give you additional information on how you might best do so.

www.careerOINK.com: This Web site provides more than 14,000 job descriptions, including those mentioned in the previous books, and a variety of useful ways to explore them.

Details on Each Section of the Job Descriptions

Best Jobs for the 21st Century: Includes descriptions for the 500 jobs (out of more than 1,100) with the best combination of earnings, growth, and number of openings. Useful lists make jobs easy to explore (examples: highest-paying jobs by level of education or training, best jobs overall, and best jobs for different ages, personality types, interests, and many more).

Each occupational description in this book follows a standard format, making it easier for you to compare jobs. The following overview describes the kinds of information found in each part of a description and offers tips on how to interpret the information.

Exploring Careers—A Young Person’s Guide to 1,000 Jobs: For youth exploring career and education opportunities, this book covers 1,000 job options in an interesting and useful format.

Job Title This is the title used for the job in the Occupational Outlook Handbook, published by the U.S. Department of Labor.

O*NET Codes

Information on the Major Sections of This Book

This section of each job description lists one or more code numbers (for example: 11-9031.00, 11-9032.00) for related jobs in a major occupational information system used by the U.S. Department of Labor. This system, named the Occupational Information Network (or O*NET), is used by a variety of state and federal programs to classify applicants and job openings and by a variety of career information systems. You can use the O*NET code numbers to get additional information on the related O*NET titles on the Internet at www.onetcenter.org or at www.careerOINK.com. Reference books that provide O*NET descriptions include the O*NET Dictionary of Occupational Titles and the Enhanced Occupational Outlook Handbook, both published by JIST Publishing. Your librarian can help you find these books.

This book was designed to be easy to use. The table of contents provides brief comments on each section, and that may be all you need. If not, here are some additional details you may find useful in getting the most out of this book.

Section One: Descriptions of 101 Top Jobs for People Without a Four-Year Degree

Significant Points The bullet points in this part of a description highlight key characteristics for each job, such as recent trends or education and training requirements.

Section One is the main part of the book and probably the reason you picked it up. It contains brief, well-written descriptions for 101 major jobs typically held by people without a four-year degree. A list of the jobs is provided in the table of contents. The content for each of these job descriptions comes from the U.S. Department of Labor and is considered by many to be the most accurate and up-to-date available. These jobs are presented in alphabetical order.

Nature of the Work This part of the description discusses what workers typically do in a particular job. Individual job duties may vary by industry or employer. For instance, workers in larger firms tend to be more specialized, whereas those in smaller firms often have a wider variety of duties. Most occupations have several levels of skills and responsibilities through which workers may progress. Beginners may start as trainees performing routine tasks under close supervision. Experienced workers usually undertake more difficult tasks and are expected to perform with less supervision.

Together, the jobs in Section One provide enormous variety at all levels of earnings and interest. One way to explore career options is to go to the table of contents and identify

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America’s Top 101 Jobs for People Without a Four-Year Degree In this part of a description, you will also find information about the influence of technological advancements on the way work is done. For example, customer service representatives may now help customers over the Internet. This part also discusses emerging specialties.

This section also mentions desirable skills, aptitudes, and personal characteristics. For some entry-level jobs, personal characteristics are more important than formal training. Employers generally seek people who read, write, and speak well; compute accurately; think logically; learn quickly; get along with others; and demonstrate dependability.

Working Conditions

Some occupations require certification or licensing to enter the field, to advance in the occupation, or to practice independently. Certification or licensing generally involves completing courses and passing examinations. Many occupations increasingly are requiring workers to participate in continuing education or training in relevant skills, either to keep up with the changes in their jobs or to improve their advancement opportunities.

This part of the description identifies the typical hours worked, the workplace environment, physical activities, risk of injury, special equipment, and the extent of travel required. For example, construction equipment operators are susceptible to injury, while paralegals and legal assistants have high job-related stress. Radiologic technologists and technicians may wear protective clothing or equipment; brickmasons, blockmasons, and stonemasons do physically demanding work; and flight attendants travel frequently.

Job Outlook

In many occupations, people work regular business hours— 40 hours a week, Monday through Friday. In other occupations, they do not. For example, licensed practical and licensed vocational nurses often work evenings and weekends. The work setting can range from a hospital to a mall to an off-shore oil rig.

In planning for the future, it is important to consider potential job opportunities. This section describes the factors that will result in employment growth or decline. A number of factors are examined in developing employment projections. One factor is job growth or decline in industries that employ a significant percentage of workers in the occupation. If workers are concentrated in a rapidly growing industry, their employment will likely also grow quickly.

Information on various worker characteristics, such as the average number of hours worked per week, is obtained from the Current Population Survey (CPS), a survey of households conducted by the U.S. Census Bureau for the Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS).

Demographic changes, which affect what services are required, can influence occupational growth or decline. For example, an aging population demands more healthcare workers, from licensed practical and vocational nurses to pharmacy technicians. Technological change is another key factor. New technology can either create new job opportunities or eliminate jobs by making workers obsolete. The Internet has increased the demand for workers in the computer and information technology fields, such as computer support specialists and systems administrators. However, the Internet also has adversely affected travel agents, because many people now book tickets, hotels, and rental cars online.

Employment This section reports the number of jobs the occupation recently provided, the key industries where these jobs are found, and the number or proportion of self-employed workers in the occupation, if significant. Self-employed workers accounted for about 8 percent of the workforce in 2002; however, they were concentrated in a small number of occupations, such as farmers and ranchers, childcare workers, lawyers, health practitioners, and the construction trades.

Another factor affecting job growth or decline is changes in business practices, such as the outsourcing of work or the restructuring of businesses. In the past few years, insurance carriers have been outsourcing sales and claims adjuster jobs to large, 24-hour call centers in order to reduce costs. Corporate restructuring also has made many organizations “flatter,” resulting in fewer middle management positions.

When significant, the geographic distribution of jobs and the proportion of part-time (less than 35 hours a week) workers in the occupation are mentioned.

Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement

The substitution of one product or service for another can affect employment projections. For example, consumption of plastic products has grown as they have been substituted for metal goods in many consumer and manufactured products in recent years. The process is likely to continue and should result in stronger demand for machine operators in plastics than in metal.

After finding out what a job is all about, it is important to understand how to train for it. This section describes the most significant sources of education and training, including the education or training preferred by employers, the typical length of training, and the possibilities for advancement. Job skills sometimes are acquired through high school, informal on-the-job training, formal training (including apprenticeships), the U.S. Armed Forces, home study, hobbies, or previous work experience. For example, sales experience is particularly important for many sales jobs. Many professional and technical jobs, on the other hand, require formal postsecondary education.

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Competition from foreign trade usually has a negative impact on employment. Often, foreign manufacturers can produce goods more cheaply than they can be produced in the United States, and the cost savings can be passed on in the form of lower prices with which U.S. manufacturers cannot compete.

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Introduction occupation, earnings vary by experience, responsibility, performance, tenure, and geographic area. Information on earnings in the major industries in which the occupation is employed may be given. Some statements contain additional earnings data from non-BLS sources. Starting and average salaries of federal workers are based on 2003 data from the U.S. Office of Personnel Management. The National Association of Colleges and Employers supplies information on average salary offers in 2003 for students graduating with a bachelor’s, master’s, or Ph.D. degree in certain fields. A few statements contain additional earnings information from other sources, such as unions, professional associations, and private companies. These data sources are cited in the text.

In some cases, this book mentions that an occupation is likely to provide numerous job openings or, in others, that an occupation likely will afford relatively few openings. This information reflects the projected change in employment, as well as replacement needs. Large occupations that have high turnover generally provide the most job openings, reflecting the need to replace workers who transfer to other occupations or who stop working. Some job descriptions discuss the relationship between the number of job seekers and the number of job openings. In some occupations, there is a rough balance between job seekers and job openings, resulting in good opportunities. In other occupations, employers may report difficulty finding qualified applicants, resulting in excellent job opportunities. Still other occupations are characterized by a surplus of applicants, leading to keen competition for jobs. On the one hand, limited training facilities, salary regulations, or undesirable aspects of the work—as in the case of private household workers—can result in an insufficient number of entrants to fill all job openings. On the other hand, glamorous or potentially highpaying occupations, such as actors or musicians, generally have surpluses of job seekers. Variation in job opportunities by industry, educational attainment, size of firm, or geographic location also may be discussed. Even in crowded fields, job openings do exist. Good students or highly qualified individuals should not be deterred from undertaking training for, or seeking entry into, those occupations.

Benefits account for a significant portion of total compensation costs to employers. Benefits such as paid vacation, health insurance, and sick leave may not be mentioned because they are so widespread. Although not as common as traditional benefits, flexible hours and profit-sharing plans may be offered to attract and retain highly qualified workers. Lesscommon benefits also include childcare, tuition for dependents, housing assistance, summers off, and free or discounted merchandise or services. For certain occupations, the percentage of workers affiliated with a union is listed.

Related Occupations Occupations involving similar duties, skills, interests, education, and training are listed here. This allows you to look up these jobs if they also interest you.

Key Phrases Used in the Descriptions This table explains how to interpret the key phrases that describe projected changes in employment. It also explains the terms for the relationship between the number of job openings and the number of job seekers.

Sources of Additional Information No single publication can describe all aspects of an occupation. Thus, this section lists the mailing addresses of associations, government agencies, unions, and other organizations that can provide occupational information. In some cases, toll-free telephone numbers and Internet addresses also are listed. Free or relatively inexpensive publications offering more information may be mentioned; some of these publications also may be available in libraries, in school career centers, in guidance offices, or on the Internet.

Changing Employment Between 2002 and 2012 If the statement reads:

Employment is projected to:

Grow much faster than average

Increase 36 percent or more

Grow faster than average

Increase 21 to 35 percent

Grow about as fast as average

Increase 10 to 20 percent

Grow more slowly than average

Increase 3 to 9 percent

Little or no change

Increase 0 to 2 percent

Decline

Decrease 1 percent or more

Some Additional Jobs to Consider Here is a list of additional jobs that may not require a fouryear degree that you may want to consider. Their descriptions are not included in this book, but you can find them in the Occupational Outlook Handbook, America’s Top 300 Jobs, or the Enhanced Occupational Outlook Handbook or online at www.careerOINK.com or www.bls.gov.

Job Openings Compared If the statement reads:

Job openings compared to job seekers may be:

Very good to excellent opportunities

More numerous

Good or favorable opportunities

In rough balance

May face or can expect keen competition

Fewer

Earnings This section discusses typical earnings and how workers are compensated—by means of annual salaries, hourly wages, commissions, piece rates, tips, or bonuses. Within every

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Agricultural workers

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Announcers

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Artists and related workers

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Athletes, coaches, umpires, and related workers

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Automotive body and related repairers

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Bill and account collectors

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Billing and posting clerks and machine operators

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America’s Top 101 Jobs for People Without a Four-Year Degree ●

Boilermakers

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Information and record clerks

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Bookbinders and bindery workers

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Insulation workers

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Brokerage clerks

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Interpreters and translators

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Building cleaning workers

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Line installers and repairers

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Cardiovascular technologists and technicians

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Lodging managers

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Cargo and freight agents

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Carpet, floor, and tile installers and finishers

Machine setters, operators, and tenders—metal and plastic

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Cashiers

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Material moving occupations

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Material recording, scheduling, dispatching, and distributing occupations, except postal workers

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Medical transcriptionists

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Millwrights

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Musicians, singers, and related workers

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Cement masons, concrete finishers, segmental pavers, and terrazzo workers

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Claims adjusters, appraisers, examiners, and investigators

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Clergy

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Coin, vending, and amusement machine servicers and repairers

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Nuclear medicine technologists

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Communications equipment operators

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Nursing, psychiatric, and home health aides

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Computer operators

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Occupational health and safety specialists and technicians

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Construction laborers

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Occupational therapist assistants and aides

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Correctional officers

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Order clerks

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Cost estimators

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Counter and rental clerks

Painting and coating workers, except construction and maintenance

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Couriers and messengers

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Payroll and timekeeping clerks

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Pest control workers

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Photographic process workers and processing machine operators

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Physician assistants

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Power plant operators, distributors, and dispatchers

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Precision instrument and equipment repairers

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Printing machine operators

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Private detectives and investigators

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Procurement clerks

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Production, planning, and expediting clerks

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Purchasing managers, buyers, and purchasing agents

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Rail transportation occupations

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Recreation and fitness workers

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Registered nurses

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Reservation and transportation ticket agents and travel clerks

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Roofers

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Security guards and gaming surveillance officers

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Small engine mechanics

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Stationary engineers and boiler operators

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Structural and reinforcing iron and metal workers

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Surgical technologists

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Taxi drivers and chauffeurs

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Textile, apparel, and furnishings occupations

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Tool and die makers

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Water and liquid waste treatment plant and system operators

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Dancers and choreographers

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Demonstrators, product promoters, and models

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Diagnostic medical sonographers

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Drafters

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Electronic home entertainment equipment installers and repairers

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Farmers, ranchers, and agricultural managers

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File clerks

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Financial clerks

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Fishers and fishing vessel operators

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Food and beverage serving and related workers

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Food processing occupations

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Funeral directors

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Gaming cage workers

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Gaming services occupations

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Glaziers

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Credit authorizers, checkers, and clerks

Grounds maintenance workers Hazardous materials removal workers Heavy vehicle and mobile equipment service technicians and mechanics Home appliance repairers Hotel, motel, and resort desk clerks Human resources assistants, except payroll and timekeeping Industrial machinery installation, repair, and maintenance workers, except millwright

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Introduction ●

Water transportation occupations

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Weighers, measurers, checkers, and samplers, recordkeeping

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Woodworkers

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Writers and editors

Doing better in interviews often makes the difference between getting a job offer and sitting at home. And spending time planning your career can make an enormous difference to your happiness and lifestyle over time. So please consider reading Section Two and completing its activities. I suggest you schedule a time right now to at least read Section Two. An hour or so spent there can help you do just enough better in your career planning, job seeking, and interviewing to make the difference.

Section Two: The Quick Job Search—Seven Steps to Getting a Good Job in Less Time

One other thing: If you work through Section Two and it helps you in some significant way, I’d like to hear from you. Please write or e-mail me via the publisher, whose contact information appears elsewhere in this book.

Section Three: Important Trends in Jobs and Industries

For more than 20 years now, I’ve been helping people find better jobs in less time. If you have ever experienced unemployment, you know it is not pleasant. Unemployment is something most people want to get over quickly—in fact, the quicker the better. Section Two will give you some techniques to help.

This section is made up of four very good articles on labor market trends. These articles come directly from U.S. Department of Labor sources and are interesting, well written, and short. One is on overall trends, with an emphasis on occupational groups; another is on trends in major industry groups; the third is about the different degree and certificate options community colleges offer; and the fourth discusses the opportunities an associate degree presents. I know they sound boring, but the articles are quick reads and will give you a good idea of factors that will impact your career in the years to come.

I know that most of you who read this book want to improve yourselves. You want to consider career and training options that lead to a better job and life in whatever way you define this—better pay, more flexibility, work that is more enjoyable or more meaningful, proving to your mom that you really can do anything you set your mind to, and other reasons. That is why I include advice on career planning and job search in Section Two. It’s a short section, but it includes the basics that are most important in planning your career and in reducing the time it takes to get a job. I hope it will make you think about what is important to you in the long run.

The first article is titled “Tomorrow’s Jobs.” It highlights many important trends in employment and includes information on the fastest-growing jobs, jobs with high pay at various levels of education, and other details.

The second part of Section Two showcases professionally written resumes for some of America’s top jobs for people without a four-year degree. Use these as examples when creating your own resume.

The second article is titled “Employment Trends in Major Industries.” I included this information because you may find that you can use your skills or training in industries you have not considered. The article provides a good review of major trends with an emphasis on helping you make good employment decisions. This information can help you seek jobs in industries that offer higher pay or that are more likely to interest you. Many people overlook one important fact—the industry you work in is as important as the occupation you choose.

I know you will resist completing the activities in Section Two, but consider this: It is often not the best person who gets the job, but the best job seeker. People who do their career planning and job search homework often get jobs over those with better credentials, because they have these distinct advantages: 1. They get more interviews, including many for jobs that will never be advertised.

The third article, “The Changing Role of Community College,” explores new education and training options available at community colleges, as well as trends in enrollment, cost, and fields of study.

2. They do better in interviews. People who understand what they want and what they have to offer employers present their skills more convincingly and are much better at answering problem questions. And, because they have learned more about job search techniques, they are likely to get more interviews with employers who need the skills they have.

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Section One

Descriptions of 101 Top Jobs for People Without a Four-Year Degree T

his is the book’s main section. It contains descriptions for 101 major occupations that do not require a four-year degree. The jobs are arranged alphabetically. The table of contents provides a list of the jobs and the page numbers where their descriptions begin. The table of contents can also help you identify jobs you want to explore. If you are interested in medical jobs, for example, you can go through the list and quickly find those you want to learn more about. Also, you may spot other jobs that might be interesting, and you should consider those as well. Read the descriptions for any jobs that sound interesting. While the descriptions in this section are easy to understand, the introduction to this book provides additional information for interpreting them. When reading the descriptions, keep in mind that they present information that is the average for the country. Conditions in your area and with specific employers may be quite different. Also, you may come across jobs that sound interesting but require additional training or education. Don’t eliminate them too soon. There are many ways to obtain training and education, and most people change jobs and careers many times. You probably have more skills than you realize that can transfer to new jobs, so consider taking some chances. Get out of your rut. Do what it takes to fulfill your dreams. Be creative. You often have more opportunities than barriers, but you have to go out and find the opportunities. 11

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America’s Top 101 Jobs for People Without a Four-Year Degree dinate the activities of writers, directors, managers, and agents to ensure that each project stays on schedule and within budget.

Actors, Producers, and Directors

Directors are responsible for the creative decisions of a production. They interpret scripts, express concepts to set and costume designers, audition and select cast members, conduct rehearsals, and direct the work of cast and crew. Directors cue the performers and technicians to make entrances or to make light, sound, or set changes. They approve the design elements of a production, including the sets, costumes, choreography, and music.

(O*NET 27-2011.00, 27-2012.01, 27-2012.02, 27-2012.03, 27-2012.04, and 27-2012.05)

Significant Points ●

Actors endure long periods of unemployment, intense competition for roles, and frequent rejections in auditions.

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Formal training through a university or acting conservatory is typical; however, many actors, producers, and directors find work on the basis of their experience and talent alone.

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Because earnings for actors are erratic, many supplement their incomes by holding jobs in other fields.

Working Conditions Actors, producers, and directors work under constant pressure. Many face stress from the continual need to find their next job. To succeed, actors, producers, and directors need patience and commitment to their craft. Actors strive to deliver flawless performances, often while working under undesirable and unpleasant conditions. Producers and directors organize rehearsals; meet with writers, designers, financial backers, and production technicians. They experience stress not only from these activities, but also from the need to adhere to budgets, union work rules, and production schedules.

Nature of the Work

Acting assignments typically are short term—ranging from one day to a few months—which means that actors frequently experience long periods of unemployment between jobs. The uncertain nature of the work results in unpredictable earnings and intense competition for even the lowest-paid jobs. Often, actors, producers, and directors must hold other jobs in order to sustain a living.

Actors, producers, and directors express ideas and create images in theater, film, radio, television, and other performing arts media. They interpret a writer’s script to entertain, inform, or instruct an audience. Although the most famous actors, producers, and directors work in film, network television, or theater in New York or Los Angeles, far more work in local or regional television studios, theaters, or film production companies, preparing advertising, public-relations, or independent, small-scale movie productions.

When performing, actors typically work long, irregular hours. For example, stage actors may perform one show at night while rehearsing another during the day. They also might travel with a show when it tours the country. Movie actors may work on location, sometimes under adverse weather conditions, and may spend considerable time in their trailers or dressing rooms waiting to perform their scenes. Actors who perform in a television series often appear on camera with little preparation time, because scripts tend to be revised frequently or even written moments before taping. Those who appear live or before a studio audience must be able to handle impromptu situations and calmly ad lib, or substitute, lines when necessary.

Actors perform in stage, radio, television, video, or motion picture productions. They also work in cabarets, nightclubs, theme parks, commercials, and “industrial” films produced for training and educational purposes. Most actors struggle to find steady work; only a few ever achieve recognition as stars. Some well-known, experienced performers may be cast in supporting roles. Others work as “extras,” with no lines to deliver, or make brief, cameo appearances, speaking only one or two lines. Some actors do voiceover and narration work for advertisements, animated features, books on tape, and other electronic media. They also teach in high school or university drama departments, acting conservatories, or public programs.

Evening and weekend work is a regular part of a stage actor’s life. On weekends, more than one performance may be held per day. Actors and directors working on movies or television programs—especially those who shoot on location—may work in the early morning or late evening hours to film night scenes or tape scenes inside public facilities outside of normal business hours.

Producers are entrepreneurs, overseeing the business and financial decisions of a motion picture, made-for-television feature, or stage production. They select scripts, approve the development of ideas for the production, arrange financing, and determine the size and cost of the endeavor. Producers hire or approve the selection of directors, principal cast members, and key production staff members. They also negotiate contracts with artistic and design personnel in accordance with collective bargaining agreements and guarantee payment of salaries, rent, and other expenses. Television and radio producers determine which programs, episodes, or news segments get aired. They may research material, write scripts, and oversee the production of individual pieces. Producers in any medium coor-

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Actors should be in good physical condition and have the necessary stamina and coordination to move about theater stages and large movie and television studio lots. They also need to maneuver about complex technical sets while staying in character and projecting their voices audibly. Actors must be fit to endure heat from stage or studio lights and the weight of heavy costumes. Producers and directors ensure the safety of

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Section One: Descriptions of 101 Top Jobs for People Without a Four-Year Degree Formal dramatic training, either through an acting conservatory or a university program, generally is necessary; however, some people successfully enter the field without it. Most people studying for a bachelor’s degree take courses in radio and television broadcasting, communications, film, theater, drama, or dramatic literature. Many continue their academic training and receive a Master of Fine Arts (MFA) degree. Advanced curricula may include courses in stage speech and movement, directing, playwriting, and design, as well as intensive acting workshops. The National Association of Schools of Theatre accredits 128 programs in theater arts.

actors by conducting extra rehearsals on the set so that the actors can learn the layout of set pieces and props, by allowing time for warmups and stretching exercises to guard against physical and vocal injuries, and by providing an adequate number of breaks to prevent heat exhaustion and dehydration.

Employment In 2002, actors, producers, and directors held about 139,000 jobs, primarily in motion picture and video, performing arts, and broadcast industries. Because many others were between jobs, the total number of actors, producers, and directors available for work was higher. Employment in the theater, and other performing arts companies, is cyclical—higher in the fall and spring seasons—and concentrated in New York and other major cities with large commercial houses for musicals and touring productions. Also, many cities support established professional regional theaters that operate on a seasonal or yearround basis. About one fourth of actors, producers, and directors are self-employed.

Actors, regardless of experience level, may pursue workshop training through acting conservatories or by being mentored by a drama coach. Actors also research roles so that they can grasp concepts quickly during rehearsals and understand the story’s setting and background. Sometimes actors learn a foreign language or train with a dialect coach to develop an accent to make their characters more realistic. Actors need talent, creative ability, and training that will enable them to portray different characters. Because competition for parts is fierce, versatility and a wide range of related performance skills, such as singing, dancing, skating, juggling, or miming are especially useful. Experience in horseback riding, fencing, or stage combat also can lift some actors above the average and get them noticed by producers and directors. Actors must have poise, stage presence, the capability to affect an audience, and the ability to follow direction. Modeling experience also may be helpful. Physical appearance, such as possessing the right size, weight, or features, often is a deciding factor in being selected for particular roles.

Actors, producers, and directors may find work in summer festivals, on cruise lines, and in theme parks. Many smaller, nonprofit professional companies, such as repertory companies, dinner theaters, and theaters affiliated with drama schools, acting conservatories, and universities, provide employment opportunities for local amateur talent and professional entertainers. Auditions typically are held in New York for many productions across the country and for shows that go on the road. Employment in motion pictures and in films for television is centered in New York and Hollywood. However, small studios are located throughout the country. Many films are shot on location and may employ local professional and nonprofessional actors. In television, opportunities are concentrated in the network centers of New York and Los Angeles, but cable television services and local television stations around the country also employ many actors, producers, and directors.

Many professional actors rely on agents or managers to find work, negotiate contracts, and plan their careers. Agents generally earn a percentage of the pay specified in an actor’s contract. Other actors rely solely on attending open auditions for parts. Trade publications list the times, dates, and locations of these auditions.

Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement

To become a movie extra, one usually must be listed by a casting agency, such as Central Casting, a no-fee agency that supplies extras to the major movie studios in Hollywood. Applicants are accepted only when the number of persons of a particular type on the list—for example, athletic young women, old men, or small children—falls below the foreseeable need. In recent years, only a very small proportion of applicants have succeeded in being listed.

Persons who become actors, producers, and directors follow many paths. Employers generally look for people with the creative instincts, innate talent, and intellectual capacity to perform. Actors should possess a passion for performing and enjoy entertaining others. Most aspiring actors participate in high school and college plays, work in college radio stations, or perform with local community theater groups. Local and regional theater experience and work in summer stock, on cruise lines, or in theme parks helps many young actors hone their skills and earn qualifying credits toward membership in one of the actors’ unions. Union membership and work experience in smaller communities may lead to work in larger cities, notably New York or Los Angeles. In television and film, actors and directors typically start in smaller television markets or with independent movie production companies and then work their way up to larger media markets and major studio productions. Intense competition, however, ensures that only a few actors reach star billing.

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There are no specific training requirements for producers. They come from many different backgrounds. Talent, experience, and business acumen are important determinants of success for producers. Actors, writers, film editors, and business managers commonly enter the field. Also, many people who start out as actors move into directing, while some directors might try their hand at acting. Producers often start in a theatrical management office, working for a press agent, managing director, or business manager. Some start in a performing arts union or service organization. Others work behind the scenes with successful directors, serve on boards of directors, or promote their own projects. No formal training exists for producers; however, a growing number of colleges and universities now ●

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America’s Top 101 Jobs for People Without a Four-Year Degree sents television and radio studio performers. While these unions generally determine minimum salaries, any actor or director may negotiate for a salary higher than the minimum.

offer degree programs in arts management and in managing nonprofits. As the reputations and box-office draw of actors, producers, and directors grow, they might work on bigger budget productions, on network or syndicated broadcasts, or in more prestigious theaters. Actors may advance to lead roles and receive star billing. A few actors move into acting-related jobs, such as drama coaches or directors of stage, television, radio, or motion picture productions. Some teach drama privately or in colleges and universities.

Under terms of a joint SAG and AFTRA contract covering all unionized workers, motion picture and television actors with speaking parts earned a minimum daily rate of $678 or $2,352 for a 5-day week as of July 1, 2003. Actors also receive contributions to their health and pension plans and additional compensation for reruns and foreign telecasts of the productions in which they appear. According to Equity, the minimum weekly salary for actors in Broadway productions as of June 30, 2003, was $1,354. Actors in Off-Broadway theaters received minimums ranging from $479 to $557 a week as of October 27, 2003, depending on the seating capacity of the theater. Regional theaters that operate under an Equity agreement pay actors $531 to $800 per week. For touring productions, actors receive an additional $111 per day for living expenses ($117 per day in larger, higher cost cities).

Job Outlook Employment of actors, producers, and directors is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through 2012. Although a growing number of people will aspire to enter these professions, many will leave the field early because the work—when it is available—is hard, the hours are long, and the pay is low. Competition for jobs will be stiff, in part because the large number of highly trained and talented actors auditioning for roles generally exceeds the number of parts that become available. Only performers with the most stamina and talent will find regular employment.

Some well-known actors—stars—earn well above the minimum; their salaries are many times the figures cited, creating the false impression that all actors are highly paid. For example, of the nearly 100,000 SAG members, only about 50 might be considered stars. The average income that SAG members earn from acting—less than $5,000 a year—is low because employment is erratic. Therefore, most actors must supplement their incomes by holding jobs in other occupations.

Expanding cable and satellite television operations, increasing production and distribution of major studio and independent films, and continued growth and development of interactive media, such as direct-for-Web movies and videos, should increase demand for actors, producers, and directors. However, greater emphasis on national, rather than local, entertainment productions may restrict employment opportunities in the broadcasting industry.

Many actors who work more than a set number of weeks per year are covered by a union health, welfare, and pension fund, which includes hospitalization insurance and to which employers contribute. Under some employment conditions, Equity and AFTRA members receive paid vacations and sick leave.

Venues for live entertainment, such as Broadway and OffBroadway theaters, touring productions and repertory theaters in many major metropolitan areas, theme parks, and resorts, are expected to offer many job opportunities; however, prospects in these venues are more variable, because they fluctuate with economic conditions.

Median annual earnings of salaried producers and directors were $46,240 in 2002. The middle 50 percent earned between $31,990 and $70,910. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $23,300, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $119,760. Median annual earnings were $56,090 in motion picture and video industries and $38,480 in radio and television broadcasting.

Earnings Median annual earnings of salaried actors were $23,470 in 2002. The middle 50 percent earned between $15,320 and $53,320. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $13,330, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $106,360. Median annual earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of actors were as follows:

Many stage directors belong to the Society of Stage Directors and Choreographers (SSDC), and film and television directors belong to the Directors Guild of America. Earnings of stage directors vary greatly. According to the SSDC, summer theaters offer compensation, including “royalties” (based on the number of performances), usually ranging from $2,500 to $8,000 for a 3- to 4-week run. Directing a production at a dinner theater generally will pay less than directing one at a summer theater, but has more potential for generating income from royalties. Regional theaters may hire directors for longer periods, increasing compensation accordingly. The highest-paid directors work on Broadway and commonly earn $50,000 per show. However, they also receive payment in the form of royalties—a negotiated percentage of gross box office receipts— that can exceed their contract fee for long-running box office successes.

Accounting, tax preparation, bookkeeping, and payroll services ..............................................$29,590 Performing arts companies ......................................28,850 Motion picture and video industries ......................17,610 Minimum salaries, hours of work, and other conditions of employment are covered in collective bargaining agreements between the producers and the unions representing workers. The Actors’ Equity Association (Equity) represents stage actors; the Screen Actors Guild (SAG) covers actors in motion pictures, including television, commercials, and films; and the American Federation of Television and Radio Artists (AFTRA) repre-

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Section One: Descriptions of 101 Top Jobs for People Without a Four-Year Degree Stage producers seldom get a set fee; instead, they get a percentage of a show’s earnings or ticket sales.

records management, telecommunications management, security, parking, and personal property procurement, supply, and disposal.

Related Occupations

Specific duties for these managers vary by degree of responsibility and authority. First-line administrative services managers directly supervise a staff that performs various support services. Mid-level managers, on the other hand, develop departmental plans, set goals and deadlines, implement procedures to improve productivity and customer service, and define the responsibilities of supervisory-level managers. Some mid-level administrative services managers oversee first-line supervisors from various departments, including the clerical staff. Midlevel managers also may be involved in the hiring and dismissal of employees, but they generally have no role in the formulation of personnel policy. Some of these managers advance to upper level positions, such as vice president of administrative services.

People who work in performing arts occupations that may require acting skills include announcers; dancers and choreographers; and musicians, singers, and related workers. Others working in film- and theater-related occupations are makeup artists, theatrical and performance; fashion designers; set and exhibit designers; and writers and authors. Producers share many responsibilities with those who work as top executives.

Sources of Additional Information For general information about theater arts and a list of accredited college-level programs, contact: ●

National Association of Schools of Theater, 11250 Roger Bacon Dr., Suite 21, Reston, VA 20190. Internet: http://nast.arts-accredit.org

In small organizations, a single administrative services manager may oversee all support services. In larger ones, however, first-line administrative services managers often report to midlevel managers who, in turn, report to owners or top-level managers. As the size of the firm increases, administrative services managers are more likely to specialize in specific support activities. For example, some administrative services managers work primarily as office managers, contract administrators, or unclaimed property officers. In many cases, the duties of these administrative services managers are similar to those of other managers and supervisors.

For general information on actors, producers, and directors, contact any of the following organizations: ●

Actors Equity Association, 165 West 46th St., New York, NY 10036. Internet: http://www.actorsequity.org

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Screen Actors Guild, 5757 Wilshire Blvd., Los Angeles, CA 90036-3600. Internet: http://www.sag.org

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American Federation of Television and Radio Artists—Screen Actors Guild, 4340 East-West Hwy., Suite 204, Bethesda, MD 20814-4411. Internet: http://www.aftra.org/aftra/aftra.htm or http://www.sag.org

Because of the range of administrative services required by organizations, the nature of these managerial jobs also varies significantly. Administrative services managers who work as contract administrators, for instance, oversee the preparation, analysis, negotiation, and review of contracts related to the purchase or sale of equipment, materials, supplies, products, or services. In addition, some administrative services managers acquire, distribute, and store supplies, while others dispose of surplus property or oversee the disposal of unclaimed property.

Administrative Services Managers (O*NET 11-3011.00)

Administrative services managers who work as facility managers plan, design, and manage buildings and grounds in addition to people. They are responsible for coordinating the physical workplace with the people and work of an organization. This task requires integrating the principles of business administration, architecture, and behavioral and engineering science. Although the specific tasks assigned to facility managers vary substantially depending on the organization, the duties fall into several categories, relating to operations and maintenance, real estate, project planning and management, communication, finance, quality assessment, facility function, technology integration, and management of human and environmental factors. Tasks within these broad categories may include space and workplace planning, budgeting, purchase and sale of real estate, lease management, renovations, or architectural planning and design. Facility managers may suggest and oversee renovation projects for a variety of reasons, ranging from improving efficiency to ensuring that facilities meet government regulations and environmental, health, and security standards. Additionally, facility managers continually monitor the facility to ensure that it remains safe,

Significant Points ●

Administrative services managers work in private industry and government and have a wide range of responsibilities, experience, earnings, and education.

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Applicants face keen competition due to the substantial supply of competent, experienced workers seeking managerial jobs.

Nature of the Work Administrative services managers perform a broad range of duties in virtually every sector of the economy. They coordinate and direct support services to organizations as diverse as insurance companies, computer manufacturers, and government offices. These workers manage the many services that allow organizations to operate efficiently, such as secretarial and reception, administration, payroll, conference planning and travel, information and data processing, mail, materials scheduling and distribution, printing and reproduction,

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America’s Top 101 Jobs for People Without a Four-Year Degree human resources, and business law. Most facility managers have an undergraduate or graduate degree in engineering, architecture, construction management, business administration, or facility management. Many have a background in real estate, construction, or interior design, in addition to managerial experience.

secure, and well-maintained. Often, the facility manager is responsible for directing staff, including maintenance, grounds, and custodial workers.

Working Conditions Administrative services managers generally work in comfortable offices. Managers involved in contract administration and personal property procurement, use, and disposal may travel between their home office, branch offices, vendors’ offices, and property sales sites. Also, facility managers who are responsible for the design of workspaces may spend time at construction sites and may travel between different facilities while monitoring the work of maintenance, grounds, and custodial staffs. However, new technology has increased the number of managers who telecommute from home or other offices, and teleconferencing has reduced the need for travel.

Whatever the manager’s educational background, it must be accompanied by related work experience reflecting demonstrated ability. For this reason, many administrative services managers have advanced through the ranks of their organization, acquiring work experience in various administrative positions before assuming first-line supervisory duties. All managers who oversee departmental supervisors should be familiar with office procedures and equipment. Managers of personal property acquisition and disposal need experience in purchasing and sales, and knowledge of a variety of supplies, machinery, and equipment. Managers concerned with supply, inventory, and distribution should be experienced in receiving, warehousing, packaging, shipping, transportation, and related operations. Contract administrators may have worked as contract specialists, cost analysts, or procurement specialists. Managers of unclaimed property often have experience in insurance claims analysis and records management.

Most administrative services managers work a standard 40hour week. However, uncompensated overtime frequently is required to resolve problems and meet deadlines. Facility managers often are “on call” to address a variety of problems that can arise in a facility during nonwork hours.

Employment

Persons interested in becoming administrative services managers should have good communication skills and be able to establish effective working relationships with many different people, ranging from managers, supervisors, and professionals, to clerks and blue-collar workers. They should be analytical, detail-oriented, flexible, and decisive. They must also be able to coordinate several activities at once, quickly analyze and resolve specific problems, and cope with deadlines.

Administrative services managers held about 321,000 jobs in 2002. About 9 out of 10 worked in service-providing industries, including federal, state, and local government, health services, financial services, professional, scientific, and technical services, and education. Most of the remaining workers worked in manufacturing industries.

Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement

Most administrative services managers in small organizations advance by moving to other management positions or to a larger organization. Advancement is easier in large firms that employ several levels of administrative services managers. Attainment of the Certified Administrative Manager (CAM) designation offered by the Institute of Certified Professional Managers, through work experience and successful completion of examinations, can increase a manager’s advancement potential. In addition, a master’s degree in business administration or related field enhances a first-level manager’s opportunities to advance to a mid-level management position, such as director of administrative services, and eventually to a toplevel management position, such as executive vice president for administrative services. Those with enough money and experience can establish their own management consulting firm.

Educational requirements for these managers vary widely, depending on the size and complexity of the organization. In small organizations, experience may be the only requirement needed to enter a position as office manager. When an opening in administrative services management occurs, the office manager may be promoted to the position based on past performance. In large organizations, however, administrative services managers normally are hired from outside and each position has formal education and experience requirements. Some administrative services managers have advanced degrees. Specific requirements vary by job responsibility. For first-line administrative services managers of secretarial, mailroom, and related support activities, many employers prefer an associate degree in business or management, although a high school diploma may suffice when combined with appropriate experience. For managers of audiovisual, graphics, and other technical activities, postsecondary technical school training is preferred. Managers of highly complex services, such as contract administration, generally need at least a bachelor’s degree in business, human resources, or finance. Regardless of major, the curriculum should include courses in office technology, accounting, business mathematics, computer applications,

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Advancement of facility managers is based on the practices and size of individual companies. Some facility managers transfer from other departments within the organization or work their way up from technical positions. Others advance through a progression of facility management positions that offer additional responsibilities. Completion of the competency-based professional certification program offered by the International Facility Management Association can give prospective candidates an advantage. In order to qualify for this Certified Facility Manager (CFM) designation, applicants must meet certain educational and experience requirements.

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Job Outlook

Related Occupations

Employment of administrative services managers is projected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through 2012. Like persons seeking other managerial positions, applicants face keen competition because there are more competent, experienced workers seeking jobs than there are positions available. However, demand should be strong for facility managers because businesses increasingly are realizing the importance of maintaining, securing, and efficiently operating their facilities, which are very large investments for most organizations. Administrative services managers employed in management services and management consulting also should be in demand, as public and private organizations continue to streamline and, in some cases, contract out administrative services functions in an effort to cut costs.

Administrative services managers direct and coordinate support services and oversee the purchase, use, and disposal of personal property. Occupations with similar functions include office and administrative support worker supervisors and managers; cost estimators; property, real estate, and community association managers; purchasing managers, buyers, and purchasing agents; and top executives.

Sources of Additional Information For information about careers and education and degree programs in facility management, as well as the Certified Facility Manager designation, contact: ●

At the same time, continuing corporate restructuring and increasing utilization of office technology should result in a flatter organizational structure with fewer levels of management, reducing the need for some middle management positions. This should adversely affect administrative services managers who oversee first-line mangers. Because many administrative services managers have a wide range of responsibilities, however, the effects of these changes on employment should be less severe than for other middle managers who specialize in only certain functions. In addition to new administrative services management jobs created over the 2002-12 projection period, many job openings will stem from the need to replace workers who transfer to other jobs, retire, or stop working for other reasons.

International Facility Management Association, 1 East Greenway Plaza, Suite 1100, Houston, TX 77046-0194. Internet: http://www.ifma.org

General information regarding facility management and a list of facility management education and degree programs may be obtained from: ●

Association of Higher Education Facilities Officers, 1643 Prince St., Alexandria, VA 22314-2818. Internet: http://www.appa.org

For information about the Certified Manager or Certified Administrative Manager designations, contact: ●

Earnings

Institute of Certified Professional Managers, James Madison University, College of Business, Harrisonburg, VA 22807. Internet: http://cob.jmu.edu/icpm

Air Traffic Controllers

Earnings of administrative services managers vary greatly depending on the employer, the specialty, and the geographic area. In general, however, median annual earnings of administrative services managers in 2002 were $52,500. The middle 50 percent earned between $36,190 and $74,590. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $26,120, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $99,870. Median annual earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of these managers in 2002 are shown below:

(O*NET 53-2021.00)

Significant Points ●

Nearly all air traffic controllers are employed by the Federal Aviation Administration, part of the federal government.

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Large numbers of air traffic controllers will be eligible to retire over the next decade, potentially creating many job openings.

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Aircraft controllers earn relatively high pay and have good benefits.

Management of companies and enterprises..........$66,700 Elementary and secondary schools..........................59,220 Colleges, universities, and professional schools......56,960 State government ....................................................55,710 Local government ..................................................51,570

Nature of the Work

In the federal government, contract specialists in nonsupervisory, supervisory, and managerial positions earned an average of $66,309 a year in 2003. Corresponding averages were $63,509 for facilities operations, $62,552 for industrial property managers, $58,880 for property disposal specialists, $62,751 for administrative officers, and $52,824 for support services administrators.

The air traffic control system is a vast network of people and equipment that ensures the safe operation of commercial and private aircraft. Air traffic controllers coordinate the movement of air traffic to make certain that planes stay a safe distance apart. Their immediate concern is safety, but controllers also must direct planes efficiently to minimize delays. Some regulate airport traffic; others regulate flights between airports. Although airport tower or terminal controllers watch over all planes traveling through the airport’s airspace, their main responsibility is to organize the flow of aircraft into and out of

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America’s Top 101 Jobs for People Without a Four-Year Degree potential hazards. Two planes on a collision course will be directed around each other. If a pilot wants to change altitude in search of better flying conditions, the controller will check to determine that no other planes will be along the proposed path. As the flight progresses, the team responsible for the aircraft notifies the next team in charge of the airspace ahead. Through team coordination, the plane arrives safely at its destination.

the airport. Relying on radar and visual observation, they closely monitor each plane to ensure a safe distance between all aircraft and to guide pilots between the hangar or ramp and the end of the airport’s airspace. In addition, controllers keep pilots informed about changes in weather conditions such as wind shear—a sudden change in the velocity or direction of the wind that can cause the pilot to lose control of the aircraft. During arrival or departure, several controllers direct each plane. As a plane approaches an airport, the pilot radios ahead to inform the terminal of the plane’s presence. The controller in the radar room, just beneath the control tower, has a copy of the plane’s flight plan and already has observed the plane on radar. If the path is clear, the controller directs the pilot to a runway; if the airport is busy, the plane is fitted into a traffic pattern with other aircraft waiting to land. As the plane nears the runway, the pilot is asked to contact the tower. There, another controller, who also is watching the plane on radar, monitors the aircraft the last mile or so to the runway, delaying any departures that would interfere with the plane’s landing. Once the plane has landed, a ground controller in the tower directs it along the taxiways to its assigned gate. The ground controller usually works entirely by sight, but may use radar if visibility is very poor.

Both airport tower and enroute controllers usually control several planes at a time; often, they have to make quick decisions about completely different activities. For example, a controller might direct a plane on its landing approach and at the same time provide pilots entering the airport’s airspace with information about conditions at the airport. While instructing these pilots, the controller also would observe other planes in the vicinity, such as those in a holding pattern waiting for permission to land, to ensure that they remain well separated. In addition to airport towers and enroute centers, air traffic controllers also work in flight service stations operated at more than 100 locations. These flight service specialists provide pilots with information on the station’s particular area, including terrain, preflight and inflight weather information, suggested routes, and other information important to the safety of a flight. Flight service station specialists help pilots in emergency situations and initiate and coordinate searches for missing or overdue aircraft. However, they are not involved in actively managing air traffic.

The procedure is reversed for departures. The ground controller directs the plane to the proper runway. The local controller then informs the pilot about conditions at the airport, such as weather, speed and direction of wind, and visibility. The local controller also issues runway clearance for the pilot to take off. Once in the air, the plane is guided out of the airport’s airspace by the departure controller.

Some air traffic controllers work at the Federal Aviation Administration’s (FAA) Air Traffic Control Systems Command Center in Herndon, Virginia, where they oversee the entire system. They look for situations that will create bottlenecks or other problems in the system and then respond with a management plan for traffic into and out of the troubled sector. The objective is to keep traffic levels in the trouble spots manageable for the controllers working at enroute centers.

After each plane departs, airport tower controllers notify enroute controllers who will next take charge. There are 21 air route traffic control centers located around the country, each employing 300 to 700 controllers, with more than 150 on duty during peak hours at the busier facilities. Airplanes usually fly along designated routes; each center is assigned a certain airspace containing many different routes. Enroute controllers work in teams of up to three members, depending on how heavy traffic is; each team is responsible for a section of the center’s airspace. A team, for example, might be responsible for all planes that are between 30 to 100 miles north of an airport and flying at an altitude between 6,000 and 18,000 feet.

Currently, the FAA is implementing a new automated air traffic control system, called the National Airspace System (NAS) Architecture. The NAS Architecture is a long-term strategic plan that will allow controllers to more efficiently deal with the demands of increased air traffic. It encompasses the replacement of aging equipment and the introduction of new systems, technologies, and procedures to enhance safety and security and support future aviation growth.

To prepare for planes about to enter the team’s airspace, the radar associate controller organizes flight plans coming off a printer. If two planes are scheduled to enter the team’s airspace at nearly the same time, location, and altitude, this controller may arrange with the preceding control unit for one plane to change its flight path. The previous unit may have been another team at the same or an adjacent center, or a departure controller at a neighboring terminal. As a plane approaches a team’s airspace, the radar controller accepts responsibility for the plane from the previous controlling unit. The controller also delegates responsibility for the plane to the next controlling unit when the plane leaves the team’s airspace.

Working Conditions Controllers work a basic 40-hour week; however, they may work additional hours for which they receive overtime pay or equal time off. Because most control towers and centers operate 24 hours a day, 7 days a week, controllers rotate night and weekend shifts. During busy times, controllers must work rapidly and efficiently. Total concentration is required to keep track of several planes at the same time and to make certain that all pilots receive correct instructions. The mental stress of being responsible for the safety of several aircraft and their passengers can be exhausting for some persons.

The radar controller, who is the senior team member, observes the planes in the team’s airspace on radar and communicates with the pilots when necessary. Radar controllers warn pilots about nearby planes, bad weather conditions, and other

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Employment

memory also are important because controllers constantly receive information that they must immediately grasp, interpret, and remember. Decisiveness also is required because controllers often have to make quick decisions. The ability to concentrate is crucial because controllers must make these decisions in the midst of noise and other distractions.

Air traffic controllers held about 26,000 jobs in 2002. The vast majority were employed by the FAA, which is part of the federal government. Air traffic controllers work at airports—in towers and flight service stations—and in air route traffic control centers. Some professional controllers conduct research at the FAA’s national experimental center near Atlantic City, New Jersey. Others serve as instructors at the FAA Academy in Oklahoma City, Oklahoma. A small number of civilian controllers work for the U.S. Department of Defense. In addition to controllers employed by the federal government, some work for private air traffic control companies providing service to nonFAA towers.

At airports, new controllers begin by supplying pilots with basic flight data and airport information. They then advance to the position of ground controller, then local controller, departure controller, and, finally, arrival controller. At an air route traffic control center, new controllers first deliver printed flight plans to teams, gradually advancing to radar associate controller and then radar controller. Controllers can transfer to jobs at different locations or advance to supervisory positions, including management or staff jobs in air traffic control and top administrative jobs in the FAA. However, there are only limited opportunities for a controller to switch from a position in an enroute center to a tower.

Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement To become an air traffic controller, a person must enroll in an FAA-approved education program and pass a preemployment test that measures his or her ability to learn the controller’s duties in order to qualify for job openings in the air traffic control system. Exceptions are air traffic controllers with prior experience and military veterans. The pre-employment test is currently offered only to students in the FAA Air Traffic Collegiate Training Initiative (AT-CTI) Program or the Minneapolis Community & Technical College, Air Traffic Control Training Program. In addition, applicants must have 3 years of full-time work experience or 4 years of college, or a combination of both. In combining education and experience, 1 year of undergraduate study (30 semester or 45 quarter hours) is equivalent to 9 months of work experience.

Job Outlook Employment of air traffic controllers is expected to grow about as fast as the average through the year 2012. Increasing air traffic will require more controllers to handle the additional work. Employment growth, however, is not expected to keep pace with growth in the number of aircraft flying because of the increasing automation of the air traffic control system and federal budget constraints. New computerized systems will assist the controller by automatically making many of the routine decisions. This will allow controllers to handle more traffic, thus increasing their productivity. Federal budget constraints also may limit hiring of air traffic controllers.

Upon successful completion of an FAA-approved program, individuals who receive school recommendation and who meet the basic qualification requirements, including age limit and achievement of a qualifying score on the FAA authorized pre-employment test, become eligible for employment as an air traffic controller. Candidates also must pass a medical exam, drug screening, and security clearance before they can be hired.

More job openings are expected due to replacement needs. The majority of today’s air traffic controllers will be eligible to retire over the next decade, although not all are expected to do so. Nevertheless, replacement needs will be substantial and will result in hundreds of job opportunities each year for those graduating from the FAA training programs. Despite the increasing number of jobs coming open, competition to get into the FAA training programs is expected to remain keen, as there generally are many more applicants to get into the schools than there are openings. But those that graduate have good prospects of getting a job as a controller.

Upon selection, employees attend the FAA Academy in Oklahoma City for 12 weeks of training, during which they learn the fundamentals of the airway system, FAA regulations, controller equipment, and aircraft performance characteristics, as well as more specialized tasks.

Air traffic controllers who continue to meet the proficiency and medical requirements enjoy more job security than do most workers. The demand for air travel and the workloads of air traffic controllers decline during recessions, but controllers seldom are laid off.

After graduation, it takes several years of progressively more responsible work experience, interspersed with considerable classroom instruction and independent study, to become a fully qualified controller. Controllers who fail to complete either the academy or the on-the-job portion of the training usually are dismissed. Controllers must pass a physical examination each year and a job performance examination twice each year. Failure to become certified in any position at a facility within a specified time also may result in dismissal. Controllers also are subject to drug screening as a condition of continuing employment.

Earnings Median annual earnings of air traffic controllers in 2002 were $91,600. The middle 50 percent earned between $65,480 and $112,550. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $46,410, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $131,610. The average annual salary, excluding overtime earnings, for air traffic controllers in the federal government—which employs

Air traffic controllers must be articulate, because pilots must be given directions quickly and clearly. Intelligence and a good

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America’s Top 101 Jobs for People Without a Four-Year Degree instruments, pressurized sections, accessories—brakes, valves, pumps, and air-conditioning systems, for example—and other parts of the aircraft, and do the necessary maintenance and replacement of parts. Inspections take place following a schedule based on the number of hours the aircraft has flown, calendar days since the last inspection, cycles of operation, or a combination of these factors. Large, sophisticated planes are equipped with aircraft monitoring systems, consisting of electronic boxes and consoles that monitor the aircraft’s basic operations and provide valuable diagnostic information to the mechanic. To examine an engine, aircraft mechanics work through specially designed openings while standing on ladders or scaffolds, or use hoists or lifts to remove the entire engine from the craft. After taking an engine apart, mechanics use precision instruments to measure parts for wear and use x-ray and magnetic inspection equipment to check for invisible cracks. Worn or defective parts are repaired or replaced. Mechanics may also repair sheet metal or composite surfaces, measure the tension of control cables, and check for corrosion, distortion, and cracks in the fuselage, wings, and tail. After completing all repairs, they must test the equipment to ensure that it works properly.

90 percent of the total—in nonsupervisory, supervisory, and managerial positions was $95,700 in 2002. Both the worker’s job responsibilities and the complexity of the particular facility determine a controller’s pay. For example, controllers who work at the FAA’s busiest air traffic control facilities earn higher pay. Depending on length of service, air traffic controllers receive 13 to 26 days of paid vacation and 13 days of paid sick leave each year, life insurance, and health benefits. In addition, controllers can retire at an earlier age and with fewer years of service than other federal employees. Air traffic controllers are eligible to retire at age 50 with 20 years of service as an active air traffic controller or after 25 years of active service at any age. There is a mandatory retirement age of 56 for controllers who manage air traffic. However, federal law provides for exemptions to the mandatory age of 56, up to age 61, for controllers having exceptional skills and experience.

Related Occupations Airfield operations specialists also are involved in the direction and control of traffic in air transportation.

Sources of Additional Information

Mechanics specializing in repairwork rely on the pilot’s description of a problem to find and fix faulty equipment. For example, during a preflight check, a pilot may discover that the aircraft’s fuel gauge does not work. To solve the problem, mechanics may troubleshoot the electrical system, using electrical test equipment to make sure that no wires are broken or shorted out, and replace any defective electrical or electronic components. Mechanics work as fast as safety permits so that the aircraft can be put back into service quickly.

For further information on how to qualify and apply for a job as an air traffic controller, contact: ●

Federal Aviation Administration, 800 Independence Ave., SW, Washington, DC 20591. Internet: http://www.faa.gov.

Some mechanics work on one or many different types of aircraft, such as jets, propeller-driven airplanes, and helicopters. Others specialize in one section of a particular type of aircraft, such as the engine, hydraulics, or electrical system. Powerplant mechanics are authorized to work on engines and do limited work on propellers. Airframe mechanics are authorized to work on any part of the aircraft except the instruments, powerplants, and propellers. Combination airframe-and-powerplant mechanics—called A & P mechanics—work on all parts of the plane, except instruments. The majority of mechanics working on civilian aircraft today are A & P mechanics. In small, independent repair shops, mechanics usually inspect and repair many different types of aircraft.

Aircraft and Avionics Equipment Mechanics and Service Technicians (O*NET 49-2091.00, 49-3011.01, 49-3011.02, and 49-3011.03)

Significant Points ●

The majority of these workers learn their job in 1 of about 200 trade schools certified by the Federal Aviation Administration.

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Opportunities should be excellent, but competition is likely for the best paying airline jobs.

Avionics systems are now an integral part of aircraft design and have vastly increased aircraft capability. Avionics technicians repair and maintain components used for aircraft navigation and radio communications, weather radar systems, and other instruments and computers that control flight, engine, and other primary functions. These duties may require additional licenses, such as a radiotelephone license issued by the U.S. Federal Communications Commission (FCC). Because of technological advances, an increasing amount of time is spent repairing electronic systems, such as computerized controls. Technicians also may be required to analyze and develop solutions to complex electronic problems.

Nature of the Work To keep aircraft in peak operating condition, aircraft and avionics equipment mechanics and service technicians perform scheduled maintenance, make repairs, and complete inspections required by the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA). Many aircraft mechanics, also called airframe, powerplant, and avionics aviation maintenance technicians, specialize in preventive maintenance. They inspect engines, landing gear,

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Working Conditions

held an A & P certificate for at least 3 years. Most airlines require that mechanics have a high school diploma and an A & P certificate.

Mechanics usually work in hangars or in other indoor areas, although they can work outdoors—sometimes in unpleasant weather—when hangars are full or when repairs must be made quickly. Mechanics often work under time pressure to maintain flight schedules or, in general aviation, to keep from inconveniencing customers. At the same time, mechanics have a tremendous responsibility to maintain safety standards, and this can cause the job to be stressful.

Although a few people become mechanics through on-the-job training, most learn their job in 1 of about 200 trade schools certified by the FAA. About one-third of these schools award 2- and 4-year degrees in avionics, aviation technology, or aviation maintenance management. FAA standards established by law require that certified mechanic schools offer students a minimum of 1,900 actual class hours. Coursework in these trade schools normally lasts from 24 to 30 months and provides training with the tools and equipment used on the job. Aircraft trade schools are placing more emphasis on technologies such as turbine engines, composite materials—including graphite, fiberglass, and boron— and aviation electronics, which are increasingly being used in the construction of new aircraft. Additionally, employers prefer mechanics who can perform a variety of tasks.

Frequently, mechanics must lift or pull objects weighing as much as 70 pounds. They often stand, lie, or kneel in awkward positions and occasionally must work in precarious positions on scaffolds or ladders. Noise and vibration are common when engines are being tested, so ear protection is necessary. Aircraft mechanics usually work 40 hours a week on 8-hour shifts around the clock. Overtime work is frequent.

Employment

Some aircraft mechanics in the Armed Forces acquire enough general experience to satisfy the work experience requirements for the FAA certificate. With additional study, they may pass the certifying exam. In general, however, jobs in the military services are too specialized to provide the broad experience required by the FAA. Most Armed Forces mechanics have to complete the entire training program at a trade school, although a few receive some credit for the material they learned in the service. In any case, military experience is a great advantage when seeking employment; employers consider trade school graduates who have this experience to be the most desirable applicants.

Aircraft and avionics equipment mechanics and service technicians held about 154,000 jobs in 2002; about 1 in 6 of these workers was an avionics technician. Nearly 40 percent of aircraft and avionics equipment mechanics and technicians worked for air transportation companies and close to 20 percent worked for private maintenance and repair facilities. About 20 percent worked for the federal government, and about 13 percent worked for aerospace products and parts manufacturing firms. Most of the rest worked for companies that operate their own planes to transport executives and cargo. Few mechanics and technicians were self-employed. Most airline mechanics and service technicians work at major airports near large cities. Civilian mechanics employed by the U.S. Armed Forces work at military installations. Large proportions of mechanics who work for aerospace manufacturing firms are located in California or in Washington state. Others work for the FAA, many at the facilities in Oklahoma City, Atlantic City, Wichita, or Washington, DC. Mechanics for independent repair shops work at airports in every part of the country.

Courses in mathematics, physics, chemistry, electronics, computer science, and mechanical drawing are helpful, because they demonstrate many of the principles involved in the operation of aircraft, and knowledge of these principles is often necessary to make repairs. Courses that develop writing skills also are important because mechanics are often required to submit reports. FAA regulations require current experience to keep the A & P certificate valid. Applicants must have at least 1,000 hours of work experience in the previous 24 months or take a refresher course. As new and more complex aircraft are designed, more employers are requiring mechanics to take ongoing training to update their skills. Recent technological advances in aircraft maintenance necessitate a strong background in electronics— both for acquiring and retaining jobs in this field. FAA certification standards also make ongoing training mandatory. Every 24 months, mechanics are required to take at least 16 hours of training to keep their certificate. Many mechanics take courses offered by manufacturers or employers, usually through outside contractors.

Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement The majority of mechanics who work on civilian aircraft are certificated by the FAA as “airframe mechanic,” “powerplant mechanic,” or “avionics repair specialist.” Mechanics who also have an inspector’s authorization can certify work completed by other mechanics and perform required inspections. Uncertificated mechanics are supervised by those with certificates. The FAA requires at least 18 months of work experience for an airframe, powerplant, or avionics repairer’s certificate. For a combined A & P certificate, at least 30 months of experience working with both engines and airframes is required. Completion of a program at an FAA-certified mechanic school can substitute for the work experience requirement. Applicants for all certificates also must pass written and oral tests and demonstrate that they can do the work authorized by the certificate. To obtain an inspector’s authorization, a mechanic must have

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Aircraft mechanics must do careful and thorough work that requires a high degree of mechanical aptitude. Employers seek applicants who are self-motivated, hard-working, enthusiastic, and able to diagnose and solve complex mechanical problems. Agility is important for the reaching and climbing necessary to do the job. Because they may work on the tops of wings and fuselages on large jet planes, aircraft mechanics must not be afraid of heights. ●

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America’s Top 101 Jobs for People Without a Four-Year Degree paying jobs with the major airlines or transfer to another occupation. At the same time, general aviation aircraft are becoming increasingly sophisticated, boosting the demand for qualified mechanics. Mechanics will face more competition for jobs with large airlines because the high wages and travel benefits that these jobs offer generally attract more qualified applicants than there are openings. In spite of this, job opportunities with the airlines are expected to be better than they have been in the past. But, in general, prospects will be best for applicants with experience. Mechanics who keep abreast of technological advances in electronics, composite materials, and other areas will be in greatest demand. The number of job openings for aircraft mechanics in the federal government should decline as the government increasingly contracts out service and repair functions to private repair companies.

As aircraft mechanics gain experience, they may advance to lead mechanic (or crew chief), inspector, lead inspector, or shop supervisor positions. Opportunities are best for those who have an aircraft inspector’s authorization. In the airlines, where promotion often is determined by examination, supervisors sometimes advance to executive positions. Those with broad experience in maintenance and overhaul might become inspectors with the FAA. With additional business and management training, some open their own aircraft maintenance facilities. Mechanics learn many different skills in their training that can be applied to other jobs, and some transfer to other skilled repairer occupations or electronics technician jobs.

Job Outlook Opportunities for aircraft and avionics equipment mechanics and service technician jobs should be excellent for persons who have completed aircraft mechanic training programs. Employment of aircraft mechanics is expected to increase about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2012, and large numbers of additional job openings should arise from the need to replace experienced mechanics who retire. Avionics technicians are projected to increase at a slower than average rate. Despite the long-term forecast, these occupations are currently in a period of little to no growth. Reduced passenger traffic resulting from a weak economy and the events of September 11, 2001, have forced airlines to cut back flights and take aircraft out of service. As the economy improves and public reluctance to board aircraft decreases, a growing population should increase passenger traffic and create the need for more aircraft mechanics and service technicians over the next decade. If the number of graduates from aircraft mechanic training programs continues to fall short of employer needs, opportunities for graduates of mechanic training programs should be excellent.

Earnings Median hourly earnings of aircraft mechanics and service technicians were about $20.71 in 2002. The middle 50 percent earned between $16.94 and $25.23. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $13.16, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $28.92. Median hourly earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of aircraft mechanics and service technicians in 2002 were: Air transportation, scheduled ..................................$23.48 Federal government....................................................20.59 Air transportation, nonscheduled..............................19.84 Aerospace product and parts manufacturing ............19.68 Support activities for air transportation ..................17.64 Median hourly earnings of avionics technicians were about $20.21 in 2002. The middle 50 percent earned between $17.44 and $23.91. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $14.01, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $27.00.

Most job openings for aircraft mechanics through the year 2012 will stem from replacement needs. A large number of mechanics are expected to retire over the next decade and create several thousand job openings per year. In addition, others will leave to work in related fields, such as automobile repair, as much of their skills are transferable to other maintenance and repair occupations. Also contributing to favorable future job opportunities for mechanics is the long-term trend towards fewer students entering technical schools to learn skilled maintenance and repair trades. Many of the students who have the ability and aptitude to work on planes are choosing to go to college, work in computer-related fields, or go into other repair and maintenance occupations with better working conditions. If the trend continues, the supply of trained aviation mechanics will not be able to keep up with air transportation industry needs when growth resumes in the industry.

Mechanics who work on jets for the major airlines generally earn more than those working on other aircraft. Airline mechanics and their immediate families receive reduced-fare transportation on their own and most other airlines. Almost 4 in 10 aircraft and avionics equipment mechanics and service technicians are members of or covered by union agreements. The principal unions are the International Association of Machinists and Aerospace Workers and the Transport Workers Union of America. Some mechanics are represented by the International Brotherhood of Teamsters.

Related Occupations Workers in some other occupations that involve similar mechanical and electrical work are electricians, electrical and electronics installers and repairers, and elevator installers and repairers.

Job opportunities are likely to be the best at small commuter and regional airlines, at FAA repair stations, and in general aviation. Commuter and regional airlines are the fastest growing segment of the air transportation industry, but wages in these companies tend to be lower than those in the major airlines, so they attract fewer job applicants. Also, some jobs will become available as experienced mechanics leave for higher

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Sources of Additional Information Information about jobs with a particular airline can be obtained by writing to the personnel manager of the company.

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Section One: Descriptions of 101 Top Jobs for People Without a Four-Year Degree aviation weather forecasters to find out about weather conditions en route and at their destination. Based on this information, they choose a route, altitude, and speed that will provide the fastest, safest, and smoothest flight. When flying under instrument flight rules—procedures governing the operation of the aircraft when there is poor visibility—the pilot in command, or the company dispatcher, normally files an instrument flight plan with air traffic control so that the flight can be coordinated with other air traffic.

For general information about aircraft and avionics equipment mechanics and service technicians, write to: ●

Professional Aviation Maintenance Association, 717 Princess St., Alexandria, VA 22314. Internet: http://www.pama.org

For information on jobs in a particular area, contact employers at local airports or local offices of the state employment service.

Takeoff and landing are the most difficult parts of the flight, and require close coordination between the pilot and first officer. For example, as the plane accelerates for takeoff, the pilot concentrates on the runway while the first officer scans the instrument panel. To calculate the speed they must attain to become airborne, pilots consider the altitude of the airport, outside temperature, weight of the plane, and speed and direction of the wind. The moment the plane reaches takeoff speed, the first officer informs the pilot, who then pulls back on the controls to raise the nose of the plane.

Aircraft Pilots and Flight Engineers (O*NET 53-2011.00 and 53-2012.00)

Significant Points ●

The best opportunities for jobs will be with the regional airlines and business aviation.

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Pilots usually start with smaller commuter and regional airlines to acquire the experience needed to qualify for higher paying jobs with national airlines.

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Most pilots traditionally have learned to fly in the military, but growing numbers have college degrees with flight training from civilian flying schools that are certified by the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA).

Unless the weather is bad, the actual flight is relatively easy. Airplane pilots, with the assistance of autopilot and the flight management computer, steer the plane along their planned route and are monitored by the air traffic control stations they pass along the way. They regularly scan the instrument panel to check their fuel supply, the condition of their engines, and the air-conditioning, hydraulic, and other systems. Pilots may request a change in altitude or route if circumstances dictate. For example, if the ride is rougher than expected, they may ask air traffic control if pilots flying at other altitudes have reported better conditions. If so, they may request an altitude change. This procedure also may be used to find a stronger tailwind or a weaker headwind to save fuel and increase speed.

Nature of the Work Pilots are highly trained professionals who fly airplanes and helicopters to carry out a wide variety of tasks. Most are airline pilots, copilots, and flight engineers who transport passengers and cargo, but 1 out of 5 pilots is a commercial pilot involved in more unusual tasks, such as dusting crops, spreading seed for reforestation, testing aircraft, flying passengers and cargo to areas not served by regular airlines, directing firefighting efforts, tracking criminals, monitoring traffic, and rescuing and evacuating injured persons.

In contrast, helicopters are used for short trips at relatively low altitude, so pilots must be constantly on the lookout for trees, bridges, powerlines, transmission towers, and other dangerous obstacles. Regardless of the type of aircraft, all pilots must monitor warning devices designed to help detect sudden shifts in wind conditions that can cause crashes. Pilots must rely completely on their instruments when visibility is poor. On the basis of altimeter readings, they know how high above ground they are and whether they can fly safely over mountains and other obstacles. Special navigation radios give pilots precise information that, with the help of special maps, tells them their exact position. Other very sophisticated equipment provides directions to a point just above the end of a runway and enables pilots to land completely “blind.” Once on the ground, pilots must complete records on their flight for their organization and the FAA report.

Except on small aircraft, two pilots usually make up the cockpit crew. Generally, the most experienced pilot, the captain, is in command and supervises all other crew members. The pilot and the copilot, often called the first officer, share flying and other duties, such as communicating with air traffic controllers and monitoring the instruments. Some large aircraft have a third pilot—the flight engineer—who assists the other pilots by monitoring and operating many of the instruments and systems, making minor in-flight repairs, and watching for other aircraft. New technology can perform many flight tasks, however, and virtually all new aircraft now fly with only two pilots, who rely more heavily on computerized controls.

The number of nonflying duties that pilots have depends on the employment setting. Airline pilots have the services of large support staffs, and consequently, perform few nonflying duties. Pilots employed by other organizations such as charter operators or businesses have many other duties. They may load the aircraft, handle all passenger luggage to ensure a balanced load, and supervise refueling; other nonflying responsibilities include keeping records, scheduling flights, arranging for major maintenance, and performing minor aircraft maintenance and repairwork.

Before departure, pilots plan their flights carefully. They thoroughly check their aircraft to make sure that the engines, controls, instruments, and other systems are functioning properly. They also make sure that baggage or cargo has been loaded correctly. They confer with flight dispatchers and

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America’s Top 101 Jobs for People Without a Four-Year Degree Some pilots are instructors. They teach their students the principles of flight in ground-school classes and demonstrate how to operate aircraft in dual-controlled planes and helicopters. A few specially trained pilots are “examiners” or “check pilots.” They periodically fly with other pilots or pilot’s license applicants to make sure that they are proficient.

inspecting pipelines, or conducting sightseeing trips. Federal, state, and local governments also employed pilots. A few pilots were self-employed.

Working Conditions

Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement

By law, airline pilots cannot fly more than 100 hours a month or more than 1,000 hours a year. Most airline pilots fly an average of 75 hours a month and work an additional 75 hours a month performing nonflying duties. Most pilots have a variable work schedule, working several days on, then several days off. Most spend a considerable amount of time away from home because the majority of flights involve overnight layovers. When pilots are away from home, the airlines provide hotel accommodations, transportation between the hotel and airport, and an allowance for meals and other expenses. Airlines operate flights at all hours of the day and night, so work schedules often are irregular. Flight assignments are based on seniority. Commercial pilots also may have irregular schedules, flying 30 hours one month and 90 hours the next. Because these pilots frequently have many nonflying responsibilities, they have much less free time than do airline pilots. Except for business pilots, most do not remain away from home overnight. They may work odd hours. Flight instructors may have irregular and seasonal work schedules, depending on their students’ available time and the weather. Instructors frequently work in the evening or on weekends. Airline pilots, especially those on international routes, often suffer jet lag—fatigue caused by many hours of flying through different time zones. To guard against excessive pilot fatigue that could result in unsafe flying conditions, the FAA requires airlines to allow pilots at least 8 hours of uninterrupted rest in the 24 hours before finishing their flight duty. The work of test pilots, who check the flight performance of new and experimental planes, may be dangerous. Pilots who are crop dusters may be exposed to toxic chemicals and seldom have the benefit of a regular landing strip. Helicopter pilots involved in rescue and police work may be subject to personal injury. Although flying does not involve much physical effort, the mental stress of being responsible for a safe flight, regardless of the weather, can be tiring. Pilots must be alert and quick to react if something goes wrong, particularly during takeoff and landing.

Employment Civilian aircraft pilots and flight engineers held about 100,000 jobs in 2002. About 79,000 worked as airline pilots, copilots, and flight engineers. The remainder were commercial pilots who worked as flight instructors at local airports or for large businesses that fly company cargo and executives in their own airplanes or helicopters. Some commercial pilots flew small planes for air-taxi companies, usually to or from lightly traveled airports not served by major airlines. Others worked for a variety of businesses, performing tasks such as dusting crops,

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Pilots are located across the country, but airline pilots usually are based near major metropolitan airports or airports operating as hubs for the major airlines.

All pilots who are paid to transport passengers or cargo must have a commercial pilot’s license with an instrument rating issued by the FAA. Helicopter pilots must hold a commercial pilot’s certificate with a helicopter rating. To qualify for these licenses, applicants must be at least 18 years old and have at least 250 hours of flight experience. The experience required can be reduced through participation in certain flight school curricula approved by the FAA. Applicants also must pass a strict physical examination to make sure that they are in good health and have 20/20 vision with or without glasses, good hearing, and no physical handicaps that could impair their performance. They must pass a written test that includes questions on the principles of safe flight, navigation techniques, and FAA regulations, and must demonstrate their flying ability to FAA or designated examiners. To fly during periods of low visibility, pilots must be rated by the FAA to fly by instruments. Pilots may qualify for this rating by having 105 hours of flight experience, including 40 hours of experience in flying by instruments; they also must pass a written examination on procedures and FAA regulations covering instrument flying and demonstrate to an examiner their ability to fly by instruments. Airline pilots must fulfill additional requirements. Pilots must have an airline transport pilot’s license. Applicants for this license must be at least 23 years old and have a minimum of 1,500 hours of flying experience, including night and instrument flying, and must pass FAA written and flight examinations. Usually, they also have one or more advanced ratings, such as multiengine aircraft or aircraft-type ratings, dependent upon the requirements of their particular flying jobs. Because pilots must be able to make quick decisions and accurate judgments under pressure, many airline companies reject applicants who do not pass required psychological and aptitude tests. All licenses are valid so long as a pilot can pass the periodic physical and eye examinations and tests of flying skills required by federal government and company regulations. The U.S. Armed Forces have always been an important source of trained pilots for civilian jobs. Military pilots gain valuable experience on jet aircraft and helicopters, and persons with this experience usually are preferred for civilian pilot jobs. This primarily reflects the extensive flying time military pilots receive. Persons without Armed Forces training may become pilots by attending flight schools or by taking lessons from individual FAA-certified flight instructors. The FAA has certified about 600 civilian flying schools, including some colleges and universities that offer degree credit for pilot training. Over the projection period, trained pilots leaving the military are not expected to increase very much in number as the need for

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Section One: Descriptions of 101 Top Jobs for People Without a Four-Year Degree decline in the demand for air travel forces airlines to curtail the number of flights, airlines may temporarily furlough some pilots.

pilots grows in civilian aviation. As a result, FAA-certified schools will train a larger share of pilots than in the past. Although some small airlines will hire high school graduates, most airlines require at least 2 years of college and prefer to hire college graduates. In fact, most entrants to this occupation have a college degree. Because the number of college educated applicants continues to increase, many employers are making a college degree an educational requirement.

After September 11, 2001, air travel was severely depressed. A number of the major airlines were forced to reduce schedules, layoff pilots, and even declare bankruptcy. At the same time, hiring continued at regional and low-fare airlines. It is expected that job opportunities will continue to be better with the regional airlines and low-fare carriers, which are growing faster than the more well-known major airlines. Opportunities with air cargo carriers also are expected to be good due to increasing security requirements for shipping freight on passenger airlines and growth in e-business.

Depending on the type of aircraft, new airline pilots start as first officers or flight engineers. Although some airlines favor applicants who already have a flight engineer’s license, they may provide flight engineer training for those who have only the commercial license. Many pilots begin with smaller regional or commuter airlines, where they obtain experience flying passengers on scheduled flights into busy airports in all weather conditions. These jobs often lead to higher paying jobs with bigger, national airlines.

Pilots attempting to get jobs at the major airlines will face strong competition, as those firms tend to attract many more applicants than they have jobs. They also will have to compete with laid off pilots for any available jobs. Pilots who have logged the greatest number of flying hours in the more sophisticated equipment typically have the best prospects. For this reason, military pilots often have an advantage over other applicants. However, prior to September 11, 2001, some airlines reported a shortage of qualified pilots to operate the most sophisticated aircraft. Thus, when hiring improves, jobseekers with the most FAA licenses will have a competitive advantage. Opportunities for pilot jobs should be better at smaller airlines and in corporate travel.

Initial training for airline pilots includes a week of company indoctrination, 3 to 6 weeks of ground school and simulator training, and 25 hours of initial operating experience, including a check-ride with an FAA aviation safety inspector. Once trained and “on the line,” pilots are required to attend recurrent training and simulator checks twice a year throughout their career. Organizations other than airlines usually require less flying experience. However, a commercial pilot’s license is a minimum requirement, and employers prefer applicants who have experience in the type of craft they will be flying. New employees usually start as first officers, or fly less sophisticated equipment. Test pilots often are required to have an engineering degree.

The number of flight engineers is projected to decline through 2012 as new planes needing only two pilots replace older planes that required flight engineers. Pilots also will experience some productivity improvements as airlines switch to larger planes and adopt the low-fare carrier model that emphasizes faster turnaround times for flights, keeping more pilots in the air rather than waiting on the ground.

Advancement for all pilots usually is limited to other flying jobs. Many pilots start as flight instructors, building up their flying hours while they earn money teaching. As they become more experienced, these pilots occasionally fly charter planes or perhaps get jobs with small air transportation firms, such as air-taxi companies. Some advance to flying corporate planes. A small number get flight engineer jobs with the airlines.

Earnings Earnings of aircraft pilots and flight engineers vary greatly depending whether they work as airline or commercial pilots. Earnings of airline pilots are among the highest in the nation and depend on factors such as the type, size, and maximum speed of the plane and the number of hours and miles flown. For example, pilots who fly jet aircraft usually earn higher salaries than do pilots who fly turboprops. Airline pilots and flight engineers may earn extra pay for night and international flights. In 2002, median annual earnings of airline pilots, copilots, and flight engineers were $109,580. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $55,800. More than 25 percent earned over $145,000.

In the airlines, advancement usually depends on seniority provisions of union contracts. After 1 to 5 years, flight engineers advance according to seniority to first officer and, after 5 to 15 years, to captain. Seniority also determines which pilots get the more desirable routes. In a nonairline job, a first officer may advance to pilot and, in large companies, to chief pilot or director of aviation in charge of aircraft scheduling, maintenance, and flight procedures.

Job Outlook

Median annual earnings of commercial pilots were $47,970 in 2002. The middle 50 percent earned between $33,830 and $70,140. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $26,100, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $101,460.

The passenger airline industry is undergoing many changes, with some airlines posting increases in passenger traffic and adding routes while others are cutting back. Overall, the employment of aircraft pilots is projected to increase about as fast as average for all occupations through 2012. In the long run, demand for air travel is expected to track increases in the population and growth of the economy. In the short run, however, employment of pilots is generally sensitive to cyclical swings in the economy. During recessions, when a

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Airline pilots usually are eligible for life and health insurance plans financed by the airlines. They also receive retirement benefits and, if they fail the FAA physical examination at some point in their careers, they get disability payments. In addition, pilots receive an expense allowance, or “per diem,” for every hour they are away from home. Some airlines also

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America’s Top 101 Jobs for People Without a Four-Year Degree ●

provide allowances to pilots for purchasing and cleaning their uniforms. As an additional benefit, pilots and their immediate families usually are entitled to free or reduced-fare transportation on their own and other airlines.

Nature of the Work

More than half of all aircraft pilots are members of unions. Most of the pilots who fly for the major airlines are members of the Airline Pilots Association, International, but those employed by one major airline are members of the Allied Pilots Association. Some flight engineers are members of the Flight Engineers’ International Association.

Many people like animals. But, as pet owners can attest, taking care of them is hard work. Animal care and service workers— which include animal caretakers and animal trainers—train, feed, water, groom, bathe, and exercise animals, and clean, disinfect, and repair their cages. They also play with the animals, provide companionship, and observe behavioral changes that could indicate illness or injury. Boarding kennels, animal shelters, veterinary hospitals and clinics, stables, laboratories, aquariums, and zoological parks all house animals and employ animal care and service workers. Job titles and duties vary by employment setting.

Related Occupations Although they are not in the cockpit, air traffic controllers and airfield operation specialists also play an important role in making sure flights are safe and on schedule, and participate in many of the decisions that pilots must make.

Kennel attendants care for pets while their owners are working or traveling out of town. Beginning attendants perform basic tasks, such as cleaning cages and dog runs, filling food and water dishes, and exercising animals. Experienced attendants may provide basic animal healthcare, as well as bathe animals, trim nails, and attend to other grooming needs. Attendants who work in kennels also may sell pet food and supplies, assist in obedience training, help with breeding, or prepare animals for shipping.

Sources of Additional Information Information about job opportunities, salaries for a particular airline, and qualifications required may be obtained by writing to the personnel manager of the airline. For information on airline pilots, contact: ●

Airline Pilots Association, 533 Herndon Parkway, Herndon, VA 22070.

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Air Transport Association of America, Inc., 1301 Pennsylvania Ave. NW, Suite 1100, Washington, DC 20004.

Animal caretakers who specialize in grooming or maintaining a pet’s—usually a dog’s or cat’s—appearance are called groomers. Some groomers work in kennels, veterinary clinics, animal shelters, or pet-supply stores. Others operate their own grooming business, typically at a salon, or sometimes by making house calls. Groomers answer telephones, schedule appointments, discuss pets’ grooming needs with clients, and collect information on the pet’s disposition and its veterinarian. Groomers often are the first to notice a medical problem, such as an ear or skin infection, that requires veterinary care.

For information on helicopter pilots, contact: ●

Helicopter Association International, 1635 Prince Street, Alexandria, VA 22314.

For information about job opportunities in companies other than airlines, consult the classified section of aviation trade magazines and apply to companies that operate aircraft at local airports.

Grooming the pet involves several steps: an initial brush-out is followed by an initial clipping of hair or fur using electric clippers, combs, and grooming shears; the groomer then cuts the nails, cleans the ears, bathes, and blow-dries the animal, and ends with a final clipping and styling.

Animal Care and Service Workers

Animal caretakers in animal shelters perform a variety of duties and work with a wide variety of animals. In addition to attending to the basic needs of the animals, caretakers also must keep records of the animals received and discharged and any tests or treatments done. Some vaccinate newly admitted animals under the direction of a veterinarian or veterinary technician, and euthanize (painlessly put to death) seriously ill, severely injured, or unwanted animals. Animal caretakers in animal shelters also interact with the public, answering telephone inquiries, screening applicants for animal adoption, or educating visitors on neutering and other animal health issues.

(O*NET 39-2011.00 and 39-2021.00)

Significant Points ●

Animal lovers get satisfaction in this occupation, but the work can be unpleasant and physically and emotionally demanding.

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Most workers are trained on the job, but advancement depends on experience, formal training, and continuing education.

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Starting salaries are significantly lower than those in many other fields.

Caretakers in stables are called grooms. They saddle and unsaddle horses, give them rubdowns, and walk them to cool them off after a ride. They also feed, groom, and exercise the horses; clean out stalls and replenish bedding; polish saddles; clean and organize the tack (harness, saddle, and bridle) room; and store supplies and feed. Experienced grooms may help train horses.

Good employment opportunities are expected for most positions; however, keen competition is expected for jobs as zookeepers.

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Employment

In zoos, animal care and service workers, called keepers, prepare the diets and clean the enclosures of animals, and sometimes assist in raising them when they are very young. They watch for any signs of illness or injury, monitor eating patterns or any changes in behavior, and record their observations. Keepers also may answer questions and ensure that the visiting public behaves responsibly toward the exhibited animals. Depending on the zoo, keepers may be assigned to work with a broad group of animals such as mammals, birds, or reptiles, or they may work with a limited collection of animals such as primates, large cats, or small mammals.

Animal care and service workers held 151,000 jobs in 2002. Over 80 percent worked as nonfarm animal caretakers; the remainder worked as animal trainers. Nonfarm animal caretakers worked primarily in boarding kennels, animal shelters, stables, grooming shops, animal hospitals, and veterinary offices. A significant number also worked for animal humane societies, racing stables, dog and horse racetrack operators, zoos, theme parks, circuses, and other amusement and recreations services. In 2002, 1 out of every 4 nonfarm animal caretakers was self-employed.

Animal trainers train animals for riding, security, performance, obedience, or assisting persons with disabilities. Animal trainers do this by accustoming the animal to human voice and contact, and conditioning the animal to respond to commands. Trainers use several techniques to help them train animals. One technique, known as a bridge, is a stimulus that a trainer uses to communicate the precise moment an animal does something correctly. When the animal responds correctly, the trainer gives positive reinforcement in a variety of ways: food, toys, play, rubdowns, or speaking the word “good.” Animal training takes place in small steps, and often takes months and even years of repetition. During the conditioning process, trainers provide animals mental stimulation, physical exercise, and husbandry care. In addition to their hands-on work with the animals, trainers often oversee other aspects of the animal’s care, such as diet preparation. Trainers often work in competitions or shows, such as the circus or marine parks. Trainers who work in shows also may participate in educational programs for visitors and guests.

Employment of animal trainers was concentrated in animal services that specialize in training horses, pets, and other animal specialties; and in commercial sports, training racehorses and dogs. Over 2 in 5 animal trainers were self-employed.

Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most animal care and service workers are trained on the job. Employers generally prefer to hire people with some experience with animals. Some training programs are available for specific types of animal caretakers, such as groomers, but formal training is usually not necessary for entry-level positions. Animal trainers often need to possess a high school diploma or GED equivalent. However, some animal training jobs may require a bachelor’s degree and additional skills. For example, a marine mammal trainer usually needs a bachelor’s degree in biology, marine biology, animal science, psychology, zoology, or related field, plus strong swimming skills and SCUBA certification. All animal trainers need patience, sensitivity, and experience with problem-solving and animal obedience. Certification is not mandatory for animal trainers, but several organizations offer training programs and certification for prospective animal trainers.

Working Conditions People who love animals get satisfaction from working with and helping them. However, some of the work may be unpleasant, physically and emotionally demanding, and sometimes dangerous. Most animal care and service workers have to clean animal cages and lift, hold, or restrain animals, risking exposure to bites or scratches. Their work often involves kneeling, crawling, repeated bending, and lifting heavy supplies like bales of hay or bags of feed. Animal caretakers must take precautions when treating animals with germicides or insecticides. The work setting can be noisy. Caretakers of show and sports animals travel to competitions.

Most pet groomers learn their trade by completing an informal apprenticeship, usually lasting 6 to 10 weeks, under the guidance of an experienced groomer. Prospective groomers also may attend one of the 50 state-licensed grooming schools throughout the country, with programs varying in length from 2 to 18 weeks. The National Dog Groomers Association of America certifies groomers who pass a written examination consisting of 400 questions, including some on cats, with a separate part testing practical skills. Beginning groomers often start by taking on one duty, such as bathing and drying the pet. They eventually assume responsibility for the entire grooming process, from the initial brush-out to the final clipping. Groomers who work in large retail establishments or kennels may, with experience, move into supervisory or managerial positions. Experienced groomers often choose to open their own shops.

Animal care and service workers who witness abused animals or who assist in the euthanizing of unwanted, aged, or hopelessly injured animals may experience emotional stress. Those working for private humane societies and municipal animal shelters often deal with the public, some of whom might react with hostility to any implication that the owners are neglecting or abusing their pets. Such workers must maintain a calm and professional demeanor while they enforce the laws regarding animal care.

Beginning animal caretakers in kennels learn on the job, and usually start by cleaning cages and feeding and watering animals. Kennel caretakers may be promoted to kennel supervisor, assistant manager, and manager, and those with enough capital and experience may open up their own kennels. The American Boarding Kennels Association (ABKA) offers a three-

Animal care and service workers may work outdoors in all kinds of weather. Hours are irregular. Animals must be fed every day, so caretakers often work weekend and holiday shifts. In some animal hospitals, research facilities, and animal shelters, an attendant is on duty 24 hours a day, which means night shifts.

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America’s Top 101 Jobs for People Without a Four-Year Degree stage, home-study program for individuals interested in pet care. The first two stages address basic and advanced principles of animal care, while the third stage focuses on in-depth animal care and good business procedures. Those who complete the third stage and pass oral and written examinations administered by the ABKA become Certified Kennel Operators (CKO). Some zoological parks may require their caretakers to have a bachelor’s degree in biology, animal science, or a related field. Most require experience with animals, preferably as a volunteer or paid keeper in a zoo. Zookeepers may advance to senior keeper, assistant head keeper, head keeper, and assistant curator, but very few openings occur, especially for the higher level positions. Animal caretakers in animal shelters are not required to have any specialized training, but training programs and workshops are increasingly available through the Humane Society of the United States, the American Humane Association, and the National Animal Control Association. Workshop topics include cruelty investigations, appropriate methods of euthanasia for shelter animals, proper guidelines for capturing animals, and techniques for preventing problems with wildlife. With experience and additional training, caretakers in animal shelters may become adoption coordinators, animal control officers, emergency rescue drivers, assistant shelter managers, or shelter directors.

Job Outlook Good job opportunities are expected for most positions because many workers leave this occupation each year. The need to replace workers leaving the field will create the overwhelming majority of job openings. Many animal caretaker jobs require little or no training and have flexible work schedules, attracting people seeking their first job, students, and others looking for temporary or part-time work. The outlook for caretakers in zoos, however, is not favorable due to slow growth in zoo capacity and keen competition for the few positions. Job opportunities for animal care and service workers may vary from year to year, because the strength of the economy affects demand for these workers. Pet owners tend to spend more on animal services when the economy is strong. In addition to replacement needs, employment of animal care and service workers is expected to grow faster than the average for all occupations through 2012. The pet population—which drives employment of animal caretakers in kennels, grooming shops, animal shelters, and veterinary clinics and hospitals—is expected to increase. Pet owners—including a large number of baby boomers, whose disposable income is expected to increase as they age—are expected to increasingly take advantage of grooming services, daily and overnight boarding services, training services, and veterinary services, resulting in more jobs for animal care and service workers. As many pet owners increasingly consider their pet as part of the family, their demand for luxury animal services and willingness to spend greater amounts of money on their pet will continue to grow. Demand for animal care and service workers in animal shelters is expected to remain steady. Communities are increasingly recognizing the connection between animal abuse and abuse

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toward humans and will probably continue to commit funds to animal shelters, many of which are working hand-in-hand with social service agencies and law enforcement teams. Employment growth of personal and group animal trainers will stem from an increased number of animal owners seeking training services for their pets, including behavior modification and feline behavior training.

Earnings Median hourly earnings of nonfarm animal caretakers were $8.21 in 2002. The middle 50 percent earned between $6.95 and $10.26. The bottom 10 percent earned less than $6.13, and the top 10 percent earned more than $13.39. Median hourly earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of nonfarm animal caretakers in 2002 were as follows: Other personal services ..............................................$8.39 Spectator sports ............................................................8.24 Social advocacy organizations ....................................7.79 Other miscellaneous store retailers..............................7.62 Other professional, scientific, and technical services ......................................................................7.55 Median hourly earnings of animal trainers were $11.03 in 2002. The middle 50 percent earned between $8.21 and $15.96. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $6.87, and the top 10 percent earned more than $21.65.

Related Occupations Others who work extensively with animals include farmers, ranchers, and agricultural managers; agricultural workers; veterinarians; veterinary technologists and technicians; veterinary assistants; biological scientists; and medical scientists.

Sources of Additional Information For more information on jobs in animal caretaking and control, and the animal shelter and control personnel training program, write to: ●

The Humane Society of the United States, 2100 L St. NW, Washington, DC 20037-1598. Internet: http://www.hsus.org

For career information and information on training, certification, and earnings of animal control officers at federal, state, and local levels, contact: ●

National Animal Control Association, P.O. Box 480851, Kansas City, MO 64148-0851. Internet: http://www.nacanet.org

To obtain a listing of state-licensed grooming schools, send a stamped, self-addressed, business-size envelope to: ●

National Dog Groomers Association of America, P.O. Box 101, Clark, PA 16113. For information on certification, see the following Internet site: http://www.nauticom.net/www/ndga

For information on becoming an advanced pet care technician at a kennel, contact: ●

The American Boarding Kennels Association, 1702 East Pikes Peak Ave., Colorado Springs, CO 80909.

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Section One: Descriptions of 101 Top Jobs for People Without a Four-Year Degree ings, and computer-aided drafting systems. They also may use a variety of tools and precision measuring instruments. Some experienced assemblers work with engineers and technicians, assembling prototypes or test products.

Armed Forces

As technology changes, so too does the manufacturing process. For example, automated manufacturing systems include applications of robotics, computers, programmable motion control, and various sensing technologies. These systems change the way in which goods are made and affect the jobs of those who make them.

(O*NET 55-1011.00, 55-1012.00, 55-1013.00, 55-1014.00, 55-1015.00, 55-1016.00, 55-1017.00, 55-1019.99, and 55-2011.00)

For specific information about careers in the Armed Forces, see the listing for Job Opportunities in the Armed Forces beginning on page 153.

The concept of “lean” manufacturing, for example, places a greater premium on teamwork and communication within “cells” of workers than it does on the assembly line process. Team assemblers perform all of the assembly tasks assigned to their teams, rotating through the different tasks, rather than specializing in a single task. They also may decide how the work is to be assigned and how different tasks are to be performed. This worker flexibility helps companies to cover for absent workers, and increases their ability to respond to changes in demand by shifting labor from one product line to another. For example, if demand for a product drops, companies may reduce the number of workers involved, while individual workers perform more stages of the assembly process. Some aspects of lean production, such as rotating tasks, are becoming more common to all assembly and fabrication occupations.

Assemblers and Fabricators (O*NET 51-2011.01, 51-2011.03, 51-2021.00, 51-2022.00, 51-2023.00, 51-2031.00, 51-2041.01, 51-2041.02, and 51-2091.00)

Significant Points ●

A decline in employment is expected, reflecting increasing automation and the shift of assembly to countries with lower labor costs.

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Work areas may be noisy, and many assemblers may have to sit or stand for long periods.

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A high school diploma is preferred for most positions; specialized training is required for some assembly jobs.

Working Conditions The working conditions for assemblers and fabricators vary from plant to plant and from industry to industry. Work areas may be noisy, and many assemblers may have to sit or stand for long periods. Both electronic and electromechanical equipment assemblers, for example, sit at tables to perform much of their work, although their surroundings are generally clean, well-lit, and free from dust. Some electrical and electronics assemblers come in contact with soldering fumes, but ventilation systems and fans normally minimize this problem. Assemblers of equipment that is vulnerable to dust and dirt, such as transmissions, may work in clean rooms that are designed to minimize contamination. Aircraft assemblers, however, usually come in contact with oil and grease, and their working areas may be quite noisy. They also may have to lift and fit heavy objects. In many cases, improvements in workstation design and the increased use of overhead cranes and other power-lifting equipment have improved working conditions.

Nature of the Work Assemblers and fabricators produce a wide range of finished goods from manufactured parts or subassemblies. They produce intricate manufactured products, such as aircraft, automobile engines, computers, and electrical and electronic components. Assemblers may work on subassemblies or the final assembly of an array of finished products or components. For example, electrical and electronic equipment assemblers put together or modify missile control systems, radio or test equipment, computers, machine-tool numerical controls, radar, or sonar, and prototypes of these and other products. Electromechanical equipment assemblers prepare and test equipment or devices such as appliances, dynamometers, or ejection-seat mechanisms. Coil winders, tapers, and finishers wind wire coil used in resistors, transformers, generators, and electric motors. Engine and other machine assemblers construct, assemble, or rebuild engines and turbines, and office, agricultural, construction, oilfield, rolling mill, textile, woodworking, paper, and food-wrapping machinery. Aircraft structure, surfaces, rigging, and systems assemblers put together and install parts of airplanes, space vehicles, or missiles, such as landing gear. Structural metal fabricators and fitters cut, align, and fit structural metal parts according to detailed specifications prior to welding or riveting.

Most full-time assemblers work a 40-hour week, although overtime and shiftwork is fairly common in some industries. Work schedules of assemblers may vary at plants with more than one shift.

Employment Most of the 2.1 million assembler and fabricator jobs in 2002 were in manufacturing; most of the 7 percent who were employed by employment services firms also worked in manufacturing plants. Team assemblers, the largest specialty, accounted for 55 percent of assembler and fabricator jobs. The

Assemblers and fabricators involved in product development read and interpret engineering specifications from text, draw-

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America’s Top 101 Jobs for People Without a Four-Year Degree distribution of employment among the various types of assemblers was as follows: Team assemblers ..................................................1,174,000 Electrical and electronic equipment assemblers ............................................................281,000 Structural metal fabricators and fitters ....................89,000 Electromechanical equipment assemblers ..............60,000 Engine and other machine assemblers ....................50,000 Fiberglass laminators and fabricators ......................37,000 Coil winders, tapers, and finishers ..........................36,000 Aircraft structure, surfaces, rigging, and systems assemblers ................................................27,000 Timing device assemblers, adjusters, and calibrators ..........................................................6,500 All other assemblers and fabricators ....................361,000 Manufacturing industries employ 80 percent of assemblers and fabricators. Assembly of computers and electronic products accounted for 13 percent of all jobs. Assembly of transportation equipment, such as aircraft, autos, trucks, and buses accounted for 19 percent of all jobs. Other industries that employ many assemblers and fabricators were machinery manufacturing (heating and air-conditioning equipment; agriculture, construction, and mining machinery; and engine, turbine, and power transmission equipment); electrical equipment, appliance, and component manufacturing (lighting, household appliances, and electrical equipment); and fabricated metal products. The following tabulation shows wage and salary employment in manufacturing industries employing the most assemblers and fabricators in 2002. Transportation equipment manufacturing............397,000 Computer and electronic product manufacturing ......................................................285,000 Machinery manufacturing ....................................209,000 Electrical equipment, appliance, and omponent manufacturing....................................160,000 Fabricated metal product manufacturing ............155,000

Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement New assemblers and fabricators are normally entry-level employees. The ability to do accurate work at a rapid pace and to follow detailed instructions are key job requirements. A high school diploma is preferred for most positions. Following detailed assembly instructions requires basic reading skills, although many instructions rely on pictures and diagrams. Applicants need specialized training for some assembly jobs. For example, employers may require that applicants for electrical or electronic assembler jobs be technical school graduates or have equivalent military training. Other positions require only on-the-job training, sometimes including employer-sponsored classroom instruction, in the broad range

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of assembly duties that employees may be required to perform. Good eyesight, with or without glasses, is required for assemblers and fabricators who work with small parts. Plants that make electrical and electronic products may test applicants for color vision, because many of their products contain many differently colored wires. Manual dexterity and the ability to carry out complex, repetitive tasks quickly and methodically also are important. As assemblers and fabricators become more experienced, they may progress to jobs that require greater skill and be given more responsibility. Experienced assemblers may become product repairers if they have learned the many assembly operations and understand the construction of a product. These workers fix assembled articles that operators or inspectors have identified as defective. Assemblers also can advance to quality control jobs or be promoted to supervisor. Experienced assemblers and fabricators also may become members of research and development teams, working with engineers and other project designers to design, develop, and build prototypes, and test new product models. In some companies, assemblers can become trainees for one of the skilled trades, such as machinist. Those with a background in math, science, and computers may advance to become programmers or operators of more highly automated production equipment.

Job Outlook Employment of assemblers and fabricators is expected to decline through the year 2012, reflecting increasing automation and the shift of assembly to countries with lower labor costs. As manufacturers strive to improve precision and productivity, automated machinery increasingly will be used to perform work more economically and more efficiently. Technological advances should continue raising the productivity of assembly workers and adversely affecting their employment. In addition to new jobs stemming from growth, many job openings will result from the need to replace workers leaving this large occupational group. The effects of automation will be felt more among some types of assemblers and fabricators than among others. Automated manufacturing systems are expensive, and a large volume of repetitive work is required to justify their purchase. Also, where the assembly parts involved are irregular in size or location, new technology only now is beginning to make inroads. For example, much assembly in the aerospace industry is done in hard-to-reach locations—inside airplane fuselages or gear boxes, for example—which are unsuited to robots; as a result, aircraft assemblers will not be easily replaced by automated processes, although employment of aircraft assemblers is still expected to decline due to the projected employment decline in the aerospace industry. On the other hand, automation increasingly will be used in the precision assembly of electronic goods, in which a significant number of electronics assemblers are employed. Many producers send their assembly functions to countries where labor costs are lower. This trend in assembly, promoted by more liberal trade and investment policies, results in shifts in the composition of America’s manufacturing workforce.

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Section One: Descriptions of 101 Top Jobs for People Without a Four-Year Degree ing workers; and machine setters, operators, and tenders— metal and plastic. Assemblers and fabricators also are responsible for some quality control and product testing, as is the case for inspectors, testers, sorters, samplers, and weighers.

Decisions by American corporations to move assembly to other nations should limit employment growth for assemblers in some industries, such as electronics assembly, but a free trade environment also may lead to growth in the export of goods assembled in the United States.

Sources of Additional Information

Earnings

Information about employment opportunities for assemblers is available from local offices of the state employment service and from locals of the unions mentioned earlier.

Earnings vary by industry, geographic region, skill, educational level, and complexity of the machinery operated. In 2002, median hourly earnings were $18.71 for aircraft structure, surfaces, rigging, and systems assemblers; $14.02 for engine and other machine assemblers; $11.07 for coil winders, tapers, and finishers; $11.83 for fiberglass laminators and finishers; $11.63 for timing device assemblers, calibrators, and adjusters; $12.15 for electromechanical equipment assemblers; and $11.00 for all other assemblers.

Automotive Service Technicians and Mechanics

Median hourly earnings of team assemblers were $10.90 in 2002. The middle 50 percent earned between $8.81 and $13.84. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $7.41, and the highest 10 percent earned $17.73. Median hourly earnings in the manufacturing industries employing the largest numbers of team assemblers in 2002 are shown below:

(O*NET 49-3023.01 and 49-3023.02)

Significant Points

Motor vehicle parts manufacturing ........................$12.36 Other wood product manufacturing ........................10.44 Plastics product manufacturing ................................10.24 Other miscellaneous manufacturing ..........................9.58

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Formal automotive technician training is the best preparation for these challenging technology-based jobs.

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Opportunities should be very good for automotive service technicians and mechanics with diagnostic and problemsolving skills and knowledge of electronics and mathematics.

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Automotive service technicians and mechanics must continually adapt to changing technology and repair techniques as vehicle components and systems become increasingly sophisticated.

Employment services ..................................................8.30 Median hourly earnings of electrical and electronic equipment assemblers were $11.03 in 2002. The middle 50 percent earned between $9.02 and $13.84. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $7.57, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $17.38. Median hourly earnings in the manufacturing industries employing the largest numbers of electrical and electronic equipment assemblers in 2002 are shown below:

Nature of the Work

Navigational, measuring, electromedical, and control instruments manufacturing ..............$12.21

Anyone whose car or light truck has broken down knows the importance of the jobs of automotive service technicians and mechanics. The ability to diagnose the source of a problem quickly and accurately requires good reasoning ability and a thorough knowledge of automobiles. Many technicians consider diagnosing hard-to-find troubles one of their most challenging and satisfying duties.

Computer and peripheral equipment manufacturing ..........................................................12.01 Electrical equipment manufacturing ........................11.95 Communications equipment manufacturing ..........10.87 Semiconductor and other electronic component manufacturing ........................................................10.77

The work of automotive service technicians and mechanics has evolved from mechanical repair to a high technology job. Today, integrated electronic systems and complex computers run vehicles and measure their performance while on the road. Technicians must have an increasingly broad base of knowledge about how vehicles’ complex components work and interact, as well as the ability to work with electronic diagnostic equipment and computer-based technical reference materials.

Many assemblers and fabricators are members of labor unions. These unions include the International Association of Machinists and Aerospace Workers; the United Electrical, Radio and Machine Workers of America; the United Automobile, Aerospace and Agricultural Implement Workers of America; the International Brotherhood of Electrical Workers; and the United Steelworkers of America.

Automotive service technicians and mechanics use their hightech skills to inspect, maintain, and repair automobiles and light trucks that have gasoline engines. The increasing sophistication of automotive technology now requires workers who can use computerized shop equipment and work with elec-

Related Occupations Other occupations that involve operating machines and tools and assembling products include welding, soldering, and braz-

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America’s Top 101 Jobs for People Without a Four-Year Degree tronic components while maintaining their skills with traditional handtools.

late and adjust malfunctions in fuel, ignition, and emissions control systems.

When mechanical or electrical troubles occur, technicians first get a description of the symptoms from the owner or, if they work in a large shop, the repair service estimator who wrote the repair order. To locate the problem, technicians use a diagnostic approach. First, they test to see whether components and systems are proper and secure. Then, they isolate the components or systems that could not logically be the cause of the problem. For example, if an air-conditioner malfunctions, the technician’s diagnostic approach can pinpoint a problem as simple as a low coolant level or as complex as a bad drive-train connection that has shorted out the air conditioner. Technicians may have to test drive the vehicle or use a variety of testing equipment, such as onboard and hand-held diagnostic computers or compression gauges, to identify the source of the problem. These tests may indicate whether a component is salvageable or whether a new one is required to get the vehicle back in working order.

Automotive air-conditioning repairers install and repair air-conditioners and service their components, such as compressors, condensers, and controls. These workers require special training in federal and state regulations governing the handling and disposal of refrigerants. Front-end mechanics align and balance wheels and repair steering mechanisms and suspension systems. They frequently use special alignment equipment and wheel-balancing machines. Brake repairers adjust brakes, replace brake linings and pads, and make other repairs on brake systems. Some technicians and mechanics specialize in both brake and front-end work.

During routine service inspections, technicians test and lubricate engines and other major components. In some cases, the technician may repair or replace worn parts before they cause breakdowns that could damage critical components of the vehicle. Technicians usually follow a checklist to ensure that they examine every critical part. Belts, hoses, plugs, brake and fuel systems, and other potentially troublesome items are among those closely watched. Service technicians use a variety of tools in their work—power tools, such as pneumatic wrenches to remove bolts quickly; machine tools like lathes and grinding machines to rebuild brakes; welding and flame-cutting equipment to remove and repair exhaust systems, and jacks and hoists to lift cars and engines. They also use common handtools, such as screwdrivers, pliers, and wrenches, to work on small parts and in hard-to-reach places. In modern repair shops, service technicians compare the readouts from diagnostic testing devices with the benchmarked standards given by the manufacturer of the components being tested. Deviations outside of acceptable levels are an indication to the technician that further attention to an area is necessary. The testing devices diagnose problems and make precision adjustments with calculations downloaded from large computerized databases. The computerized systems provide automatic updates to technical manuals and unlimited access to manufacturers’ service information, technical service bulletins, and other databases that allow technicians to keep current on problem spots and to learn new procedures. Automotive service technicians in large shops have increasingly become specialized. For example, transmission technicians and rebuilders work on gear trains, couplings, hydraulic pumps, and other parts of transmissions. Extensive knowledge of computer controls, the ability to diagnose electrical and hydraulic problems, and other specialized skills are needed to work on these complex components, which employ some of the most sophisticated technology used in vehicles. Tuneup technicians adjust the ignition timing and valves, and adjust or replace spark plugs and other parts to ensure efficient engine performance. They often use electronic testing equipment to iso-

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Working Conditions About half of automotive service technicians work a standard 40-hour week, but almost 30 percent work more than 40 hours a week. Many of those working extended hours are selfemployed technicians. To satisfy customer service needs, some service shops offer evening and weekend service. Generally, service technicians work indoors in well-ventilated and well-lighted repair shops. However, some shops are drafty and noisy. Although they fix some problems with simple computerized adjustments, technicians frequently work with dirty and greasy parts, and in awkward positions. They often lift heavy parts and tools. Minor cuts, burns, and bruises are common, but technicians usually avoid serious accidents when the shop is kept clean and orderly and safety practices are observed.

Employment Automotive service technicians and mechanics held about 818,000 jobs in 2002. The majority worked for automotive repair and maintenance shops, automobile dealers, and retailers and wholesalers of automotive parts, accessories, and supplies. Others found employment in gasoline stations; home and auto supply stores; automotive equipment rental and leasing companies; federal, state, and local governments; and other organizations. About 16 percent of service technicians were self-employed, more than twice the proportion for all installation, maintenance, and repair occupations.

Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Automotive technology is rapidly increasing in sophistication, and most training authorities strongly recommend that persons seeking automotive service technician and mechanic jobs complete a formal training program in high school or in a postsecondary vocational school. However, some service technicians still learn the trade solely by assisting and learning from experienced workers. Many high schools, community colleges, and public and private vocational and technical schools offer automotive service technician training programs. The traditional postsecondary programs usually provide a thorough career preparation that expands upon the student’s high school repair experience.

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Section One: Descriptions of 101 Top Jobs for People Without a Four-Year Degree program standards to match the level of training and skilllevel achievement necessary for success in the occupation. In 2002, about 1,200 high school and postsecondary automotive service technician training programs had been certified by ASE.

Postsecondary automotive technician training programs vary greatly in format, but normally provide intensive career preparation through a combination of classroom instruction and hands-on practice. Some trade and technical school programs provide concentrated training for 6 months to a year, depending on how many hours the student attends each week. Community college programs normally spread the training over 2 years; supplement the automotive training with instruction in English, basic mathematics, computers, and other subjects; and award an associate degree or certificate. Some students earn repair certificates and opt to leave the program to begin their career before graduation. Recently, some programs have added to their curriculums training on employability skills such as customer service and stress management. Employers find that these skills help technicians handle the additional responsibilities of dealing with the customers and parts vendors.

For trainee automotive service technician jobs, employers look for people with strong communication and analytical skills. Technicians need good reading, mathematics, and computer skills to study technical manuals and to keep abreast of new technology and learn new service and repair procedures and specifications. Trainees also must possess mechanical aptitude and knowledge of how automobiles work. Most employers regard the successful completion of a vocational training program in automotive service technology as the best preparation for trainee positions. Experience working on motor vehicles in the Armed Forces or as a hobby also is valuable. Because of the complexity of new vehicles, a growing number of employers require completion of high school and additional postsecondary training. Courses in automotive repair, electronics, physics, chemistry, English, computers, and mathematics provide a good educational background for a career as a service technician.

High school programs, while an asset, vary greatly in quality. The better programs, such as the Automotive Youth Education Service (AYES), with about 150 participating schools and more than 300 participating dealers, conclude with the students receiving their technician’s certification and high school diploma. Other programs offer only an introduction to automotive technology and service for the future consumer or hobbyist. Still others aim to equip graduates with enough skills to get a job as a mechanic’s helper or trainee mechanic.

Many new cars have several onboard computers operating everything from the engine to the radio. Some of the more advanced vehicles have global positioning systems, Internet access, and other high-tech features integrated into the functions of the vehicle. Therefore, knowledge of electronics and computers has grown increasingly important for service technicians. Engine controls and dashboard instruments were among the first components to use electronics but, now, everything from brakes to transmissions and air-conditioning systems to steering systems is run primarily by computers and electronic components. In the past, a specialist usually handled any problems involving electrical systems or electronics. Now that electronics are so common, it is essential for service technicians to be familiar with at least the basic principles of electronics. Electrical components or a series of related components account for nearly all malfunctions in modern vehicles.

The various automobile manufacturers and their participating dealers sponsor 2-year associate degree programs at postsecondary schools across the nation. The Accrediting Commission of Career Schools and Colleges of Technology (ACCSCT) currently certifies a number of automotive and diesel technology schools. Schools update their curriculums frequently to reflect changing technology and equipment. Students in these programs typically spend alternate 6- to 12-week periods attending classes full time and working full time in the service departments of sponsoring dealers. At these dealerships, students get practical experience while assigned to an experienced worker who provides hands-on instruction and timesaving tips.

In addition to electronics and computers, automotive service technicians will have to learn and understand the science behind the alternate-fuel vehicles that have begun to enter the market. The fuel for these vehicles will come from the dehydrogenization of water, electric fuel cells, natural gas, solar power, and other nonpetroleum-based sources. Some vehicles will even capture the energy from brakes and use it as fuel. As vehicles with these new technologies become more common, technicians will need additional training to learn the science and engineering that makes them possible.

The National Automotive Technicians Education Foundation (NATEF), an affiliate of the National Institute for Automotive Service Excellence (ASE), establishes the standards by which training facilities become certified. Once the training facility achieves these minimal standards, NATEF recommends the facility to ASE for certification. The ASE certification is a nationally recognized standard for programs offered by high schools, postsecondary trade schools, technical institutes, and community colleges that train automobile service technicians. Automotive manufacturers provide ASE certified instruction, service equipment, and current-model cars on which students practice new skills and learn the latest automotive technology. While ASE certification is voluntary, it does signify that the program meets uniform standards for instructional facilities, equipment, staff credentials, and curriculum. To ensure that programs keep up with ever-changing technology, repair techniques, and ASE standards, the certified programs are subjected to periodic compliance reviews and mandatory recertification. NATEF program experts also review and update

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Beginners usually start as trainee technicians, mechanics’ helpers, lubrication workers, or gasoline service station attendants, and gradually acquire and practice their skills by working with experienced mechanics and technicians. With a few months’ experience, beginners perform many routine service tasks and make simple repairs. It usually takes 2 to 5 years of experience to become a journey-level service technician, who is expected to quickly perform the more difficult types of routine service and repairs. However, some graduates of postsec-

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America’s Top 101 Jobs for People Without a Four-Year Degree ondary automotive training programs are often able to earn promotion to the journey level after only a few months on the job. An additional 1 to 2 years of experience familiarizes mechanics and technicians with all types of repairs. Difficult specialties, such as transmission repair, require another year or two of training and experience. In contrast, brake specialists may learn their jobs in considerably less time because they do not need a complete knowledge of automotive repair. In the past, many persons became automotive service technicians through 3- or 4-year formal apprenticeship programs. However, apprenticeships have become rare, as formal vocational training programs in automotive service technology have become more common. At work, the most important possessions of technicians and mechanics are their handtools. Technicians and mechanics usually provide their own tools, and many experienced workers have thousands of dollars invested in them. Employers typically furnish expensive power tools, engine analyzers, and other diagnostic equipment, but technicians accumulate handtools with experience. Some formal training programs have alliances with tool manufacturers that help entry-level technicians accumulate tools during their training period. Employers increasingly send experienced automotive service technicians to manufacturer training centers to learn to repair new models or to receive special training in the repair of components, such as electronic fuel injection or air-conditioners. Motor vehicle dealers also may send promising beginners to manufacturer-sponsored mechanic training programs. Employers typically furnish this additional training to maintain or upgrade employees’ skills and thus increase the employees’ value to the dealership. Factory representatives also visit many shops to conduct short training sessions. Voluntary certification by the National Institute for Automotive Service Excellence (ASE) has become a standard credential for automotive service technicians. Certification is available in 1 or more of 8 different service areas, such as electrical systems, engine repair, brake systems, suspension and steering, and heating and air-conditioning. For certification in each area, technicians must have at least 2 years of experience and pass a written examination. Completion of an automotive training program in high school, vocational or trade school, or community or junior college may be substituted for 1 year of experience. In some cases, graduates of ASE-certified programs achieve certification in up to three specialties. For certification as a master automotive mechanic, technicians must be certified in all eight areas. Mechanics and technicians must retake each examination at least once every 5 years to maintain their certifications. Experienced technicians who have leadership ability sometimes advance to shop supervisor or service manager. Those who work well with customers may become automotive repair service estimators. Some with sufficient funds open independent repair shops.

Job Outlook Job opportunities in this occupation are expected to be very good for persons who complete automotive training programs in high school, vocational and technical schools, or commu-

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nity colleges. Persons with good diagnostic and problem-solving skills, and whose training includes basic electronics skills, should have the best opportunities. For well-prepared people with a technical background, automotive service technician careers offer an excellent opportunity for good pay and the satisfaction of highly skilled work with vehicles incorporating the latest in high technology. However, persons without formal automotive training are likely to face competition for entrylevel jobs. Employment of automotive service technicians and mechanics is expected to increase about as fast as the average through the year 2012. Over the 2002-12 period, population growth will boost demand for motor vehicles, which will require regular maintenance and service. Growth of the labor force and in the number of families in which both spouses need vehicles to commute to work will contribute to increased vehicle sales and employment in this industry. As personal incomes continue to rise, greater numbers of persons will be able to afford the luxury of owning multiple vehicles, which also should increase the number of passenger cars in operation. However, a slowdown in the growth of the driving-age population, as the smaller post–baby boom generation comes of age, may curb demand for cars and trucks. In addition, increasing demand due to growth in the number of vehicles in operation will be partially offset by improvements in vehicle quality and durability that improve reliability and reduce the need for extensive repair and maintenance. Employment growth will continue to be concentrated in automobile dealerships and independent automotive repair shops. Many new jobs also will be created in small retail operations that offer after-warranty repairs, such as oil changes, brake repair, air-conditioner service, and other minor repairs generally taking less than 4 hours to complete. Employment of automotive service technicians and mechanics in gasoline service stations will continue to decline, as fewer stations offer repair services. In addition to job openings due to growth, a substantial number of openings will be created by the need to replace experienced technicians who transfer to other occupations or who retire or stop working for other reasons. Most persons who enter the occupation can expect steady work, because changes in general economic conditions and developments in other industries have little effect on the automotive repair business.

Earnings Median hourly earnings of automotive service technicians and mechanics, including commission, were $14.71 in 2002. The middle 50 percent earned between $10.61 and $19.84. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $8.14, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $25.21. Median annual earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of service technicians in 2002 were as follows: Local government ....................................................$18.04 Automobile dealers ....................................................17.66 Gasoline stations ........................................................13.04 Automotive repair and maintenance ........................12.77 Automotive parts, accessories, and tire stores ..........12.60

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Section One: Descriptions of 101 Top Jobs for People Without a Four-Year Degree Many experienced technicians employed by automobile dealers and independent repair shops receive a commission related to the labor cost charged to the customer. Under this method, weekly earnings depend on the amount of work completed. Employers frequently guarantee commissioned mechanics and technicians a minimum weekly salary.

Barbers, Cosmetologists, and Other Personal Appearance Workers

Some automotive service technicians are members of labor unions such as the International Association of Machinists and Aerospace Workers; the International Union, United Automobile, Aerospace and Agricultural Implement Workers of America; the Sheet Metal Workers’ International Association; and the International Brotherhood of Teamsters.

(O*NET 39-5011.00, 39-5012.00, 39-5091.00, 39-5092.00, 39-5093.00, and 39-5094.00)

Significant Points

Related Occupations

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Job opportunities generally should be good, but competition is expected for jobs and clients at higher paying salons; opportunities will be best for those licensed to provide a broad range of services.

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Barbers, cosmetologists, and most other personal appearance workers must be licensed.

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Almost half of all barbers, cosmetologists, and other personal appearance workers are self-employed; many also work flexible schedules.

Other workers who repair and service motor vehicles include automotive body and related repairers, diesel service technicians and mechanics, and small engine mechanics.

Sources of Additional Information For more details about work opportunities, contact local automobile dealers and repair shops or local offices of the state employment service. The state employment service also may have information about training programs.

Nature of the Work

A list of certified automotive service technician training programs can be obtained from: ●

Barbers and cosmetologists, also called hairdressers and hairstylists, help people look neat and well-groomed. Other personal appearance workers, such as manicurists and pedicurists, shampooers, and skin care specialists provide specialized services that help clients look and feel their best.

National Automotive Technicians Education Foundation, 101 Blue Seal Dr., SE, Suite 101, Leesburg, VA 20175. Internet: http://www.natef.org

For a directory of accredited private trade and technical schools that offer programs in automotive service technician training, contact: ●

Barbers cut, trim, shampoo, and style hair. Also, they fit hairpieces and offer scalp treatments and facial massages. In many states, barbers are licensed to color, bleach, or highlight hair and offer permanent-wave services. Many barbers also provide skin care and nail treatments.

Accrediting Commission of Career Schools and Colleges of Technology, 2101 Wilson Blvd., Suite 302, Arlington, VA 22201 Internet: http://www.accsct.org

For a list of public automotive service technician training programs, contact: ●

Hairdressers, hairstylists, and cosmetologists provide beauty services, such as shampooing, cutting, coloring, and styling hair. They may advise clients on how to care for their hair, straighten hair or give it a permanent wave, or lighten or darken hair color. Additionally, cosmetologists may train to give manicures, pedicures, and scalp and facial treatments; provide makeup analysis; and clean and style wigs and hairpieces.

SkillsUSA-VICA, P.O. Box 3000, Leesburg, VA 20177-0300. Internet: http://www.skillsusa.org

Information on automobile manufacturer-sponsored programs in automotive service technology can be obtained from: ●

Automotive Youth Educational Systems (AYES), 50 W. Big Beaver, Suite 145, Troy, MI 48084. Internet: http://www.ayes.org

Information on how to become a certified automotive service technician is available from: ●

A number of workers offer specialized services. Manicurists and pedicurists, called nail technicians in some states, work exclusively on nails and provide manicures, pedicures, coloring, and nail extensions to clients. Another group of specialists is skin care specialists, or estheticians, who cleanse and beautify the skin by giving facials, full-body treatments, and head and neck massages and by removing hair through waxing. Electrologists use an electrolysis machine to remove hair. Finally, in some larger salons, shampooers specialize in shampooing and conditioning clients’ hair.

National Institute for Automotive Service Excellence (ASE), 101 Blue Seal Dr. SE, Suite 101, Leesburg, VA 20175. Internet: http://www.asecert.org

For general information about a career as an automotive service technician, contact: ●

National Automobile Dealers Association, 8400 Westpark Dr., McLean, VA 22102. Internet: http://www.nada.org

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Automotive Retailing Today, 8400 Westpark Dr., MS #2, McLean, VA 22102. Internet: http://www.autoretailing.org

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In addition to their work with clients, personal appearance workers are expected to maintain clean work areas and sanitize all work implements. They may make appointments and keep

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America’s Top 101 Jobs for People Without a Four-Year Degree records of hair color and permanent-wave formulas used by their regular clients. A growing number actively sell hair products and other cosmetic supplies. Barbers, cosmetologists, and other personal appearance workers who operate their own salons have managerial duties that include hiring, supervising, and firing workers, as well as keeping business and inventory records, ordering supplies, and arranging for advertising.

Working Conditions Barbers, cosmetologists, and other personal appearance workers usually work in clean, pleasant surroundings with good lighting and ventilation. Good health and stamina are important, because these workers are on their feet for most of their shift. Because prolonged exposure to some hair and nail chemicals may cause irritation, special care is taken to use protective clothing, such as plastic gloves or aprons. Most full-time barbers, cosmetologists, and other personal appearance workers put in a 40-hour week, but longer hours are common in this occupation, especially among selfemployed workers. Work schedules may include evenings and weekends, the times when beauty salons and barbershops are busiest. Because barbers and cosmetologists generally will be working on weekends and during lunch and evening hours, they may arrange to take breaks during less popular times. About 30 percent of cosmetologists and 19 percent of barbers work part time and 14 percent of cosmetologists and 13 percent of barbers have variable schedules.

Employment Barbers, cosmetologists, and other personal appearance workers held about 754,000 jobs in 2002. Of these, barbers, hairdressers, hairstylists, and cosmetologists held 651,000 jobs; manicurists and pedicurists, 51,000; skin care specialists, 25,000; and shampooers, 25,000. Most of these workers are employed in beauty salons or barber shops, but they are also found in nail salons, department stores, nursing and other residential care homes, and drug and cosmetics stores. Nearly every town has a barbershop or beauty salon, but employment in this occupation is concentrated in the most populous cities and states. Almost half of all barbers, cosmetologists, and other personal appearance workers are self-employed. Many own their own salon, but a growing number lease booth space or a chair from the salon’s owner.

Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement All states require barbers, cosmetologists, and most other personal appearance workers to be licensed. Qualifications for a license, however, vary. Generally, a person must have graduated from a state-licensed barber or cosmetology school and be at least 16 years old. A few states require applicants to pass a physical examination. Some states require graduation from high school while others require as little as an eighth-grade education. In a few states, the completion of an apprenticeship

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can substitute for graduation from a school, but very few barbers or cosmetologists learn their skills in this way. Applicants for a license usually are required to pass a written test and demonstrate an ability to perform basic barbering or cosmetology services. Some states have reciprocity agreements that allow licensed barbers and cosmetologists to obtain a license in a different state without additional formal training. Other states do not recognize training or licenses obtained in another state; consequently, persons who wish to work in a particular state should review the laws of that state before entering a training program. Public and private vocational schools offer daytime or evening classes in barbering and cosmetology. Full-time programs in barbering and cosmetology usually last 9 to 24 months, but training for manicurists and pedicurists, skin care specialists, and electrologists requires significantly less time. An apprenticeship program can last from 1 to 3 years. Shampooers generally do not need formal training or a license. Formal training programs include classroom study, demonstrations, and practical work. Students study the basic services—cutting hair, shaving customers, providing facial massages, and giving hair and scalp treatments—and, under supervision, practice on customers in school “clinics.” Most schools also teach unisex hairstyling and chemical styling. Students attend lectures on the use and care of instruments, sanitation and hygiene, chemistry, anatomy, physiology, and the recognition of simple skin ailments. Instruction also is provided in communication, sales, and general business practices. Experienced barbers and cosmetologists may take advanced courses in hairstyling, coloring, and the sale and service of hairpieces. After graduating from a training program, students can take the state licensing examination, which consists of a written test and, in some cases, a practical test of styling skills based on established performance criteria. A few states include an oral examination in which the applicant is asked to explain the procedures he or she is following while taking the practical test. In many states, cosmetology training may be credited toward a barbering license, and vice versa. A few states combine the two licenses into one hairstyling license. Many states require separate licensing examinations for manicurists, pedicurists, and skin care specialists. For many barbers, cosmetologists, and other personal appearance workers, formal training and a license are only the first steps in a career that requires years of continuing education. Because hairstyles change, new products are developed, and services expand to meet clients’ needs, personal appearance workers must keep abreast of the latest fashions and beauty techniques. They attend training at salons, cosmetology schools, or product shows. Through workshops and demonstrations of the latest techniques, industry representatives introduce cosmetologists to a wide range of products and services. As retail sales become an increasingly important part of salons’ revenue, the ability to be an effective salesperson becomes vital for salon workers. Successful personal appearance workers should have an understanding of fashion, art, and technical design. They should enjoy working with the public and be willing and able to fol-

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Earnings

low clients’ instructions. Communication, image, and attitude play an important role in career success. Some cosmetology schools consider “people skills” to be such an integral part of the job that they require coursework in this area. Business skills are important for those who plan to operate their own salons.

Barbers, cosmetologists, and other personal appearance workers receive income from a variety of sources. They may receive commissions based on the price of the service or a salary based on number of hours worked. All receive tips, and many receive commissions on the products they sell. In addition, some salons pay bonuses to employees who bring in new business.

During their first months on the job, new workers are given relatively simple tasks or are assigned the simpler hairstyling patterns. Once they have demonstrated their skills, they are gradually permitted to perform more complicated tasks, such as coloring hair or applying a permanent wave. As they continue to work in the field, more training is usually required to learn the techniques used in each salon and to build on the basics learned in cosmetology school.

Median annual earnings in 2002 for salaried hairdressers, hairstylists, and cosmetologists, including tips and commission, were $18,960. The middle 50 percent earned between $15,010 and $25,600. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $13,020, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $35,240. Median annual earnings in 2002 for salaried barbers, including tips, were $19,550. The middle 50 percent earned between $14,540 and $27,290. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $12,720, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $37,370.

Advancement usually takes the form of higher earnings as barbers and cosmetologists gain experience and build a steady clientele. Some barbers and cosmetologists manage large salons or open their own after several years of experience. Others teach in barber or cosmetology schools, or provide training through vocational schools. Still others advance to become sales representatives, image or fashion consultants, or examiners for state licensing boards.

Among skin care specialists, median annual earnings, including tips, were $22,450; for manicurists and pedicurists, $17,330; and $14,360 for shampooers. A number of factors determine the total income of barbers, cosmetologists, and other personal appearance workers, including the size and location of the salon, the number of hours worked, clients’ tipping habits, and competition from other barber shops and salons. Cosmetologists or barber’s initiative and ability to attract and hold regular clients also are key factors in determining his or her earnings. Earnings for entry-level workers are usually low; however, for those who stay in the profession, earnings can be considerably higher.

Job Outlook Overall employment of barbers, cosmetologists, and other personal appearance workers is projected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through 2012, because of increasing population, incomes, and demand for personal appearance services. In addition to those arising from job growth, numerous job openings will arise from the need to replace workers who transfer to other occupations, retire, or leave the labor force for other reasons. As a result, job opportunities generally should be good. However, competition is expected for jobs and clients at higher paying salons, as applicants compete with a large pool of licensed and experienced cosmetologists for these positions. Opportunities will be best for those licensed to provide a broad range of services.

Although some salons offer paid vacations and medical benefits, many self-employed and part-time workers in this occupation do not enjoy such common benefits.

Related Occupations Other workers who provide a personal service to clients and usually must be professionally licensed or certified include massage therapists and fitness workers.

Employment trends are expected to vary among the different specialties within this grouping of occupations. For example, more slowly than average growth is expected in employment of barbers due to a large number of retirements and the relatively small number of cosmetology school graduates opting to obtain barbering licenses. On the other hand, employment of hairdressers, hairstylists, and cosmetologists should grow about as fast as average, because many now cut and style both men’s and women’s hair and because the demand for coloring services and other hair treatments, such as permanent waves, by teens and aging baby boomers is expected to remain steady or even grow.

Sources of Additional Information A list of licensed training schools and licensing requirements for cosmetologists may be obtained from: ●

Information about a career in cosmetology is available from: ●

Continued growth in the number of nail salons and fullservice day spas will generate numerous job openings for manicurists, pedicurists, skin care specialists, and shampooers. Nail salons specialize in providing manicures and pedicures. Day spas typically provide a full range of services, including beauty wraps, manicures and pedicures, facials, and massages.

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National Accrediting Commission of Cosmetology Arts and Sciences, 4401 Ford Ave., Suite 1300, Alexandria, VA 22302. Internet: http://www.naccas.org National Cosmetology Association, 401 N. Michigan Ave., 22nd floor, Chicago, IL 60611. Internet: http://www.salonprofessionals.org

For details on state licensing requirements and approved barber or cosmetology schools, contact the state boards of barber or cosmetology examiners in your state capital.

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America’s Top 101 Jobs for People Without a Four-Year Degree reconcile computer reports with operating reports. Auditing clerks verify records of transactions posted by other workers. They check figures, postings, and documents to ensure that they are correct, mathematically accurate, and properly coded. They also correct or note errors for accountants or other workers to adjust.

Bookkeeping, Accounting, and Auditing Clerks

As organizations continue to computerize their financial records, many bookkeeping, accounting, and auditing clerks are using specialized accounting software on personal computers. With manual posting to general ledgers becoming obsolete, these clerks increasingly are posting charges to accounts on computer spreadsheets and databases. They now enter information from receipts or bills into computers, and the information is then stored either electronically, as computer printouts, or both. The widespread use of computers also has enabled bookkeeping, accounting, and auditing clerks to take on additional responsibilities, such as payroll, procurement, and billing. Many of these functions require these clerks to write letters, make phone calls to customers or clients, and interact with colleagues. Therefore, good communication skills are becoming increasingly important in the occupation.

(O*NET 43-3031.00)

Significant Points ●

Most jobs in this occupation require only a high school diploma.

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Numerous job opportunities should arise due to high turnover.

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Slower-than-average growth is expected in overall employment, reflecting the spread of computers and other office automation, as well as organizational restructuring.

Nature of the Work Bookkeeping, accounting, and auditing clerks are an organization’s financial recordkeepers. They update and maintain one or more accounting records, including those which tabulate expenditures, receipts, accounts payable and receivable, and profit and loss. They have a wide range of skills and knowledge from full-charge bookkeepers who can maintain an entire company’s books to accounting clerks who handle specific accounts. All of these clerks make numerous computations each day and increasingly must be comfortable using computers to calculate and record data.

Working Conditions Bookkeeping, accounting, and auditing clerks typically are employed in an office environment. However, a growing number work at home, and many work part time. Because the majority of bookkeeping, accounting, and auditing clerks use computers on a daily basis, these workers may experience eye and muscle strain, backaches, headaches, and repetitive motion injuries. Also, clerks who review detailed data may have to sit for extended periods.

In small establishments, bookkeeping clerks handle all financial transactions and recordkeeping. They record all transactions, post debits and credits, produce financial statements, and prepare reports and summaries for supervisors and managers. Bookkeepers also prepare bank deposits by compiling data from cashiers, verifying and balancing receipts, and sending cash, checks, or other forms of payment to the bank. They also may handle payroll, make purchases, prepare invoices, and keep track of overdue accounts.

Most bookkeeping, accounting, and auditing clerks work regular business hours. Accounting clerks may work longer hours to meet deadlines at the end of the fiscal year, during tax time, or when monthly and yearly accounting audits are performed. Billing, bookkeeping, and accounting clerks in hotels, restaurants, and stores may work overtime during peak holiday and vacation seasons.

Employment

In large offices and accounting departments, accounting clerks have more specialized tasks. Their titles often reflect the type of accounting they do, such as accounts payable clerk or accounts receivable clerk. In addition, their responsibilities vary by level of experience. Entry-level accounting clerks post details of transactions, total accounts, and compute interest charges. They also may monitor loans and accounts, to ensure that payments are up to date.

Bookkeeping, accounting, and auditing clerks held about 2 million jobs in 2002. They are found in all industries and at all levels of government, with the most employed in local government and in the accounting, tax preparation, bookkeeping, and payroll services industry. A growing number work for employment services firms, the result of an increase in outsourcing of the occupation. Approximately 1 out of 4 bookkeeping, accounting, and auditing clerks worked part time in 2002.

More advanced accounting clerks may total, balance, and reconcile billing vouchers; ensure completeness and accuracy of data on accounts; and code documents, according to company procedures. These workers post transactions in journals and on computer files and update the files when needed. Senior clerks also review computer printouts against manually maintained journals and make necessary corrections. They may review invoices and statements to ensure that all the information appearing on them is accurate and complete, and they may

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Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most bookkeeping, accounting, and auditing clerks are required to have at least a high school diploma. However, having completed some college is becoming increasingly impor-

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Section One: Descriptions of 101 Top Jobs for People Without a Four-Year Degree size of this occupation ensures plentiful job openings, including many opportunities for temporary and part-time work.

tant, particularly for those occupations requiring knowledge of accounting. An associate’s degree in business or accounting often is required. Some bookkeeping, accounting, and auditing clerks have bachelor’s degrees in business, accounting, or liberal arts. Many graduates accept entry-level clerical positions to get into a particular company or to enter the finance or accounting field with the hope of being promoted to professional or managerial positions. Some companies have a set plan of advancement that tracks college graduates from entrylevel clerical jobs into managerial positions. Workers with bachelor’s degrees are likely to start at higher salaries and advance more easily than those without degrees.

Although a growing economy will result in more financial transactions and other activities that require these clerical workers, the continuing spread of office automation will lift worker productivity and contribute to the stagnant employment growth. In addition, organizations of all sizes will continue to downsize and consolidate various recordkeeping functions, thus reducing the demand for bookkeeping, accounting, and auditing clerks. Specialized clerks will be in much less demand than those who can carry out a wider range of accounting activities. Demand for full-charge bookkeepers is expected to increase, because they are called upon to do much of the work of accountants, as well as perform a wider variety of financial transactions, from payroll to billing. Those with several years of accounting or bookkeeper certification will have the best job prospects.

Experience in a related job also is recommended. Experience working in an office environment or in customer service is always beneficial. Regardless of the type of work, most employers prefer workers with good communication skills who are computer literate; knowledge of word-processing and spreadsheet software is especially valuable. Once hired, bookkeeping, accounting, and auditing clerks usually receive on-the-job training. Under the guidance of a supervisor or other senior worker, new employees learn company procedures. Some formal classroom training also may be necessary, such as training in specific computer software. Bookkeeping, accounting, and auditing clerks must be careful, orderly, and detail oriented in order to avoid making errors and to recognize errors made by others. These workers also should be discreet and trustworthy because they frequently come in contact with confidential material. In addition, they should have a strong aptitude for numbers.

Earnings

Bookkeepers—particularly those who handle all the recordkeeping for companies—may find it beneficial to become certified. The Certified Bookkeeper designation, awarded by the American Institute of Professional Bookkeepers, assures employers that individuals have the skills and knowledge required to carry out all the bookkeeping and accounting functions up through the adjusted trial balance, including payroll functions. For certification, candidates must have at least 2 years of bookkeeping experience, pass three tests, and adhere to a code of ethics.

Related Occupations

Salaries of bookkeeping, accounting, and auditing clerks vary considerably. The region of the country, size of the city, and type and size of the establishment all influence salary levels. Also, the level of expertise required and the complexity and uniqueness of a clerk’s responsibilities may affect earnings. Some companies may offer higher salaries to those who are certified in their profession. Median hourly earnings of fulltime bookkeeping, accounting, and auditing clerks in 2002 were $13.16.

Bookkeeping, accounting, and auditing clerks enter data into a computer, handle cash, and keep track of business and other financial transactions. Higher-level financial clerks can generate reports and analyze the data. Other occupations that perform these duties include brokerage clerks; cashiers; credit authorizers, checkers, and clerks; loan interviewers and clerks; new-accounts clerks; order clerks; and secretaries and administrative assistants.

Bookkeeping, accounting, and auditing clerks usually advance by taking on more duties in the same occupation for higher pay or by transferring to a closely related occupation. Most companies fill office and administrative support supervisory and managerial positions by promoting individuals from within the organization, so clerks who acquire additional skills, experience, and training improve their advancement opportunities. With appropriate experience and education, some clerks may become accountants, human resource specialists, or buyers.

Sources of Additional Information For information on the Certified Bookkeeper designation, contact: ●

The American Institute of Professional Bookkeepers, 6001 Montrose Rd., Suite 500, Rockville, MD 20852. Internet: http://www.aipb.org

Brickmasons, Blockmasons, and Stonemasons

Job Outlook Slower than average growth is expected in the employment of bookkeeping, accounting, and auditing clerks through 2012. More job openings will stem from replacement needs. Each year, numerous jobs will become available as these clerks transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. The large

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(O*NET 47-2021.00 and 47-2022.00)

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Significant Points ●

Job prospects are expected to be excellent.

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Most entrants learn informally on the job, but apprenticeship programs provide the most thorough training.

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The work is usually outdoors and involves lifting heavy materials and working on scaffolds.

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More than 1 out of 4 are self-employed.

Nature of the Work Brickmasons, blockmasons, and stonemasons work in closely related trades creating attractive, durable surfaces and structures. The work varies in complexity, from laying a simple masonry walkway to installing an ornate exterior on a highrise building. Brickmasons and blockmasons—who often are called simply bricklayers—build and repair walls, floors, partitions, fireplaces, chimneys, and other structures with brick, precast masonry panels, concrete block, and other masonry materials. Some brickmasons specialize in installing firebrick linings in industrial furnaces. Stonemasons build stone walls, as well as set stone exteriors and floors. They work with two types of stone—natural cut stone, such as marble, granite, and limestone; and artificial stone made from concrete, marble chips, or other masonry materials. Stonemasons usually work on nonresidential structures, such as houses of worship, hotels, and office buildings. When building a structure, brickmasons use one of two methods, the corner lead or the corner pole. Using the corner lead method, they begin by constructing a pyramid of bricks at each corner—called a lead. After the corner leads are complete, less experienced brickmasons fill in the wall between the corners, using a line from corner to corner to guide each course, or layer, of brick. Due to the precision needed, corner leads are time-consuming to erect and require the skills of experienced bricklayers. Because of the expense associated with building corner leads, most brickmasons use corner poles, also called masonry guides, that enable them to build an entire wall at the same time. They fasten the corner poles (posts) in a plumb position to define the wall line and stretch a line between them. This line serves as a guide for each course of brick. Brickmasons then spread a bed of mortar (a cement, sand, and water mixture) with a trowel (a flat, bladed metal tool with a handle), place the brick on the mortar bed, and press and tap the brick into place. Depending on blueprint specifications, brickmasons either cut bricks with a hammer and chisel or saw them to fit around windows, doors, and other openings. Mortar joints are then finished with jointing tools for a sealed, neat, uniform appearance. Although brickmasons typically use steel supports, or lintels, at window and door openings, they sometimes build brick arches, which support and enhance the beauty of the brickwork. Stonemasons often work from a set of drawings, in which each stone has been numbered for identification. Helpers may locate and carry these prenumbered stones to the masons. A derrick operator using a hoist may be needed to lift large stone pieces into place.

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When building a stone wall, masons set the first course of stones into a shallow bed of mortar. They then align the stones with wedges, plumblines, and levels, and work them into position with a hard rubber mallet. Masons continue to build the wall by alternating layers of mortar and courses of stone. As the work progresses, masons remove the wedges, fill the joints between stones, and use a pointed metal tool, called a tuck pointer, to smooth the mortar to an attractive finish. To hold large stones in place, stonemasons attach brackets to the stone and weld or bolt these brackets to anchors in the wall. Finally, masons wash the stone with a cleansing solution to remove stains and dry mortar. When setting stone floors, which often consist of large and heavy pieces of stone, masons first use a trowel to spread a layer of damp mortar over the surface to be covered. Using crowbars and hard rubber mallets for aligning and leveling, they then set the stone in the mortar bed. To finish, workers fill the joints and wash the stone slabs. Masons use a special hammer and chisel to cut stone. They cut stone along the grain to make various shapes and sizes, and valuable pieces often are cut with a saw that has a diamond blade. Some masons specialize in setting marble, which, in many respects, is similar to setting large pieces of stone. Brickmasons and stonemasons also repair imperfections and cracks, and replace broken or missing masonry units in walls and floors. Most nonresidential buildings now are built with walls made of concrete block, brick veneer, stone, granite, marble, tile, or glass. In the past, masons doing nonresidential interior work mainly built block partition walls and elevator shafts, but because many types of masonry and stone are used in the interiors of today’s nonresidential structures, these workers now must be more versatile. For example, some brickmasons and blockmasons now install structural insulated wall panels and masonry accessories used in many highrise buildings. Refractory masons are brickmasons who specialize in installing firebrick and refractory tile in high-temperature boilers, furnaces, cupolas, ladles, and soaking pits in industrial establishments. Most of these workers are employed in steel mills, where molten materials flow on refractory beds from furnaces to rolling machines.

Working Conditions Brickmasons, blockmasons, and stonemasons usually work outdoors and are exposed to the elements. They stand, kneel, and bend for long periods and often have to lift heavy materials. Common hazards include injuries from tools and falls from scaffolds, but these can often be avoided when proper safety equipment is used and safety practices are followed.

Employment Brickmasons, blockmasons, and stonemasons held 165,000 jobs in 2002. The vast majority were brickmasons. Workers in these crafts are employed primarily by building, specialty trade, or general contractors. Brickmasons, blockmasons, and stonemasons work throughout the country but, like the general population, are concentrated in metropolitan areas.

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Section One: Descriptions of 101 Top Jobs for People Without a Four-Year Degree Bricklayers who work in nonresidential construction usually work for large contractors and receive well-rounded training— normally through apprenticeship in all phases of brick or stone work. Those who work in residential construction usually work primarily for small contractors and specialize in only one or two aspects of the job.

More than 1 out of 4 brickmasons, blockmasons, and stonemasons are self-employed. Many of the self-employed specialize in contracting to work on small jobs, such as patios, walkways, and fireplaces.

Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement

With additional training, brickmasons, blockmasons, and stonemasons may become supervisors for masonry contractors. Some eventually become owners of businesses employing many workers and may spend most of their time as managers rather than as brickmasons, blockmasons, or stonemasons. Others move into closely related areas such as construction management or building inspection.

Most brickmasons, blockmasons, and stonemasons pick up their skills informally, observing and learning from experienced workers. Many others receive training in vocational education schools or from industry-based programs that are common throughout the country. Another way to learn these skills is through an apprenticeship program, which generally provides the most thorough training.

Job Outlook

Individuals who learn the trade on the job usually start as helpers, laborers, or mason tenders. These workers carry materials, move scaffolds, and mix mortar. When the opportunity arises, they learn from experienced craftworkers how to spread mortar, lay brick and block, or set stone. As they gain experience, they make the transition to full-fledged craftworkers. The learning period on the job may last longer than an apprenticeship program. Industry-based training programs offered through companies usually last between 2 and 4 years.

Job opportunities for brickmasons, blockmasons, and stonemasons are expected to be excellent through 2012. Many openings will result from the need to replace workers who retire, transfer to other occupations, or leave these trades for other reasons. There may be fewer applicants than needed because many potential workers prefer to work under less strenuous, more comfortable conditions. Employment of brickmasons, blockmasons, and stonemasons is expected to increase about as fast as the average for all occupations over the 2002–12 period, as population and business growth create a need for new houses, industrial facilities, schools, hospitals, offices, and other structures. Also stimulating demand will be the need to restore a growing stock of old masonry buildings, as well as the increasing use of brick and stone for decorative work on building fronts and in lobbies and foyers. Brick exteriors should remain very popular, reflecting a growing preference for durable exterior materials requiring little maintenance.

Apprenticeships for brickmasons, blockmasons, and stonemasons usually are sponsored by local contractors, trade associations, or by local union-management committees. The apprenticeship program requires 3 years of on-the-job training, in addition to a minimum 144 hours of classroom instruction each year in subjects such as blueprint reading, mathematics, layout work, and sketching. Apprentices often start by working with laborers, carrying materials, mixing mortar, and building scaffolds. This period generally lasts about a month and familiarizes the apprentice with job routines and materials. Next, apprentices learn to lay, align, and join brick and block. They also learn to work with stone and concrete, which enables them to be certified to work with more than one masonry material.

Employment of brickmasons, blockmasons, and stonemasons, like that of many other construction workers, is sensitive to changes in the economy. When the level of construction activity falls, workers in these trades can experience periods of unemployment.

Applicants for apprenticeships must be at least 17 years old and in good physical condition. A high school education is preferable; and courses in mathematics, mechanical drawing, and shop are helpful. The Associated Builders and Contractors and International Masonry Institute (IMI), a joint trust of the International Union of Bricklayers and Allied Craftsworkers and the contractors who employ its members, operates training centers in several large cities that help jobseekers develop the skills needed to successfully complete the formal apprenticeship program. In order to attract more entrants, IMI has expanded these centers in recent years to recruit and train workers before they enter apprenticeship programs. In addition, the IMI has a national training and education center at Fort Ritchie, MD. The national center’s programs teach basic job skills for brick, stone, tile, terrazzo, refractory, and restoration work, as well as safety and scaffolding training.

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Earnings Median hourly earnings of brickmasons and blockmasons in 2002 were $20.11. The middle 50 percent earned between $15.36 and $25.32. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $11.55, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $30.66. Median hourly earnings in the industries employing the largest number of brickmasons in 2002 are shown below: Nonresidential building construction ....................$22.12 Foundation, structure, and building exterior contractors ..............................................................20.26 Median hourly earnings of stonemasons in 2002 were $16.36. The middle 50 percent earned between $12.06 and $20.76. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $9.43, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $26.59.

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America’s Top 101 Jobs for People Without a Four-Year Degree Earnings for workers in these trades can be reduced on occasion because poor weather and downturns in construction activity limit the time they can work. Apprentices or helpers usually start at about 50 percent of the wage rate paid to experienced workers. Pay increases as apprentices gain experience and learn new skills.

Broadcast and Sound Engineering Technicians and Radio Operators

Some brickmasons, blockmasons, and stonemasons are members of the International Union of Bricklayers and Allied Craftsworkers.

(O*NET 27-4011.00, 27-4012.00, 27-4013.00, and 27-4014.00)

Related Occupations Brickmasons, blockmasons, and stonemasons combine a thorough knowledge of brick, concrete block, stone, and marble with manual skill to erect attractive, yet highly durable, structures. Workers in other occupations with similar skills include carpet, floor, and tile installers and finishers; cement masons, concrete finishers, segmental pavers, and terrazzo workers; and plasterers and stucco masons.

Sources of Additional Information For details about apprenticeships or other work opportunities in these trades, contact local bricklaying, stonemasonry, or marble-setting contractors; the Associated Builders and Contractors; a local of the International Union of Bricklayers and Allied Craftsworkers; a local joint union-management apprenticeship committee; or the nearest office of the state employment service or apprenticeship agency. For general information about the work of brickmasons, blockmasons, or stonemasons, contact: ●

International Union of Bricklayers and Allied Craftworkers, 1776 I St. NW, Washington, DC. 20006.

For information on training for brickmasons, blockmasons, and stonemasons, contact: ●

Associated Builders and Contractors, Workforce Development Department, 4250 North Fairfax Dr., 9th Floor, Arlington, VA 22203.

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International Masonry Institute, Apprenticeship and Training, The James Brice House, 42 East St., Annapolis, MD 21401. Internet: http://www.imiweb.org

Information about the work of bricklayers also can be obtained from: ●

Associated General Contractors of America, Inc., 333 John Carlyle St., Alexandria, VA 22314. Internet: http://www.agc.org

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Brick Industry Association, 11490 Commerce Park Dr., Reston, VA 22091-1525. Internet: http://www.brickinfo.org

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National Association of Home Builders, 1201 15th St. NW, Washington, DC 20005. Internet: http://www.nahb.org

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Home Builders Institute, 1201 15th St. NW, Washington, DC 20005. Internet http://www.hbi.org

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National Concrete Masonry Association, 13750 Sunrise Valley Dr., Herndon, VA 20171-3499. Internet: http://www.ncma.org

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Job applicants face strong competition for jobs in major metropolitan areas, where pay generally is higher; prospects are better in small cities and towns.

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Technical school, community college, or college training in electronics, computer networking, or broadcast technology provides the best preparation.

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About 32 percent work in broadcasting, mainly for radio and television stations, and 16 percent work in the motion picture and sound recording industries.

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Evening, weekend, and holiday work is common.

Nature of the Work Broadcast and sound engineering technicians and radio operators set up, operate, and maintain a wide variety of electrical and electronic equipment involved in almost any radio or television broadcast, concert, play, musical recording, television show, or movie. With such a range of work, there are many specialized occupations within the field. Audio and video equipment technicians set up and operate audio and video equipment, including microphones, sound speakers, video screens, projectors, video monitors, recording equipment, connecting wires and cables, sound and mixing boards, and related electronic equipment for concerts, sports events, meetings and conventions, presentations, and news conferences. They may also set up and operate associated spotlights and other custom lighting systems. Broadcast technicians set up, operate, and maintain equipment that regulates the signal strength, clarity, and range of sounds and colors of radio or television broadcasts. They also operate control panels to select the source of the material. Technicians may switch from one camera or studio to another, from film to live programming, or from network to local programming. Sound engineering technicians operate machines and equipment to record, synchronize, mix, or reproduce music, voices, or sound effects in recording studios, sporting arenas, theater productions, or movie and video productions.

There are more than 500 occupations registered by the U.S. Department of Labor’s National Apprenticeship system. For more information on the Labor Department’s registered apprenticeship system and links to state apprenticeship programs, check their Web site: http://www.doleta.gov.

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Radio operators mainly receive and transmit communications using a variety of tools. They also are responsible for repairing equipment, using such devices as electronic testing equipment, handtools, and power tools. One of their major duties is to help to maintain communication systems in good condition.

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Section One: Descriptions of 101 Top Jobs for People Without a Four-Year Degree Broadcast and sound engineering technicians and radio operators perform a variety of duties in small stations. In large stations and at the networks, technicians are more specialized, although job assignments may change from day to day. The terms “operator,” “engineer,” and “technician” often are used interchangeably to describe these jobs. Workers in these positions may monitor and log outgoing signals and operate transmitters; set up, adjust, service, and repair electronic broadcasting equipment; and regulate fidelity, brightness, contrast, volume, and sound quality of television broadcasts.

Employment

Technicians also work in program production. Recording engineers operate and maintain video and sound recording equipment. They may operate equipment designed to produce special effects, such as the illusions of a bolt of lightning or a police siren. Sound mixers or rerecording mixers produce the soundtrack of a movie or television program. After filming or recording is complete, they may use a process called “dubbing” to insert sounds. Field technicians set up and operate portable transmission equipment outside the studio. Television news coverage requires so much electronic equipment, and the technology is changing so rapidly, that many stations assign technicians exclusively to news.

About 32 percent worked in broadcasting (except Internet) and 16 percent worked in the motion picture and sound recording industries. Almost 1 in 10 were self-employed. Television stations employ, on average, many more technicians than do radio stations. Some technicians are employed in other industries, producing employee communications, sales, and training programs. Technician jobs in television are located in virtually all cities, whereas jobs in radio also are found in many small towns. The highest-paying and most specialized jobs are concentrated in New York City, Los Angeles, Chicago, and Washington, DC—the originating centers for most network or news programs. Motion picture production jobs are concentrated in Los Angeles and New York City.

Broadcast and sound engineering technicians and radio operators held about 93,000 jobs in 2002. Their employment was distributed among the following detailed occupations: Audio and video equipment technicians ................42,000 Broadcast technicians ..............................................35,000 Sound engineering technicians................................13,000 Radio operators ........................................................3,000

Chief engineers, transmission engineers, and broadcast field supervisors oversee other technicians and maintain broadcasting equipment.

Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement

The transition to digital recording, editing, and broadcasting has greatly changed the work of broadcast and sound engineering technicians and radio operators. Software on desktop computers has replaced specialized electronic equipment in many recording and editing functions. Most radio and television stations have replaced video and audio tapes with computer hard drives and other computer data storage systems. Computer networks linked to the specialized equipment dominate modern broadcasting. This transition has forced technicians to learn computer networking and software skills.

The best way to prepare for a broadcast and sound engineering technician job is to obtain technical school, community college, or college training in electronics, computer networking, or broadcast technology. In the motion picture industry, people are hired as apprentice editorial assistants and work their way up to more skilled jobs. Employers in the motion picture industry usually hire experienced freelance technicians on a picture-by-picture basis. Reputation and determination are important in getting jobs.

Working Conditions

Beginners learn skills on the job from experienced technicians and supervisors. They often begin their careers in small stations and, once experienced, move on to larger ones. Large stations usually hire only technicians with experience. Many employers pay tuition and expenses for courses or seminars to help technicians keep abreast of developments in the field.

Broadcast and sound engineering technicians and radio operators generally work indoors in pleasant surroundings. However, those who broadcast news and other programs from locations outside the studio may work outdoors in all types of weather. Technicians doing maintenance may climb poles or antenna towers, while those setting up equipment do heavy lifting.

Audio and video equipment technicians generally need a high school diploma. Many recent entrants have a community college degree or various other forms of postsecondary degrees, although that is not always a requirement. They may substitute on-the-job training for formal education requirements. Working in a studio, as an assistant, is a great way of gaining experience and knowledge.

Technicians at large stations and the networks usually work a 40-hour week under great pressure to meet broadcast deadlines, and they may occasionally work overtime. Technicians at small stations routinely work more than 40 hours a week. Evening, weekend, and holiday work is usual, because most stations are on the air 18 to 24 hours a day, 7 days a week. Even though a technician may not be on duty when the station is broadcasting, some technicians may be on call during nonwork hours; that is, they must handle any problems that occur when they are on call.

Radio operators do not usually require any formal training. This is an entry-level position that generally requires on-thejob training. The Federal Communications Commission no longer requires the licensing of broadcast technicians, as the Telecommunications Act of 1996 eliminated this licensing requirement. Certification by the Society of Broadcast Engineers is a mark of

Those who work on motion pictures may be on a tight schedule and may work long hours to meet contractual deadlines.

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America’s Top 101 Jobs for People Without a Four-Year Degree competence and experience. The certificate is issued to experienced technicians who pass an examination. Prospective technicians should take high school courses in math, physics, and electronics. Building electronic equipment from hobby kits and operating a “ham,” or amateur, radio are good experience, as is work in college radio and television stations. Broadcast and sound engineering technicians and radio operators must have manual dexterity and an aptitude for working with electrical, electronic, and mechanical systems and equipment. Experienced technicians can become supervisory technicians or chief engineers. A college degree in engineering is needed in order to become chief engineer at a large television station.

Job Outlook People seeking entry-level jobs as technicians in broadcasting are expected to face strong competition in major metropolitan areas, where pay generally is higher and the number of qualified jobseekers typically exceeds the number of openings. There, stations seek highly experienced personnel. Prospects for entry-level positions usually are better in small cities and towns for beginners with appropriate training. Overall employment of broadcast and sound engineering technicians and radio operators is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2012. Job growth in radio and television broadcasting will be limited by consolidation of ownership of radio and television stations, and by laborsaving technical advances such as computercontrolled programming and remotely controlled transmitters. Changes to Federal Communications Commission (FCC) regulations now allow a single owner for up to eight radio stations in a single large market, and rules changes under consideration may have a similar impact on the ownership of television stations. Owners of multiple stations often consolidate the stations into a single location, reducing employment because one or a few technicians can provide support to multiple stations. Technicians who know how to install transmitters will be in demand as television stations install digital transmitters. Although most television stations are broadcasting in both analog and digital formats and plan to switch entirely to digital, radio stations are only beginning to broadcast digital signals. Employment of broadcast and sound engineering technicians in the cable and pay television portion of the broadcasting industry should grow as the range of services is expanded to provide, such products as cable Internet access and video-ondemand. Employment of these workers in the motion picture industry will grow rapidly. However, job prospects are expected to remain competitive because of the large number of people who are attracted by the glamour of working in motion pictures. Projected job growth varies among detailed occupations in this field. Employment of broadcast technicians is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through 2012, as advancements in technology enhance the capabilities of technicians to produce higher quality radio and television

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programming. Employment of radio operators is expected to decline as more stations operate transmitters that control programming remotely. Employment of audio and video equipment technicians and sound engineering technicians is expected to grow faster than the average for all occupations. Not only will these workers have to set up audio and video equipment, but it will be necessary for them to maintain and repair this equipment. In addition to employment growth, job openings also will result from the need to replace experienced technicians who leave this field. Some of these workers leave for other jobs that require knowledge of electronics, such as computer repairer or industrial machinery repairer.

Earnings Television stations usually pay higher salaries than do radio stations; commercial broadcasting usually pays more than public broadcasting; and stations in large markets pay more than those in small markets. Median annual earnings of broadcast technicians in 2002 were $27,760. The middle 50 percent earned between $18,860 and $45,200. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $14,600, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $65,970. Median annual earnings of sound engineering technicians in 2002 were $36,970. The middle 50 percent earned between $24,330 and $57,350. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $18,540, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $82,510. Median annual earnings of audio and video equipment technicians in 2002 were $31,110. The middle 50 percent earned between $22,670 and $43,950. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $17,710, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $61,420. Median annual earnings of radio operators in 2002 were $31,530. The middle 50 percent earned between $24,000 and $41,430. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $17,380, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $56,340.

Related Occupations Broadcast and sound engineering technicians and radio operators need the electronics training necessary to operate technical equipment, and they generally complete specialized postsecondary programs. Occupations with similar characteristics include engineering technicians, science technicians, and electrical and electronics installers and repairers. Broadcast and sound engineering technicians also may operate computer networks, as do computer support specialists and systems administrators. Broadcast technicians on some live radio and television programs are responsible for screening incoming calls, similar to the work of communications equipment operators.

Sources of Additional Information For career information and links to employment resources, contact:

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Section One: Descriptions of 101 Top Jobs for People Without a Four-Year Degree ●

National Association of Broadcasters, 1771 N St. NW, Washington, DC 20036. Internet: http://www.nab.org

the same city and suburban streets, stopping as frequently as every few blocks.

For information on certification, contact: ●

Local-transit bus drivers submit daily trip reports with a record of trips, significant schedule delays, and mechanical problems. Intercity drivers who drive across state or national boundaries must comply with U.S. Department of Transportation regulations. These include completing vehicle inspection reports and recording distances traveled and the periods they spend driving, performing other duties, and off duty.

Society of Broadcast Engineers, 9247 North Meridian St., Suite 305, Indianapolis, IN 46260. Internet: http://www.sbe.org

Bus Drivers

Motorcoach drivers transport passengers on charter trips and sightseeing tours. Drivers routinely interact with customers and tour guides to make the trip as comfortable and informative as possible. They are directly responsible for keeping to strict schedules, adhering to the guidelines of the tours’ itinerary, and ensuring the overall success of the trip. These drivers act as customer service representative, tour guide, program director, and safety guide. Trips frequently last more than 1 day. The driver may be away for more than a week if assigned to an extended tour. As with all drivers who drive across state or national boundaries, motorcoach drivers must comply with Department of Transportation regulations.

(O*NET 53-3021.00 and 53-3022.00)

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Opportunities should be good, particularly for schoolbus driver jobs.

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A commercial driver’s license is required to operate a bus.

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Work schedules vary considerably among various types of bus drivers.

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Bus drivers must possess strong customer service skills, including communication skills and the ability to manage large groups of people with varying needs.

Schoolbus drivers usually drive the same routes each day, stopping to pick up pupils in the morning and return them to their homes in the afternoon. Some schoolbus drivers also transport students and teachers on field trips or to sporting events. In addition to driving, some schoolbus drivers work part time in the school system as janitors, mechanics, or classroom assistants when not driving buses.

Nature of the Work Every day, millions of Americans every day leave the driving to bus drivers. Bus drivers are essential in providing passengers with an alternative to their automobiles or other forms of transportation. Intercity bus drivers transport people between regions of a state or of the country; local-transit bus drivers do so within a metropolitan area or county; motor coach drivers take customers on charter excursions and tours; and schoolbus drivers take children to and from schools and related events.

Bus drivers must be alert in order to prevent accidents, especially in heavy traffic or in bad weather, and to avoid sudden stops or swerves that jar passengers. Schoolbus drivers must exercise particular caution when children are getting on or off the bus. They must maintain order on their bus and enforce school safety standards by allowing only students to board. In addition, they must know and enforce rules regarding student conduct used throughout the school system.

Drivers pick up and drop off passengers at bus stops, stations, or, in the case of students, at regularly scheduled neighborhood locations based on strict time schedules. Drivers must operate vehicles safely, especially when traffic is heavier than normal. However, they cannot let light traffic put them ahead of schedule so that they miss passengers.

Schoolbus drivers do not always have to report to an assigned terminal or garage. In some cases, they have the choice of taking their bus home, or parking it in a more convenient area. Schoolbus drivers do not collect fares. Instead, they prepare weekly reports on the number of students, trips or “runs,” work hours, miles, and fuel consumption. Their supervisors set time schedules and routes for the day or week.

Local-transit and intercity bus drivers report to their assigned terminal or garage, where they stock up on tickets or transfers and prepare trip report forms. In some transportation firms, maintenance departments are responsible for keeping vehicles in good condition. In others, drivers may check their vehicle’s tires, brakes, windshield wipers, lights, oil, fuel, and water supply before beginning their routes. Drivers usually verify that the bus has safety equipment, such as fire extinguishers, first aid kits, and emergency reflectors in case of an emergency.

Working Conditions Driving a bus through heavy traffic while dealing with passengers is more stressful and fatiguing than physically strenuous. Many drivers enjoy the opportunity to work without direct supervision, with full responsibility for their bus and passengers. To improve working conditions and retain drivers, many buslines provide ergonomically designed seats and controls for drivers.

During the course of their shift, local-transit and intercity bus drivers collect fares; answer questions about schedules, routes, and transfer points; and sometimes announce stops. Intercity bus drivers may make only a single one-way trip to a distant city or a round trip each day. They may stop at towns just a few miles apart or only at large cities hundreds of miles apart. Local-transit bus drivers may make several trips each day over

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Intercity bus drivers may work nights, weekends, and holidays and often spend nights away from home, during which they stay in hotels at company expense. Senior drivers with regular routes have regular weekly work schedules, but others do not

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America’s Top 101 Jobs for People Without a Four-Year Degree have regular schedules and must be prepared to report for work on short notice. They report for work only when called for a charter assignment or to drive extra buses on a regular route. Intercity bus travel and charter work tends to be seasonal. From May through August, drivers may work the maximum number of hours per week that regulations allow. During winter, junior drivers may work infrequently, except for busy holiday travel periods, and may be furloughed at times. Schoolbus drivers work only when school is in session. Many work 20 hours a week or less, driving one or two routes in the morning and afternoon. Drivers taking field or athletic trips, or who also have midday kindergarten routes, may work more hours a week. As more students with a variety of physical and behavioral disabilities assimilate into mainstream schools, schoolbus drivers must learn how to accommodate their special needs. Regular local-transit bus drivers usually have a 5-day workweek; Saturdays and Sundays are considered regular workdays. Some drivers work evenings and after midnight. To accommodate commuters, many work “split shifts,” for example, 6 a.m. to 10 a.m. and 3 p.m. to 7 p.m., with time off in between. Tour and charter bus drivers may work any day and all hours of the day, including weekends and holidays. Their hours are dictated by the charter trips booked and the schedule and prearranged itinerary of tours. However, like all bus drivers, their weekly hours must be consistent with the Department of Transportation’s rules and regulations concerning hours of service. For example, a driver may drive for 10 hours and work for up to 15 hours—including driving and nondriving duties— before having 8 hours off-duty. A driver may not drive after having worked for 70 hours in the past 8 days. Most drivers are required to document their time in a logbook.

Employment Bus drivers held about 654,000 jobs in 2002. Over one-third worked part time. More than two-thirds of all bus drivers were schoolbus drivers working primarily for school systems or for companies providing schoolbus services under contract. Most of the remainder worked for private and local government transit systems; some also worked for intercity and charter buslines.

Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Bus driver qualifications and standards are established by state and federal regulations. All drivers must comply with federal regulations and with any state regulations that exceed federal requirements. Federal regulations require drivers who operate commercial motor vehicles to hold a commercial driver’s license (CDL) from the state in which they live. To qualify for a commercial driver’s license, applicants must pass a written test on rules and regulations and then demonstrate that they can operate a bus safely. A national databank permanently records all driving violations incurred by persons who hold commercial licenses. A state may not issue a commercial driver’s license to a driver who has already had a

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license suspended or revoked in another state. A driver with a CDL must accompany trainees until the trainees get their own CDL. Information on how to apply for a commercial driver’s license may be obtained from state motor vehicle administrations. While many states allow those who are 18 years of age and older to drive buses within state borders, the Department of Transportation establishes minimum qualifications for bus drivers engaged in interstate commerce. Federal Motor Carrier Safety Regulations require drivers to be at least 21 years old and to pass a physical examination once every 2 years. The main physical requirements include good hearing, at least 20/40 vision with or without glasses or corrective lenses, and a 70degree field of vision in each eye. Drivers must not be colorblind. They must be able to hear a forced whisper in one ear at not less than 5 feet, with or without a hearing aide. Drivers must have normal use of arms and legs and normal blood pressure. They may not use any controlled substances, unless prescribed by a licensed physician. Persons with epilepsy or diabetes controlled by insulin are not permitted to be interstate bus drivers. federal regulations also require employers to test their drivers for alcohol and drug use as a condition of employment, and require periodic random tests of the drivers while they are on duty. In addition, a driver must not have been convicted of a felony involving the use of a motor vehicle; a crime involving drugs; driving under the influence of drugs or alcohol; or hit-and-run driving that resulted in injury or death. All drivers must be able to read and speak English well enough to read road signs, prepare reports, and communicate with law enforcement officers and the public. In addition, drivers must take a written examination on the Motor Carrier Safety Regulations of the U.S. Department of Transportation. Many employers prefer high school graduates and require a written test of ability to follow complex bus schedules. Many intercity and public transit bus companies prefer applicants who are at least 24 years of age; some require several years of experience driving a bus or truck. In some states, schoolbus drivers must pass a background investigation to uncover any criminal record or history of mental problems. Because bus drivers deal with passengers, they must be courteous. They need an even temperament and emotional stability because driving in heavy, fast-moving, or stop-and-go traffic and dealing with passengers can be stressful. Drivers must have strong customer service skills, including communication skills and the ability to coordinate and manage large groups of people. Most intercity bus companies and local-transit systems give driver trainees 2 to 8 weeks of classroom and “behind-thewheel” instruction. In the classroom, trainees learn Department of Transportation and company work rules, safety regulations, state and municipal driving regulations, and safe driving practices. They also learn to read schedules, determine fares, keep records, and deal courteously with passengers. Schoolbus drivers also are required to obtain a commercial driver’s license from the state in which they live. Many persons who become schoolbus drivers have never driven any vehicle larger than an automobile. They receive between 1 and 4

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Section One: Descriptions of 101 Top Jobs for People Without a Four-Year Degree marily to meet the transportation needs of the growing general population and the school-age population. Many additional job openings are expected to occur each year because of the need to replace workers who take jobs in other occupations or who retire or leave the occupation for other reasons.

weeks of driving instruction plus classroom training on state and local laws, regulations, and policies of operating schoolbuses; safe driving practices; driver-pupil relations; first aid; special needs of disabled and emotionally troubled students; and emergency evacuation procedures. Schoolbus drivers also must be aware of the school system’s rules for discipline and conduct for bus drivers and the students they transport.

The number of school bus drivers is expected to increase as a result of growth in elementary and secondary school enrollments. In addition, more schoolbus drivers will be needed as more of the nation’s population is concentrated in suburban areas, where students generally ride schoolbuses, and less in central cities, where transportation is not provided for most pupils.

During training, bus drivers practice driving on set courses. They practice turns and zigzag maneuvers, backing up, and driving in narrow lanes. Then, they drive in light traffic and, eventually, on congested highways and city streets. They also make trial runs, without passengers, to improve their driving skills and learn the routes. Local-transit trainees memorize and drive each of the runs operating out of their assigned garage. New drivers begin with a “break-in” period. They make regularly scheduled trips with passengers, accompanied by an experienced driver who gives helpful tips, answers questions, and evaluates the new driver’s performance.

Employment growth of local-transit bus drivers will be spurred by increases in the number of passengers and in funding levels. Funding levels for public transit may fluctuate as the public’s interest in transportation changes. There may be competition for positions with more regular hours and steady driving routes.

New intercity and local-transit drivers are usually placed on an “extra” list to drive charter runs, extra buses on regular runs, and special runs (for example, during morning and evening rush hours and to sports events). They also substitute for regular drivers who are ill or on vacation. New drivers remain on the extra list, and may work only part time, for perhaps several years, until they have enough seniority to be given a regular run.

Competition from other modes of transportation—airplane, train, or automobile—will temper job growth among intercity bus drivers. Most growth in intercity bus transportation will occur in group charters to locations not served by other modes of transportation. Like automobiles, buses have a far greater number of possible destinations than airplanes or trains. Due to greater cost savings and convenience over automobiles, buses usually are the most economical option for tour groups traveling to out-of-the-way destinations.

Senior drivers may bid for the runs that they prefer, such as those with more work hours, lighter traffic, weekends off, or, in the case of intercity bus drivers, higher earnings or fewer workdays per week.

Full-time bus drivers are rarely laid off during recessions. However, employers might reduce hours of part-time local-transit and intercity bus drivers if the number of passengers decreases, because fewer extra buses would be needed. Seasonal layoffs are common. Many intercity bus drivers with little seniority, for example, are furloughed during the winter when regular schedule and charter business declines; schoolbus drivers seldom work during the summer or school holidays.

Opportunities for promotion are generally limited. However, experienced drivers may become supervisors or dispatchers, assigning buses to drivers, checking whether drivers are on schedule, rerouting buses to avoid blocked streets or other problems, and dispatching extra vehicles and service crews to scenes of accidents and breakdowns. In transit agencies with rail systems, drivers may become train operators or station attendants. A few drivers become managers. Promotion in publicly owned bus systems is often by competitive civil service examination. Some motorcoach drivers purchase their own equipment and open their own business.

Earnings Median hourly earnings of transit and intercity bus drivers were $14.22 in 2002. The middle 50 percent earned between $10.51 and $18.99 an hour. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $8.37, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $22.51 an hour. Median hourly earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of transit and intercity bus drivers in 2002 were as follows:

Job Outlook Persons seeking jobs as bus drivers should encounter good opportunities. Individuals who have good driving records and who are willing to work a part-time or irregular schedule should have the best job prospects. Schoolbus driving jobs, particularly in rapidly growing suburban areas, should be easiest to acquire because most are part-time positions with high turnover and minimal training requirements. Those seeking higher paying intercity and public transit bus driver positions may encounter competition. Employment prospects for motorcoach drivers will fluctuate with the cyclical nature of the economy, as demand for motorcoach services is very dependent on tourism.

Local government ....................................................$16.95 Interurban and rural bus transportation ..................15.15 Urban transit systems ................................................15.02 School and employee bus transportation..................11.29 Charter bus industry ................................................10.64 Median hourly earnings of schoolbus drivers were $10.77 in 2002. The middle 50 percent earned between $7.73 and $13.53 an hour. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $6.24, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $16.44 an hour. Median hourly earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of schoolbus drivers in 2002 were as follows:

Employment of bus drivers is expected to increase about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2012, pri-

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America’s Top 101 Jobs for People Without a Four-Year Degree School and employee bus transportation................$11.44 Local government ......................................................11.09 Elementary and secondary schools............................10.50 Other transit and ground passenger transportation ............................................................9.79 Individual and family services....................................8.27

Because local building codes often dictate where certain materials can be used, carpenters must know these regulations. Each carpentry task is somewhat different, but most involve the same basic steps. Working from blueprints or instructions from supervisors, carpenters first do the layout—measuring, marking, and arranging materials. They cut and shape wood, plastic, fiberglass, or drywall, using hand and power tools, such as chisels, planes, saws, drills, and sanders. They then join the materials with nails, screws, staples, or adhesives. In the final step, carpenters check the accuracy of their work with levels, rules, plumb bobs, and framing squares, and make any necessary adjustments. When working with prefabricated components, such as stairs or wall panels, the carpenter’s task is somewhat simpler than above, because it does not require as much layout work or the cutting and assembly of as many pieces. Prefabricated components are designed for easy and fast installation and generally can be installed in a single operation.

Related Occupations Other workers who drive vehicles on highways and city streets include taxi drivers and chauffeurs and truck drivers and driver/sales workers.

Sources of Additional Information For information on employment opportunities, contact localtransit systems, intercity buslines, school systems, or the local offices of the state employment service. General information on schoolbus driving is available from: National School Transportation Association, 625 Slaters Lane, Suite 205, Alexandria, VA 22314.

General information on local-transit bus driving is available from: American Public Transportation Association, 1666 K St. NW, Suite 1100, Washington, DC 20006.

Carpenters who remodel homes and other structures must be able to do all aspects of a job—not just one task. Thus, individuals with good basic overall training are at a distinct advantage, because they can switch from residential building to commercial construction or remodeling work, depending on which offers the best work opportunities.

General information on motorcoach driving is available from: ●

United Motorcoach Association, 113 S. West St., 4th Floor, Alexandria, VA 22314.

Carpenters employed outside the construction industry perform a variety of installation and maintenance work. They may replace panes of glass, ceiling tiles, and doors, as well as repair desks, cabinets, and other furniture. Depending on the employer, carpenters install partitions, doors, and windows; change locks; and repair broken furniture. In manufacturing firms, carpenters may assist in moving or installing machinery.

Carpenters (O*NET 47-2031.01, 47-2031.02, 47-2031.03, 47-2031.04, 47-2031.05, and 47-2031.06)

Working Conditions

Significant Points ●

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Carpenters with all-round skills will have the best opportunities for steady work.

Carpenters are involved in many different kinds of construction activity. They cut, fit, and assemble wood and other materials for the construction of buildings, highways, bridges, docks, industrial plants, boats, and many other structures. Carpenters’ duties vary by type of employer. Builders increasingly are using specialty trade contractors who, in turn, hire carpenters who specialize in just one or two activities. Such activities include setting forms for concrete construction; erecting scaffolding; or doing finishing work, such as installing interior and exterior trim. However, a carpenter directly employed by a general building contractor often must perform a variety of the tasks associated with new construction, such as framing walls and partitions, putting in doors and windows, building stairs, laying hardwood floors, and hanging kitchen cabinets. Carpenters also build brattices (ventilation walls or partitions) in underground passageways to control the proper circulation of air through these passageways and to worksites.

Most intercity and many local-transit bus drivers are belong to the Transport Workers Union of America. Some drivers belong to the United Transportation Union or the International Brotherhood of Teamsters.

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Job opportunities should be excellent.

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Nature of the Work

The benefits bus drivers receive from their employers vary greatly. Most intercity and local-transit bus drivers receive paid health and life insurance, sick leave, vacation leave, and free bus rides on any of the regular routes of their line or system. Schoolbus drivers receive sick leave, and many are covered by health and life insurance and pension plans. Because they generally do not work when school is not in session, they do not get vacation leave. In a number of states, local-transit and schoolbus drivers employed by local governments are covered by a statewide public employee pension system. Increasingly, school systems extend benefits to drivers who supplement their driving by working in the school system during off hours.

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About 30 percent of all carpenters—the largest construction trade in 2002—were self-employed.

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Section One: Descriptions of 101 Top Jobs for People Without a Four-Year Degree tractor specializing in homebuilding may provide training only in rough framing. In contrast, a large general contractor may provide training in several carpentry skills. Although specialization is becoming increasingly common, it is important to try to acquire skills in all aspects of carpentry and to have the flexibility to perform any kind of work.

ing often are necessary. Carpenters risk injury working with sharp or rough materials, using sharp tools and power equipment, and working in situations where they might slip or fall. Additionally, many carpenters work outdoors. Some carpenters change employers each time they finish a construction job. Others alternate between working for a contractor and working as contractors themselves on small jobs.

A high school education is desirable, including courses in carpentry, shop, mechanical drawing, and general mathematics. Manual dexterity, eye-hand coordination, physical fitness, and a good sense of balance are important. The ability to solve arithmetic problems quickly and accurately also is helpful. Employers and apprenticeship committees generally view favorably any construction-related training and work experience obtained in the Armed Services or Job Corps.

Employment Carpenters, who make up the largest building trades occupation, held about 1.2 million jobs in 2002. One-third worked for general building contractors and one-fifth worked for special trade contractors. Most of the rest of the wage and salary workers worked for manufacturing firms, government agencies, retail establishments and a wide variety of other industries. About 30 percent of all carpenters were self-employed.

Carpenters may advance to carpentry supervisor or general construction supervisor positions. Carpenters usually have greater opportunities than most other construction workers to become general construction supervisors, because carpenters are exposed to the entire construction process. Some carpenters become independent contractors. To advance, these workers should be able to identify and estimate the quantity of materials needed to properly complete a job. In addition, they must be able to accurately estimate how long a job should take to complete and what it will cost.

Carpenters are employed throughout the country in almost every community.

Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Carpenters learn their trade through on-the-job training, as well as formal training programs. Most pick up skills informally by working under the supervision of experienced workers. Many acquire skills through vocational education. Others participate in employer training programs or apprenticeships.

Job Outlook Job opportunities for carpenters are expected to be excellent over the 2002–12 period, largely due to the numerous openings arising each year as experienced carpenters leave this large occupation. Contributing to this favorable job market is the fact that many potential workers prefer work that is less strenuous and that has more comfortable working conditions. Because there are no strict training requirements for entry, many people with limited skills take jobs as carpenters but eventually leave the occupation because they dislike the work or cannot find steady employment.

Most employers recommend an apprenticeship as the best way to learn carpentry. Apprenticeship programs are administered by local joint union-management committees of the United Brotherhood of Carpenters and Joiners of America, the Associated General Contractors, Inc., and the National Association of Home Builders. In addition, training programs are administered by local chapters of the Associated Builders and Contractors and by local chapters of the Associated General Contractors, Inc. These programs combine on-the-job training with related classroom instruction.

Employment of carpenters is expected to grow about as fast as average for all occupations through 2012. Construction activity should increase in response to demand for new housing and commercial and industrial plants and the need to renovate and modernize existing structures. The demand for larger homes with more amenities and for second homes will continue to rise, especially as the baby boomers reach their peak earning years and can afford to spend more on housing. At the same time, the demand for manufactured housing, starter homes, and rental apartments also is expected to increase as the number of immigrants grows and as the relatively small baby bust generation, which followed the baby boom generation, is replaced by echo boomers (the children of the baby boomers) in the young adult age groups.

On the job, apprentices learn elementary structural design and become familiar with common carpentry jobs, such as layout, form building, rough framing, and outside and inside finishing. They also learn to use the tools, machines, equipment, and materials of the trade. Apprentices receive classroom instruction in safety, first aid, blueprint reading, freehand sketching, basic mathematics, and different carpentry techniques. Both in the classroom and on the job, they learn the relationship between carpentry and the other building trades. Usually, apprenticeship applicants must be at least 18 years old and meet local requirements. For example, some union locals test an applicant’s aptitude for carpentry. The length of the program, usually 3 to 4 years, varies with the apprentice’s skill. Because the number of apprenticeship programs is limited, however, only a small proportion of carpenters learn their trade through these programs.

However, some of the demand for carpenters will be offset by expected productivity gains resulting from the increasing use of prefabricated components, such as prehung doors and windows and prefabricated wall panels and stairs, which can be installed very quickly. Prefabricated walls, partitions, and stairs are lifted into place in one operation; beams—and, in some cases, entire roof assemblies—are lifted into place using a

Informal on-the-job training is normally less thorough than an apprenticeship. The degree of training and supervision often depends on the size of the employing firm. A small con-

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America’s Top 101 Jobs for People Without a Four-Year Degree crane. As prefabricated components become more standardized, builders will use them more often. In addition, improved adhesives will reduce the time needed to join materials, and lightweight, cordless, and pneumatic tools—such as nailers and drills—all make carpenters more efficient. Carpenters can experience periods of unemployment because of the short-term nature of many construction projects and the cyclical nature of the construction industry. Building activity depends on many factors—interest rates, availability of mortgage funds, the season, government spending, and business investment—that vary with the state of the economy. During economic downturns, the number of job openings for carpenters declines. New and improved tools, equipment, techniques, and materials have vastly increased carpenter versatility. Therefore, carpenters with all-round skills will have better opportunities for steady work than carpenters who can do only a few relatively simple, routine tasks. Job opportunities for carpenters also vary by geographic area. Construction activity parallels the movement of people and businesses and reflects differences in local economic conditions. Therefore, the number of job opportunities and apprenticeship opportunities in a given year may vary widely from area to area.

tractors, locals of the union mentioned above, local joint union-contractor apprenticeship committees, or the nearest office of the state employment service or apprenticeship agency. For information on training opportunities and carpentry in general, contact: ●

Associated Builders and Contractors, Workforce Development Department, 4250 North Fairfax Dr., 9th Floor, Arlington, VA 22203.

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Associated General Contractors of America, Inc., 333 John Carlyle St., Suite 200, Alexandria VA, 22314. Internet: http://www.agc.org

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Home Builders Institute, 1201 15th St. NW, Washington, DC 20005. Internet: http://www.hbi.org

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National Association of Home Builders, 1201 15th St. NW, Washington, DC 20005. Internet: http://www.nahb.org

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United Brotherhood of Carpenters and Joiners of America, 50 F St. NW, Washington, DC 20001. Internet: http://www.carpenters.org

There are more than 500 occupations registered by the U.S. Department of Labor’s National Apprenticeship system. For more information on the Labor Department’s registered apprenticeship system and links to state apprenticeship programs, check the Web site: http://www.doleta.gov.

Earnings In 2002, median hourly earnings of carpenters were $16.44. The middle 50 percent earned between $12.59 and $21.91. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $9.95, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $27.97. Median hourly earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of carpenters in 2002 are shown below:

Chefs, Cooks, and Food Preparation Workers (O*NET 35-1011.00, 35-2011.00, 35-2012.00, 35-2013.00, 35-2014.00, 35-2015.00, and 35-2021.00)

Nonresidential building construction ....................$18.31

Significant Points

Building finishing contractors ..................................17.30 Residential building construction..............................16.02

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Many young people worked as cooks and food preparation workers—almost 20 percent were between 16 and 19 years old.

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More than 2 out of 5 food preparation workers were employed part time.

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Job openings are expected to be plentiful, primarily reflecting substantial replacement needs in this large occupation.

Foundation, structure, and building exterior contractors ................................................................16.01 Employment services ................................................12.58 Earnings can be reduced on occasion, because carpenters lose worktime in bad weather and during recessions when jobs are unavailable. Some carpenters are members of the United Brotherhood of Carpenters and Joiners of America.

Related Occupations Carpenters are skilled construction workers. Other skilled construction occupations include brickmasons, blockmasons, and stonemasons; cement masons, concrete finishers, segmental pavers, and terrazzo workers; electricians; pipelayers, plumbers, pipefitters, and steamfitters; and plasterers and stucco masons.

Sources of Additional Information For information about carpentry apprenticeships or other work opportunities in this trade, contact local carpentry con-

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Nature of the Work Chefs, cooks, and food preparation workers prepare, season, and cook a wide range of foods—from soups, snacks, and salads to entrees, side dishes, and desserts—in a variety of restaurants and other food services establishments. Chefs and cooks create recipes and prepare meals, while food preparation workers peel and cut vegetables, trim meat, prepare poultry, and perform other duties such as keeping work areas clean and monitoring temperatures of ovens and stovetops. In general, chefs and cooks measure, mix, and cook ingredients according to recipes, using a variety of pots, pans, cutlery, and other equipment, including ovens, broilers, grills, slicers, grinders, and blenders. Chefs and head cooks also are respon-

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Section One: Descriptions of 101 Top Jobs for People Without a Four-Year Degree The number and types of workers employed in kitchens depends on the type of establishment. For example, fast-food establishments offer only a few items, which are prepared by fast-food cooks. Small, full-service restaurants offering casual dining often feature a limited number of easy-to-prepare items supplemented by short-order specialties and ready-made desserts. Typically, one cook prepares all the food with the help of a short-order cook and one or two other kitchen workers.

sible for directing the work of other kitchen workers, estimating food requirements, and ordering food supplies. Larger restaurants and food services establishments tend to have varied menus and larger kitchen staffs. They often include several chefs and cooks, sometimes called assistant or line cooks, along with other lesser skilled kitchen workers, such as food preparation workers. Each chef or cook works an assigned station that is equipped with the types of stoves, grills, pans, and ingredients needed for the foods prepared at each station. Job titles often reflect the principal ingredient prepared or the type of cooking performed—vegetable cook, fry cook, or grill cook.

Grocery and specialty food stores employ chefs, cooks, and food preparation workers to develop recipes and prepare meals to go. Typically, entrees, side dishes, salads, or other items are prepared in large quantities and stored at an appropriate temperature. Servers portion and package items according to customer orders for serving at home.

Executive chefs and head cooks coordinate the work of the kitchen staff and direct the preparation of meals. They determine serving sizes, plan menus, order food supplies, and oversee kitchen operations to ensure uniform quality and presentation of meals. The terms chef and cook often are used interchangeably, but generally reflect the different types of chefs and the organizational structure of the kitchen staff. For example, an executive chef is in charge of all food service operations and also may supervise the many kitchens of a hotel, restaurant group, or corporate dining operation. A chef de cuisine reports to an executive chef and is responsible for the daily operations of a single kitchen. A sous chef, or sub chef, is the second-in-command and runs the kitchen in the absence of the chef. Chefs tend to be more highly skilled and better trained than cooks. Many chefs earn fame both for themselves and for their kitchens because of the quality and distinctive nature of the food they serve.

Working Conditions Many restaurant and institutional kitchens have modern equipment, convenient work areas, and air conditioning, but kitchens in older and smaller eating places are often not as well designed. Kitchens must be well ventilated, appropriately lit, and properly equipped with sprinkler systems to protect against fires. Kitchen staffs invariably work in small quarters against hot stoves and ovens. They are under constant pressure to prepare meals quickly, while ensuring quality is maintained and safety and sanitation guidelines are observed. Working conditions vary with the type and quantity of food prepared and the local laws governing food service operations. Workers usually must withstand the pressure and strain of standing for hours at a time, lifting heavy pots and kettles, and working near hot ovens and grills. Job hazards include slips and falls, cuts, and burns, but injuries are seldom serious.

The specific responsibilities of most cooks are determined by a number of factors, including the type of restaurant in which they work. Institution and cafeteria cooks, for example, work in the kitchens of schools, cafeterias, businesses, hospitals, and other institutions. For each meal, they prepare a large quantity of a limited number of entrees, vegetables, and desserts. Restaurant cooks usually prepare a wider selection of dishes, cooking most orders individually. Short-order cooks prepare foods in restaurants and coffee shops that emphasize fast service and quick food preparation. They grill and garnish hamburgers, prepare sandwiches, fry eggs, and cook French fries, often working on several orders at the same time. Fast-food cooks prepare a limited selection of menu items in fast-food restaurants. They cook and package batches of food, such as hamburgers and fried chicken, to be kept warm until served. Private household cooks plan and prepare meals in private homes according to the client’s tastes or dietary needs. They order groceries and supplies, clean the kitchen and wash dishes and utensils. They also may serve meals.

Work hours in restaurants may include early mornings, late evenings, holidays, and weekends. Work schedules of chefs, cooks and other kitchen workers in factory and school cafeterias may be more regular. In 2002, about 33 percent of cooks and 45 percent of food preparation workers had part-time schedules, compared to 16 percent of workers throughout the economy. The wide range in dining hours and the need for fully-staffed kitchens during all open hours creates work opportunities for individuals seeking supplemental income, flexible work hours, or variable schedules. For example, almost 20 percent of cooks and food preparation workers were 16-19 years old in 2002, and almost 10 percent had variable schedules. Kitchen workers employed by schools may work during the school year only, usually for 9 or 10 months. Similarly, resort establishments usually only offer seasonal employment.

Food preparation workers perform routine, repetitive tasks, such as readying ingredients for complex dishes, slicing and dicing vegetables, and composing salads and cold items, under the direction of chefs and cooks. They weigh and measure ingredients, go after pots and pans, and stir and strain soups and sauces. Food preparation workers may cut and grind meats, poultry, and seafood in preparation for cooking. Their responsibilities also include cleaning work areas, equipment, utensils, dishes, and silverware.

Employment Chefs, cooks and food preparation workers held nearly 3 million jobs in 2002. The distribution of jobs among the various types of chefs, cooks, and food preparation workers was as follows: Food preparation workers ......................................850,000 Cooks, restaurant....................................................727,000

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America’s Top 101 Jobs for People Without a Four-Year Degree Cooks, fast food......................................................588,000 Cooks, institution and cafeteria ............................436,000 Cooks, short order ..................................................227,000 Chefs and head cooks ............................................132,000 Cooks, private household ........................................8,000 More than three-fifths of all chefs, cooks, and food preparation workers were employed in restaurants and other food services and drinking places. Nearly one-fifth worked in institutions such as schools, universities, hospitals, and nursing care facilities. Grocery stores, hotels, gasoline stations with convenience stores, and other organizations employed the remainder.

Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most fast-food or short-order cooks and food preparation workers require little education or training; most skills are learned on the job. Training generally starts with basic sanitation and workplace safety subjects and continues with instruction on food handling, preparation, and cooking procedures. A high school diploma is not required for beginning jobs, but it is recommended for those planning a career as a cook or chef. High school or vocational school programs may offer courses in basic food safety and handling procedures and general business and computer classes for those who want to manage or open their own place. Many school districts, in cooperation with state departments of education, provide onthe-job training and summer workshops for cafeteria kitchen workers who aspire to become cooks. Large corporations in the food services and hospitality industries also offer paid internships and summer jobs to those just starting out in the field. Internships provide valuable experience and can lead to placement in more formal chef training programs. Executive chefs and head cooks who work in fine restaurants require many years of training and experience and an intense desire to cook. Some chefs and cooks may start their training in high school or post-high school vocational programs. Others may receive formal training through independent cooking schools, professional culinary institutes, or 2- or 4-year college degree programs in hospitality or culinary arts. In addition, some large hotels and restaurants operate their own training and job-placement programs for chefs and cooks. Most formal training programs require some form of apprenticeship, internship, or out placement program that are jointly offered by the school and affiliated restaurants. Professional culinary institutes, industry associations, and trade unions also may sponsor formal apprenticeship programs in coordination with the U.S. Department of Labor. Many chefs are trained on the job, receiving real work experience and training from chef mentors in the restaurants where they work. People who have had courses in commercial food preparation may start in a cook or chef job without spending a lot of time in lower skilled kitchen jobs. Their education may give them an advantage when looking for jobs in better restaurants. Some vocational programs in high schools may offer training, but employers usually prefer training given by trade schools,

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vocational centers, colleges, professional associations, or trade unions. Postsecondary courses range from a few months to 2 years or more. Degree-granting programs are open only to high school graduates. Chefs also may compete and test for certification as master chefs. Although certification is not required to enter the field, it can be a measure of accomplishment and lead to further advancement and higher-paying positions. The U.S. Armed Forces also are a good source of training and experience. Although curricula may vary, students in formal culinary training programs spend most of their time in kitchens learning to use the appropriate equipment and to prepare meals through actual practice. They learn good knife techniques, safe food-handling procedures, and proper use and care of kitchen equipment. Training programs often include courses in nutrition, menu planning, portion control, purchasing and inventory methods, proper food storage procedures, and use of leftover food to minimize waste. Students also learn sanitation and public health rules for handling food. Training in food service management, computer accounting and inventory software, and banquet service are featured in some training programs. The number of formal and informal culinary training programs continues to increase to meet demand. Formal programs, which may offer training leading to a certificate or a 2or 4-year degree, are geared more for training chefs for finedining or upscale restaurants. They offer a wider array of training options and specialties, such as advanced cooking techniques or foods and cooking styles from around the world. The American Culinary Federation accredits over 100 formal training programs and sponsors apprenticeship programs around the country. Typical apprenticeships last three years and combine classroom training and work experience. Accreditation is an indication that a culinary program meets recognized standards regarding course content, facilities, and quality of instruction. The American Culinary Federation also certifies pastry professionals and culinary educators in addition to various levels of chefs. Certification standards are based primarily on experience and formal training. Vocational or trade-school programs typically offer more basic training in preparing food, such as food handling and sanitation procedures, nutrition, slicing and dicing methods for various kinds of meats and vegetables, and basic cooking methods, such as baking, broiling, and grilling. Important characteristics for chefs, cooks, and food preparation workers include working well as part of a team, having a keen sense of taste and smell, and working efficiently to turn out meals rapidly. Personal cleanliness is essential, because most states require health certificates indicating that workers are free from communicable diseases. Knowledge of a foreign language may improve communication with other restaurant staff, vendors, and the restaurant’s clientele. Advancement opportunities for chefs, cooks, and food preparation workers depend on their training, work experience, and ability to perform more responsible and sophisticated tasks. Many food preparation workers, for example, may move into assistant or line cook positions. Chefs and cooks who demon-

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Section One: Descriptions of 101 Top Jobs for People Without a Four-Year Degree effort to make “institutional food” more attractive to office workers, students, staff, visitors, and patients, offices, schools and hospitals increasingly contract out their food services. Many of the contracted food service companies emphasize simple menu items and employ short-order cooks instead of institution and cafeteria cooks, reducing the demand for these workers.

strate an eagerness to learn new cooking skills and to accept greater responsibility may move up within the kitchen and take on responsibility for training or supervising newer or lesser skilled kitchen staff. Others may move from one kitchen or restaurant to another. Some chefs and cooks go into business as caterers or open their own restaurant. Others become instructors in culinary training programs. A number of cooks and chefs advance to executive chef positions or food service management positions, particularly in hotels, clubs, or larger, more elegant restaurants.

Employment of chefs, cooks, and food preparation workers who prepare meals-to-go, such as those who work in the prepared foods sections of grocery or specialty food stores, should increase faster than the average as people continue to demand quality meals and convenience.

Job Outlook

Earnings

Job openings for chefs, cooks, and food preparation workers are expected to be plentiful through 2012; however, competition for jobs in the top kitchens of higher end restaurants should be keen. While job growth will create new positions, the overwhelming majority of job openings will stem from the need to replace workers who leave this large occupational group. Minimal education and training requirements, combined with a large number of part-time positions, make employment as chefs, cooks, and food preparation workers attractive to people seeking first-time or short-term employment, a source of additional income, or a flexible schedule. Many of these workers will transfer to other occupations or stop working, creating numerous openings for those entering the field.

Wages of chefs, cooks, and food preparation workers vary greatly according to region of the country and the type of food services establishment in which they work. Wages usually are highest in elegant restaurants and hotels, where many executive chefs are employed, and in major metropolitan areas. Median hourly earnings of chefs and head cooks were $13.43 in 2002. The middle 50 percent earned between $9.86 and $19.03. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $7.66, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $25.86 per hour. Median hourly earnings in the industries employing the largest number of head cooks and chefs in 2002 were: Other amusement and recreation industries ..........$18.31 Traveler accommodation............................................17.03 Special food services ..................................................13.98 Full-service restaurants ..............................................12.70 Limited-service eating places ....................................10.49

Overall employment of chefs, cooks, and food preparation workers is expected to increase about as fast as the average for all occupations over the 2002–12 period. Employment growth will be spurred by increases in population, household income, and leisure time that will allow people to dine out and take vacations more often. In addition, growth in the number of two-income households will lead more families to opt for the convenience of dining out.

Median hourly earnings of restaurant cooks were $9.16 in 2002. The middle 50 percent earned between $7.64 and $10.93. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $6.58, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $13.21 per hour. Median hourly earnings in the industries employing the largest number of restaurant cooks in 2002 were:

Projected employment growth, however, varies by specialty. The number of higher-skilled chefs and cooks working in fullservice restaurants—those that offer table service and more varied menus—is expected to increase about as fast as the average. Much of the increase in this segment, however, will come from more casual rather than up-scale full-service restaurants. Dining trends suggest increasing numbers of meals eaten away from home, growth in family dining restaurants, and greater limits on expense-account meals.

Traveler accommodation..........................................$10.49 Other amusement and recreation industries ............10.45 Special food services ....................................................9.77 Full-service restaurants ................................................9.14 Drinking places (alcoholic beverages) ........................9.03 Limited-service eating places ......................................8.08

Employment of fast-food cooks is expected to grow more slowly than the average. Duties of cooks in fast-food restaurants are limited; most workers are likely to be combined food preparation and serving workers rather than fast-food cooks. Employment of short-order cooks is expected to increase about as fast as the average. Short-order cooks may work a grill or sandwich station in a full-line restaurant, but also may work in lunch counters or coffee shops that specialize in meals served quickly.

Median hourly earnings of institution and cafeteria cooks were $8.72 in 2002. The middle 50 percent earned between $7.06 and $10.83. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $6.10, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $13.34 per hour. Median hourly earnings in the industries employing the largest number of institution and cafeteria cooks in 2002 were: General medical and surgical hospitals ..................$10.01 Special food services ....................................................9.89 Community care facilities for the elderly....................9.10 Nursing care facilities ..................................................8.95 Elementary and secondary schools ............................7.89

Employment of institution and cafeteria chefs and cooks will show little or no growth. Their employment will not keep pace with the rapid growth in the educational and health services industries where their employment is concentrated. In an

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America’s Top 101 Jobs for People Without a Four-Year Degree Median hourly earnings of food preparation workers were $7.85 in 2002. The middle 50 percent earned between $6.72 and $9.43. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $5.96, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $11.37 per hour. Median hourly earnings in the industries employing the largest number of food preparation workers in 2002 were: Elementary and secondary schools............................$8.74 Grocery stores ..............................................................8.43 Nursing care facilities ..................................................7.94

Sources of Additional Information Information about job opportunities may be obtained from local employers and local offices of the state employment service. Career information about chefs, cooks, and other kitchen workers, as well as a directory of 2- and 4-year colleges that offer courses or programs that prepare persons for food service careers, is available from: ●

Full-service restaurants ................................................7.66 Limited-service eating places ......................................7.07 Median hourly earnings of short-order cooks were $7.82 in 2002. The middle 50 percent earned between $6.69 and $9.59. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $5.93, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $11.25 per hour. Median hourly earnings in the industries employing the largest number of short-order cooks in 2002 were:

For information on the American Culinary Federation’s apprenticeship and certification programs for cooks, as well as a list of accredited culinary programs, send a self-addressed, stamped envelope to: ●

American Culinary Federation, 180 Center Place Way, St. Augustine, FL 32095. Internet: http://www.acfchefs.org

For general information on hospitality careers, contact: ●

Full-service restaurants ..............................................$8.29

National Restaurant Association, 1200 17th St. NW, Washington, DC 20036-3097. Internet: http://www.restaurant.org

Drinking places (alcoholic beverages) ........................7.85

International Council on Hotel, Restaurant, and Institutional Education, 2613 North Parham Rd., 2nd Floor, Richmond, VA 23294. Internet: http://www.chrie.org

Other amusement and recreation industries ..............7.74 Gasoline stations ..........................................................7.04 Limited-service eating places ......................................6.97 Median hourly earnings of fast-food cooks were $6.90 in 2002. The middle 50 percent earned between $6.16 and $8.03. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $5.68, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $9.13 per hour. Median hourly earnings in the industries employing the largest number of fastfood cooks in 2002 were: Special food services ..................................................$7.79

Childcare Workers (O*NET 39-9011.00)

Significant Points ●

About 2 out of 5 childcare workers are self-employed; most of these are family childcare providers.

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A high school diploma and little or no experience are adequate for many jobs, but training requirements vary from a high school diploma to a college degree.

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Large numbers of workers leave these jobs every year, creating good job opportunities.

Full-service restaurants ................................................7.19 Gasoline stations ..........................................................7.02 Limited-service eating places ......................................6.84 Some employers provide employees with uniforms and free meals, but federal law permits employers to deduct from their employees’ wages the cost or fair value of any meals or lodging provided, and some employers do so. Chefs, cooks, and food preparation workers who work full time often receive typical benefits, but part-time workers usually do not. In some large hotels and restaurants, kitchen workers belong to unions. The principal unions are the Hotel Employees and Restaurant Employees International Union and the Service Employees International Union.

Related Occupations Workers who perform tasks similar to those of chefs, cooks, and food preparation workers include food processing occupations, such as butchers and meat cutters, and bakers. Many executive chefs have primary responsibility for selecting menu items and share other tasks with food service managers.

Nature of the Work Childcare workers nurture and teach children of all ages in childcare centers, nursery schools, preschools, public schools, private households, family childcare homes, and before- and afterschool programs. These workers play an important role in a child’s development by caring for the child when parents are at work or away for other reasons. Some parents enroll their children in nursery schools or childcare centers primarily to provide them with the opportunity to interact with other children. In addition to attending to children’s basic needs, these workers organize activities that stimulate the children’s physical, emotional, intellectual, and social growth. They help children to explore their interests, develop their talents and independence, build selfesteem, and learn how to get along with others. Private household workers who are employed on an hourly basis usually are called babysitters. These childcare workers

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Section One: Descriptions of 101 Top Jobs for People Without a Four-Year Degree over school-age children during the gap between school hours and their parents’ work hours. These programs also may operate during the summer and on weekends. Workers in before- and after-school programs may help students with their homework or engage them in other extracurricular activities. These activities may include field trips, learning about computers, painting, photography, and participating in sports. Some childcare workers may be responsible for taking children to school in the morning and picking them up from school in the afternoon. Before- and afterschool programs may be operated by public school systems, local community centers, or other private organizations.

bathe, dress, and feed children; supervise their play; wash their clothes; and clean their rooms. They also may put them to bed and waken them, read to them, involve them in educational games, take them for doctors’ visits, and discipline them. Those who are in charge of infants, sometimes called infant nurses, also prepare bottles and change diapers. Nannies generally take care of children from birth to age 10 or 12, tending to the child’s early education, nutrition, health, and other needs. They also may perform the duties of a general housekeeper, including general cleaning and laundry duties. Childcare workers spend most of their day working with children. However, they do maintain contact with parents or guardians through informal meetings or scheduled conferences to discuss each child’s progress and needs. Many childcare workers keep records of each child’s progress and suggest ways in which parents can stimulate their child’s learning and development at home. Some preschools, childcare centers, and before- and after-school programs actively recruit parent volunteers to work with the children and participate in administrative decisions and program planning.

Helping to keep young children healthy is an important part of the job. Childcare workers serve nutritious meals and snacks and teach good eating habits and personal hygiene. They ensure that children have proper rest periods. They identify children who may not feel well or who show signs of emotional or developmental problems and discuss these matters with their supervisor and the child’s parents. In some cases, childcare workers help parents to locate programs that will provide basic health services.

Most childcare workers perform a combination of basic care and teaching duties. Through many basic care activities, childcare workers provide opportunities for children to learn. For example, a worker who shows a child how to tie a shoelace teaches the child while also providing for that child’s basic care needs. Childcare programs help children to learn about trust and to gain a sense of security.

Early identification of children with special needs—such as those with behavioral, emotional, physical, or learning disabilities—is important to improve their future learning ability. Special education teachers often work with these preschool children to provide the individual attention they need.

Young children learn mainly through play. Recognizing the importance of play, childcare workers build their program around it. They capitalize on children’s play to further language development (storytelling and acting games), improve social skills (working together to build a neighborhood in a sandbox), and introduce scientific and mathematical concepts (balancing and counting blocks when building a bridge or mixing colors when painting). Thus, a less structured approach is used to teach preschool children, including small-group lessons, one-on-one instruction, and learning through creative activities, such as art, dance, and music.

Preschool or childcare facilities include private homes, schools, religious institutions, workplaces in which employers provide care for employees’ children, and private buildings. Individuals who provide care in their own homes generally are called family childcare providers.

Working Conditions

Nannies and babysitters usually work in the pleasant and comfortable homes or apartments of their employers. Most are day workers who live in their own homes and travel to work. Some live in the home of their employer, generally with their own room and bath. They often become part of their employer’s family and may derive satisfaction from caring for them.

Interaction with peers is an important part of a child’s early development. Preschool children in childcare centers have an opportunity to engage in conversation and discussions, and to learn to play and work cooperatively with their classmates. Childcare workers play a vital role in preparing children to build the skills they will need in school.

Watching children grow, learn, and gain new skills can be very rewarding. While working with children, childcare workers often improve the child’s communication, learning, and other personal skills. The work is sometimes routine; however, new activities and challenges mark each day. Childcare can be physically and emotionally taxing, as workers constantly stand, walk, bend, stoop, and lift to attend to each child’s interests and problems.

Childcare workers in preschools greet young children as they arrive, help them to remove outer garments, and select an activity of interest. When caring for infants, they feed and change them. To ensure a well-balanced program, childcare workers prepare daily and long-term schedules of activities. Each day’s activities balance individual and group play, and quiet and active time. Children are given some freedom to participate in activities in which they are interested.

To ensure that children receive proper supervision, state or local regulations may require a certain ratio of workers to children. The ratio varies with the age of the children. Child development experts generally recommend that a single caregiver be responsible for no more than 3 or 4 infants (less than 1 year old), 5 or 6 toddlers (1 to 2 years old), or 10 preschool-age children (between 2 and 5 years old). In before- and afterschool programs, workers may be responsible for many school-age children at one time.

Concern over school-age children being home alone before and after school has spurred many parents to seek alternative ways for their children to constructively spend their time. The purpose of before- and afterschool programs is to watch

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America’s Top 101 Jobs for People Without a Four-Year Degree The work hours of childcare workers vary widely. Childcare centers usually are open year round, with long hours so that parents can drop off and pick up their children before and after work. Some centers employ full-time and part-time staff with staggered shifts to cover the entire day. Some workers are unable to take regular breaks during the day due to limited staffing. Public and many private preschool programs operate during the typical 9- or 10-month school year, employing both full-time and part-time workers. Family childcare providers have flexible hours and daily routines, but may work long or unusual hours to fit parents’ work schedules. Live-in nannies usually work longer hours than do those who have their own homes. However, if they work evenings or weekends, they may get other time off.

childhood education, or work experience in a childcare setting. Other employers require their own specialized training. An increasing number of employers require an associate degree in early childhood education. Schools for nannies teach early childhood education, nutrition, and childcare.

Replacement needs in this occupation are high. Many childcare workers leave the occupation temporarily to fulfill family responsibilities, to study, or for other reasons. Some workers leave permanently because they are interested in pursuing other occupations or because of dissatisfaction with hours, low pay and benefits, and stressful conditions.

Opportunities for advancement are limited. However, as childcare workers gain experience, some may advance to supervisory or administrative positions in large childcare centers or preschools. Often, these positions require additional training, such as a bachelor’s or master’s degree. Other workers move on to work in resource and referral agencies, consulting with parents on available child services. A few workers become involved in policy or advocacy work related to childcare and early childhood education. With a bachelor’s degree, workers may become preschool teachers or become certified to teach in public or private schools. Some workers set up their own childcare businesses.

Employment Childcare workers held about 1.2 million jobs in 2002. Many worked part time. About 2 out of 5 childcare workers were selfemployed; most of these were family childcare providers. Sixteen percent of all childcare workers are found in child daycare services, and about 14 percent work for private households. The remainder worked primarily in local government educational services, nursing and residential care facilities, religious organizations, other amusement and recreation industries, private educational services, civic and social organizations, individual and family services, and local government, excluding education and hospitals. Some childcare programs are for-profit centers; some of these are affiliated with a local or national chain. Religious institutions, community agencies, school systems, and state and local governments operate nonprofit programs. Only a very small percentage of private industry establishments operate onsite childcare centers for the children of their employees.

Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement The training and qualifications required of childcare workers vary widely. Each state has its own licensing requirements that regulate caregiver training; these range from a high school diploma to community college courses to a college degree in child development or early-childhood education. Many states require continuing education for workers in this field. However, state requirements often are minimal. Childcare workers generally can obtain employment with a high school diploma and little or no experience. Local governments, private firms, and publicly funded programs may have more demanding training and education requirements. Some employers prefer to hire childcare workers with a nationally recognized childcare development credential, secondary or postsecondary courses in child development and early

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Childcare workers must anticipate and prevent problems, deal with disruptive children, provide fair but firm discipline, and be enthusiastic and constantly alert. They must communicate effectively with the children and their parents, as well as other teachers and childcare workers. Workers should be mature, patient, understanding, and articulate, and have energy and physical stamina. Skills in music, art, drama, and storytelling also are important. Self-employed childcare workers must have business sense and management abilities.

Job Outlook High replacement needs should create good job opportunities for childcare workers. Many childcare workers must be replaced each year as they leave the occupation to take other jobs, to meet family responsibilities, or for other reasons. Qualified persons who are interested in this work should have little trouble finding and keeping a job. Opportunities for nannies should be especially good, as many workers prefer not to work in other people’s homes. Employment of childcare workers is projected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2012. The number of women of childbearing age (widely considered to be ages 15 to 44) in the labor force and the number of children under 5 years of age is expected to rise gradually over the projected 2002–12 period. Also, the proportion of youngsters enrolled full or part time in childcare and preschool programs is likely to continue to increase, spurring demand for additional childcare workers. Changes in perceptions of preprimary education may lead to increased public and private spending on childcare. If more parents believe that some experience in center-based care and preschool is beneficial to children, enrollment will increase. Concern about the behavior of school-age children during nonschool hours should increase demand for before- and afterschool programs. In addition, the difficulty of finding suitable nannies or private household workers also may force many families to seek out alternative childcare arrangements in centers and family childcare programs. Government policy often favors increased funding of early childhood education programs, and that trend will probably continue. Government

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Section One: Descriptions of 101 Top Jobs for People Without a Four-Year Degree ●

funding for before- and afterschool programs also is expected to be steady over the projection period. The growing availability of government-funded center-based care and preschool programs may induce some parents to enroll their children who otherwise would not do so. Some states also are increasing subsidization of the child daycare services industry in response to welfare reform legislation. This reform might cause some mothers to enter the workforce during the projection period as their welfare benefits are reduced or eliminated.

The Children’s Foundation, 725 15th St. NW, Suite 505, Washington, DC 20005-2109. Internet: http://www.childrensfoundation.net

For eligibility requirements and a description of the Child Development Associate credential, contact: ●

Council for Professional Recognition, 2460 16th St. NW, Washington, DC 20009-3575. Internet: http://www.cdacouncil.org

For eligibility requirements and a description of the Certified Childcare Professional designation, contact: ●

Earnings

National Childcare Association, 1016 Rosser St., Conyers, GA 30012. Internet: http://www.nccanet.org

For information about a career as a nanny, contact:

Pay depends on the educational attainment of the worker and the type of establishment. Although the pay generally is very low, more education usually means higher earnings. Median hourly earnings of wage and salary childcare workers were $7.86 in 2002. The middle 50 percent earned between $6.66 and $9.65. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $5.91, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $11.46. Median hourly earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of childcare workers in 2002 were as follows:

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International Nanny Association, 191 Clarksville Rd., Princeton Junction, NJ 08550-3111. Telephone (tollfree): 888-878-1477. Internet: http://www.nanny.org

State Departments of Human Services or Social Services can supply state regulations and training requirements for childcare workers.

Other residential care facilities ..................................$9.51 Elementary and secondary schools..............................9.04

Clinical Laboratory Technologists and Technicians

Civic and social organizations ....................................7.25 Child daycare services ..................................................7.18 Other amusement and recreation industries..............7.09 Earnings of self-employed childcare workers vary depending on the hours worked, the number and ages of the children, and the location.

(O*NET 29-2011.00 and 29-2012.00)

Benefits vary, but are minimal for most childcare workers. Many employers offer free or discounted childcare to employees. Some offer a full benefits package, including health insurance and paid vacations, but others offer no benefits at all. Some employers offer seminars and workshops to help workers learn new skills. A few are willing to cover the cost of courses taken at community colleges or technical schools. Live-in nannies get free room and board.

Significant Points

Related Occupations Childcare work requires patience; creativity; an ability to nurture, motivate, teach, and influence children; and leadership, organizational, and administrative skills. Others who work with children and need these qualities and skills include teacher assistants; teachers—preschool, kindergarten, elementary, middle, and secondary; and teachers—special education.

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Average employment growth is expected as the volume of laboratory tests increases with both population growth and the development of new types of tests.

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Job opportunities are expected to be excellent.

Clinical laboratory testing plays a crucial role in the detection, diagnosis, and treatment of disease. Clinical laboratory technologists, also referred to as clinical laboratory scientists or medical technologists, and clinical laboratory technicians, also known as medical technicians or medical laboratory technicians, perform most of these tests.

For an electronic question-and-answer service on childcare, information on becoming a childcare provider, and other resources for persons interested in childcare work, contact:

Clinical laboratory personnel examine and analyze body fluids, tissues, and cells. They look for bacteria, parasites, and other microorganisms; analyze the chemical content of fluids; match blood for transfusions; and test for drug levels in the blood to show how a patient is responding to treatment. These technologists also prepare specimens for examination, count cells, and look for abnormal cells. They use automated equipment and instruments capable of performing a number of tests

National Child Care Information Center, 243 Church St. NW, 2nd floor, Vienna, VA 22180. Telephone (tollfree): 800-424-4310. Internet: http://www.nccic.org

For information on becoming a family childcare provider, send a stamped, self-addressed envelope to:

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Clinical laboratory technologists usually have a bachelor’s degree with a major in medical technology or in one of the life sciences; clinical laboratory technicians generally need either an associate degree or a certificate.

Nature of the Work

Sources of Additional Information

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America’s Top 101 Jobs for People Without a Four-Year Degree simultaneously, as well as microscopes, cell counters, and other sophisticated laboratory equipment. Then they analyze the results and relay them to physicians. With increasing automation and the use of computer technology, the work of technologists and technicians has become less hands-on and more analytical.

oratories that operate continuously, personnel usually work the day, evening, or night shift and may work weekends and holidays. Laboratory personnel in small facilities may work on rotating shifts, rather than on a regular shift. In some facilities, laboratory personnel are on call several nights a week or on weekends, in case of an emergency.

The complexity of tests performed, the level of judgment needed, and the amount of responsibility workers assume depend largely on the amount of education and experience they have.

Clinical laboratory personnel are trained to work with infectious specimens. When proper methods of infection control and sterilization are followed, few hazards exist. Protective masks, gloves, and goggles are often necessary to ensure the safety of laboratory personnel.

Clinical laboratory technologists generally have a bachelor’s degree in medical technology or in one of the life sciences, or they have a combination of formal training and work experience. They perform complex chemical, biological, hematological, immunologic, microscopic, and bacteriological tests. Technologists microscopically examine blood, tissue, and other body substances. They make cultures of body fluid and tissue samples to determine the presence of bacteria, fungi, parasites, or other microorganisms. Clinical laboratory technologists analyze samples for chemical content or a chemical reaction and determine blood glucose and cholesterol levels. They also type and cross match blood samples for transfusions. Clinical laboratory technologists evaluate test results, develop and modify procedures, and establish and monitor programs, to ensure the accuracy of tests. Some clinical laboratory technologists supervise clinical laboratory technicians. Technologists in small laboratories perform many types of tests, whereas those in large laboratories generally specialize. Technologists who prepare specimens and analyze the chemical and hormonal contents of body fluids are called clinical chemistry technologists. Those who examine and identify bacteria and other microorganisms are microbiology technologists. Blood bank technologists, or immunohematology technologists, collect, type, and prepare blood and its components for transfusions. Immunology technologists examine elements of the human immune system and its response to foreign bodies. Cytotechnologists prepare slides of body cells and examine these cells microscopically for abnormalities that may signal the beginning of a cancerous growth. Molecular biology technologists perform complex protein and nucleic acid testing on cell samples. Clinical laboratory technicians perform less complex tests and laboratory procedures than technologists perform. Technicians may prepare specimens and operate automated analyzers, for example, or they may perform manual tests in accordance with detailed instructions. Like technologists, they may work in several areas of the clinical laboratory or specialize in just one. Histotechnicians cut and stain tissue specimens for microscopic examination by pathologists, and phlebotomists collect blood samples. They usually work under the supervision of medical and clinical laboratory technologists or laboratory managers.

Working Conditions Hours and other working conditions of clinical laboratory technologists and technicians vary with the size and type of employment setting. In large hospitals or in independent lab-

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Laboratories usually are well lighted and clean; however, specimens, solutions, and reagents used in the laboratory sometimes produce fumes. Laboratory workers may spend a great deal of time on their feet.

Employment Clinical laboratory technologists and technicians held about 297,000 jobs in 2002. More than half of jobs were in hospitals. Most of the remaining jobs were in offices of physicians and in medical and diagnostic laboratories. A small proportion was in educational services; other ambulatory healthcare services, including blood and organ banks; outpatient care centers; and scientific research and development services.

Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement The usual requirement for an entry-level position as a clinical laboratory technologist is a bachelor’s degree with a major in medical technology or in one of the life sciences, although it is possible to qualify through a combination of education, onthe-job, and specialized training. Universities and hospitals offer medical technology programs. Bachelor’s degree programs in medical technology include courses in chemistry, biological sciences, microbiology, mathematics, and statistics, as well as specialized courses devoted to knowledge and skills used in the clinical laboratory. Many programs also offer or require courses in management, business, and computer applications. The Clinical Laboratory Improvement Act requires technologists who perform highly complex tests to have at least an associate degree. Medical and clinical laboratory technicians generally have either an associate degree from a community or junior college or a certificate from a hospital, a vocational or technical school, or one of the U.S. Armed Forces. A few technicians learn their skills on the job. The National Accrediting Agency for Clinical Laboratory Sciences (NAACLS) fully accredits 467 programs for medical and clinical laboratory technologists, medical and clinical laboratory technicians, histotechnologists and histotechnicians, cytogenetic technologists, and diagnostic molecular scientists. NAACLS also approves 57 programs in phlebotomy and clinical assisting. Other nationally recognized accrediting agencies that accredit specific areas for clinical laboratory workers include the Commission on Accreditation of Allied Health

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Section One: Descriptions of 101 Top Jobs for People Without a Four-Year Degree perform tests now conducted in laboratories. Although hospitals are expected to continue to be the major employer of clinical laboratory workers, employment is expected to grow faster in medical and diagnostic laboratories, offices of physicians, and other ambulatory health care services, including blood and organ banks.

Education Programs and the Accrediting Bureau of Health Education Schools. Some states require laboratory personnel to be licensed or registered. Information on licensure is available from state departments of health or boards of occupational licensing. Certification is a voluntary process by which a nongovernmental organization, such as a professional society or certifying agency, grants recognition to an individual whose professional competence meets prescribed standards. Widely accepted by employers in the health industry, certification is a prerequisite for most jobs and often is necessary for advancement. Agencies certifying medical and clinical laboratory technologists and technicians include the Board of Registry of the American Society for Clinical Pathology, the American Medical Technologists, the National Credentialing Agency for Laboratory Personnel, and the Board of Registry of the American Association of Bioanalysts. These agencies have different requirements for certification and different organizational sponsors.

Although significant, job growth will not be the only source of opportunities. As in most occupations, many openings will result from the need to replace workers who transfer to other occupations, retire, or stop working for some other reason.

Earnings Median annual earnings of medical and clinical laboratory technologists were $42,910 in 2002. The middle 50 percent earned between $36,400 and $50,820. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $30,530, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $58,000. Median annual earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of medical and clinical laboratory technologists in 2002 were as follows:

Clinical laboratory personnel need good analytical judgment and the ability to work under pressure. Close attention to detail is essential, because small differences or changes in test substances or numerical readouts can be crucial for patient care. Manual dexterity and normal color vision are highly desirable. With the widespread use of automated laboratory equipment, computer skills are important. In addition, technologists in particular are expected to be good at problem solving.

General medical and surgical hospitals ................$43,340 Medical and diagnostic laboratories ........................42,020 Offices of physicians ..............................................38,690 Median annual earnings of medical and clinical laboratory technicians were $29,040 in 2002. The middle 50 percent earned between $23,310 and $35,840. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $19,070, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $43,960. Median annual earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of medical and clinical laboratory technicians in 2002 were as follows:

Technologists may advance to supervisory positions in laboratory work or may become chief medical or clinical laboratory technologists or laboratory managers in hospitals. Manufacturers of home diagnostic testing kits and laboratory equipment and supplies seek experienced technologists to work in product development, marketing, and sales. A graduate degree in medical technology, one of the biological sciences, chemistry, management, or education usually speeds advancement. A doctorate is needed to become a laboratory director; however, federal regulation allows directors of moderately complex laboratories to have either a master’s degree or a bachelor’s degree, combined with the appropriate amount of training and experience. Technicians can become technologists through additional education and experience.

General medical and surgical hospitals ................$30,500 Colleges, universities, and professional schools......30,350 Offices of physicians ................................................27,820 Medical and diagnostic laboratories ........................27,550 Other ambulatory health care services ..................26,710 According to the American Society for Clinical Pathology, median annual wages of staff clinical laboratory technologists and technicians in 2002 varied by specialty as follows:

Job Outlook Job opportunities are expected to be excellent, because the number of job openings is expected to continue to exceed the number of job seekers. Employment of clinical laboratory workers is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2012 as the volume of laboratory tests increases with both population growth and the development of new types of tests.

Average

Highest

Cytotechnologist............ $41,454

$49,920

$54,600

41,122

45,760

Histotechnologist ..........

Technological advances will continue to have two opposing effects on employment through 2012. On the one hand, new, increasingly powerful diagnostic tests will encourage additional testing and spur employment. On the other hand, research and development efforts targeted at simplifying routine testing procedures may enhance the ability of nonlaboratory personnel—physicians and patients in particular—to

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Lowest

33,280

Medical technologist ....

33,280

40,186

45,760

Histotechnician..............

28,413

34,549

38,667

Medical laboratory technician ....................

27,040

31,928

35,776

Phlebotomist ................

18,720

21,944

25,168

Related Occupations Clinical laboratory technologists and technicians analyze body fluids, tissue, and other substances, using a variety of tests. Similar or related procedures are performed by chemists ●

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Nature of the Work

and materials scientists, science technicians, and veterinary technologists and technicians.

The need for organizations to incorporate existing and future technologies in order to remain competitive has become a more pressing issue over the last several years. As electronic commerce becomes more common, how and when companies use technology are critical issues. Computer and information systems managers play a vital role in the technological direction of their organizations. They do everything from constructing the business plan to overseeing network security to directing Internet operations.

Sources of Additional Information For a list of accredited and approved educational programs for clinical laboratory personnel, contact: ●

National Accrediting Agency for Clinical Laboratory Sciences, 8410 W. Bryn Mawr Ave., Suite 670, Chicago, IL 60631. Internet: http://www.naacls.org

Information on certification is available from the following organizations: ●

American Association of Bioanalysts, Board of Registry, 917 Locust St., Suite 1100, St. Louis, MO 63101. Internet: http://www.aab.org

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American Medical Technologists, 710 Higgins Rd., Park Ridge, IL 60068.

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American Society for Clinical Pathology, Board of Registry, 2100 West Harrison St., Chicago, IL 60612. Internet: http://www.ascp.org/bor

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National Credentialing Agency for Laboratory Personnel, P.O. Box 15945-289, Lenexa, KS 66285. Internet: http://www.nca-info.org

Computer and information systems managers plan, coordinate, and direct research and design the computer-related activities of firms. They help determine both technical and business goals in consultation with top management, and make detailed plans for the accomplishment of these goals. For example, working with their staff, they may develop the overall concepts of a new product or service, or may identify how an organization’s computing capabilities can effectively aid project management. Computer and information systems managers direct the work of systems analysts, computer programmers, support specialists, and other computer-related workers. These managers plan and coordinate activities such as installation and upgrading of hardware and software, programming and systems design, development of computer networks, and implementation of Internet and intranet sites. They are increasingly involved with the upkeep and maintenance and security of networks. They analyze the computer and information needs of their organization, from an operational and strategic perspective, and determine immediate and long-range personnel and equipment requirements. They assign and review the work of their subordinates, and stay abreast of the latest technology in order to assure the organization does not lag behind competitors.

Additional career information is available from the following sources: ●

American Association of Blood Banks, 8101 Glenbrook Rd., Bethesda, MD 20814-2749. Internet: http://www.aabb.org

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American Society for Clinical Laboratory Science, 6701 Democracy Blvd., Suite 300, Bethesda, MD 20817. Internet: http://www.ascls.org

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American Society for Clinical Pathology, 2100 West Harrison St., Chicago, IL 60612. Internet: http://www.ascp.org

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American Society for Cytopathology, 400 West 9th St., Suite 201, Wilmington, DE 19801. Internet: http://www.cytopathology.org

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Clinical Laboratory Management Association, 989 Old Eagle School Rd., Wayne, PA 19087. Internet: http://www.clma.org

The duties of computer and information systems managers vary with their specific titles. Chief technology officers, for example, evaluate the newest and most innovative technologies and determine how these can help their organization. The chief technology officer, who often reports to the organization’s chief information officer, manages and plans technical standards and tends to the daily information technology issues of the firm. Because of the rapid pace of technological change, chief technology officers must constantly be on the lookout for developments that could benefit their organization. They are responsible for demonstrating to a company how information technology can be used as a competitive tool that not only cuts costs, but also increases revenue and maintains or increases competitive advantage.

Computer and Information Systems Managers (O*NET 11-3021.00)

Significant Points ●

Projected job growth stems primarily from rapid growth among computer-related occupations.

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Employers prefer managers with formal education and advanced technical knowledge acquired through computer-related work experience.

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Job opportunities should be best for applicants with a master’s degree in business administration or management information systems with technology as a core component.

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Management information systems (MIS) directors manage information systems and computing resources for their entire organization. They may also work under the chief information officer and plan and direct the work of subordinate information technology employees. These managers oversee a variety of user services such as an organization’s help desk, which employees can call with questions or problems. MIS directors also may make hardware and software upgrade recommenda-

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tions based on their experience with an organization’s technology. Helping to assure the availability, continuity, and security of data and information technology services are key responsibilities for these workers.

Strong technical knowledge is essential for computer and information systems managers, who must understand and guide the work of their subordinates, yet also explain the work in nontechnical terms to senior management and potential customers. Therefore, these management positions usually require work experience and formal education similar to that of other computer occupations.

Project managers develop requirements, budgets, and schedules for their firm’s information technology projects. They coordinate such projects from development through implementation, working with internal and external clients, vendors, consultants, and computer specialists. These managers are increasingly involved in projects that upgrade the information security of an organization.

Many computer and information systems managers have experience as systems analysts; others may have experience as computer support specialists, programmers, or other information technology professionals. A bachelor’s degree usually is required for management positions, although employers often prefer a graduate degree, especially a master’s degree in business administration (MBA) with technology as a core component. This degree differs from a traditional MBA in that there is a heavy emphasis on information technology in addition to the standard business curriculum. This is becoming important because more computer and information systems managers are making important technology decisions as well as business decisions for their organizations. Some universities specialize in offering degrees in management information systems, which blend technical core subjects with business, accounting, and communications courses. A few computer and information systems managers may have only an associate degree if they have sufficient experience and were able to learn additional skills on the job. To aid their professional advancement, though, many managers with an associate degree eventually earn a bachelor’s or master’s degree while working.

LAN/WAN (Local Area Network/Wide Area Network) managers provide a variety of services, from design to administration, of an organization’s local area network, which connects staff within an organization. These managers direct the network, and its related computing environment, including hardware, systems software, applications software, and all other computer-related configurations. Computer and information system managers need strong communication skills. They coordinate the activities of their unit with those of other units or organizations. They confer with top executives; financial, production, marketing, and other managers; and contractors and equipment and materials suppliers.

Working Conditions Computer and information systems managers spend most of their time in an office. Most work at least 40 hours a week and may have to work evenings and weekends to meet deadlines or solve unexpected problems. Some computer and information systems managers may experience considerable pressure in meeting technical goals within short timeframes or tight budgets. As networks continue to expand and more work is done remotely, computer and information system managers have to communicate with and oversee offsite employees using modems, laptops, e-mail, and the Internet.

Computer and information systems managers need a broad range of skills. In addition to technical skills, employers also seek managers with strong business skills. Employers want managers who have experience with the specific software or technology to be used on the job, as well as a background in either consulting or business management. The expansion of electronic commerce has elevated the importance of business insight, because many managers are called upon to make important business decisions. Managers need a keen understanding of people, management processes, and customers’ needs.

Like other workers who sit continuously in front of a keyboard, computer and information system managers are susceptible to eyestrain, back discomfort, and hand and wrist problems such as carpal tunnel syndrome.

Employment

Computer and information systems managers must possess strong interpersonal, communication, and leadership skills because they are required to interact not only with their staff, but also with other people inside and outside their organization. They also must possess team skills to work on group projects and other collaborative efforts. Computer and information systems managers increasingly interact with persons outside their organization, reflecting their emerging role as vital parts of their firm’s executive team.

Computer and information systems managers held about 284,000 jobs in 2002. About 2 in 5 work in service-providing industries, mainly in computer systems design and related services. This industry provides services related to the commercial use of computers on a contract basis, including custom computer programming services; computer systems integration design services; computer facilities management services, including computer systems or data-processing facilities support services for clients; and other computer-related services, such as disaster recovery services and software installation. Other large employers include insurance and financial services firms, government agencies, and manufacturers.

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Computer and information systems managers may advance to progressively higher leadership positions in their field. Some may become managers in non-technical areas such as marketing, human resources, or sales. In high technology firms, managers in non-technical areas often must possess the same specialized knowledge as do managers in technical areas.

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Computer systems design and related services ....$94,240 Management of companies and enterprises............91,710

Employment of computer and information systems managers is expected to grow much faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2012. Technological advancements will boost the employment of computer-related workers; as a result, the demand for managers to direct these workers also will increase. In addition, job openings will result from the need to replace managers who retire or move into other occupations. Opportunities for obtaining a management position will be best for workers possessing an MBA with technology as a core component, or a management information systems degree, advanced technical knowledge, and strong communication and administrative skills.

Insurance carriers......................................................89,920 Depository credit intermediation ............................75,160 Colleges, universities, and professional schools ....68,100 According to Robert Half International, average starting salaries in 2003 for high-level information technology managers ranged from $82,750 to $151,500. According to a 2003 survey by the National Association of Colleges and Employers, starting salary offers for those with an MBA, a technical undergraduate degree, and 1 year or less of experience averaged $54,643; for those with a master’s degree in management information systems/business data processing, the starting salary averaged $43,750.

Despite the recent downturn in the economy, especially in technology-related sectors, the outlook for computer and information systems managers remains strong. In order to remain competitive, firms will continue to install sophisticated computer networks and set up more complex Internet and intranet sites. Keeping a computer network running smoothly is essential to almost every organization. Firms will be more willing to hire managers who can accomplish that.

In addition, computer and information systems managers, especially those at higher levels, often receive more employment-related benefits—such as expense accounts, stock option plans, and bonuses—than do non-managerial workers in their organizations.

Related Occupations

The security of computer networks will continue to increase in importance as more business is conducted over the Internet. The security of the Nation’s entire electronic infrastructure has come under renewed focus in light of recent threats. Organizations need to understand how their systems are vulnerable and how to protect their infrastructure and Internet sites from hackers, viruses, and other acts of cyber-terrorism. The emergence of “cyber-security” as a key issue facing most organizations should lead to strong growth for computer managers. Firms will increasingly hire cyber-security experts to fill key leadership roles in their information technology departments, because the integrity of their computing environment is of the utmost concern. As a result, there will be a high demand for managers proficient in computer security issues.

The work of computer and information systems managers is closely related to that of computer programmers; computer software engineers; computer systems analysts, database administrators, and computer scientists; and computer support specialists and systems administrators. Computer and information systems managers also have some high-level responsibilities similar to those of top executives.

Sources of Additional Information Further information about computer careers is available from:

Due to the explosive growth of electronic commerce and the capacity of the Internet to create new relationships with customers, the role of computer and information systems managers will continue to evolve in the future. Persons in these jobs will continue to become more vital to their companies. The expansion of the wireless Internet will spur the need for computer and information systems managers with both business savvy and technical proficiency.

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Association for Computing Machinery (ACM), 1515 Broadway, New York, NY 10036. Internet: http://www.acm.org

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Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers Computer Society, Headquarters Office, 1730 Massachusetts Ave. NW, Washington, DC 20036-1992. Internet: http://www.computer.org

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National Workforce Center for Emerging Technologies, 3000 Landerholm Circle SE, Bellevue, WA 98007. Internet: http://www.nwcet.org

Opportunities for those who wish to become computer and information systems managers should be closely related to the growth of the occupations they supervise and the industries in which they are found.

Computer-Control Programmers and Operators

Earnings Earnings for computer and information systems managers vary by specialty and level of responsibility. Median annual earnings of these managers in 2002 were $85,240. The middle 50 percent earned between $64,150 and $109,950. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $47,440, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $140,440. Median annual earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of computer and information systems managers in 2002 were:

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(O*NET 51-4011.01 and 51-4012.00)

Significant Points ●

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Workers learn in apprenticeship programs, informally on the job, and in secondary, vocational, or postsecondary

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Section One: Descriptions of 101 Top Jobs for People Without a Four-Year Degree work link or floppy disk. Many advanced control modules are conversational, meaning that they ask the operator a series of questions about the nature of the task. CNC operators position the metal stock on the CNC machine tool—spindle, lathe, milling machine, or other—set the controls, and let the computer make the cuts. Heavier objects may be loaded with the assistance of other workers, autoloaders, a crane, or a forklift. During the machining process, computer-control operators constantly monitor the readouts from the CNC control module, checking to see if any problems exist. Machine tools have unique characteristics, which can be problematic. During a machining operation, the operator modifies the cutting program to account for any problems encountered. Unique, modified CNC programs are saved for every different machine that performs a task.

schools; many entrants have previously worked as machinists or machine setters, operators, and tenders. ●

Job opportunities should be excellent, as employers are expected to continue to have difficulty finding qualified workers.

Nature of the Work Computer-control programmers and operators use computer numerically controlled (CNC) machines to cut and shape precision products, such as automobile parts, machine parts, and compressors. CNC machines include machining tools such as lathes, multiaxis spindles, milling machines, and electrical discharge machines (EDM), but the functions formerly performed by human operators are performed by a computer-control module. CNC machines cut away material from a solid block of metal, plastic, or glass—known as a workpiece—to form a finished part. Computer-control programmers and operators normally produce large quantities of one part, although they may produce small batches or one-of-akind items. They use their knowledge of the working properties of metals and their skill with CNC programming to design and carry out the operations needed to make machined products that meet precise specifications.

CNC operators detect some problems by listening for specific sounds—for example, a dull cutting tool or excessive vibration. Dull cutting tools are removed and replaced. Machine tools rotate at high speeds, which can create problems with harmonic vibrations in the workpiece. Vibrations cause the machine tools to make minor cutting errors, hurting the quality of the product. Operators listen for vibrations and then adjust the cutting speed to compensate. In older, slower machine tools, the cutting speed would be reduced to eliminate the vibrations, but the amount of time needed to finish the product would increase as a result. In newer, high-speed CNC machines, increasing the cutting speed normally eliminates the vibrations and reduces production time. CNC operators also ensure that the workpiece is being properly lubricated and cooled, because the machining of metal products generates a significant amount of heat.

Before CNC programmers—also referred to as numerical tool and process control programmers—machine a part, they must carefully plan and prepare the operation. First, these workers review three-dimensional computer aided/automated design (CAD) blueprints of the part. Next, they calculate where to cut or bore into the workpiece, how fast to feed the metal into the machine, and how much metal to remove. They then select tools and materials for the job and plan the sequence of cutting and finishing operations.

Working Conditions

Next, CNC programmers turn the planned machining operations into a set of instructions. These instructions are translated into a computer aided/automated manufacturing (CAM) program containing a set of commands for the machine to follow. These commands normally are a series of numbers (hence, numerical control) that describes where cuts should occur, what type of cut should be used, and the speed of the cut. CNC programmers and operators check new programs to ensure that the machinery will function properly and that the output will meet specifications. Because a problem with the program could damage costly machinery and cutting tools, computer simulations may be used to check the program instead of a trial run. If errors are found, the program must be changed and retested until the problem is resolved. In addition, growing connectivity between CAD/CAM software and CNC machine tools is raising productivity by automatically translating designs into instructions for the computer controller on the machine tool. These new CAM technologies enable programs to be easily modified for use on other jobs with similar specifications.

Most machine shops are clean, well lit, and ventilated. Most modern CNC machines are partially or totally enclosed, minimizing the exposure of workers to noise, debris, and the lubricants used to cool workpieces during machining. Nevertheless, working around high-speed machine tools presents certain dangers, and workers must follow safety precautions. Computer-controlled machine tool operators, metal and plastic, wear protective equipment, such as safety glasses to shield against bits of flying metal and earplugs to dampen machinery noise. They also must exercise caution when handling hazardous coolants and lubricants. The job requires stamina because operators stand most of the day and, at times, may need to lift moderately heavy workpieces. Numerical tool and process control programmers work on desktop computers in offices that typically are near, but separate from, the shop floor. These work areas usually are clean, well lit, and free of machine noise. Numerical tool and process control programmers occasionally need to enter the shop floor to monitor CNC machining operations. On the shop floor, CNC programmers encounter the same hazards and exercise the same safety precautions as do CNC operators.

After the programming work is completed, CNC operators— also referred to as computer-controlled machine tool operators, metal and plastic—perform the necessary machining operations. The CNC operators transfer the commands from the server to the CNC control module using a computer net-

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Most computer-control programmers and operators work a 40hour week. CNC operators increasingly work evening and weekend shifts as companies justify investments in more

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America’s Top 101 Jobs for People Without a Four-Year Degree expensive machinery by extending hours of operation. Overtime is common during peak production periods.

Employment Computer-control programmers and operators held about 151,000 jobs in 2002, mostly working in machine shops, plastics products manufacturing, or machinery manufacturing. Although computer-control programmers and operators work in all parts of the country, jobs are most plentiful in the areas where manufacturing is concentrated.

Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Computer-control programmers and operators train in various ways—in apprenticeship programs, informally on the job, and in secondary, vocational, or postsecondary schools. Due to a shortage of qualified applicants, many employers teach introductory courses, which provide a basic understanding of metalworking machines, safety, and blueprint reading. A basic knowledge of computers and electronics also is helpful. Experience with machine tools is extremely important. In fact, many entrants to these occupations have previously worked as machinists or machine setters, operators, and tenders. Persons interested in becoming computer-control programmers or operators should be mechanically inclined and able to work independently and do highly accurate work. High school or vocational school courses in mathematics (trigonometry and algebra), blueprint reading, computer programming, metalworking, and drafting are recommended. Apprenticeship programs consist of shop training and related classroom instruction. In shop training, apprentices learn filing, handtapping, and dowel fitting, as well as the operation of various machine tools. Classroom instruction includes math, physics, programming, blueprint reading, CAD software, safety, and shop practices. Skilled computer-control programmers and operators need an understanding of the machining process, including the complex physics that occur at the cutting point. Thus, most training programs teach CNC operators and programmers to perform operations on manual machines prior to operating CNC machines. A growing number of computer-control programmers and operators receive most of their formal training from community or technical colleges. Less-skilled CNC operators may need only a couple of weeks of on-the-job training. To boost the skill level of all metalworkers and to create a more uniform standard of competency, a number of training facilities and colleges have recently begun implementing curriculums incorporating national skills standards developed by the National Institute of Metalworking Skills (NIMS). After completing such a curriculum and passing a performance requirement and written exam, trainees are granted a NIMS credential that provides formal recognition of competency in a metalworking field. Completion of a formal certification program provides expanded career opportunities. Qualifications for CNC programmers vary widely depending upon the complexity of the job. Employers often prefer skilled

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machinists or those with technical school training. For some specialized types of programming, such as that needed to produce complex parts for the aerospace or shipbuilding industries, employers may prefer individuals with a degree in engineering. For those entering CNC programming directly, a basic knowledge of computers and electronics is necessary, and experience with machine tools is extremely helpful. Classroom training includes an introduction to computer numerical control, the basics of programming, and more complex topics, such as computer-aided manufacturing. Trainees start writing simple programs under the direction of an experienced programmer. Although machinery manufacturers are trying to standardize programming languages, there are numerous languages in use. Because of this, computer-control programmers and operators should be able to learn new programming languages. As new automation is introduced, computer-control programmers and operators normally receive additional training to update their skills. This training usually is provided by a representative of the equipment manufacturer or a local technical school. Many employers offer tuition reimbursement for jobrelated courses. Computer-control programmers and operators can advance in several ways. Experienced CNC operators may become CNC programmers, and some are promoted to supervisory or administrative positions in their firms. A few open their own shops.

Job Outlook Computer-control programmers and operators should have excellent job opportunities. Due to the limited number of people entering training programs, employers are expected to continue to have difficulty finding workers with the necessary skills and knowledge. Employment of computer-controlled machine tool operators is projected to grow more slowly than the average for all occupations through 2012, but employment of numerical tool and process control programmers is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through 2012. Job growth in both occupations will be driven by the increasing use of CNC machine tools. Advances in CNC machine tools and manufacturing technology will further automate production, boosting CNC operator productivity and limiting employment growth. The demand for computercontrol programmers will be negatively affected by the increasing use of software that automatically translates part and product designs into CNC machine tool instructions. Employment levels of computer-control programmers and operators are influenced by economic cycles—as the demand for machined goods falls, programmers and operators involved in production may be laid off or forced to work fewer hours.

Earnings Median hourly earnings of numerical tool and process control programmers were $18.04 in 2002. The middle 50 percent earned between $14.52 and $22.23. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $11.53, while the top 10 percent earned more than $27.37.

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Related Occupations

vated much of the programming work done today. Job titles and descriptions may vary, depending on the organization. In this occupational statement, computer programmer refers to individuals whose main job function is programming; this group has a wide range of responsibilities and educational backgrounds.

Occupations most closely related to computer-control programmers and operators are other metal worker occupations, which include machinists; tool and die makers; machine setters, operators, and tenders—metal and plastic; and welding, soldering, and brazing workers. Numerical tool and process control programmers apply their knowledge of machining operations, metals, blueprints, and machine programming to write programs that run machine tools. Computer programmers also write detailed programs to meet precise specifications.

Computer programs tell the computer what to do—which information to identify and access, how to process it, and what equipment to use. Programs vary widely depending upon the type of information to be accessed or generated. For example, the instructions involved in updating financial records are very different from those required to duplicate conditions on board an aircraft for pilots training in a flight simulator. Although simple programs can be written in a few hours, programs that use complex mathematical formulas, whose solutions can only be approximated, or that draw data from many existing systems may require more than a year of work. In most cases, several programmers work together as a team under a senior programmer’s supervision.

Sources of Additional Information For general information about computer-control programmers and operators, contact: ●

Precision Machine Products Association, 6700 West Snowville Rd., Brecksville, OH 44141-3292. Internet: http://www.pmpa.org

For a list of training centers and apprenticeship programs, contact: ●

Programmers write programs according to the specifications determined primarily by computer software engineers and systems analysts. After the design process is complete, it is the job of the programmer to convert that design into a logical series of instructions that the computer can follow. The programmer then codes these instructions in a conventional programming language, such as COBOL; an artificial intelligence language, such as Prolog; or one of the most advanced object-oriented languages such as Java, C++, or Smalltalk. Different programming languages are used depending on the purpose of the program. COBOL, for example, is commonly used for business applications, whereas Fortran (short for “formula translation”) is used in science and engineering. C++ is widely used for both scientific and business applications. Many programmers at the enterprise level are also expected to know platform-specific languages used in database programming. Programmers generally know more than one programming language and, because many languages are similar, they often can learn new languages relatively easily. In practice, programmers often are referred to by the language they know, as are Java programmers, or the type of function they perform or environment in which they work, which is the case for database programmers, mainframe programmers, or Web programmers.

National Tooling and Metalworking Association, 9300 Livingston Rd., Fort Washington, MD 20744. Internet: http://www.ntma.org

For general occupational information, including a list of training programs, contact: ●

Precision Metalforming Association Educational Foundation, 6363 Oak Tree Blvd., Independence, OH 44131-2500. Internet: http://www.pmaef.org

Computer Programmers (O*NET 15-1021.00)

Significant Points ●

Nearly half of all computer programmers held a bachelor’s degree in 2002; about 1 in 5 held a graduate degree.

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Employment is expected to grow much more slowly than that of other computer specialists.

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Prospects should be best for college graduates with knowledge of a variety of programming languages and tools; those with less formal education or its equivalent in work experience should face strong competition for programming jobs.

Many programmers update, repair, modify, and expand existing programs. When making changes to a section of code, called a routine, programmers need to make other users aware of the task that the routine is to perform. They do this by inserting comments in the coded instructions, so that others can understand the program. Many programmers use computer-assisted software engineering (CASE) tools to automate much of the coding process. These tools enable a programmer to concentrate on writing the unique parts of the program, because the tools automate various pieces of the program being built. CASE tools generate whole sections of code automatically, rather than line by line. Programmers also utilize libraries of pre-written code, which can then be modified or customized for a specific application. This also yields more reliable and consistent programs and increases programmers’ productivity by eliminating some routine steps.

Nature of the Work Computer programmers write, test, and maintain the detailed instructions, called programs, that computers must follow to perform their functions. They also conceive, design, and test logical structures for solving problems by computer. Many technical innovations in programming—advanced computing technologies and sophisticated new languages and programming tools—have redefined the role of a programmer and ele-

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America’s Top 101 Jobs for People Without a Four-Year Degree Programmers test a program by running it to ensure that the instructions are correct and that the program produces the desired outcome. If errors do occur, the programmer must make the appropriate change and recheck the program until it produces the correct results. This process is called testing and debugging. Programmers may continue to fix these problems throughout the life of a program. Programmers working in a mainframe environment, which involves a large centralized computer, may prepare instructions for a computer operator who will run the program. They also may contribute to a manual for persons who will be using the program. Programmers often are grouped into two broad types—applications programmers and systems programmers. Applications programmers write programs to handle a specific job, such as a program to track inventory within an organization. They may also revise existing packaged software or customize generic applications called middleware. Systems programmers, on the other hand, write programs to maintain and control computer systems software, such as operating systems, networked systems, and database systems. These workers make changes in the sets of instructions that determine how the network, workstations, and central processing unit of the system handle the various jobs they have been given, and how they communicate with peripheral equipment such as terminals, printers, and disk drives. Because of their knowledge of the entire computer system, systems programmers often help applications programmers to determine the source of problems that may occur with their programs. Programmers in software development companies may work directly with experts from various fields to create software— either programs designed for specific clients or packaged software for general use—ranging from games and educational software to programs for desktop publishing and financial planning. Much of this type of programming takes place in the preparation of packaged software, which constitutes one of the most rapidly growing segments of the computer services industry. In some organizations, particularly small ones, workers commonly known as programmer-analysts are responsible for both the systems analysis and the actual programming work. Advanced programming languages and new object-oriented programming capabilities are increasing the efficiency and productivity of both programmers and users. The transition from a mainframe environment to one that is based primarily on personal computers (PCs) has blurred the once rigid distinction between the programmer and the user. Increasingly, adept end-users are taking over many of the tasks previously performed by programmers. For example, the growing use of packaged software, such as spreadsheet and database management software packages, allows users to write simple programs to access data and perform calculations.

Working Conditions Programmers generally work in offices in comfortable surroundings. Many programmers may work long hours or weekends to meet deadlines or fix critical problems that occur during off hours. Given the technology available, telecom-

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muting is becoming common for a wide range of computer professionals, including computer programmers. As computer networks expand, more programmers are able to make corrections or fix problems remotely by using modems, e-mail, and the Internet to connect to a customer’s computer. Like other workers who spend long periods in front of a computer terminal typing at a keyboard, programmers are susceptible to eyestrain, back discomfort, and hand and wrist problems, such as carpal tunnel syndrome.

Employment Computer programmers held about 499,000 jobs in 2002. Programmers are employed in almost every industry, but the largest concentrations are in computer systems design and related services and in software publishers, which includes firms that write and sell software. Large numbers of programmers also can be found in management of companies and enterprises, telecommunications companies, manufacturers of computer and electronic equipment, financial institutions, insurance carriers, educational institutions, and government agencies. A large number of computer programmers are employed on a temporary or contract basis or work as independent consultants as companies demand expertise with new programming languages or specialized areas of application. Rather than hiring programmers as permanent employees and then laying them off after a job is completed, employers can contract with temporary help agencies, consulting firms, or directly with programmers themselves. A marketing firm, for example, may require the services of several programmers only to write and debug the software necessary to get a new customer resource management system running. This practice also enables companies to bring in people with a specific set of skills—usually in one of the latest technologies—as it applies to their business needs. Bringing in an independent contractor or consultant with a certain level of experience in a new or advanced programming language, for example, enables an establishment to complete a particular job without having to retrain existing workers. Such jobs may last anywhere from several weeks to a year or longer. There were 18,000 self-employed computer programmers in 2002.

Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement While there are many training paths available for programmers, mainly because employers’ needs are so varied, the level of education and experience employers seek has been rising, due to the growing number of qualified applicants and the specialization involved with most programming tasks. Bachelor’s degrees are commonly required, although some programmers may qualify for certain jobs with 2-year degrees or certificates. The associate degree is an increasingly attractive entry-level credential for prospective computer programmers. Most community colleges and many independent technical institutes and proprietary schools offer an associate degree in computer science or a related information technology field.

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Section One: Descriptions of 101 Top Jobs for People Without a Four-Year Degree hardware and having the skills needed to adapt the operating system to best meet the needs of a particular organization. Systems programmers also must be able to work with database systems, such as DB2, Oracle, or Sybase.

Employers are primarily interested in programming knowledge, and computer programmers can become certified in a programming language such as C++ or Java. College graduates who are interested in changing careers or developing an area of expertise also may return to a 2-year community college or technical school for additional training. In the absence of a degree, substantial specialized experience or expertise may be needed. Even when hiring programmers with a degree, employers appear to be placing more emphasis on previous experience.

When hiring programmers, employers look for people with the necessary programming skills who can think logically and pay close attention to detail. The job calls for patience, persistence, and the ability to work on exacting analytical work, especially under pressure. Ingenuity, creativity, and imagination also are particularly important when programmers design solutions and test their work for potential failures. The ability to work with abstract concepts and to do technical analysis is especially important for systems programmers, because they work with the software that controls the computer’s operation. Because programmers are expected to work in teams and interact directly with users, employers want programmers who are able to communicate with nontechnical personnel.

Some computer programmers hold a college degree in computer science, mathematics, or information systems, whereas others have taken special courses in computer programming to supplement their degree in a field such as accounting, inventory control, or another area of business. As the level of education and training required by employers continues to rise, the proportion of programmers with a college degree should increase in the future. As indicated by the following tabulation, 65 percent of computer programmers had a bachelor’s or higher degree in 2002.

Entry-level or junior programmers may work alone on simple assignments after some initial instruction, or they may be assigned to work on a team with more experienced programmers. Either way, beginning programmers generally must work under close supervision. Because technology changes so rapidly, programmers must continuously update their knowledge and skills by taking courses sponsored by their employer or by software vendors, or offered through local community colleges and universities.

TABLE 1 Highest level of school completed or degree received, computer programmers, 2002 Level High school graduate or equivalent or less ........

Percent

For skilled workers who keep up to date with the latest technology, the prospects for advancement are good. In large organizations, programmers may be promoted to lead programmer and be given supervisory responsibilities. Some applications programmers may move into systems programming after they gain experience and take courses in systems software. With general business experience, programmers may become programmer-analysts or systems analysts or be promoted to a managerial position. Other programmers, with specialized knowledge and experience with a language or operating system, may work in research and development on multimedia or Internet technology, for example. As employers increasingly contract out programming jobs, more opportunities should arise for experienced programmers with expertise in a specific area to work as consultants.

7.7

Some college, no degree ......................................

15.2

Associate degree ..................................................

11.6

Bachelor’s degree..................................................

48.6

Graduate degree..................................................

16.7

Required skills vary from job to job, but the demand for various skills generally is driven by changes in technology. Employers using computers for scientific or engineering applications usually prefer college graduates who have degrees in computer or information science, mathematics, engineering, or the physical sciences. Graduate degrees in related fields are required for some jobs. Employers who use computers for business applications prefer to hire people who have had college courses in management information systems (MIS) and business and who possess strong programming skills. Although knowledge of traditional languages still is important, employers are placing increasing emphasis on newer, object-oriented programming languages and tools, such as C++ and Java. Additionally, employers are seeking persons familiar with fourth- and fifth-generation languages that involve graphic user interface (GUI) and systems programming. Employers also prefer applicants who have general business skills and experience related to the operations of the firm. Students can improve their employment prospects by participating in a college work-study program or by undertaking an internship.

Certification is a way to demonstrate a level of competence, and may provide a jobseeker with a competitive advantage. In addition to language-specific certificates that a programmer can obtain, product vendors or software firms also offer certification and may require professionals who work with their products to be certified. Voluntary certification also is available through other various organizations.

Job Outlook Employment of programmers is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through 2012. Jobs for both systems and applications programmers should be most plentiful in data processing service firms, software houses, and computer consulting businesses. These types of establishments are part of computer systems design and related services and software publishers, which are projected to be among the fastest

Most systems programmers hold a 4-year degree in computer science. Extensive knowledge of a variety of operating systems is essential for such workers. This includes being able to configure an operating system to work with different types of

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America’s Top 101 Jobs for People Without a Four-Year Degree growing industries in the economy over the 2002–12 period. As organizations attempt to control costs and keep up with changing technology, they will need programmers to assist in conversions to new computer languages and systems. In addition, numerous job openings will result from the need to replace programmers who leave the labor force or transfer to other occupations such as manager or systems analyst. Employment of programmers, however, is expected to grow much more slowly than that of other computer specialists. With the rapid gains in technology, sophisticated computer software now has the capability to write basic code, eliminating the need for more programmers to do this routine work. The consolidation and centralization of systems and applications, developments in packaged software, advances in programming languages and tools, and the growing ability of users to design, write, and implement more of their own programs means that more of the programming functions can be transferred from programmers to other types of workers. Furthermore, as the level of technological innovation and sophistication increases, programmers are likely to face increasing competition from programming businesses overseas, to which much routine work can be contracted out at a lower cost. Nevertheless, employers will continue to need programmers who have strong technical skills and who understand an employer’s business and its programming requirements. This means that programmers will have to keep abreast of changing programming languages and techniques. Given the importance of networking and the expansion of client/server, Web-based, and wireless environments, organizations will look for programmers who can support data communications and help to implement electronic commerce and Intranet strategies. Demand for programmers with strong objectoriented programming capabilities and technical specialization in areas such as client/server programming, wireless applications, multimedia technology, and graphic user interface (GUI) should arise from the expansion of intranets, extranets, and Internet applications. Programmers also will be needed to create and maintain expert systems and embed these technologies in more products. Finally, growing emphasis on cyber-security will lead to increased demand for programmers who are familiar with digital security issues and skilled in using appropriate security technology. As programming tasks become increasingly sophisticated and additional levels of skill and experience are demanded by employers, graduates of 2-year programs and people with less than a 2-year degree or its equivalent in work experience should face strong competition for programming jobs. Competition for entry-level positions, however, also can affect applicants with a bachelor’s degree. Prospects should be best for college graduates with knowledge of, and experience working with, a variety of programming languages and tools— including C++ and other object-oriented languages such as Java, as well as newer, domain-specific languages that apply to computer networking, database management, and Internet application development. Obtaining vendor-specific or language-specific certification also can provide a competitive edge. Because demand fluctuates with employers’ needs, jobseekers should keep up to date with the latest skills and tech-

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nologies. Individuals who want to become programmers can enhance their prospects by combining the appropriate formal training with practical work experience.

Earnings Median annual earnings of computer programmers were $60,290 in 2002. The middle 50 percent earned between $45,960 and $78,140 a year. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $35,080; the highest 10 percent earned more than $96,860. Median annual earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of computer programmers in 2002 were: Professional and commercial equipment and supplies merchant wholesalers ....................$70,440 Software publishers ..................................................66,870 Computer systems design and related services ......65,640 Management of companies and enterprises............59,850 Data processing, hosting, and related services ......59,300 According to the National Association of Colleges and Employers, starting salary offers for graduates with a bachelor’s degree in computer programming averaged $45,558 a year in 2003. According to Robert Half International, a firm providing specialized staffing services, average annual starting salaries in 2003 ranged from $51,500 to $80,500 for applications development programmers/analysts, and from $55,000 to $87,750 for software developers. Average starting salaries for mainframe systems programmers ranged from $53,250 to $68,750 in 2003.

Related Occupations Other professional workers who deal extensively with data include computer software engineers; computer systems analysts, database administrators, and computer scientists; statisticians; mathematicians; engineers; financial analysts and personal financial advisors; accountants and auditors; actuaries; and operations research analysts.

Sources of Additional Information State employment service offices can provide information about job openings for computer programmers. Municipal chambers of commerce are an additional source of information on an area’s largest employers. Further information about computer careers is available from: ●

Association for Computing Machinery (ACM), 1515 Broadway, New York, NY 10036. Internet: http://www.acm.org

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Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers Computer Society, Headquarters Office, 1730 Massachusetts Ave. NW, Washington, DC 20036-1992. Internet: http://www.computer.org

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National Workforce Center for Emerging Technologies, 3000 Landerholm Circle SE, Bellevue, WA 98007. Internet: http://www.nwcet.org

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Section One: Descriptions of 101 Top Jobs for People Without a Four-Year Degree cal support specialists oversee the daily performance of their company’s computer systems and evaluate software programs for usefulness.

Computer Support Specialists and Systems Administrators

Help-desk technicians assist computer users with the inevitable hardware and software questions not addressed in a product’s instruction manual. Help-desk technicians field telephone calls and e-mail messages from customers seeking guidance on technical problems. In responding to these requests for guidance, help-desk technicians must listen carefully to the customer, ask questions to diagnose the nature of the problem, and then patiently walk the customer through the problemsolving steps.

(O*NET 15-1041.00 and 15-1071.00)

Significant Points ●

Computer support specialists and systems administrators are projected to be among the fastest growing occupations over the 2002–12 period.

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There are many paths of entry to these occupations.

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Job prospects should be best for college graduates who are up to date with the latest skills and technologies; certifications and practical experience are essential for persons without degrees.

Help-desk technicians deal directly with customer issues, and companies value them as a source of feedback on their products. These technicians are consulted for information about what gives customers the most trouble, as well as other customer concerns. Most computer support specialists start out at the help desk. Network or computer systems administrators design, install, and support an organization’s LAN (local-area network), WAN (wide-area network), network segment, Internet, or intranet system. They provide day-to-day onsite administrative support for software users in a variety of work environments, including professional offices, small businesses, government, and large corporations. They maintain network hardware and software, analyze problems, and monitor the network to ensure its availability to system users. These workers gather data to identify customer needs and then use that information to identify, interpret, and evaluate system and network requirements. Administrators also may plan, coordinate, and implement network security measures.

Nature of the Work In the last decade, computers have become an integral part of everyday life, used for a variety of reasons at home, in the workplace, and at schools. And almost every computer user encounters a problem occasionally, whether it is the disaster of a crashing hard drive or the annoyance of a forgotten password. The explosion of computer use has created a high demand for specialists to provide advice to users, as well as day-to-day administration, maintenance, and support of computer systems and networks.

Systems administrators are the information technology employees responsible for the efficient use of networks by organizations. They ensure that the design of an organization’s computer site allows all of the components, including computers, the network, and software, to fit together and work properly. Furthermore, they monitor and adjust performance of existing networks and continually survey the current computer site to determine future network needs. Administrators also troubleshoot problems as reported by users and automated network monitoring systems and make recommendations for enhancements in the implementation of future servers and networks.

Computer support specialists provide technical assistance, support, and advice to customers and other users. This occupational group includes technical support specialists and help-desk technicians. These troubleshooters interpret problems and provide technical support for hardware, software, and systems. They answer telephone calls, analyze problems using automated diagnostic programs, and resolve recurrent difficulties. Support specialists may work either within a company that uses computer systems or directly for a computer hardware or software vendor. Increasingly, these specialists work for help-desk or support services firms, where they provide computer support to clients on a contract basis.

In some organizations, computer security specialists may plan, coordinate, and implement the organization’s information security. These workers may be called upon to educate users on computer security, install security software, monitor the network for security breaches, respond to cyber attacks, and in some cases, gather data and evidence to be used in prosecuting cyber crime. This and other growing specialty occupations reflect the increasing emphasis on client-server applications, the expansion of Internet and intranet applications, and the demand for more end-user support.

Technical support specialists are troubleshooters, providing valuable assistance to their organization’s computer users. Because many nontechnical employees are not computer experts, they often run into computer problems that they cannot resolve on their own. Technical support specialists install, modify, clean, and repair computer hardware and software. They also may work on monitors, keyboards, printers, and mice. Technical support specialists answer telephone calls from their organizations’ computer users and may run automatic diagnostics programs to resolve problems. They also may write training manuals and train computer users how to properly use new computer hardware and software. In addition, techni-

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Working Conditions Computer support specialists and systems administrators normally work in well-lit, comfortable offices or computer labora-

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America’s Top 101 Jobs for People Without a Four-Year Degree tories. They usually work about 40 hours a week, but that may include being “on call” via pager or telephone for rotating evening or weekend work if the employer requires computer support over extended hours. Overtime may be necessary when unexpected technical problems arise. Like other workers who type on a keyboard for long periods, computer support specialists and systems administrators are susceptible to eyestrain, back discomfort, and hand and wrist problems such as carpal tunnel syndrome. Due to the heavy emphasis on helping all types of computer users, computer support specialists and systems administrators constantly interact with customers and fellow employees as they answer questions and give valuable advice. Those who work as consultants are away from their offices much of the time, sometimes spending months working in a client’s office. As computer networks expand, more computer support specialists and systems administrators may be able to connect to a customer’s computer remotely, using modems, laptops, e-mail, and the Internet, to provide technical support to computer users. This capability would reduce or eliminate travel to the customer’s workplace. Systems administrators also can administer and configure networks and servers remotely, although this practice is not as common as it is with computer support specialists.

Employment Computer support specialists and systems administrators held about 758,000 jobs in 2002. Of these, about 507,000 were computer support specialists and about 251,000 were network and computer systems administrators. Although they worked in a wide range of industries, 35 percent of all computer support specialists and systems administrators were employed in professional and business services industries, principally in computer systems design and related services. Other organizations that employed substantial numbers of these workers include banks, government agencies, insurance companies, educational institutions, and wholesale and retail vendors of computers, office equipment, appliances, and home electronic equipment. Many computer support specialists also worked for manufacturers of computers, semiconductors, and other electronic components. Employers of computer support specialists and systems administrators range from startup companies to established industry leaders. With the continued development of the Internet, telecommunications, and e-mail, industries not typically associated with computers—such as construction—increasingly need computer-related workers. Small and large firms across all industries are expanding or developing computer systems, creating an immediate need for computer support specialists and systems administrators.

Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Due to the wide range of skills required, there are many paths of entry to a job as a computer support specialist or systems administrator. While there is no universally accepted way to

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prepare for a job as a computer support specialist, many employers prefer to hire persons with some formal college education. A bachelor’s degree in computer science or information systems is a prerequisite for some jobs; however, other jobs may require only a computer-related associate degree. For systems administrators, many employers seek applicants with bachelor’s degrees, although not necessarily in a computerrelated field. Many companies are becoming more flexible about requiring a college degree for support positions because of the explosive demand for specialists. However, certification and practical experience demonstrating these skills will be essential for applicants without a degree. Completion of a certification training program, offered by a variety of vendors and product makers, may help some people to qualify for entry-level positions. Relevant computer experience may substitute for formal education. Beginning computer support specialists usually work for organizations that deal directly with customers or in-house users. Then, they may advance into more responsible positions in which they use what they have learned from customers to improve the design and efficiency of future products. Job promotions usually depend more on performance than on formal education. Eventually, some computer support specialists become applications developers, designing products rather than assisting users. Computer support specialists at hardware and software companies often enjoy great upward mobility; advancement sometimes comes within months of initial employment. Entry-level network and computer systems administrators are involved in routine maintenance and monitoring of computer systems, typically working behind the scenes in an organization. After gaining experience and expertise, they often are able to advance into more senior-level positions, in which they take on more responsibilities. For example, senior network and computer systems administrators may present recommendations to management on matters related to a company’s network. They also may translate the needs of an organization into a set of technical requirements based on the available technology. As with support specialists, administrators may become software engineers, actually involved in the designing of the system or network and not just the day-to-day administration. Persons interested in becoming a computer support specialist or systems administrator must have strong problem-solving, analytical, and communication skills because troubleshooting and helping others are vital parts of the job. The constant interaction with other computer personnel, customers, and employees requires computer support specialists and systems administrators to communicate effectively on paper, via e-mail, or in person. Strong writing skills are useful when preparing manuals for employees and customers. As technology continues to improve, computer support specialists and systems administrators must keep their skills current and acquire new ones. Many continuing education programs are offered by employers, hardware and software vendors, colleges and universities, and private training institutions. Professional development seminars offered by comput-

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Section One: Descriptions of 101 Top Jobs for People Without a Four-Year Degree sonal and communication skills. Due to the rapid growth in demand for computer support specialists and systems administrators, those who have strong computer skills but do not have a bachelor’s degree should continue to qualify for some entry-level positions. However, certifications and practical experience are essential for persons without degrees.

ing services firms also can enhance one’s skills and advancement opportunities.

Job Outlook Employment of computer support specialist is expected to increase faster than the average for all occupations through 2012 as organizations continue to adopt and integrate increasingly sophisticated technology. Job growth will continue to be driven by the continued expansion of the computer system design and related services industry, which is projected to remain one of the fastest-growing industries in the U.S. economy, despite recent job losses. Job growth will not be as explosive as growth during the previous decade as these jobs are being increasingly outsourced overseas.

Earnings Median annual earnings of computer support specialists were $39,100 in 2002. The middle 50 percent earned between $29,760 and $51,680. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $23,060, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $67,550. Median annual earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of computer support specialists in 2002 were:

Employment growth among computer support specialists reflects the rapid pace of improved technology. As computers and software become more complex, support specialists will be needed to provide technical assistance to customers and other users. New mobility technologies, such as the wireless Internet, will continue to create a demand for these workers to familiarize and educate computer users. Consulting opportunities for computer support specialists also should continue to grow as businesses increasingly need help managing, upgrading, and customizing more complex computer systems. However, growth in employment of support specialists may be tempered somewhat as firms continue to cut costs by shifting more routine work abroad to countries where workers are highly skilled but labor costs are lower. Physical location is not as important for these workers as it is for others because computer support specialists can provide assistance remotely and support services can be provided around the clock.

Professional and commercial equipment and supplies merchant wholesalers ....................$46,740 Software publishers ..................................................42,870 Computer systems design and related services ......41,110 Management of companies and enterprises............40,850 Elementary and secondary schools ........................33,480 Median annual earnings of network and computer systems administrators were $54,810 in 2002. The middle 50 percent earned between $43,290 and $69,530. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $34,460, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $86,440. Median annual earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of network and computer systems administrators in 2002 were: Wired telecommunications carriers ......................$59,710

Employment of systems administrators is expected to increase much faster than average as firms will continue to invest heavily in securing computer networks. Companies are looking for workers knowledgeable about the function and administration of networks. Such employees have become increasingly hard to find as systems administration has moved from being a separate function within corporations to one that forms a crucial element of business in an increasingly high-technology economy. Also, demand for computer security specialists will grow as businesses and government continue to invest heavily in “cyber-security,” protecting vital computer networks and electronic infrastructure from attack.

Computer systems design and related services ......58,790 Management of companies and enterprises............58,610 Data processing, hosting, and related services........56,140 Elementary and secondary schools ........................48,350 According to Robert Half International, starting salaries in 2003 ranged from $27,500 to $56,500 for help-desk support staff and from $51,000 to $67,250 for more senior technical support specialists. For systems administrators, starting salaries in 2003 ranged from $49,000 to $70,250.

The growth of electronic commerce means that more establishments use the Internet to conduct their business online. This translates into a need for information technology specialists who can help organizations use technology to communicate with employees, clients, and consumers. Explosive growth in these areas also is expected to fuel demand for specialists knowledgeable about network, data, and communications security.

Related Occupations

Job prospects should be best for college graduates who are up to date with the latest skills and technologies, particularly if they have supplemented their formal education with some relevant work experience. Employers will continue to seek computer specialists who possess a strong background in fundamental computer skills combined with good interper-

For additional information about a career as a computer support specialist, contact:

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Other computer-related occupations include computer programmers; computer software engineers; and computer systems analysts, database administrators, and computer scientists.

Sources of Additional Information

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Association of Computer Support Specialists, 218 Huntington Rd., Bridgeport, CT 06608. Internet: http://www.acss.org

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Association of Support Professionals, 122 Barnard Ave., Watertown, MA 02472.

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America’s Top 101 Jobs for People Without a Four-Year Degree tion over computer networks. For example, when an ATM dispenses cash, it transmits the withdrawal information to the customer’s bank. Workers also may install operating software and peripheral equipment, checking that all components are configured to function together correctly. The installation of personal computers and other small office machines is less complex and may be handled by the purchaser.

For additional information about a career as a systems administrator, contact: ●

System Administrators Guild, 2560 9th St., Suite 215, Berkeley, CA 94710. Internet: http://www.sage.org

Further information about computer careers is available from: ●

National Workforce Center for Emerging Technologies, 3000 Landerholm Circle SE, Bellevue, WA 98007. Internet: http://www.nwcet.org

When equipment breaks down, many repairers travel to customers’ workplaces or other locations to make the necessary repairs. These workers, known as field technicians, often have assigned areas in which they perform preventive maintenance on a regular basis. Bench technicians work in repair shops located in stores, factories, or service centers. In small companies, repairers may work both in repair shops and at customer locations.

Computer, Automated Teller, and Office Machine Repairers

Computer repairers usually replace subsystems instead of repairing them. Replacement is common because subsystems are inexpensive and businesses are reluctant to shut down their computers for time-consuming repairs. Subsystems commonly replaced by computer repairers include video cards, which transmit signals from the computer to the monitor; hard drives, which store data; and network cards, which allow communication over the network. Defective modules may be given to bench technicians, who use software programs to diagnose the problem and who may repair the modules, if possible.

(O*NET 49-2011.01, 49-2011.02, and 49-2011.03)

Significant Points ●

Workers qualify for these jobs by receiving training in electronics from associate degree programs, the military, vocational schools, equipment manufacturers, or employers.

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Job growth reflects the increasing dependence of business and residential customers on computers and other sophisticated office machines.

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Job prospects will be best for applicants with knowledge of electronics, as well as repair experience; opportunities for computer repairers should be excellent, given that employers are reporting difficulty finding qualified applicants.

When ATMs malfunction, computer networks recognize the problem and alert repairers. Common problems include worn magnetic heads on card readers, which prevent the equipment from recognizing customers’ bankcards, and “pick failures,” which prevent the equipment from dispensing the correct amount of cash. Field technicians travel to the locations of ATMs and usually repair equipment by removing and replacing defective components. Broken components are brought to a repair shop, where bench technicians make the necessary repairs. Field technicians perform routine maintenance on a regular basis, replacing worn parts and running diagnostic tests to ensure that the equipment functions properly.

Nature of the Work Computer repairers, also known as computer service technicians or data-processing equipment repairers, service mainframe, server, and personal computers; printers; and disc drives. These workers perform primarily hands-on repair, maintenance, and installation of computers and related equipment. Workers who provide technical assistance, in person or by telephone, to computer system users are known as computer support specialists or computer support technicians.

Office machine repairers usually work on machinery at the customer’s workplace; alternatively, if the machines are small enough, customers may bring them to a repair shop for maintenance. Common malfunctions include paper misfeeds, due to worn or dirty parts, and poor-quality copy, due to problems with lamps, lenses, or mirrors. These malfunctions usually can be resolved simply by cleaning the relevant components. Breakdowns also may result from the failure of commonly used parts. For example, heavy usage of a photocopier may wear down the printhead, which applies ink to the final copy. In such cases, the repairer usually replaces the part instead of repairing it.

Automated teller machines (ATMs) allow customers to carry out bank transactions without the assistance of a teller. ATMs now provide a growing variety of other services, including stamp, phone card, and ticket sales. Automated teller machine servicers repair and service these machines.

Workers use a variety of tools for diagnostic tests and repair. To diagnose malfunctions, they use multimeters to measure voltage, current, resistance, and other electrical properties; signal generators to provide test signals; and oscilloscopes to monitor equipment signals. To diagnose computerized equipment, repairers use software programs. To repair or adjust equipment, workers use handtools, such as pliers, screwdrivers, soldering irons, and wrenches.

Office machine and cash register servicers work on photocopiers, cash registers, mail-processing equipment, and fax machines. Newer models of office machinery increasingly include computerized components that allow them to function more effectively than earlier models. To install large equipment, such as mainframe computers and ATMs, repairers connect the equipment to power sources and communication lines that allow the transmission of informa-

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Working Conditions

nies normally receive on-the-job training lasting several months. Such training may include a week of classroom instruction, followed by a period of 2 weeks to several months assisting an experienced repairer.

Repairers usually work in clean, well-lighted surroundings. Because computers and office machines are sensitive to extreme temperatures and to humidity, repair shops usually are air conditioned and well ventilated. Field repairers must travel frequently to various locations to install, maintain, or repair customers’ equipment. ATM repairers may have to perform their jobs in small, confined spaces that house the equipment.

Field technicians work closely with customers and must have good communications skills and a neat appearance. Employers normally require that field technicians have a driver’s license. Various organizations offer certification, including ACES International, the Computing Technology Industry Association, the Electronic Technicians Association International, and the International Society of Certified Electronics Technicians. Repairers may specialize in a variety of skill areas. To receive certification, repairers must pass qualifying examinations corresponding to their level of training and experience.

Because computers and ATMs are critical for many organizations to function efficiently, data-processing equipment repairers and ATM field technicians often work around the clock. Their schedules may include evening, weekend, and holiday shifts, sometimes assigned on the basis of seniority. Office machine and cash register servicers usually work regular business hours because the equipment they repair is not as critical.

Newly hired computer repairers may work on personal computers or peripheral equipment. With experience, they can advance to positions maintaining more sophisticated systems, such as networking equipment and servers. Field repairers of ATMs may advance to bench-technician positions responsible for more complex repairs. Experienced workers may become specialists who help other repairers diagnose difficult problems or who work with engineers in designing equipment and developing maintenance procedures. Experienced workers also may move into management positions responsible for supervising other repairers.

Although their job is not strenuous, repairers must lift equipment and work in a variety of postures. Repairers of computer monitors need to discharge voltage from the equipment to avoid electrocution. Workers may have to wear protective goggles.

Employment Computer, automated teller, and office machine repairers held about 156,000 jobs in 2002. Wholesale trade establishments employed about one-third of the workers in this occupation; most of these establishments were wholesalers of professional and commercial equipment and supplies. Many workers also were employed in electronics, appliance, and office supplies stores. Others worked in electronic and precision equipment repair shops and computer systems design firms. A small number were found in computer and peripheral equipment manufacturing, government agencies, and internet service providers. About 1 computer, automated teller, and office machine repairer in 8 was self-employed, more than twice the proportion for all installation, maintenance, and repair occupations.

Because of their familiarity with equipment, experienced repairers may move into customer service or sales positions. Some experienced workers open their own repair shops or become wholesalers or retailers of electronic equipment.

Job Outlook Employment of computer, automated teller, and office machine repairers is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through 2012. Job growth will be driven by the increasing dependence of business and residential customers on computers and other sophisticated office machines. The need to maintain this equipment in working order will create new jobs for repairers. In addition, openings will result from the need to replace repairers who retire or transfer into new occupations.

Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement

Job prospects will be best for applicants with knowledge of electronics as well as repair experience; opportunities for computer repairers should be excellent, given that employers are reporting difficulty finding qualified applicants and that computers are increasingly being relied on. Although computer equipment continues to become less expensive and more reliable, malfunctions still occur and can cause severe problems for users, most of whom lack the knowledge to make repairs. Computers are critical to most businesses today and will become even more so to companies that do business on the Internet and to households that bank, pay bills, or make purchases online.

Knowledge of electronics is necessary for employment as a computer, automated teller, or office machine repairer. Employers prefer workers who are certified as repairers or who have training in electronics from associate degree programs, the military, vocational schools, or equipment manufacturers. Employers generally provide some training to new repairers on specific equipment; however, workers are expected to arrive on the job with a basic understanding of equipment repair. Employers may send experienced workers to training sessions to keep up with changes in technology and service procedures. Most office machine and ATM repairer positions require an associate degree in electronics. A basic understanding of mechanical equipment also is important, because many of the parts that fail in office machines and ATMs are mechanical, such as paper loaders. Entry-level employees at large compa-

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People also are becoming increasingly reliant on ATMs. Besides offering bank and retail transactions, ATMs provide an increasing number of other services, such as employee information processing and distribution of government payments. Improvements in ATM design have increased reliability and ●

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America’s Top 101 Jobs for People Without a Four-Year Degree simplified repair tasks, reducing the number and extent of repairs. Opportunities for ATM repairers should be available, arising primarily from the need to replace workers who leave the specialty, rather than from employment growth.

Construction and Building Inspectors

Conventional office machines, such as calculators, are inexpensive, and often are replaced instead of repaired. However, digital copiers and other, newer office machines are more costly and complex. This equipment often is computerized, designed to work on a network, and able to perform multiple functions. The growing need for repairers to service such sophisticated equipment should result in job opportunities for office machine repairers.

(O*NET 47-4011.00)

Significant Points

Earnings Median hourly earnings of computer, automated teller, and office machine repairers were $15.98 in 2002. The middle 50 percent earned between $12.44 and $20.38. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $9.99, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $25.06. Median hourly earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of computer, automated teller, and office machine repairers in 2002 were as follows:

Office supplies, stationery, and gift stores ................14.79 Electronics and appliance stores ................................13.89 Electronic and precision equipment repair and maintenance ..........................................................13.46

Related Occupations Workers in other occupations who repair and maintain electronic equipment include broadcast and sound engineering technicians and radio operators; electronic home entertainment equipment installers and repairers; electrical and electronics installers and repairers; industrial machinery installation, repair, and maintenance workers; and radio and telecommunications equipment installers and repairers.

For information on careers and certification, contact:

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Computing Technology Industry Association, 1815 S Meyers Rd., Suite 300, Oakbrook Terrace, IL 60181-5228. Internet: http://www.comptia.org

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Electronics Technicians Association International, 5 Depot St., Greencastle, IN 46135.

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International Society of Certified Electronics Technicians, 3608 Pershing Ave., Fort Worth, TX 76107-4527. Internet: http://www.iscet.org

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Opportunities should be best for experienced construction supervisors and craftworkers who have some college education, engineering

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Home inspection is becoming a standard practice in the home purchasing process, creating more opportunities for home inspectors.

In the past, most localities based their building codes on regional model codes established by the Building Officials and Code Administration (BOCA), the International Conference of Building Officials (ICBO), or the Southern Building Code Congress International (SBCCI). Therefore, building inspectors in one region who were experts in one code found it difficult to move to an area of the country in which another code was used. To eliminate differences among the three sets of codes, these organizations jointly created the International Code Council (ICC) in 1994 and released the Nation’s first set of uniform building code regulations in 2000. In 2003, BOCA, ICBO and SBCCI consolidated their operations into the ICC. All code development and support services are now provided by the ICC. This makes it much easier for construction and building inspectors to work in different regions within the United States.

Sources of Additional Information

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Construction and building inspectors examine the construction, alteration, or repair of buildings, highways and streets, sewer and water systems, dams, bridges, and other structures to ensure compliance with building codes and ordinances, zoning regulations, and contract specifications. Building codes and standards are the primary means by which building construction is regulated in the United States for the health and safety of the general public. Inspectors make an initial inspection during the first phase of construction, and follow-up inspections throughout the construction project to monitor compliance with regulations. However, no inspection is ever exactly the same. In areas where certain types of severe weather or natural disasters—such as earthquakes or hurricanes—are more common, inspectors monitor compliance with additional safety regulations designed to protect structures and occupants during these events.

Professional and commercial equipment and supplies merchant wholesalers ................................17.28

ACES International, 5241 Princess Anne Rd., Suite 110, Virginia Beach, VA 23462. Internet: http://www.acesinternational.org

Almost half of all inspectors worked for local governments, primarily municipal or county building departments.

Nature of the Work

Computer systems design and related services ......$17.33

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There are many types of inspectors. Building inspectors inspect the structural quality and general safety of buildings. Some specialize in such areas as structural steel or reinforced concrete structures. Before construction begins, plan examiners determine whether the plans for the building or other structure ●

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Section One: Descriptions of 101 Top Jobs for People Without a Four-Year Degree interests, not those of the general public. Insurance companies and financial institutions also may use the services of specification inspectors.

comply with building code regulations and if they are suited to the engineering and environmental demands of the building site. Inspectors visit the worksite before the foundation is poured to inspect the soil condition and positioning and depth of the footings. Later, they return to the site to inspect the foundation after it has been completed. The size and type of structure, as well as the rate of completion, determine the number of other site visits they must make. Upon completion of the project, they make a final, comprehensive inspection.

Details concerning construction projects, building and occupancy permits, and other documentation generally are stored on computers so that they can easily be retrieved, kept accurate, and updated. For example, inspectors may use laptop computers to record their findings while inspecting a site. Most inspectors use computers to help them monitor the status of construction inspection activities and keep track of issued permits. Many inspectors also use a paper checklist to detail their findings.

In addition to structural characteristics, a primary concern of building inspectors is fire safety. They inspect structures’ fire sprinklers, alarms, and smoke control systems, as well as fire exits. Inspectors assess the type of construction, building contents, adequacy of fire protection equipment, and risks posed by adjoining buildings.

Although inspections are primarily visual, inspectors may use tape measures, survey instruments, metering devices, and test equipment such as concrete strength measurers. They keep a log of their work, take photographs, file reports, and, if necessary, act on their findings. For example, construction inspectors notify the construction contractor, superintendent, or supervisor when they discover a code or ordinance violation or something that does not comply with the contract specifications or approved plans. If the problem is not corrected within a reasonable or specified period, government inspectors have authority to issue a “stop-work” order.

Electrical inspectors examine the installation of electrical systems and equipment to ensure that they function properly and comply with electrical codes and standards. They visit worksites to inspect new and existing sound and security systems, wiring, lighting, motors, and generating equipment. They also inspect the installation of the electrical wiring for heating and air-conditioning systems, appliances, and other components. Elevator inspectors examine lifting and conveying devices such as elevators, escalators, moving sidewalks, lifts and hoists, inclined railways, ski lifts, and amusement rides.

Many inspectors also investigate construction or alterations being done without proper permits. Inspectors who are employees of municipalities enforce laws pertaining to the proper design, construction, and use of buildings. They direct violators of permit laws to obtain permits and submit to inspection.

Mechanical inspectors inspect the installation of the mechanical components of commercial kitchen appliances, heating and air-conditioning equipment, gasoline and butane tanks, gas and oil piping, and gas-fired and oil-fired appliances. Some specialize in boilers or ventilating equipment as well.

Working Conditions

Plumbing inspectors examine plumbing systems, including private disposal systems, water supply and distribution systems, plumbing fixtures and traps, and drain, waste, and vent lines.

Construction and building inspectors usually work alone. However, several may be assigned to large, complex projects, particularly because inspectors tend to specialize in different areas of construction. Although they spend considerable time inspecting construction worksites, inspectors also spend time in a field office reviewing blueprints, answering letters or telephone calls, writing reports, and scheduling inspections.

Public works inspectors ensure that federal, state, and local government construction of water and sewer systems, highways, streets, bridges, and dams conforms to detailed contract specifications. They inspect excavation and fill operations, the placement of forms for concrete, concrete mixing and pouring, asphalt paving, and grading operations. They record the work and materials used so that contract payments can be calculated. Public works inspectors may specialize in highways, structural steel, reinforced concrete, or ditches. Others specialize in dredging operations required for bridges and dams or for harbors.

Inspection sites are dirty and may be cluttered with tools, materials, or debris. Inspectors may have to climb ladders or many flights of stairs, or crawl around in tight spaces. Although their work generally is not considered hazardous, inspectors, like other construction workers, wear hard hats and adhere to other safety requirements while at a construction site.

Home inspectors conduct inspections of newly built or previously owned homes. Home inspection is becoming a standard practice in the home purchasing process. Prospective home buyers hire home inspectors to inspect and report the condition of a home’s systems, components, and structure. They typically are hired either immediately prior to a purchase offer on a home, or as a contingency to a sales contract. In addition to structural quality, home inspectors inspect all home systems and features, including roofing as well as plumbing, electrical, and heating or cooling systems.

Inspectors normally work regular hours. However, they may work additional hours during periods when a lot of construction is taking place. Also, if an accident occurs at a construction site, inspectors must respond immediately and may work additional hours to complete their report. Nongovernment inspectors may have a varied work schedule. At times, they may work evenings and weekends.

Employment

The owner of a building or structure under construction employs specification inspectors to ensure that work is done according to design specifications. They represent the owner’s

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America’s Top 101 Jobs for People Without a Four-Year Degree this field. Many employers provide formal training programs to broaden inspectors’ knowledge of construction materials, practices, and techniques. Inspectors who work for small agencies or firms that do not conduct training programs can expand their knowledge and upgrade their skills by attending state-sponsored training programs, by taking college or correspondence courses, or by attending seminars sponsored by various related organizations, such as the building code organization.

building departments, employed 48 percent. Employment of local government inspectors is concentrated in cities and in suburban areas undergoing rapid growth. Local governments employ large inspection staffs, including many plan examiners or inspectors who specialize in structural steel, reinforced concrete, boiler, electrical, and elevator inspection. Another 21 percent of construction and building inspectors worked for architectural and engineering services firms, conducting inspections for a fee or on a contract basis. Many of these were home inspectors working on behalf of potential real estate purchasers. Most of the remaining inspectors were employed in other services industries or by state governments.

Most states and cities require some type of certification for employment; even if not required, certification can enhance an inspector’s opportunities for employment and advancement to more responsible positions. To become certified, inspectors with substantial experience and education must pass stringent examinations on code requirements, construction techniques, and materials. The ICC offers voluntary certification, as do other professional membership associations. In most cases, there are no education or experience prerequisites, and certification consists of passing an examination in a designated field. Many categories of certification are awarded for inspectors and plan examiners in a variety of disciplines, including the Certified Building Official (CBO) designation.

Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Although requirements vary considerably depending upon where one is employed, construction and building inspectors should have a thorough knowledge of construction materials and practices in either a general area, such as structural or heavy construction, or a specialized area, such as electrical or plumbing systems, reinforced concrete, or structural steel. Applicants for construction or building inspection jobs need several years of experience as a construction manager, supervisor, or craftworker. Many inspectors previously worked as carpenters, electricians, plumbers, or pipefitters.

Job Outlook Job opportunities in construction and building inspection should be best for highly experienced supervisors and construction craftworkers who have some college education, engineering or architectural training, or certification as inspectors or plan examiners. Thorough knowledge of construction practices and skills in areas such as reading and evaluating blueprints and plans is essential.

Because inspectors must possess the right mix of technical knowledge, experience, and education, employers prefer applicants who have formal training as well as experience. Most employers require at least a high school diploma or equivalent, even for workers with considerable experience. More often, employers look for persons who have studied engineering or architecture, or who have a degree from a community or junior college, with courses in building inspection, home inspection, construction technology, drafting, and mathematics. Many community colleges offer certificate or associate degree programs in building inspection technology. Courses in blueprint reading, algebra, geometry, and English also are useful.

Employment of construction and building inspectors is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through 2012. Growing concern for public safety and improvements in the quality of construction should continue to stimulate demand for construction and building inspectors. In addition to the expected employment growth, some job openings will arise from the need to replace inspectors who transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force.

Construction and building inspectors must be in good physical condition in order to walk and climb about construction sites. They must also have a driver’s license. In addition, federal, state, and many local governments may require that inspectors pass a civil service exam.

Inspectors are involved in all phases of construction, including maintenance and repair work, and are therefore less likely to lose jobs when new construction slows during recessions. As the population grows and the volume of real estate transactions increases, greater emphasis on home inspections should result in strong demand for home inspectors. In addition, there should be job opportunities for inspectors in firms specializing in architectural, engineering, and related services as governments—particularly federal and state—contract out inspection work, and as private inspection services grow.

Construction and building inspectors usually receive much of their training on the job, although they must learn building codes and standards on their own. Working with an experienced inspector, they learn about inspection techniques; codes, ordinances, and regulations; contract specifications; and recordkeeping and reporting duties. They may begin by inspecting less complex types of construction, such as residential buildings, and then progress to more difficult assignments. An engineering or architectural degree is often required for advancement to supervisory positions.

Earnings Median annual earnings of construction and building inspectors were $41,620 in 2002. The median hourly earnings were $20.01. The middle 50 percent earned between $15.81 and $25.05. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $12.53, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $30.10. Median annual earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of construction and building inspectors in 2002 were:

Because they advise builders and the general public on building codes, construction practices, and technical developments, construction and building inspectors must keep abreast of changes in these areas. Continuing education is imperative in

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Significant Points

Local government ..................................................$42,260 Architectural, engineering, and related services......40,770 State government ....................................................39,610 Generally, building inspectors, including plan examiners, earn the highest salaries. Salaries in large metropolitan areas are substantially higher than those in small jurisdictions.

Related Occupations Construction and building inspectors combine knowledge of construction principles and law with an ability to coordinate data, diagnose problems, and communicate with people. Workers in other occupations using a similar combination of skills include architects, except landscape and naval; construction managers; civil engineers; cost estimators; drafters; engineering technicians; and surveyors, cartographers, photogrammetrists, and surveying technicians.

International Code Conference, 5203 Leesburg Pike, Suite 600, Falls Church, VA 22041. Internet: http://www.iccsafe.org Association of Construction Inspectors, 1224 North Nokomis NE, Alexandria, MN 56308. Internet: http://www.iami.org/aci

For more information about training and requirements for electrical inspectors, contact: International Association of Electrical Inspectors, 901 Waterfall Way, Suite 602, Richardson, TX 75080-7702. Internet: http://www.iaei.org

For information about becoming a home inspector, contact: ●

American Society of Home Inspectors, 932 Lee St., Suite 101, Des Plaines, IL 60016. Internet: http://www.ashi.org

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National Association of Certified Home Inspectors, 1220 Valley Forge Rd., Building 47, P.O. Box 987, Valley Forge, PA 19482-0987. Internet: http://www.nachi.org

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Housing Inspection Foundation, 1224 North Nokomis NE, Alexandria, MN 56308. Internet: http://www.iami.org/hif.cfm

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National Association of Home Inspectors, 4248 Park Glen Rd., Minneapolis, MN, 55416. Internet: http://www.nahi.org

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Hourly pay is relatively high but, because some construction equipment operators cannot work in inclement weather, total annual earnings may be reduced.

Paving and surfacing equipment operators use levers and other controls to operate machines that spread and level asphalt or spread and smooth concrete for roadways or other structures. Asphalt paving machine operators turn valves to regulate the temperature and flow of asphalt onto the roadbed. They must take care that the machine distributes the paving material evenly and without voids, and make sure that there is a constant flow of asphalt going into the hopper. Concrete paving machine operators control levers and turn handwheels to move attachments that spread, vibrate, and level wet concrete within forms. They must observe the surface of concrete to identify low spots into which workers must add concrete. They use other attachments to smooth the surface of the concrete, spray on a curing compound, and cut expansion joints. Tamping equipment operators operate tamping machines that compact earth and other fill materials for roadbeds. They also may operate machines with interchangeable hammers to cut or break up old pavement and drive guardrail posts into the earth.

For information about a career as a state or local government construction or building inspector, contact your state or local employment service.

Construction Equipment Operators (O*NET 47-2071.00, 47-2072.00, 47-2073.01, and 47-2073.02)

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Job opportunities are expected to be good, with as fast as average employment growth.

Construction equipment operators include operating engineers and other construction equipment operators; paving, surfacing, and tamping equipment operators; and piledriver operators. Operating engineers and other construction equipment operators operate one or several types of power construction equipment. They may operate excavation and loading machines equipped with scoops, shovels, or buckets that dig sand, gravel, earth, or similar materials and load it into trucks or onto conveyors. In addition to the familiar bulldozers, they operate trench excavators, road graders, and similar equipment. Sometimes, they may drive and control industrial trucks or tractors equipped with forklifts or booms for lifting materials or with hitches for pulling trailers. They also may operate and maintain air compressors, pumps, and other power equipment at construction sites. Construction equipment operators who are classified as operating engineers are capable of operating several different types of construction equipment.

For more information about construction inspectors, contact:

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Construction equipment operators use machinery to move construction materials, earth, and other heavy materials and to apply asphalt and concrete to roads and other structures. Operators control equipment by moving levers or foot pedals, operating switches, or turning dials. The operation of much of this equipment is becoming more complex as a result of computerized controls. Construction equipment operators may also set up and inspect equipment, make adjustments, and perform some maintenance and minor repairs.

Information about certification and a career as a construction or building inspector is available from the following model code organization:

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Many construction equipment operators acquire their skills on the job, but formal apprenticeship programs provide more comprehensive training.

Nature of the Work

Sources of Additional Information

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America’s Top 101 Jobs for People Without a Four-Year Degree committees of the International Union of Operating Engineers and the Associated General Contractors of America. Because apprentices learn to operate a wider variety of machines than do other beginners, they usually have better job opportunities. Apprenticeship programs consist of at least 3 years, or 6,000 hours, of on-the-job training and 144 hours a year of related classroom instruction.

Piledriver operators operate piledrivers—large machines, mounted on skids, barges, or cranes, that hammer piles into the ground. Piles are long heavy beams of wood or steel driven into the ground to support retaining walls, bulkheads, bridges, piers, or building foundations. Some piledriver operators work on offshore oil rigs. Piledriver operators move hand and foot levers and turn valves to activate, position, and control the pile-driving equipment.

Employers of construction equipment operators generally prefer to hire high school graduates, although some employers may train nongraduates to operate some types of equipment. Technologically advanced construction equipment has computerized controls and improved hydraulics and electronics, requiring more skill to operate. Operators of such equipment may need more training and some understanding of electronics. Mechanical aptitude and high school training in automobile mechanics are helpful because workers may perform some maintenance on their machines. Also, high school courses in science and mechanical drawing are useful. Experience operating related mobile equipment, such as farm tractors or heavy equipment, in the Armed Forces or elsewhere is an asset.

Working Conditions Many construction equipment operators work outdoors, in nearly every type of climate and weather condition, although in many areas of the country, construction operations must be suspended in winter and during periods of extremely wet weather. Bulldozers, scrapers, and especially tampers and piledrivers are noisy and shake or jolt the operator. Operating heavy construction equipment can be dangerous. As with most machinery, accidents generally can be avoided by observing proper operating procedures and safety practices. Construction equipment operators are cold in the winter and hot in the summer, and often get dirty, greasy, muddy, or dusty.

Private vocational schools offer instruction in the operation of certain types of construction equipment. Completion of such a program may help a person get a job as a trainee or apprentice. However, persons considering such training should check the school’s reputation among employers in the area.

Operators may have irregular hours because work on some construction projects continues around the clock or must be performed late at night or early in the morning. Some operators work in remote locations on large construction projects, such as highways and dams, or in factory or mining operations.

Beginning construction equipment operators handle light equipment under the guidance of an experienced operator. Later, they may operate heavier equipment such as bulldozers and cranes. Operators need to be in good physical condition and have a good sense of balance, the ability to judge distance, and eye-hand-foot coordination. Some operator positions require the ability to work at heights.

Employment Construction equipment operators held about 416,000 jobs in 2002. Jobs were found in every section of the country and were distributed among various types of operators as follows:

Job Outlook

Operating engineers and other construction equipment operators ............................................353,000

Job opportunities for construction equipment operators are expected to be good through 2012—due, in part, to the shortage of adequate training programs. In addition, many potential workers may choose not to enter training programs because they prefer work that is less strenuous and has more comfortable working conditions.

Paving, surfacing, and tamping equipment operators ................................................................58,000 Pile-driver operators ..................................................5,200 About three out of five construction equipment operators worked in the construction industry. Many equipment operators worked in heavy construction, building highways, bridges, or railroads. About one out of five of all construction equipment operators worked in state and local government. Others—mostly grader, bulldozer, and scraper operators— worked in mining. Some also worked in manufacturing and for utility companies. Less than one in twenty construction equipment operators were self-employed.

Employment of construction equipment operators is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2012 even with improvements in equipment expected to continue to raise worker productivity and to moderate demand for these workers. Employment is expected to increase as population and business growth create a need for new houses, industrial facilities, schools, hospitals, offices, and other structures. More construction equipment operators also will be needed as a result of expected growth in highway, bridge, and street construction. Bridge construction is expected to grow the fastest, due to the need to repair or replace structures before they become unsafe. Poor highway conditions also will spur demand for highway maintenance and repair. In the last several years, Congress has passed substantial public works bills to provide money for such construction projects, including mass transit systems. In addition to job growth, many job openings will arise because of the need to replace experienced

Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Construction equipment operators usually learn their skills on the job. However, it is generally accepted that formal training provides more comprehensive skills. Some construction equipment operators train in formal 3-year operating engineer apprenticeship programs administered by union-management

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Section One: Descriptions of 101 Top Jobs for People Without a Four-Year Degree For general information about the work of construction equipment operators, contact:

construction equipment operators who transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. Like that of other construction workers, employment of construction equipment operators is sensitive to fluctuations in the economy. Workers may experience periods of unemployment when the level of construction activity falls.

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National Center for Construction Education and Research, University of Florida, P.O. Box 141104, Gainesville, FL 32614-1104. Internet: http://www.nccer.org

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Associated General Contractors of America, 333 John Carlyle St., Suite 200, Alexandria, VA 22314. Internet: http://www.agc.org

Earnings

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International Union of Operating Engineers, 1125 17th St. NW, Washington, DC 20036. Internet: http://www.iuoe.org

Earnings for construction equipment operators vary. In 2002, median hourly earnings of operating engineers and other construction equipment operators were $16.94. The middle 50 percent earned between $12.96 and $22.98. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $10.61, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $28.93. Median hourly earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of operating engineers in 2002 were:

There are more than 500 occupations registered by the U.S. Department of Labor’s National Apprenticeship system. For more information on the Labor Department’s registered apprenticeship system and links to state apprenticeship programs, check their Web site: http://www.doleta.gov.

Highway, street, and bridge construction ..............$19.81

Construction Managers

Other specialty trade contractors ..............................17.56 Utility system construction........................................17.48

(O*NET 11-9021.00)

Other heavy and civil engineering construction ......16.89 Local government ....................................................14.88

Significant Points

Median hourly earnings of paving, surfacing, and tamping equipment operators were $13.87 in 2002. The middle 50 percent earned between $10.73 and $19.12. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $9.07, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $25.99. Median hourly earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of paving, surfacing, and tamping equipment operators in 2002 were:

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Construction managers must be available—often 24 hours a day—to deal with delays, bad weather, or emergencies at the jobsite.

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Employers prefer individuals who combine construction industry work experience with a bachelor’s degree in construction science, construction management, or civil engineering.

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Good employment opportunities are expected; however, employment can be sensitive to the short-term nature of many construction projects and to cyclical fluctuations in construction activity.

Highway, street, and bridge construction ..............$14.46 Other specialty trade contractors ..............................14.40 Local government ....................................................13.07 In 2002, median hourly earnings of piledriver operators were $21.84. The middle 50 percent earned between $14.89 and $29.24. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $11.73, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $33.97.

Nature of the Work Construction managers plan and coordinate construction projects. They may have job titles such as constructor, construction superintendent, general superintendent, project engineer, project manager, general construction manager, or executive construction manager. Construction managers may be owners or salaried employees of a construction management or contracting firm, or they may work under contract or as a salaried employee of the owner, developer, contractor, or management firm overseeing the construction project. They may plan and direct a whole project or just a part of a project.

Pay scales generally are higher in large metropolitan areas. Annual earnings of some workers may be lower than hourly rates would indicate because worktime may be limited by bad weather.

Related Occupations Other workers who operate heavy mechanical equipment include bus drivers; truck drivers and driver/sales workers; farmers, ranchers, and agricultural managers; agricultural workers; and forest, conservation, and logging workers.

A construction manager is defined more narrowly within the construction industry to denote a management firm, or an individual employed by such a firm, involved in managerial oversight of a construction project. Under this definition, construction managers usually represent the owner or developer along with other workers throughout the project. Although they usually play no direct role in the actual construction of a structure, they typically schedule and coordinate all design and construction processes, including the selection, hiring, and oversight of specialty trade contractors.

Sources of Additional Information For further information about apprenticeships or work opportunities for construction equipment operators, contact a local of the International Union of Operating Engineers, a local apprenticeship committee, or the nearest office of the state apprenticeship agency or employment service.

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America’s Top 101 Jobs for People Without a Four-Year Degree monitor the hiring and dismissal of workers. They oversee the performance of all trade contractors and are responsible for ensuring that all work is completed on schedule.

Managers who work in the construction industry, such as general managers, project engineers, and others, increasingly are called constructors. Constructors manage, coordinate, and supervise the construction process from the conceptual development stage through final construction on a timely and economical basis. Given designs for buildings, roads, bridges, or other projects, constructors oversee the organization, scheduling, and implementation of the project to execute those designs. They are responsible for coordinating and managing people, materials, and equipment; budgets, schedules, and contracts; and safety of employees and the general public.

Construction managers direct and monitor the progress of construction activities, sometimes through construction supervisors or other construction managers. They oversee the delivery and use of materials, tools, and equipment; and the quality of construction, worker productivity, and safety. They are responsible for obtaining all necessary permits and licenses and, depending upon the contractual arrangements, direct or monitor compliance with building and safety codes and other regulations. They may have several subordinates, such as assistant managers or superintendents, field engineers, or crew supervisors, reporting to them.

On large projects, several different management systems may be used. In the general contractor system, the owner hires a general contractor to manage all activities. Working for the general contractor, construction managers oversee the completion of all construction in accordance with the engineer’s and architect’s drawings and specifications and prevailing building codes. They arrange for trade contractors to perform specialized craftwork or other specified construction work. On small projects, such as remodeling a home, a self-employed construction manager or skilled trade worker who directs and oversees employees often is referred to as the construction “contractor.” In the construction management system, the owner hires a firm to oversee all aspects of the project. The management firm will then hire a general contractor to run the construction process and oversee construction of the structure. The major difference from the general contractor system is that the hired management firm, rather than the owner, works with the individual construction manager. In the design-build system, the owners, architects, general contractors, and major subcontractors are brought together to cooperatively plan and design the project. The design-build group may be from an individual firm or a conglomeration of separate entities. The construction manager participates during the design process and may be in charge of the construction project once the design is agreed upon.

Construction managers regularly review engineering and architectural drawings and specifications to monitor progress and ensure compliance with plans and schedules. They track and control construction costs against the project budget to avoid cost overruns. Based upon direct observation and reports by subordinate supervisors, managers may prepare daily reports of progress and requirements for labor, material, machinery, and equipment at the construction site. They meet regularly with owners, other constructors, trade contractors, vendors, architects, engineers, and others to monitor and coordinate all phases of the construction project.

Working Conditions Construction managers work out of a main office from which the overall construction project is monitored, or out of a field office at the construction site. Advances in telecommunications and Internet access allow construction managers to be onsite without being out of contact of the office. Management decisions regarding daily construction activities generally are made at the jobsite. Managers usually travel when the construction site is in another state or when they are responsible for activities at two or more sites. Management of overseas construction projects usually entails temporary residence in another country.

Large construction projects, such as an office building or industrial complex, are too complicated for one person to manage. These projects are divided into many segments: Site preparation, including land clearing and earth moving; sewage systems; landscaping and road construction; building construction, including excavation and laying of foundations, as well as erection of structural framework, floors, walls, and roofs; and building systems, including fire-protection, electrical, plumbing, air-conditioning, and heating. Construction managers may be in charge of one or more of these activities. Construction managers often work with engineers, architects, and others who are involved in the construction process.

Construction managers may be “on call”—often 24 hours a day—to deal with delays, bad weather, or emergencies at the site. Most work more than a standard 40-hour week because construction may proceed around-the-clock. They may have to work this type of schedule for days, even weeks, to meet special project deadlines, especially if there are delays. Although the work usually is not considered inherently dangerous, construction managers must be careful while performing on-site services.

Construction managers evaluate and determine appropriate construction methods and the most cost-effective plan and schedule. They divide all required construction site activities into logical steps, budgeting the time required to meet established deadlines. This may require sophisticated estimating and scheduling techniques and use of computers with specialized software. They oversee the selection of trade contractors to complete specific pieces of the project—which could include everything from structural metalworking and plumbing to painting and carpet installation. Construction managers determine the labor requirements and, in some cases, supervise or

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Employment Construction managers held 389,000 jobs in 2002. Almost half were self-employed. Most of the rest were employed in the construction industry, 15 percent by specialty trade contractors—for example, plumbing, heating and air-conditioning, and electrical contractors—and 21 percent by general building contractors. Architectural, engineering and related services firms, as well as local governments, employed others.

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Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement

tial experience on construction projects or after completing graduate studies in construction management or building science.

Persons interested in becoming a construction manager need a solid background in building science, business, and management, as well as related work experience within the construction industry. They need to understand contracts, plans, and specifications, and to be knowledgeable about construction methods, materials, and regulations. Familiarity with computers and software programs for job costing, online collaboration, scheduling, and estimating also is important.

Several colleges and universities offer a master’s degree program in construction management or construction science. Master’s degree recipients, especially those with work experience in construction, typically become construction managers in very large construction or construction management companies. Often, individuals who hold a bachelor’s degree in an unrelated field seek a master’s degree in order to work in the construction industry. Some construction managers obtain a master’s degree in business administration or finance to further their career prospects. Doctoral degree recipients usually become college professors or conduct research.

Traditionally, persons advance to construction management positions after having substantial experience as construction craftworkers—carpenters, masons, plumbers, or electricians, for example—or after having worked as construction supervisors or as owners of independent specialty contracting firms overseeing workers in one or more construction trades. However, employers—particularly large construction firms— increasingly prefer individuals who combine industry work experience with a bachelor’s degree in construction science, construction management, or civil engineering. Practical industry experience also is very important, whether it is acquired through internships, cooperative education programs, or work experience in the industry.

Many individuals also attend training and educational programs sponsored by industry associations, often in collaboration with postsecondary institutions. A number of 2-year colleges throughout the country offer construction management or construction technology programs. There is a growing movement towards certification of construction managers to ensure that a construction manager has a certain body of knowledge, abilities, and experience. Both the American Institute of Constructors (AIC) and the Construction Management Association of America (CMAA) have established voluntary certification programs for construction managers. Requirements combine written examinations with verification of education and professional experience. AIC awards the Associate Constructor (AC) and Certified Professional Constructor (CPC) designations to candidates who meet its requirements and pass appropriate construction examinations. CMAA awards the Certified Construction Manager (CCM) designation to practitioners who meet its requirements through work performed in a construction management firm and by passing a technical examination. Applicants for the CMAA certification also must complete a self-study course that covers a broad range of topics central to construction management, including the professional role of a construction manager, legal issues, and allocation of risk. Although certification is not required to work in the construction industry, voluntary certification can be valuable because it provides evidence of competence and experience.

Construction managers should be flexible and work effectively in a fast-paced environment. They should be decisive and work well under pressure, particularly when faced with unexpected occurrences or delays. The ability to coordinate several major activities at once, while analyzing and resolving specific problems, is essential, as is an understanding of engineering, architectural, and other construction drawings. Good oral and written communication skills also are important, as are leadership skills. Managers must be able to establish a good working relationship with many different people, including owners, other managers, designers, supervisors, and craftworkers. Advancement opportunities for construction managers vary depending upon an individual’s performance and the size and type of company for which they work. Within large firms, managers may eventually become top-level managers or executives. Highly experienced individuals may become independent consultants; some serve as expert witnesses in court or as arbitrators in disputes. Those with the required capital may establish their own construction management services, specialty contracting, or general contracting firm.

Job Outlook Good employment opportunities for construction managers are expected through 2012 because the number of job openings should be sufficient to accommodate the number of qualified managers seeking to enter the occupation. Because the construction industry often is seen as having dirty, strenuous, and hazardous working conditions, even for managers, many potential managers choose other types of careers.

Many colleges and universities offer 4-year degree programs in construction management, construction science, and construction engineering. These programs include courses in project control and development, site planning, design, construction methods, construction materials, value analysis, cost estimating, scheduling, contract administration, accounting, business and financial management, safety, building codes and standards, inspection procedures, engineering and architectural sciences, mathematics, statistics, and information technology. Graduates from 4-year degree programs usually are hired as assistants to project managers, field engineers, schedulers, or cost estimators. An increasing number of graduates in related fields—engineering or architecture, for example—also enter construction management, often after acquiring substan-

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Employment of construction managers is projected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through 2012, as the level and complexity of construction activity continues to grow. Prospects in construction management, architectural and engineering services, and construction contracting firms should be best for persons who have a bachelor’s or higher degree in construction science, construction management, or

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civil engineering, as well as practical experience working in construction. Employers prefer applicants with previous construction work experience who can combine a strong background in building technology with proven supervisory or managerial skills. In addition to those arising from job growth, many openings should result annually from the need to replace workers who transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force.

For information about constructor certification, contact: ●

For information about construction management and construction manager certification, contact:

The increasing complexity of construction projects should boost demand for management-level personnel within the construction industry, as sophisticated technology and the proliferation of laws setting standards for buildings and construction materials, worker safety, energy efficiency, and environmental protection have further complicated the construction process. Advances in building materials and construction methods; the need to replace much of the nation’s infrastructure; and the growing number of multipurpose buildings, electronically operated “smart” buildings, and energyefficient structures will further add to the demand for more construction managers. However, employment of construction managers can be sensitive to the short-term nature of many projects and to cyclical fluctuations in construction activity.

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Construction Management Association of America, 7918 Jones Branch Dr., Suite 540, McLean, VA 22102-3307. Internet: http://www.cmaanet.org

Information on accredited construction science and management educational programs and accreditation requirements is available from: ●

American Council for Construction Education, 1300 Hudson Lane, Suite 3, Monroe, LA 71201. Internet: http://www.acce-hq.org

Court Reporters

Earnings

(O*NET 23-2091.00)

Earnings of salaried construction managers and self-employed independent construction contractors vary depending upon the size and nature of the construction project, its geographic location, and economic conditions. In addition to typical benefits, many salaried construction managers receive benefits such as bonuses and use of company motor vehicles.

Significant Points

Median annual earnings of construction managers in 2002 were $63,500. The middle 50 percent earned between $48,720 and $84,080. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $38,130, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $112,810. Median annual earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of construction managers in 2002 were:

Court reporters usually need a 2- or 4- year postsecondary school degree.

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Demand for realtime and broadcast captioning and translating will result in employment growth in the occupation.

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Job opportunities should be best for those with certification.

Court reporters typically take verbatim reports of speeches, conversations, legal proceedings, meetings, and other events when written accounts of spoken words are necessary for correspondence, records, or legal proof. Court reporters play a critical role not only in judicial proceedings, but at every meeting where the spoken word must be preserved as a written transcript. They are responsible for ensuring a complete, accurate, and secure legal record. In addition to preparing and protecting the legal record, many court reporters assist judges and trial attorneys in a variety of ways, such as organizing and searching for information in the official record or making suggestions to judges and attorneys regarding courtroom administration and procedure. Increasingly, court reporters are providing closed-captioning and realtime translating services to the deaf and hard-of-hearing community.

Foundation, structure, and building exterior contractors ..............................................................60,020 Building finishing contractors ................................59,950 Residential building construction............................59,900 Other specialty trade contractors ..........................58,860 According to a 2003 salary survey by the National Association of Colleges and Employers, candidates with a bachelor’s degree in construction science/management received job offers averaging $42,229 a year.

Related Occupations Construction managers participate in the conceptual development of a construction project and oversee its organization, scheduling, and implementation. Other workers who perform similar functions include architects, except landscape and naval; civil engineers; cost estimators; landscape architects; and engineering and natural sciences managers.

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Nature of the Work

Nonresidential building construction ..................$66,280

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American Institute of Constructors, 466 94th Ave. North, St. Petersburg, FL 33702. Internet: http://www.constructorcertification.org or http://www.aicnet.org

There are two main methods of court reporting: Stenotyping and voice writing. Using a stenotype machine, stenotypists document all statements made in official proceedings. The machine allows them to press multiple keys at a time to record combinations of letters representing sounds, words, or phrases. These symbols are then recorded on computer disks or

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Section One: Descriptions of 101 Top Jobs for People Without a Four-Year Degree by a person with hearing loss depends entirely on the skill of the stenocaptioner. In an emergency, such as a tornado or a hurricane, people’s safety may depend entirely on the accuracy of information provided in the form of captioning.

CD-ROM, which are then translated and displayed as text in a process called computer-aided transcription. In all cases, accuracy is crucial because there is only one person creating an official transcript. In a judicial setting, for example, appeals often depend on the court reporter’s transcript. Stenotype machines used for realtime captioning are linked directly to the computer. As the reporter keys in the symbols, they instantly appear as text on the screen. This process, called communications access realtime translation (CART), is used in courts, in classrooms, at meetings, and for closed captioning for the hearing-impaired on television.

Medical transcriptionists have similar duties, but with a different focus. They translate and edit recorded dictation by physicians and other health-care providers regarding their assessment and treatment of patients.

Working Conditions

The other method of court reporting is called voice writing. Using the voice-writing method, a court reporter speaks directly into a stenomask—a hand-held mask containing a microphone with a voice silencer. As the reporter repeats the testimony into the recorder, the mask and silencer prevent the reporter from being heard during testimony. Voice writers record everything that is said by judges, witnesses, attorneys, and other parties to a proceeding, including gestures and emotional reactions.

The majority of court reporters work in comfortable settings, such as offices of attorneys, courtrooms, legislatures, and conventions. An increasing number of court reporters work from home-based offices as independent contractors, or freelancers. Work in this occupation presents few hazards, although sitting in the same position for long periods can be tiring, and workers can suffer wrist, back, neck, or eye problems due to strain. Workers also risk repetitive motion injuries such as carpal tunnel syndrome. In addition, the pressure to be accurate and fast can be stressful.

Some voice writers produce a transcript in real time, using computer speech recognition technology. Other voice writers prefer to translate their voice files after the proceeding is over, or they transcribe the files manually, without using speech recognition at all. In any event, speech recognition technology is allowing voice writers to pursue not only court reporting careers, but also careers as closed captioners, CART reporters for hearing-impaired individuals, and Internet streaming text or caption providers.

Many official court reporters work a standard 40-hour week. Self-employed court reporters, or freelancers, usually work flexible hours, including part time, evenings, and weekends, or they can work on an on-call basis.

Employment Court reporters held about 18,000 jobs in 2002. About 60 percent worked for state and local governments, a reflection of the large number of court reporters working in courts, legislatures, and various agencies. Most of the remaining wage and salary workers worked for court reporting agencies. Eleven percent of court reporters were self-employed.

Court reporters that use either method are responsible for a number of duties both before and after transcribing events. First, they must create and maintain the computer dictionary that they use to translate stenographic strokes or voice record files into written text. They may customize the dictionary with parts of words, entire words, or terminology specific to the proceeding, program, or event—such as a religious service—they plan to transcribe. After documenting proceedings, court reporters must edit their CART translation for correct grammar, for accurate identification of proper names and places, and to ensure that the record or testimony is discernible. They usually prepare written transcripts, make copies, and provide information from the transcript to courts, counsels, parties, and the public upon request. Court reporters also develop procedures for easy storage and retrieval of all stenographic notes and files in paper or digital format.

Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement The amount of training required to become a court reporter varies with the type of reporting chosen. It usually takes less than a year to become a voice writer. In contrast, the average length of time it takes to become a stenotypist is 33 months. Training is offered by about 160 postsecondary vocational and technical schools and colleges. The National Court Reporters Association (NCRA) has approved about 82 programs, all of which offer courses in stenotype computer-aided transcription and realtime reporting. NCRA-approved programs require students to capture a minimum of 225 words per minute, a federal government requirement as well.

Although many court reporters record official proceedings in the courtroom, others work outside the courtroom. For example, they may take depositions for attorneys in offices and document proceedings of meetings, conventions, and other private activities. Still others capture the proceedings taking place in government agencies at all levels, from the U.S. Congress to state and local governing bodies. Court reporters, both stenotypists and voice writers, who specialize in captioning live television programming for people with hearing loss are commonly known as stenocaptioners. They work for television networks or cable stations, captioning news, emergency broadcasts, sporting events, and other programming. With CART and broadcast captioning, the level of understanding gained

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Some states require court reporters to be notary publics. Others require the certified court reporter (CCR) designation, for which a reporter must pass a state certification test administered by a board of examiners. The NCRA confers the entrylevel designation “registered professional reporter” (RPR) upon those who pass a four-part examination and participate in mandatory continuing education programs. Although voluntary, the designation is recognized as a mark of distinction in the field. A reporter may obtain additional certifications that ●

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America’s Top 101 Jobs for People Without a Four-Year Degree particularly stenographic typists—and making job opportunities very good to excellent. Because of this shortage, voice writers have become more widely accepted as speech recognition technology improves and error rates decline. Still, many courts hire only stenotypists to perform court reporting duties, and because of this practice, demand for these highly skilled reporters will remain high.

demonstrate higher levels of competency, such as “registered merit reporter” (RMR) or “registered diplomate reporter” (RDR). The RDR is the highest level of certification available to court reporters. In order to receive the designation, a court reporter must either have 5 consecutive years of experience as an RMR or be an RMR and hold a 4-year baccalaureate degree. The NCRA also offers the designations “certified realtime reporter”(CRR), “certified broadcast captioner” (CBC), and “certified CART provider” (CCP). These designations promote and recognize competence in the specialized skill of converting the spoken word into the written word instantaneously.

Federal legislation mandates that, by 2006, all new television programming must be captioned for the deaf and hard-ofhearing. In addition, the Americans with Disabilities Act gives deaf and hard-of-hearing students in colleges and universities the right to request access to realtime translation in their classes. Both of these factors are expected to increase demand for court reporters to provide realtime captioning and CART services. Although these services forgo transcripts and differ from traditional court reporting, which uses computer-aided transcription to turn spoken words into permanent text, they require the same skills that court reporters learn in their training.

Some states require voice writers to pass a test and to earn state licensure. As a substitute for state certification, the National Verbatim Reporters Association offers three national certifications to voice writers: “certified verbatim reporter” (CVR), the certificate of merit (CM), and ”real-time verbatim reporter” (RVR). Earning these certifications may be sufficient to get licensed in the state. In order to get the CM or RVR, one must first earn the CVR. Candidates for the CVR must pass a written test covering punctuation, spelling, grammar, legal terminology, definitions, and more and also must pass, three five-minute dictation and transcription examinations that test for speed as well as accuracy. Passing the CM exam requires a higher level of speed and accuracy. The RVR measures the candidate’s skill at realtime transcription. In order to retain these certifications, the voice writer must obtain continuing education credits. Credits are given for voice writer education courses, continuing legal education courses, and college courses.

Despite increasing numbers of civil and criminal cases, budget constraints are expected to limit the ability of federal, state, and local courts to expand, thereby also limiting the demand for traditional court reporting services in courtrooms and other legal venues. Further, in efforts to keep costs down, many courtrooms have installed tape recorders to maintain records of proceedings. Some jurisdictions have found the error rates associated with tape recorders to be unacceptable, bringing court reporters back to their courtrooms despite budgetary issues. Still, despite the use of audiotape and videotape technology, court reporters can quickly turn spoken words into readable, searchable, permanent text, so they will continue to be needed to produce written legal transcripts and proceedings for publication.

In addition to possessing speed and accuracy, court reporters must have excellent listening skills, as well as good English grammar, vocabulary, and punctuation skills. Voice writers must learn to listen and speak simultaneously and very quickly, while also identifying speakers and describing peripheral activities in the courtroom or deposition room. They must be aware of business practices and current events as well as the correct spelling of names of people, places, and events that may be mentioned in a broadcast or in court proceedings. For those who work in courtrooms, an expert knowledge of legal terminology and criminal and appellate procedure is essential. Because capturing proceedings requires the use of computerized stenography or speech recognition equipment, court reporters must be knowledgeable about computer hardware and software applications.

Earnings Court reporters had median annual earnings of $41,550 in 2002. The middle 50 percent earned between $29,770 and $55,360. The lowest paid 10 percent earned less than $23,120, and the highest paid 10 percent earned more than $73,440. Median annual earnings in 2002 were $40,720 for court reporters working in local government. Both compensation and compensation methods for court reporters vary with the type of reporting job, the experience of the individual reporter, the level of certification achieved, and the region of the country the reporter works in. Official court reporters earn a salary and a per-page fee for transcripts. Many salaried court reporters supplement their income by doing additional freelance work. Freelance court reporters are paid per job and receive a per-page fee for transcripts. Communication access realtime translation providers are paid hourly. Stenocaptioners receive a salary and benefits if they work as employees of a captioning company; stenocaptioners working as independent contractors are paid hourly.

With experience and education, court reporters can advance to administrative and management positions, consulting, or teaching.

Job Outlook Employment of court reporters is projected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through 2012. Demand for court reporter services will be spurred by the continuing need for accurate transcription of proceedings in courts and in pretrial depositions and by the growing need to create captions for live or prerecorded television and to provide other realtime translating services for the deaf and hard-of-hearing community. Despite the good job prospects, fewer people are going into this profession, creating a shortage of court reporters—

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Related Occupations A number of other workers type, record information, and process paperwork. Among these are secretaries and administrative assistants, medical transcriptionists, receptionists and ●

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Section One: Descriptions of 101 Top Jobs for People Without a Four-Year Degree tions are more involved, and may call for additional research or further explanation on the part of the customer service representative. In handling customers’ complaints, customer service representatives must attempt to resolve the problem according to guidelines established by the company. These procedures may involve asking questions to determine the validity of a complaint, offering possible solutions, or providing customers with refunds, exchanges, or other offers such as discounts or coupons. In some cases, customer service representatives are required to follow up with an individual customer until a question is answered or an issue is resolved.

information clerks, and human resources assistants, except payroll and timekeeping. Other workers who provide legal support include paralegals and legal assistants.

Sources of Additional Information State employment service offices can provide information about job openings for court reporters. For information about careers, training, and certification in court reporting, contact any of the following sources: ●

National Court Reporters Association, 8224 Old Courthouse Rd., Vienna, VA 22182. Internet: http://www.ncraonline.org

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United States Court Reporters Association, P.O. Box 465, Chicago, Il 60690-0465. Internet: http://www.uscra.org

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National Verbatim Reporters Association, 207 Third Avenue, Hattiesburg, MS 39401. Internet: http://www.nvra.org

Some customer service representatives help people decide what types of products or services would best suit their needs. They may even aid customers in completing purchases or transactions. Although the primary function of customer service representatives is not sales, some may spend a part of their time with customers attempting to convince them to purchase additional products or services. Customer service representatives may also make changes or updates to a customer’s profile or account information. They may keep records of transactions and update and maintain databases of information.

Customer Service Representatives

Most customer service representatives use computers and telephones extensively in their work. Customer service representatives frequently enter information into a computer as they are speaking to customers. Often, companies have large amounts of data, such as account information, that can be pulled up on a computer screen while the representative is talking to a customer so that he or she can answer specific questions relating to the account. Customer service representatives also may have access to information such as answers to the most common customer questions, or guidelines for dealing with complaints. In the event that they encounter a question or situation to which they do not know how to respond, workers consult with a supervisor to determine the best course of action. Customer service representatives use multiline telephones systems, which often route calls directly to the most appropriate representative. However, at times, a customer service representative will need to transfer a call to someone who may be better able to respond to the customer’s needs.

(O*NET 43-4051.01 and 43-4051.02)

Significant Points ●

Job prospects are expected to be excellent.

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Most jobs require only a high school diploma.

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Strong verbal communication and listening skills are important.

Nature of the Work Customer service representatives are employed by many different types of companies throughout the country to serve as a direct point of contact for customers. They are responsible for ensuring that their company’s customers receive an adequate level of service or help with their questions and concerns. These customers may be individual consumers or other companies, and the nature of their service needs can vary considerably.

In some organizations, customer service representatives spend their entire day on the telephone. In others, they may spend part of their day answering e-mails and the remainder of the day taking calls. For some, most of their contact with the customer is face to face. Customer service representatives need to remain aware of the amount of time spent with each customer, in order to fairly distribute their time among the people who require their assistance. This is particularly important for customer service representatives whose primary activities are answering telephone calls, and conversations often are required to be kept within set time limits. For customer service representatives working in call centers, there is usually very little time between telephone calls; as soon as they have finished with one call they must immediately move on to another. When working in call centers, customer service representatives are likely to be under close supervision. Telephone calls may be taped and reviewed by supervisors to ensure that company policies and procedures are being followed, or a supervisor may listen in on conversations.

All customer service representatives interact with customers to provide information in response to inquiries about products or services and to handle and resolve complaints. They communicate with customers through a variety of means—either in person; by telephone, e-mail or regular mail correspondence, or fax; or even over the Internet. Some customer service representatives handle general questions and complaints, whereas others specialize in a particular area. Many customer inquiries involve routine questions and requests. For example, customer service representatives may be asked to provide a customer with a bank account balance, or to check on the status of an order that has been placed. Obtaining the answers to such questions usually requires simply looking up information on their computer. Other ques-

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America’s Top 101 Jobs for People Without a Four-Year Degree tives will work a standard 40-hour week; however, their hours generally will depend on the hours of operation of the establishment in which they are employed. Work environments outside of a call center also will vary accordingly. Most customer service representatives will work either in an office or at a service or help desk.

Job responsibilities can differ, depending on the industry in which a customer service representative is employed. For example, a customer service representative working in the branch office of a bank may assume the responsibilities of other workers, such as teller or new account clerk, as needed. In insurance agencies, a customer service representative interacts with agents, insurance companies, and policyholders. These workers handle much of the paperwork related to insurance policies, such as policy applications and changes and renewals to existing policies. They answer questions regarding issues such as policy coverage, help with reporting claims, and do anything else that may need to be done. Although they must know as much as insurance agents about insurance products, and usually must have credentials equal to those of an agent in order to sell products and make changes to policies, the duties of a customer service representative differ from those of an agent in that customer service representatives are not responsible for actively seeking potential customers. Customer service representatives employed by communications and utilities companies assist individuals interested in opening accounts for various utilities such as electricity and gas, or for communication services such as cable television and telephone. They explain various options and receive orders for services to be installed, turned on, turned off, or changed. They may also look into and resolve complaints about billing and service provided by telephone, cable television, and utility companies.

For virtually all types of customer service representatives, dealing with difficult or irate customers can be a trying task; however, the ability to directly help and resolve customers’ problems has the potential to be very rewarding.

Employment Customer service representatives held about 1.9 million jobs in 2002. Although they were found in a variety of industries, more than 1 in 4 customer service representatives worked in finance and insurance. The largest numbers were employed by insurance carriers, insurance agencies and brokerages, and banks and credit unions. Nearly 1 in 8 customer service representatives were employed in administrative and support services. These workers were concentrated in the industries business support services— which includes telephone call centers—and employment services—which includes temporary help services and employment placement agencies. Another 1 in 8 customer service representatives were employed in retail trade establishments such as general merchandise stores, food and beverage stores, or nonstore retailers. Other industries that employ significant numbers of customer service representatives include information, particularly the telecommunications industry; manufacturing, such as printing and related support activities; and wholesale trade.

Working Conditions Although customer service representatives can work in a variety of settings, most work in areas that are clean and well lit. Many work in call or customer contact centers. In this type of environment, workers generally have their own workstation or cubicle space and are equipped with a telephone, headset, and computer. Because many call centers are open extended hours, beyond the traditional 9-to-5 business day, or are staffed around the clock, these positions may require workers to take on early morning, evening, or late night shifts. Weekend or holiday work also may be necessary. As a result, the occupation is well-suited to flexible work schedules. About 1 out of 7 customer service representatives work part time. The occupation also offers the opportunity for seasonal work in certain industries, often through temporary help agencies.

Although they are found in all states, customer service representatives who work in call centers tend to be concentrated geographically. Four states make up over 30 percent of total employment—California, Texas, Florida, and New York. Delaware, South Dakota, Utah, and Arizona have the highest concentration of workers in this occupation, with customer service representatives comprising over 2 percent of total employment in these states.

Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement

Call centers may be crowded and noisy, and work may be repetitious and stressful, with little time in between calls. Workers usually must attempt to minimize the length of each call while still providing excellent service. To ensure that these procedures are followed, conversations may be monitored by supervisors, which can be stressful. Also, long periods spent sitting, typing, or looking at a computer screen may cause eye and muscle strain, backaches, headaches, and repetitive motion injuries.

A high school diploma or the equivalent is the most common educational requirement for customer service representatives. Basic computer knowledge and good interpersonal skills also are important qualities for people who wish to be successful in the field. Because customer service representatives constantly interact with the public, strong communication and problemsolving skills are a must, particularly strong verbal communication and listening skills. Additionally, for those workers who communicate through e-mail, good typing, spelling, and written communication skills are necessary. High school courses in computers, English, or business are helpful in preparing for a job in customer service.

Customer service representatives working outside of a call center environment may interact with customers through several different means. For example, workers employed by an insurance agency or in a grocery store may have customers approach them in person or contact them by telephone, computer, mail, or fax. Many of these customer service representa-

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Customer service representatives play a critical role in providing an interface between the customer and the company that ●

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Section One: Descriptions of 101 Top Jobs for People Without a Four-Year Degree opportunities for part-time work will continue to be available, particularly as organizations attempt to cut labor costs by hiring more temporary workers.

employs them, and for this reason employers seek out people who are able to come across in a friendly and professional manner. The ability to deal patiently with problems and complaints and to remain courteous when faced with difficult or angry people is very important. Also, a customer service representative needs to be able to work independently within specified time constraints. Workers should have a clear and pleasant speaking voice and be fluent in the English language. However, the ability to speak a foreign language is becoming increasingly necessary, and bilingual skills are considered a plus.

Employment of customer service representatives is expected to grow faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2012. Beyond growth stemming from expansion of the industries in which customer service representatives are employed, a need for additional customer service representatives is likely to result from heightened reliance on these workers. Customer service is critical to the success of any organization that deals with customers, and strong customer service can build sales and visibility as companies try to distinguish themselves from competitors. In many industries, the need to gain a competitive edge and retain customers will become increasingly important over the next decade. This is particularly true in industries such as financial services, communications, and utilities that already employ numerous customer service representatives. As the trend towards consolidation within industries continues, centralized call centers will provide an effective method for delivering a high level of customer service. As a result, employment of customer service representatives may grow at a faster rate in call centers than in other areas; however, this growth may be tempered as a variety of factors, including technological improvements, make it increasingly feasible and cost-effective for call centers to be built or relocated outside of the United States. Technology is impacting the occupation in many ways. Advancements such as the Internet and automated teller machines have provided customers with means of obtaining information and conducting transactions that do not entail interacting with another person. Technology also allows for a greater streamlining of processes, while at the same time increasing the productivity of workers. Use of computer software to filter e-mails, generating automatic responses or directing messages to the appropriate representative, and use of similar systems to answer or route telephone inquiries are likely to become more prevalent in the future.

Training requirements vary by industry. Almost all customer service representatives are provided with some training prior to beginning work and training continues once on the job. This training generally will cover four primary components: Training on customer service and phone skills, training on products and services or common customer problems, training on the use or operation of the telephone and/or computer systems, and training on company policies and regulations. Length of training varies, but it usually lasts at least several weeks. Because of a constant need to update skills and knowledge, most customer service representatives continue to receive instruction and training throughout their career. This is particularly true of workers in industries such as banking, in which regulations and products are continually changing. Although some positions may require previous industry, office, or customer service experience, many customer service jobs are entry level. Customer service jobs are often good introductory positions into a company or an industry. In some cases, experienced workers can move up within the company into supervisory or managerial positions or they may move into areas such as product development, in which they can use their knowledge to improve products and services. Within insurance agencies and brokerages, however, a customer service representative job is usually not an entry-level position. Workers must have previous experience in insurance and are often required by state regulations to be licensed like insurance sales agents. A variety of designations are available to demonstrate that a candidate has sufficient knowledge and skill, and continuing education and training are often offered through the employer. As they gain more knowledge of industry products and services, customer service representatives in insurance may advance to other, higher level positions, such as insurance sales agent.

Despite such developments, the need for customer service representatives is expected to remain strong. In many ways, technology has heightened consumers’ expectations for information and services, and availability of information online seems to have generated more need for customer service representatives, particularly to respond to e-mail. Also, technology cannot replace the need for human skills. As more sophisticated technologies are able to resolve many customers’ questions and concerns, the nature of the inquiries to be handled by customer service representatives is likely to become increasingly complex.

Job Outlook Prospects for obtaining a job in this field are expected to be excellent, with more job openings than jobseekers. Bilingual jobseekers, in particular, may enjoy favorable job prospects. In addition to many new openings occurring as businesses and organizations expand, numerous job openings will result from the need to replace experienced customer service representatives who transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. Replacement needs are expected to be significant in this large occupation because many young people work as customer service representatives before switching to other jobs. This occupation is well-suited to flexible work schedules, and many

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Furthermore, the job responsibilities of customer service representatives are expanding. As companies downsize or look to increase profitability, workers are being trained to perform additional duties such as opening bank accounts or cross-selling products. As a result, employers may increasingly prefer customer service representatives who have education beyond high school, such as some college or even a college degree. While jobs in some industries, such as retail trade, may be impacted by economic downturns, the occupation is generally resistant to major fluctuations in employment.

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America’s Top 101 Jobs for People Without a Four-Year Degree

Earnings In 2002, median annual earnings for wage and salary customer service representatives were $26,240. The middle 50 percent earned between $20,960 and $33,540. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $17,230, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $42,990.

Data Entry and Information Processing Workers (O*NET 43-9021.00 and 43-9022.00)

Earnings for customer service representatives vary according to level of skill required, experience, training, location, and size of firm. Median annual earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of these workers in 2002 are shown below:

Significant Points

Wired telecommunications carriers ......................$38,980

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Employers generally hire high school graduates who meet their requirements for keyboarding speed.

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Although overall employment is projected to decline, the need to replace workers who leave this large occupation each year should produce many job openings.

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Job prospects should be best for those with expertise in appropriate computer software applications.

Insurance carriers......................................................28,560 Agencies, brokerages, and other insurance related activities......................................................28,270 Management of companies and enterprises............27,990 Nondepository credit intermediation......................25,600 Depository credit intermediation ............................24,850 Employment services................................................22,510

Nature of the Work

Electronic shopping and mail-order houses............21,530

Organizations need to process a rapidly growing amount of information. Data entry and information processing workers help ensure the smooth and efficient handling of information. By typing text, entering data into a computer, operating a variety of office machines, and performing other clerical duties, these workers help organizations keep up with the rapid changes that are characteristic of today’s “Information Age.” In addition to the job titles discussed below—such as word processors, typists, and data entry keyers—data entry and information processing workers are known by various other titles, including electronic data processors, keypunch technicians, and transcribers.

Business support services ........................................21,130 Grocery stores..........................................................17,230 In addition to receiving an hourly wage, full-time customer service representatives who work evenings, nights, weekends, or holidays may receive shift differential pay. Also, because call centers are often open during extended hours, or even 24 hours a day, some customer service representatives have the benefit of being able to work a schedule that does not conform to the traditional workweek. Other benefits can include life and health insurance, pensions, bonuses, employer-provided training, or discounts on the products and services the company offers.

Word processors and typists usually set up and prepare reports, letters, mailing labels, and other textual material. Typists make neat, typed copies of materials written by other clerical, professional, or managerial workers. As entry-level workers, typists may begin by typing headings on form letters, addressing envelopes, or preparing standard forms on typewriters or computers. As they gain experience, they often are assigned tasks requiring a higher degree of accuracy and independent judgment. Senior typists may work with highly technical material, plan and type complicated statistical tables, combine and rearrange materials from different sources, or prepare master copies.

Related Occupations Customer service representatives interact with customers to provide information in response to inquiries about products and services and to handle and resolve complaints. Other occupations in which workers have similar dealings with customers and the public are information and record clerks; financial clerks, such as tellers and new-account clerks; insurance sales agents; securities, commodities, and financial services sales agents; retail salespersons; computer support specialists; and gaming services workers.

Most keyboarding is now done on word processing equipment—usually a personal computer or part of a larger computer system—which normally includes a keyboard, video display terminal, and printer, which may have “add-on” capabilities such as optical character recognition readers. Word processors use this equipment to record, edit, store, and revise letters, memos, reports, statistical tables, forms, and other printed materials. Although it is becoming less common, some word processing workers are employed on centralized word processing teams that handle transcription and typing for several departments.

Sources of Additional Information State employment service offices can provide information about employment opportunities for customer service representatives.

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Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement

In addition to fulfilling the duties mentioned above, word processors and typists often perform other office tasks, such as answering telephones, filing, and operating copiers or other office machines. Job titles of these workers frequently vary to reflect these duties. Clerk typists, for example, combine typing with filing, sorting mail, answering telephones, and other general office work. Note readers transcribe stenotyped notes of court proceedings into standard formats.

Employers generally hire high school graduates who meet their requirements for keyboarding speed. Increasingly, employers also are expecting applicants to have training or experience in word processing or data entry tasks. Spelling, punctuation, and grammar skills are important, as is familiarity with standard office equipment and procedures.

Data entry keyers usually input lists of items, numbers, or other data into computers or complete forms that appear on a computer screen. They also may manipulate existing data, edit current information, or proofread new entries to a database for accuracy. Some examples of data sources include customers’ personal information, medical records, and membership lists. Usually, this information is used internally by a company and may be reformatted before other departments or customers utilize it.

Students acquire skills in keyboarding and in the use of word processing, spreadsheet, and database management computer software packages through high schools, community colleges, business schools, temporary help agencies, or self-teaching aids such as books, tapes, and Internet tutorials. For many people, a job as a data entry and information processing worker is their first job after graduating from high school or after a period of full-time family responsibilities. This work frequently serves as a steppingstone to higher paying jobs with increased responsibilities. Large companies and government agencies usually have training programs to help administrative employees upgrade their skills and advance to higher level positions. It is common for data entry and information processing workers to transfer to other administrative jobs, such as secretary, administrative assistant, or statistical clerk or to be promoted to a supervisory job in a word processing or data entry center.

Keyers use various types of equipment to enter data. Many use a machine that converts the information they type to magnetic impulses on tapes or disks for entry into a computer system. Others prepare materials for printing or publication by using data entry composing machines. Some keyers operate online terminals or personal computers. Data entry keyers increasingly also work with nonkeyboard forms of data entry, such as scanners and electronically transmitted files. When using the new character recognition systems, data entry keyers often enter only those data which cannot be recognized by machines. In some offices, keyers also operate computer peripheral equipment such as printers and tape readers, act as tape librarians, and perform other clerical duties.

Job Outlook Overall employment of data entry and information processing workers is projected to decline through 2012. Nevertheless, the need to replace those who transfer to other occupations or leave this large occupation for other reasons will produce numerous job openings each year. Job prospects will be most favorable for those with the best technical skills—in particular, expertise in appropriate computer software applications. Data entry and information processing workers must be willing to upgrade their skills continuously in order to remain marketable.

Working Conditions Data entry and information processing workers usually work a standard 40-hour week in clean offices. They sit for long periods and sometimes must contend with high noise levels caused by various office machines. These workers are susceptible to repetitive strain injuries, such as carpal tunnel syndrome, neck and back injuries, and eye strain. To help prevent these conditions, many offices have scheduled exercise breaks, ergonomically designed keyboards, and workstations that allow workers to stand or sit as they wish.

Although data entry and information processing workers are affected by productivity gains stemming from organizational restructuring and the implementation of new technologies, projected growth differs among these workers. Employment of word processors and typists is expected to decline due to the proliferation of personal computers, which allows other workers to perform duties formerly assigned to word processors and typists. Most professionals and managers, for example, now use desktop personal computers to do their own word processing. However, because technologies affecting data entry keyers tend to be costlier to implement, employment of these workers will decline less than word processors and typists.

Employment Data entry and information processing workers held about 633,000 jobs in 2002 and were employed in every sector of the economy; 392,000 were data entry keyers and 241,000 were word processors and typists. Some workers telecommute, working from their homes on personal computers linked by telephone lines to those in the main office. This arrangement enables them to type material at home while still being able to produce printed copy in their offices.

Employment growth of data entry keyers will still be dampened by productivity gains, as various data-capturing technologies, such as bar code scanners, voice recognition technologies, and sophisticated character recognition readers, become more prevalent. These technologies can be applied to a variety of business transactions, such as inventory tracking,

About 1 out of 5 data entry and information processing workers held jobs in firms providing administrative and support services, including temporary help and word processing agencies, and another 1 in 5 worked for state or local government.

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invoicing, and placing orders. Moreover, as telecommunications technology improves, many organizations will increasingly take advantage of computer networks that allow data to be transmitted electronically. These networks will allow more data to be entered automatically into computers, reducing the demand for data entry keyers.

For information about job opportunities for data entry and information processing workers, contact the nearest office of the state employment service.

In addition to being affected by technology, employment of data entry and information processing workers will be adversely affected by businesses that are increasingly contracting out their work. Many organizations have reduced or even eliminated permanent in-house staff—for example, in favor of temporary employment and staffing services firms. Some large data entry and information processing firms increasingly employ workers in nations with low wages to enter data. As international trade barriers continue to fall and telecommunications technology improves, this transfer of jobs will mean reduced demand for data entry keyers in the United States.

Dental Assistants (O*NET 31-9091.00)

Significant Points ●

Job prospects should be excellent.

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Dentists are expected to hire more assistants to perform routine tasks so that they may devote their own time to more profitable procedures.

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Most assistants learn their skills on the job, although an increasing number are trained in dental-assisting programs; most programs take 1 year or less to complete.

Earnings Median annual earnings of word processors and typists in 2002 were $26,730. The middle 50 percent earned between $21,540 and $32,950. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $17,750, while the highest 10 percent earned more than $40,450. The salaries of these workers vary by industry and by region. In 2002, median annual earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of word processors and typists were as follows:

Nature of the Work Dental assistants perform a variety of patient care, office, and laboratory duties. They work chairside as dentists examine and treat patients. They make patients as comfortable as possible in the dental chair, prepare them for treatment, and obtain their dental records. Assistants hand instruments and materials to dentists and keep patients’ mouths dry and clear by using suction or other devices. Assistants also sterilize and disinfect instruments and equipment, prepare trays of instruments for dental procedures, and instruct patients on postoperative and general oral health care.

Local government ..................................................$27,840 State government ....................................................26,440 Elementary and secondary schools..........................24,960 Business support services ........................................24,140 Employment services ..............................................24,050 Median annual earnings of data entry keyers in 2002 were $22,390. The middle 50 percent earned between $18,810 and $26,840. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $15,910, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $26,840. The following are median annual earnings for 2002 in the industries employing the largest numbers of data entry keyers:

Some dental assistants prepare materials for impressions and restorations, take dental X rays, and process X-ray film as directed by a dentist. They also may remove sutures, apply topical anesthetics to gums or cavity-preventive agents to teeth, remove excess cement used in the filling process, and place rubber dams on the teeth to isolate them for individual treatment.

Federal government................................................$25,750 Insurance carriers......................................................22,870 Employment services................................................21,150

Those with laboratory duties make casts of the teeth and mouth from impressions, clean and polish removable appliances, and make temporary crowns. Dental assistants with office duties schedule and confirm appointments, receive patients, keep treatment records, send bills, receive payments, and order dental supplies and materials.

Accounting, tax preparation, bookkeeping, and payroll services ................................................19,950 Data processing, hosting, and related services ......19,720

Related Occupations

Dental assistants should not be confused with dental hygienists, who are licensed to perform different clinical tasks.

Data entry and information processing workers must transcribe information quickly. Other workers who deliver information in a timely manner are dispatchers and communications equipment operators. Data entry and information processing worker also must be comfortable working with office automation, and in this regard they are similar to court reporters, medical records and health information technicians, secretaries and administrative assistants, and computer operators.

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Working Conditions Dental assistants work in a well-lighted, clean environment. Their work area usually is near the dental chair so that they can arrange instruments, materials, and medication and hand them to the dentist when needed. Dental assistants must wear gloves, masks, eyewear, and protective clothing to protect ●

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Section One: Descriptions of 101 Top Jobs for People Without a Four-Year Degree istration, most often at the state level. Certification is an acknowledgment of an assistant’s qualifications and professional competence and may be an asset when one is seeking employment. Candidates may qualify to take the DANB certification examination by graduating from an accredited training program or by having 2 years of full-time, or 4 years of part-time, experience as a dental assistant. In addition, applicants must have current certification in cardiopulmonary resuscitation. For annual recertification, individuals must earn continuing education credits.

themselves and their patients from infectious diseases. Following safety procedures also minimizes the risks associated with the use of X-ray machines. About half of dental assistants have a 35- to 40-hour workweek, which may include work on Saturdays or evenings.

Employment Dental assistants held about 266,000 jobs in 2002. Almost all jobs for dental assistants were in offices of dentists. A small number of jobs were in offices of physicians, educational services, and hospitals. About a third of dental assistants worked part time, sometimes in more than one dental office.

Without further education, advancement opportunities are limited. Some dental assistants become office managers, dental-assisting instructors, or dental product sales representatives. Others go back to school to become dental hygienists. For many, this entry-level occupation provides basic training and experience and serves as a steppingstone to more highly skilled and higher paying jobs.

Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most assistants learn their skills on the job, although an increasing number are trained in dental-assisting programs offered by community and junior colleges, trade schools, technical institutes, or the Armed Forces. Assistants must be a second pair of hands for a dentist; therefore, dentists look for people who are reliable, can work well with others, and have good manual dexterity. High school students interested in a career as a dental assistant should take courses in biology, chemistry, health, and office practices.

Job Outlook Job prospects for dental assistants should be excellent. Employment is expected to grow much faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2012. In fact, dental assistants is expected to be one of the fastest growing occupations through the year 2012. In addition to job openings due to employment growth, numerous job openings will arise out of the need to replace assistants who transfer to other occupations, retire, or leave the labor force for other reasons. Many opportunities are for entrylevel positions offering on-the-job training.

The American Dental Association’s Commission on Dental Accreditation approved 259 dental-assisting training programs in 2002. Programs include classroom, laboratory, and preclinical instruction in dental-assisting skills and related theory. In addition, students gain practical experience in dental schools, clinics, or dental offices. Most programs take 1 year or less to complete and lead to a certificate or diploma. Two-year programs offered in community and junior colleges lead to an associate degree. All programs require a high school diploma or its equivalent, and some require science or computer-related courses for admission. A number of private vocational schools offer 4- to 6-month courses in dental assisting, but the Commission on Dental Accreditation does not accredit these programs.

Population growth and greater retention of natural teeth by middle-aged and older people will fuel demand for dental services. Older dentists, who have been less likely to employ assistants, are leaving the occupation and will be replaced by recent graduates, who are more likely to use one or even two assistants. In addition, as dentists’ workloads increase, they are expected to hire more assistants to perform routine tasks, so that they may devote their own time to more profitable procedures.

Earnings

Most states regulate the duties that dental assistants are allowed to perform through licensure or registration. Licensure or registration may require passing a written or practical examination. States offering licensure or registration have a variety of schools offering courses—approximately 10 to 12 months in length—that meet their state’s requirements. Many states require continuing education to maintain licensure or registration. A few states allow dental assistants to perform any function delegated to them by the dentist.

Median hourly earnings of dental assistants were $13.10 in 2002. The middle 50 percent earned between $10.35 and $16.20 an hour. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $8.45, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $19.41 an hour. Benefits vary substantially by practice setting and may be contingent upon full-time employment. According to the American Dental Association, almost all full-time dental assistants employed by private practitioners received paid vacation time. The ADA also found that 9 out of 10 full-time and part-time dental assistants received dental coverage.

Individual states have adopted different standards for dental assistants who perform certain advanced duties, such as radiological procedures. The completion of the Radiation Health and Safety examination offered by the Dental Assisting National Board (DANB) meets those standards in more than 30 states. Some states require the completion of a state-approved course in radiology as well.

Related Occupations Other workers supporting health practitioners include medical assistants, occupational therapist assistants and aides, pharmacy aides, pharmacy technicians, and physical therapist assistants and aides.

Certification is available through DANB and is recognized or required in more than 30 states. Other organizations offer reg-

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select toothbrushes and show them how to brush and floss their teeth.

Information about career opportunities and accredited dental assistant programs is available from: ●

Dental hygienists use hand and rotary instruments and ultrasonics to clean and polish teeth, X-ray machines to take dental pictures, syringes with needles to administer local anesthetics, and models of teeth to explain oral hygiene.

Commission on Dental Accreditation, American Dental Association, 211 E. Chicago Ave., Suite 1814, Chicago, IL 60611. Internet: http://www.ada.org

For information on becoming a Certified Dental Assistant and a list of state boards of dentistry, contact: ●

Working Conditions Flexible scheduling is a distinctive feature of this job. Full-time, part-time, evening, and weekend schedules are widely available. Dentists frequently hire hygienists to work only 2 or 3 days a week, so hygienists may hold jobs in more than one dental office.

Dental Assisting National Board, Inc., 676 North Saint Clair, Suite 1880, Chicago, IL 60611. Internet: http://www.danb.org

For more information on a career as a dental assistant and general information about continuing education, contact: ●

American Dental Assistants Association, 35 East Wacker Drive, Suite 1730, Chicago, IL 60601. Internet: http://www.dentalassistant.org

Dental hygienists work in clean, well-lighted offices. Important health safeguards include strict adherence to proper radiological procedures, and the use of appropriate protective devices when administering anesthetic gas. Dental hygienists also wear safety glasses, surgical masks, and gloves to protect themselves and patients from infectious diseases.

For more information about continuing education courses, contact: ●

National Association of Dental Assistants, 900 S. Washington Street, Suite G-13, Falls Church, VA 22046.

Employment Dental hygienists held about 148,000 jobs in 2002. Because multiple jobholding is common in this field, the number of jobs exceeds the number of hygienists. More than half of all dental hygienists worked part time—less than 35 hours a week.

Dental Hygienists (O*NET 29-2021.00)

Almost all jobs for dental hygienists were in offices of dentists. A very small number worked for employment services or in offices of physicians.

Significant Points ●

Most dental hygiene programs grant an associate degree; others offer a certificate, a bachelor’s degree, or a master’s degree.

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Job prospects are expected to remain excellent.

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Opportunities for part-time work and flexible schedules are common.

Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Dental hygienists must be licensed by the state in which they practice. To qualify for licensure, a candidate must graduate from an accredited dental hygiene school and pass both a written and clinical examination. The American Dental Association Joint Commission on National Dental Examinations administers the written examination, which is accepted by all states and the District of Columbia. State or regional testing agencies administer the clinical examination. In addition, most states require an examination on the legal aspects of dental hygiene practice. Alabama allows candidates to take its examinations if they have been trained through a stateregulated on-the-job program in a dentist’s office.

Nature of the Work Dental hygienists remove soft and hard deposits from teeth, teach patients how to practice good oral hygiene, and provide other preventive dental care. Hygienists examine patients’ teeth and gums, recording the presence of diseases or abnormalities. They remove calculus, stains, and plaque from teeth; perform root planing as a periodontal therapy; take and develop dental X rays; and apply cavity-preventive agents such as fluorides and pit and fissure sealants. In some states, hygienists administer anesthetics; place and carve filling materials, temporary fillings, and periodontal dressings; remove sutures; and smooth and polish metal restorations. Although hygienists may not diagnose diseases, they can prepare clinical and laboratory diagnostic tests for the dentist to interpret. Hygienists sometimes work chairside with the dentist during treatment.

In 2002, the Commission on Dental Accreditation accredited about 265 programs in dental hygiene. Most dental hygiene programs grant an associate degree, although some also offer a certificate, a bachelor’s degree, or a master’s degree. A minimum of an associate degree or certificate in dental hygiene is required for practice in a private dental office. A bachelor’s or master’s degree usually is required for research, teaching, or clinical practice in public or school health programs.

Dental hygienists also help patients develop and maintain good oral health. For example, they may explain the relationship between diet and oral health or inform patients how to

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About half of the dental hygiene programs prefer applicants who have completed at least 1 year of college. However, requirements vary from one school to another. Schools offer

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laboratory, clinical, and classroom instruction in subjects such as anatomy, physiology, chemistry, microbiology, pharmacology, nutrition, radiography, histology (the study of tissue structure), periodontology (the study of gum diseases), pathology, dental materials, clinical dental hygiene, and social and behavioral sciences.

For information on a career in dental hygiene, including educational requirements, contact: ●

Dental hygienists should work well with others and must have good manual dexterity, because they use dental instruments within a patient’s mouth, with little room for error. High school students interested in becoming a dental hygienist should take courses in biology, chemistry, and mathematics.

For information about accredited programs and educational requirements, contact: ●

Job Outlook

Commission on Dental Accreditation, American Dental Association, 211 E. Chicago Ave., Suite 1814, Chicago, IL 60611. Internet: http://www.ada.org

The State Board of Dental Examiners in each state can supply information on licensing requirements.

Employment of dental hygienists is expected to grow much faster than the average for all occupations through 2012, in response to increasing demand for dental care and the greater utilization of hygienists to perform services previously performed by dentists. Job prospects are expected to remain excellent. In fact, dental hygienists is expected to be one of the fastest-growing occupations through the year 2012.

Dental Laboratory Technicians

Population growth and greater retention of natural teeth will stimulate demand for dental hygienists. Older dentists, who have been less likely to employ dental hygienists, are leaving the occupation and will be replaced by recent graduates, who are more likely to employ one or even two hygienists. In addition, as dentists’ workloads increase, they are expected to hire more hygienists to perform preventive dental care, such as cleaning, so that they may devote their own time to more profitable procedures.

(O*NET 51-9081.00)

Significant Points

Earnings Median hourly earnings of dental hygienists were $26.59 in 2002. The middle 50 percent earned between $21.96 and $32.48 an hour. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $17.34, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $39.24 an hour.

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Employment should increase slowly, as the public’s improving dental health requires fewer dentures but more bridges and crowns.

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Dental laboratory technicians need artistic aptitude for detailed and precise work, a high degree of manual dexterity, and good vision.

Nature of the Work Dental laboratory technicians fill prescriptions from dentists for crowns, bridges, dentures, and other dental prosthetics. First, dentists send a specification of the item to be manufactured, along with an impression (mold) of the patient’s mouth or teeth. Then, dental laboratory technicians, also called dental technicians, create a model of the patient’s mouth by pouring plaster into the impression and allowing it to set. Next, they place the model on an apparatus that mimics the bite and movement of the patient’s jaw. The model serves as the basis of the prosthetic device. Technicians examine the model, noting the size and shape of the adjacent teeth, as well as gaps within the gumline. Based upon these observations and the dentist’s specifications, technicians build and shape a wax tooth or teeth model, using small hand instruments called wax spatulas and wax carvers. They use this wax model to cast the metal framework for the prosthetic device.

Earnings vary by geographic location, employment setting, and years of experience. Dental hygienists may be paid on an hourly, daily, salary, or commission basis. Benefits vary substantially by practice setting and may be contingent upon full-time employment. According to the American Dental Association, almost all full-time dental hygienists employed by private practitioners received paid vacation. The ADA also found that 9 out of 10 full-time and part-time dental hygienists received dental coverage. Dental hygienists who work for school systems, public health agencies, the federal government, or state agencies usually have substantial benefits.

Related Occupations Other workers supporting health practitioners in an office setting include dental assistants, medical assistants, occupational therapist assistants and aides, physical therapist assistants and aides, physician assistants, and registered nurses.

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Division of Education, American Dental Hygienists’ Association, 444 N. Michigan Ave., Suite 3400, Chicago, IL 60611. Internet: http://www.adha.org

After the wax tooth has been formed, dental technicians pour the cast and form the metal and, using small hand-held tools, prepare the surface to allow the metal and porcelain to bond. They then apply porcelain in layers, to arrive at the precise shape and color of a tooth. Technicians place the tooth in a porcelain furnace to bake the porcelain onto the metal frame-

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America’s Top 101 Jobs for People Without a Four-Year Degree (ADA). These programs provide classroom instruction in dental materials science, oral anatomy, fabrication procedures, ethics, and related subjects. In addition, each student is given supervised practical experience in a school or an associated dental laboratory. Accredited programs normally take 2 years to complete and lead to an associate degree. A few programs take about 4 years to complete and offer a bachelor’s degree in dental technology.

work, and then adjust the shape and color, with subsequent grinding and addition of porcelain to achieve a sealed finish. The final product is a nearly exact replica of the lost tooth or teeth. In some laboratories, technicians perform all stages of the work, whereas, in other labs, each technician does only a few. Dental laboratory technicians can specialize in 1 of 5 areas: orthodontic appliances, crowns and bridges, complete dentures, partial dentures, or ceramics. Job titles can reflect specialization in these areas. For example, technicians who make porcelain and acrylic restorations are called dental ceramists.

Graduates of 2-year training programs need additional handson experience to become fully qualified. Each dental laboratory owner operates in a different way, and classroom instruction does not necessarily expose students to techniques and procedures favored by individual laboratory owners. Students who have taken enough courses to learn the basics of the craft usually are considered good candidates for training, regardless of whether they have completed a formal program. Many employers will train someone without any classroom experience.

Working Conditions Dental laboratory technicians generally work in clean, welllighted, and well-ventilated areas. Technicians usually have their own workbenches, which can be equipped with Bunsen burners, grinding and polishing equipment, and hand instruments, such as wax spatulas and wax carvers. Some technicians have computer-aided milling equipment to assist them with creating artificial teeth.

The National Board for Certification, an independent board established by the National Association of Dental Laboratories, offers certification in dental laboratory technology. Certification, which is voluntary, can be obtained in five specialty areas: Crowns and bridges, ceramics, partial dentures, complete dentures, and orthodontic appliances.

The work is extremely delicate and time consuming. Salaried technicians usually work 40 hours a week, but self-employed technicians frequently work longer hours.

In large dental laboratories, technicians may become supervisors or managers. Experienced technicians may teach or may take jobs with dental suppliers in such areas as product development, marketing, and sales. Still, for most technicians, opening one’s own laboratory is the way toward advancement and higher earnings.

Employment Dental laboratory technicians held about 47,000 jobs in 2002. Around 7 out of 10 jobs were in medical equipment and supply manufacturing laboratories, which usually are small, privately owned businesses with fewer than five employees. However, some laboratories are large; a few employ more than 50 technicians.

A high degree of manual dexterity, good vision, and the ability to recognize very fine color shadings and variations in shape are necessary. An artistic aptitude for detailed and precise work also is important. High school students interested in becoming dental laboratory technicians should take courses in art, metal and wood shop, drafting, and sciences. Courses in management and business may help those wishing to operate their own laboratories.

Some dental laboratory technicians work in offices of dentists. Others work for hospitals providing dental services, including U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs hospitals. Some technicians work in dental laboratories in their homes, in addition to their regular job.

Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement

Job Outlook Job opportunities for dental laboratory technicians should be favorable, despite expected slower-than-average growth in the occupation through the year 2012. Employers have difficulty filling trainee positions, probably because entry-level salaries are relatively low and because the public is not familiar with the occupation.

Most dental laboratory technicians learn their craft on the job. They begin with simple tasks, such as pouring plaster into an impression, and progress to more complex procedures, such as making porcelain crowns and bridges. Becoming a fully trained technician requires an average of 3 to 4 years, depending upon the individual’s aptitude and ambition, but it may take a few years more to become an accomplished technician.

The overall dental health of the population has improved because of fluoridation of drinking water, which has reduced the incidence of dental cavities, and greater emphasis on preventive dental care since the early 1960s. As a result, full dentures will be less common, as most people will need only a bridge or crown. However, during the last few years, demand has arisen from an aging public that is growing increasingly interested in cosmetic prostheses. For example, many dental laboratories are filling orders for composite fillings that are the same shade of white as natural teeth to replace older, less attractive fillings.

Training in dental laboratory technology also is available through community and junior colleges, vocational-technical institutes, and the U.S. Armed Forces. Formal training programs vary greatly both in length and in the level of skill they impart. In 2002, 25 programs in dental laboratory technology were approved (accredited) by the Commission on Dental Accreditation in conjunction with the American Dental Association

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Earnings Median hourly earnings of dental laboratory technicians were $13.70 in 2002. The middle 50 percent earned between $10.51 and $18.40 an hour. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $8.16, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $23.65 an hour. Median hourly earnings of dental laboratory technicians in 2002 were $13.78 in medical equipment and supplies manufacturing and $12.98 in offices of dentists.

Keen competition is expected for most jobs, despite average projected employment growth, because many talented individuals are attracted to careers as designers.

Nature of the Work

Related Occupations

Designers are people with a desire to create. They combine practical knowledge with artistic ability to turn abstract ideas into formal designs for the merchandise we buy, the clothes we wear, the Web sites we use, the publications we read, and the living and office space we inhabit. Designers usually specialize in a particular area of design, such as automobiles, industrial or medical equipment, home appliances, clothing and textiles, floral arrangements, publications, Web sites, logos, signage, movie or TV credits, interiors of homes or office buildings, merchandise displays, or movie, television, and theater sets.

Dental laboratory technicians manufacture artificial teeth, crowns and bridges, and orthodontic appliances, following specifications and instructions provided by dentists. Other workers who make and repair medical devices include dispensing opticians, ophthalmic laboratory technicians, orthotists and prosthetists, and precision instrument and equipment repairers.

The first step in developing a new design or altering an existing one is to determine the needs of the client, the ultimate function for which the design is intended, and its appeal to customers or users. When creating a design, designers often begin by researching the desired design characteristics, such as size, shape, weight, color, materials used, cost, ease of use, fit, and safety.

Technicians in large laboratories tend to specialize in a few procedures, and, therefore, tend to be paid a lower wage than those employed in small laboratories who perform a variety of tasks.

Designers then prepare sketches or diagrams—by hand or with the aid of a computer—to illustrate the vision for the design. After consulting with the client, a creative director, or a product development team, designers create detailed designs, using drawings, a structural model, computer simulations, or a fullscale prototype. Many designers use computer-aided design (CAD) tools to create and better visualize the final product. Computer models allow ease and flexibility in exploring a greater number of design alternatives, thus reducing design costs and cutting the time it takes to deliver a product to market. Industrial designers use computer-aided industrial design (CAID) tools to create designs and machine-readable instructions that communicate with automated production tools.

Sources of Additional Information For a list of accredited programs in dental laboratory technology, contact: ●

Commission on Dental Accreditation, American Dental Association, 211 E. Chicago Ave., Chicago, IL 60611. Internet: http://www.ada.org

For information on requirements for certification, contact: ●

National Board for Certification in Dental Technology, 1530 Metropolitan Blvd., Tallahassee, FL 32308. Internet: http://www.nadl.org/html/certification.html

For information on career opportunities in commercial laboratories, contact:

General information on grants and scholarships is available from dental technology schools.

Designers sometimes supervise assistants who carry out their creations. Designers who run their own businesses also may devote a considerable amount of time to developing new business contacts, examining equipment and space needs, and performing administrative tasks, such as reviewing catalogues and ordering samples. The need for up-to-date computer and communications equipment is an ongoing consideration for many designers, especially those in industrial and graphic design.

Designers

Design encompasses a number of different fields. Many designers specialize in a particular area of design, whereas others work in more than one area.

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National Association of Dental Laboratories, 1530 Metropolitan Blvd., Tallahassee, FL 32308. Internet: http://www.nadl.org

(O*NET 27-1021.00, 27-1022.00, 27-1023.00, 27-1024.00, 27-1025.00, 27-1026.00, 27-1027.01, and 27-1027.02)

Commercial and industrial designers develop countless manufactured products, including airplanes; cars; children’s toys; computer equipment; furniture; home appliances; and medical, office, and recreational equipment. They combine artistic talent with research on the use of a product, on customer needs, and on marketing, materials, and production methods to create the most functional and appealing design that will be competitive with others in the marketplace. Industrial designers typically concentrate in a subspecialty such as kitchen appliances, auto interiors, or plastic-molding machinery.

Significant Points ●

Nearly one-third of designers were self-employed—almost five times the proportion for all professional and related occupations.

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Creativity is crucial in all design occupations; most designers need a bachelor’s degree, and candidates with a master’s degree hold an advantage.

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America’s Top 101 Jobs for People Without a Four-Year Degree ers must design space to conform to federal, state, and local laws, including building codes. Designs for public areas also must meet accessibility standards for the disabled and the elderly.

Fashion designers design clothing and accessories. Some highfashion designers are self-employed and design for individual clients. Other high-fashion designers cater to specialty stores or high-fashion department stores. These designers create original garments, as well as clothing that follows established fashion trends. Most fashion designers, however, work for apparel manufacturers, creating designs of men’s, women’s, and children’s fashions for the mass market.

Merchandise displayers and window dressers, or visual merchandisers, plan and erect commercial displays, such as those in windows and interiors of retail stores or at trade exhibitions. Those who work on building exteriors erect major store decorations, including building and window displays and lights. Those who design store interiors outfit store departments, arrange table displays, and dress mannequins. In large retail chains, store layouts typically are designed corporately, through a central design department. To retain the chain’s visual identity and ensure that a particular image or theme is promoted in each store, designs are distributed to individual stores by e-mail, downloaded to computers equipped with the appropriate design software, and adapted to meet the size and dimension requirements of each individual store.

Floral designers cut and arrange live, dried, or artificial flowers and foliage into designs, according to the customer’s order. They design arrangements by trimming flowers and arranging bouquets, sprays, wreaths, dish gardens, and terrariums. They may either meet with customers to discuss the arrangement or work from a written order. Floral designers make note of the occasion, the customer’s preference with regard to the color and type of flower involved, the price of the completed order, the time at which the floral arrangement or plant is to be ready, and the place to which it is to be delivered. The variety of duties performed by floral designers depends on the size of the shop and the number of designers employed. In a small operation, floral designers may own their shops and do almost everything, from growing and purchasing flowers to keeping financial records.

Set and exhibit designers create sets for movie, television, and theater productions and design special exhibition displays. Set designers study scripts, confer with directors and other designers, and conduct research to determine the historical period, fashion, and architectural styles appropriate for the production on which they work. They then produce sketches or scale models to guide in the construction of the actual sets or exhibit spaces. Exhibit designers work with curators, art and museum directors, and trade-show sponsors to determine the most effective use of available space.

Graphic designers plan, analyze, and create visual solutions to communications problems. They use a variety of print, electronic, and film media and technologies to execute a design that meet clients’ communication needs. They consider cognitive, cultural, physical, and social factors in planning and executing designs appropriate for a given context. Graphic designers use computer software to develop the overall layout and production design of magazines, newspapers, journals, corporate reports, and other publications. They also produce promotional displays and marketing brochures for products and services, design distinctive logos for products and businesses, and develop signs and signage systems—called environmental graphics—for business and government. An increasing number of graphic designers are developing material for Internet Web pages, computer interfaces, and multimedia projects. Graphic designers also produce the credits that appear before and after television programs and movies.

Working Conditions Working conditions and places of employment vary. Designers employed by manufacturing establishments, large corporations, or design firms generally work regular hours in welllighted and comfortable settings. Designers in smaller design consulting firms, or those who freelance, generally work on a contract, or job, basis. They frequently adjust their workday to suit their clients’ schedules and deadlines, meeting with the clients during evening or weekend hours when necessary. Consultants and self-employed designers tend to work longer hours and in smaller, more congested, environments.

Interior designers enhance the function, safety, and quality of interior spaces of private homes, public buildings, and business or institutional facilities, such as offices, restaurants, retail establishments, hospitals, hotels, and theaters. They also plan the interiors of existing structures that are undergoing renovation or expansion. Most interior designers specialize. For example, some may concentrate on residential design, while others focus on business design. Still others may specialize further by focusing on particular rooms, such as kitchens or baths. With a client’s tastes, needs, and budget in mind, interior designers prepare drawings and specifications for non–load-bearing interior construction, furnishings, lighting, and finishes. Increasingly, designers are using computers to plan layouts, because computers make it easy to change plans to include ideas received from the client. Interior designers also design lighting and architectural details—such as crown molding, built-in bookshelves, or cabinets—coordinate colors, and select furniture, floor coverings, and window treatments. Interior design-

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Designers may transact business in their own offices or studios or in clients’ homes or offices. They also may travel to other locations, such as showrooms, design centers, clients’ exhibit sites, and manufacturing facilities. Designers who are paid by the assignment are under pressure to please clients and to find new ones in order to maintain a steady income. All designers sometimes face frustration when their designs are rejected or when their work is not as creative as they wish. With the increased speed and sophistication of computers and advanced communications networks, designers may form international design teams, serve a geographically more dispersed clientele, research design alternatives by using information on the Internet, and purchase supplies electronically, all with the aid of a computer in their workplace or studio. Occasionally, industrial designers may work additional hours to meet deadlines. Similarly, graphic designers usually work regular hours, but may work evenings or weekends to meet

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Section One: Descriptions of 101 Top Jobs for People Without a Four-Year Degree and problem-solving skills. Despite the advancement of computer-aided design, sketching ability remains an important advantage in most types of design, especially fashion design. A good portfolio—a collection of examples of a person’s best work—often is the deciding factor in getting a job.

production schedules. In contrast, set and exhibit designers work long and irregular hours; often, they are under pressure to make rapid changes. Merchandise displayers and window trimmers may spend much of their time designing displays in their office or studio, but those who also construct and install the displays may have to move lumber and heavy materials and perform some carpentry and painting. Fashion designers may work long hours to meet production deadlines or prepare for fashion shows. In addition, fashion designers may be required to travel to production sites across the United States and overseas. Interior designers generally work under deadlines and may put in extra hours to finish a job. Also, they typically carry heavy, bulky sample books to meetings with clients. Floral designers generally work regular hours in a pleasant work environment, but holiday, wedding, and funeral orders often require overtime.

A bachelor’s degree is required for most entry-level design positions, except for floral design and visual merchandising. Esthetic ability is important in floral design and visual merchandising, but formal preparation typically is not necessary. Many candidates in industrial design pursue a master’s degree to increase their chances of selection for open positions. Interior design is the only design field subject to government regulation. According to the American Society of Interior Designers, 22 states and the District of Columbia register or license interior designers. Passing the National Council for Interior Design qualification examination is required for registration or licensure in these jurisdictions. To be eligible to take the exam, an applicant must have at least 6 years of combined education and experience in interior design, of which at least 2 years constitute postsecondary education in design. Because registration or licensure is not mandatory in all states, membership in a professional association is an indication of an interior designer’s qualifications and professional standing—and can aid in obtaining clients.

Employment Designers held about 532,000 jobs in 2002. Approximately one-third were self-employed. Employment was distributed as follows: Graphic designers ..................................................212,000 Floral designers ......................................................104,000 Merchandise displayers and window trimmers ......77,000

In fashion design, employers seek individuals with a 2- or 4year degree who are knowledgeable in the areas of textiles, fabrics, and ornamentation, and about trends in the fashion world. Set and exhibit designers typically have college degrees in design. A Master of Fine Arts degree from an accredited university program further establishes one’s design credentials. For set designers, membership in the United Scenic Artists, Local 829, is recognized nationally as the attainment of professional standing in the field.

Interior designers......................................................60,000 Commercial and industrial designers ......................52,000 Fashion designers ....................................................15,000 Set and exhibit designers ........................................12,000 Salaried designers worked in a number of different industries, depending on their design specialty. Graphic designers, for example, worked primarily in specialized design services; newspaper, periodical, book, and directory publishers; and advertising and related services. Floral designers were concentrated in retail florists or floral departments of grocery stores. Merchandise displayers and window trimmers were dispersed across a variety of retailers and wholesalers. Interior designers generally worked in specialized design services or in retail furniture stores. Most commercial and industrial designers were employed in manufacturing or architectural, engineering, and related services. Fashion designers generally worked in apparel manufacturing or wholesale distribution of apparel, piece goods, and notions. Set and exhibit designers worked primarily for performing arts companies, movie and video industries, and radio and television broadcasting.

Most floral designers learn their skills on the job. When employers hire trainees, they generally look for high school graduates who have a flair for arranging and a desire to learn. The completion of formal design training, however, is an asset for floral designers, particularly those interested in advancing to chief floral designer or in opening their own businesses. Vocational and technical schools offer programs in floral design, usually lasting less than a year, while 2- and 4-year programs in floriculture, horticulture, floral design, or ornamental horticulture are offered by community and junior colleges, colleges, and universities. The American Institute of Floral Designers offers an accreditation examination to its members as an indication of professional achievement in floral design. Formal training for some design professions also is available in 2- and 3-year professional schools that award certificates or associate degrees in design. Graduates of 2-year programs normally qualify as assistants to designers, or they may enter a formal bachelor’s degree program. The Bachelor of Fine Arts degree is granted at 4-year colleges and universities. The curriculum in these schools includes art and art history, principles of design, designing and sketching, and specialized studies for each of the individual design disciplines, such as garment construction, textiles, mechanical and architectural drawing, computerized design, sculpture, architecture, and basic engineering. A liberal arts education or a program that

In 2002, a large proportion of designers were self-employed and did freelance work—full time or part time—in addition to holding a salaried job in design or in another occupation.

Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Creativity is crucial in all design occupations. People in this field must have a strong sense of the esthetic—an eye for color and detail, a sense of balance and proportion, and an appreciation for beauty. Designers also need excellent communication

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America’s Top 101 Jobs for People Without a Four-Year Degree able positions. Many talented individuals are attracted to careers as designers. Individuals with little or no formal education in design, as well as those who lack creativity and perseverance, will find it very difficult to establish and maintain a career in the occupation.

includes training in business or project management, together with courses in merchandising, marketing, and psychology, along with training in art, is recommended for designers who want to freelance. In addition, persons with training or experience in architecture qualify for some design occupations, particularly interior design.

Among the design specialties, graphic designers are projected to provide the most new jobs. Demand for graphic designers should increase because of the rapidly expanding market for Web-based information and expansion of the video entertainment market, including television, movies, video, and madefor-Internet outlets.

Employers increasingly expect new designers to be familiar with computer-aided design software as a design tool. For example, industrial designers use computers extensively in the aerospace, automotive, and electronics industries. Interior designers use computers to create numerous versions of interior space designs—images can be inserted, edited, and replaced easily and without added cost—making it possible for a client to see and choose among several designs.

Rising demand for interior design of private homes, offices, restaurants and other retail establishments, and institutions that care for the rapidly growing elderly population should spur employment growth of interior designers. New jobs for floral designers are expected to stem mostly from the relatively high replacement needs in retail florists that result from comparatively low starting pay and limited opportunities for advancement. The majority of new jobs for merchandise displayers and window trimmers will also result from the need to replace workers who retire, transfer to other occupations, or leave the labor force for other reasons.

The National Association of Schools of Art and Design accredits more than 200 postsecondary institutions with programs in art and design. Most of these schools award a degree in art, and some award degrees in industrial, interior, textile, graphic, or fashion design. Many schools do not allow formal entry into a bachelor’s degree program until a student has successfully finished a year of basic art and design courses. Applicants may be required to submit sketches and other examples of their artistic ability.

Increased demand for industrial designers will stem from continued emphasis on the quality and safety of products, demand for new products that are easy and comfortable to use, and the development of high-technology products in medicine, transportation, and other fields. Demand for fashion designers should remain strong, because many consumers continue to seek new fashions and fresh styles of apparel. Employment growth for fashion designers will be slowed, however, by declines in the apparel manufacturing industries. Despite faster-than-average growth for set and exhibit designers, few job openings will result because the occupation is small.

The Foundation for Interior Design Education Research also accredits interior design programs that lead to a bachelor’s degree. There are about 120 accredited professional programs in the United States, located primarily in schools of art, architecture, and home economics. Individuals in the design field must be creative, imaginative, and persistent and must be able to communicate their ideas in writing, visually, and verbally. Because tastes in style and fashion can change quickly, designers need to be well read, open to new ideas and influences, and quick to react to changing trends. Problem-solving skills and the ability to work independently and under pressure are important traits. People in this field need self-discipline to start projects on their own, to budget their time, and to meet deadlines and production schedules. Good business sense and sales ability also are important, especially for those who freelance or run their own business.

Earnings Median annual earnings for commercial and industrial designers were $52,260 in 2002. The middle 50 percent earned between $39,240 and $67,430. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $28,820, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $82,130. Median annual earnings were $61,530 in architectural, engineering, and related services.

Beginning designers usually receive on-the-job training and normally need 1 to 3 years of training before they can advance to higher level positions. Experienced designers in large firms may advance to chief designer, design department head, or other supervisory positions. Some designers leave the occupation to become teachers in design schools or in colleges and universities. Many faculty members continue to consult privately or operate small design studios to complement their classroom activities. Some experienced designers open their own firms.

Median annual earnings for fashion designers were $51,290 in 2002. The middle 50 percent earned between $35,550 and $75,970. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $25,350, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $105,280.

Job Outlook

Median annual earnings for floral designers were $19,480 in 2002. The middle 50 percent earned between $15,880 and $23,560. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $13,440, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $29,830. Median annual earnings were $21,610 in grocery stores and $18,950 in florists.

Overall employment of designers is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2012 as the economy expands and consumers, businesses, and manufacturers continue to rely on the services provided by designers. However, designers in most fields—with the exception of floral design—are expected to face keen competition for avail-

Median annual earnings for graphic designers were $36,680 in 2002. The middle 50 percent earned between $28,140 and $48,820. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $21,860, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $64,160. Median annual earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of graphic designers were as follows:

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Section One: Descriptions of 101 Top Jobs for People Without a Four-Year Degree Advertising and related services ............................$39,510

For information about graphic, communication, or interaction design careers, contact:

Specialized design services ......................................38,710

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Printing and related support activities ....................31,800 Newspaper, periodical, book, and directory publishers ..............................................................31,670

American Institute of Graphic Arts, 164 Fifth Ave., New York, NY 10010. Internet: http://www.aiga.org

For information on degree, continuing education, and licensure programs in interior design and interior design research, contact:

Median annual earnings for interior designers were $39,180 in 2002. The middle 50 percent earned between $29,070 and $53,060. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $21,240, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $69,640. Median annual earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of interior designers were as follows:

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American Society for Interior Designers, 608 Massachusetts Ave. NE, Washington, DC 20002-6006. Internet: http://www.asid.org

For a list of schools with accredited programs in interior design, contact: ●

Architectural, engineering, and related services....$41,680 Specialized design services ......................................39,870

Foundation for Interior Design Education Research, 146 Monroe Center NW, Suite 1318, Grand Rapids, MI 49503. Internet: http://www.fider.org

For information on careers, continuing education, and certification programs in the interior design specialty of residential kitchen and bath design, contact:

Furniture stores ......................................................36,320 Median annual earnings of merchandise displayers and window dressers were $22,550 in 2002. The middle 50 percent earned between $18,320 and $29,070. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $15,100, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $40,020. Median annual earnings were $22,130 in department stores.

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National Kitchen and Bath Association, 687 Willow Grove St., Hackettstown, NJ 07840. Internet: http://www.nkba.org/student

For information about careers in floral design, contact: ●

Society of American Florists, 1601 Duke St., Alexandria, VA 22314. Internet: http://www.safnow.org

Median annual earnings for set and exhibit designers were $33,870 in 2000. The middle 50 percent earned between $24,780 and $46,350. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $17,830, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $63,280.

Desktop Publishers

The American Institute of Graphic Arts reported 2002 median annual earnings for graphic designers with increasing levels of responsibility. Staff-level graphic designers earned $40,000, while senior designers, who may supervise junior staff or have some decisionmaking authority that reflects their knowledge of graphic design, earned $55,000. Solo designers, who freelanced or worked under contract to another company, reported median earnings of $55,000. Design directors, the creative heads of design firms or in-house corporate design departments, earned $85,000. Graphic designers with ownership or partnership interests in a firm or who were principals of the firm in some other capacity earned $93,000.

(O*NET 43-9031.00)

Significant Points

Related Occupations

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Two out of three worked in firms that handle newspaper, periodical, book, and directory publishing, or printing and related support activities.

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Although formal training is not always required, those with certificates or degrees will have the best job opportunities.

Using computer software, desktop publishers format and combine text, numerical data, photographs, charts, and other visual graphic elements to produce publication-ready material. Depending on the nature of a particular project, desktop publishers may write and edit text, create graphics to accompany text, convert photographs and drawings into digital images and then manipulate those images, design page layouts, create proposals, develop presentations and advertising campaigns, typeset and do color separation, and translate electronic information onto film or other traditional forms. Materials produced by desktop publishers include books, business cards, calendars, magazines, newsletters and newspapers, packaging, slides, and tickets. As companies have brought the production of marketing, promotional, and other kinds of materials

Sources of Additional Information For general information about art and design and a list of accredited college-level programs, contact: National Association of Schools of Art and Design, 11250 Roger Bacon Dr., Suite 21, Reston, VA 20190. Internet: http://nasad.arts-accredit.org

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Desktop publishers are expected to experience faster than average employment growth.

Nature of the Work

Workers in other occupations who design or arrange objects, materials, or interiors to enhance their appearance and function include artists and related workers; architects, except landscape and naval; engineers; landscape architects; and photographers. Some computer-related occupations, including computer software engineers and desktop publishers, require design skills.

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Working Conditions

in-house, they increasingly have employed people who can produce such materials.

Desktop publishers usually work in clean, air-conditioned office areas with little noise. They generally work an 8-hour day, 5 days a week. Some workers work night shifts, weekends, and holidays.

Desktop publishers use a keyboard to enter and select formatting properties, such as the size and style of type, column width, and spacing, and store them in the computer, which then displays and arranges columns of type on a video display terminal or computer monitor. An entire newspaper, catalog, or book page, complete with artwork and graphics, can be created on the screen exactly as it will appear in print. Operators transmit the pages for production either into film and then into printing plates, or directly into plates.

Desktop publishers often are subject to stress and the pressures of short deadlines and tight work schedules. Like other workers who spend long hours working in front of a computer monitor, they may be susceptible to eyestrain, back discomfort, and hand and wrist problems.

Desktop publishing is a rapidly changing field that encompasses a number of different kinds of jobs. Personal computers enable desktop publishers to perform publishing tasks that would otherwise require complicated equipment and human effort. Advances in computer software and printing technology continue to change and enhance desktop-publishing work. Instead of receiving simple typed text from customers, desktop publishers get the material over the Internet or on a computer disk. Other innovations in the occupation include digital color page-makeup systems, electronic page-layout systems, and off-press color-proofing systems. In addition, because most materials today often are published on the Internet, desktop publishers may need to know electronic-publishing technologies, such as Hypertext Markup Language (HTML), and may be responsible for converting text and graphics to an Internet-ready format.

Employment Desktop publishers held about 35,000 jobs in 2002. Two out of three worked in the newspaper, periodical, book, and directory publishing, and printing and related support activities; the rest worked in a wide variety of industries. Firms in the publishing industry employ most desktop publishers. These firms publish newspapers, periodicals, books, directory and mailing lists, and greeting cards. A large number of desktop publishers also work for printing and related support activities firms, which print a wide range of products— newspapers, books, labels, business cards, stationary, inserts, catalogs, pamphlets, and advertisements—while business form establishments print material such as sales receipts and business forms and perform support activities such as data imaging and bookbinding. Establishments in printing and related support activities typically perform custom composition, platemaking, and related prepress services. Other desktop publishers print or publish materials in-house or in-plant for business services firms, government agencies, hospitals, or universities, typically in a reproduction or publications department that operates within the organization.

Typesetting and page layout have been affected by the technological changes shaping desktop publishing. Increasingly, desktop publishers are using computers to do much of the typesetting and page-layout work formerly done by prepress workers, posing new challenges for the printing industry. The old “hot type” method of text composition—which used molten lead to create individual letters, paragraphs, and full pages of text—is nearly extinct. Today, composition work is done primarily with computers. Improvements in desktoppublishing software also allow customers to do much more of their own typesetting.

The printing and publishing industries are two of the most geographically dispersed industries in the United States, and desktop-publishing jobs are found throughout the country. However, most jobs are in large metropolitan cities.

Desktop publishers use scanners to capture photographs, images, or art as digital data that can be either incorporated directly into electronic page layouts or further manipulated with the use of computer software. The desktop publisher then can correct mistakes or compensate for deficiencies in the original color print or transparency. Digital files are used to produce printing plates. Like photographers and multimedia artists and animators, desktop publishers also can create special effects or other visual images, using film, video, computers, or other electronic media.

Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most workers qualify for jobs as desktop publishers by taking classes or completing certificate programs at vocational schools, universities, and colleges or through the Internet. Programs range in length, but the average certificate program takes approximately 1 year. However, some desktop publishers train on the job to develop the necessary skills. The length of on-the-job training varies by company. An internship or parttime desktop-publishing assignment is another way to gain experience as a desktop publisher.

Depending on the establishment employing these workers, desktop publishers also may be referred to as publications specialists, electronic publishers, DTP operators, desktoppublishing editors, electronic prepress technicians, electronicpublishing specialists, image designers, typographers, compositors, layout artists, and Web publications designers.

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Students interested in pursuing a career in desktop publishing may obtain an associate’s degree in applied science or a bachelor’s degree in graphic arts, graphic communications, or graphic design. Graphic arts programs are a good way to learn about desktop publishing software used to format pages, assign type characteristics, and import text and graphics into electronic page layouts to produce printed materials such as adver●

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Section One: Descriptions of 101 Top Jobs for People Without a Four-Year Degree puters with elaborate text and graphics capabilities have become common, and desktop publishing software has become cheaper and easier to use. In addition to employment growth, many job openings for desktop publishers also will result from the need to replace workers who move into managerial positions, transfer to other occupations, or who leave the labor force.

tisements, brochures, newsletters, and forms. Applying this knowledge of graphic arts techniques and computerized typesetting usually is intended for students who may eventually move into management positions, while 2-year associate’s degree programs are designed to train skilled workers. Students also develop finely tuned skills in typography, print media, packaging, branding and identity, Web site design, and motion graphics. The programs teach print and graphic design fundamentals and provide an extensive background in imaging, prepress operations, print reproduction, and emerging media. Courses in other aspects of printing also are available at vocational-technical institutes, industry-sponsored update and retraining programs, and private trade and technical schools.

Printing and publishing costs represent a significant portion of a corporation’s expenses, and firms are finding it more profitable to print their own newsletters and other reports than to send them out to trade shops. Desktop publishing reduces the time needed to complete a printing job and allows commercial printers to make inroads into new markets that require fast turnaround.

Although formal training is not always required, those with certificates or degrees will have the best job opportunities. Most employers prefer to hire people who have at least a high school diploma and who possess good communication skills, basic computer skills, and a strong work ethic. Desktop publishers should be able to deal courteously with people, because, in small shops, they may have to take customers’ orders. They also may have to add, subtract, multiply, divide, and compute ratios to estimate job costs. Persons interested in working for firms using advanced printing technology need to know the basics of electronics and computers.

Most employers prefer to hire experienced desktop publishers. As more people gain desktop-publishing experience, however, competition for jobs may increase. Among persons without experience, opportunities should be best for those with computer backgrounds who are certified or who have completed postsecondary programs in desktop publishing or graphic design. Many employers prefer graduates of these programs because the comprehensive training they receive helps them learn the page-layout process and adapt more rapidly to new software and techniques.

Desktop publishers need good manual dexterity, and they must be able to pay attention to detail and work independently. Good eyesight, including visual acuity, depth perception, a wide field of view, color vision, and the ability to focus quickly also are assets. Artistic ability often is a plus. Employers also seek persons who are even tempered and adaptable— important qualities for workers who often must meet deadlines and learn how to operate new equipment.

Earnings Earnings for desktop publishers vary according to level of experience, training, location, and size of firm. Median annual earnings of desktop publishers were $31,620 in 2002. The middle 50 percent earned between $24,030 and $41,280. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $18,670, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $52,540 a year. Median annual earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of these workers in 2002 are presented in the following tabulation:

Workers with limited training and experience may start as helpers. They begin with instruction from an experienced desktop publisher and advance on the basis of their demonstrated mastery of skills at each level. All workers should expect to be retrained from time to time to handle new, improved software and equipment. As workers gain experience, they advance to positions with greater responsibility. Some move into supervisory or management positions. Other desktop publishers may start their own company or work as independent consultants, while those with more artistic talent and further education may find opportunities in graphic design or commercial art.

Printing and related support activities ..................$35,140 Newspaper, periodical, book, and directory publishers ..............................................................28,050

Related Occupations Desktop publishers use artistic and editorial skills in their work. These skills also are essential for artists and related workers; designers; news analysts, reporters, and correspondents; prepress technicians and workers; public relations specialists; and writers and editors.

Job Outlook Employment of desktop publishers is expected to grow faster than the average for all occupations through 2012, as more page layout and design work is performed in-house using computers and sophisticated publishing software. Desktop publishing is replacing much of the prepress work done by compositors and typesetters, enabling organizations to reduce costs while increasing production speeds. Many new jobs for desktop publishers are expected to emerge in commercial printing and publishing establishments. However, more companies also are turning to in-house desktop publishers, as com-

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Sources of Additional Information Details about apprenticeship and other training programs may be obtained from local employers such as newspapers and printing shops or from local offices of the state employment service. For information on careers and training in printing, desktop publishing, and graphic arts, write to either of the following sources:

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Graphic Communications Council, 1899 Preston White Dr., Reston, VA 20191. Internet: http://www.npes.org/education/index.html

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Graphic Arts Technical Foundation, 200 Deer Run Rd., Sewickley, PA 15143. Internet: http://www.gatf.org

nicians to handle all kinds of repairs, from working on a vehicle’s electrical system one day to doing major engine repairs the next. Diesel maintenance is becoming increasingly complex, as more electronic components are used to control the operation of an engine. For example, microprocessors now regulate and manage fuel timing, increasing the engine’s efficiency. In modern shops, diesel service technicians use hand-held computers to diagnose problems and adjust engine functions. Technicians must continually learn about new techniques and advanced materials.

For information on benefits and compensation in desktop publishing, write to: ●

Printing Industries of America, Inc., 100 Daingerfield Rd., Alexandria, VA 22314. Internet: http://www.gain.org

Diesel service technicians use a variety of tools in their work, including power tools, such as pneumatic wrenches, to remove bolts quickly; machine tools, such as lathes and grinding machines, to rebuild brakes; welding and flame-cutting equipment, to remove and repair exhaust systems; and jacks and hoists, to lift and move large parts. Common handtools— screwdrivers, pliers, and wrenches—are used to work on small parts and get at hard-to-reach places. Diesel service technicians and mechanics also use a variety of computerized testing equipment to pinpoint and analyze malfunctions in electrical systems and engines.

Diesel Service Technicians and Mechanics (O*NET 49-3031.00)

Significant Points ●

A career as a diesel service technician or mechanic offers relatively high wages and the challenge of skilled repair work.

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Opportunities are expected to be good for persons who complete formal training programs.

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National certification is the recognized standard of achievement for diesel service technicians and mechanics.

In large shops, technicians generally receive their assignments from shop supervisors or service managers. Most supervisors and managers are experienced technicians who also assist in diagnosing problems and maintaining quality standards. Technicians may work as a team or be assisted by an apprentice or helper when doing heavy work, such as removing engines and transmissions.

Nature of the Work

Working Conditions

The diesel engine is the workhorse powering the nation’s trucks and buses, because it delivers more power and is more durable than its gasoline-burning counterpart. Diesel-powered engines also are becoming more prevalent in light vehicles, including pickups and other work trucks.

Diesel technicians usually work indoors, although they occasionally make repairs to vehicles on the road. Diesel technicians may lift heavy parts and tools, handle greasy and dirty parts, and stand or lie in awkward positions to repair vehicles and equipment. Minor cuts, burns, and bruises are common, although serious accidents can usually be avoided if the shop is kept clean and orderly and if safety procedures are followed. Technicians normally work in well-lighted, heated, and ventilated areas; however, some shops are drafty and noisy. Many employers provide lockers and shower facilities.

Diesel service technicians and mechanics, also known as bus and truck mechanics and diesel engine specialists, repair and maintain the diesel engines that power transportation equipment such as heavy trucks, buses, and locomotives. Some diesel technicians and mechanics also work on heavy vehicles and mobile equipment, including bulldozers, cranes, road graders, farm tractors, and combines. A small number of technicians repair diesel-powered passenger automobiles, light trucks, or boats.

Employment Diesel service technicians and mechanics held about 267,000 jobs in 2002. About 20 percent serviced buses, trucks, and other diesel-powered equipment for customers of automotive repair and maintenance shops, motor vehicle and parts wholesalers, or automotive equipment rental and leasing agencies. About 19 percent maintained the buses, trucks, and other equipment of buslines, public transit companies, school systems, or state and local governments, and another 17 percent worked for freight trucking companies. The remaining technicians maintained vehicles and other equipment for manufacturing, construction, or other companies. A relatively small number were self-employed. Nearly every section of the country employs diesel service technicians and mechanics, although most work in towns and cities where trucking companies, buslines, and other fleet owners have large operations.

Technicians who work for organizations that maintain their own vehicles spend most of their time doing preventive maintenance, to ensure that equipment will operate safely. These workers also eliminate unnecessary wear on, and damage to, parts that could result in costly breakdowns. During a routine maintenance check on a vehicle, technicians follow a checklist that includes inspecting brake systems, steering mechanisms, wheel bearings, and other important parts. Following inspection, technicians repair or adjust parts that do not work properly or remove and replace parts that cannot be fixed. Increasingly, technicians must be flexible, in order to adapt to customers’ needs and new technologies. It is common for tech-

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Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement

in automobile repair at a gasoline service station, in the Armed Forces, or as a hobby is valuable as well. Employers often send experienced technicians and mechanics to special training classes conducted by manufacturers and vendors, in which workers learn the latest technology and repair techniques. Technicians constantly receive updated technical manuals and instructions outlining changes in techniques and standards for repair. It is essential for technicians to read, interpret, and comprehend service manuals in order to keep abreast of engineering changes.

Although many persons qualify for diesel service technician and mechanic jobs through years of on-the-job training, authorities recommend the completion of a formal diesel engine training program. Employers prefer to hire graduates of formal training programs because those workers often have a head start in training and are able to advance quickly to the journey level. Many community colleges and trade and vocational schools offer programs in diesel repair. These programs, lasting 6 months to 2 years, lead to a certificate of completion or an associate degree. Programs vary in the degree of hands-on training they provide on equipment. Some offer about 30 hours per week on equipment, whereas others offer more lab or classroom instruction. Training provides a foundation in the latest diesel technology and instruction in the service and repair of the vehicles and equipment that technicians will encounter on the job. Training programs also improve the skills needed to interpret technical manuals and to communicate with coworkers and customers. In addition to the handson aspects of the training, many institutions teach communication skills, customer service, basic understanding of physics, and logical thought. Increasingly, employers work closely with representatives of training programs, providing instructors with the latest equipment, techniques, and tools and offering jobs to graduates.

Voluntary certification by the National Institute for Automotive Service Excellence (ASE) is recognized as the standard of achievement for diesel service technicians and mechanics. Technicians may be certified as master truck technicians or in specific areas of truck repair, such as gasoline engines, drivetrains, brakes, suspension and steering, electrical and electronic systems, or preventive maintenance and inspection.

Whereas most employers prefer to hire persons who have completed formal training programs, some technicians and mechanics continue to learn their skills on the job. Unskilled beginners generally are assigned tasks such as cleaning parts, fueling and lubricating vehicles, and driving vehicles into and out of the shop. Beginners usually are promoted to trainee positions as they gain experience and as vacancies become available. In some shops, beginners with experience in automobile service start as trainee technicians.

The most important work possessions of technicians and mechanics are their handtools. Technicians and mechanics usually provide their own tools, and many experienced workers have thousands of dollars invested in them. Employers typically furnish expensive power tools, computerized engine analyzers, and other diagnostic equipment, but individual workers ordinarily accumulate handtools with experience.

For certification in each area, a technician must pass one or more of the ASE-administered exams and present proof of 2 years of relevant hands-on work experience. Two years of relevant formal training from a high school, vocational or trade school, or community or junior college program may be substituted for up to 1 year of the work experience requirement. To remain certified, technicians must be retested every 5 years. Retesting ensures that service technicians and mechanics keep up with changing technology. Diesel service technicians and mechanics also may opt for ASE certification as master school bus technicians or master truck equipment technicians.

Experienced technicians and mechanics with leadership ability may advance to shop supervisor or service manager. Technicians and mechanics with sales ability sometimes become sales representatives. Some open their own repair shops.

Most trainees perform routine service tasks and make minor repairs after a few months’ experience. These workers advance to increasingly difficult jobs as they prove their ability and competence. After technicians master the repair and service of diesel engines, they learn to work on related components, such as brakes, transmissions, and electrical systems. Generally, technicians with at least 3 to 4 years of on-the-job experience will qualify as journey-level diesel technicians. The completion of a formal training program speeds advancement to the journey level.

Job Outlook Employment of diesel service technicians and mechanics is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2012. Besides openings resulting from employment growth, opportunities will be created by the need to replace workers who retire or transfer to other occupations.

For unskilled entry-level jobs, employers usually look for applicants who have mechanical aptitude and strong problemsolving skills and who are at least 18 years of age and in good physical condition. Nearly all employers require the completion of high school. Courses in automotive repair, electronics, English, mathematics, and physics provide a strong educational background for a career as a diesel service technician or mechanic. Technicians need a state commercial driver’s license to test-drive trucks or buses on public roads. Many companies also require applicants to pass a drug test. Practical experience

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Employment of diesel service technicians and mechanics is expected to grow as freight transportation by truck increases. Additional trucks will be needed to keep pace with the increasing volume of freight shipped nationwide. Trucks also serve as intermediaries for other forms of transportation, such as rail and air. Due to the greater durability and economy of the diesel engine relative to the gasoline engine, buses and trucks of all sizes are expected to be increasingly powered by diesels. In addition, diesel service technicians will be needed to maintain and repair the growing number of schoolbuses in operation.

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Careers as diesel service technicians attract many because they offer relatively high wages and the challenge of skilled repair work. Opportunities should be good for persons who complete formal training in diesel mechanics at community and junior colleges or vocational and technical schools. Applicants without formal training may face stiffer competition for entry-level jobs.

Diesel service technicians and mechanics repair trucks, buses, and other diesel-powered equipment. Related technician and mechanic occupations include aircraft and avionics equipment mechanics and service technicians, automotive service technicians and mechanics, heavy vehicle and mobile equipment service technicians and mechanics, and small engine mechanics.

Most persons entering this occupation can expect relatively steady work, because changes in economic conditions have less of an effect on the diesel repair business than on other sectors of the economy. During a downturn in the economy, however, some employers may lay off workers or be reluctant to hire new workers.

Sources of Additional Information More details about work opportunities for diesel service technicians and mechanics may be obtained from local employers such as trucking companies, truck dealers, or buslines; locals of the unions previously mentioned; and local offices of your state employment service. Local state employment service offices also may have information about training programs. State boards of postsecondary career schools have information on licensed schools with training programs for diesel service technicians and mechanics.

Earnings Median hourly earnings of bus and truck mechanics and diesel engine specialists, including incentive pay, were $16.53 in 2002. The middle 50 percent earned between $13.13 and $20.54 an hour. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $10.66, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $24.61 an hour. Median hourly earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of bus and truck mechanics and diesel engine specialists in 2002 were as follows:

For general information about a career as a diesel service technician or mechanic, write: ●

Local government ....................................................$19.58

Information on how to become a certified diesel technician of medium to heavy-duty vehicles or a certified bus technician is available from:

Motor vehicle and motor vehicle parts and supplies merchant wholesalers ................................16.80 General freight and trucking ....................................15.62

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Automotive repair and maintenance ........................15.36 Elementary and secondary schools ..........................15.10

The majority of service technicians work a standard 40-hour week, although some work longer hours, particularly if they are self-employed. A growing number of shops have expanded their hours, either to perform repairs and routine service in a more timely fashion or as a convenience to customers. Those technicians employed by truck and bus firms providing service around the clock may work evenings, nights, and weekends, usually at a higher rate of pay than those working traditional hours.

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Accrediting Commission of Career Schools and Colleges of Technology, 2101 Wilson Blvd., Suite 302, Arlington, VA 22201. Internet: http://www.accsct.org

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National Automotive Technicians Education Foundation, 101 Blue Seal Dr., SE, Suite 101, Leesburg, VA 20175. Internet: http://www.natef.org

For a list of public training programs for diesel service technicians and mechanics, contact: ●

SkillsUSA-VICA, P.O. Box 3000, Leesburg, VA 20177-0300. Internet: http://www.skillsusa.org

Dispatchers

Many diesel service technicians and mechanics are members of labor unions, including the International Association of Machinists and Aerospace Workers; the Amalgamated Transit Union; the International Union, United Automobile, Aerospace and Agricultural Implement Workers of America; the Transport Workers Union of America; the Sheet Metal Workers’ International Association; and the International Brotherhood of Teamsters.

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National Institute for Automotive Service Excellence (ASE), 101 Blue Seal Dr. SE, Suite 101, Leesburg, VA 20175. Internet: http://www.asecert.org

For a directory of accredited private trade and technical schools with training programs for diesel service technicians and mechanics, contact:

Because many experienced technicians employed by truck fleet dealers and independent repair shops receive a commission related to the labor cost charged to the customer, weekly earnings depend on the amount of work completed. Beginners usually earn from 50 to 75 percent of the rate of skilled workers and receive increases as they become more skilled, until they reach the rates of skilled service technicians.

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Detroit Diesel, Personnel Director, MS B39, 13400 West Outer Dr., Detroit, MI 48239.

(O*NET 43-5031.00 and 43-5032.00)

Significant Points ●

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Many dispatcher jobs are at the entry level and do not require more than a high school diploma.

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Dispatchers develop the necessary skills through on-thejob training lasting from several days to a few months.

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Numerous job openings will arise each year from the need to replace workers who leave this very large occupational group.

When appropriate, dispatchers stay in close contact with other service providers—for example, a police dispatcher would monitor the response of the fire department when there is a major fire. In a medical emergency, dispatchers keep in close touch not only with the dispatched units, but also with the caller. They may give extensive first-aid instructions before the emergency personnel arrive, while the caller is waiting for the ambulance. Dispatchers continuously give updates on the patient’s condition to the ambulance personnel and often serve as a link between the medical staff in a hospital and the emergency medical technicians in the ambulance.

Nature of the Work Dispatchers schedule and dispatch workers, equipment, or service vehicles for the conveyance of materials or passengers. They keep records, logs, and schedules of the calls they receive, the transportation vehicles they monitor and control, and the actions they take. They maintain information on each call and then prepare a detailed report on all activities occurring during their shifts. Many dispatchers employ computer-aided dispatch systems to accomplish these tasks. The work of dispatchers varies greatly, depending on the industry in which they work.

Other dispatchers coordinate deliveries, service calls, and related activities for a variety of firms. Truck dispatchers, who work for local and long-distance trucking companies, coordinate the movement of trucks and freight between cities. They direct the pickup and delivery activities of drivers, receive customers’ requests for the pickup and delivery of freight, consolidate freight orders into truckloads for specific destinations, assign drivers and trucks, and draw up routes and pickup and delivery schedules. Bus dispatchers make sure that local and long-distance buses stay on schedule. They handle all problems that may disrupt service, and they dispatch other buses or arrange for repairs in order to restore service and schedules. Train dispatchers ensure the timely and efficient movement of trains according to orders and schedules. They must be aware of track switch positions, track maintenance areas, and the location of other trains running on the track. Taxicab dispatchers, or starters, dispatch taxis in response to requests for service and keep logs on all road service calls. Tow-truck dispatchers take calls for emergency road service. They relay the nature of the problem to a nearby service station or a tow-truck service and see to it that the road service is completed. Gas and water service dispatchers monitor gaslines and water mains and send out service trucks and crews to take care of emergencies.

Regardless of where they work, all dispatchers are assigned a specific territory and have responsibility for all communications within that area. Many work in teams, especially those dispatchers in large communications centers or companies. One person usually handles all dispatching calls to the response units or company drivers, while the other members of the team usually receive the incoming calls and deal with the public. Police, fire, and ambulance dispatchers, also called public safety dispatchers, monitor the location of emergency services personnel from any one or all of the jurisdiction’s emergency services departments. These workers dispatch the appropriate type and number of units in response to calls for assistance. Dispatchers, or call takers, often are the first people the public contacts when emergency assistance is required. If certified for emergency medical services, the dispatcher may provide medical instruction to those on the scene of the emergency until the medical staff arrives.

Working Conditions The work of dispatchers can be very hectic when many calls come in at the same time. The job of public safety dispatcher is particularly stressful because a slow or improper response to a call can result in serious injury or further harm. Also, callers who are anxious or afraid may become excited and be unable to provide needed information; some may even become abusive. Despite provocations, dispatchers must remain calm, objective, and in control of the situation.

Police, fire, and ambulance dispatchers work in a variety of settings: a police station, a fire station, a hospital, or, increasingly, a centralized communications center. In many areas, the police department serves as the communications center. In these situations, all emergency calls go to the police department, where a dispatcher handles the police calls and screens the others before transferring them to the appropriate service. When handling calls, dispatchers question each caller carefully to determine the type, seriousness, and location of the emergency. The information obtained is posted either electronically by computer or, with decreasing frequency, by hand. It is communicated immediately to uniformed or supervisory personnel, who quickly decide on the priority of the incident, the kind and number of units needed, and the location of the closest and most suitable units available. Typically, a team answers calls and relays the information to be dispatched. Responsibility then shifts to the dispatchers, who send response units to the scene and monitor the activity of the public safety personnel answering the dispatched message. During the course of the shift, dispatchers may rotate these functions.

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Dispatchers sit for long periods, using telephones, computers, and two-way radios. Much of their time is spent at video display terminals, viewing monitors and observing traffic patterns. As a result of working for long stretches with computers and other electronic equipment, dispatchers can experience significant eyestrain and back discomfort. Generally, dispatchers work a 40-hour week; however, rotating shifts and compressed work schedules are common. Alternative work schedules are necessary to accommodate evening, weekend, and holiday work, as well as 24 hour per day, 7 day per week operations. The typical workweek is Monday through Friday; however, evening and weekend hours are common in some jobs and may be required in other jobs when large shipments are involved. ●

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Communications Officials, International and the National Academies of Emergency Dispatch offer certification programs. Many dispatchers participate in these programs in order to improve their prospects for career advancement.

Dispatchers held 262,000 jobs in 2002. About one-third were police, fire, and ambulance dispatchers, almost all of whom worked for state and local governments—primarily local police and fire departments. About one-quarter of all dispatchers worked in the transportation and warehousing industry, and the rest worked in a wide variety of mainly service-providing sector industries.

Dispatchers who work for private firms, which usually are small, will find few opportunities for advancement. In contrast, public safety dispatchers may become a shift or divisional supervisor or chief of communications, or they may move to higher paying administrative jobs. Some become police officers or firefighters.

Although dispatching jobs are found throughout the country, most dispatchers work in urban areas, where large communications centers and businesses are located.

Job Outlook

Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement

Employment of dispatchers is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through 2012. In addition to those positions resulting from job growth, many openings will arise from the need to replace workers who transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force.

Many dispatcher jobs are entry level and do not require more than a high school diploma. Employers, however, prefer to hire those familiar with computers and other electronic office and business equipment. Applicants who have taken business courses or have previous business, dispatching, or specific jobrelated experience may be preferred. Because communication with other people is an integral part of these jobs, good oral and written communications skills are essential. Typing, filing, recordkeeping, and other clerical skills also are important.

Population growth and economic expansion are expected to spur employment growth for all types of dispatchers. The growing and aging population will increase demand for emergency services and stimulate employment growth of police, fire, and ambulance dispatchers. Many districts are consolidating their communications centers into a shared areawide facility. Individuals with computer skills and experience will have a greater opportunity for employment as public-safety dispatchers.

State or local government civil-service regulations usually govern police, fire, emergency medical, and ambulance dispatching jobs. Candidates for these positions may have to pass written, oral, and performance tests. Also, they may be asked to attend training classes and attain the proper certification in order to qualify for advancement.

Employment of some dispatchers is more adversely affected by economic downturns than that of other dispatchers. For example, when economic activity falls, demand for transportation services declines. As a result, taxicab, train, and truck dispatchers may experience layoffs or a shortened workweek, and jobseekers may have some difficulty finding entry-level jobs. Employment of tow-truck dispatchers, by contrast, is seldom affected by general economic conditions, because of the emergency nature of their business.

Workers usually develop the necessary skills on the job. This informal training lasts from several days to a few months, depending on the complexity of the job. Dispatchers usually require the most extensive training. Working with an experienced dispatcher, they monitor calls and learn how to operate a variety of communications equipment, including telephones, radios, and various wireless devices. As trainees gain confidence, they begin to handle calls themselves. In smaller operations, dispatchers sometimes act as customer service representatives, processing orders. Many public safety dispatchers also participate in structured training programs sponsored by their employer. Increasingly, public safety dispatchers receive training in stress and crisis management, as well as family counseling. Employers are recognizing the toll this work has on daily living and the potential impact that stress has on the job, on the work environment, and in the home.

Earnings Median hourly earnings in 2002 for dispatchers were $14.56. Dispatchers usually receive the same benefits as most other workers. If uniforms are required, employers generally provide them or offer an allowance to purchase them.

Related Occupations Other occupations that involve directing and controlling the movement of vehicles, freight, and personnel, as well as distributing information and messages, include air traffic controllers, communications equipment operators, customer service representatives, and reservation and transportation ticket agents and travel clerks.

Communication skills and the ability to work under pressure are important personal qualities for dispatchers. Residency in the city or county of employment frequently is required for public safety dispatchers. Dispatchers in transportation industries must be able to deal with sudden influxes of shipments and disruptions of shipping schedules caused by bad weather, road construction, or accidents.

Sources of Additional Information

Although there are no mandatory licensing or certification requirements, some states require that public safety dispatchers possess a certificate to work on a state network, such as the Police Information Network. The Association of Public Safety

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For further information on training and certification for police, fire, and emergency dispatchers, contact either of the following organizations:

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National Academies of Emergency Dispatch, 139 East South Temple, Suite 530, Salt Lake City, UT 84111. Internet: http://www.emergencydispatch.org

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Association of Public Safety Communications Officials, International, 351 N. Williamson Blvd., Daytona Beach, FL 32114-1112. Internet: http://www.apco911.org

After the drywall is installed, tapers fill joints between panels with a joint compound. Using the wide, flat tip of a special trowel, they spread the compound into and along each side of the joint with brush-like strokes. They immediately use the trowel to press a paper tape—used to reinforce the drywall and to hide imperfections—into the wet compound and to smooth away excess material. Nail and screw depressions also are covered with this compound, as are imperfections caused by the installation of air-conditioning vents and other fixtures. On large projects, finishers may use automatic taping tools that apply the joint compound and tape in one step. Tapers apply second and third coats of the compound, sanding the treated areas where needed after each coat to make them as smooth as the rest of the wall surface. This results in a very smooth and almost perfect surface. Some tapers apply textured surfaces to walls and ceilings with trowels, brushes, or spray guns.

Information on job opportunities for police, fire, and emergency dispatchers is available from personnel offices of state and local governments or police departments. Information about work opportunities for other types of dispatchers is available from local employers and state employment service offices.

Drywall Installers, Ceiling Tile Installers, and Tapers

Ceiling tile installers, or acoustical carpenters, apply or mount acoustical tiles or blocks, strips, or sheets of shock-absorbing materials to ceilings and walls of buildings to reduce reflection of sound or to decorate rooms. First, they measure and mark the surface according to blueprints and drawings. Then, they nail or screw moldings to the wall to support and seal the joint between the ceiling tile and the wall. Finally, they mount the tile, either by applying a cement adhesive to the back of the tile and then pressing the tile into place, or by nailing, screwing, stapling, or wire-tying the lath directly to the structural framework.

(O*NET 47-2081.01, 47-2081.02, and 47-2082.00)

Significant Points ●

Most workers learn the trade on the job, either by working as helpers or through a formal apprenticeship.

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Job prospects are expected to be good.

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Inclement weather seldom interrupts work, but workers may be idled when downturns in the economy slow new construction activity.

Lathers also are included in this occupation. Lathers fasten metal or rockboard lath to walls, ceilings, and partitions of buildings. Lath forms the support base for plaster, fireproofing, or acoustical materials. At one time, lath was made of wooden strips. Now, lathers work mostly with wire, metal mesh, or rockboard lath. Metal lath is used where the plaster application will be exposed to weather or water or for curved or irregular surfaces for which drywall is not a practical material. Using handtools and portable power tools, lathers nail, screw, staple, or wire-tie the lath directly to the structural framework.

Nature of the Work Drywall consists of a thin layer of gypsum between two layers of heavy paper. It is used for walls and ceilings in most buildings today because it is both faster and cheaper to install than plaster.

Working Conditions As in many other construction trades, the work sometimes is strenuous. Drywall installers, ceiling tile installers, and tapers spend most of the day on their feet, either standing, bending, or kneeling. Some tapers use stilts to tape and finish ceiling and angle joints. Installers have to lift and maneuver heavy panels. Hazards include falls from ladders and scaffolds and injuries from power tools and from working with sharp materials. Because sanding a joint compound to a smooth finish creates a great deal of dust, some finishers wear masks for protection.

There are two kinds of drywall workers—installers and tapers— although many workers do both types of work. Installers, also called applicators or hangers, fasten drywall panels to the inside framework of residential houses and other buildings. Tapers, or finishers, prepare these panels for painting by taping and finishing joints and imperfections. Because drywall panels are manufactured in standard sizes— usually 4 feet by 8 or 12 feet—drywall installers must measure, cut, and fit some pieces around doors and windows. They also saw or cut holes in panels for electrical outlets, air-conditioning units, and plumbing. After making these alterations, installers may glue, nail, or screw the wallboard panels to the wood or metal framework. Because drywall is heavy and cumbersome, a helper generally assists the installer in positioning and securing the panel. Workers often use a lift when placing ceiling panels.

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Employment Drywall installers, ceiling tile installers, and tapers held about 176,000 jobs in 2002. Most worked for contractors specializing in drywall and ceiling tile installation; others worked for contractors doing many kinds of construction. About 33,000 were self-employed independent contractors.

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America’s Top 101 Jobs for People Without a Four-Year Degree Besides those resulting from job growth, many jobs will open up each year because of the need to replace workers who transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. Some drywall installers, ceiling tile installers, and tapers with limited skills leave the occupation when they find that they dislike the work or fail to find steady employment.

Most installers and tapers are employed in populous areas. In other areas, where there may not be enough work to keep a drywall or ceiling tile installer employed full time, carpenters and painters usually do the work.

Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement

Despite the growing use of exterior panels, most drywall installation and finishing is done indoors. Therefore, drywall workers lose less worktime because of inclement weather than do some other construction workers. Nevertheless, they may be unemployed between construction projects and during downturns in construction activity.

Most drywall installers, ceiling tile installers, and tapers start as helpers and learn their skills on the job. Installer helpers start by carrying materials, lifting and holding panels, and cleaning up debris. Within a few weeks, they learn to measure, cut, and install materials. Eventually, they become fully experienced workers. Taper apprentices begin by taping joints and touching up nail holes, scrapes, and other imperfections. They soon learn to install corner guards and to conceal openings aroundpipes. At the end of their training, drywall installers, ceiling tile installers, and tapers learn to estimate the cost of installing and finishing drywall. Some drywall installers, ceiling tile installers, and tapers learn their trade in an apprenticeship program. The United Brotherhood of Carpenters and Joiners of America, in cooperation with local contractors, administers an apprenticeship program both in drywall installation and finishing and in acoustical carpentry. Apprenticeship programs consist of at least 3 years, or 6,000 hours, of on-the-job training and 144 hours a year of related classroom instruction. In addition, local affiliates of the Associated Builders and Contractors and the National Association of Home Builders conduct training programs for nonunion workers. The International Union of Painters and Allied Trades conducts an apprenticeship program in drywall finishing that lasts 2 to 3 years. Employers prefer high school graduates who are in good physical condition, but they frequently hire applicants with less education. High school or vocational school courses in carpentry provide a helpful background for drywall work. Regardless of educational background, installers must be good at simple arithmetic. Other useful high school courses include English, wood shop, metal shop, blueprint reading, and mechanical drawing.

Earnings In 2002, the median hourly earnings of drywall and ceiling tile installers were $16.21. The middle 50 percent earned between $12.43 and $21.50. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $9.76, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $28.03. The median hourly earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of drywall and ceiling tile installers in 2002 were: Building finishing contractors ................................$16.50 Nonresidential building construction ......................14.66 In 2002, the median hourly earnings of tapers were $18.75. The middle 50 percent earned between $14.57 and $24.68. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $11.07, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $29.32. Trainees usually started at about half the rate paid to experienced workers and received wage increases as they became more highly skilled. Some contractors pay these workers according to the number of panels they install or finish per day; others pay an hourly rate. A 40-hour week is standard, but the workweek may sometimes be longer. Workers who are paid hourly rates receive premium pay for overtime.

Drywall installers, ceiling tile installers, and tapers with a few years of experience and with leadership ability may become supervisors. Some workers start their own contracting businesses.

Related Occupations Drywall installers, ceiling tile installers, and tapers combine strength and dexterity with precision and accuracy to make materials fit according to a plan. Other occupations that require similar abilities include carpenters; carpet, floor, and tile installers and finishers; insulation workers; and plasterers and stucco masons.

Job Outlook Job opportunities for drywall installers, ceiling tile installers, and tapers are expected to be good. Many potential workers are not attracted to this occupation because they prefer work that is less strenuous and has more comfortable working conditions. Experienced workers will have especially favorable opportunities.

Sources of Additional Information For information about work opportunities in drywall application and finishing and ceiling tile installation, contact local drywall installation and ceiling tile installation contractors, a local of the unions previously mentioned, a local joint unionmanagement apprenticeship committee, a state or local chapter of the Associated Builders and Contractors, or the nearest office of the state employment service or apprenticeship agency.

Employment is expected to grow faster than the average for all occupations over the 2002–12 period, reflecting increases in the numbers of new construction and remodeling projects. In addition to jobs involving traditional interior work, drywall workers will find employment opportunities in the installation of insulated exterior wall systems, which are becoming increasingly popular.

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Section One: Descriptions of 101 Top Jobs for People Without a Four-Year Degree Electrical equipment and electronic equipment are two distinct types of industrial equipment, although much equipment contains both electrical and electronic components. In general, electrical portions provide the power for the equipment, while electronic components control the device, although many types of equipment still are controlled with electrical devices. Electronic sensors monitor the equipment and the manufacturing process, providing feedback to the programmable logic control (PLC), which controls the equipment. The PLC processes the information provided by the sensors and makes adjustments to optimize output. To adjust the output, the PLC sends signals to the electrical, hydraulic, and pneumatic devices that power the machine—changing feed rates, pressures, and other variables in the manufacturing process. Many installers and repairers, known as field technicians, travel to factories or other locations to repair equipment. These workers often have assigned areas in which they perform preventive maintenance on a regular basis. When equipment breaks down, field technicians go to a customer’s site to repair the equipment. Bench technicians work in repair shops located in factories and service centers, fixing components that cannot be repaired on the factory floor.

For details about job qualifications and training programs in drywall application and finishing and ceiling tile installation, contact: ●

Associated Builders and Contractors, 1300 N. 17th St., Arlington, VA 22209.

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National Association of Home Builders, 1201 15th St. NW Suite 800, Washington, DC 20005. Internet: http://www.nahb.org

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Home Builders Institute, 1201 15th St. NW, Washington, DC 20005. Internet: http://www.hbi.org

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International Union of Painters and Allied Trades, 1750 New York Ave. NW, Washington, DC 20006. Internet: http://www.iupat.org

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United Brotherhood of Carpenters and Joiners of America, 50 F St. NW, Washington, DC 20001. Internet: http://www.carpenters.org

There are more than 500 occupations registered by the U.S. Department of Labor’s National Apprenticeship system. For more information on the Labor Department’s registered apprenticeship system and links to state apprenticeship programs, check their Web site: http://www.doleta.gov.

Some industrial electronic equipment is self-monitoring and alerts repairers to malfunctions. When equipment breaks down, repairers first check for common causes of trouble, such as loose connections or obviously defective components. If routine checks do not locate the trouble, repairers may refer to schematics and manufacturers’ specifications that show connections and provide instructions on how to locate problems. Automated electronic control systems are increasing in complexity, making diagnosis more challenging. Repairers use software programs and testing equipment to diagnose malfunctions. Among their diagnostic tools are multimeters, which measure voltage, current, and resistance; and advanced multimeters, which measure capacitance, inductance, and current gain of transistors. Repairers also use signal generators, which provide test signals, and oscilloscopes, which display signals graphically. Finally, repairers use handtools such as pliers, screwdrivers, soldering irons, and wrenches to replace faulty parts and adjust equipment.

Electrical and Electronics Installers and Repairers (O*NET 49-2092.01, 49-2092.02, 49-2092.04, 49-2092.05, 49-2092.06, 49-2093.00, 49-2094.00, 49-2095.00, and 49-2096.00)

Significant Points ●

Knowledge of electrical equipment and electronics is necessary for employment; many applicants complete 1 to 2 years at vocational schools and community colleges, although some less skilled repairers may have only a high school diploma.

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Employment is projected to grow more slowly than average, but will vary by occupational specialty.

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Job opportunities will be best for applicants with a thorough knowledge of electrical and electronic equipment, as well as repair experience.

Because repairing components is a complex activity and factories cannot allow production equipment to stand idle, repairers on the factory floor usually remove and replace defective units, such as circuit boards, instead of fixing them. Defective units are discarded or returned to the manufacturer or a specialized shop for repair. Bench technicians at these locations have the training, tools, and parts needed to thoroughly diagnose and repair circuit boards or other complex components. These workers also locate and repair circuit defects, such as poorly soldered joints, blown fuses, or malfunctioning transistors.

Nature of the Work Businesses and other organizations depend on complex electronic equipment for a variety of functions. Industrial controls automatically monitor and direct production processes on the factory floor. Transmitters and antennae provide communication links for many organizations. Electric power companies use electronic equipment to operate and control generating plants, substations, and monitoring equipment. The federal government uses radar and missile control systems to provide for the national defense and to direct commercial air traffic. These complex pieces of electronic equipment are installed, maintained, and repaired by electrical and electronics installers and repairers.

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Electrical and electronics installers often fit older manufacturing equipment with new automated control devices. Older manufacturing machines are frequently in good working order, but are limited by inefficient control systems for which replacement parts are no longer available. Installers replace old electronic control units with new PLCs. Setting up and installing a new PLC involves connecting it to different sensors and electrically powered devices (electric motors, switches, and pumps) and writing a computer program to operate the PLC. ●

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America’s Top 101 Jobs for People Without a Four-Year Degree Motor vehicle electronic equipment installers and repairers normally work indoors in well-ventilated and well-lighted repair shops. Minor cuts and bruises are common, but serious accidents usually are avoided when safety practices are observed.

Electronics installers coordinate their efforts with those of other workers who are installing and maintaining equipment. Electrical and electronics installers and repairers, transportation equipment install, adjust, or maintain mobile electronic communication equipment, including sound, sonar, security, navigation, and surveillance systems on trains, watercraft, or other mobile equipment. Electrical and electronics repairers, powerhouse, substation, and relay inspect, test, repair, or maintain electrical equipment in generating stations, substations, and in-service relays. These workers may be known as powerhouse electricians, relay technicians, or power transformer repairers. Electric motor, power tool, and related repairers—such as armature winders, generator mechanics, and electric golf cart repairers— specialize in repairing, maintaining, or installing electric motors, wiring, or switches.

Employment Electrical and electronics installers and repairers held about 172,000 jobs in 2002. The following tabulation breaks down their employment by occupational specialty: Electrical and electronics repairers, commercial and industrial equipment ......................................85,000 Electric motor, power tool, and related repairers ....31,000 Electrical and electronics repairers, powerhouse, substation, and relay ..............................................21,000

Electronic equipment installers and repairers, motor vehicles have a significantly different job. They install, diagnose, and repair communication, sound, security, and navigation equipment in motor vehicles. Most installation work involves either new alarm or sound systems. New sound systems vary significantly in cost and complexity of installation. Replacing a head unit (radio) with a new computer disc (CD) player is quite simple, requiring the removal of a few screws and the connection of a few wires. Installing a new sound system with a subwoofer, amplifier, and fuses is far more complicated. The installer builds a fiberglass or wood box designed to hold the subwoofer and to fit inside the unique dimensions of the automobile. Installing sound-deadening material, which often is necessary with more powerful speakers, requires an installer to remove many parts of a car (for example, seats, carpeting, or interiors of doors), add sound-absorbing material in empty spaces, and reinstall the interior parts. The installer also runs new speaker and electrical cables. The new system may require additional fuses, a new electrical line to be run from the battery through a newly drilled hole in the firewall into the interior of the vehicle, or an additional or more powerful alternator or battery. Motor vehicle installers and repairers work with an increasingly complex range of electronic equipment, including DVD players, satellite navigation equipment, passive-security tracking systems, and active-security systems.

Electronic equipment installers and repairers, motor vehicles ........................................................18,000 Electrical and electronics installers and repairers, transportation equipment ....................................18,000 Many repairers worked for utilities, building equipment contractors, machinery and equipment repair shops, wholesalers, the federal government, retailers of automotive parts and accessories, rail transportation companies, and manufacturers of electrical, electronic, and transportation equipment.

Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Knowledge of electrical equipment and electronics is necessary for employment. Many applicants gain this knowledge through programs lasting 1 to 2 years at vocational schools or community colleges, although some less skilled repairers may have only a high school diploma. Entry-level repairers may work closely with more experienced technicians who provide technical guidance. Installers and repairers should have good eyesight and color perception in order to work with the intricate components used in electronic equipment. Field technicians work closely with customers and should have good communication skills and a neat appearance. Employers also may require that field technicians have a driver’s license.

Working Conditions Many electrical and electronics installers and repairers work on factory floors, where they are subject to noise, dirt, vibration, and heat. Bench technicians work primarily in repair shops, where the surroundings are relatively quiet, comfortable, and well lighted.

Various organizations offer certification, including ACES International, the Consumer Electronics Association, the Electronics Technicians Association International, and the International Society of Certified Electronics Technicians. Repairers may specialize—in industrial electronics, for example. To receive certification, repairers must pass qualifying exams corresponding to their level of training and experience.

Installers and repairers may have to do heavy lifting and work in a variety of positions. They must follow safety guidelines and often wear protective goggles and hardhats. When working on ladders or on elevated equipment, repairers must wear harnesses to prevent falls. Before repairing a piece of machinery, these workers must follow procedures to ensure that others cannot start the equipment during the repair process. They also must take precautions against electric shock by locking off power to the unit under repair.

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Experienced repairers with advanced training may become specialists or troubleshooters who help other repairers diagnose difficult problems. Workers with leadership ability may become supervisors of other repairers. Some experienced workers open their own repair shops.

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Job Outlook

$16.87 in building equipment contractors, the industries employing the largest numbers of electrical and electronics repairers, commercial and industrial equipment.

Job opportunities should be best for applicants with a thorough knowledge of electrical equipment and electronics, as well as with repair experience. Overall employment of electrical and electronics installers and repairers is expected to grow more slowly than the average for all occupations over the 2002–12 period, but varies by occupational specialty. In addition to employment growth, many job openings should result from the need to replace workers who transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force.

Median hourly earnings of electric motor, power tool, and related repairers were $15.49 in 2002. The middle 50 percent earned between $11.82 and $19.99. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $9.32, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $25.34. In 2002, median hourly earnings were $14.05 in commercial and industrial machinery and equipment (except automotive and electronic) repair and maintenance, the industry employing the largest number of electronic motor, power tool, and related repairers.

Average employment growth is projected for electrical and electronics installers and repairers of commercial and industrial equipment. This equipment will become more sophisticated and will be used more frequently as businesses strive to lower costs by increasing and improving automation. Companies will install electronic controls, robots, sensors, and other equipment to automate processes such as assembly and testing. As prices decline, applications will be found across a number of industries, including services, utilities, and construction, as well as manufacturing. Improved reliability of equipment should not constrain employment growth, however: companies increasingly will rely on repairers because any malfunction that idles commercial and industrial equipment is costly.

Median hourly earnings of electrical and electronics repairers, powerhouse, substation, and relay were $24.85 in 2002. The middle 50 percent earned between $20.81 and $27.90. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $15.92, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $32.08. In 2002, median hourly earnings were $25.69 in electric power generation, transmission, and distribution—the industry employing the largest number of electrical and electronics repairers, powerhouse, substation, and relay. Median hourly earnings of electronics installers and repairers, motor vehicles were $12.51 in 2002. The middle 50 percent earned between $9.97 and $16.02. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $8.47, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $19.45.

Employment of motor vehicle electronic equipment installers and repairers also is expected to grow as fast as the average. However, motor vehicle manufacturers will install more and better sound, security, entertainment, and navigation systems in new vehicles, limiting employment growth for aftermarket electronic equipment installers. In addition, newer electronic systems are more reliable and require less maintenance.

Median hourly earnings of electrical and electronics repairers, transportation equipment were $18.56 in 2002. The middle 50 percent earned between $13.85 and $22.96. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $10.68, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $26.87.

Employment of electric motor, power tool, and related repairers is expected to grow more slowly than average. Improvements in electrical and electronic equipment design should limit job growth by simplifying repair tasks. More parts are being designed to be easily disposable, further reducing employment growth.

Related Occupations Workers in other occupations who install and repair electronic equipment include broadcast and sound technicians and radio operators; computer, automated teller, and office machine repairers; electronic home entertainment equipment installers and repairers; and radio and telecommunications equipment installers and repairers. Industrial machinery installation, repair, and maintenance workers also install, maintain, and repair industrial machinery.

Employment of electrical and electronic installers and repairers of transportation equipment is expected to grow more slowly than the average, due to declining industry employment in rail transportation, aerospace product and parts manufacturing, and ship- and boatbuilding. Employment of electrical and electronics installers and repairers, powerhouse, substation, and relay is expected to decline slightly. Consolidation and privatization in utilities industries should improve productivity, reducing employment. Newer equipment will be more reliable and easier to repair, further limiting employment.

Sources of Additional Information For information on careers and certification, contact any of the following organizations:

Earnings Median hourly earnings of electrical and electronics repairers, commercial and industrial equipment were $19.77 in 2002. The middle 50 percent earned between $15.13 and $24.03. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $11.71, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $27.08. In 2002, median hourly earnings were $23.68 in the federal government and

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ACES International, 5241 Princess Anne Rd., Suite 110, Virginia Beach, VA 23462. Internet: http://www.acesinternational.org

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Consumer Electronics Association, 2500 Wilson Blvd, Arlington VA. 22201-3834. Internet: http://www.ce.org

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Electronics Technicians Association International, 5 Depot St., Greencastle, IN 46135.

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International Society of Certified Electronics Technicians, 3608 Pershing Ave., Fort Worth, TX 76107-4527. Internet: http://www.iscet.org

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Electricians

Maintenance electricians spend much of their time doing preventive maintenance. They periodically inspect equipment, and locate and correct problems before breakdowns occur. Electricians may also advise management whether continued operation of equipment could be hazardous. When needed, they install new electrical equipment. When breakdowns occur, they must make the necessary repairs as quickly as possible in order to minimize inconvenience. Electricians may replace items such as circuit breakers, fuses, switches, electrical and electronic components, or wire. When working with complex electronic devices, they may work with engineers, engineering technicians, or industrial machinery installation, repair, and maintenance workers.

(O*NET 47-2111.00)

Significant Points ●

Job opportunities are expected to be good.

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Most electricians acquire their skills by completing an apprenticeship program lasting 3 to 5 years.

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More than one-quarter of wage and salary electricians work in industries other than construction.

Nature of the Work

Electricians use handtools such as screwdrivers, pliers, knives, hacksaws, and wire strippers. They also use a variety of power tools as well as testing equipment such as oscilloscopes, ammeters, and test lamps.

Electricity is essential for light, power, air-conditioning, and refrigeration. Electricians install, connect, test, and maintain electrical systems for a variety of purposes, including climate control, security, and communications. They also may install and maintain the electronic controls for machines in business and industry. Although most electricians specialize in construction or maintenance, a growing number do both.

Working Conditions Electricians’ work is sometimes strenuous. They bend conduit, stand for long periods, and frequently work on ladders and scaffolds. Their working environment varies, depending on the type of job. Some may work in dusty, dirty, hot, or wet conditions, or in confined areas, ditches, or other uncomfortable places. Electricians risk injury from electrical shock, falls, and cuts; to avoid injuries, they must follow strict safety procedures. Some electricians may have to travel great distances to jobsites.

Electricians work with blueprints when they install electrical systems in factories, office buildings, homes, and other structures. Blueprints indicate the locations of circuits, outlets, load centers, panel boards, and other equipment. Electricians must follow the National Electric Code and comply with state and local building codes when they install these systems. In factories and offices, they first place conduit (pipe or tubing) inside designated partitions, walls, or other concealed areas. They also fasten to the walls small metal or plastic boxes that will house electrical switches and outlets. They then pull insulated wires or cables through the conduit to complete circuits between these boxes. In lighter construction, such as residential, plastic-covered wire usually is used instead of conduit.

Most electricians work a standard 40-hour week, although overtime may be required. Those in maintenance work may work nights or weekends, and be on call. Maintenance electricians may also have periodic extended overtime during scheduled maintenance or retooling periods. Companies that operate 24 hours a day may employ three shifts of electricians.

Regardless of the type of wire used, electricians connect it to circuit breakers, transformers, or other components. They join the wires in boxes with various specially designed connectors. After they finish the wiring, they use testing equipment, such as ohmmeters, voltmeters, and oscilloscopes, to check the circuits for proper connections, ensuring electrical compatibility and safety of components.

Employment Electricians held about 659,000 jobs in 2002. More than onequarter of wage and salary workers were employed in the construction industry; while the remainder worked as maintenance electricians employed outside the construction industry. In addition, about one in ten electricians were selfemployed.

Electricians also may install low voltage wiring systems in addition to wiring a building’s electrical system. Low voltage wiring involves voice, data, and video wiring systems, such as those for telephones, computers and related equipment, intercoms, and fire alarm and security systems. Electricians also may install coaxial or fiber optic cable for computers and other telecommunications equipment and electronic controls for industrial equipment.

Because of the widespread need for electrical services, jobs for electricians are found in all parts of the country.

Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement

Maintenance work varies greatly, depending on where the electrician is employed. Electricians who specialize in residential work may rewire a home and replace an old fuse box with a new circuit breaker box to accommodate additional appliances. Those who work in large factories may repair motors,

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Most people learn the electrical trade by completing an apprenticeship program lasting 3 to 5 years. Apprenticeship gives trainees a thorough knowledge of all aspects of the trade and generally improves their ability to find a job. Although

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Section One: Descriptions of 101 Top Jobs for People Without a Four-Year Degree electricians are more likely to be trained through apprenticeship than are workers in other construction trades, some still learn their skills informally on the job. Others train to be residential electricians in a 3-year program.

tric and building codes. Electricians periodically take courses offered by their employer or union to keep abreast of changes in the National Electrical Code, materials, or methods of installation.

Apprenticeship programs may be sponsored by joint training committees made up of local unions of the International Brotherhood of Electrical Workers and local chapters of the National Electrical Contractors Association; company management committees of individual electrical contracting companies; or local chapters of the Associated Builders and Contractors and the Independent Electrical Contractors Association. Because of the comprehensive training received, those who complete apprenticeship programs qualify to do both maintenance and construction work.

Experienced electricians can become supervisors and then superintendents. Those with sufficient capital and management skills may start their own contracting business, although this may require an electrical contractor’s license. Many electricians become electrical inspectors.

Job Outlook Job opportunities for electricians are expected to be good. Numerous openings will arise each year as experienced electricians leave the occupation. In addition, many potential workers may choose not to enter training programs because they prefer work that is less strenuous and has more comfortable working conditions.

The typical large apprenticeship program provides at least 144 hours of classroom instruction and 2,000 hours of on-the-job training each year. In the classroom, apprentices learn blueprint reading, electrical theory, electronics, mathematics, electrical code requirements, and safety and first aid practices. They also may receive specialized training in welding, communications, fire alarm systems, and cranes and elevators. On the job, under the supervision of experienced electricians, apprentices must demonstrate mastery of the electrician’s work. At first, they drill holes, set anchors, and set up conduit. Later, they measure, fabricate, and install conduit, as well as install, connect, and test wiring, outlets, and switches. They also learn to set up and draw diagrams for entire electrical systems.

Employment of electricians is expected to grow faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2012. As the population and economy grow, more electricians will be needed to install and maintain electrical devices and wiring in homes, factories, offices, and other structures. New technologies also are expected to continue to stimulate the demand for these workers. For example, buildings will be prewired during construction to accommodate use of computers and telecommunications equipment. More factories will be using robots and automated manufacturing systems. Additional jobs will be created by rehabilitation and retrofitting of existing structures.

After finishing an apprenticeship, journeymen often continue to learn about related electrical systems, such as low voltage voice, data, and video systems. Many builders and owners want to work with only one contractor who can install or repair both regular electrical systems and low voltage systems.

In addition to jobs created by increased demand for electrical work, many openings will occur each year as electricians transfer to other occupations, retire, or leave the labor force for other reasons. Because the training for this occupation is long and difficult and the earnings are relatively high, a smaller proportion of electricians than of other craftworkers leave the occupation each year. The number of retirements is expected to rise, however, as more electricians reach retirement age.

Those who do not enter a formal apprenticeship program can begin to learn the trade informally by working as helpers for experienced electricians. While learning to install conduit, connect wires, and test circuits, helpers also learn safety practices. Many helpers supplement this training with trade school or correspondence courses.

Employment of construction electricians, like that of many other construction workers, is sensitive to changes in the economy. This results from the limited duration of construction projects and the cyclical nature of the construction industry. During economic downturns, job openings for electricians are reduced as the level of construction activity declines. Apprenticeship opportunities also are less plentiful during these periods.

Regardless of how one learns the trade, previous training is very helpful. High school courses in mathematics, electricity, electronics, mechanical drawing, science, and shop provide a good background. Special training offered in the U.S. Armed Forces and by postsecondary technical schools also is beneficial. All applicants should be in good health and have at least average physical strength. Agility and dexterity also are important. Good color vision is needed because workers frequently must identify electrical wires by color.

Although employment of maintenance electricians is steadier than that of construction electricians, those working in the automotive and other manufacturing industries that are sensitive to cyclical swings in the economy may be laid off during recessions. Also, efforts to reduce operating costs and increase productivity through the increased use of contracting out for electrical services may limit opportunities for maintenance electricians in many industries. However, this should be partially offset by increased job opportunities for electricians in electrical contracting firms.

Most apprenticeship sponsors require applicants for apprentice positions to be at least 18 years old, have a high school diploma or its equivalent, and be able to pass a skills test. For those interested in becoming maintenance electricians, a background in electronics is increasingly important because of the growing use of complex electronic controls on manufacturing equipment. Most localities require electricians to be licensed. Although licensing requirements vary from area to area, electricians usually must pass an examination that tests their knowledge of electrical theory, the National Electrical Code, and local elec-

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Job opportunities for electricians also vary by area. Employment opportunities follow the movement of people and businesses among states and local areas and reflect differences in ●

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America’s Top 101 Jobs for People Without a Four-Year Degree local economic conditions. The number of job opportunities in a given year may fluctuate widely from area to area.

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National Joint Apprenticeship Training Committee (NJATC), 301 Prince George’s Blvd., Upper Marlboro, MD 20774. Internet: http://www.njatc.org

Earnings

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National Electrical Contractors Association (NECA), 3 Metro Center, Suite 1100, Bethesda, MD 20814. Internet: http://www.necanet.org

In 2002, median hourly earnings of electricians were $19.90. The middle 50 percent earned between $14.95 and $26.50. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $11.81, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $33.21. Median hourly earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of electricians in 2002 are shown below:

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International Brotherhood of Electrical Workers (IBEW), 1125 15th St. NW, Washington, DC 20005. Internet: http://www.ibew.org

For information about independent apprenticeship programs, contact:

Motor vehicle parts manufacturing ........................$28.72 Local government ......................................................21.15 Building equipment contractors ................................19.54

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Associated Builders and Contractors, Workforce Development Department, 4250 North Fairfax Dr., 9th Floor, Arlington, VA 22203.

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Independent Electrical Contractors, Inc., 4401 Ford Ave., Suite 1100, Alexandria, VA 22302. Internet: http://www.ieci.org

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National Association of Home Builders, 1201 15th St. NW, Washington, DC 20005. Internet: http://www.nahb.org

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Home Builders Institute, 1201 15th St. NW, Washington, DC 20005. Internet: http://www.hbi.org

Nonresidential building construction ......................19.36 Employment services ................................................15.46 Depending on experience, apprentices usually start at between 40 and 50 percent of the rate paid to fully trained electricians. As apprentices become more skilled, they receive periodic increases throughout the course of their training. Many employers also provide training opportunities for experienced electricians to improve their skills.

There are more than 500 occupations registered by the U.S. Department of Labor’s National Apprenticeship system. For more information on the Labor Department’s registered apprenticeship system and links to state apprenticeship programs, check their Web site: http://www.doleta.gov.

Many construction electricians are members of the International Brotherhood of Electrical Workers. Among unions organizing maintenance electricians are the International Brotherhood of Electrical Workers; the International Union of Electronic, Electrical, Salaried, Machine, and Furniture Workers; the International Association of Machinists and Aerospace Workers; the International Union, United Automobile, Aircraft and Agricultural Implement Workers of America; and the United Steelworkers of America.

Elevator Installers and Repairers (O*NET 47-4021.00)

Significant Points

Related Occupations To install and maintain electrical systems, electricians combine manual skill and knowledge of electrical materials and concepts. Workers in other occupations involving similar skills include heating, air-conditioning, and refrigeration mechanics and installers; line installers and repairers; electrical and electronics installers and repairers; electronic home entertainment equipment installers and repairers; and elevator installers and repairers.

Sources of Additional Information

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Job opportunities are expected to be limited in this small occupation; prospects should be best for those with postsecondary education in electronics.

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Elevator installers and repairers lose less worktime due to inclement weather than do other construction trades workers.

Elevator installers and repairers—also called elevator constructors or elevator mechanics—assemble, install, and replace elevators, escalators, dumbwaiters, moving walkways, and similar equipment in new and old buildings. Once the equipment is in service, they maintain and repair it as well. They also are responsible for modernizing older equipment. To install, repair, and maintain modern elevators, which are almost all electronically controlled, elevator installers and repairers must have a thorough knowledge of electronics, electricity, and hydraulics. Many elevators are controlled with microprocessors, which are programmed to analyze traffic con-

For information about union apprenticeship programs, contact:

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Workers learn the trade through 4 years of on-the-job training and classroom instruction.

Nature of the Work

For details about apprenticeships or other work opportunities in this trade, contact the offices of the state employment service, the state apprenticeship agency, local electrical contractors or firms that employ maintenance electricians, or local unionmanagement electrician apprenticeship committees. This information also may be available from local chapters of the Independent Electrical Contractors, Inc.; the National Electrical Contractors Association; the Home Builders Institute; the Associated Builders and Contractors; and the International Brotherhood of Electrical Workers.

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Section One: Descriptions of 101 Top Jobs for People Without a Four-Year Degree Elevator installers and repairers usually specialize in installation, maintenance, or repair work. Maintenance and repair workers generally need greater knowledge of electricity and electronics than do installers, because a large part of maintenance and repair work is troubleshooting. Similarly, adjusters need a thorough knowledge of electricity, electronics, and computers to ensure that newly installed elevators operate properly.

ditions in order to dispatch elevators in the most efficient manner. With these computer controls, it is possible to get the greatest amount of service with the least number of cars. When installing a new elevator, installers and repairers begin by studying blueprints to determine the equipment needed to install rails, machinery, car enclosures, motors, pumps, cylinders, and plunger foundations. Once this has been done, they begin equipment installation. Working on scaffolding or platforms, installers bolt or weld steel rails to the walls of the shaft to guide the elevator.

Working Conditions Most elevator installers and repairers work a 40-hour week. However, overtime is required when essential elevator equipment must be repaired, and some workers are on 24-hour call. Unlike most elevator installers, workers who specialize in elevator maintenance are on their own most of the day and typically service the same elevators periodically.

Elevator installers put in electrical wires and controls by running tubing, called conduit, along a shaft’s walls from floor to floor. Once the conduit is in place, mechanics pull plasticcovered electrical wires through it. They then install electrical components and related devices required at each floor and at the main control panel in the machine room.

Elevator installers lift and carry heavy equipment and parts, and may work in cramped spaces or awkward positions. Potential hazards include falls, electrical shock, muscle strains, and other injuries related to handling heavy equipment. Because most of their work is performed indoors in buildings under construction or in existing buildings, elevator installers and repairers lose less worktime due to inclement weather than do other construction trades workers.

Installers bolt or weld together the steel frame of an elevator car at the bottom of the shaft; install the car’s platform, walls, and doors; and attach guide shoes and rollers to minimize the lateral motion of the car as it travels through the shaft. They also install the outer doors and door frames at the elevator entrances on each floor. For cabled elevators, these workers install geared or gearless machines with a traction drive wheel that guides and moves heavy steel cables connected to the elevator car and counterweight. (The counterweight moves in the opposite direction from the car and balances most of the weight of the car to reduce the weight that the elevator’s motor must lift.) Elevator installers also install elevators in which a car sits on a hydraulic plunger that is driven by a pump. The plunger pushes the elevator car up from underneath, similar to a lift in an auto service station.

Employment Elevator installers and repairers held about 21,000 jobs in 2002. Most were employed by special trade contractors. Others were employed by field offices of elevator manufacturers, wholesale distributors, small-elevator maintenance and repair contractors, government agencies, or businesses that do their own elevator maintenance and repair.

Installers and repairers also install escalators. They put in place the steel framework, the electrically powered stairs, and the tracks, and they install associated motors and electrical wiring. In addition to elevators and escalators, installers and repairers also may install devices such as dumbwaiters and material lifts—which are similar to elevators in design—as well as moving walkways, stair lifts, and wheelchair lifts.

Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most elevator installers and repairers apply for their jobs through a local of the International Union of Elevator Constructors. Applicants for apprenticeship positions must be at least 18 years old, have a high school diploma or equivalent, and pass an aptitude test. Good physical condition and mechanical aptitude also are important.

The most highly skilled elevator installers and repairers, called “adjusters,” specialize in fine-tuning all the equipment after installation. Adjusters make sure that an elevator is working according to specifications and is stopping correctly at each floor within a specified time. Once an elevator is operating properly, it must be maintained and serviced regularly to keep it in safe working condition. Elevator installers and repairers generally do preventive maintenance—such as oiling and greasing moving parts, replacing worn parts, testing equipment with meters and gauges, and adjusting equipment for optimal performance. They also troubleshoot and may be called to do emergency repairs.

Elevator installers and repairers learn their trade in a program administered by local joint educational committees representing the employers and the union. These programs, through which the apprentice learns everything from installation to repair, combine on-the-job training with classroom instruction in blueprint reading, electrical and electronic theory, mathematics, applications of physics, and safety. In nonunion shops, workers may complete training programs sponsored by independent contractors.

A service crew usually handles major repairs—for example, replacing cables, elevator doors, or machine bearings. This may require the use of cutting torches or rigging equipment— tools that an elevator repairer normally would not carry. Service crews also do major modernization and alteration work, such as moving and replacing electrical motors, hydraulic pumps, and control panels.

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Generally, apprentices must complete a 6-month probationary period. After successful completion, they work toward becoming fully qualified within 4 years. To be classified as a fully qualified elevator installer or repairer, union trainees must pass a standard examination administered by the National Elevator Industry Educational Program. Most states and cities also

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Earnings

require elevator installers and repairers to pass a licensing examination. Both union and nonunion technicians may take the Certified Elevator Technician (CET) course offered by the National Association of Elevator Contractors.

Median hourly earnings of elevator installers and repairers were $25.99 in 2002. The middle 50 percent earned between $20.08 and $31.72. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $14.60, and the top 10 percent earned more than $36.81. In 2002, median hourly earnings in the miscellaneous special trade contractors industry were $26.62. In addition to free continuing education, elevator installers and repairers receive basic benefits enjoyed by most other workers.

Most apprentices assist experienced elevator installers and repairers. Beginners carry materials and tools, bolt rails to walls, and assemble elevator cars. Eventually, apprentices learn more difficult tasks such as wiring, which requires knowledge of local and national electrical codes. High school courses in electricity, mathematics, and physics provide a useful background. As elevators become increasingly sophisticated, workers may find it necessary to acquire more advanced formal education—for example, in postsecondary technical school or junior college—with an emphasis on electronics. Workers with more formal education, such as an associate degree, usually advance more quickly than do their counterparts.

Related Occupations Elevator installers and repairers combine electrical and mechanical skills with construction skills, such as welding, rigging, measuring, and blueprint reading. Other occupations that require many of these skills are boilermakers; electricians; electrical and electronics installers and repairers; industrial machinery installation, repair, and maintenance workers; sheet metal workers; and structural and reinforcing iron and metal workers.

Many elevator installers and repairers also receive training from their employers or through manufacturers to become familiar with a particular company’s equipment. Retraining is very important if a worker is to keep abreast of technological developments in elevator repair. In fact, union elevator installers and repairers typically receive continual training throughout their careers, through correspondence courses, seminars, or formal classes. Although voluntary, this training greatly improves one’s chances for promotion.

Sources of Additional Information For further information on opportunities as an elevator installer and repairer, contact: ●

Some installers may receive further training in specialized areas and advance to the position of mechanic-in-charge, adjuster, supervisor, or elevator inspector. Adjusters, for example, may be picked for their position because they possess particular skills or are electronically inclined. Other workers may move into management, sales, or product design jobs.

For additional information about the Certified Elevator Technician (CET) program, contact: ●

Job opportunities are expected to be limited in this small occupation. A large proportion of elevator installer and repairer jobs are unionized and involve a significant investment in training. As a result, workers tend to stay in this occupation for a long time. This investment in training, as well as good benefits and relatively high wages, results in fewer openings due to turnover, thus reducing job opportunities. Job prospects should be best for those with postsecondary education in electronics.

Emergency Medical Technicians and Paramedics

Employment of elevator installers and repairers is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2012. Job growth is related to the growth of nonresidential construction, such as commercial office buildings and stores that have elevators and escalators. The need to continually update and modernize old equipment, expand and access, improve appearance, and install increasingly sophisticated equipment and computerized controls also should add to the demand for elevator installers and repairers.

(O*NET 29-2041.00)

Significant Points

Because it is desirable that equipment always be kept in good working condition, economic downturns will have less of an effect on employment of elevator installers and repairers than on other construction trades.

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National Association of Elevator Contractors,1298 Wellbrook Circle, Suite A, Conyers, GA 30012. Internet: http://www.naec.org

There are more than 500 occupations registered by the U.S. Department of Labor’s National Apprenticeship system. For more information on the Labor Department’s registered apprenticeship system and links to state apprenticeship programs, check their Web site: http://www.doleta.gov.

Job Outlook

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Job stress is common because hours of work are irregular and workers often must treat patients in life-or-death situations.

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Formal training and certification are required, but state requirements vary.

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Employment is projected to grow faster than average as paid emergency medical technician positions replace unpaid volunteers.

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Competition will be greater for jobs in local fire, police, and rescue squad departments than in private ambulance services; opportunities will be best for those who have advanced certification.

The lowest-level workers—First Responders—are trained to provide basic emergency medical care because they tend to be the first persons to arrive at the scene of an incident. Many firefighters, police officers, and other emergency workers have this level of training. The EMT-Basic, also known as EMT-1, represents the first component of the emergency medical technician system. An EMT-1 is trained to care for patients at the scene of an accident and while transporting patients by ambulance to the hospital under medical direction. The EMT-1 has the emergency skills to assess a patient’s condition and manage respiratory, cardiac, and trauma emergencies.

Nature of the Work People’s lives often depend on the quick reaction and competent care of emergency medical technicians (EMTs) and paramedics—EMTs with additional advanced training to perform more difficult prehospital medical procedures. Incidents as varied as automobile accidents, heart attacks, drownings, childbirth, and gunshot wounds all require immediate medical attention. EMTs and paramedics provide this vital attention as they care for and transport the sick or injured to a medical facility.

The EMT-Intermediate (EMT-2 and EMT-3) has more advanced training that allows the administration of intravenous fluids, the use of manual defibrillators to give lifesaving shocks to a stopped heart, and the application of advanced airway techniques and equipment to assist patients experiencing respiratory emergencies. EMT-Paramedics (EMT-4) provide the most extensive prehospital care. In addition to carrying out the procedures already described, paramedics may administer drugs orally and intravenously, interpret electrocardiograms (EKGs), perform endotracheal intubations, and use monitors and other complex equipment.

In an emergency, EMTs and paramedics typically are dispatched to the scene by a 911 operator, and they often work with police and fire department personnel. When they arrive, they determine the nature and extent of the patient’s condition while trying to ascertain whether the patient has preexisting medical problems. Following strict rules and guidelines, they give appropriate emergency care and, when necessary, transport the patient. Some paramedics are trained to treat patients with minor injuries on the scene of an accident or at their home without transporting them to a medical facility. Emergency treatment for more complicated problems is carried out under the direction of medical doctors by radio preceding or during transport.

Working Conditions EMTs and paramedics work both indoors and outdoors, in all types of weather. They are required to do considerable kneeling, bending, and heavy lifting. These workers risk noiseinduced hearing loss from sirens and back injuries from lifting patients. In addition, EMTs and paramedics may be exposed to diseases such as hepatitis-B and AIDS, as well as violence from drug overdose victims or mentally unstable patients. The work is not only physically strenuous, but also stressful, involving life-or-death situations and suffering patients. Nonetheless, many people find the work exciting and challenging and enjoy the opportunity to help others.

EMTs and paramedics may use special equipment, such as backboards, to immobilize patients before placing them on stretchers and securing them in the ambulance for transport to a medical facility. Usually, one EMT or paramedic drives while the other monitors the patient’s vital signs and gives additional care as needed. Some EMTs work as part of the flight crew of helicopters that transport critically ill or injured patients to hospital trauma centers.

EMTs and paramedics employed by fire departments work about 50 hours a week. Those employed by hospitals frequently work between 45 and 60 hours a week, and those in private ambulance services, between 45 and 50 hours. Some of these workers, especially those in police and fire departments, are on call for extended periods. Because emergency services function 24 hours a day, EMTs and paramedics have irregular working hours that add to job stress.

At the medical facility, EMTs and paramedics help transfer patients to the emergency department, report their observations and actions to emergency room staff, and may provide additional emergency treatment. After each run, EMTs and paramedics replace used supplies and check equipment. If a transported patient had a contagious disease, EMTs and paramedics decontaminate the interior of the ambulance and report cases to the proper authorities.

Employment EMTs and paramedics held about 179,000 jobs in 2002. Most career EMTs and paramedics work in metropolitan areas. There are many more volunteer EMTs and paramedics, especially in smaller cities, towns, and rural areas. These individuals volunteer for fire departments, emergency medical services (EMS), or hospitals and may respond to only a few calls for service per month or may answer the majority of calls, especially in smaller communities. EMTs and paramedics work closely with firefighters, who often are certified as EMTs as well and act as first responders.

Beyond these general duties, the specific responsibilities of EMTs and paramedics depend on their level of qualification and training. To determine this, the National Registry of Emergency Medical Technicians (NREMT) registers emergency medical service (EMS) providers at four levels: First Responder, EMT-Basic, EMT-Intermediate, and EMT-Paramedic. Some states, however, do their own certification and use numeric ratings from 1 to 4 to distinguish levels of proficiency.

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America’s Top 101 Jobs for People Without a Four-Year Degree tified as an EMT-Paramedic. Extensive related coursework and clinical and field experience is required. Due to the longer training requirement, almost all EMT-Paramedics are in paid positions, rather than being volunteers. Refresher courses and continuing education are available for EMTs and paramedics at all levels.

Full-time and part-time paid EMTs and paramedics were employed in a number of industries. About 4 out of 10 worked as employees of private ambulance services. About 3 out of 10 worked in local government for fire departments, public ambulance services, and EMS. Another 2 out of 10 were found in hospitals, working full time within the medical facility or responding to calls in ambulances or helicopters to transport critically ill or injured patients. The remainder worked in various industries providing emergency services.

EMTs and paramedics should be emotionally stable; have good dexterity, agility, and physical coordination; and be able to lift and carry heavy loads. They also need good eyesight (corrective lenses may be used) with accurate color vision.

Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement

Advancement beyond the EMT-Paramedic level usually means leaving fieldwork. An EMT-Paramedic can become a supervisor, operations manager, administrative director, or executive director of emergency services. Some EMTs and paramedics become instructors, dispatchers, or physician assistants, while others move into sales or marketing of emergency medical equipment. A number of people become EMTs and paramedics to assess their interest in healthcare, and then decide to return to school and become registered nurses, physicians, or other health workers.

Formal training and certification is needed to become an EMT or paramedic. All 50 states have a certification procedure. In most states and the District of Columbia, registration with the NREMT is required at some or all levels of certification. Other states administer their own certification examination or provide the option of taking the NREMT examination. To maintain certification, EMTs and paramedics must reregister, usually every 2 years. In order to reregister, an individual must be working as an EMT or paramedic and meet a continuing education requirement.

Job Outlook Employment of emergency medical technicians and paramedics is expected to grow faster than the average for all occupations through 2012. Population growth and urbanization will increase the demand for full-time paid EMTs and paramedics rather than for volunteers. In addition, a large segment of the population—the aging baby boomers—will further spur demand for EMT services as they become more likely to have medical emergencies. There will still be demand for part-time, volunteer EMTs and paramedics in rural areas and smaller metropolitan areas. In addition to those arising from job growth, openings will occur because of replacement needs; some workers leave the occupation because of stressful working conditions, limited potential for advancement, and the modest pay and benefits in private-sector jobs.

Training is offered at progressive levels: EMT-Basic, also known as EMT-1; EMT-Intermediate, or EMT-2 and EMT-3; and EMTParamedic, or EMT-4. EMT-Basic coursework typically emphasizes emergency skills, such as managing respiratory, trauma, and cardiac emergencies, and patient assessment. Formal courses are often combined with time in an emergency room or ambulance. The program also provides instruction and practice in dealing with bleeding, fractures, airway obstruction, cardiac arrest, and emergency childbirth. Students learn how to use and maintain common emergency equipment, such as backboards, suction devices, splints, oxygen delivery systems, and stretchers. Graduates of approved EMT basic training programs who pass a written and practical examination administered by the state certifying agency or the NREMT earn the title “Registered EMT-Basic.” The course also is a prerequisite for EMT-Intermediate and EMT-Paramedic training.

Most opportunities for EMTs and paramedics are expected to found in private ambulance services. Competition will be greater for jobs in local government, including fire, police, and independent third-service rescue squad departments, in which salaries and benefits tend to be slightly better. Opportunities will be best for those who have advanced certifications, such as EMT-Intermediate and EMT-Paramedic, as clients and patients demand higher levels of care before arriving at the hospital.

EMT-Intermediate training requirements vary from state to state. Applicants can opt to receive training in EMT-Shock Trauma, wherein the caregiver learns to start intravenous fluids and give certain medications, or in EMT-Cardiac, which includes learning heart rhythms and administering advanced medications. Training commonly includes 35 to 55 hours of additional instruction beyond EMT-Basic coursework and covers patient assessment as well as the use of advanced airway devices and intravenous fluids. Prerequisites for taking the EMT-Intermediate examination include registration as an EMTBasic, required classroom work, and a specified amount of clinical experience.

Earnings Earnings of EMTs and paramedics depend on the employment setting and geographic location as well as the individual’s training and experience. Median annual earnings of EMTs and paramedics were $24,030 in 2002. The middle 50 percent earned between $19,040 and $31,600. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $15,530, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $41,980. Median annual earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of EMTs and paramedics in 2002 were:

The most advanced level of training for this occupation is EMT-Paramedic. At this level, the caregiver receives additional training in body function and learns more advanced skills. The Technology program usually lasts up to 2 years and results in an associate degree in applied science. Such education prepares the graduate to take the NREMT examination and become cer-

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Section One: Descriptions of 101 Top Jobs for People Without a Four-Year Degree opment. Others work in quality control—inspecting products and processes, conducting tests, or collecting data. In manufacturing, they may assist in product design, development, or production.

Local government ..................................................$27,440 General medical and surgical hospitals ..................24,760 Other ambulatory health care services ..................22,180

Engineering technicians who work in research and development build or set up equipment, prepare and conduct experiments, collect data, calculate or record results, and help engineers or scientists in other ways, such as making prototype versions of newly designed equipment. They also assist in design work, often using computer-aided design (CAD) equipment.

Those in emergency medical services who are part of fire or police departments receive the same benefits as firefighters or police officers. For example, many are covered by pension plans that provide retirement at half pay after 20 or 25 years of service or if the worker is disabled in the line of duty.

Related Occupations

Most engineering technicians specialize in certain areas, learning skills and working in the same disciplines as engineers. Occupational titles, therefore, tend to reflect those of engineers.

Other workers in occupations that require quick and levelheaded reactions to life-or-death situations are air traffic controllers, firefighting occupations, physician assistants, police and detectives, and registered nurses.

Aerospace engineering and operations technicians install, construct, maintain, and test systems used to test, launch, or track aircraft and space vehicles. They may calibrate test equipment and determine causes of equipment malfunctions. Using computer and communications systems, aerospace engineering and operations technicians often record and interpret test data.

Sources of Additional Information General information about emergency medical technicians and paramedics is available from: ●

National Association of Emergency Medical Technicians, P.O. Box 1400, Clinton, MS 39060-1400. Internet: http://www.naemt.org

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National Registry of Emergency Medical Technicians, Rocco V. Morando Bldg., 6610 Busch Blvd., P.O. Box 29233, Columbus, OH 43229. Internet: http://www.nremt.org

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National Highway Transportation Safety Administration, EMS Division, 400 7th St. SW, NTS-14, Washington, DC 20590. Internet: http://www.nhtsa.dot.gov/people/injury/ems

Chemical engineering technicians usually are employed in industries producing pharmaceuticals, chemicals, and petroleum products, among others. They work in laboratories as well as processing plants. They help to develop new chemical products and processes, test processing equipment and instrumentation, gather data, and monitor quality. Civil engineering technicians help civil engineers to plan and build highways, buildings, bridges, dams, wastewater treatment systems, and other structures, and to do related research. Some estimate construction costs and specify materials to be used, and some may even prepare drawings or perform landsurveying duties. Others may set up and monitor instruments used to study traffic conditions.

Engineering Technicians

Electrical and electronics engineering technicians help to design, develop, test, and manufacture electrical and electronic equipment such as communication equipment, radar, industrial and medical measuring or control devices, navigational equipment, and computers. They may work in product evaluation and testing, using measuring and diagnostic devices to adjust, test, and repair equipment. Electrical and electronic engineering technology also is applied to a wide variety of systems such as communication and process controls.

(O*NET 17-3021.00, 17-3022.00, 17-3023.01, 17-3023.02, 17-3023.03, 17-3024.00, 17-3025.00, 17-3026.00, and 17-3027.00)

Significant Points ●

Electrical and electronic engineering technicians make up 42 percent of all engineering technicians.

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Because the type and quality of training programs vary considerably, prospective students should carefully investigate training programs before enrolling.

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Electromechanical engineering technicians combine fundamental principles of mechanical engineering technology with knowledge of electrical and electronic circuits to design, develop, test, and manufacture electrical and computer-controlled mechanical systems.

Opportunities will be best for individuals with an associate degree or extensive job training in engineering technology.

Environmental engineering technicians work closely with environmental engineers and scientists in developing methods and devices used in the prevention, control, or correction of environmental hazards. They inspect and maintain equipment affecting air pollution and recycling. Some inspect water and wastewater treatment systems to ensure that pollution control requirements are met.

Nature of the Work Engineering technicians use the principles and theories of science, engineering, and mathematics to solve technical problems in research and development, manufacturing, sales, construction, inspection, and maintenance. Their work is more limited in scope and more practically oriented than that of scientists and engineers. Many engineering technicians assist engineers and scientists, especially in research and devel-

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Industrial engineering technicians study the efficient use of personnel, materials, and machines in factories, stores, repair

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America’s Top 101 Jobs for People Without a Four-Year Degree engineering technology. Training is available at technical institutes, community colleges, extension divisions of colleges and universities, and public and private vocational-technical schools, and in the Armed Forces. Persons with college courses in science, engineering, and mathematics may qualify for some positions but may need additional specialized training and experience. Although employers usually do not require engineering technicians to be certified, such certification may provide jobseekers a competitive advantage.

shops, and offices. They prepare layouts of machinery and equipment, plan the flow of work, make statistical studies, and analyze production costs. Mechanical engineering technicians help engineers to design, develop, test, and manufacture industrial machinery, consumer products, and other equipment. They may assist in product tests—by setting up instrumentation for auto crash tests, for example. They may make sketches and rough layouts, record data, make computations, analyze results, and write reports. When planning production, mechanical engineering technicians prepare layouts and drawings of the assembly process and of parts to be manufactured. They estimate labor costs, equipment life, and plant space. Some test and inspect machines and equipment or work with engineers to eliminate production problems.

Prospective engineering technicians should take as many high school science and math courses as possible to prepare for postsecondary programs in engineering technology. Most 2year associate degree programs accredited by the Technology Accreditation Commission of the Accreditation Board for Engineering and Technology (TAC/ABET) require, at a minimum, college algebra and trigonometry, and one or two basic science courses. Depending on the specialty, more math or science may be required.

Working Conditions Most engineering technicians work at least 40 hours a week in laboratories, offices, or manufacturing or industrial plants, or on construction sites. Some may be exposed to hazards from equipment, chemicals, or toxic materials.

The type of technical courses required also depends on the specialty. For example, prospective mechanical engineering technicians may take courses in fluid mechanics, thermodynamics, and mechanical design; electrical engineering technicians may need classes in electric circuits, microprocessors, and digital electronics; and those preparing to work in environmental engineering technology need courses in environmental regulations and safe handling of hazardous materials.

Employment Engineering technicians held 478,000 jobs in 2002. 204,000 of these were electrical and electronics engineering technicians, as indicated by the following tabulation.

Because many engineering technicians assist in design work, creativity is desirable. Because these workers often are part of a team of engineers and other technicians, good communication skills and the ability to work well with others also are important.

Electrical and electronic engineering technicians............................................................204,000 Civil engineering technicians ..................................92,000 Industrial engineering technicians ..........................62,000

Engineering technicians usually begin by performing routine duties under the close supervision of an experienced technician, technologist, engineer, or scientist. As they gain experience, they are given more difficult assignments with only general supervision. Some engineering technicians eventually become supervisors.

Mechanical engineering technicians ......................55,000 Electro-mechanical technicians ..............................31,000 Environmental engineering technicians ................19,000 Aerospace engineering and operations technicians ............................................................15,000

Many publicly and privately operated schools provide technical training; the type and quality of training varies considerably. Therefore, prospective students should be careful in selecting a program. They should contact prospective employers regarding their preferences and ask schools to provide information about the kinds of jobs obtained by graduates, instructional facilities and equipment, and faculty qualifications. Graduates of ABET-accredited programs usually are recognized to have achieved an acceptable level of competence in the mathematics, science, and technical courses required for this occupation.

About 39 percent of all engineering technicians worked in manufacturing, mainly in the computer and electronic equipment, transportation equipment, and machinery manufacturing industries. Another 20 percent worked in professional, scientific, and technical service industries, mostly in engineering or business services companies that do engineering work on contract for government, manufacturing firms, or other organizations. In 2002, the federal government employed 11,000 engineering technicians. State governments employed 34,000, and local governments employed 24,000.

Technical institutes offer intensive technical training through application and practice, but less theory and general education than do community colleges. Many offer 2-year associate degree programs, and are similar to or part of a community college or state university system. Other technical institutes are run by private, often for-profit organizations, sometimes called proprietary schools. Their programs vary considerably in length and types of courses offered, although some are 2-year associate degree programs.

Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Although it may be possible to qualify for certain engineering technician jobs without formal training, most employers prefer to hire someone with at least a 2-year associate degree in

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Section One: Descriptions of 101 Top Jobs for People Without a Four-Year Degree will continue to increase productivity and limit job growth. In addition to growth, many job openings will stem from the need to replace technicians who retire or leave the labor force.

Community colleges offer curriculums that are similar to those in technical institutes, but that may include more theory and liberal arts. There may be little or no difference between programs at technical institutes and community colleges, as both offer associate degrees. After completing the 2-year program, some graduates get jobs as engineering technicians, while others continue their education at 4-year colleges. However, there is a difference between an associate degree in pre-engineering and one in engineering technology. Students who enroll in a 2year pre-engineering program may find it very difficult to find work as an engineering technician should they decide not to enter a 4-year engineering program, because pre-engineering programs usually focus less on hands-on applications and more on academic preparatory work. Conversely, graduates of 2-year engineering technology programs may not receive credit for some of the courses they have taken if they choose to transfer to a 4-year engineering program. Colleges with these 4-year programs usually do not offer engineering technician training, but college courses in science, engineering, and mathematics are useful for obtaining a job as an engineering technician. Many 4-year colleges offer bachelor’s degrees in engineering technology, but graduates of these programs often are hired to work as technologists or applied engineers, not technicians.

As is the case for engineers, employment of engineering technicians is influenced by local and national economic conditions. As a result, the employment outlook varies with industry and specialization. Growth in the largest specialty— electrical and electronics engineering technicians—is expected to be about as fast as the average, and there will also be many jobs created by the need to replace technicians who retire or leave the labor force. Employment of environmental engineering technicians is expected to grow faster than average, partly due to increased demand for environmental protection and partly due to recognition of environmental engineering technicians as a separate occupation.

Earnings Median annual earnings of engineering technicians by specialty is shown in the following tabulation. Aerospace engineering and operations technicians............................................................$51,650 Electrical and electronic engineering technicians..............................................................42,950

Area vocational-technical schools, another source of technical training, include postsecondary public institutions that serve local students and emphasize training needed by local employers. Most require a high school diploma or its equivalent for admission.

Industrial engineering technicians ..........................41,910 Mechanical engineering technicians ......................41,280 Electro-mechanical technicians ..............................38,120

Other training in technical areas may be obtained in the Armed Forces. Many military technical training programs are highly regarded by employers. However, skills acquired in military programs are often narrowly focused, so they may not be useful in civilian industry, which often requires broader training. Therefore, some additional training may be needed, depending on the acquired skills and the kind of job.

Civil engineering technicians ..................................37,720 Environmental engineering technicians ................36,850 Median annual earnings of electrical and electronics engineering technicians were $42,950 in 2002. The middle 50 percent earned between $33,760 and $53,200. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $26,770, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $64,070. Median annual earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of electrical and electronics engineering technicians in 2002 are shown below.

The National Institute for Certification in Engineering Technologies (NICET) has established a voluntary certification program for engineering technicians. Certification is available at various levels, each level combining a written examination in 1 of about 30 specialties with a certain amount of job-related experience, a supervisory evaluation, and a recommendation.

Federal government................................................$58,520 Wired telecommunications carriers ........................49,610 Architectural, engineering, and related services......43,670

Job Outlook

Semiconductor and other electronic component manufacturing ........................................................40,110

Opportunities will be best for individuals with an associate degree or extensive job training in engineering technology. As technology becomes more sophisticated, employers will continue to look for technicians who are skilled in new technology and require a minimum of additional job training. An increase in the number of jobs related to public health and safety should create job opportunities for engineering technicians with the appropriate certification.

Navigational, measuring, electromedical, and control instruments manufacturing..............39,760 Median annual earnings of civil engineering technicians were $37,720 in 2002. The middle 50 percent earned between $29,030 and $47,260. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $23,080, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $56,910. Median annual earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of civil engineering technicians in 2002 are shown below.

Overall employment of engineering technicians is expected to increase about as fast as the average for all occupations through 2012. Competitive pressures will force companies to improve and update manufacturing facilities and product designs, resulting in more jobs for engineering technicians. However, the growing use of advanced technologies, such as computer simulation and computer-aided design and drafting

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Local government ..................................................$42,120 Architectural, engineering, and related services......36,930 State government ....................................................34,800

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In 2002, the average annual salary for aerospace engineering and operations technicians in the aerospace products and parts manufacturing industry was $54,530, and the average annual salary for environmental engineering technicians in the architectural, engineering, and related services industry was $32,690. The average annual salary for industrial engineering technicians in the semiconductor and other electronic component manufacturing industry was $38,230. In the architectural, engineering, and related services industry, the average annual salary for mechanical engineering technicians was $42,090.

Nature of the Work Financial analysts and personal financial advisors provide analysis and guidance to businesses and individuals to help them with their investment decisions. Both types of specialist gather financial information, analyze it, and make recommendations to their clients. However, their job duties differ because of the type of investment information they provide and the clients they work for. Financial analysts assess the economic performance of companies and industries for firms and institutions with money to invest. Personal financial advisors generally assess the financial needs of individuals, providing them a wide range of options.

Related Occupations Engineering technicians apply scientific and engineering principles usually acquired in postsecondary programs below the baccalaureate level. Similar occupations include science technicians; drafters; surveyors, cartographers, photogrammetrists, and surveying technicians; and broadcast and sound engineering technicians and radio operators.

Financial analysts, also called securities analysts and investment analysts, work for banks, insurance companies, mutual and pension funds, securities firms, and other businesses, helping these companies or their clients make investment decisions. Financial analysts read company financial statements and analyze commodity prices, sales, costs, expenses, and tax rates in order to determine a company’s value and project future earnings. They often meet with company officials to gain a better insight into a company’s prospects and to determine the company’s managerial effectiveness. Usually, financial analysts study an entire industry, assessing current trends in business practices, products, and industry competition. They must keep abreast of new regulations or policies that may affect the industry, as well as monitor the economy to determine its effect on earnings.

Sources of Additional Information High school students interested in obtaining information about careers in engineering technology should visit the JETS Web site: ●

JETS-Guidance, 1420 King St., Suite 405, Alexandria, VA 22314-2794. Internet: http://www.jets.org

Information on ABET-accredited engineering technology programs is available from: ●

Accreditation Board for Engineering and Technology, Inc., 111 Market Place, Suite 1050, Baltimore, MD 21202. Internet: http://www.abet.org

Financial analysts use spreadsheet and statistical software packages to analyze financial data, spot trends, and develop forecasts. On the basis of their results, they write reports and make presentations, usually making recommendations to buy or sell a particular investment or security. Senior analysts may actually make the decision to buy or sell for the company or client if they are the ones responsible for managing the assets. Other analysts use the data to measure the financial risks associated with making a particular investment decision.

Information on certification of engineering technicians as well as job and career information is available from: ●

National Institute for Certification in Engineering Technologies (NICET), 1420 King St., Alexandria, VA 22314-2794. Internet: http://www.nicet.org

Financial analysts in investment banking departments of securities or banking firms often work in teams, analyzing the future prospects of companies that want to sell shares to the public for the first time. They also ensure that the forms and written materials necessary for compliance with Securities and Exchange Commission regulations are accurate and complete. They may make presentations to prospective investors about the merits of investing in the new company. Financial analysts also work in mergers and acquisitions departments, preparing analyses on the costs and benefits of a proposed merger or takeover.

Financial Analysts and Personal Financial Advisors (O*NET 13-2051.00 and 13-2052.00)

Significant Points ●

A college degree and good interpersonal skills are among the most important qualifications for these workers.

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Although both occupations will benefit from an increase in investing by individuals, personal financial advisors will benefit more.

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Financial analysts will face keen competition for jobs, especially at top securities firms, where pay can be lucrative.

Some financial analysts, called ratings analysts, evaluate the ability of companies or governments that issue bonds to repay their debt. On the basis of their evaluation, a management team assigns a rating to a company’s or government’s bonds. Other financial analysts perform budget, cost, and credit analysis as part of their responsibilities.

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Section One: Descriptions of 101 Top Jobs for People Without a Four-Year Degree investment services firms, and 17 percent work for depository and nondepository institutions, including banks, savings institutions, and mortgage bankers and brokers. The remainder work primarily for insurance carriers; accounting, tax preparation, bookkeeping, and payroll services; management, scientific, and technical consulting services; and state and local government agencies.

Personal financial advisors, also called financial planners or financial consultants, use their knowledge of investments, tax laws, and insurance to recommend financial options to individuals in accordance with their short-term and long-term goals. Some of the issues that planners address are retirement and estate planning, funding for college, and general investment options. While most planners offer advice on a wide range of topics, some specialize in areas such as retirement and estate planning or risk management.

Approximately 38 percent of personal financial advisors are self-employed, operating small investment advisory firms, usually in urban areas. About 31 percent of personal financial advisors are employed by securities and commodity brokers, exchanges, and investment services firms. Another 14 percent are employed by depository and nondepository institutions, including banks, savings institutions, and credit unions. A small number work for insurance carriers and insurance agents, brokers, and services.

An advisor’s work begins with a consultation with the client, from whom the advisor obtains information on the client’s finances and financial goals. The advisor then develops a comprehensive financial plan that identifies problem areas, makes recommendations for improvement, and selects appropriate investments compatible with the client’s goals, attitude toward risk, and expectation or need for a return on the investment. Sometimes this plan is written, but more often it is in the form of verbal advice. Financial advisors usually meet with established clients at least once a year to update them on potential investments and to determine whether the clients have been through any life changes—such as marriage, disability, or retirement—that might affect their financial goals. Financial advisors also answer questions from clients regarding changes in benefit plans or the consequences of a change in their job or career.

Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A college education is required for financial analysts and is strongly preferred for personal financial advisors. Most companies require financial analysts to have at least a bachelor’s degree in business administration, accounting, statistics, or finance. Coursework in statistics, economics, and business is required, and knowledge of accounting policies and procedures, corporate budgeting, and financial analysis methods is recommended. A master of business administration is desirable. Advanced courses in options pricing or bond valuation and knowledge of risk management also are suggested.

Some advisors buy and sell financial products, such as mutual funds or insurance, or refer clients to other companies for products and services—for example, the preparation of taxes or wills. A number of advisors take on the responsibility of managing the clients’ investments for them. Finding clients and building a customer base is one of the most important parts of a financial advisor’s job. Referrals from satisfied clients are an important source of new business. Many advisors also contact potential clients by giving seminars or lectures or meet clients through business and social contacts.

Employers usually do not require a specific field of study for personal financial advisors, but a bachelor’s degree in accounting, finance, economics, business, mathematics, or law provides good preparation for the occupation. Courses in investments, taxes, estate planning, and risk management also are helpful. Programs in financial planning are becoming more widely available in colleges and universities. However, many financial planners enter the field after working in a related occupation, such as accountant, auditor, insurance sales agent, lawyer, or securities, commodities, and financial services sales agent.

Working Conditions Financial analysts and personal financial advisors usually work indoors in safe, comfortable offices or their own homes. Many of these workers enjoy the challenge of helping firms or people make financial decisions. However, financial analysts may face long hours, frequent travel to visit companies and talk to potential investors, and the pressure of deadlines. Much of their research must be done after office hours, because their day is filled with telephone calls and meetings. Personal financial advisors usually work standard business hours, but they also schedule meetings with clients in the evenings or on weekends. Many teach evening classes or hold seminars in order to bring in more clients.

Mathematical, computer, analytical, and problem-solving skills are essential qualifications for financial analysts and personal financial advisors. Good communication skills also are necessary, because these workers must present complex financial concepts and strategies in easy-to-understand language to clients and other professionals. Self-confidence, maturity, and the ability to work independently are important as well. Financial analysts must be detail oriented, motivated to seek out obscure information, and familiar with the workings of the economy, tax laws, and money markets. Strong interpersonal skills and sales ability are crucial to the success of both financial analysts and personal financial advisors.

Employment Financial analysts and personal financial advisors held 298,000 jobs in 2002; financial analysts accounted for almost 6 in 10 of the total. Many financial analysts work at the headquarters of large financial companies, several of which are based in New York City. Nineteen percent of financial analysts work for securities and commodity brokers, exchanges, and

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Although not required for financial analysts or personal financial advisors to practice, certification can enhance one’s professional standing and is strongly recommended by many financial companies. Financial analysts may receive the title

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America’s Top 101 Jobs for People Without a Four-Year Degree Chartered Financial Analyst (CFA), sponsored by the Association of Investment Management and Research. To qualify for CFA designation, applicants must hold a bachelor’s degree, must have 3 years of work experience in a related field, and must pass a series of three examinations. The essay exams, administered once a year for 3 years, cover subjects such as accounting, economics, securities analysis, asset valuation, and portfolio management.

Employment of personal financial advisors is expected to grow faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2012. The rapid expansion of self-directed retirement plans, such as 401(k) plans, is expected to continue. As the number and complexity of investments rises, more individuals will look to financial advisors to help manage their money. Financial advisors who have either the CFP (R) certification or ChFC designation are expected to have the best opportunities.

Personal financial advisors may obtain the Certified Financial Planner credential, often referred to as CFP (R), demonstrating to potential customers that a planner has extensive training and competency in the area of financial planning. The CFP (R) certification, issued by the Certified Financial Planner Board of Standards, Inc., requires relevant experience, the completion of education requirements, the passage of a comprehensive examination, and adherence to an enforceable code of ethics. Personal financial advisors may also obtain the Chartered Financial Consultant (ChFC) designation, issued by the American College in Bryn Mawr, Pennsylvania, which requires experience and the completion of an eight-course program of study. Both designations have a continuing education requirement.

Employment of financial analysts is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2012. As the number of mutual funds and the amount of assets invested in the funds increase, mutual-fund companies will need increased numbers of financial analysts to recommend which financial products the funds should buy or sell. Financial analysts also will be needed in the investment banking field, where they help companies raise money and work on corporate mergers and acquisitions. However, growth in demand for financial analysts to do company research will be constrained by the implementation of reform proposals calling for investment firms to subsidize independent research boutiques and separate research from investment banking. Firms may try to contain the costs of reform by eliminating research jobs.

A license is not required to work as a personal financial advisor, but advisors who sell stocks, bonds, mutual funds, insurance, or real estate may need licenses to perform these additional services. Also, if legal advice is provided, a license to practice law may be required. Financial advisors who do not provide these additional services often refer clients to those qualified to provide them.

Demand for financial analysts in investment banking fluctuates because investment banking is sensitive to changes in the stock market. In addition, further consolidation in the financial services industry may eliminate some financial analyst positions, dampening overall employment growth somewhat. Competition is expected to be keen for these highly lucrative positions, with many more applicants than jobs.

Financial analysts may advance by becoming portfolio managers or financial managers, directing the investment portfolios of their companies or of clients. Personal financial advisors who work in firms also may move into managerial positions, but most advisors advance by accumulating clients and managing more assets.

Earnings Median annual earnings of financial analysts were $57,100 in 2002. The middle 50 percent earned between $43,660 and $76,620. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $34,570, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $108,060. Median annual earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of financial analysts in 2002 were as follows:

Job Outlook Increased investment by businesses and individuals is expected to result in faster-than-average employment growth of financial analysts and personal financial advisors through 2012. Both occupations will benefit as baby boomers save for retirement and as a generally better educated and wealthier population requires investment advice. In addition, people are living longer and must plan to finance more years of retirement. The globalization of the securities markets will increase the need for analysts and advisors to help investors make financial choices.

Other financial investment activities ....................$74,860 Management of companies and enterprises............60,670 Securities and commodity contracts intermediation and brokerage ..............................58,540 Nondepository credit intermediation......................51,700 Depository credit intermediation ..........................51,570 Median annual earnings of personal financial advisors were $56,680 in 2002. The middle 50 percent earned between $36,180 and $100,540. Median annual earnings in the industries employing the largest number of personal financial advisors in 2002 were as follows:

Deregulation of the financial services industry is also expected to spur demand for financial analysts and personal financial advisors. Since 1999, banks, insurance companies, and brokerage firms have been allowed to broaden their financial services. Many firms are adding investment advice to their list of services and are expected to increase their hiring of personal financial advisors. Numerous banks are now entering the securities brokerage and investment banking fields and will increasingly need the skills of financial analysts in these areas.

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Other financial investment activities ....................$74,260 Securities and commodity contracts intermediation and brokerage ..............................68,110 Depository credit intermediation ..........................51,030

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Section One: Descriptions of 101 Top Jobs for People Without a Four-Year Degree Median annual earnings of personal financial advisors were $56,680 in 2002. The middle 50 percent earned between $36,180 and $100,540. Median annual earnings in the industries employing the largest number of personal financial advisors in 2002 were as follows:

Firefighting Occupations (O*NET 33-1021.01, 33-1021.02, 33-2011.01, 33-2011.02, 33-2021.01, 33-2021.02, and 33-2022.00)

Other financial investment activities ....................$74,260 Securities and commodity contracts intermediation and brokerage ..............................68,110

Significant Points

Depository credit intermediation ..........................51,030 Many financial analysts receive a bonus in addition to their salary, and the bonus can add substantially to their earnings. Usually, the bonus is based on how well their predictions compare to the actual performance of a benchmark investment. Personal financial advisors who work for financial services firms are generally paid a salary plus bonus. Advisors who work for financial-planning firms or who are self-employed either charge hourly fees for their services or charge one set fee for a comprehensive plan, based on its complexity. Advisors who manage a client’s assets usually charge a percentage of those assets. A majority of advisors receive commissions for financial products they sell, in addition to charging a fee.

For information on a career in financial planning, contact: The Financial Planning Association, 4100 E. Mississippi Ave., Denver, CO 80246-3053. Internet: http://www.fpanet.org

For information about the Certified Financial Planner, CFP (R), certification, contact: Certified Financial Planner Board of Standards, Inc., 1670 Broadway, Suite 600, Denver, CO 80202-4809. Internet: http://www.cfp.net/become

For information about the Chartered Financial Consultant (ChFC) designation, contact:

For information on a career as a financial analyst, contact: American Academy of Financial Management, 102 Beverly Dr., Metairie, LA 70001. Internet: http://www.financialanalyst.org

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Association of Investment Management and Research, P.O. Box 3668, 560 Ray C. Hunt Dr., Charlottesville, VA 22903. Internet: http://www.aimr.org

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Applicants for municipal firefighting jobs generally must pass written, physical, and medical examinations.

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Keen competition for jobs is expected.

Firefighters have assumed a range of responsibilities, including emergency medical services. In fact, most calls to which firefighters respond involve medical emergencies, and about half of all fire departments provide ambulance service for victims. Firefighters receive training in emergency medical procedures, and many fire departments require them to be certified as emergency medical technicians.

The American College, 270 South Bryn Mawr Ave., Bryn Mawr, PA 19010. Internet: http://www.amercoll.edu

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About 9 out of 10 firefighting workers were employed by municipal or county fire departments.

During duty hours, firefighters must be prepared to respond immediately to a fire or any other emergency that arises. Because fighting fires is dangerous and complex, it requires organization and teamwork. At every emergency scene, firefighters perform specific duties assigned by a superior officer. At fires, they connect hose lines to hydrants, operate a pump to send water to high pressure hoses, and position ladders to enable them to deliver water to the fire. They also rescue victims and provide emergency medical attention as needed, ventilate smoke-filled areas, and attempt to salvage the contents of buildings. Their duties may change several times while the company is in action. Sometimes they remain at the site of a disaster for days at a time, rescuing trapped survivors and assisting with medical treatment.

Sources of Additional Information

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Every year, fires and other emergencies take thousands of lives and destroy property worth billions of dollars. Firefighters help protect the public against these dangers by rapidly responding to a variety of emergencies. They are frequently the first emergency personnel at the scene of a traffic accident or medical emergency and may be called upon to put out a fire, treat injuries, or perform other vital functions.

Other jobs requiring expertise in finance and investment or in the sales of financial products include accountants and auditors; financial managers; insurance sales agents; real estate brokers and sales agents; and securities, commodities, and financial services sales representatives.

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Firefighting involves hazardous conditions and long, irregular hours.

Nature of the Work

Related Occupations

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Firefighters work in a variety of settings, including urban and suburban areas, airports, chemical plants, other industrial sites, and rural areas like grasslands and forests. In addition, some firefighters work in hazardous materials units that are trained for the control, prevention, and cleanup of oil spills and other hazardous materials incidents. Workers in urban and suburban areas, airports, and industrial sites typically use conventional firefighting equipment and tactics, while forest fires and major hazardous materials spills call for different methods.

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America’s Top 101 Jobs for People Without a Four-Year Degree on holidays. Fire lieutenants and fire captains often work the same hours as the firefighters they supervise. Duty hours include time when firefighters study, train, and perform fire prevention duties.

In national forests and parks, forest fire inspectors and prevention specialists spot fires from watchtowers and report their findings to headquarters by telephone or radio. Forest rangers patrol to ensure travelers and campers comply with fire regulations. When fires break out, crews of firefighters are brought in to suppress the blaze using heavy equipment, handtools, and water hoses. Forest firefighting, like urban firefighting, can be rigorous work. One of the most effective means of battling the blaze is by creating fire lines through cutting down trees and digging out grass and all other combustible vegetation, creating bare land in the path of the fire that deprives it of fuel. Elite firefighters, called smoke jumpers, parachute from airplanes to reach otherwise inaccessible areas. This can be extremely hazardous because the crews have no way to escape if the wind shifts and causes the fire to burn toward them.

Employment Employment figures in this book include only paid career firefighters—they do not cover volunteer firefighters, who perform the same duties and may comprise the majority of firefighters in a residential area. According the United States Fire Administration, nearly 70 percent of fire companies are staffed by volunteer fire fighters. Paid career firefighters held about 282,000 jobs in 2002. First-line supervisors/managers of firefighting and prevention workers held about 63,000 jobs; and fire inspectors held about 14,000.

Between alarms, firefighters clean and maintain equipment, conduct practice drills and fire inspections, and participate in physical fitness activities. They also prepare written reports on fire incidents and review fire science literature to keep abreast of technological developments and changing administrative practices and policies.

About 9 out of 10 firefighting workers were employed by municipal or county fire departments. Some large cities have thousands of career firefighters, while many small towns have only a few. Most of the remainder worked in fire departments on federal and state installations, including airports. Private firefighting companies employ a small number of firefighters and usually operate on a subscription basis.

Most fire departments have a fire prevention division, usually headed by a fire marshal and staffed by fire inspectors. Workers in this division conduct inspections of structures to prevent fires and ensure fire code compliance. These firefighters also work with developers and planners to check and approve plans for new buildings. Fire prevention personnel often speak on these subjects in schools and before public assemblies and civic organizations.

In response to the expanding role of firefighters, some municipalities have combined fire prevention, public fire education, safety, and emergency medical services into a single organization commonly referred to as a public safety organization. Some local and regional fire departments are being consolidated into countywide establishments in order to reduce administrative staffs and cut costs, and to establish consistent training standards and work procedures.

Some firefighters become fire investigators, who determine the origin and causes of fires. They collect evidence, interview witnesses, and prepare reports on fires in cases where the cause may be arson or criminal negligence. They often are called upon to testify in court.

Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement

Working Conditions

Applicants for municipal firefighting jobs generally must pass a written exam; tests of strength, physical stamina, coordination, and agility; and a medical examination that includes drug screening. Workers may be monitored on a random basis for drug use after accepting employment. Examinations are generally open to persons who are at least 18 years of age and have a high school education or the equivalent. Those who receive the highest scores in all phases of testing have the best chances for appointment. The completion of community college courses in fire science may improve an applicant’s chances for appointment. In recent years, an increasing proportion of entrants to this occupation have had some postsecondary education.

Firefighters spend much of their time at fire stations, which usually have features common to a residential facility like a dormitory. When an alarm sounds, firefighters respond rapidly, regardless of the weather or hour. Firefighting involves risk of death or injury from sudden cave-ins of floors, toppling walls, traffic accidents when responding to calls, and exposure to flames and smoke. Firefighters may also come in contact with poisonous, flammable, or explosive gases and chemicals, as well as radioactive or other hazardous materials that may have immediate or long-term effects on their health. For these reasons, they must wear protective gear that can be very heavy and hot.

As a rule, entry-level workers in large fire departments are trained for several weeks at the department’s training center or academy. Through classroom instruction and practical training, the recruits study firefighting techniques, fire prevention, hazardous materials control, local building codes, and emergency medical procedures, including first aid and cardiopulmonary resuscitation. They also learn how to use axes, chain saws, fire extinguishers, ladders, and other firefighting and rescue equipment. After successfully completing this training, they are assigned to a fire company, where they undergo a period of probation.

Work hours of firefighters are longer and vary more widely than hours of most other workers. Many work more than 50 hours a week, and sometimes they may work even longer. In some agencies, they are on duty for 24 hours, then off for 48 hours, and receive an extra day off at intervals. In others, they work a day shift of 10 hours for 3 or 4 days, a night shift of 14 hours for 3 or 4 nights, have 3 or 4 days off, and then repeat the cycle. In addition, firefighters often work extra hours at fires and other emergencies and are regularly assigned to work

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Section One: Descriptions of 101 Top Jobs for People Without a Four-Year Degree requirements eliminate many applicants. This situation is expected to persist in coming years.

A number of fire departments have accredited apprenticeship programs lasting up to 5 years. These programs combine formal, technical instruction with on-the-job training under the supervision of experienced firefighters. Technical instruction covers subjects such as firefighting techniques and equipment, chemical hazards associated with various combustible building materials, emergency medical procedures, and fire prevention and safety. Fire departments frequently conduct training programs, and some firefighters attend training sessions sponsored by the U.S. National Fire Academy. These training sessions cover topics including executive development, anti-arson techniques, disaster preparedness, hazardous materials control, and public fire safety and education. Some states also have extensive firefighter training and certification programs. In addition, a number of colleges and universities offer courses leading to 2or 4-year degrees in fire engineering or fire science. Many fire departments offer firefighters incentives such as tuition reimbursement or higher pay for completing advanced training.

Employment of firefighters is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through 2012 as fire departments continue to compete with other public safety providers for funding. Most job growth will occur as volunteer firefighting positions are converted to paid positions. In addition to job growth, openings are expected to result from the need to replace firefighters who retire, stop working for other reasons, or transfer to other occupations. Layoffs of firefighters are uncommon. Fire protection is an essential service, and citizens are likely to exert considerable pressure on local officials to expand or at least preserve the level of fire protection. Even when budget cuts do occur, local fire departments usually cut expenses by postponing equipment purchases or not hiring new firefighters rather than through staff reductions.

Among the personal qualities firefighters need are mental alertness, self-discipline, courage, mechanical aptitude, endurance, strength, and a sense of public service. Initiative and good judgment are also extremely important because firefighters make quick decisions in emergencies. Because members of a crew live and work closely together under conditions of stress and danger for extended periods, they must be dependable and able to get along well with others. Leadership qualities are necessary for officers, who must establish and maintain discipline and efficiency, as well as direct the activities of firefighters in their companies.

Earnings Median hourly earnings of firefighters were $17.42 in 2002. The middle 50 percent earned between $12.53 and $22.96. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $8.51, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $28.22. Median hourly earnings were $17.92 in local government, $15.96 in the federal government, and $13.58 in state government. Median annual earnings of first-line supervisors/managers of firefighting and prevention workers were $55,450 in 2002. The middle 50 percent earned between $43,920 and $68,480. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $34,190, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $84,730. First-line supervisors/managers of firefighting and prevention workers employed in local government earned about $56,390 a year in 2002.

Most experienced firefighters continue studying to improve their job performance and prepare for promotion examinations. To progress to higher level positions, they acquire expertise in advanced firefighting equipment and techniques, building construction, emergency medical technology, writing, public speaking, management and budgeting procedures, and public relations.

Median annual earnings of fire inspectors were $44,250 in 2002. The middle 50 percent earned between $33,880 and $56,100 a year. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $26,350, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $69,060. Fire inspectors and investigators employed in local government earned about $46,820 a year.

Opportunities for promotion depend upon written examination results, job performance, interviews, and seniority. Increasingly, fire departments use assessment centers, which simulate a variety of actual job performance tasks, to screen for the best candidates for promotion. The line of promotion usually is to engineer, lieutenant, captain, battalion chief, assistant chief, deputy chief, and finally to chief. Many fire departments now require a bachelor’s degree, preferably in fire science, public administration, or a related field, for promotion to positions higher than battalion chief. A master’s degree is required for executive fire officer certification from the National Fire Academy and for state chief officer certification.

According to the International City-County Management Association, average salaries in 2002 for sworn full-time positions were as follows:

Job Outlook Prospective firefighters are expected to face keen competition for available job openings. Many people are attracted to firefighting because it is challenging and provides the opportunity to perform an essential public service, a high school education is usually sufficient for entry, and a pension is guaranteed upon retirement after 20 years. Consequently, the number of qualified applicants in most areas exceeds the number of job openings, even though the written examination and physical

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Minimum annual base salary

Maximum annual base salary

Fire chief ....................................

$64,134

$82,225

Deputy chief ..............................

56,522

72,152

Assistant fire chief ......................

55,645

69,036

Battalion chief ............................

54,935

68,673

Fire captain ................................

45,383

54,463

Fire lieutenant ............................

41,800

49,404

Fire prevention/code inspector ..................................

40,387

51,531

Engineer ......................................

38,656

48,678

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America’s Top 101 Jobs for People Without a Four-Year Degree followed, they also try to make flights comfortable and enjoyable for passengers.

Firefighters who average more than a certain number of hours a week are required to be paid overtime. The hours threshold is determined by the department during the firefighter’s work period, which ranges from 7 to 28 days. Firefighters often earn overtime for working extra shifts to maintain minimum staffing levels or for special emergencies.

At least 1 hour before each flight, attendants are briefed by the captain—the pilot in command—on such things as emergency evacuation procedures, coordination of the crew, the length of the flight, expected weather conditions, and special issues having to do with passengers. Flight attendants make sure that first-aid kits and other emergency equipment are aboard and in working order and that the passenger cabin is in order, with adequate supplies of food, beverages, and blankets. As passengers board the plane, flight attendants greet them, check their tickets, and tell them where to store coats and carry-on items.

Firefighters receive benefits that usually include medical and liability insurance, vacation and sick leave, and some paid holidays. Almost all fire departments provide protective clothing (helmets, boots, and coats) and breathing apparatus, and many also provide dress uniforms. Firefighters are generally covered by pension plans, often providing retirement at half pay after 25 years of service or if disabled in the line of duty.

Before the plane takes off, flight attendants instruct all passengers in the use of emergency equipment and check to see that seat belts are fastened, seat backs are in upright positions, and all carry-on items are properly stowed. In the air, helping passengers in the event of an emergency is the most important responsibility of a flight attendant. Safety-related actions may range from reassuring passengers during occasional encounters with strong turbulence to directing passengers who must evacuate a plane following an emergency landing. Flight attendants also answer questions about the flight; distribute reading material, pillows, and blankets; and help small children, elderly or disabled persons, and any others needing assistance. They may administer first aid to passengers who become ill. Flight attendants generally serve beverages and other refreshments and, on many flights, heat and distribute precooked meals or snacks. Prior to landing, flight attendants take inventory of headsets, alcoholic beverages, and moneys collected. They also report any medical problems passengers may have had, the condition of cabin equipment, and lost and found articles.

Related Occupations Like firefighters, emergency medical technicians and paramedics and police and detectives respond to emergencies and save lives.

Sources of Additional Information Information about a career as a firefighter may be obtained from local fire departments and from: ●

International Association of Firefighters, 1750 New York Ave. NW, Washington, DC 20006. Internet: http://www.iaff.org

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U.S. Fire Administration, 16825 South Seton Ave., Emmitsburg, MD 21727. Internet: http://www.usfa.fema.gov

Information about firefighter professional qualifications and a list of colleges and universities offering 2-year or 4-year degree programs in fire science or fire prevention may be obtained from: ●

Lead, or first, flight attendants, sometimes known as pursers, oversee the work of the other attendants aboard the aircraft, while performing most of the same duties.

National Fire Academy, 16825 South Seton Ave., Emmitsburg, MD 21727. Internet: http://www.usfa.fema.gov/nfa/index.htm

Working Conditions Because airlines operate around-the-clock, year-round, flight attendants may work nights, holidays, and weekends. In most cases, agreements between the airline and the employees’ union determine the total daily and monthly working time. On-duty time is usually limited to 12 hours per day, with a daily maximum of 14 hours. Attendants usually fly 65 to 85 hours a month and, in addition, generally spend about 50 hours a month on the ground preparing planes for flights, writing reports following completed flights, and waiting for planes to arrive. They may be away from their home base at least one-third of the time. During this period, the airlines provide hotel accommodations and an allowance for meal expenses.

Flight Attendants (O*NET 39-6031.00)

Significant Points ●

Job duties are learned through intensive formal training after workers are hired.

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Competition for positions will remain strong because the opportunity for travel attracts more applicants than there are jobs, with only the most qualified being hired.

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Although applicants must be high school graduates or hold a GED, many airlines today prefer a college degree.

Flight attendants must be flexible, reliable, and willing to relocate. Home bases and routes worked are bid for on a seniority basis. The longer the flight attendant has been employed, the more likely he or she is to work on chosen flights. Almost all flight attendants start out working on reserve status or on call. On small corporate airlines, flight attendants often work on an as-needed basis and must adapt to varying environments and passengers.

Nature of the Work Major airlines are required by law to provide flight attendants for the safety of the traveling public. Although the primary job of the flight attendants is to ensure that safety regulations are

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Section One: Descriptions of 101 Top Jobs for People Without a Four-Year Degree airline’s flight training center. Airlines that do not operate training centers generally send new employees to the center of another airline. Airlines may provide transportation to the training centers and an allowance for board, room, and school supplies. However, new trainees are not considered employees of the airline until they successfully complete the training program. Some airlines charge individuals for training. Trainees learn emergency procedures such as evacuating an airplane, operating emergency systems and equipment, administering first aid, and water-survival tactics. In addition, trainees are taught how to deal with disruptive passengers and with hijacking and terrorist situations. New hires learn flight regulations and duties and company operations and policies, and they receive instruction on personal grooming and weight control. Trainees for the international routes get additional instruction in passport and customs regulations. Many drills and duties must be performed alone, in front of the training staff. Tests are given throughout training to eliminate unsuccessful trainees. Toward the end of their training, students go on practice flights. Flight attendants also are required to go through periodic retraining and pass an FAA safety examination in order to continue flying.

The combination of free time and discount airfares provides flight attendants the opportunity to travel and see new places. However, the work can be strenuous and trying. Short flights require speedy service if meals are served, and turbulent flights can make serving drinks and meals difficult. Flight attendants stand during much of the flight and must remain pleasant and efficient, regardless of how tired they are or how demanding passengers may be. Occasionally, flight attendants must deal with disruptive passengers. Flight attendants are susceptible to injuries because of the job demands in a moving aircraft. Back injuries and mishaps incurred by opening overhead compartments are common. In addition, medical problems can arise from irregular sleeping and eating patterns, dealing with stressful passengers, working in a pressurized environment, and breathing recycled air.

Employment Flight attendants held about 104,000 jobs in 2002. Commercial airlines employed the vast majority of flight attendants, most of who lived in their employer’s home base city. A small number of flight attendants worked for large companies that operated company aircraft for business purposes.

After completing initial training, flight attendants are assigned to one of their airline’s bases. New flight attendants are placed on “reserve status” and are called on either to staff extra flights or to fill in for crewmembers who are sick, on vacation, or rerouted. When they are not on duty, reserve flight attendants must be available to report for flights on short notice. They usually remain on reserve for at least 1 year, but, in some cities, it may take 5 to 10 years or longer to advance from reserve status. Flight attendants who no longer are on reserve bid monthly for regular assignments. Because assignments are based on seniority, usually only the most experienced attendants get their choice of assignments. Advancement takes longer today than in the past because experienced flight attendants are remaining in this career longer than they used to.

Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Airlines prefer to hire poised, tactful, and resourceful people who can interact comfortably with strangers and remain calm under duress. Applicants usually must be at least 18 to 21 years old. Some carriers may have higher minimum-age requirements. Flight attendants must have excellent health and the ability to speak clearly. All U.S. airlines require that applicants be citizens of the United States or registered aliens with legal rights to obtain employment in the United States. In addition, airlines usually have physical and appearance requirements. There are height requirements for the purposes of reaching overhead bins, and most airlines want candidates with weight proportionate to height. Vision is required to be correctable to 20/30 or better with glasses or contact lenses (uncorrected no worse than 20/200). Men must have their hair cut above the collar and be clean shaven. Airlines prefer applicants with no visible tattoos, body piercing, or unusual hairstyles or makeup.

Some flight attendants become supervisors or take on additional duties such as recruiting and instructing. Their experience also may qualify them for numerous airline-related jobs involving contact with the public, such as reservation ticket agent or public-relations specialist.

Job Outlook In the long run, opportunities for persons seeking flight attendant jobs should improve as the airline industry recovers from the aftereffects of September 11 and the downturn in the economy. Employment of flight attendants is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2012. Population growth and an improving economy are expected to boost the number of airline passengers. As airlines enlarge their capacity to meet rising demand by increasing the number and size of planes in operation, more flight attendants will be needed. However, over the next decade, one can expect that demand for flight attendants will fluctuate with the demand for air travel, which is highly sensitive to swings in the economy. During downturns, as air traffic declines, the hiring of flight attendants declines, and some experienced attendants may be laid off until traffic recovers.

Applicants must be high school graduates. Those with several years of college and experience in dealing with the public are preferred. More and more flight attendants being hired are college graduates. Applicants who attend schools and colleges that offer flight attendant training may have an advantage over other applicants. Highly desirable areas of concentration include people-oriented disciplines such as psychology and education. Flight attendants for international airlines generally must speak a foreign language fluently. For their international flights, some of the major airlines prefer candidates who can speak two major foreign languages. Once hired, all candidates must undergo a period of formal training. The length of training, ranging from 3 to 8 weeks, depends on the size and type of carrier and takes place at the

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America’s Top 101 Jobs for People Without a Four-Year Degree Despite the improving outlook, competition is expected to be keen because this job usually attracts more applicants than there are jobs, with only the most qualified eventually being hired. Those applicants with at least 2 years of college and who have experience in dealing with the public should have the best chance of being hired. Also, job opportunities may be better with the faster growing regional and low-fare airlines.

Food Service Managers (O*NET 11-9051.00)

Significant Points

The majority of job openings through the year 2012 will arise from the need to replace flight attendants who leave the labor force or transfer to other occupations, often for higher earnings or a more stable lifestyle. However, with the job now viewed increasingly as a profession, fewer flight attendants are leaving their jobs and job turnover is not as high as in the past. The average job tenure of attendants is currently more than 7 years and is increasing.

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Many experienced food and beverage preparation and service workers are promoted into managerial positions; however, applicants with a bachelor’s or an associate degree in restaurant and institutional food service management should have the best job opportunities.

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Most new jobs will arise in food services and drinking places as the number of establishments increases along with the population.

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Job opportunities for salaried food service managers should be better than for self-employed managers because more restaurant managers will be employed by larger companies to run multi-outlet establishments.

Earnings Median annual earnings of flight attendants were $43,140 in 2002. The middle 50 percent earned between $31,660 and $66,260. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $20,890, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $91,050. According to data from the Association of Flight Attendants, beginning flight attendants had median earnings of about $15,338 a year in 2002. However, beginning pay scales for flight attendants vary by carrier. New hires usually begin at the same pay scale regardless of experience, and all flight attendants receive the same future pay increases. Flight attendants receive extra compensation for night and international flights and for increased hours. Further, some airlines offer incentive pay for working holidays or taking positions that require additional responsibility or paperwork. Most airlines guarantee a minimum of 65 to 85 flight hours per month, with the option to work additional hours. Flight attendants also receive a “per diem” allowance for meal expenses while on duty away from home. In addition, flight attendants and their immediate families are entitled to free fares on their own airline and reduced fares on most other airlines.

Nature of the Work Food service managers are responsible for the daily operations of restaurants and other establishments that prepare and serve meals and beverages to customers. Besides coordinating activities among various departments, such as kitchen, dining room, and banquet operations, food service managers ensure that customers are satisfied with their dining experience. In addition, they oversee the inventory and ordering of food, equipment, and supplies and arrange for the routine maintenance and upkeep of the restaurant, its equipment, and facilities. Managers generally are responsible for all of the administrative and human-resource functions of running the business, including recruiting new employees and monitoring employee performance and training.

Sources of Additional Information

In most full-service restaurants and institutional food service facilities, the management team consists of a general manager, one or more assistant managers, and an executive chef. The executive chef is responsible for all food preparation activities, including running kitchen operations, planning menus, and maintaining quality standards for food service. In limited-service eating places, such as sandwich shops, coffee bars, or fastfood establishments, managers, not executive chefs, are responsible for supervising routine food preparation operations. Assistant managers in full-service facilities generally oversee service in the dining rooms and banquet areas. In larger restaurants and fast-food or other food service facilities that serve meals daily and maintain longer hours, individual assistant managers may supervise different shifts of workers. In smaller restaurants, formal titles may be less important, and one person may undertake the work of one or more food service positions. For example, the executive chef also may be the general manager or even sometimes an owner.

Information about job opportunities and qualifications required for work at a particular airline may be obtained by writing to the airline’s human resources office.

One of the most important tasks of food service managers is assisting executive chefs as they select successful menu items. This task varies by establishment depending on the seasonality

Flight attendants are required to purchase uniforms and wear them while on duty. The airlines usually pay for uniform replacement items and may provide a small allowance to cover cleaning and upkeep of the uniforms. The majority of flight attendants hold union membership, primarily with the Association of Flight Attendants. Others may be members of the Transport Workers Union of America, the International Brotherhood of Teamsters, or other unions.

Related Occupations Other jobs that involve helping people as a safety professional, while requiring the ability to be calm even under trying circumstances, include emergency medical technicians and paramedics and firefighting occupations.

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Section One: Descriptions of 101 Top Jobs for People Without a Four-Year Degree In addition to their regular duties, food service managers perform a variety of administrative assignments, such as keeping employee work records, preparing the payroll, and completing paperwork to comply with licensing laws and reporting requirements of tax, wage and hour, unemployment compensation, and Social Security laws. Some of this work may be delegated to an assistant manager or bookkeeper, or it may be contracted out, but most general managers retain responsibility for the accuracy of business records. Managers also maintain records of supply and equipment purchases and ensure that accounts with suppliers are paid.

of menu items, the frequency with which restaurants change their menus, and the introduction of daily or weekly specials. Many restaurants rarely change their menus while others make frequent alterations. Managers or executive chefs select menu items, taking into account the likely number of customers and the past popularity of dishes. Other issues considered when planning a menu include whether there was any unserved food left over from prior meals that should not be wasted, the need for variety, and the seasonal availability of foods. Managers or executive chefs analyze the recipes of the dishes to determine food, labor, and overhead costs and to assign prices to various dishes. Menus must be developed far enough in advance that supplies can be ordered and received in time.

Technology influences the jobs of food service managers in many ways, enhancing efficiency and productivity. Many restaurants use computers to track orders, inventory, and the seating of patrons. Point-of-service (POS) systems allow servers to key in a customer’s order, either at the table, using a handheld device, or from a computer terminal in the dining room, and send the order to the kitchen instantaneously so preparation can begin. The same system totals and prints checks, functions as a cash register, connects to credit card authorizers, and tracks sales. To minimize food costs and spoilage, many managers use inventory-tracking software to compare the record of sales from the POS with a record of the current inventory. Some establishments enter an inventory of standard ingredients and suppliers into their POS system. When supplies of particular ingredients run low, they can be ordered directly from the supplier using preprogrammed information. Computers also allow restaurant and food service managers to keep track of employee schedules and paychecks more efficiently.

Managers or executive chefs estimate food needs, place orders with distributors, and schedule the delivery of fresh food and supplies. They plan for routine services or deliveries, such as linen services or the heavy cleaning of dining rooms or kitchen equipment, to occur during slow times or when the dining room is closed. Managers also arrange for equipment maintenance and repairs, and coordinate a variety of services such as waste removal and pest control. Managers or executive chefs receive deliveries and check the contents against order records. They inspect the quality of fresh meats, poultry, fish, fruits, vegetables, and baked goods to ensure that expectations are met. They meet with representatives from restaurant supply companies and place orders to replenish stocks of tableware, linens, paper products, cleaning supplies, cooking utensils, and furniture and fixtures. Managers must be good communicators. They need to speak well, often in several languages, with a diverse clientele and staff. They must motivate employees to work as a team, to ensure that food and service meet appropriate standards. Managers also must ensure that written supply orders are clear and unambiguous.

Food service managers use the Internet to track industry news, find recipes, conduct market research, purchase supplies or equipment, recruit employees, and train staff. Internet access also makes service to customers more efficient. Many restaurants maintain Web sites that include menus and online promotions, provide information about the restaurant’s location, and offer patrons the option to make a reservation.

Managers interview, hire, train, and, when necessary, fire employees. Retaining good employees is a major challenge facing food service managers. Managers recruit employees at career fairs, contact schools that offer academic programs in hospitality or culinary arts, and arrange for newspaper advertising to attract additional applicants. Managers oversee the training of new employees and explain the establishment’s policies and practices. They schedule work hours, making sure that enough workers are present to cover each shift. If employees are unable to work, managers may have to call in alternates to cover for them or fill in themselves when needed. Some managers may help with cooking, clearing tables, or other tasks when the restaurant becomes extremely busy.

Managers tally the cash and charge receipts received and balance them against the record of sales. They are responsible for depositing the day’s receipts at the bank or securing them in a safe place. Finally, managers are responsible for locking up the establishment, checking that ovens, grills, and lights are off, and switching on alarm systems.

Working Conditions Food service managers are among the first to arrive in the morning and the last to leave at night. Long hours—12 to 15 per day, 50 or more per week, and sometimes 7 days a week— are common. Managers of institutional food service facilities, such as school, factory, or office cafeterias, work more regular hours because the operating hours of these establishments usually conform to the operating hours of the business or facility they serve. However, hours for many managers are unpredictable.

Food service managers ensure that diners are served properly and in a timely manner. They investigate and resolve customers’ complaints about food quality or service. They monitor orders in the kitchen to determine where backups may occur, and they work with the chef to remedy any delays in service. Managers direct the cleaning of the dining areas and the washing of tableware, kitchen utensils, and equipment to comply with company and government sanitation standards. Managers also monitor the actions of their employees and patrons on a continual basis to ensure the personal safety of everyone. They make sure that health and safety standards and local liquor regulations are obeyed.

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Managers should be calm, flexible, and able to work through emergencies, such as a fire or flood, in order to ensure everyone’s safety. Managers also should be able to fill in for absent workers on short notice. Managers often experience the pressures of simultaneously coordinating a wide range of activities. ●

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America’s Top 101 Jobs for People Without a Four-Year Degree jects such as nutrition, sanitation, and food planning and preparation, as well as accounting, business law and management, and computer science. Some programs combine classroom and laboratory study with internships providing on-the-job experience. In addition, many educational institutions offer culinary programs in food preparation. Such training can lead to a career as a cook or chef and provide a foundation for advancement to an executive chef position.

When problems occur, it is the manager’s responsibility to resolve them with minimal disruption to customers. The job can be hectic, and dealing with irate customers or uncooperative employees can be stressful. Managers also may experience the typical minor injuries of other restaurant workers, such as muscle aches, cuts, or burns. They might endure physical discomfort from moving tables or chairs to accommodate large parties, receiving and storing daily supplies from vendors, or making minor repairs to furniture or equipment.

Most restaurant chains and food service management companies have rigorous training programs for management positions. Through a combination of classroom and on-the-job training, trainees receive instruction and gain work experience in all aspects of the operation of a restaurant or institutional food service facility. Areas include food preparation, nutrition, sanitation, security, company policies and procedures, personnel management, recordkeeping, and preparation of reports. Training on use of the restaurant’s computer system is increasingly important as well. Usually, after 6 months or a year, trainees receive their first permanent assignment as an assistant manager.

Employment Food service managers held about 386,000 jobs in 2002. Most managers were salaried, but about one-third were selfemployed in independent restaurants or other small food service establishments. Almost three-fourths of all salaried jobs for food service managers were in full-service restaurants or limited-service eating places, such as fast-food restaurants and cafeterias. Other salaried jobs were in drinking places (alcoholic beverages) and in special food services—an industry that includes food service contractors who supply food services at institutional, governmental, commercial, or industrial locations. A small number of salaried jobs were in traveler accommodation (hotels); educational services; amusement, gambling, and recreation industries; nursing care facilities; and hospitals. Jobs are located throughout the country, with large cities and tourist areas providing more opportunities for fullservice dining positions.

Most employers emphasize personal qualities when hiring managers. For example, self-discipline, initiative, and leadership ability are essential. Managers must be able to solve problems and concentrate on details. They need good communication skills to deal with customers and suppliers, as well as to motivate and direct their staff. A neat and clean appearance is important, because managers must convey selfconfidence and show respect in dealing with the public. Food service management can be physically demanding, so good health and stamina also are important.

Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement

The certified Foodservice Management Professional (FMP) designation is a measure of professional achievement for food service managers. Although not a requirement for employment or advancement in the occupation, voluntary certification provides recognition of professional competence, particularly for managers who acquired their skills largely on the job. The National Restaurant Association Educational Foundation awards the FMP designation to managers who achieve a qualifying score on a written examination, complete a series of courses that cover a range of food service management topics, and meet standards of work experience in the field.

Most food service management companies and national or regional restaurant chains recruit management trainees from 2- and 4-year college hospitality management programs. Restaurant chains prefer to hire people with degrees in restaurant and institutional food service management, but they often hire graduates with degrees in other fields who have demonstrated interest and aptitude. Some restaurant and food service manager positions—particularly self-service and fast food—are filled by promoting experienced food and beverage preparation and service workers. Waiters, waitresses, chefs, and fast-food workers demonstrating potential for handling increased responsibility sometimes advance to assistant manager or management trainee jobs. Executive chefs need extensive experience working as chefs, and general managers need prior restaurant experience, usually as assistant managers.

Willingness to relocate often is essential for advancement to positions with greater responsibility. Managers typically advance to larger establishments or regional management positions within restaurant chains. Some eventually open their own food service establishments.

Job Outlook

A bachelor’s degree in restaurant and food service management provides particularly strong preparation for a career in this occupation. A number of colleges and universities offer 4year programs in restaurant and hotel management or institutional food service management. For those not interested in pursuing a 4-year degree, community and junior colleges, technical institutes, and other institutions offer programs in the field leading to an associate degree or other formal certification. Both 2- and 4-year programs provide instruction in sub-

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Employment of food service managers is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through 2012. In addition to job openings arising out of employment growth, the need to replace managers who transfer to other occupations or stop working will create many job opportunities. Applicants with a bachelor’s or an associate degree in restaurant and institutional food service management should have the best job opportunities.

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Projected employment growth varies by industry. Most new jobs will arise in full-service restaurants and limited-service eating places as the number of these establishments increases along with the population. Manager jobs in special food services, an industry that includes food service contractors, will increase as hotels, schools, healthcare facilities, and other businesses contract out their food services to firms in this industry. Food service manager jobs still are expected to increase in hotels, schools, and health-care facilities, but growth will be slowed as contracting out becomes more common.

The International Council on Hotel, Restaurant, and Institutional Education, 2613 North Parham Rd., 2nd Floor, Richmond, VA 23294. Internet: http://www.chrie.org

Additional information about job opportunities in food service management may be obtained from local employers and from local offices of state employment services agencies.

Forest, Conservation, and Logging Workers

Job opportunities should be better for salaried managers than for self-employed managers. More new restaurants are affiliated with national chains than are independently owned and operated. As this trend continues, fewer owners will manage restaurants themselves, and more restaurant managers will be employed by larger companies to run individual establishments.

(O*NET 45-4011.00, 45-4021.00, 45-4022.01, and 45-4023.00)

Significant Points

Earnings Median annual earnings of salaried food service managers were $35,790 in 2002. The middle 50 percent earned between $27,910 and $47,120. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $21,760, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $67,490. Median annual earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of food service managers in 2002 were as follows: Special food services ..................................................$40,720

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Workers spend all their time outdoors, sometimes in poor weather and often in isolated areas.

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Most jobs are physically demanding and can be hazardous.

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A small decline in overall employment is expected in the occupation.

Nature of the Work

Traveler accommodation ............................................39,210

The nation’s forests are a rich natural resource, providing beauty and tranquility, varied recreational areas, and wood for commercial use. Managing forests and woodlands requires many different kinds of workers. Forest and conservation workers help develop, maintain, and protect the forests by growing and planting new seedlings, fighting insects and diseases that attack trees, and helping to control soil erosion. Timber-cutting and logging workers harvest thousands of acres of forests each year for the timber that provides the raw material for countless consumer and industrial products.

Full-service restaurants ................................................37,280 Nursing care facilities ..................................................33,910 Limited-service eating places ......................................33,590 Elementary and secondary schools ............................31,210 In addition to receiving typical benefits, most salaried food service managers are provided free meals and the opportunity for additional training, depending on their length of service.

Related Occupations

National Restaurant Association Educational Foundation, 175 West Jackson Blvd., Suite 1500, Chicago, IL 60604-2702. Internet: http://www.nraef.org

Forest and conservation workers perform a variety of tasks to reforest and conserve timberlands and maintain forest facilities, such as roads and campsites. Some forest workers, called tree planters, use digging and planting tools called “dibble bars” and “hoedads” to plant seedlings to reforest timberland areas. Forest workers also remove diseased or undesirable trees with power saws or handsaws, spray trees with insecticides and fungicides to kill insects and to protect against disease, and apply herbicides on undesirable brush and trees to reduce competing vegetation. Forest workers in private industry usually work for professional foresters and paint boundary lines, assist with prescribed burning, and aid in marking and measuring trees by keeping a tally of those examined and counted. Forest workers who work for state and local governments or who are under contract to the federal government also clear away brush and debris from camp trails, roadsides, and camping areas under their employers’ jurisdiction. Some clean kitchens and rest rooms at recreational facilities and campgrounds.

General information on hospitality careers may be obtained from:

Other forest and conservation workers work in forest nurseries, sorting out tree seedlings and discarding those not meeting

Food service managers direct the activities of a hospitalityindustry business and provide a service to customers. Other managers and supervisors in hospitality-oriented businesses include gaming managers, lodging managers, sales worker supervisors, and first-line supervisors or managers of food preparation and serving workers.

Sources of Additional Information Information about a career as a food service manager, 2- and 4year college programs in restaurant and food service management, and certification as a Foodservice Management Professional is available from: ●

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America’s Top 101 Jobs for People Without a Four-Year Degree The timber-cutting and logging industry is characterized by a large number of small crews of four to eight workers. A typical crew might consist of one or two fallers or one feller machine operator, one bucker, two logging tractor operators to drag cut trees to the loading deck, and one equipment operator to load the logs onto trucks. Most crews work for self-employed logging contractors who possess substantial logging experience, the capital to purchase equipment, and the skills needed to run a small business successfully. Most contractors work alongside their crews as supervisors and often operate one of the logging machines, such as the grapple loader or the tree harvester. Many manage more than one crew and function as ownerssupervisors.

prescribed standards of root formation, stem development, and condition of foliage. Some forest workers are employed on tree farms, where they plant, cultivate, and harvest many different kinds of trees. Their duties vary with the type of farm. Those who work on specialty farms, such as farms growing Christmas or ornamental trees for nurseries, are responsible for shearing treetops and limbs to control the growth of the trees under their care, to increase the density of limbs, and to improve the shapes of the trees. In addition, these workers’ duties include planting the seedlings, spraying to control surrounding weed growth and insects, and harvesting the trees. Other forest workers gather, by hand or with the use of handtools, products from the woodlands, such as decorative greens, tree cones and barks, moss, and other wild plant life. Still others tap trees for sap to make syrup or to produce chemicals.

Although timber-cutting and logging equipment has greatly improved and operations are becoming increasingly mechanized, many logging jobs still are labor intensive. These jobs require various levels of skill, ranging from the unskilled task of manually moving logs, branches, and equipment to skillfully using chain saws, peavies (hooked poles), and log jacks to cut and position logs for further processing or loading. To keep costs down, some timber-cutting and logging workers maintain and repair the equipment they use. A skillful, experienced logger is expected to handle a variety of logging operations.

The timber-cutting and logging process is carried out by a variety of workers who make up a logging crew. Fallers cut down trees with hand-held power chain saws or, occasionally, axes. Usually using gas-powered chain saws, buckers trim off the tops and branches and buck (cut) the resulting logs into specified lengths. Choke setters fasten chokers (steel cables or chains) around logs to be skidded (dragged) by tractors or forwarded by the cableyarding system to the landing or deck area, where the logs are separated by species and type of product, such as pulpwood, sawlogs, or veneer logs, and loaded onto trucks. Rigging slingers and chasers set up and dismantle the cables and guy wires of the yarding system. Log sorters, markers, movers, and debarkers sort, mark, and move logs, based on species, size, and ownership, and tend machines that debark logs.

Working Conditions Forestry and logging jobs are physically demanding. Workers spend all their time outdoors, sometimes in poor weather and often in isolated areas. The increased use of enclosed machines has decreased some of the discomforts caused by inclement weather. A few lumber camps in Alaska house workers in bunkhouses or company towns. Workers in sparsely populated western states commute long distances between their homes and logging sites. In the more densely populated eastern and southern states, commuting distances are much shorter.

Logging equipment operators on a logging crew perform a number of duties. They use tree harvesters to shear the tops off of trees, cut and limb the trees, and then cut the logs into desired lengths. They drive tractors mounted on crawler tracks called crawlers, and self-propelled machines called skidders or forwarders, which drag or transport logs from the felling site in the woods to the log landing area for loading. They operate grapple loaders, which lift and load logs into trucks, and tree fellers or shears, which cut the trees. Some logging equipment operators use tracked or wheeled equipment similar to a forklift to unload logs and pulpwood off of trucks or gondola railroad cars, usually in a sawmill or a pulp-mill woodyard. Some newer, more efficient logging equipment is now equipped with state-of-the-art computer technology, requiring more skilled operators with more training.

Most logging occupations involve lifting, climbing, and other strenuous activities, although machinery has eliminated some of the heavy labor. Loggers work under unusually hazardous conditions. Falling trees and branches are a constant menace, as are the dangers associated with log-handling operations and the use of sawing equipment, especially delimbing devices. Special care must be taken during strong winds, which can even halt operations. Slippery or muddy ground and hidden roots or vines not only reduce efficiency, but also present a constant danger, especially in the presence of moving vehicles and machinery. Poisonous plants, brambles, insects, snakes, heat, and humidity are minor annoyances. If safety precautions are not taken, the high noise level of sawing and skidding operations over long periods may impair one’s hearing. Experience, the exercise of caution, and the use of proper safety measures and equipment—such as hardhats, eye and ear protection, and safety clothing and boots—are extremely important to avoid injury.

Log graders and scalers inspect logs for defects, measure logs to determine their volume, and estimate the marketable content or value of logs or pulpwood. These workers often use handheld data collection terminals to enter data about individual trees; later, the data can be downloaded or sent from the scaling area to a central computer via modem.

The jobs of forest and conservation workers generally are much less hazardous than those of loggers. It may be necessary for some forestry aides or forest workers to walk long distances through densely wooded areas to do their work.

Other timber-cutting and logging workers have a variety of responsibilities. Some hike through forests to assess logging conditions. Some clear areas of brush and other growth to prepare for logging activities or to promote the growth of desirable species of trees.

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supervision of an experienced logger, have the opportunity to practice various felling techniques. Fallers learn how to manually cut down extremely large or expensive trees safely and with minimal damage to the felled or surrounding trees.

Forest, conservation, and logging workers held about 81,000 jobs in 2002, distributed among the following occupations: Logging equipment operators ....................................43,000

Training programs for loggers and foresters are becoming common in many states, largely in response to a collaborative effort by the American Forest & Paper Association and others in the forestry industry. Such programs are designed to encourage the health and productivity of the nation’s forests through the Sustainable Forest Initiative program. Logger training programs vary by state, but generally include some type of classroom or field training in a number of areas: best management practices, safety, endangered species, reforestation, and business management. Some programs lead to certification as a logger.

Forest and conservation workers ................................14,000 Fallers............................................................................14,000 Log graders and scalers ................................................10,000 Most wage and salary fallers and logging equipment operators are employed in logging camps and in the logging contractors industry, although some work in sawmills and planing mills. Employment of log graders and scalers is concentrated largely in sawmills and planing mills.

Experience in other occupations can expedite one’s entry into some logging occupations. For example, equipment operators, such as truck drivers and bulldozer and crane operators, can assume skidding and yarding functions. Some loggers have worked in sawmills or on family farms with extensive wooded areas. Some logging contractors were formerly crew members of family-owned businesses operated over several generations.

More than half of all forest and conservation workers work for government, primarily at the state and local level. Twenty percent are employed by companies that operate timber tracts, tree farms, or forest nurseries, or for contractors that supply services to agriculture and forestry industries. Some of those employed in forestry services work on a contract basis for the U.S. Department of Agriculture’s Forest Service. A small number of forest and conservation workers work in sawmills and planing mills. Although forest and conservation workers are located in every state, employment is concentrated in the West and Southeast, where many national and private forests and parks are located.

Generally, little formal education is required for most forest, conservation, and logging occupations. Many secondary schools, including vocational and technical schools and some community colleges, offer courses or a 2-year degree in general forestry, wildlife, conservation, and forest harvesting, which could be helpful in obtaining a job. A curriculum that includes field trips to observe or participate in forestry or logging activities provides a particularly good background. There are no educational requirements for forest worker jobs. Many of these workers are high school or college students who are hired on a part-time or seasonal basis to perform short-term, labor-intensive tasks, such as planting tree seedlings.

Self-employed forestry, conservation, and logging workers account for almost 3 of every 10 such workers—a much higher proportion of self-employment than in most other occupations. Seasonal demand for forest, conservation, and logging workers varies by region. For example, in the northern states, winter work is common because the frozen ground facilitates logging. In the Southeast, logging and related activities occur yearround.

Forest, conservation, and logging workers must be in good health and able to work outdoors every day. They also must be able to work as part of a team. Many logging occupations require physical strength and stamina. Maturity and good judgment are important in making quick, intelligent decisions in dealing with hazards as they arise. Mechanical aptitude and coordination are necessary qualities for operators of machinery and equipment, who often are responsible for repair and maintenance as well. Initiative and managerial and business skills are necessary for success as a self-employed logging contractor.

Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most forest, conservation, and logging workers develop skills through on-the-job training, with instruction coming primarily from experienced workers. Logging workers must familiarize themselves with the character and dangers of the forest environment and the operation of logging machinery and equipment. However, large logging companies and trade associations, such as the Northeastern Loggers Association and the Forest Resources Association, Inc., offer special programs, particularly for workers training to operate large, expensive machinery and equipment. Often, a representative of the manufacturer or company spends several days in the field explaining and overseeing the operation of newly purchased machinery. Safety training is a vital part of the instruction of all logging workers.

Experience working at a nursery or as a laborer can be useful in obtaining a job as a forest or conservation worker. Logging workers generally advance from occupations involving primarily manual labor to those involving the operation of expensive, sometimes complicated, machinery and other equipment. Inexperienced entrants usually begin as laborers, carrying tools and equipment, clearing brush, and loading and unloading logs and brush. For some, familiarization with logging operations may lead to jobs such as log-handling equipment operator. Further experience may lead to jobs involving the operation of more complicated machinery and yarding towers to transport, load, and unload logs. Those who have the motor skills required for the efficient use of power saws and other equipment may become fallers and buckers.

Many state forestry or logging associations provide training sessions for fallers, whose job duties require more skill and experience than do other positions on the logging team. Sessions may take place in the field, where trainees, under the

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hourly earnings in 2002 for forest, conservation, and logging occupations were as follows:

Overall employment of forest, conservation, and logging workers is expected to decline slightly through the year 2012. Most job openings will result from replacement needs. Many logging workers transfer to other jobs that are less physically demanding and dangerous, or else they retire. In addition, some forestry workers are youths who are not committed to the occupation on a long-term basis. Some take jobs to earn money for school; others work in this occupation only until they find a better paying job.

Fallers............................................................................$13.54 Log graders and scalers..................................................13.08 Logging equipment operators ......................................12.88 Forest and conservation workers ....................................9.12 Earnings of logging workers vary by size of establishment and by geographic area. Workers in the largest establishments earn more than those in the smallest ones. Workers in Alaska and the Northwest earn more than those in the South, where the cost of living is generally lower.

Employment of forest and conservation workers is expected to grow more slowly than the average for all occupations. Setting aside more land to protect natural resources or wildlife habitats helps to create demand for more forest and conservation workers. In addition, under the latest farm bill, small, private farmowners were offered incentives to convert all or part of their land to forest for ecological purposes. This conversion may indirectly cause the hiring of forest and conservation workers to work on the property.

Forest and conservation workers who work for state and local governments or for large, private firms generally enjoy more generous benefits than do workers in smaller firms. Small logging contractors generally offer timber-cutting and logging workers few benefits. However, some employers offer full-time workers basic benefits, such as medical coverage, and provide safety apparel and equipment.

Despite steady demand for lumber and other wood products, employment of timber-cutting and logging occupations is expected to decline, primarily because of increased mechanization and increasing imports. New federal policy allowing some access to federal timberland may moderate any decline, however, and job opportunities also will arise from owners of privately owned forests and tree farms. However, domestic timber producers face increasing competition from foreign producers, who can harvest the same amount of timber at lower cost. As competition increases, the logging industry is expected to continue to consolidate in order to reduce costs, thereby eliminating some jobs.

Related Occupations Other occupations concerned with the care of trees and their environment include conservation scientists and foresters, forest and conservation technicians, and grounds maintenance workers. Logging equipment operators have skills similar to material-moving equipment operators, such as industrial truck and tractor operators and crane and tower operators.

Sources of Additional Information For information about timber-cutting and logging careers and about secondary and postsecondary programs offering training for logging occupations, contact either of the following sources:

Increased mechanization of logging operations and improvements in logging equipment will continue to depress demand for many timber-cutting and logging workers. Employment of fallers, buckers, choke setters, and other workers—whose jobs are labor intensive—should decline as safer laborsaving machinery and other equipment are increasingly used. Employment of machinery and equipment operators, such as logging tractor and log-handling equipment operators, should be less adversely affected.

Forest Resources Association, Inc., 600 Jefferson Plaza, Suite 350, Rockville, MD 20852. Internet: http://www.forestresources.org

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American Forest & Paper Association, 1111 19th St. NW, Suite 800, Washington, DC 20036. Internet: http://www.afandpa.org

A list of state forestry associations and other forestry-related state associations is available at most public libraries. Schools of forestry at states’ land-grant colleges or universities also should be useful sources of additional information.

Heating, Air-Conditioning, and Refrigeration Mechanics and Installers

Earnings Earnings vary with the particular forestry or logging occupation and with experience. Earnings range from the minimum wage in some beginning forestry and conservation positions to about $28.23 an hour for some experienced fallers. Median

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Northeastern Loggers Association, P.O. Box 69, Old Forge, NY 13420.

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For information on the Sustainable Forestry Initiative training programs, contact:

Weather can force the curtailment of logging operations during the muddy spring season and the cold winter months, depending on the geographic region. Changes in the level of construction, particularly residential construction, also affect logging activities in the short term. In addition, logging operations must be relocated when timber in a particular area has been completely harvested. During prolonged periods of inactivity, some workers may stay on the job to maintain or repair logging machinery and equipment; others are forced to find jobs in other occupations or be without work.

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Significant Points

installers often use combustion test equipment, such as carbon dioxide and oxygen testers.

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Job prospects for heating, air-conditioning, and refrigeration mechanics and installers are expected to be good, particularly for those with technical school or formal apprenticeship training.

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The Air-Conditioning Excellence program, offered through North American Technician Excellence, is the standard for certification of experienced technicians.

After a furnace has been installed, heating equipment technicians often perform routine maintenance and repair work to keep the system operating efficiently. During the fall and winter, for example, when the system is used most, they service and adjust burners and blowers. If the system is not operating properly, they check the thermostat, burner nozzles, controls, or other parts to diagnose and then correct the problem. During the summer, when the heating system is not being used, heating equipment technicians do maintenance work, such as replacing filters, ducts, and other parts of the system that may accumulate dust and impurities during the operating season. During the winter, air-conditioning mechanics inspect the systems and do required maintenance, such as overhauling compressors.

Nature of the Work What would those living in Chicago do without heating, those in Miami do without air-conditioning, or blood banks all over the country do without refrigeration? Heating and air-conditioning systems control the temperature, humidity, and the total air quality in residential, commercial, industrial, and other buildings. Refrigeration systems make it possible to store and transport food, medicine, and other perishable items. Heating, air-conditioning, and refrigeration mechanics and installers—also called technicians—install, maintain, and repair such systems. Because heating, ventilation, air-conditioning, and refrigeration systems often are referred to as HVACR systems, these workers also may be called HVACR technicians.

Refrigeration mechanics install, service, and repair industrial and commercial refrigerating systems and a variety of refrigeration equipment. They follow blueprints, design specifications, and manufacturers’ instructions to install motors, compressors, condensing units, evaporators, piping, and other components. They connect this equipment to the ductwork, refrigerant lines, and electrical power source. After making the connections, they charge the system with refrigerant, check it for proper operation, and program control systems.

Heating, air-conditioning, and refrigeration systems consist of many mechanical, electrical, and electronic components, such as motors, compressors, pumps, fans, ducts, pipes, thermostats, and switches. In central heating systems, for example, a furnace heats air that is distributed throughout the building via a system of metal or fiberglass ducts. Technicians must be able to maintain, diagnose, and correct problems throughout the entire system. To do this, they adjust system controls to recommended settings and test the performance of the entire system using special tools and test equipment.

When heating, air-conditioning, and refrigeration mechanics service equipment, they must use care to conserve, recover, and recycle chlorofluorocarbon (CFC) and hydrochlorofluorocarbon (HCFC) refrigerants used in air-conditioning and refrigeration systems. The release of CFCs and HCFCs contributes to the depletion of the stratospheric ozone layer, which protects plant and animal life from ultraviolet radiation. Technicians conserve the refrigerant by making sure that there are no leaks in the system; they recover it by venting the refrigerant into proper cylinders; and they recycle it for reuse with special filter-dryers.

Technicians often specialize in either installation or maintenance and repair, although they are trained to do both. Some specialize in one type of equipment—for example, oil burners, solar panels, or commercial refrigerators. Technicians may work for large or small contracting companies or directly for a manufacturer or wholesaler. Those working for smaller operations tend to do both installation and servicing, and work with heating, cooling, and refrigeration equipment. Service contracts—which involve heating, air-conditioning, and refrigeration work for particular customers on a regular basis—are becoming more common. Service agreements help to reduce the seasonal fluctuations of this work.

Heating, air-conditioning, and refrigeration mechanics and installers are adept at using a variety of tools, including hammers, wrenches, metal snips, electric drills, pipe cutters and benders, measurement gauges, and acetylene torches, to work with refrigerant lines and air ducts. They use voltmeters, thermometers, pressure gauges, manometers, and other testing devices to check airflow, refrigerant pressure, electrical circuits, burners, and other components. Other craftworkers sometimes install or repair cooling and heating systems. For example, on a large air-conditioning installation job, especially where workers are covered by union contracts, ductwork might be done by sheet metal workers and duct installers; electrical work by electricians; and installation of piping, condensers, and other components by pipelayers, plumbers, pipefitters, and steamfitters. Home appliance repairers usually service room air-conditioners and household refrigerators.

Heating and air-conditioning mechanics install, service, and repair heating and air-conditioning systems in both residences and commercial establishments. Furnace installers, also called heating equipment technicians, follow blueprints or other specifications to install oil, gas, electric, solid-fuel, and multiple-fuel heating systems. Air-conditioning mechanics install and service central air-conditioning systems. After putting the equipment in place, they install fuel and water supply lines, air ducts and vents, pumps, and other components. They may connect electrical wiring and controls and check the unit for proper operation. To ensure the proper functioning of the system, furnace

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Working Conditions Heating, air-conditioning, and refrigeration mechanics and installers work in homes, stores of all kinds, hospitals, office buildings, and factories—anywhere there is climate-control ●

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equipment. They may be assigned to specific jobsites at the beginning of each day, or if they are making service calls, they may be dispatched to jobs by radio, telephone, or pager. Increasingly, employers are using cell phones to coordinate technicians’ schedules.

Many secondary and postsecondary technical and trade schools, junior and community colleges, and the U.S. Armed Forces offer 6-month to 2-year programs in heating, air-conditioning, and refrigeration. Students study theory, design, and equipment construction, as well as electronics. They also learn the basics of installation, maintenance, and repair.

Technicians may work outside in cold or hot weather or in buildings that are uncomfortable because the air-conditioning or heating equipment is broken. In addition, technicians might have to work in awkward or cramped positions and sometimes are required to work in high places. Hazards include electrical shock, burns, muscle strains, and other injuries from handling heavy equipment. Appropriate safety equipment is necessary when handling refrigerants because contact can cause skin damage, frostbite, or blindness. Inhalation of refrigerants when working in confined spaces also is a possible hazard.

Apprenticeship programs frequently are run by joint committees representing local chapters of the Air-Conditioning Contractors of America, the Mechanical Contractors Association of America, the National Association of Plumbing-HeatingCooling Contractors, and locals of the Sheet Metal Workers’ International Association or the United Association of Journeymen and Apprentices of the Plumbing and Pipefitting Industry of the United States and Canada. Other apprenticeship programs are sponsored by local chapters of the Associated Builders and Contractors and the National Association of Home Builders. Formal apprenticeship programs normally last 3 to 5 years and combine on-the-job training with classroom instruction. Classes include subjects such as the use and care of tools, safety practices, blueprint reading, and the theory and design of heating, ventilation, air-conditioning, and refrigeration systems. Applicants for these programs must have a high school diploma or equivalent. Math and reading skills are essential.

The majority of mechanics and installers work at least a 40hour week. During peak seasons they often work overtime or irregular hours. Maintenance workers, including those who provide maintenance services under contract, often work evening or weekend shifts and are on call. Most employers try to provide a full workweek year-round by scheduling both installation and maintenance work, and many manufacturers and contractors now provide or even require service contracts. In most shops that service both heating and air-conditioning equipment, employment is stable throughout the year. Heating, air-conditioning, and refrigeration mechanics and installers held about 249,000 jobs in 2002; almost half worked for cooling and heating contractors. The remainder was employed in a variety of industries throughout the country, reflecting a widespread dependence on climate-control systems. Some worked for fuel oil dealers, refrigeration and airconditioning service and repair shops, schools, and stores that sell heating and air-conditioning systems. Local governments, the federal government, hospitals, office buildings, and other organizations that operate large air-conditioning, refrigeration, or heating systems employed others. About 15 percent of mechanics and installers were self-employed.

Those who acquire their skills on the job usually begin by assisting experienced technicians. They may begin by performing simple tasks such as carrying materials, insulating refrigerant lines, or cleaning furnaces. In time, they move on to more difficult tasks, such as cutting and soldering pipes and sheet metal and checking electrical and electronic circuits. Courses in shop math, mechanical drawing, applied physics and chemistry, electronics, blueprint reading, and computer applications provide a good background for those interested in entering this occupation. Some knowledge of plumbing or electrical work also is helpful. A basic understanding of electronics is becoming more important because of the increasing use of this technology in equipment controls. Because technicians frequently deal directly with the public, they should be courteous and tactful, especially when dealing with an aggravated customer. They also should be in good physical condition because they sometimes have to lift and move heavy equipment.

Employment Heating, air-conditioning, and refrigeration mechanics and installers held about 249,000 jobs in 2002; almost half worked for cooling and heating contractors. The remainder was employed in a variety of industries throughout the country, reflecting a widespread dependence on climate-control systems. Some worked for fuel oil dealers, refrigeration and airconditioning service and repair shops, schools, and stores that sell heating and air-conditioning systems. Local governments, the federal government, hospitals, office buildings, and other organizations that operate large air-conditioning, refrigeration, or heating systems employed others. About 15 percent of mechanics and installers were self-employed.

All technicians who purchase or work with refrigerants must be certified in their proper handling. To become certified to purchase and handle refrigerants, technicians must pass a written examination specific to the type of work in which they specialize. The three possible areas of certification are: Type I— servicing small appliances, Type II—high-pressure refrigerants, and Type III—low-pressure refrigerants. Exams are administered by organizations approved by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, such as trade schools, unions, contractor associations, or building groups.

Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement

Several organizations have begun to offer basic self-study, classroom, and Internet courses for individuals with limited experience. In addition to understanding how systems work, technicians must be knowledgeable about refrigerant products

Because of the increasing sophistication of heating, airconditioning, and refrigeration systems, employers prefer to

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Section One: Descriptions of 101 Top Jobs for People Without a Four-Year Degree and the legislation and regulations that govern their use. The Air-Conditioning Excellence program, which is offered through North American Technician Excellence (NATE), generally has been adopted as the standard for certification of experienced technicians.

ings in the industries employing the largest numbers of heating, air-conditioning, and refrigeration mechanics and installers in 2002 were as follows:

Advancement usually takes the form of higher wages. Some technicians, however, may advance to positions as supervisor or service manager. Others may move into areas such as sales and marketing. Still others may become building superintendents, cost estimators, or, with the necessary certification, teachers. Those with sufficient money and managerial skill can open their own contracting business.

Commercial and industrial machinery and equipment (except automotive and electronic) repair and maintenance ..............................................17.16

Hardware, and plumbing and heating equipment and supplies merchant wholesalers..........................$18.78

Direct selling establishments ........................................17.14 Elementary and secondary schools ..............................16.80 Building equipment contractors ..................................16.03 Apprentices usually begin at about 50 percent of the wage rate paid to experienced workers. As they gain experience and improve their skills, they receive periodic increases until they reach the wage rate of experienced workers.

Job Outlook Job prospects for heating, air-conditioning, and refrigeration mechanics and installers are expected to be good, particularly for those with technical school or formal apprenticeship training. Employment of heating, air-conditioning, and refrigeration mechanics and installers is expected to grow faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2012. As the population and economy grow, so does the demand for new residential, commercial, and industrial climate-control systems. Technicians who specialize in installation work may experience periods of unemployment when the level of new construction activity declines, but maintenance and repair work usually remains relatively stable. People and businesses depend on their climate-control systems and must keep them in good working order, regardless of economic conditions.

Heating, air-conditioning, and refrigeration mechanics and installers enjoy a variety of employer-sponsored benefits. In addition to typical benefits such as health insurance and pension plans, some employers pay for work-related training and provide uniforms, company vans, and tools. About 20 percent of heating, air-conditioning, and refrigeration mechanics and installers are members of a union. The unions to which the greatest numbers of mechanics and installers belong are the Sheet Metal Workers’ International Association and the United Association of Journeymen and Apprentices of the Plumbing and Pipefitting Industry of the United States and Canada.

Renewed concern for energy conservation should continue to prompt the development of new energy-saving heating and airconditioning systems. An emphasis on better energy management should lead to the replacement of older systems and the installation of newer, more efficient systems in existing homes and buildings. Also, demand for maintenance and service work should increase as businesses and homeowners strive to keep systems operating at peak efficiency. Regulations prohibiting the discharge of CFC and HCFC refrigerants took effect in 1993, and regulations banning CFC production became effective in 2000. Consequently, these regulations should continue to result in demand for technicians to replace many existing systems, or modify them to use new environmentally safe refrigerants. In addition, the continuing focus on improving indoor air quality should contribute to the creation of more jobs for heating, air-conditioning, and refrigeration technicians. Also, growth of business establishments that use refrigerated equipment—such as supermarkets and convenience stores—will contribute to a growing need for technicians. In addition to job openings created by employment growth, thousands of openings will result from the need to replace workers who transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force.

Related Occupations Heating, air-conditioning, and refrigeration mechanics and installers work with sheet metal and piping, and repair machinery, such as electrical motors, compressors, and burners. Other workers who have similar skills include boilermakers; home appliance repairers; electricians; sheet metal workers; and pipelayers, plumbers, pipefitters, and steamfitters.

Sources of Additional Information For more information about opportunities for training, certification, and employment in this trade, contact local vocational and technical schools; local heating, air-conditioning, and refrigeration contractors; a local of the unions or organizations previously mentioned; a local joint union-management apprenticeship committee; or the nearest office of the state employment service or apprenticeship agency. For information on career opportunities, training, and technician certification, contact:

Earnings

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Air-Conditioning Contractors of America (ACCA), 2800 Shirlington Rd., Suite 300, Arlington, VA 22206. Internet: http://www.acca.org

Median hourly earnings of heating, air-conditioning, and refrigeration mechanics and installers were $16.78 in 2002. The middle 50 percent earned between $12.95 and $21.37 an hour. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $10.34, and the top 10 percent earned more than $26.20. Median hourly earn-

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Refrigeration Service Engineers Society (RSES), 1666 Rand Rd., Des Plaines, IL 60016-3552. Internet: http://www.rses.org

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Plumbing-Heating-Cooling Contractors (PHCC), 180 S. Washington St., P.O. Box 6808, Falls Church, VA 22046. Internet: http://www.phccweb.org

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Sheet Metal and Air-Conditioning Contractors’ National Association, 4201 Lafayette Center Dr., Chantilly, VA 20151-1209. Internet: http://www.smacna.org

plant’s personnel and capital resources to select the best way of meeting the production quota. Industrial production managers determine, often using mathematical formulas, which machines will be used, whether new machines need to be purchased, whether overtime or extra shifts are necessary, and what the sequence of production will be. They monitor the production run to make sure that it stays on schedule and correct any problems that may arise.

For information on technician testing and certification, contact: ●

North American Technician Excellence (NATE), 4100 North Fairfax Dr., Suite 210, Arlington, VA 22203. Internet: http://www.natex.org

For information on career opportunities and training, contact: ●

Associated Builders and Contractors, Workforce Development Department, 4250 North Fairfax Dr., 9th Floor, Arlington, VA 22203.

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Home Builders Institute, 1201 15th St. NW, 6th Floor, Washington, DC 20005-2800. Internet: http://www.hbi.org

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Mechanical Contractors Association of America, 1385 Piccard Dr., Rockville, MD 20850-4329. Internet: http://www.mcaa.org

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Air-Conditioning and Refrigeration Institute, 4100 North Fairfax Dr., Suite 200, Arlington, VA 22203. Internet: http://www.ari.org

As production techniques have evolved beyond traditional mass assembly lines, industrial production managers have adapted to “lean” production techniques. Many manufacturers have adopted lean production techniques, while some others use a combination of lean and mass production techniques. In a traditional assembly line, each worker is responsible for only a small portion of the assembly, repeating that task on every product. Lean production employs teams to build and assemble products in stations or cells. When companies use stations, one worker may work alone with handtools and various parts to complete a large portion of the assembly process. Rather than specializing in a specific task, workers are capable of performing all jobs within a team. Without the constraints of the traditional assembly line, companies can be more flexible in their production process, more easily changing production levels on different product lines.

There are more than 500 occupations registered by the U.S. Department of Labor’s National Apprenticeship System. For more information on the Labor Department’s registered apprenticeship system and links to state apprenticeship programs, check their Web site: http://www.doleta.gov.

The increased flexibility of lean manufacturing enables industrial production managers to experiment with ways of improving the assembly and manufacturing process. As companies strive to minimize inventory, they want to maintain only a limited stock of finished products. Employing manufacturing cells and stations, companies can more quickly react to changes in customer demand so that limited inventories will not get too low.

Industrial Production Managers (O*NET 11-3051.00)

Industrial production managers also must monitor product standards. Inspecting samples of finished goods and recording defects enables managers to statistically analyze quality control problems. While traditional quality control programs reacted only to problems that reached a certain significant level, newer management techniques and programs, such as ISO 9000, Total Quality Management (TQM), or Six Sigma, emphasize continuous quality improvement. If the problem relates to the quality of work performed in the plant, the manager may implement better training programs or reorganize the manufacturing process, often based upon the suggestions of employee teams. If the cause is substandard materials or parts from outside suppliers, companies may work with their suppliers to improve their quality.

Significant Points ●

While there is no standard preparation, a college degree is required.

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Applicants with a college degree in industrial engineering, management, or business administration, and particularly those with an undergraduate engineering degree and a master’s degree in business administration or industrial management, enjoy the best job prospects.

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Projected slower-than-average growth in employment reflects increasing productivity.

Nature of the Work

Because the work of many departments is related, managers work closely with heads of other departments such as sales, procurement, and logistics to plan and implement company goals, policies, and procedures. For example, the production manager works with the procurement department to ensure that plant inventories are maintained at their optimal level. This is vital to a firm’s operation because maintaining the inventory of materials necessary for production ties up the firm’s financial resources, yet insufficient quantities cause delays in production. A breakdown in communications between the production manager and the purchasing department can cause slowdowns and a failure to meet production

Industrial production managers coordinate the resources and activities required to produce millions of goods every year in the United States. Although their duties vary from plant to plant, industrial production managers share many of the same major responsibilities. These responsibilities include production scheduling, staffing, procurement and maintenance of equipment, quality control, inventory control, and the coordination of production activities with those of other departments. The primary mission of industrial production managers is planning the production schedule within budgetary limitations and time constraints. They do this by analyzing the

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Section One: Descriptions of 101 Top Jobs for People Without a Four-Year Degree trial management or business administration (MBA). Some are former production-line supervisors who have been promoted. Although many employers prefer candidates with a business or engineering background, some companies hire well-rounded liberal arts graduates.

schedules. Just-in-time production techniques have reduced inventory levels, making constant communication among the manager, suppliers, and purchasing departments even more important. Computers play an integral part in this coordination. They also are used to provide up-to-date information on inventory, the status of work in progress, and quality standards.

As production operations become more sophisticated, increasing numbers of employers are looking for candidates with graduate degrees in industrial management or business administration. Combined with an undergraduate degree in engineering, either of these graduate degrees is considered particularly good preparation. Managers who do not have graduate degrees often take courses in decision sciences, which provide them with techniques and mathematical formulas that can be used to maximize efficiency and improve quality. Companies also are placing greater importance on a candidate’s interpersonal skills. Because the job requires the ability to compromise, persuade, and negotiate, successful production managers must be well-rounded and have excellent communication skills.

Production managers usually report to the plant manager or the vice president for manufacturing, and may act as liaison between executives and first-line supervisors. In many plants, one production manager is responsible for all aspects of production. In large plants with several operations—aircraft assembly, for example—there are managers in charge of each operation, such as machining, assembly, or finishing.

Working Conditions Most industrial production managers divide their time between production areas and their offices. While in the production area, they must follow established health and safety practices and wear the required protective clothing and equipment. The time in the office, which often is located near production areas, usually is spent meeting with subordinates or other department managers, analyzing production data, and writing and reviewing reports.

Those who enter the field directly from college or graduate school often are unfamiliar with the firm’s production process. As a result, they may spend their first few months in the company’s training program. These programs familiarize trainees with the production process, company policies, and the requirements of the job. In larger companies, they also may include assignments to other departments, such as purchasing and accounting. A number of companies hire college graduates as first-line supervisors and later promote them.

Most industrial production managers work more than 40 hours a week, especially when production deadlines must be met. In facilities that operate around-the-clock, managers often work late shifts and may be called at any hour to deal with emergencies. This could mean going to the plant to resolve the problem, regardless of the hour, and staying until the situation is under control. Dealing with production workers as well as superiors when working under the pressure of production deadlines or emergency situations can be stressful. Corporate restructuring has eliminated levels of management and support staff, thus shifting more responsibilities to production managers and compounding this stress.

Some industrial production managers have worked their way up through the ranks, perhaps after having worked as first-line supervisors. These workers already have an intimate knowledge of the production process and the firm’s organization. To be selected for promotion, however, they must obtain a college degree, must demonstrate leadership qualities, and usually must take company-sponsored courses in management skills and communication techniques. In addition to formal training, industrial production managers must keep informed of new production technologies and management practices. Many belong to professional organizations and attend trade shows at which new equipment is displayed; they also attend industry conferences and conventions at which changes in production methods and technological advances are discussed. Some take courses to become certified in various quality and management systems.

Employment Industrial production managers held about 182,000 jobs in 2002. Almost all are employed in manufacturing industries, including the plastics product manufacturing, printing and related support activities, motor vehicle parts manufacturing, and semiconductor and other electronic component manufacturing industries. Production managers work in all parts of the country, but jobs are most plentiful in areas where manufacturing is concentrated.

Industrial production managers with a proven record of superior performance may advance to plant manager or vice president for manufacturing. Others transfer to jobs with more responsibilities at larger firms. Opportunities also exist for consultants.

Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement

Job Outlook

Because of the diversity of manufacturing operations and job requirements, there is no standard preparation for this occupation. However, a college degree is required, even for those who have worked their way up through the ranks. Many industrial production managers have a college degree in business administration, management, industrial technology, or industrial engineering. Others have a master’s degree in indus-

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Employment of industrial production managers is expected to grow more slowly than the average for all occupations through 2012. However, a number of job openings will stem from the need to replace workers who transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. Applicants with a college degree in indus-

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America’s Top 101 Jobs for People Without a Four-Year Degree trial engineering, management, or business administration, and particularly those with an undergraduate engineering degree and a master’s degree in business administration or industrial management, enjoy the best job prospects. Employers also are likely to seek candidates who have excellent communication skills and who are personable, flexible, and eager to enhance their knowledge and skills through ongoing training.

Inspectors, Testers, Sorters, Samplers, and Weighers

Although manufacturing output is projected to rise, increases in productivity among industrial production managers and the workers they supervise will limit growth in employment of these managers. Productivity gains among managers will stem from the increasing use of computers for scheduling, planning, and coordination. Productivity gains among workers will limit both the number of employees in factories and the need for supervision. In addition, more emphasis on quality in the production process has redistributed some of the production manager’s oversight responsibilities to supervisors and workers on the production line. Because production managers are so essential to the efficient operation of a plant, they have not been greatly affected by recent efforts to flatten management structures. Nevertheless, this trend has led production managers to assume more responsibilities and has limited the creation of more employment opportunities.

(O*NET 51-9061.01, 51-9061.02, 51-9061.03, 51-9061.04, and 51-9061.05)

Significant Points Seven out of 10 worked in manufacturing establishments.

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For workers who perform relatively simple tests of products, a high school diploma is sufficient; experienced production workers fill more complex inspecting positions.

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Employment is expected to grow more slowly than average, reflecting the growth of automated inspection and the redistribution of quality-control responsibilities from inspectors to other production workers.

Nature of the Work

Earnings

Inspectors, testers, sorters, samplers, and weighers ensure that your food will not make you sick, that your car will run properly, and that your pants will not split the first time you wear them. These workers monitor or audit quality standards for virtually all manufactured products, including foods, textiles, clothing, glassware, motor vehicles, electronic components, computers, and structural steel. As product quality becomes increasingly important to the success of many manufacturing firms, daily duties of inspectors have changed. In some cases, the job titles of these workers also have been changed to quality-control inspector or a similar name, reflecting the growing importance of quality.

Median annual earnings for industrial production managers were $67,320 in 2002. The middle 50 percent earned between $50,710 and $88,880. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $38,980, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $114,750. Median annual earnings in the manufacturing industries employing the largest numbers of industrial production managers in 2002 were: Management of companies and enterprises..........$89,570 Semiconductor and other electronic component manufacturing ....................................78,070 Motor vehicle parts manufacturing ........................73,570

Regardless of title, all inspectors, testers, sorters, samplers, and weighers work to guarantee the quality of the goods their firms produce. Job duties, even within one company, vary by the type of products produced or the stage of production. Specific job duties also vary across the wide range of industries in which these workers are found. For example, inspectors may check products by sight, sound, feel, smell, or even taste to locate imperfections such as cuts, scratches, bubbles, missing pieces, misweaves, or crooked seams. These workers also may verify dimensions, color, weight, texture, strength, or other physical characteristics of objects. Machinery testers generally verify that parts fit, move correctly, and are properly lubricated; check the pressure of gases and the level of liquids; test the flow of electricity; and do a test run to check for proper operation. Some jobs involve only a quick visual inspection; others require a longer, detailed one. Sorters may separate goods according to length, size, fabric type, or color, while samplers test or inspect a sample taken from a batch or production run for malfunctions or defects. Weighers weigh quantities of materials for use in production.

Plastics products manufacturing..............................60,720 Printing and related support activities ..................59,270

Related Occupations Industrial production managers oversee production staff and equipment, ensure that production goals and quality standards are being met, and implement company policies. Occupations requiring similar training and skills are engineers, management analysts, operations research analysts, top executives, and industrial engineers, including health and safety.

Sources of Additional Information For more information on industrial production management, contact local manufacturers or schools with programs in industrial management.

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Section One: Descriptions of 101 Top Jobs for People Without a Four-Year Degree Testers repeatedly test existing products or prototypes under real-world conditions. For example, they may purposely abuse a machine by not changing its oil to see when failure occurs. They may devise automated machines to repeat a basic task thousands of times, such as opening and closing a car door. Through these tests, companies determine how long a product will last, what parts will break down first, and how to improve durability.

Inspectors, testers, sorters, samplers, and weighers are involved at every stage of the production process. Some inspectors examine materials received from a supplier before sending them to the production line. Others inspect components and assemblies or perform a final check on the finished product. Depending on their skill level, inspectors also may set up and test equipment, calibrate precision instruments, repair defective products, or record data. Inspectors, testers, sorters, samplers, and weighers rely on a number of tools to perform their jobs. Many use micrometers, calipers, alignment gauges, and other instruments to check and compare the dimensions of parts against the parts’ specifications. They also may operate electronic equipment, such as coordinate measuring machines (CMMs), which use sensitive probes to measure a part’s dimensional accuracy and compare the results with a computerized blueprint. Inspectors testing electrical devices may use voltmeters, ammeters, and oscilloscopes to test insulation, current flow, and resistance.

Working Conditions Working conditions vary by industry and establishment size. As a result, some inspectors examine similar products for an entire shift, whereas others examine a variety of items. In manufacturing, it is common for most inspectors to remain at one workstation; in transportation, some travel from place to place to do inspections. Inspectors in some industries may be on their feet all day and may have to lift heavy objects, whereas, in other industries, they sit during most of their shift and do little strenuous work. Workers in heavy manufacturing plants may be exposed to the noise and grime of machinery; in other plants, inspectors work in clean, air-conditioned environments suitable for carrying out controlled tests.

Inspectors mark, tag, or note problems. They may reject defective items outright, send them for repair or correction, or fix minor problems themselves. If the product is acceptable, inspectors may screw on a nameplate onto it, tag it, stamp it with a serial number, or certify it in some other way. Inspectors, testers, sorters, samplers, and weighers record the results of their inspections, compute the percentage of defects and other statistical measures, and prepare inspection and test reports. Some electronic inspection equipment automatically provides test reports containing these inspection results. When defects are found, inspectors notify supervisors and help to analyze and correct the production problems.

Some inspectors work evenings, nights, or weekends. Shift assignments generally are made on the basis of seniority. Overtime may be required to meet production goals.

Employment Inspectors, testers, sorters, samplers, and weighers held about 515,000 jobs in 2002. About 7 out of 10 worked in manufacturing establishments that produced such products as motor vehicle parts, plastics products, semiconductor and other electronic components, and aerospace products and parts. Inspectors, testers, sorters, samplers, and weighers also were found in employment services, architectural, engineering, and related services, wholesale trade, and government agencies.

The emphasis on finding the root cause of defects is a basic tenet of modern management and production philosophies. Industrial production managers work closely with the inspectors to reduce defects and improve quality. In older production philosophies, it was considered acceptable to simply throw away or repair defective parts, but the root cause of the defects remained. A certain level of defects was considered acceptable because variations would always occur. Current philosophies emphasize constant quality improvement through analysis and correction of the causes of defects. The nature of inspectors’ work has changed from merely checking for defects, to determining the cause of those defects.

Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Training requirements vary, based on the responsibilities of the inspector, tester, sorter, sampler, or weigher. For workers who perform simple “pass/fail” tests of products, a high school diploma generally is sufficient. Simple jobs may be filled by beginners provided with in-house training. Training for new inspectors may cover the use of special meters, gauges, computers, or other instruments; quality-control techniques; blueprint reading; safety; and reporting requirements. There are some postsecondary training programs in testing, but many employers prefer to train inspectors on the job.

Increased emphasis on quality control in manufacturing means that inspection is more fully integrated into the production process than in the past. Formerly, many companies considered quality control to be independent from the production work. Now, companies have integrated teams of inspection and production workers to jointly review and improve product quality. In addition, many companies now use self-monitoring production machines to ensure that the output is produced within quality standards. Self-monitoring machines can alert inspectors to production problems and automatically repair defects in some cases. Many firms have completely automated inspection with the help of advanced vision inspection systems, using machinery installed at one or several points in the production process. Inspectors in these firms calibrate and monitor the equipment, review output, and perform random product checks.

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Complex precision-inspecting positions are filled by experienced assemblers, machine operators, or mechanics who already have a thorough knowledge of the products and production processes. To advance to these positions, experienced workers may need training in statistical process control, new automation, or the company’s quality assurance policies. As automated inspection equipment becomes more common, computer skills are increasingly important. ●

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Earnings

In general, inspectors, testers, sorters, samplers, and weighers need mechanical aptitude, math and communication skills, and good hand-eye coordination and vision. Advancement for these workers frequently takes the form of higher pay. They also may advance to inspector of more complex products, supervisor, or related positions such as purchaser of materials and equipment.

Median hourly earnings of inspectors, testers, sorters, samplers, and weighers were $13.01 in 2002. The middle 50 percent earned between $9.84 and $17.46 an hour. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $7.81 an hour, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $23.56 an hour. Median hourly earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of inspectors, testers, sorters, samplers, and weighers in 2002 were:

Job Outlook Like that of many other occupations concentrated in manufacturing industries, employment of inspectors, testers, sorters, samplers, and weighers is expected to grow more slowly than average through the year 2012. The slower than average growth stems primarily from the growing use of automated inspection and the redistribution of quality-control responsibilities from inspectors to production workers. Numerous job openings also will arise due to turnover in this large occupation. Many of these jobs, however, will be open only to experienced production workers with advanced skills.

Aerospace product and parts manufacturing ............$18.24 Motor vehicle parts manufacturing..............................16.49 Semiconductor and other electronic component manufacturing ............................................................12.86 Plastics product manufacturing ....................................11.94 Employment services ......................................................8.85

Related Occupations

Employment of inspectors, testers, sorters, samplers, and weighers will be positively affected by the increased focus on quality in American industry. The emphasis on improving quality and productivity has led manufacturers to invest in automated inspection equipment, hire more inspectors, and to take a more systematic approach to quality inspection. Continued improvements in technologies, such as spectrophotometers and computer-assisted visual inspection systems, allow firms to effectively automate simple inspection tasks, increasing worker productivity and reducing the demand for inspectors.

Other workers who conduct inspections include agricultural inspectors, construction and building inspectors, fire inspectors and investigators, forest fire inspectors and prevention specialists, occupational health and safety specialists and technicians, and transportation inspectors.

Sources of Additional Information For general information about inspection and testing, contact: ●

Inspectors will continue to operate these automated machines and monitor the defects they detect. The increased emphasis on quality has increased the importance of inspection and the demand for inspectors. These two trends—increased emphasis on inspection and increased automation of inspection—have had opposite effects on the demand for inspectors.

Insurance Sales Agents

Apart from automation, firms are integrating quality control into the production process. Many inspection duties are being redistributed from inspectors, testers, sorters, samplers, and weighers to other production workers who monitor quality at every stage of the process. In addition, the growing implementation of statistical process control is resulting in “smarter” inspection. Using this system, firms survey the sources and incidence of defects so that they can better focus their efforts on reducing production of defective products.

(O*NET 41-3021.00)

Significant Points

In many industries, however, automation is not being aggressively pursued as an alternative to manual inspection. Where key inspection elements are oriented toward size, such as length, width, or thickness, automation may play some role in the future. But where taste, smell, texture, appearance, fabric complexity, or product performance is important, inspection will probably continue to be done by workers. Employment of inspectors, testers, sorters, samplers, and weighers is expected to increase in the rapidly growing employment services industry, as more manufacturers and industrial firms hire temporary inspectors to increase the flexibility of their staffing strategies.

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American Society for Quality, 600 North Plankinton Ave., Milwaukee, WI 53203. Internet: http://www.asq.org

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Despite slower-than-average growth, job opportunities should be good for college graduates and persons with proven sales ability or success in other occupations.

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Successful agents often have high earnings, but many who assume agent jobs fail to earn enough from commissions to meet their income goals and eventually transfer to other careers.

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In addition to offering insurance policies, agents are beginning to sell more financial products, such as mutual funds, retirement funds, and securities.

Nature of the Work Most people have their first contact with an insurance company through an insurance sales agent. These workers help individuals, families, and businesses select insurance policies

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Section One: Descriptions of 101 Top Jobs for People Without a Four-Year Degree accounts through referrals, it is important that they maintain regular contact with their clients to ensure that the clients’ financial needs are being met. Developing a satisfied clientele that will recommend an agent’s services to other potential customers is a key to success in this field.

that provide the best protection for their lives, health, and property. Insurance sales agents who work exclusively for one insurance company are referred to as captive agents. Independent insurance agents, or brokers, represent several companies and place insurance policies for their clients with the company that offers the best rate and coverage. In either case, agents prepare reports, maintain records, seek out new clients, and, in the event of a loss, help policyholders settle their insurance claims. Increasingly, some are also offering their clients financial analysis or advice on ways the clients can minimize risk.

Increasing competition in the insurance industry has spurred carriers and agents to find new ways to keep their clients satisfied. One solution is to increase the use of call centers, which usually are accessible to clients 24 hours a day, 7 days a week. Insurance carriers and sales agents also are hiring customer service representatives to handle routine tasks such as answering questions, making changes in policies, processing claims, and selling more products to clients. The opportunity to crosssell new products to clients will help agents’ businesses grow. The use of call centers also allows agents to concentrate their efforts on seeking out new clients and maintaining relationships with old ones.

Insurance sales agents, commonly referred to as “producers” in the insurance industry, sell one or more types of insurance, such as property and casualty, life, health, disability, and longterm care. Property and casualty insurance agents sell policies that protect individuals and businesses from financial loss resulting from automobile accidents, fire, theft, storms, and other events that can damage property. For businesses, property and casualty insurance can also cover injured workers’ compensation, product liability claims, or medical malpractice claims.

Working Conditions Most insurance sales agents are based in small offices, from which they contact clients and provide information on the policies they sell. However, much of their time may be spent outside their offices, traveling locally to meet with clients, close sales, or investigate claims. Agents usually determine their own hours of work and often schedule evening and weekend appointments for the convenience of clients. Although most agents work a 40-hour week, some work 60 hours a week or longer. Commercial sales agents, in particular, may meet with clients during business hours and then spend evenings doing paperwork and preparing presentations to prospective clients.

Life insurance agents specialize in selling policies that pay beneficiaries when a policyholder dies. Depending on the policyholder’s circumstances, a cash-value policy can be designed to provide retirement income, funds for the education of children, or other benefits. Life insurance agents also sell annuities that promise a retirement income. Health insurance agents sell health insurance policies that cover the costs of medical care and loss of income due to illness or injury. They also may sell dental insurance and short- and long-term-disability insurance policies. An increasing number of insurance sales agents are offering comprehensive financial planning services to their clients, such as retirement planning, estate planning, or assistance in setting up pension plans for businesses. As a result, many insurance agents are involved in “cross-selling” or “total account development.” Besides offering insurance, these agents may become licensed to sell mutual funds, variable annuities, and other securities. This practice is most common with life insurance agents who already sell annuities; however, property and casualty agents also sell financial products.

Employment Insurance sales agents held about 381,000 jobs in 2002. Most insurance sales agents employed in wage and salary positions work for insurance agencies and brokerages. A decreasing number work directly for insurance carriers. Although most insurance agents specialize in life and health or property and casualty insurance, a growing number of “multiline” agents sell all lines of insurance. A small number of agents work for banks and securities brokerages as a result of the increasing integration of the financial services industries. Approximately 1 out of 4 insurance sales agents is self-employed.

Technology has greatly affected the insurance agency, making it much more efficient and giving the agent the ability to take on more clients. Agents’ computers are now linked directly to the insurance carriers via the Internet, making the tasks of obtaining price quotes and processing applications and service requests faster and easier. Computers also allow agents to be better informed about new products that the insurance carriers may be offering.

Insurance sales agents are employed throughout the country, but most work in or near large urban centers. Some are employed in the headquarters of insurance companies, but the majority work out of local offices or independent agencies.

The growth of the Internet in the insurance industry is gradually altering the relationship between agent and client. In the past, agents devoted much of their time to marketing and selling products to new clients, a practice that is now changing. Increasingly, clients are obtaining insurance quotes from a company’s Web site and then contacting the company directly to purchase policies. This interaction gives the client a more active role in selecting a policy at the best price, while reducing the amount of time agents spend actively seeking new clients. Because insurance sales agents also obtain many new

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Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement For insurance sales agent jobs, most companies and independent agencies prefer to hire college graduates—especially those who have majored in business or economics. High school graduates are occasionally hired if they have proven sales ability or have been successful in other types of work. In fact,

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America’s Top 101 Jobs for People Without a Four-Year Degree Series 6 or Series 7 licensing exam, both of which are administered by the National Association of Securities Dealers (NASD). The Series 6 exam is for individuals who wish to sell only mutual funds and variable annuities, whereas the Series 7 exam is the main NASD series license that qualifies agents as general securities sales representatives. In addition, to further demonstrate competency in the area of financial planning, many agents find it worthwhile to earn the designation “Certified Financial Planner” or “Chartered Financial Consultant.”

many entrants to insurance sales agent jobs transfer from other occupations. In selling commercial insurance, technical experience in a particular field can help sell policies to those in the same profession. As a result, new agents tend to be older than entrants in many other occupations. College training may help agents grasp the technical aspects of insurance policies and the fundamentals and procedures of selling insurance. Many colleges and universities offer courses in insurance, and a few schools offer a bachelor’s degree in the field. College courses in finance, mathematics, accounting, economics, business law, marketing, and business administration enable insurance sales agents to understand how social and economic conditions relate to the insurance industry. Courses in psychology, sociology, and public speaking can prove useful in improving sales techniques. In addition, because computers provide instantaneous information on a wide variety of financial products and greatly improve agents’ efficiency, familiarity with computers and popular software packages has become very important.

Insurance sales agents should be flexible, enthusiastic, confident, disciplined, hard working, and willing to solve problems. They should communicate effectively and inspire customer confidence. Because they usually work without supervision, sales agents must be able to plan their time well and have the initiative to locate new clients. An insurance sales agent who shows ability and leadership may become a sales manager in a local office. A few advance to agency superintendent or executive positions. However, many who have built up a good clientele prefer to remain in sales work. Some—particularly in the property and casualty field–establish their own independent agencies or brokerage firms.

Insurance sales agents must obtain a license in the states where they plan to do their selling. Separate licenses are required for agents to sell life and health insurance and property and casualty insurance. In most states, licenses are issued only to applicants who complete specified prelicensing courses and who pass state examinations covering insurance fundamentals and state insurance laws. As a result of the Gramm-Leach-Bliley Act of 1999, the industry is increasingly moving toward uniform state licensing standards and reciprocal licensing, allowing agents who earn a license in one state to become licensed in other states upon passing the appropriate courses and examination.

Job Outlook Although slower-than-average employment growth is expected among insurance agents through 2012, opportunities for agents will be favorable for persons with the right qualifications and skills. Among such persons are flexible and ambitious people who enjoy competitive sales work, have excellent interpersonal skills, and possess expertise in a wide range of insurance and financial services. Multilingual agents also should be in high demand because they can serve a wider range of customers. Insurance language tends to be quite technical, so it is important for insurance sales agents to have a firm understanding of relevant technical and legal terms. Because many beginners find it difficult to establish a sufficiently large clientele in this commission-based occupation, many eventually leave for other jobs. Most job openings are likely to result from the need to replace agents who leave the occupation or retire. A large number of agents are expected to retire in coming years.

A number of organizations offer professional designation programs that certify one’s expertise in specialties such as life, health, and property and casualty insurance, as well as financial consulting. Although voluntary, such programs assure clients and employers that an agent has a thorough understanding of the relevant specialty. Agents are usually required to complete a specified number of hours of continuing education to retain their designation. Employers also are placing greater emphasis on continuing professional education as the diversity of financial products sold by insurance agents increases. It is important for insurance agents to keep up to date on issues concerning clients. Changes in tax laws, government benefits programs, and other state and federal regulations can affect the insurance needs of clients and the way in which agents conduct business. Agents can enhance their selling skills and broaden their knowledge of insurance and other financial services by taking courses at colleges and universities and by attending institutes, conferences, and seminars sponsored by insurance organizations. Most state licensing authorities also have mandatory continuing education requirements focusing on insurance laws, consumer protection, and the technical details of various insurance policies.

Future demand for insurance sales agents depends largely on the volume of sales of insurance and other financial products. Sales of health and long-term-care insurance are expected to rise sharply as the population ages. In addition, a growing population will increase demand for insurance for automobiles, homes, and high-priced valuables and equipment. As new businesses emerge and existing firms expand their insurance coverage, sales of commercial insurance also should increase, including coverage such as product liability, workers’ compensation, employee benefits, and pollution liability insurance. Employment of agents will not keep up with the rising level of insurance sales, however. Many insurance carriers are trying to contain costs. As a result, many are shedding their captive agents—those agents working directly for insurance carriers— and are relying more on independent agents or direct marketing through the mail, by phone, or on the Internet.

As the demand for financial products and financial planning increases, many insurance agents are choosing to gain the proper licensing and certification to sell securities and other financial products. Doing so, however, requires substantial study and passing an additional examination—either the

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Section One: Descriptions of 101 Top Jobs for People Without a Four-Year Degree Independent agents working for insurance agencies receive fewer benefits, but their commissions may be higher to help them pay for marketing and other expenses.

Agents who incorporate new technology into their existing businesses will remain competitive. Agents who use the Internet to market their products will reach a broader client base and expand their businesses, but because most clients value their relationship with their agent, the Internet should not threaten jobs, given that many individuals still prefer discussing their policies directly with their agents, rather than through a computer. Also, the automation of policy and claims processing is allowing insurance agents to take on more clients.

Related Occupations Other workers who provide or sell financial products or services include real estate sales agents and brokers; securities, commodities, and financial services sales agents; financial analysts and personal financial advisors; and financial managers. Other occupations in the insurance industry include insurance underwriters; claims adjusters, examiners, and investigators; and insurance appraisers.

Agents may face increased competition from traditional securities brokers and bankers as they begin to sell insurance policies. Because of increasing consolidation among insurance companies, banks, and brokerage firms, and due to increasing demands from clients for more comprehensive financial planning, insurance sales agents will need to expand the products and services they offer.

Sources of Additional Information Occupational information about insurance sales agents is available from the home office of many life and casualty insurance companies. Information on state licensing requirements may be obtained from the department of insurance at any state capital.

Agents who offer better customer service also will remain competitive. Call centers are another important way carriers and agents are offering better service to customers, because such centers provide greater access to their policies and more prompt services.

For information about insurance sales careers and training, contact either of the following sources:

Insurance and investments are becoming more complex, and many people and businesses lack the time and expertise to buy insurance without the advice of an agent. Moreover, most individuals and businesses consider insurance a necessity, regardless of economic conditions. Therefore, agents are not likely to face unemployment because of a recession.

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Independent Insurance Agents of America, 127 S. Peyton St., Alexandria, VA 22314. Internet: http://www.iiaa.org

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Insurance Vocational Education Student Training (InVEST), 127 S. Peyton St., Alexandria, VA 22314. Internet: http://www.investprogram.org

For information about health insurance sales careers, contact: ●

Earnings

For general information on the property and casualty field, contact:

The median annual earnings of wage and salary insurance sales agents were $40,750 in 2002. The middle 50 percent earned between $28,860 and $64,450. The lowest 10 percent had earnings of $21,730 or less, while the highest 10 percent earned more than $101,460. Median annual earnings in 2002 in the two industries employing the largest number of insurance sales agents were $40,480 for insurance agencies, brokerages, and other insurance related activities and $42,130 for insurance carriers.

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Insurance Information Institute, 110 William St., New York, NY 10038. Internet: http://www.iii.org

For information about professional designation programs, contact either of the following organizations:

Many independent agents are paid by commission only, whereas sales workers who are employees of an agency or an insurance carrier may be paid in one of three ways: salary only, salary plus commission, or salary plus bonus. In general, commissions are the most common form of compensation, especially for experienced agents. The amount of the commission depends on the type and amount of insurance sold and on whether the transaction is a new policy or a renewal. Bonuses usually are awarded when agents meet their sales goals or when an agency meets its profit goals. Some agents involved with financial planning receive a fee for their services rather than a commission.

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The American Institute for Chartered Property and Casualty Underwriters/Insurance Institute of America, 720 Providence Rd., P.O. Box 3016, Malvern, PA 19355-0716. Internet: http://www.aicpcu.org

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The American College, 270 Bryn Mawr Ave., Bryn Mawr, PA 190102195. Internet: http://www.amercoll.edu

Interviewers (O*NET 43-4061.01, 43-4061.02, 43-4111.00, and 43-4131.00)

Significant Points

Company-paid benefits to insurance sales agents usually include continuing education, training to qualify for licensing, group insurance plans, office space, and clerical support services. Some companies also may pay for automobile and transportation expenses, attendance at conventions and meetings, promotion and marketing expenses, and retirement plans.

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National Association of Health Underwriters, 2000 N. 14th St., Suite 450, Arlington, VA 22201. Internet: http://www.nahu.org

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Numerous job openings should arise for interviewers due to employment growth and the need to replace workers who leave this large occupational group.

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A high school diploma or its equivalent is the most common educational requirement.

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America’s Top 101 Jobs for People Without a Four-Year Degree ●

Because many interviewers deal directly with the public, a professional appearance and a pleasant personality are imperative.

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These occupations are well suited to flexible work schedules.

such as welfare, unemployment benefits, social security benefits, and public housing. These interviewers gather the relevant personal and financial information on an applicant and, on the basis of the rules and regulations of the particular government program, grant, modify, deny, or terminate an individual’s eligibility for the program in question. They also are involved in the detection of fraud committed by persons who try to obtain benefits they are not eligible to receive.

Nature of the Work

Loan interviewers and clerks review individuals’ credit history and obtain the information needed to determine the creditworthiness of applicants for loans and credit cards. These workers spend much of their day on the telephone, obtaining information from credit bureaus, employers, banks, credit institutions, and other sources to determine an applicant’s credit history and ability to pay back a loan or charge.

Interviewers obtain information from individuals and business representatives who are opening bank accounts, trying to obtain loans, seeking admission to medical facilities, participating in consumer surveys, applying to receive aid from government programs, or providing data for various other purposes. By mail, telephone, or in person, these workers solicit and verify information, create files, and perform a number of other related tasks.

Loan clerks, also called loan processing clerks, loan closers, or loan service clerks, assemble documents pertaining to a loan, process the paperwork associated with the loan, and ensure that all information is complete and verified. Mortgage loans are the primary type of loan handled by loan clerks, who also may have to order appraisals of the property, set up escrow accounts, and secure any additional information required to transfer the property.

The specific duties and job titles of interviewers, except eligibility and loan depend upon the type of employer. In doctors’ offices and other health-care facilities, for example, interviewing clerks also are known as admitting interviewers or patient representatives. These workers obtain all preliminary information required for a patient’s record or for his or her admission to a hospital, such as the patient’s name, address, age, medical history, present medications, previous hospitalizations, religion, persons to notify in case of emergency, attending physician, and party responsible for payment. In some cases, interviewing clerks may be required to verify that an individual is eligible for health benefits or to work out financing options for those who might need them.

The specific duties of loan clerks vary by specialty. Loan closers, for example, complete the loan process by gathering the proper documents for signature at the closing, including deeds of trust, property insurance papers, and title commitments. They set the time and place for the closing, make sure that all parties are present, and ensure that all conditions for settlement have been met. After settlement, the loan closer records all of the documents involved and submits the final package to the owner of the loan. Loan service clerks maintain the payment records on a loan once it is issued. These clerical workers process the paperwork for payment of fees to insurance companies and tax authorities and also may record changes in clients’ addresses and ownership of a loan. When necessary, they answer calls from customers with routine inquiries as well.

Other duties of interviewers in health care include assigning patients to rooms and summoning escorts to take patients to their rooms; sometimes, interviewers may escort patients themselves. Using the facility’s computer system, they schedule laboratory work, X rays, and surgeries; prepare admission and discharge records; and route them to appropriate departments. They also may bill patients, receive payments, and answer the telephone. In an outpatient or office setting, interviewers schedule appointments, keep track of cancellations, and provide general information about care. In addition, the role of the admissions staff, particularly in hospitals, is expanding to include a wide range of patient services, from assisting patients with financial and medical questions to helping family members find hotel rooms.

Loan interviewers have duties that are similar to those of loan clerks. They interview potential borrowers, help them fill out applications for loans, and then investigate the applicant’s background and references, verify the information on the application, and forward any findings, reports, or documents to the company’s appraisal department. Finally, interviewers inform the applicant as to whether the loan has been accepted or denied.

Interviewing clerks who conduct market research surveys and polls for research firms have somewhat different responsibilities. These interviewers ask a series of prepared questions, record the responses, and forward the results to management. They may ask individuals questions about their occupation and earnings, political preferences, buying habits, satisfaction with certain goods or services sold to them, or other aspects of their lives. Although most interviews are conducted over the telephone, some are conducted in focus groups or by randomly polling people in a public place. More recently, the Internet is being used to elicit people’s opinions. Almost all interviewers use computers or similar devices to enter the responses to questions.

Working Conditions Most interviewers work in areas that are clean, well lit, and relatively quiet. This is especially true for interviewers who greet customers and visitors and usually work in highly visible areas that are furnished to make a good impression. Interviewers who spend much of their day talking on the telephone, however, commonly work away from the public, often in large centralized reservation or phone centers. Because a number of interviewers may share the same workspace, it may be crowded and noisy. Interviewing clerks may conduct surveys on the street or in shopping malls, or they may go door to door.

Eligibility interviewers, government programs determine the eligibility of individuals applying to receive government assistance

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Job Outlook

Although most interviewers work a standard 40-hour week, about 1 out of 5 works part time. Some jobs—such as those in the transportation industry, hospitals, and hotels, in particular—may require working evenings, late-night shifts, weekends, and holidays. Interviewing clerks conducting surveys or other research may work mainly evenings or weekends. In general, employees with the least seniority tend to be assigned the least desirable shifts.

Employment of interviewers is expected to grow more slowly than the average for all occupations through 2012. However, the projected change in employment varies by specialty. Most job openings should arise from the need to replace the numerous interviewers who leave the occupation or the labor force each year. Prospects for filling these openings will be best for applicants with a broad range of job skills, such as good customer service, math, and telephone skills. In addition to openings for full-time jobs, opportunities also should be available for part-time and temporary jobs.

The work performed by interviewers may be repetitious and stressful, especially when trying to serve the needs of difficult or angry clients. Additional stress is caused by technology that enables management to electronically monitor employees’ use of computer systems, tape-record telephone calls, or limit the time spent on each call. Prolonged exposure to a video display terminal may lead to eyestrain for the many interviewers who work with computers.

The number of interviewers, except eligibility and loan, is projected to grow faster than average, reflecting growth in the health care and social assistance sector. This sector will hire more admissions interviewers as health-care facilities consolidate staff and expand the role of the admissions staff and as an aging and growing population requires more visits to healthcare practitioners. In addition, an increasing use of market research will create more jobs requiring interviewers to collect data. In the future, though, more market research is expected to be conducted over the Internet, thus reducing the need for telephone interviewers to make individual calls.

Employment Interviewers held about 457,000 jobs in 2002. Approximately 193,000 were interviewers, except eligibility and loan; 170,000 were loan interviewers and clerks; and 94,000 were eligibility interviewers, government programs. Almost 1 out of every 5 interviewers worked in health care and social assistance industries, while most loan interviewers and clerks worked in financial institutions. Around 3 out of every 10 interviewers, except eligibility and loan, worked part time.

The number of loan interviewers and clerks is projected to decline due to advances in technology that are making these workers more productive. Despite a projected increase in the number of applications for loans, automation will increase productivity, so that fewer workers will be required to process, check, and authorize applications than in the past. The effects of automation on employment will be moderated, however, by the many interpersonal aspects of the job. Mortgage loans, for example, require loan processors to personally verify financial data on the application, and loan closers are needed to assemble documents and prepare them for settlement. Employment, however, also will be adversely affected by changes in the financial services industry. For example, significant consolidation has occurred among mortgage loan-servicing companies. As a result, fewer mortgage banking companies are involved in servicing loans, making the function more efficient and reducing the need for loan service clerks.

Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Despite the fact that hiring requirements for interviewers vary from industry to industry, a high school diploma or its equivalent is the most common educational requirement. Increasingly, familiarity or experience with computers and good interpersonal skills are becoming equally important as the diploma to employers. Many interviewers deal directly with the public, so a professional appearance and a pleasant personality are important. A clear speaking voice and fluency in the English language also are essential because these employees frequently use the telephone or public-address systems. Good spelling and computer literacy often are needed, particularly because most work involves considerable use of the computer.

The job outlook for loan interviewers and clerks is sensitive to overall economic activity. A downturn in the economy or a rise in interest rates usually leads to a decline in the demand for loans, particularly mortgage loans, and can result in layoffs. Even in slow economic times, however, job openings will arise from the need to replace workers who leave the occupation for various reasons.

Some interviewers are college graduates with degrees in business, finance, or liberal arts. Although a degree rarely is required, many graduates accept entry-level clerical positions to get into a particular company or to enter a particular field.

Like that of loan interviewers and clerks, employment of eligibility interviewers for government programs also is projected to decline, due to advances in technology and the transformation of government aid programs over the last decade. Automation should have a significant effect on these workers because, as with credit and loan ratings, eligibility for government aid programs can be determined instantaneously by entering information into a computer. The job outlook for eligibility interviewers, however, also is sensitive to overall economic activity; a severe slowdown in the economy will cause more people to apply for government aid programs, increasing demand for eligibility interviewers.

Interviewers generally receive orientation and training on the job. Under the guidance of a supervisor or other senior workers, new employees learn company procedures. Some formal classroom training also may be necessary, such as training in specific computer software. Most clerks continue to receive instruction on new procedures and on company policies after their initial training ends.

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Some jewelers design or make their own jewelry. Following their own designs or those created by designers or customers, they begin by shaping the metal or by carving wax to make a model for casting the metal. The individual parts then are soldered together, and the jeweler may mount a diamond or other gem or may engrave a design into the metal. Others do finishing work, such as setting stones, polishing, or engraving. Typical repair work includes enlarging or reducing ring sizes, resetting stones, and replacing broken clasps and mountings.

In 2002, median annual earnings for the three basic types of interviewers were as follows: Eligibility interviewers, government programs..........31,010 Loan interviewers and clerks ......................................27,830 Interviewers, except eligibility and loan ....................21,690

Related Occupations

In larger manufacturing businesses, jewelers usually specialize in a single operation. Mold and model makers create models or tools for the jewelry that is to be produced. Assemblers solder or fuse jewelry and their parts; they also may set stones. Engravers etch designs into the metal using specialized tools, and polishers bring a finished luster to the final product.

A number of other workers deal with the public, receive and provide information, or direct people to others who can assist them. Among these workers are customer service representatives, dispatchers, security guards and gaming surveillance workers, tellers, and counter and rental clerks.

In small retail stores or repair shops, jewelers may be involved in all aspects of the work. Jewelers who own or manage stores or shops also hire and train employees; order, market, and sell merchandise; and perform other managerial duties.

Sources of Additional Information State employment service offices can provide information about employment opportunities for interviewers.

Jewelers typically do the handiwork required to produce a piece of jewelry, while gemologists study the quality, characteristics, and value of gem stones. Gemologists usually sell jewelry and provide appraisal services. A few gemologists are employed by insurance companies that offer their own appraisal services for those customers who wish to insure certain pieces of jewelry. Many jewelers also study gemology in order to become familiar with the physical properties of the gem stones with which they work.

For specific information on a career as a loan processor or loan closer, contact: ●

Mortgage Bankers Association of America, 1919 Pennsylvania Ave., Washington, DC 20006. Internet: http://www.mbaa.org

New technology is helping to produce jewelry of higher quality at a reduced cost and in a shorter amount of time. For example, lasers are often used for cutting and improving the quality of stones, for applying intricate engraving or design work, and for inscribing personal messages or identification on jewelry. Jewelers also use lasers to weld metals together in milliseconds with no seams or blemishes, improving the quality and appearance of the jewelry.

Jewelers and Precious Stone and Metal Workers (O*NET 51-9071.01, 51-9071.02, 51-9071.03, 51-9071.04, 51-9071.05, and 51-9071.06)

Significant Points ●

About one-fourth of all jewelers were self-employed.

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Jewelers usually learn their trade in vocational or technical schools, through distance-learning centers, or on the job.

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Prospects for new jewelers should be excellent; many employers have difficulty finding and retaining workers with the right skills to replace those who retire or who leave the occupation for other reasons.

Some manufacturing firms use computer-aided design and manufacturing (CAD/CAM) to facilitate product design and automate some steps in the mold- and modelmaking process. CAD allows jewelers to create a virtual-reality model of a piece of jewelry. Using CAD, jewelers can modify the design, change the stone, or try a different setting and see the changes on a computer screen before cutting a stone or performing other costly steps. Once they are satisfied with the model, CAM produces it in a wax-like or other material. After the mold of the model is made, it is easier for manufacturing firms to produce numerous copies of a given piece of jewelry, which are then distributed to different retail establishments across the country. Similar techniques may be used in the retail setting, allowing individual customers to review their jewelry designs with the jeweler and make modifications before committing to the expense of a customized piece of jewelry.

Nature of the Work Jewelers and precious stone and metal workers use a variety of common and specialized handtools and equipment to design and manufacture new pieces of jewelry; cut, set, and polish gem stones; and repair or adjust rings, necklaces, bracelets, earrings, and other jewelry. Jewelers usually specialize in one or more of these areas and may work for large jewelrymanufacturing firms, for small retail jewelry shops, or as owners of their own businesses. Regardless of the type of work done or the work setting, jewelers require a high degree of skill, precision, and attention to detail.

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Working Conditions A jeweler’s work involves a great deal of concentration and attention to detail. Working on precious stones and metals while trying to satisfy customers’ and employers’ demands for ●

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Section One: Descriptions of 101 Top Jobs for People Without a Four-Year Degree as design, casting, stone setting, and polishing. Technical school courses also cover topics such as blueprint reading, math, and shop theory. To enter some technical school, and most college, programs, a high school diploma or its equivalent is required. However, some schools specializing in jewelry training do not require graduation from high school. Because computer-aided design is used increasingly in the jewelry field, it is recommended that students—especially those interested in design and manufacturing—obtain training in CAD.

speed and quality can cause fatigue or stress. However, the use of more ergonomically correct jewelers’ benches has eliminated most of the strain and discomfort caused by spending long periods bending over a workbench in one position. Lasers require both careful handling, to avoid injury, and steady hands, to direct precision tasks. In larger manufacturing plants and some smaller repair shops, chemicals, sharp or pointed tools, and jewelers’ torches pose safety threats and may cause injury if proper care is not taken. Most dangerous chemicals, however, have been replaced with synthetic, less toxic products to meet safety requirements.

Various institutes offer courses and programs in gemology and jewelry manufacturing and design. Programs cover a wide range of topics, including the identification and grading of diamonds and gem stones.

In repair shops, jewelers usually work alone, with little supervision. In retail stores, they may talk with customers about repairs, perform custom design work, and even do some selling. Because many of their materials are valuable, jewelers must observe strict security procedures, including working behind locked doors that are opened only by a buzzer, working on the other side of barred windows, making use of burglar alarms, and, in larger jewelry establishments, working in the presence of armed guards.

Most employers feel that vocational- and technical-school graduates need several more years of supervised on-the-job training or apprenticeship in order to refine their repair skills and learn more about the operation of the store or shop. In addition, some employers encourage workers to improve their skills by enrolling in short-term technical school courses such as fabricating, jewelry design, jewelry manufacturing, wax carving, or gemology. Employers may pay all or part of the cost of this additional training.

Employment

In jewelry-manufacturing plants, workers traditionally develop their skills through informal apprenticeships and on-the-job training. The apprenticeship or training period lasts 3 to 4 years, depending on the difficulty of the specialty. Training usually focuses on casting, stone setting, modelmaking, or engraving. In recent years, a growing number of technical schools have begun to offer training designed for jewelers working in manufacturing. As a result, those in manufacturing now prefer graduates of these programs because they are familiar with the production process, requiring less on-the-job training.

Jewelers and precious stone and metal workers held about 40,000 jobs in 2002. About one-fourth of these workers were self-employed; many operated their own store or repair shop, and some specialized in designing and creating custom jewelry. About 3 out of 10 jobs for jewelers and precious stone and metal workers were in other miscellaneous manufacturing, which includes jewelry and silverware manufacturing. Another 3 out of 10 jobs were in retail trade, primarily in jewelry, luggage, and leather goods stores. A small number of jobs were in miscellaneous durable goods merchant wholesalers and in repair shops providing personal and household goods repair and maintenance. Although jewelry stores and repair shops were found in every city and in many small towns, most jobs were in larger metropolitan areas. In 2002, many jewelers employed in manufacturing worked in Rhode Island, New York, or California.

The precise and delicate nature of jewelry work requires finger and hand dexterity, good hand-eye coordination, patience, and concentration. Artistic ability and fashion consciousness are major assets, because jewelry must be stylish and attractive. Those who work in jewelry stores have frequent contact with customers and should be neat, personable, and knowledgeable about the merchandise. In addition, employers require workers of good character, because jewelers work with valuable materials.

Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement

Advancement opportunities are limited and depend greatly on an individual’s skill and initiative. In manufacturing, some jewelers advance to supervisory jobs, such as master jeweler or head jeweler, but, for most, advancement takes the form of higher pay for doing the same job. Jewelers who work in jewelry stores or repair shops may become managers; some open their own businesses.

Jewelers usually learn their trade in vocational or technical schools, through distance-learning centers, or on the job. Colleges and art and design schools also offer programs that can lead to a Bachelor of Fine Arts or Master of Fine Arts degree in jewelry design. Formal training in the basic skills of the trade enhances one’s employment and advancement opportunities. Many employers prefer jewelers with design, repair, and sales skills.

Those interested in starting their own business should first establish themselves and build a reputation for their work within the jewelry trade. Once they obtain sufficient credit from jewelry suppliers and wholesalers, they can acquire the necessary inventory. Also, because the jewelry business is highly competitive, jewelers who plan to open their own store should have experience in selling, as well as knowledge of marketing and business management. Courses in these areas often are available from technical schools and community colleges.

For those interested in working in a jewelry store or repair shop, vocational and technical training or courses offered by public and private colleges are the best sources of training. In these programs, which can vary in length from 6 months to 1 year, students learn the use and care of jewelers’ tools and machines and basic jewelry-making and -repairing skills, such

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Job Outlook

become more competitive in foreign markets. However, imports from foreign manufacturers are increasing more rapidly than exports, due to these same agreements.

Employment of jewelers and precious stone and metal workers is expected to grow more slowly than the average through 2012. Employment opportunities, however, should be excellent, because jewelry sales are increasing. New jewelers also will be needed to replace those who retire or who leave the occupation for other reasons. When master jewelers retire, they take with them years of experience that require substantial time and financial resources to replace. Many employers have difficulty finding and retaining jewelers with the right skills and the necessary knowledge. Some technological advances have made jewelrymaking more efficient; however, many tasks cannot be fully automated. Jewelry work is a labor-intensive process that requires excellent handiwork.

Earnings Median annual earnings for jewelers and precious stone and metal workers were $26,260 in 2002. The middle 50 percent earned between $19,550 and $35,310. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $15,030, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $45,620. In 2002, median annual earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of jewelers and precious stone and metal workers were $30,000 in jewelry, luggage, and leather goods stores and $22,650 in other miscellaneous manufacturing.

The increasing numbers of affluent individuals, working women, double-income households, and fashion-conscious men are expected to keep jewelry sales strong. The population aged 45 and older, which accounts for a major portion of jewelry sales, also is on the rise.

Most jewelers start out with a base salary, but once they become more proficient, they may begin charging by the number of pieces completed. Jewelers who work in retail stores may earn a commission for each piece of jewelry sold, in addition to their base salary. Many jewelers also enjoy a variety of benefits, including reimbursement from their employers for workrelated courses and discounts on jewelry purchases.

Nontraditional jewelry marketers, such as discount stores, mail-order and catalogue companies, television shopping networks, and Internet retailers, have expanded the number of buying options and increased their sales volume. However, these establishments require fewer sales staff, limiting employment opportunities for jewelers and precious stone and metal workers who work mainly in sales. Because these marketers enjoy increases in sales, however, they will need highly skilled jewelers to make and repair the jewelry they sell.

Related Occupations Jewelers and precious stone and metal workers do precision handwork. Other skilled workers who do similar jobs include precision instrument and equipment repairers; welding, soldering, and brazing workers; and woodworkers. Some jewelers and precious stone and metal workers create their own jewelry designs. Other occupations that require visual arts abilities include artists and related workers, and designers. Finally, some jewelers and precious stone and metal workers are involved in the buying and selling of stones and metals or of the finished piece of jewelry. Similar occupations include retail salespersons and sales representatives in wholesale trade.

Opportunities in jewelry stores and repair shops will be best for graduates from training programs for jewelers or gemologists. Despite an increase in sales by nontraditional jewelry marketers, traditional jewelers should not be affected greatly. Traditional jewelers have the advantage of being able to build client relationships based on trust. Many clients prefer to work directly with a jeweler, to ensure that the product is of the highest quality and meets their specifications. Many traditional jewelers expand their businesses as clients recommend their services to friends and relatives.

Sources of Additional Information Information on job opportunities and training programs for jewelers is available from:

The jewelry industry can be cyclical. During economic downturns, demand for jewelry products and for jewelers tends to decrease. However, demand for repair workers should remain strong, even during economic slowdowns, because maintaining and repairing jewelry is an ongoing process. In fact, demand for jewelry repair may increase during recessions, as people repair or restore existing pieces rather than purchase new ones. Also, many nontraditional vendors typically do not offer repair services.

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General career information is available from: ●

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Manufacturing Jewelers and Suppliers of America, 45 Royal Little Dr., Providence, RI 02904. Internet: http://mjsa.polygon.net

To receive a list of accredited technical schools that have programs in jewelry design, contact: ●

Within manufacturing, increasing automation will adversely affect employment of low-skilled occupations, such as assemblers and polishers. Automation will have a lesser impact on more creative, highly skilled positions, such as mold- and modelmakers. Furthermore, small manufacturers, which typify the industry, will have an increasingly difficult time competing with the larger manufacturers when it comes to supplying large retailers. Because of recent international trade agreements, exports are increasing modestly as manufacturers

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Gemological Institute of America, 5345 Armada Dr., Carlsbad, CA 92008. Internet: http://www.gia.org

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Accrediting Commission of Career Schools and Colleges of Technology, 2101 Wilson Blvd., Suite 302, Arlington, VA 22201. Internet: http://www.accsct.org

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Section One: Descriptions of 101 Top Jobs for People Without a Four-Year Degree administrative specialists are recruiting specialists, who recruit and place qualified personnel and provide information about military careers to young people, parents, schools, and local communities; training specialists and instructors, who provide the training programs necessary to help people perform their jobs effectively; and personnel specialists, who collect and store information about individuals in the military, including information on their training, job assignments, promotions, and health.

Job Opportunities in the Armed Forces (O*NET 55-1011.00, 55-1012.00, 55-1013.00, 55-1014.00, 55-1015.00, 55-1016.00, 55-1017.00, 55-1019.99, and 55-2011.00)

Combat specialty occupations refer to enlisted specialties, such as infantry, artillery, and special forces, whose members operate weapons or execute special missions during combat. Persons in these occupations normally specialize by the type of weapon system or combat operation. These personnel maneuver against enemy forces and position and fire artillery, guns, and missiles to destroy enemy positions. They also may operate tanks and amphibious assault vehicles in combat or scouting missions. When the military has difficult and dangerous missions to perform, they call upon special-operations teams. These elite combat forces maintain a constant state of readiness to strike anywhere in the world on a moment’s notice. Team members from the special-operations forces conduct offensive raids, demolitions, intelligence, search-and-rescue missions, and other operations from aboard aircraft, helicopters, ships, or submarines.

Significant Points ●

Opportunities should be good in all branches of the Armed Forces for applicants who meet designated standards.

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Most enlisted personnel need at least a high school diploma, while officers need a bachelor’s or an advanced degree.

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Hours and working conditions can be arduous and vary substantially.

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Some training and duty assignments are hazardous, even in peacetime.

Nature of the Work

Construction occupations in the military include personnel who build or repair buildings, airfields, bridges, foundations, dams, bunkers, and the electrical and plumbing components of these structures. Enlisted personnel in construction occupations operate bulldozers, cranes, graders, and other heavy equipment. Construction specialists also may work with engineers and other building specialists as part of military construction teams. Some personnel specialize in areas such as plumbing or electrical wiring. Plumbers and pipefitters install and repair the plumbing and pipe systems needed in buildings and on aircraft and ships. Building electricians install and repair electricalwiring systems in offices, airplane hangars, and other buildings on military bases.

Maintaining a strong national defense encompasses such diverse activities as running a hospital, commanding a tank, programming computers, operating a nuclear reactor, or repairing and maintaining a helicopter. The military provides training and work experience in these and many other fields for more than 2.5 million people. More than 1.4 million people serve in the active Army, Navy, Marine Corps, and Air Force, and more than 1.1 million serve in their Reserve components, and the Air and Army National Guard. The Coast Guard, which is also discussed in this statement, is now part of the U.S. Department of Homeland Security. The military distinguishes between enlisted and officer careers. Enlisted personnel, who make up about 85 percent of the Armed Forces, carry out the fundamental operations of the military in areas such as combat, administration, construction, engineering, health care, and human services. Officers, who make up the remaining 15 percent of the Armed Forces, are the leaders of the military, supervising and managing activities in every occupational specialty of the Armed Forces.

Electronic and electrical equipment repair personnel repair and maintain electronic and electrical equipment used in the military. Repairers normally specialize by type of equipment, such as avionics, computer, optical, communications, or weapons systems. For example, electronic instrument repairers install, test, maintain, and repair a wide variety of electronic systems, including navigational controls and biomedical instruments. Weapons maintenance technicians maintain and repair weapons used by combat forces; most of these weapons have electronic components and systems that assist in locating targets and in aiming and firing the weapon.

The sections that follow discuss the major occupational groups for enlisted personnel and officers. Enlisted occupational groups: Administrative careers include a wide variety of positions. The military must keep accurate information for planning and managing its operations. Both paper and electronic records are kept on personnel and on equipment, funds, supplies, and other property of the military. Enlisted administrative personnel record information, type reports, maintain files, and review information to assist military officers. Personnel may work in a specialized area such as finance, accounting, legal affairs, maintenance, supply, or transportation. Some examples of

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The military has many engineering, science, and technical occupations, whose members require specific knowledge to operate technical equipment, solve complex problems, or provide and interpret information. Enlisted personnel normally specialize in one area, such as space operations, emergency management, environmental health and safety, or intelligence. Space operations specialists use and repair ground-control command equipment having to do with spacecraft, including electronic systems that track the location and operation of a craft. Emer-

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America’s Top 101 Jobs for People Without a Four-Year Degree investigate crimes committed on military property and guard inmates in military correctional facilities. Firefighters put out, control, and help prevent fires in buildings, on aircraft, and aboard ships. Food service specialists prepare all types of food in dining halls, hospitals, and ships.

gency management specialists prepare emergency procedures for all types of disasters, such as floods, tornadoes, and earthquakes. Environmental health and safety specialists inspect military facilities and food supplies for the presence of disease, germs, or other conditions hazardous to health and the environment. Intelligence specialists gather and study information by means of aerial photographs and various types of radar and surveillance systems.

Transportation and material handling specialists ensure the safe transport of people and cargo. Most personnel within this occupational group are classified according to mode of transportation, such as aircraft, motor vehicle, or ship. Aircrew members operate equipment on board aircraft during operations. Vehicle drivers operate all types of heavy military vehicles, including fuel or water tank trucks, semi-trailers, heavy troop transports, and passenger buses. Quartermasters and boat operators navigate and pilot many types of small watercraft, including tugboats, gunboats, and barges. Cargo specialists load and unload military supplies, using equipment such as forklifts and cranes.

Health-care personnel assist medical professionals in treating and providing services for men and women in the military. They may work as part of a patient-service team in close contact with doctors, dentists, nurses, and physical therapists to provide the necessary support functions within a hospital or clinic. Health-care specialists normally specialize in a particular area—emergency medical treatment, the operation of diagnostic tools such as x-ray and ultrasound equipment, laboratory testing of tissue and blood samples, or maintaining pharmacy supplies or patients’ records, among others.

Vehicle and machinery mechanics conduct preventive and corrective maintenance on aircraft, ships, automotive and heavy equipment, heating and cooling systems, marine engines, and powerhouse station equipment. These workers typically specialize by the type of equipment that they maintain. For example, aircraft mechanics inspect, service, and repair helicopters and airplanes. Automotive and heavy-equipment mechanics maintain and repair vehicles such as jeeps, cars, trucks, tanks, self-propelled missile launchers, and other combat vehicles. They also repair bulldozers, power shovels, and other construction equipment. Heating and cooling mechanics install and repair air-conditioning, refrigeration, and heating equipment. Marine engine mechanics repair and maintain gasoline and diesel engines on ships, boats, and other watercraft. They also repair shipboard mechanical and electrical equipment. Powerhouse mechanics install, maintain, and repair electrical and mechanical equipment in power-generating stations.

Human resources development specialists recruit and place qualified personnel and provide the training programs necessary to help people perform their jobs effectively. Personnel in this career area normally specialize by activity. For example, recruiting specialists provide information about military careers to young people, parents, schools, and local communities and explain the Armed Service’s employment and training opportunities, pay and benefits, and service life. Personnel specialists collect and store information about the people in the military, including information on their previous and current training, job assignments, promotions, and health. Training specialists and instructors teach classes and give demonstrations to provide military personnel with the knowledge they need to perform their jobs. Armed Forces personnel in machine operator and production occupations operate industrial equipment, machinery, and tools to fabricate and repair parts for a variety of items and structures. They may operate engines, turbines, nuclear reactors, and water pumps. Often, they specialize by type of work performed. Welders and metalworkers, for instance, work with various types of metals to repair or form the structural parts of ships, submarines, buildings, or other equipment. Survival equipment specialists inspect, maintain, and repair survival equipment such as parachutes and aircraft life support equipment. Dental and optical laboratory technicians construct and repair dental equipment and eyeglasses for military personnel.

Officer occupational groups: Combat specialty officers plan and direct military operations, oversee combat activities, and serve as combat leaders. This category includes officers in charge of tanks and other armored assault vehicles, artillery systems, special operations forces, and infantry. Combat specialty officers normally specialize by the type of unit that they lead. Within the unit, they may specialize by the type of weapon system. Artillery and missile system officers, for example, direct personnel as they target, launch, test, and maintain various types of missiles and artillery. Special-operations officers lead their units in offensive raids, demolitions, intelligence gathering, and search-and-rescue missions.

Media and public affairs occupations deal with the public presentation and interpretation of military information and events. Enlisted media and public affairs personnel take and develop photographs; film, record, and edit audio and video programs; present news and music programs; and produce graphic artwork, drawings, and other visual displays. Other public affairs specialists act as interpreters and translators to convert written or spoken foreign languages into English or other languages.

Engineering, science, and technical officers have a wide range of responsibilities based on their area of expertise. They lead or perform activities in areas such as space operations, environmental health and safety, and engineering. These officers may direct the operations of communications centers or the development of complex computer systems. Environmental health and safety officers study the air, ground, and water to identify and analyze sources of pollution and its effects. They also direct programs to control safety and health hazards in the workplace. Other personnel work as aerospace engineers to design and direct the development of military aircraft, missiles, and spacecraft.

Protective service personnel include those who enforce military laws and regulations, provide emergency response to natural and human-made disasters, and maintain food standards. These personnel normally specialize by function. For example, military police control traffic, prevent crime, and respond to emergencies. Other law enforcement and security specialists

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Section One: Descriptions of 101 Top Jobs for People Without a Four-Year Degree warning, control, and evacuation plans to be used in the event of a disaster. Law enforcement and security officers enforce all applicable laws on military bases and investigate crimes when the law has been broken.

Executive, administrative, and managerial officers oversee and direct military activities in key functional areas such as finance, accounting, health administration, international relations, and supply. Health services administrators, for instance, are responsible for the overall quality of care provided at the hospitals and clinics they operate. They must ensure that each department works together to provide the highest quality of care. As another example, purchasing and contracting managers negotiate and monitor contracts for the purchase of the billions of dollars worth of equipment, supplies, and services that the military buys from private industry each year.

Support services officers manage food service activities and perform services in support of the morale and well-being of military personnel and their families. Food services managers oversee the preparation and delivery of food services within dining facilities located on military installations and vessels. Social workers focus on improving conditions that cause social problems such as drug and alcohol abuse, racism, and sexism. Chaplains conduct worship services for military personnel and perform other spiritual duties covering the beliefs and practices of all religious faiths

Health-care officers provide health services at military facilities, on the basis of their area of specialization. Officers who assist in examining, diagnosing, and treating patients with illness, injury, or disease include physicians, registered nurses, and dentists. Other health-care officers provide therapy, rehabilitative treatment, and additional services for patients. Physical and occupational therapists plan and administer therapy to help patients adjust to disabilities, regain independence, and return to work. Speech therapists evaluate and treat patients with hearing and speech problems. Dietitians manage food service facilities and plan meals for hospital patients and for outpatients who need special diets. Pharmacists manage the purchase, storage, and dispensation of drugs and medicines. Physicians and surgeons in this occupational group provide the majority of medical services to the military and their families. Dentists treat diseases and disorders of the mouth. Optometrists treat vision problems by prescribing eyeglasses or contact lenses. Psychologists provide mental health care and also conduct research on behavior and emotions.

Officers in transportation occupations manage and perform activities related to the safe transport of military personnel and material by air and water. Officers normally specialize by mode of transportation or area of expertise, because, in many cases, they must meet licensing and certification requirements. Pilots in the military fly various types of specialized airplanes and helicopters to carry troops and equipment and to execute combat missions. Navigators use radar, radio, and other navigation equipment to determine their position and plan their route of travel. Officers on ships and submarines work as a team to manage the various departments aboard their vessels. Ships’ engineers direct engineering departments aboard ships and submarines, including engine operations, maintenance, repair, heating, and power generation.

Employment

Media and affairs officers oversee the development, production, and presentation of information or events for the public. These officers may produce and direct motion pictures, videotapes, and television and radio broadcasts that are used for training, news, and entertainment. Some plan, develop, and direct the activities of military bands. Public information officers respond to inquiries about military activities and prepare news releases and reports to keep the public informed.

In 2003, more than 2.5 million people served in the Armed Forces. More than 1.4 million individuals were on active duty in the Armed Forces—about 490,000 in the Army, 377,000 in the Navy, 368,000 in the Air Force, and 179,000 in the Marine Corps. In addition, more than 1.1 million people served in their Reserve components, and the Air and Army National Guard. In addition, 38,000 individuals served in the Coast Guard, which is now part of the U.S. Department of Homeland Security. Table 1 shows the occupational composition of the 1.2 million activeduty enlisted personnel in 2003; Table 2 presents similar information for the 216,000 active-duty officers.

Protective service officers are responsible for the safety and protection of individuals and property on military bases and vessels. Emergency management officers plan and prepare for all types of natural and human-made disasters. They develop

Table 1. Military enlisted personnel by broad occupational category and branch of military service, June 2003

Occupational Group - Enlisted Administrative occupations .................................... Combat specialty occupations ................................ Construction occupations ........................................ Electronic and electrical repair occupations............ Engineering, science, and technical occupations .......................................................... Health care occupations .......................................... Human resource development occupations ............ Machine operator and precision work occupations ..........................................................

Army

Air Force

Coast Guard

Marine Corps

Navy

Total, all services

15,175 104,876 15,340 14,035

25,674 253 6,261 37,155

1,775 745

8,642 33,070 5,145 16,082

21,225 3,316 5,397 52,094

72,491 142,260 32,143 122,896

63,531 26,660 16,202

43,422 17,108 12,715

720 685

35,237 6,784

41,003 23,818 5,510

183,913 68,271 41,211

4,528

7,783

2,079

1,710

23,485

3,530

39,585 continued

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America’s Top 101 Jobs for People Without a Four-Year Degree continued Occupational Group - Enlisted Media and public affairs occupations...................... Protective service occupations ................................ Support services occupations .................................. Transportation and material handling occupations .......................................................... Vehicle machinery mechanic occupations.............. Total, by service ....................................................

Army 4,552 24,831 13,687

Air Force 5,921 29,516 1,535

Coast Guard 131 893 1,213

Marine Corps 1,556 6,086 3,704

Navy 5,255 10,630 11,570

Total, all services 17,415 71,956 31,709

54,140 48,043 405,600

33,835 48,433 269,611

6,423 5,654 23,848

23,908 18,473 160,397

39,272 50,266 292,841

157,578 170,869 1,152,297

Source: U.S. Department of Defense, Defense Manpower Data Center East

Table 2. Military officer personnel by broad occupational category and branch of service, June 2003 Occupational Group - Officer Combat specialty occupations ...................................... Engineering, science, and technical occupations ........ Executive, administrative, and managerial occupations .............................................................. Health care occupations ................................................ Human resource development occupations ................ Media and public affairs occupations .......................... Protective service occupations ...................................... Support services occupations ........................................ Transportation occupations .......................................... Total, by service ..........................................................

Army

Air Force

Coast Guard

Marine Corps

Navy

Total, all services

18,306 17,368

5,422 15,902

2 1,715

3,990 3,044

5,626 15,413

33,346 53,442

10,139 9,775 1,369 177 2,174 1,500 12,612 73,420

9,579 9,247 2,406 503 1,838 836 19,710 65,443

388 10 247 15 172

2,398

8,234 6,531 3,807 932 855 1,654 12,679 55,731

30,738 25,563 7,852 1,758 5,213 4,030 54,503 216,445

3,244 5,793

23 131 174 40 6,258 16,058

Source: U.S. Department of Defense, Defense Manpower Data Center East

an alien holding permanent resident status, not have a felony record, and possess a birth certificate. Applicants who are aged 17 must have the consent of a parent or legal guardian before entering the service. Coast Guard enlisted personnel must enter active duty before their 28th birthday, whereas Marine Corps enlisted personnel must not be over the age of 29. Applicants must both pass a written examination—the Armed Services Vocational Aptitude Battery—and meet certain minimum physical standards, such as height, weight, vision, and overall health. All branches of the Armed Forces require high school graduation or its equivalent for certain enlistment options. In 2003, nearly 9 out of 10 recruits were high school graduates.

Military personnel are stationed throughout the United States and in many countries around the world. More than half of all military jobs are located in California, Texas, North Carolina, Virginia, Florida, and Georgia. About 395,000 individuals were stationed outside the United States in 2002, including those assigned to ships at sea. Approximately 104,000 of these were stationed in Europe, mainly in Germany, and another 85,000 were assigned to East Asia and the Pacific area, mostly in Japan and the Republic of Korea.

Qualifications, Training, and Advancement

People thinking about enlisting in the military should learn as much as they can about military life before making a decision. Doing so is especially important if you are thinking about making the military a career. Speaking to friends and relatives with military experience is a good idea. Find out what the military can offer you and what it will expect in return. Then, talk to a recruiter, who can determine whether you qualify for enlistment, explain the various enlistment options, and tell you which military occupational specialties currently have openings. Bear in mind that the recruiter’s job is to recruit promising applicants into his or her branch of military service, so the information that the recruiter gives you is likely to stress the positive aspects of military life in the branch in which he or she serves.

Enlisted personnel. In order to join the services, enlisted personnel must sign a legal agreement called an enlistment contract, which usually involves a commitment to 8 years of service. Depending on the terms of the contract, 2 to 6 years are spent on active duty, and the balance is spent in the reserves. The enlistment contract obligates the service to provide the agreed-upon job, rating, pay, cash bonuses for enlistment in certain occupations, medical and other benefits, occupational training, and continuing education. In return, enlisted personnel must serve satisfactorily for the period specified. Requirements for each service vary, but certain qualifications for enlistment are common to all branches. In order to enlist, one must be between 17 and 35 years old, be a U.S. citizen or

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Section One: Descriptions of 101 Top Jobs for People Without a Four-Year Degree Following enlistment, new members of the Armed Forces undergo recruit training, better known as “basic” training. Through courses in military skills and protocol recruit training provides a 6- to 12-week introduction to military life. Days and nights are carefully structured and include rigorous physical exercise designed to improve strength and endurance and build each unit’s cohesion.

Ask the recruiter for the branch you have chosen to assess your chances of being accepted for training in the occupation of your choice, or, better still, take the aptitude exam to see how well you score. The military uses this exam as a placement exam, and test scores largely determine an individual’s chances of being accepted into a particular training program. Selection for a particular type of training depends on the needs of the service, your general and technical aptitudes, and your personal preference. Because all prospective recruits are required to take the exam, those who do so before committing themselves to enlist have the advantage of knowing in advance whether they stand a good chance of being accepted for training in a particular specialty. The recruiter can schedule you for the Armed Services Vocational Aptitude Battery without any obligation. Many high schools offer the exam as an easy way for students to explore the possibility of a military career, and the test also affords an insight into career areas in which the student has demonstrated aptitudes and interests.

Following basic training, most recruits take additional training at technical schools that prepare them for a particular military occupational specialty. The formal training period generally lasts from 10 to 20 weeks, although training for certain occupations—nuclear power plant operator, for example—may take as long as a year. Recruits not assigned to classroom instruction receive on-the-job training at their first duty assignment. Many service people get college credit for the technical training they receive on duty, which, combined with off-duty courses, can lead to an associate degree through programs in community colleges such as the Community College of the Air Force. In addition to on-duty training, military personnel may choose from a variety of educational programs. Most military installations have tuition assistance programs for people wishing to take courses during off-duty hours. The courses may be correspondence courses or courses in degree programs offered by local colleges or universities. Tuition assistance pays up to 75 percent of college costs. Also available are courses designed to help service personnel earn high school equivalency diplomas. Each branch of the service provides opportunities for fulltime study to a limited number of exceptional applicants. Military personnel accepted into these highly competitive programs—in law or medicine, for example—receive full pay, allowances, tuition, and related fees. In return, they must agree to serve an additional amount of time in the service. Other highly selective programs enable enlisted personnel to qualify as commissioned officers through additional military training.

If you decide to join the military, the next step is to pass the physical examination and sign an enlistment contract. Negotiating the contract involves choosing, qualifying for, and agreeing on a number of enlistment options, such as the length of active-duty time, which may vary according to the option. Most active-duty programs have first-term enlistments of 4 years, although there are some 2-, 3-, and 6-year programs. The contract also will state the date of enlistment and other options—for example, bonuses and the types of training to be received. If the service is unable to fulfill any of its obligations under the contract, such as providing a certain kind of training, the contract may become null and void. All branches of the Armed Services offer a “delayed-entry program” by which an individual can delay entry into active duty for up to 1 year after enlisting. High school students can enlist during their senior year and enter a service after graduation. Others choose this program because the job training they desire is not currently available, but will be within the coming year, or because they need time to arrange their personal affairs.

Warrant officers. Warrant officers are technical and tactical leaders who specialize in a specific technical area; for example, Army aviators make up one group of warrant officers. The Army Warrant Officer Corps constitutes less than 5 percent of the total Army. Although the Corps is small in size, its level of responsibility is high. Its members receive extended career opportunities, worldwide leadership assignments, and increased pay and retirement benefits. Selection to attend the Warrant Officer Candidate School is highly competitive and restricted to those with the rank of E5 or higher (Table 3.)

Women are eligible to enter most military specialties; for example, they may become mechanics, missile maintenance technicians, heavy-equipment operators, and fighter pilots, or they may enter into medical care, administrative support, and intelligence specialties. Generally, only occupations involving direct exposure to combat are excluded. People planning to apply the skills gained through military training to a civilian career should first determine how good the prospects are for civilian employment in jobs related to the military specialty that interests them. Second, they should know the prerequisites for the related civilian job. Because many civilian occupations require a license, certification, or minimum level of education, it is important to determine whether military training is sufficient for a person to enter the civilian equivalent or, if not, what additional training will be required. Additional information often can be obtained from school counselors.

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America’s Top 101 Jobs for People Without a Four-Year Degree Table 3. Military rank and employment for active duty personnel, June 2003 Navy and Coast Guard

Air Force

Marine Corps

Commissioned officers: O-10 General O-9 Lieutenant General O-8 Major General O-7 Brigadier General O-6 Colonel O-5 Lieutenant Colonel O-4 Major O-3 Captain O-2 1st Lieutenant O-1 2nd Lieutenant

Admiral Vice Admiral Rear Admiral Upper Rear Admiral Lower Captain Commander Lieutenant Commander Lieutenant Lieutenant (JG) Ensign

General Lieutenant General Major General Brigadier General Colonel Lieutenant Colonel Major Captain 1st Lieutenant 2nd Lieutenant

General Lieutenant General Major General Brigadier General Colonel Lieutenant Colonel Major Captain 1st Lieutenant 2nd Lieutenant

Warrant officers: W-5 Chief Warrant Officer W-4 Chief Warrant Officer W-3 Chief Warrant Officer W-2 Chief Warrant Officer W-1 Warrant Officer

Chief Warrant Officer Chief Warrant Officer Chief Warrant Officer Chief Warrant Officer Warrant Officer

— — — — —

Chief Warrant Officer Chief Warrant Officer Chief Warrant Officer Chief Warrant Officer Warrant Officer

Enlisted personnel: E-9 Sergeant Major

Chief Master Sergeant

Sergeant Major

E-8 E-7 E-6 E-5 E-4 E-3 E-2 E-1

Senior Master Sergeant Master Sergeant Technical Sergeant Staff Sergeant Senior Airman Airman 1st Class Airman Airman Basic

Master Sergeant/1st Sergeant Gunnery Sergeant Staff Sergeant Sergeant Corporal Lance Corporal Private 1st Class Private

Grade

Army

Master Chief Petty Officer 1st Sergeant/Master Sergeant Senior Chief Petty Officer Sergeant First Class Chief Petty Officer Staff Sergeant Petty Officer 1st Class Sergeant Petty Officer 2nd Class Corporal/Specialist Petty Officer 3rd Class Private First Class Seaman Private Seaman Apprentice Private Seaman Recruit

Total Employment 35 126 282 446 11,884 28,565 44,501 69,184 29,416 28,597 504 2,082 4,385 6,118 2,603 10,869 26,545 100,002 175,281 251,122 268,606 218,219 83,423 53,211

Source: U.S. Department of Defense mum, and recommendations from teachers or school officials; they also must pass a medical examination. Appointments are made from the list of eligible nominees. Appointments to the Coast Guard Academy, however, are based strictly on merit and do not require a nomination.

Officers. Officer training in the Armed Forces is provided through the federal service academies (Military, Naval, Air Force, and Coast Guard); the Reserve Officers Training Corps (ROTC) program offered at many colleges and universities; Officer Candidate School (OCS) or Officer Training School (OTS); the National Guard (State Officer Candidate School programs); the Uniformed Services University of Health Sciences; and other programs. All are highly selective and are good options for those wishing to make the military a career. Persons interested in obtaining training through the federal service academies must be single to enter and graduate, while those seeking training through OCS, OTS, or ROTC need not be single. Single parents with one or more minor dependents are not eligible to become commissioned officers.

ROTC programs train students in about 950 Army, approximately 70 Navy and Marine Corps, and around 1,000 Air Force units at participating colleges and universities. Trainees take 2 to 5 hours of military instruction a week, in addition to regular college courses. After graduation, they may serve as officers on active duty for a stipulated period. Some may serve their obligation in the Reserves or National Guard. In the last 2 years of a ROTC program, students receive a monthly allowance while attending school, as well as additional pay for summer training. ROTC scholarships for 2, 3, and 4 years are available on a competitive basis. All scholarships pay for tuition and have allowances for subsistence, textbooks, supplies, and other costs.

Federal service academies provide a 4-year college program leading to a bachelor-of-science degree. Midshipmen or cadets are provided free room and board, tuition, medical and dental care, and a monthly allowance. Graduates receive regular or reserve commissions and have a 5-year active-duty obligation, or more if they are entering flight training.

College graduates can earn a commission in the Armed Forces through OCS or OTS programs in the Army, Navy, Air Force, Marine Corps, Coast Guard, and National Guard. These officers generally must serve their obligation on active duty. Those with training in certain health professions may qualify for direct appointment as officers. In the case of persons studying for the health professions, financial assistance and internship opportunities are available from the military in return for specified periods of military service. Prospective medical students can apply to the Uniformed Services University of Health Sciences,

To become a candidate for appointment as a cadet or midshipman in one of the service academies, applicants are required to obtain a nomination from an authorized source, usually a member of Congress. Candidates do not need to know a member of Congress personally to request a nomination. Nominees must have an academic record of the requisite quality, college aptitude test scores above an established mini-

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Section One: Descriptions of 101 Top Jobs for People Without a Four-Year Degree previous military service. Most commissioned officers started at Grade O-1; some with advanced education started at Grade O-2, and some highly trained officers—for example, physicians and dentists—started as high as Grade O-3. Pay varies by total years of service as well as rank. Because it usually takes many years to reach the higher ranks, most personnel in higher ranks receive the higher pay rates awarded to those with many years of service.

which offers free tuition in a program leading to a doctor-ofmedicine (M.D.) degree. In return, graduates must serve for 7 years in either the military or the U.S. Public Health Service. Direct appointments also are available for those qualified to serve in other specialty areas, such as the judge advocate general (legal) or chaplain corps. Flight training is available to commissioned officers in each branch of the Armed Forces. In addition, the Army has a direct enlistment option to become a warrant officer aviator.

In addition to receiving their basic pay, military personnel are provided with free room and board (or a tax-free housing and subsistence allowance), free medical and dental care, a military clothing allowance, military supermarket and department store shopping privileges, 30 days of paid vacation a year (referred to as leave), and travel opportunities. In many duty stations, military personnel may receive a housing allowance that can be used for off-base housing. This allowance can be substantial, but varies greatly by rank and duty station. For example, in July 2003, the housing allowance for an E-4 with dependents was $505 per month; for a comparable individual without dependents, it was $353. The allowance for an O-4 with dependents was $961 per month; for a person without dependents, it was $836. Other allowances are paid for foreign duty, hazardous duty, submarine and flight duty, and employment as a medical officer. Athletic and other facilities—such as gymnasiums, tennis courts, golf courses, bowling centers, libraries, and movie theaters—are available on many military installations. Military personnel are eligible for retirement benefits after 20 years of service.

Each service has different criteria for promoting personnel. Generally, the first few promotions for both enlisted and officer personnel come easily; subsequent promotions are much more competitive. Criteria for promotion may include time in service and in grade, job performance, a fitness report (supervisor’s recommendation), and the passing of written examinations. People who are passed over for promotion several times generally must leave the military. Table 3 shows the officer, warrant officer, and enlisted ranks by service.

Job Outlook Opportunities should be good for qualified individuals in all branches of the Armed Forces through 2012. Many military personnel retire with a pension after 20 years of service, while they still are young enough to start a new career. More than 365,000 enlisted personnel and officers must be recruited each year to replace those who complete their commitment or retire. Since the end of the draft in 1973, the military has met its personnel requirements with volunteers. When the economy is good and civilian employment opportunities generally are more favorable, it is more difficult for all the services to meet their recruitment quotas. By contrast, it is much easier to do so during a recession.

The Veterans Administration (VA) provides numerous benefits to those who have served at least 2 years in the Armed Forces. Veterans are eligible for free care in VA hospitals for all servicerelated disabilities, regardless of time served; those with other medical problems are eligible for free VA care if they are unable to pay the cost of hospitalization elsewhere. Admission to a VA medical center depends on the availability of beds, however. Veterans also are eligible for certain loans, including loans to purchase a home. Veterans, regardless of health, can convert a military life insurance policy to an individual policy with any participating company in the veteran’s state of residence. In addition, job counseling, testing, and placement services are available.

America’s strategic position is stronger than it has been in decades. Despite reductions in personnel due to the elimination of the threat from Eastern Europe and Russia, the number of active-duty personnel is expected to remain roughly constant through 2012. However, recent conflicts in other countries and the resulting strain on the Armed Forces may lead to an increasing number of active-duty personnel. The Armed Forces’ current goal is to maintain a sufficient force to fight and win two major regional conflicts at the same time. Political events, however, could cause these plans to change.

Veterans who participate in the New Montgomery GI Bill Program receive educational benefits. Under this program, Armed Forces personnel may elect to deduct up to $100 a month from their pay during the first 12 months of active duty, putting the money toward their future education. Veterans who serve on active duty for more than 2 years or who put in 2 years’ active duty plus 4 years in the Selected Reserve will receive $528 a month in basic benefits for 36 months. Those who enlist and serve for 2 years will receive $429 a month for 36 months. In addition, each service provides its own contributions to the enlistee’s future education. The sum of the amounts from all these sources becomes the service member’s educational fund. Upon separation from active duty, the fund can be used to finance educational costs at any VA-approved institution. Among those institutions which are approved by the VA are many vocational, correspondence, certification, business, technical, and flight-training schools; community and junior colleges; and colleges and universities.

Educational requirements will continue to rise as military jobs become more technical and complex. High school graduates and applicants with a college background will be sought to fill the ranks of enlisted personnel, while virtually all officers will need at least a bachelor’s degree and, in some cases, an advanced degree as well.

Earnings The earnings structure for military personnel is shown in Table 4. Most enlisted personnel started as recruits at Grade E-1 in 2003; however, those with special skills or above-average education started as high as Grade E-4. Most warrant officers had started at Grade W-1 or W-2, depending upon their occupational and academic qualifications and the branch of service of which they were a member, but warrant officer is not an entrylevel occupation and, consequently, these individuals all had

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America’s Top 101 Jobs for People Without a Four-Year Degree Table 4. Military basic monthly pay by grade for active duty personnel, June 1, 2003 Grade

Years of service Over 8 Over 12

Less than 2

Over 4

Over 16

Over 20

O-10 O-9 O-8 O-7 O-6 O-5 O-4 O-3 O-2 O-1

— — $7,474.50 6,210.90 4,603.20 3,837.60 3,311.10 2,911.20 2,515.20 2,183.70

— — $7,927.20 6,739.20 5388.9 4,678.50 4,145.70 3,883.50 3,410.00 2,746.80

— — $8,468.70 7,120.80 5,641.20 4,977.00 4,637.70 4,273.50 — —

— — $8,868.90 7,559.40 5672.1 5,403.00 5,201.40 4,623.30 — —

— — $9,238.20 8,468.70 6,564.30 5,991.90 5,471.10 — — —

$11,874.90 10,563.60 10,008.90 9,051.30 7,233.30 6,329.10 — — — —

W-5 W-4 W-3 W-2 W-1

— 3,088.10 2,747.10 2,416.50 2,133.90

— 3,420.60 3,017.70 2,763.00 2,501.10

— 3,733.50 3,281.70 2,993.10 2,782.20

— 4,044.60 3,580.50 3,264.00 3,006.90

— 4,356.00 3,915.60 3,453.90 3,203.40

5,169.30 4,664.40 4,201.50 3,705.90 3,409.50

E-9 E-8 E-7 E-6 E-5 E-4 E-3 E-2 E-1 4mos+ E-1 <4mos

— — 2,068.50 1,770.60 1,625.40 1,502.70 1,356.90 1,290.00 1,150.80 1,064.70

— — 2,428.20 2,117.10 1,903.50 1,749.30 1,528.80 — — —

— 2,975.40 2,667.90 2,400.90 2,151.90 1824.00 — — — —

3,645.00 3,141.30 2,838.30 2,562.30 2,283.30 — — — — —

3,687.00 3,342.00 3,066.30 2,663.10 2,283.30 — — — — —

4,180.80 3,625.50 3,182.70 2709.60 — — — — — —

Source: U.S. Department of Defense, Defense Finance and Accounting Service

Sources of Additional Information

Significant Points

Each of the military services publishes handbooks, fact sheets, and pamphlets describing entrance requirements, training and advancement opportunities, and other aspects of military careers. These publications are widely available at all recruiting stations, at most state employment service offices, and in high schools, colleges, and public libraries. Information on educational and other veterans’ benefits is available from VA offices located throughout the country. In addition, the Defense Manpower Data Center, an agency of the U.S. Department of Defense, publishes Military Career Guide Online, a compendium of military occupational, training, and career information designed for use by students and jobseekers. This information is available on the Internet: http://www.todaysmilitary.com.

●

Numerous job openings should arise for most types of library assistants due to employment growth and the need to replace workers who leave this occupational group.

●

A high school diploma or its equivalent is the most common educational requirement.

●

Because many library assistants deal directly with the public, a professional appearance and a pleasant personality are imperative.

●

These occupations are well suited to flexible work schedules.

Nature of the Work Library assistants assist librarians and, in some cases, library technicians in organizing library resources and making them available to users. Library assistants, clerical—sometimes referred to as library media assistants, library aides, or circulation assistants—register patrons so that they can borrow materials from the library. They record the borrower’s name and address from an applica-

Library Assistants, Clerical (O*NET 43-4121.00)

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Section One: Descriptions of 101 Top Jobs for People Without a Four-Year Degree tion and then issue a library card. Most library assistants enter patrons’ records into computer databases.

mon educational requirement. Increasingly, familiarity or experience with computers and good interpersonal skills are becoming equally important as the diploma to employers.

At the circulation desk, library assistants lend and collect books, periodicals, videotapes, and other materials. When an item is borrowed, assistants stamp the due date on the material and record the patron’s identification from his or her library card. They inspect returned materials for damage, check due dates, and compute fines for overdue material. Library assistants review records, compile a list of overdue materials, and send out notices reminding patrons that their materials are overdue. They also answer patrons’ questions and refer those they cannot answer to a librarian.

Many library assistants deal directly with the public, so a professional appearance and a pleasant personality are important. A clear speaking voice and fluency in the English language also are essential, because these employees frequently use the telephone or public-address systems. Good spelling and computer literacy often are needed, particularly because most work involves considerable use of the computer. Regardless of their level of educational attainment, clerks usually receive on-the-job training. Under the guidance of a supervisor or other senior workers, new employees learn company procedures. Some formal classroom training also may be necessary, such as training in specific computer software. Most library assistants continue to receive instruction on new procedures and on company policies after their initial training ends.

Throughout the library, assistants sort returned books, periodicals, and other items and put them on their designated shelves, in the appropriate files, or in storage areas. They locate materials to be loaned, to either a patron or another library. Many card catalogues are computerized, so library assistants must be familiar with computers. If any materials have been damaged, these workers try to repair them. For example, they use tape or paste to repair torn pages or book covers and other specialized processes to repair more valuable materials.

Additional training in library science or library-related computer software is helpful in preparing library assistants for promotion.

Some library assistants specialize in helping patrons who have vision problems. Sometimes referred to as library, talkingbooks, or braille-and-talking-books clerks, they review the borrower’s list of desired reading materials. They locate those materials or closely related substitutes from the library collection of large-type or braille volumes, tape cassettes, and openreel talking books, complete the requisite paperwork, and give or mail the materials to the borrower.

Job Outlook Opportunities should be good through 2012 for persons interested in jobs as library assistants. Turnover of these workers is quite high, reflecting the limited investment in training and subsequent weak attachment to this occupation. The work is attractive to retirees, students, and others who want a parttime schedule, and there is a lot of movement into and out of the occupation. Many openings will become available each year to replace workers who transfer to another occupation or who leave the labor force. Some positions become available as library assistants move within the organization. Library assistants can be promoted to library technicians and, eventually, supervisory positions in public-service or technical-service areas. Advancement opportunities are greater in larger libraries.

Working Conditions Most library assistants work in areas that are clean, well lit, and relatively quiet. Opportunities for flexible schedules are abundant; nearly half of these workers work part time. Some high school and college students work part time in this occupation, after school or during vacations. Some jobs may require working evenings or weekends. In general, employees with the least seniority tend to be assigned the least desirable shifts.

Employment is expected to grow faster than the average for all occupations through 2012. The vast majority of library assistants work in public or school libraries. Efforts to contain costs in local governments and academic institutions of all types may result in more hiring of library support staff than librarians. Also, due to changing roles within libraries, library assistants are taking on more responsibility. Because most are employed by public institutions, library assistants are not directly affected by the ups and downs of the business cycle. Some of these workers may lose their jobs, however, if there are cuts in government budgets.

The work performed by library assistants may be repetitious. In addition, prolonged exposure to a video display terminal may lead to eyestrain for the many information clerks who work with computers.

Employment Library assistants held about 120,000 jobs in 2002. More than one half of these workers were employed by local government in public libraries; most of the remaining employees worked in school libraries. Opportunities for flexible schedules are abundant; nearly half of these workers were on part-time schedules.

Earnings In 2002, median annual earnings for library assistants were $19,450.

Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement

In addition to their hourly wage, full-time library assistants who work evenings, nights, and weekends may receive shift differential pay. Some employers offer educational assistance to their employees.

Despite the fact that hiring requirements for library assistants vary, a high school diploma or its equivalent is the most com-

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America’s Top 101 Jobs for People Without a Four-Year Degree

Related Occupations

cataloguing and coding of library materials, retrieve information from computer databases, and supervise support staff.

A number of other workers deal with the public, receive and provide information, or direct people to others who can assist them. Among these workers are customer service representatives, dispatchers, security guards and gaming surveillance workers, tellers, and counter and rental clerks.

The widespread use of computerized information storage and retrieval systems has resulted in technicians handling technical services—such as entering catalogue information into the library’s computer—that were once performed by librarians. Technicians assist with customizing databases. In addition, technicians instruct patrons in how to use computer systems to access data. The increased automation of recordkeeping has reduced the amount of clerical work performed by library technicians. Many libraries now offer self-service registration and circulation areas with computers, decreasing the time library technicians spend manually recording and inputting records.

Sources of Additional Information Information about a career as a library assistant can be obtained from either of the following organizations: ●

Council on Library/Media Technology, 100 W. Broadway, Columbia, MO 65203. Internet: http://colt.ucr.edu

●

American Library Association, 50 East Huron St., Chicago, IL 60611. Internet: http://www.ala.org/hrdr

Some library technicians operate and maintain audiovisual equipment, such as projectors, tape recorders, and videocassette recorders, and assist users with microfilm or microfiche readers. They also design posters, bulletin boards, or displays.

Public libraries and libraries in academic institutions also can provide information about job openings for library assistants.

Library technicians in school libraries encourage and teach students to use the library and media center. They also help teachers obtain instructional materials, and they assist students with special assignments. Some work in special libraries maintained by government agencies, corporations, law firms, advertising agencies, museums, professional societies, medical centers, and research laboratories, where they conduct literature searches, compile bibliographies, and prepare abstracts, usually on subjects of particular interest to the organization.

Library Technicians (O*NET 25-4031.00)

Significant Points ●

Training requirements range from a high school diploma to an associate’s or bachelor’s degree, but computer skills are needed for many jobs.

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Increasing use of computerized circulation and information systems should continue to spur job growth, but many libraries’ budget constraints should moderate growth.

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Employment should grow rapidly in special libraries because growing numbers of professionals and other workers use those libraries.

To extend library services to more patrons, many libraries operate bookmobiles, often run by library technicians. The technicians take trucks stocked with books, or bookmobiles, to designated sites on a regular schedule, frequently stopping at shopping centers, apartment complexes, schools, and nursing homes. Bookmobiles also may be used to extend library service to patrons living in remote areas. Depending on local conditions, the technicians may operate a bookmobile alone or may be accompanied by another library employee. Library technicians who drive bookmobiles, answer patrons’ questions, receive and check out books, collect fines, maintain the book collection, shelve materials, and occasionally operate audiovisual equipment to show slides or films. They participate, and may assist, in planning programs sponsored by the library, such as reader advisory programs, used-book sales, or outreach programs. Technicians who drive the bookmobile keep track of their mileage, the materials lent out, and the amount of fines collected. In some areas, they are responsible for maintenance of the vehicle and any photocopiers or other equipment in it. They record statistics on circulation and the number of people visiting the bookmobile. Technicians also may record requests for special items from the main library and arrange for the materials to be mailed or delivered to a patron during the next scheduled visit. Many bookmobiles are equipped with personal computers and CD-ROM systems linked to the main library system, allowing technicians to reserve or locate books immediately. Some bookmobiles now offer Internet access to users.

Nature of the Work Library technicians both help librarians acquire, prepare, and organize material and assist users in finding information. Library technicians usually work under the supervision of a librarian, although they work independently in certain situations. Technicians in small libraries handle a range of duties; those in large libraries usually specialize. As libraries increasingly use new technologies—such as CD-ROM, the Internet, virtual libraries, and automated databases—the duties of library technicians will expand and evolve accordingly. Library technicians are assuming greater responsibilities, in some cases taking on tasks previously performed by librarians. Depending on the employer, library technicians can have other titles, such as library technical assistant or media aide. Library technicians direct library users to standard references, organize and maintain periodicals, prepare volumes for binding, handle interlibrary loan requests, prepare invoices, perform routine

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Section One: Descriptions of 101 Top Jobs for People Without a Four-Year Degree Library technicians usually advance by assuming added responsibilities. For example, technicians often start at the circulation desk, checking books in and out. After gaining experience, they may become responsible for storing and verifying information. As they advance, they may become involved in budget and personnel matters in their departments. Some library technicians advance to supervisory positions and are in charge of the day-to-day operation of their departments.

puter terminals for long periods and can develop headaches or eyestrain from working with the terminals. Some duties, like calculating circulation statistics, can be repetitive and boring. Others, such as performing computer searches with the use of local and regional library networks and cooperatives, can be interesting and challenging. Library technicians may lift and carry books, climb ladders to reach high stacks, and bend low to shelve books on bottom shelves. Library technicians in school libraries work regular school hours. Those in public libraries and college and university (academic) libraries also work weekends, evenings and some holidays. Library technicians in special libraries usually work normal business hours, although they often work overtime as well.

Job Outlook Employment of library technicians is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through 2012. In addition to jobs opening up through employment growth, some job openings will result from the need to replace library technicians who transfer to other fields or leave the labor force.

The schedules of library technicians who drive bookmobiles depend on the size of the area being served. Some bookmobiles operate every day, while others go only on certain days. Some bookmobiles operate in the evenings and weekends to give patrons as much access to the library as possible. Because library technicians who operate bookmobiles may be the only link some people have to the library, much of their work consists of helping the public. They may assist handicapped or elderly patrons to the bookmobile or shovel snow to ensure their safety. They may enter hospitals or nursing homes to deliver books to patrons who are bedridden.

The increasing use of library automation is expected to continue to spur job growth among library technicians. Computerized information systems have simplified certain tasks, such as descriptive cataloguing, which can now be handled by technicians instead of librarians. For example, nowadays technicians can easily retrieve information from a central database and store it in the library’s computer. Although efforts to contain costs could dampen employment growth of library technicians in school, public, and college and university libraries, cost containment efforts could also result in more hiring of library technicians than librarians. Growth in the number of professionals and other workers who use special libraries should result in good job opportunities for library technicians in those settings.

Employment Library technicians held about 119,000 jobs in 2002. Most worked in school, academic, or public libraries. Some worked in hospitals and for religious organizations, mainly parochial schools. The federal government—primarily the U.S. Department of Defense and the U.S. Library of Congress—and state and local governments also employed library technicians.

Earnings Median annual earnings of library technicians in 2002 were $24,090. The middle 50 percent earned between $18,150 and $31,140. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $14,410, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $38,000. Median annual earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of library technicians in 2002 were as follows:

Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Training requirements for library technicians vary widely, ranging from a high school diploma to specialized postsecondary training. Some employers hire individuals with work experience or other training; others train inexperienced workers on the job. Still other employers require that technicians have an associate’s or bachelor’s degree. Given the rapid spread of automation in libraries, computer skills are needed for many jobs. Knowledge of databases, library automation systems, online library systems, online public access systems, and circulation systems is valuable. Many bookmobile drivers are required to have a commercial driver’s license.

Colleges, universities, and professional schools ......$27,280 Local government........................................................23,310 Elementary and secondary schools ............................21,770 Other information services ........................................20,950 Salaries of library technicians in the federal government averaged $36,788 in 2003.

Related Occupations Library technicians perform organizational and administrative duties. Workers in other occupations with similar duties include library assistants, clerical; information and record clerks; and medical records and health information technicians.

Some 2-year colleges offer an associate-of-arts degree in library technology. Programs include both liberal arts and libraryrelated study. Students learn about library and media organization and operation, as well as how to order, process, catalogue, locate, and circulate library materials and work with library automation. Libraries and associations offer continuing education courses to keep technicians abreast of new developments in the field.

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to medications or treatments. They collect samples for testing, perform routine laboratory tests, feed patients, and record food and fluid intake and output. To help keep patients comfortable, LPNs assist with bathing, dressing, and personal hygiene. In states where the law allows, they may administer prescribed medicines or start intravenous fluids. Some LPNs help deliver, care for, and feed infants. Experienced LPNs may supervise nursing assistants and aides.

For information on training programs for library/media technical assistants, write to: ●

American Library Association, Office for Human Resource Development and Recruitment, 50 East Huron St., Chicago, IL 60611. Internet: http://www.ala.org

Information on acquiring a job as a library technician with the federal government may be obtained from the Office of Personnel Management through a telephone-based system. Consult your telephone directory under “U.S. Government” for a local number, or call (703) 724-1850 (Federal Relay Service [800] 877-8339). The first number is not toll free, and charges may result. Information also is available on the Internet at http://www.usajobs.opm.gov.

In addition to providing routine beside care, LPNs in nursing care facilities help evaluate residents’ needs, develop care plans, and supervise the care provided by nursing aides. In doctors’ offices and clinics, they also may make appointments, keep records, and perform other clerical duties. LPNs who work in private homes may prepare meals and teach family members simple nursing tasks.

Information concerning requirements and application procedures for positions in the Library of Congress can be obtained directly from: ●

Working Conditions Most licensed practical nurses in hospitals and nursing care facilities work a 40-hour week, but because patients need around-the-clock care, some work nights, weekends, and holidays. They often stand for long periods and help patients move in bed, stand, or walk.

Human Resources Office, Library of Congress, 101 Independence Ave. SE, Washington, DC 20540-2231.

State library agencies can furnish information on requirements for technicians and general information about career prospects in the state. Several of these agencies maintain job hot lines reporting openings for library technicians.

LPNs may face hazards from caustic chemicals, radiation, and infectious diseases such as hepatitis. They are subject to back injuries when moving patients and shock from electrical equipment. They often must deal with the stress of heavy workloads. In addition, the patients they care for may be confused, irrational, agitated, or uncooperative.

State departments of education can furnish information on requirements and job opportunities for school library technicians.

Employment

Licensed Practical and Licensed Vocational Nurses

Licensed practical nurses held about 702,000 jobs in 2002. About 28 percent of LPNs worked in hospitals, 26 percent in nursing care facilities, and another 12 percent in offices of physicians. Others worked for home healthcare services, employment services, community care facilities for the elderly, public and private educational services, outpatient care centers, and federal, state, and local government agencies; about 1 in 5 worked part time.

(O*NET 29-2061.00)

Significant Points ●

Training lasting about 1 year is available in about 1,100 state-approved programs, mostly in vocational or technical schools.

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Nursing care facilities will offer the most new jobs.

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Applicants for jobs in hospitals may face competition as the number of hospital jobs for LPNs declines.

Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement All states and the District of Columbia require LPNs to pass a licensing examination after completing a state-approved practical nursing program. A high school diploma or its equivalent usually is required for entry, although some programs accept candidates without a diploma or are designed as part of a high school curriculum.

Nature of the Work Licensed practical nurses (LPNs), or licensed vocational nurses (LVNs), care for the sick, injured, convalescent, and disabled under the direction of physicians and registered nurses.

In 2002, approximately 1,100 state-approved programs provided training in practical nursing. Almost 6 out of 10 students were enrolled in technical or vocational schools, while 3 out of 10 were in community and junior colleges. Others were in high schools, hospitals, and colleges and universities.

Most LPNs provide basic bedside care, taking vital signs such as temperature, blood pressure, pulse, and respiration. They also prepare and give injections and enemas, monitor catheters, apply dressings, treat bedsores, and give alcohol rubs and massages. LPNs monitor their patients and report adverse reactions

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patient care–related subjects, including anatomy, physiology, medical-surgical nursing, pediatrics, obstetrics, psychiatric nursing, the administration of drugs, nutrition, and first aid. Clinical practice usually is in a hospital, but sometimes includes other settings.

LPNs work closely with people while helping them. So do emergency medical technicians and paramedics, social and human service assistants, surgical technologists, and teacher assistants.

LPNs should have a caring, sympathetic nature. They should be emotionally stable, because work with the sick and injured can be stressful. They also should have keen observational, decisionmaking, and communication skills. As part of a healthcare team, they must be able to follow orders and work under close supervision.

Sources of Additional Information For information about practical nursing, contact any of the following organizations:

Job Outlook

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National League for Nursing, 61 Broadway, New York, NY 10006. Internet: http://www.nln.org

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National Federation of Licensed Practical Nurses, Inc., 605 Poole Dr., Garner, NC 27529.

Employment of LPNs is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through 2012 in response to the long-term care needs of an increasing elderly population and the general growth of healthcare. Replacement needs will be a major source of job openings, as many workers leave the occupation permanently.

Machinists

Applicants for jobs in hospitals may face competition as the number of hospital jobs for LPNs declines. An increasing proportion of sophisticated procedures, which once were performed only in hospitals, is being performed in physicians’ offices and in outpatient care centers such as ambulatory surgical and emergency medical centers, due largely to advances in technology. Consequently, employment of LPNs is projected to grow faster than average in these sectors as healthcare expands outside the traditional hospital setting.

(O*NET 51-4041.00)

Significant Points

Employment of LPNs in nursing care facilities is expected to grow faster than the average. Such facilities will offer the most new jobs for LPNs as the number of aged and disabled persons in need of long-term care rises. In addition to caring for the aged and the disabled, LPNs in nursing care facilities will care for the increasing number of patients who will have been discharged from the hospital, but have not recovered enough to return home.

Machinists learn in apprenticeship programs, informally on the job, and in high schools, vocational schools, or community or technical colleges.

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Many entrants previously have worked as machine setters, operators, or tenders.

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Job opportunities are expected to be excellent.

Nature of the Work Machinists use machine tools, such as lathes, milling machines, and machining centers, to produce precision metal parts. Although they may produce large quantities of one part, precision machinists often produce small batches or one-of-akind items. They use their knowledge of the working properties of metals and their skill with machine tools to plan and carry out the operations needed to make machined products that meet precise specifications.

Employment of LPNs is expected to grow much faster than average in home healthcare services. This growth is in response to an increasing number of older persons with functional disabilities, consumer preference for care in the home, and technological advances that make it possible to bring increasingly complex treatments into the home.

Before they machine a part, machinists must carefully plan and prepare the operation. These workers first review blueprints or written specifications for a job. Next, they calculate where to cut or bore into the workpiece (the piece of metal that is being shaped), how fast to feed the metal into the machine, and how much metal to remove. They then select tools and materials for the job, plan the sequence of cutting and finishing operations, and mark the metal stock to show where cuts should be made.

Earnings Median annual earnings of licensed practical nurses were $31,440 in 2002. The middle 50 percent earned between $26,430 and $37,050. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $22,860, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $44,040. Median annual earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of licensed practical nurses in 2002 were as follows:

After this layout work is completed, machinists perform the necessary machining operations. They position the metal stock on the machine tool—drill press, lathe, milling machine, or other type of machine—set the controls, and make the cuts. During the machining process, they must constantly monitor the feed rate and speed of the machine. Machinists also ensure that the workpiece is being properly lubricated and cooled,

Employment services ................................................$40,550 Home health care services ..........................................32,850 Nursing care facilities ..................................................32,220 General medical and surgical hospitals......................30,310 Offices of physicians....................................................28,710

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America’s Top 101 Jobs for People Without a Four-Year Degree The job requires stamina, because machinists stand most of the day and, at times, may need to lift moderately heavy workpieces. Modern factories extensively employ autoloaders and overhead cranes, reducing heavy lifting.

because the machining of metal products generates a significant amount of heat. The temperature of the workpiece is a key concern because most metals expand when heated; machinists must adjust the size of their cuts relative to the temperature. Some rare but increasingly popular metals, such as titanium, are machined at extremely high temperatures.

Most machinists work a 40-hour week. Evening and weekend shifts are becoming more common as companies justify investments in more expensive machinery by extending hours of operation. However, this trend is somewhat offset by the increasing use of lights-out manufacturing. Overtime is common during peak production periods.

Machinists detect some problems by listening for specific sounds—for example, a dull cutting tool or excessive vibration. Dull cutting tools are removed and replaced. Cutting speeds are adjusted to compensate for harmonic vibrations, which can decrease the accuracy of cuts, particularly on newer highspeed spindles and lathes. After the work is completed, machinists use both simple and highly sophisticated measuring tools to check the accuracy of their work against blueprints.

Employment Machinists held about 387,000 jobs in 2002. Most machinists work in small machining shops or in manufacturing industries, such as machinery manufacturing and transportation equipment manufacturing (motor vehicle parts and aerospace products and parts). Maintenance machinists work in most industries that use production machinery.

Some machinists, often called production machinists, may produce large quantities of one part, especially parts requiring the use of complex operations and great precision. Many modern machine tools are computer numerically controlled (CNC). Frequently, machinists work with computer-control programmers to determine how the automated equipment will cut a part.The programmer may determine the path of the cut, while the machinist determines the type of cutting tool, the speed of the cutting tool, and the feed rate. Because most machinists train in CNC programming, they may write basic programs themselves and often modify programs in response to problems encountered during test runs. After the production process is designed, relatively simple and repetitive operations normally are performed by machine setters, operators, and tenders.

Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Machinists train in apprenticeship programs, informally on the job, and in high schools, vocational schools, or community or technical colleges. Experience with machine tools is helpful. In fact, many entrants previously have worked as machine setters, operators, or tenders. Persons interested in becoming machinists should be mechanically inclined, have good problem-solving abilities, be able to work independently, and be able to do highly accurate work (tolerances may reach 1/10,000th of an inch) that requires concentration and physical effort.

Some manufacturing techniques employ automated parts loaders, automatic tool changers, and computer controls, allowing machine tools to operate without anyone present. One production machinist, working 8 hours a day, might monitor equipment, replace worn cutting tools, check the accuracy of parts being produced, and perform other tasks on several CNC machines that operate 24 hours a day (lights-out manufacturing). During lights-out manufacturing, a factory may need only a few machinists to monitor the entire factory.

High school or vocational school courses in mathematics (especially trigonometry), blueprint reading, metalworking, and drafting are highly recommended. Apprenticeship programs consist of shop training and related classroom instruction lasting up to 4 years. In shop training, apprentices work almost full time, and are supervised by an experienced machinist while learning to operate various machine tools. Classroom instruction includes math, physics, materials science, blueprint reading, mechanical drawing, and quality and safety practices. In addition, as machine shops have increased their use of computer-controlled equipment, training in the operation and programming of CNC machine tools has become essential. Apprenticeship classes are taught in cooperation with local community or vocational colleges. A growing number of machinists learn the trade through 2-year associate degree programs at community or technical colleges. Graduates of these programs still need significant on-the-job experience before they are fully qualified.

Other machinists do maintenance work—repairing or making new parts for existing machinery. To repair a broken part, maintenance machinists may refer to blueprints and perform the same machining operations that were needed to create the original part.

Working Conditions Today, most machine shops are relatively clean, well lit, and ventilated. Many computer-controlled machines are partially or totally enclosed, minimizing the exposure of workers to noise, debris, and the lubricants used to cool workpieces during machining. Nevertheless, working around machine tools presents certain dangers, and workers must follow safety precautions. Machinists wear protective equipment, such as safety glasses to shield against bits of flying metal and earplugs to dampen machinery noise. They also must exercise caution when handling hazardous coolants and lubricants, although many common water-based lubricants present little hazard.

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To boost the skill level of machinists and to create a more uniform standard of competency, a number of training facilities and colleges are implementing curriculums that incorporate national skills standards developed by the National Institute of Metalworking Skills (NIMS). After completing such a curriculum and passing a performance requirement and written exam, trainees are granted a NIMS credential, which provides

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Section One: Descriptions of 101 Top Jobs for People Without a Four-Year Degree formal recognition of competency in a metalworking field. Completing a recognized certification program provides a machinist with better career opportunities.

Metalworking machinery manufacturing..................$16.75

As new automation is introduced, machinists normally receive additional training to update their skills. This training usually is provided by a representative of the equipment manufacturer or a local technical school. Some employers offer tuition reimbursement for job-related courses.

Machine shops; turned product; and screw, nut, and bolt manufacturing ......................................15.45

Other general purpose machinery manufacturing ............................................................15.91

Motor vehicle parts manufacturing..............................15.18 Employment services ......................................................9.41

Machinists can advance in several ways. Experienced machinists may become CNC programmers, tool and die makers, or mold makers, or be promoted to supervisory or administrative positions in their firms. A few open their own shops.

Related Occupations Occupations most closely related to that of machinist are other machining occupations, which include tool and die makers; machine setters, operators, and tenders—metal and plastic; and computer-control programmers and operators. Another occupation that requires precision and skill in working with metal is welding, soldering, and brazing.

Job Outlook Despite projected slower-than-average employment growth, job opportunities for machinists should continue to be excellent. Many young people with the necessary educational and personal qualifications needed to obtain machining skills may prefer to attend college or may not wish to enter production occupations. Therefore, the number of workers obtaining the skills and knowledge necessary to fill machinist jobs is expected to be less than the number of job openings arising each year from employment growth and from the need to replace experienced machinists who transfer to other occupations or retire.

Sources of Additional Information For general information about machinists, contact: ●

For a list of training centers and apprenticeship programs, contact: ●

Employment of machinists is expected to grow more slowly than the average for all occupations over the 2002–12 period because of rising productivity among these workers. Machinists will become more efficient as a result of the expanded use of and improvements in technologies such as CNC machine tools, autoloaders, and high-speed machining. This allows fewer machinists to accomplish the same amount of work previously performed by more workers. Technology is not expected to affect the employment of machinists as significantly as that of most other production occupations, however, because machinists monitor and maintain many automated systems. Due to modern production techniques, employers prefer workers, such as machinists, who have a wide range of skills and are capable of performing almost any task in a machine shop.

National Tooling and Machining Association, 9300 Livingston Rd., Fort Washington, MD 20744. Internet: http://www.ntma.org

For general occupational information and a list of training programs, contact: ●

Precision Metalforming Association Educational Foundation, 6363 Oak Tree Blvd., Independence, OH 44131-2500. Internet: http://www.pmaef.org

Maintenance and Repair Workers, General (O*NET 49-9042.00)

Employment levels in this occupation are influenced by economic cycles—as the demand for machined goods falls, machinists involved in production may be laid off or forced to work fewer hours. Employment of machinists involved in plant maintenance, however, often is more stable because proper maintenance and repair of costly equipment remain critical to manufacturing operations, even when production levels fall.

Significant Points

Earnings Median hourly earnings of machinists were $15.66 in 2002. The middle 50 percent earned between $12.15 and $19.45. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $9.57, while the top 10 percent earned more than $23.17. Median hourly earnings in the manufacturing industries employing the largest number of machinists in 2002 were:

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Precision Machine Products Association, 6700 West Snowville Rd., Brecksville, OH 44141-3292. Internet: http://www.pmpa.org

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General maintenance and repair workers are employed in almost every industry.

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Most workers are trained on the job; others learn by working as helpers to other repairers or to construction workers such as carpenters, electricians, or machinery repairers.

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Job openings should be plentiful due to significant turnover in this large occupation.

Nature of the Work Most craft workers specialize in one kind of work, such as plumbing or carpentry. General maintenance and repair work-

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ers, however, have skills in many different crafts. They repair and maintain machines, mechanical equipment, and buildings and work on plumbing, electrical, and air-conditioning and heating systems. They build partitions, make plaster or drywall repairs, and fix or paint roofs, windows, doors, floors, woodwork, and other parts of building structures. They also maintain and repair specialized equipment and machinery found in cafeterias, laundries, hospitals, stores, offices, and factories. Typical duties include troubleshooting and fixing faulty electrical switches, repairing air-conditioning motors, and unclogging drains. New buildings sometimes have computercontrolled systems, requiring workers to acquire basic computer skills. For example, new air-conditioning systems often can be controlled from a central computer terminal. In addition, light sensors can be electronically controlled to turn off lights automatically after a set amount of time.

General maintenance and repair workers held 1.3 million jobs in 2002. They were employed in almost every industry. Around 1 in 5 worked in manufacturing industries, almost evenly distributed through all sectors. About 17 percent worked for different government bodies. Others worked for wholesale and retail firms and for real-estate firms that operate office and apartment buildings.

Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Many general maintenance and repair workers learn their skills informally on the job. They start as helpers, watching and learning from skilled maintenance workers. Helpers begin by doing simple jobs, such as fixing leaky faucets and replacing lightbulbs, and progress to more difficult tasks, such as overhauling machinery or building walls. Some learn their skills by working as helpers to other repair or construction workers, including carpenters, electricians, or machinery repairers.

General maintenance and repair workers inspect and diagnose problems and determine the best way to correct them, frequently checking blueprints, repair manuals, and parts catalogs. They obtain supplies and repair parts from distributors or storerooms. Using common hand and power tools such as screwdrivers, saws, drills, wrenches, and hammers, as well as specialized equipment and electronic testing devices, these workers replace or fix worn or broken parts, where necessary, or make adjustments to correct malfunctioning equipment and machines.

Necessary skills also can be learned in high school shop classes and postsecondary trade or vocational schools. It generally takes from 1 to 4 years of on-the-job training or school, or a combination of both, to become fully qualified, depending on the skill level required. Because a growing number of new buildings rely on computers to control various of their systems, general maintenance and repair workers may need basic computer skills, such as how to log onto a central computer system and navigate through a series of menus. Usually, companies that install computer-controlled equipment provide onsite training for general maintenance and repair workers.

General maintenance and repair workers also perform routine preventive maintenance and ensure that machines continue to run smoothly, building systems operate efficiently, and the physical condition of buildings does not deteriorate. Following a checklist, they may inspect drives, motors, and belts; check fluid levels; replace filters; and perform other maintenance actions. Maintenance and repair workers keep records of their work.

Graduation from high school is preferred for entry into this occupation. High school courses in mechanical drawing, electricity, woodworking, blueprint reading, science, mathematics, and computers are useful. Mechanical aptitude, the ability to use shop mathematics, and manual dexterity are important. Good health is necessary because the job involves much walking, standing, reaching, and heavy lifting. Difficult jobs require problem-solving ability, and many positions require the ability to work without direct supervision.

Employees in small establishments, where they are often the only maintenance worker, make all repairs, except for very large or difficult jobs. In larger establishments, their duties may be limited to the general maintenance of everything in a workshop or a particular area.

Working Conditions

Many general maintenance and repair workers in large organizations advance to maintenance supervisor or become a craftworker such as an electrician, a heating and air-conditioning mechanic, or a plumber. Within small organizations, promotion opportunities are limited.

General maintenance and repair workers often carry out several different tasks in a single day at any number of locations. They may work inside of a single building or in several different buildings. They may have to stand for long periods, lift heavy objects, and work in uncomfortably hot or cold environments, in awkward and cramped positions, or on ladders. They are subject to electrical shock, burns, falls, cuts, and bruises. Most general maintenance workers work a 40-hour week. Some work evening, night, or weekend shifts or are on call for emergency repairs.

Job Outlook Job openings should be plentiful. General maintenance and repair is a large occupation with significant turnover, and many job openings should result from the need to replace workers who transfer to other occupations or stop working for other reasons.

Those employed in small establishments often operate with only limited supervision. Those working in larger establishments frequently are under the direct supervision of an experienced worker.

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Employment of general maintenance and repair workers is expected to grow about as fast as average for all occupations through 2012. Employment is related to the number of build-

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Section One: Descriptions of 101 Top Jobs for People Without a Four-Year Degree ings—for example, office and apartment buildings, stores, schools, hospitals, hotels, and factories—and the amount of equipment needing maintenance and repair. However, as machinery becomes more advanced and requires less maintenance, the need for general maintenance and repair workers diminishes.

Medical assistants is projected to be the fastest growing occupation over the 2002–12 period.

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Job prospects should be best for medical assistants with formal training or experience, particularly those with certification.

Nature of the Work

Earnings

Medical assistants perform routine administrative and clinical tasks to keep the offices of physicians, podiatrists, chiropractors, and other health practitioners running smoothly. They should not be confused with physician assistants, who examine, diagnose, and treat patients under the direct supervision of a physician.

Median hourly earnings of general maintenance and repair workers were $14.12 in 2002. The middle 50 percent earned between $10.61 and $18.48. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $8.25, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $22.78. Median hourly earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of general maintenance and repair workers in 2002 are shown in the following tabulation:

The duties of medical assistants vary from office to office, depending on the location and size of the practice and the practitioner’s specialty. In small practices, medical assistants usually are “generalists,” handling both administrative and clinical duties and reporting directly to an office manager, physician, or other health practitioner. Those in large practices tend to specialize in a particular area, under the supervision of department administrators.

Local government........................................................$14.83 Elementary and secondary schools ..............................14.01 Activities related to real estate ......................................11.79 Lessors of real estate ......................................................11.64 Traveler accommodation ..............................................10.58

Medical assistants perform many administrative duties, including answering telephones, greeting patients, updating and filing patients’ medical records, filling out insurance forms, handling correspondence, scheduling appointments, arranging for hospital admission and laboratory services, and handling billing and bookkeeping.

Some general maintenance and repair workers are members of unions, including the American Federation of State, County, and Municipal Employees and the United Automobile Workers.

Related Occupations Some duties of general maintenance and repair workers are similar to those of carpenters; pipelayers, plumbers, pipefitters, and steamfitters; electricians; and heating, air-conditioning, and refrigeration mechanics. Other duties are similar to those of coin, vending, and amusement machine servicers and repairers; electrical and electronics installers and repairers; electronic home entertainment equipment installers and repairers; and radio and telecommunications equipment installers and repairers.

Clinical duties vary according to state law and include taking medical histories and recording vital signs, explaining treatment procedures to patients, preparing patients for examination, and assisting the physician during the examination. Medical assistants collect and prepare laboratory specimens or perform basic laboratory tests on the premises, dispose of contaminated supplies, and sterilize medical instruments. They instruct patients about medications and special diets, prepare and administer medications as directed by a physician, authorize drug refills as directed, telephone prescriptions to a pharmacy, draw blood, prepare patients for X rays, take electrocardiograms, remove sutures, and change dressings.

Sources of Additional Information Information about job opportunities may be obtained from local employers and local offices of the state employment service.

Medical assistants also may arrange examining-room instruments and equipment, purchase and maintain supplies and equipment, and keep waiting and examining rooms neat and clean. Assistants who specialize have additional duties. Podiatric medical assistants make castings of feet, expose and develop X rays, and assist podiatrists in surgery. Ophthalmic medical assistants help ophthalmologists provide eye care. They conduct diagnostic tests, measure and record vision, and test eye muscle function. They also show patients how to insert, remove, and care for contact lenses, and they apply eye dressings. Under the direction of the physician, ophthalmic medical assistants may administer eye medications. They also maintain optical and surgical instruments and may assist the ophthalmologist in surgery.

Medical Assistants (O*NET 31-9092.00)

Significant Points ●

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Some medical assistants are trained on the job, but many complete 1- or 2-year programs in vocational-technical high schools, postsecondary vocational schools, and community and junior colleges.

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certain tasks, such as taking X rays. Employers prefer to hire experienced workers or certified applicants who have passed a national examination, indicating that the medical assistant meets certain standards of competence. The American Association of Medical Assistants awards the Certified Medical Assistant credential; the American Medical Technologists awards the Registered Medical Assistant credential; the American Society of Podiatric Medical Assistants awards the Podiatric Medical Assistant Certified credential; and the Joint Commission on Allied Health Personnel in Ophthalmology awards credentials at three levels: Certified Ophthalmic Assistant, Certified Ophthalmic Technician, and Certified Ophthalmic Medical Technologist.

Medical assistants work in well-lighted, clean environments. They constantly interact with other people and may have to handle several responsibilities at once. Most full-time medical assistants work a regular 40-hour week. Some work part time, evenings, or weekends.

Employment Medical assistants held about 365,000 jobs in 2002. Almost 60 percent worked in offices of physicians; about 14 percent worked in public and private hospitals, including inpatient and outpatient facilities; and almost 10 percent worked in offices of other health practitioners, such as chiropractors and podiatrists. The rest worked mostly in outpatient care centers, public and private educational services, other ambulatory healthcare services, state and local government agencies, medical and diagnostic laboratories, nursing care facilities, and employment services.

Medical assistants deal with the public; therefore, they must be neat and well groomed and have a courteous, pleasant manner. Medical assistants must be able to put patients at ease and explain physicians’ instructions. They must respect the confidential nature of medical information. Clinical duties require a reasonable level of manual dexterity and visual acuity. Medical assistants may be able to advance to office manager. They may qualify for a variety of administrative support occupations or may teach medical assisting. With additional education, some enter other health occupations, such as nursing and medical technology.

Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most employers prefer graduates of formal programs in medical assisting. Such programs are offered in vocational-technical high schools, postsecondary vocational schools, and community and junior colleges. Postsecondary programs usually last either 1 year, resulting in a certificate or diploma, or 2 years, resulting in an associate degree. Courses cover anatomy, physiology, and medical terminology, as well as typing, transcription, recordkeeping, accounting, and insurance processing. Students learn laboratory techniques, clinical and diagnostic procedures, pharmaceutical principles, the administration of medications, and first aid. They study office practices, patient relations, medical law, and ethics. Accredited programs include an internship that provides practical experience in physicians’ offices, hospitals, or other healthcare facilities.

Job Outlook Employment of medical assistants is expected to grow much faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2012 as the health services industry expands because of technological advances in medicine, and a growing and aging population. Increasing utilization of medical assistants in the rapidly-growing healthcare industries will result in fast employment growth for the occupation. In fact, medical assistants is projected to be the fastest growing occupation over the 2002–12 period. Employment growth will be driven by the increase in the number of group practices, clinics, and other healthcare facilities that need a high proportion of support personnel, particularly the flexible medical assistant who can handle both administrative and clinical duties. Medical assistants work primarily in outpatient settings, which are expected to exhibit much faster-than-average growth.

Two agencies recognized by the U.S. Department of Education accredit programs in medical assisting: The Commission on Accreditation of Allied Health Education Programs (CAAHEP) and the Accrediting Bureau of Health Education Schools (ABHES). In 2002, there were 495 medical assisting programs accredited by CAAHEP and about 170 accredited by ABHES. The Committee on Accreditation for Ophthalmic Medical Personnel approved 14 programs in ophthalmic medical assisting.

In view of the preference of many healthcare employers for trained personnel, job prospects should be best for medical assistants with formal training or experience, and particularly for those with certification.

Formal training in medical assisting, while generally preferred, is not always required. Some medical assistants are trained on the job, although this practice is less common than in the past. Applicants usually need a high school diploma or the equivalent. Recommended high school courses include mathematics, health, biology, typing, bookkeeping, computers, and office skills. Volunteer experience in the healthcare field also is helpful.

Earnings The earnings of medical assistants vary, depending on their experience, skill level, and location. Median annual earnings of medical assistants were $23,940 in 2002. The middle 50 percent earned between $20,260 and $28,410. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $17,640, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $34,130. Median annual earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of medical assistants in 2002 were as follows:

Although medical assistants are not licensed, some states require them to take a test or a course before they can perform

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Section One: Descriptions of 101 Top Jobs for People Without a Four-Year Degree General medical and surgical hospitals....................$24,460

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Medical records and health information technicians entering the field usually have an associate degree; courses include anatomy, physiology, medical terminology, and computer science.

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Job prospects should be very good, particularly in offices of physicians.

Offices of physicians....................................................24,260 Outpatient care centers ..............................................23,980 Other ambulatory health care services ......................23,440 Offices of other health practitioners ..........................21,620

Nature of the Work

Related Occupations

Every time a patient receives healthcare, a record is maintained of the observations, medical or surgical interventions, and treatment outcomes. This record includes information that the patient provides concerning his or her symptoms and medical history, the results of examinations, reports of X rays and laboratory tests, diagnoses, and treatment plans. Medical records and health information technicians organize and evaluate these records for completeness and accuracy.

Workers in other medical support occupations include dental assistants, medical records and health information technicians, medical secretaries, occupational therapist assistants and aides, pharmacy aides, and physical therapist assistants and aides.

Sources of Additional Information

Technicians begin to assemble patients’ health information by first making sure their initial medical charts are complete. They ensure that all forms are completed and properly identified and signed, and that all necessary information is in the computer. They regularly communicate with physicians or other healthcare professionals to clarify diagnoses or to obtain additional information.

Information about career opportunities, educational programs in medical assisting accredited by the Commission on Accreditation of Allied Health Education Programs, and the Certified Medical Assistant exam is available from: ●

American Association of Medical Assistants, 20 North Wacker Dr., Suite 1575, Chicago, IL 60606. Internet: http://www.aama-ntl.org

Information about career opportunities and the Registered Medical Assistant certification exam is available from: ●

Medical records and health information technicians assign a code to each diagnosis and procedure. They consult classification manuals and also rely on their knowledge of disease processes. Technicians then use computer software to assign the patient to one of several hundred “diagnosis-related groups,” or DRGs. The DRG determines the amount for which the hospital will be reimbursed if the patient is covered by Medicare or other insurance programs using the DRG system. Technicians who specialize in coding are called health information coders, medical record coders, coder/abstractors, or coding specialists. In addition to the DRG system, coders use other coding systems, such as those geared towards ambulatory settings or long-term care.

Registered Medical Assistants of American Medical Technologists, 710 Higgins Rd., Park Ridge, IL 60068-5765.

For a list of ABHES-accredited educational programs in medical assisting, contact: ●

Accrediting Bureau of Health Education Schools, 7777 Leesburg Pike, Suite 314 N., Falls Church, VA 22043. Internet: http://www.abhes.org

Information about career opportunities, training programs, and the Certified Ophthalmic Assistant exam is available from: ●

Joint Commission on Allied Health Personnel in Ophthalmology, 2025 Woodlane Dr., St. Paul, MN 55125-2998. Internet: http://www.jcahpo.org

Technicians also use computer programs to tabulate and analyze data to help improve patient care, to control costs, for use in legal actions, in response to surveys, or for use in research studies. Cancer registrars compile, maintain, and review records of cancer patients to provide information to physicians and for use in research studies.

Information about careers for podiatric assistants is available from: ●

American Society of Podiatric Medical Assistants, 2l24 S. Austin Blvd., Cicero, IL 60804. Internet: http://www.aspma.org

Medical records and health information technicians’ duties vary with the size of the facility. In large to medium-sized facilities, technicians may specialize in one aspect of health information, or supervise health information clerks and transcriptionists while a medical records and health information administrator manages the department. In small facilities, a credentialed medical records and health information technician sometimes manages the department.

Medical Records and Health Information Technicians

Working Conditions

(O*NET 29-2071.00)

Medical records and health information technicians usually work a 40-hour week. Some overtime may be required. In hospitals—where health information departments often are open 24 hours a day, 7 days a week—technicians may work day, evening, and night shifts.

Significant Points ●

This is one of the few health occupations in which there is little or no direct contact with patients.

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America’s Top 101 Jobs for People Without a Four-Year Degree dentials may become director or assistant director of a medical records and health information department in a small facility. However, in larger institutions, the director is usually an administrator, with a bachelor’s degree in medical records and health information administration.

Medical records and health information technicians work in pleasant and comfortable offices. This is one of the few health occupations in which there is little or no direct contact with patients. Because accuracy is essential in their jobs, technicians must pay close attention to detail. Technicians who work at computer monitors for prolonged periods must guard against eyestrain and muscle pain.

Job Outlook Job prospects should be very good. Employment of medical records and health information technicians is expected to grow much faster than the average for all occupations through 2012, due to rapid growth in the number of medical tests, treatments, and procedures that will be increasingly scrutinized by third-party payers, regulators, courts, and consumers.

Employment Medical records and health information technicians held about 147,000 jobs in 2002. Thirty-seven percent of all jobs were in hospitals. The rest were mostly in offices of physicians, nursing care facilities, outpatient care centers, and home healthcare services. Insurance firms that deal in health matters employ a small number of health information technicians to tabulate and analyze health information. Public health departments also hire technicians to supervise data collection from healthcare institutions and to assist in research.

Although employment growth in hospitals will not keep pace with growth in other healthcare industries, many new jobs will nevertheless be created. The fastest employment growth and a majority of the new jobs are expected in offices of physicians, due to increasing demand for detailed records, especially in large group practices. Rapid growth also is expected in nursing care facilities, home healthcare services, and outpatient care centers. Additional job openings will result from the need to replace technicians who retire or leave the occupation permanently.

Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Medical records and health information technicians entering the field usually have an associate degree from a community or junior college. In addition to general education, coursework includes medical terminology, anatomy and physiology, legal aspects of health information, coding and abstraction of data, statistics, database management, quality improvement methods, and computer science. Applicants can improve their chances of admission into a program by taking biology, chemistry, health, and computer science courses in high school.

Earnings Median annual earnings of medical records and health information technicians were $23,890 in 2002. The middle 50 percent earned between $19,550 and $30,600. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $16,460, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $38,640. Median annual earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of medical records and health information technicians in 2002 were as follows:

Hospitals sometimes advance promising health information clerks to jobs as medical records and health information technicians, although this practice may be less common in the future. Advancement usually requires 2 to 4 years of job experience and completion of a hospital’s in-house training program.

Nursing care facilities ................................................$25,160 General medical and surgical hospitals......................24,910 Outpatient care centers ..............................................22,380 Offices of physicians....................................................21,320

Most employers prefer to hire Registered Health Information Technicians (RHIT), who must pass a written examination offered by the American Health Information Management Association (AHIMA). To take the examination, a person must graduate from a 2-year associate degree program accredited by the Commission on Accreditation of Allied Health Education Programs (CAAHEP) of the American Medical Association. Technicians trained in non-CAAHEP-accredited programs, or on the job, are not eligible to take the examination. In 2003, CAAHEP accredited 182 programs for health information technicians. Technicians who specialize in coding may obtain voluntary certification.

Related Occupations Medical records and health information technicians need a strong clinical background to analyze the contents of medical records. Other workers who need knowledge of medical terminology, anatomy, and physiology, but have little or no direct contact with the patient, include medical secretaries and medical transcriptionists.

Sources of Additional Information

Experienced medical records and health information technicians usually advance in one of two ways—by specializing or managing. Many senior technicians specialize in coding, particularly Medicare coding, or in cancer registry.

Information on careers in medical records and health information technology, including a list of programs accredited by the Commission on Accreditation of Allied Health Education Programs (CAAHEP), is available from:

In large medical records and health information departments, experienced technicians may advance to section supervisor, overseeing the work of the coding, correspondence, or discharge sections, for example. Senior technicians with RHIT cre-

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Section One: Descriptions of 101 Top Jobs for People Without a Four-Year Degree Because communication with other people is an integral part of some jobs in the occupation, good oral and written communications skills are essential.

Meter Readers, Utilities

Workers usually develop the necessary skills on the job. This informal training lasts from several days to a few months, depending on the complexity of the job.

(O*NET 43-5041.00)

Utility meter readers usually work with a more experienced meter reader until they feel comfortable doing the job on their own. They learn how to read the meters and determine the consumption rate. They also must learn the route that they need to travel in order to read all their customers’ meters.

Significant Points ●

Many of these occupations are at the entry level and do not require more than a high school diploma.

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Workers develop the necessary skills through on-the-job training lasting from several days to a few months.

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Numerous job openings will arise each year from the need to replace workers who leave this very large occupational group.

Job Outlook Employment of meter readers is expected to decline through 2012. New automated meter reading (AMR) systems allow meters to be monitored and billed from a central point, reducing the need for meter readers. However, because it will be many years before AMR systems can be implemented in all locations, there still will be some openings for meter readers, mainly to replace workers who leave the occupation.

Nature of the Work Meter readers read electric, gas, water, or steam consumption meters and record the volume used. They serve both residential and commercial consumers, either walking or driving along the designated route. Their duties include inspecting the meters and their connections for any defects or damage, supplying repair and maintenance workers with the necessary information to fix damaged meters, keeping track of the average usage, and recording reasons for any extreme fluctuations in volume.

Earnings Median hourly earnings in 2002 for meter readers were $13.86. Meter readers usually receive the same benefits as most other workers. If uniforms are required, employers generally provide them or offer an allowance to purchase them.

Meter readers are constantly aware of any abnormal behavior or consumption that might indicate an unauthorized connection. They may turn off service for questionable behavior or nonpayment of charges, and they also are responsible for turning on service for new occupants. These workers usually keep a record of the fact that the meters on which they have completed work have been serviced.

Related Occupations Other workers responsible for the distribution and control of utilities include powerplant operators, distributors, and dispatchers.

Sources of Additional Information

Working Conditions

Information about job opportunities may be obtained from local employers and local offices of the state employment service.

Meter readers usually work 40 hours a week, Monday through Friday. They work outdoors in all types of weather as they travel through communities and neighborhoods, taking readings.

Employment

Office and Administrative Support Worker Supervisors and Managers

Meter readers held about 54,000 jobs in 2002. About 43 percent were employed by electric, gas, and water utilities. Most of the rest were employed in local government, reading water meters or meters for other government-owned utilities.

Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement

(O*NET 43-1011.01 and 43-1011.02)

Significant Points

Many meter reader jobs are at the entry level and do not require more than a high school diploma. Employers, however, prefer to hire those familiar with computers and other electronic office and business equipment. Applicants who have taken business courses or have previous business, dispatching, or specific job-related experience may be preferred.

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Most jobs are filled by promoting office or administrative support workers from within the organization.

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Office automation will cause employment in some office and administrative support occupations to grow slowly or even decline, resulting in slower-than-average growth among supervisors and managers.

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Like those seeking other supervisory and managerial occupations, applicants are likely to encounter keen competition because their number should greatly exceed the number of job openings.

Office and administrative support supervisors and managers usually interview and evaluate prospective clerical employees. When new workers arrive on the job, the supervisor greets them and provides orientation to acquaint them with the organization and its operating routines. Some supervisors may be actively involved in recruiting new workers—for example, by making presentations at high schools and business colleges. They also may serve as the primary liaisons between their offices and the general public through direct contact and by preparing promotional information.

Nature of the Work

Supervisors help train new employees in organization and office procedures. They may teach new employees how to use the telephone system and operate office equipment. Because much clerical work is computerized, they also must teach new employees to use the organization’s computer system. When new office equipment or updated computer software is introduced, supervisors train experienced employees to use it efficiently. If this is not possible, they may arrange for special outside training for their employees.

All organizations need timely and effective office and administrative support to operate efficiently. Office and administrative support supervisors and managers coordinate this support. These workers are employed in virtually every sector of the economy, working in positions as varied as teller supervisor, customer services manager, or shipping-and-receiving supervisor. Although specific functions of office and administrative support supervisors and managers vary considerably, they share many common duties. For example, supervisors perform administrative tasks to ensure that their staffs can work efficiently. Equipment and machinery used in their departments must be in good working order. If the computer system goes down or a facsimile machine malfunctions, the supervisors must try to correct the problem or alert repair personnel. They also request new equipment or supplies for their department when necessary.

Office and administrative support supervisors and managers often act as liaisons between the clerical staff and the professional, technical, and managerial staff. This may involve implementing new company policies or restructuring the workflow in their departments. They must also keep their superiors informed of their progress and any potential problems. Often, this communication takes the form of research projects and progress reports. Because supervisors and managers have access to information such as their department’s performance records, they may compile and present these data for use in planning or designing new policies.

Planning the work and supervising the staff are key functions of this job. To do these effectively, the supervisor must know the strengths and weaknesses of each member of the staff, as well as the results required from and time allotted to each job. Supervisors must make allowances for unexpected staff absences and other disruptions by adjusting assignments or performing the work themselves if the situation requires it.

Office and administrative support supervisors and managers also may have to resolve interpersonal conflicts among the staff. In organizations covered by union contracts, supervisors must know the provisions of labor-management agreements and run their departments accordingly. They may meet with union representatives to discuss work problems or grievances.

After allocating work assignments and issuing deadlines, office and administrative support supervisors and managers oversee the work to ensure that it is proceeding on schedule and meeting established quality standards. This may involve reviewing each person’s work on a computer—as in the case of accounting clerks—or listening to how a worker deals with customers—as in the case of customer services representatives. When supervising long-term projects, the supervisor may meet regularly with staff members to discuss their progress.

Working Conditions Office and administrative support supervisors and managers are employed in a wide variety of work settings, but most work in clean, well-lit, offices that usually are comfortable. Most work a standard 40-hour week. Because some organizations operate around the clock, office and administrative support supervisors and managers may have to work nights, weekends, and holidays. Sometimes, supervisors rotate among the 8-hour three shifts in a workday; in other cases, shifts are assigned on the basis of seniority.

Office and administrative support supervisors and managers also evaluate each worker’s performance. If a worker has done a good job, the supervisor records it in the employee’s personnel file and may recommend a promotion or other award. Alternatively, if a worker is performing poorly, the supervisor discusses the problem with the employee to determine the cause and helps the worker to improve his or her performance. This might require sending the employee to a training course or arranging personal counseling. If the situation does not improve, the supervisor may recommend a transfer, demotion, or dismissal.

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Employment Office and administrative support supervisors and managers held 1.5 million jobs in 2002. Although jobs for office and administrative support supervisors and managers are found in practically every industry, the largest number are found in organizations with a large administrative support workforce,

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Section One: Descriptions of 101 Top Jobs for People Without a Four-Year Degree istrative support workers. Continuing office automation due to new technology should increase office and administrative support workers’ productivity and allow a wider variety of tasks to be performed by more people in professional positions. These trends will cause employment in some clerical occupations to grow slowly or even decline. Supervisors will direct smaller permanent staffs—supplemented by increased use of temporary clerical staff—and perform more professional tasks. Office and administrative support managers will coordinate the increasing amount of administrative work and make sure that the technology is applied and running properly. However, organizational restructuring should continue to reduce employment in some managerial positions, distributing more responsibility to office and administrative support supervisors.

such as banks, wholesalers, government agencies, retail establishments, business service firms, healthcare facilities, schools, and insurance companies. Because of most organizations’ need for continuity of supervision, few office and administrative support supervisors and managers work on a temporary or part-time basis.

Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most firms fill office and administrative support supervisory and managerial positions by promoting office or administrative support workers from within their organizations. To become eligible for promotion to a supervisory position, clerical or administrative support workers must prove they are capable of handling additional responsibilities. When evaluating candidates, superiors look for strong teamwork, problemsolving, leadership, and communication skills, as well as determination, loyalty, poise, and confidence. They also look for more specific supervisory attributes, such as the ability to organize and coordinate work efficiently, to set priorities, and to motivate others. Increasingly, supervisors need a broad base of office skills coupled with personal flexibility to adapt to changes in organizational structure and move among departments when necessary.

Earnings Median annual earnings of office and administrative support supervisors and managers were $38,820 in 2002; the middle 50 percent earned between $29,960 and $50,660. The lowest paid 10 percent earned less than $23,630, while the highest paid 10 percent earned more than $65,180. In 2002, median annual earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of office and administrative support supervisors and managers were: Insurance carriers ......................................................$48,720

In addition, supervisors must pay close attention to detail in order to identify and correct errors made by the staff they oversee. Good working knowledge of the organization’s computer system also is an advantage. Many employers require postsecondary training—in some cases, an associate or even a bachelor’s degree.

Management of companies and enterprises ..............45,090 Local government........................................................40,500 Offices of physicians....................................................37,510 Depository credit intermediation ..............................35,500 In addition to typical benefits, some office and administrative support supervisors and managers, particularly in the private sector, may receive additional compensation in the form of bonuses and stock options.

A clerk with potential supervisory abilities may be given occasional supervisory assignments. To prepare for full-time supervisory duties, he or she may attend in-house training or take courses in time management or interpersonal relations. Some office and administrative support supervisor positions are filled with people from outside the organization. These positions may serve as entry-level training for potential higher level managers. New college graduates may rotate through departments of an organization at this level to learn the work of the organization.

Related Occupations Office and administrative support supervisors and managers must understand and sometimes perform the work of those whom they oversee, including bookkeeping, accounting, and auditing clerks; cashiers; communications equipment operators; customer service representatives; data entry and information processing workers; general office clerks; receptionists and information clerks; stock clerks and order fillers; order clerks; and tellers. Their supervisory and administrative duties are similar to those of other supervisors and managers.

Job Outlook Like those seeking other supervisory and managerial occupations, applicants for jobs as office and administrative support worker supervisors and managers are likely to encounter keen competition because the number of applicants should greatly exceed the number of job openings. Employment is expected to grow more slowly than the average for all occupations through 2012. In addition to the job openings arising from growth, a larger number of openings will stem from the need to replace workers who transfer to other occupations or leave this large occupation for other reasons.

Sources of Additional Information For a wide variety of information related to management occupations, including educational programs and certified designations, contact:

Employment of office and administrative support supervisors and managers is determined largely by the demand for admin-

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International Association of Administrative Professionals, 10502 NW Ambassador Dr., P.O. Box 20404, Kansas City, MO 64195-0404. Internet: http://www.iaap-hq.org

Working Conditions For the most part, general office clerks work in comfortable office settings. Those on full-time schedules usually work a standard 40-hour week; however, some work shifts or overtime during busy periods. About 1 in 4 clerks works part time.

Office Clerks, General

Employment General office clerks held about 3 million jobs in 2002. Most are employed in relatively small businesses. Although they work in every sector of the economy, almost half worked in local government; health care and social assistance; administrative and support services; finance and insurance; or professional, scientific, and technical services industries.

(O*NET 43-9061.00)

Significant Points ●

Although most jobs are entry level, applicants with previous office experience, computer skills, and sound communication abilities may have an advantage.

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Part-time and temporary positions are common.

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Plentiful job opportunities will stem from employment growth, the large size of the occupation, and high replacement needs.

Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Although most office clerk jobs are entry-level administrative support positions, employers may prefer or require previous office or business experience. Employers usually require a high school diploma, and some require typing, basic computer skills, and other general office skills. Familiarity with computer word-processing software and applications is becoming increasingly important.

Nature of the Work Rather than performing a single specialized task, general office clerks often have daily responsibilities that change with the needs of the specific job and the employer. Whereas some clerks spend their days filing or typing, others enter data at a computer terminal. They also can be called upon to operate photocopiers, fax machines, and other office equipment; prepare mailings; proofread copies; and answer telephones and deliver messages.

Training for this occupation is available through business education programs offered in high schools, community and junior colleges, and postsecondary vocational schools. Courses in office practices, word processing, and other computer applications are particularly helpful. Because general office clerks usually work with other office staff, they should be cooperative and able to work as part of a team. Employers prefer individuals who are able to perform a variety of tasks and satisfy the needs of the many departments within a company. In addition, applicants should have good communication skills, be detail-oriented, and be adaptable.

The specific duties assigned to a clerk vary significantly, depending upon the type of office in which he or she works. An office clerk in a doctor’s office, for example, would not perform the same tasks that a clerk in a large financial institution or in the office of an auto-parts wholesaler would perform. Although they may sort checks, keep payroll records, take inventory, and access information, clerks also perform duties unique to their employer, such as organizing medications, making transparencies for a presentation, or filling orders received by fax machine.

General office clerks who exhibit strong communication, interpersonal, and analytical skills may be promoted to supervisory positions. Others may move into different, more senior clerical or administrative jobs, such as receptionist, secretary, or administrative assistant. After gaining some work experience or specialized skills, many workers transfer to jobs with higher pay or greater advancement potential. Advancement to professional occupations within an establishment normally requires additional formal education, such as a college degree.

The specific duties assigned to a clerk also vary by level of experience. Whereas inexperienced employees make photocopies, stuff envelopes, or record inquiries, experienced clerks usually are given additional responsibilities. For example, they may maintain financial or other records, set up spreadsheets, verify statistical reports for accuracy and completeness, handle and adjust customer complaints, work with vendors, make travel arrangements, take inventory of equipment and supplies, answer questions on departmental services and functions, or help prepare invoices or budgetary requests. Senior office clerks may be expected to monitor and direct the work of lower level clerks.

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Job Outlook Employment growth, the large size of the occupation, and high replacement needs should result in plentiful job opportunities for general office clerks. In addition to those for full-time jobs, many job openings are expected for part-time and temporary general office clerks. Prospects should be brightest for those who have knowledge of basic computer applications and office machinery, such as fax machines and scanners, and good writing and communication skills. As general clerical

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Section One: Descriptions of 101 Top Jobs for People Without a Four-Year Degree duties continue to be consolidated, employers will increasingly seek well-rounded individuals with highly developed communication skills and the ability to perform multiple tasks.

Ophthalmic Laboratory Technicians

Employment of general office clerks is expected to grow about as fast as average for all occupations through the year 2012. The employment outlook for these workers will be affected by the increasing use of computers, expanding office automation, and the consolidation of clerical tasks. Automation has led to productivity gains, allowing a wide variety of duties to be performed by fewer office workers. However, automation also has led to a consolidation of clerical staffs and a diversification of job responsibilities. This consolidation increases the demand for general office clerks, because they perform a variety of clerical tasks. It will become increasingly common within small businesses to find a single general office clerk in charge of all clerical work.

(O*NET 51-9083.01 and 51-9083.02)

Significant Points

Job opportunities may vary from year to year, because the strength of the economy affects demand for general office clerks. Companies tend to hire more workers when the economy is strong. Industries least likely to be affected by economic fluctuation tend to be the most stable places for employment.

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Nearly all ophthalmic laboratory technicians learn their skills on the job.

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Employment is expected to grow more slowly than the average, reflecting the increasing use of automated machinery.

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Only a limited number of job openings will be created each year, because the occupation is small.

Nature of the Work Ophthalmic laboratory technicians—also known as manufacturing opticians, optical mechanics, or optical goods workers— make prescription eyeglass or contact lenses. Prescription lenses are curved in such a way that light is correctly focused onto the retina of the patient’s eye, improving his or her vision. Some ophthalmic laboratory technicians manufacture lenses for other optical instruments, such as telescopes and binoculars. Ophthalmic laboratory technicians cut, grind, edge, and finish lenses according to specifications provided by dispensing opticians, optometrists, or ophthalmologists and may insert lenses into frames to produce finished glasses. Although some lenses still are produced by hand, technicians are increasingly using automated equipment to make lenses.

Earnings Median annual earnings of general office clerks were $22,280 in 2002; the middle 50 percent earned between $17,630 and $28,190 annually. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $14,260, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $34,890. Median annual salaries in the industries employing the largest numbers of general office clerks in 2002 are shown below: Local government......................................................$25,020 Elementary and secondary schools ............................23,310 General medical and surgical hospitals......................23,250 Colleges, universities, and professional schools ........22,540

Ophthalmic laboratory technicians should not be confused with workers in other vision care occupations. Ophthalmologists and optometrists are “eye doctors” who examine eyes, diagnose and treat vision problems, and prescribe corrective lenses. Ophthalmologists are physicians who perform eye surgery. Dispensing opticians, who also may do the work of ophthalmic laboratory technicians, help patients select frames and lenses and adjust finished eyeglasses.

Employment services ..................................................20,630

Related Occupations The duties of general office clerks can include a combination of bookkeeping, typing, office machine operation, and filing. Other office and administrative support workers who perform similar duties include financial clerks, information and records clerks, secretaries and administrative assistants, and data entry and information processing workers. Nonclerical entry-level workers include cashiers, counter and rental clerks, and food and beverage serving and related workers.

Ophthalmic laboratory technicians read prescription specifications, select standard glass or plastic lens blanks, and then mark them to indicate where the curves specified on the prescription should be ground. They place the lens in the lens grinder, set the dials for the prescribed curvature, and start the machine. After a minute or so, the lens is ready to be “finished” by a machine that rotates it against a fine abrasive to grind it and smooth out rough edges. The lens is then placed in a polishing machine with an even finer abrasive to polish it to a smooth, bright finish.

Sources of Additional Information State employment service offices and agencies can provide information about job openings for general office clerks.

Next, the technician examines the lens through a lensometer, an instrument similar in shape to a microscope, to make sure that the degree and placement of the curve are correct. The technician then cuts the lenses and bevels the edges to fit the frame, dips each lens into dye if the prescription calls for tinted

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America’s Top 101 Jobs for People Without a Four-Year Degree A very small number of ophthalmic laboratory technicians learn their trade in the Armed Forces or in the few programs in optical technology offered by vocational-technical institutes or trade schools. These programs have classes in optical theory, surfacing and lens finishing, and the reading and applying of prescriptions. Programs vary in length from 6 months to 1 year and award certificates or diplomas.

or coated lenses, polishes the edges, and assembles the lenses and frame parts into a finished pair of glasses. In small laboratories, technicians usually handle every phase of the operation. In large ones, in which virtually every phase of the operation is automated, technicians may be responsible for operating computerized equipment. Technicians also inspect the final product for quality and accuracy.

Ophthalmic laboratory technicians can become supervisors and managers. Some become dispensing opticians, although further education or training generally is required in that occupation.

Working Conditions Ophthalmic laboratory technicians work in relatively clean and well-lighted laboratories and have limited contact with the public. Their surroundings are relatively quiet despite the humming of machines. At times, technicians wear goggles to protect their eyes, and they may spend a great deal of time standing.

Job Outlook Overall employment of ophthalmic laboratory technicians is expected to grow more slowly than the average for all occupations through the year 2012, reflecting the increasing use of automated machinery. Most job openings will arise from the need to replace technicians who transfer to other occupations or who leave the labor force. Only a limited number of job openings will be created each year, because the occupation is small.

Most ophthalmic laboratory technicians work a 5-day, 40-hour week, which may include weekends, evenings, or, occasionally, some overtime. Some work part time. Ophthalmic laboratory technicians need to take precautions against the hazards associated with cutting glass, handling chemicals, and working near machinery.

Demographic trends make it likely that many more Americans will need vision care in the years ahead. Not only will the population grow, but also, the proportion of middle-aged and older adults is projected to increase rapidly. Middle age is a time when many people use corrective lenses for the first time, and elderly persons usually require more vision care than others.

Employment Ophthalmic laboratory technicians held about 33,000 jobs in 2002. Around 34 percent were in health and personal care stores, such as optical goods stores that manufacture and sell prescription glasses and contact lenses. About 29 percent were in medical equipment and supplies manufacturing, working for ophthalmic goods manufacturers that produce eyewear and contact lenses for sale by retail stores, as well as by ophthalmologists and optometrists. Most of the rest were in offices of other health practitioners, professional and commercial equipment and supplies merchant wholesalers, office of physicians, employment services, or in commercial and service industry machine manufacturing firms that produce lenses for other optical instruments, such as telescopes and binoculars.

Fashion also influences demand. Frames come in a variety of styles and colors, encouraging people to buy more than one pair. Demand is expected to grow as well in response to the availability of new technologies that improve the quality and look of corrective lenses, such as antireflective coatings and bifocal lenses without the line that is visible in traditional bifocals.

Earnings Median hourly earnings of ophthalmic laboratory technicians were $10.46 in 2002. The middle 50 percent earned between $8.73 and $13.05 an hour. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $7.56, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $16.40 an hour. In 2002, median hourly earnings of ophthalmic laboratory technicians were $10.68 in medical equipment and supplies manufacturing and $10.15 in health and personal care stores.

Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Nearly all ophthalmic laboratory technicians learn their skills on the job. Employers filling trainee jobs prefer applicants who are high school graduates. Courses in science, mathematics, and computers are valuable; manual dexterity and the ability to do precision work are essential.

Related Occupations

Technician trainees producing lenses by hand start on simple tasks, such as marking or blocking lenses for grinding, and then progress to grinding, cutting, edging, and beveling lenses, and, finally, to assembling the eyeglasses. Depending on individual aptitude, it may take up to 6 months to become proficient in all phases of the work.

Workers in other precision production occupations include dental laboratory technicians; opticians, dispensing; orthotists and prosthetists; and precision instrument and equipment repairers.

Sources of Additional Information

Technicians using automated systems will find computer skills valuable. Training is completed on the job and varies in duration, depending on the type of machinery and the worker’s aptitude.

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For a list of accredited programs in ophthalmic laboratory technology, contact:

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Commission on Opticianry Accreditation, P.O. Box 3073, Merrifield, VA 22116-3073.

remove, and care for their contacts. Opticians do all this to ensure that the fit is correct.

State employment service offices can provide information about job openings for ophthalmic laboratory technicians.

Dispensing opticians keep records on customers’ prescriptions, work orders, and payments; track inventory and sales; and perform other administrative duties.

Working Conditions

Opticians, Dispensing

Dispensing opticians work indoors in attractive, well-lighted, and well-ventilated surroundings. They may work in medical offices or small stores where customers are served one at a time. Some work in large stores where several dispensing opticians serve a number of customers at once. Opticians spend a lot of time on their feet. If they prepare lenses, they need to take precautions against the hazards associated with glass cutting, chemicals, and machinery.

(O*NET 29-2081.00)

Significant Points ●

Most dispensing opticians receive training on the job or through apprenticeships lasting 2 or more years; twentyone states require a license.

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Projected employment growth reflects steady demand for corrective lenses and eyeglass frames that are in fashion.

Most dispensing opticians work a 40-hour week, although some work longer hours. Those in retail stores may work evenings and weekends. Some work part time.

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The number of job openings will be limited because the occupation is small.

Employment Dispensing opticians held about 63,000 jobs in 2002. About 2 out of 5 worked in health and personal care stores, including optical goods stores. Many of these stores offer one-stop shopping. Customers may have their eyes examined, choose frames, and have glasses made on the spot. Another 2 out of 5 dispensing opticians worked in offices of physicians or other health practitioners for ophthalmologists or optometrists who sell glasses directly to patients. Some work in optical departments of department stores or other general merchandise stores, such as warehouse clubs and superstores.

Nature of the Work Dispensing opticians fit eyeglasses and contact lenses, following prescriptions written by ophthalmologists or optometrists. Dispensing opticians examine written prescriptions to determine the specifications of lenses. They recommend eyeglass frames, lenses, and lens coatings after considering the prescription and the customer’s occupation, habits, and facial features. Dispensing opticians measure clients’ eyes, including the distance between the centers of the pupils and the distance between the surface and the lens. For customers without prescriptions, dispensing opticians may use a lensometer to record eyeglass measurements. They also may obtain a customer’s previous record or verify a prescription with the examining optometrist or ophthalmologist.

Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Employers usually hire individuals with no background as an optician or those who have worked as ophthalmic laboratory technicians. The employers then provide the required training. Most dispensing opticians receive training on the job or through apprenticeships lasting 2 or more years. Some employers, however, seek people with postsecondary training in the field.

Dispensing opticians prepare work orders that give ophthalmic laboratory technicians information needed to grind and insert lenses into a frame. The work order includes prescriptions for lenses and information on their size, material, color, and style. Some dispensing opticians grind and insert lenses themselves. After the glasses are made, dispensing opticians verify that the lenses have been ground to specifications. Then they may reshape or bend the frame, by hand or using pliers, so that the eyeglasses fit the customer properly and comfortably. Some also fix, adjust, and refit broken frames. They instruct clients about adapting to, wearing, or caring for eyeglasses.

Knowledge of physics, basic anatomy, algebra, geometry, and mechanical drawing is particularly valuable, because training usually includes instruction in optical mathematics, optical physics, and the use of precision measuring instruments and other machinery and tools. Dispensing opticians deal directly with the public, so they should be tactful, pleasant, and communicate well. Manual dexterity and the ability to do precision work are essential.

Some dispensing opticians specialize in fitting contacts, artificial eyes, or cosmetic shells to cover blemished eyes. To fit contact lenses, dispensing opticians measure the shape and size of the eye, select the type of contact lens material, and prepare work orders specifying the prescription and lens size. Fitting contact lenses requires considerable skill, care, and patience. Dispensing opticians observe customers’ eyes, corneas, lids, and contact lenses with special instruments and microscopes. During several visits, opticians show customers how to insert,

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Large employers usually offer structured apprenticeship programs; small employers provide more informal, on-the-job training. In the 21 states that require dispensing opticians to be licensed, individuals without postsecondary training work from 2 to 4 years as apprentices. Apprenticeship or formal training is offered in most states as well.

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America’s Top 101 Jobs for People Without a Four-Year Degree $33,530. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $16,310, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $43,490. Median annual earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of dispensing opticians in 2002 were as follows:

Apprentices receive technical training and learn office management and sales. Under the supervision of an experienced optician, optometrist, or ophthalmologist, apprentices work directly with patients, fitting eyeglasses and contact lenses. In states requiring licensure, information about apprenticeships and licensing procedures is available from the state board of occupational licensing.

Offices of physicians..................................................$28,250 Health and personal care stores..................................25,860 Offices of other health practitioners ..........................24,900

Formal training in the field is offered in community colleges and a few colleges and universities. In 2002, the Commission on Opticianry Accreditation accredited 22 programs that awarded 2-year associate degrees. There also are shorter programs of 1 year or less. Some states that offer a license to dispensing opticians allow graduates to take the licensure exam immediately upon graduation; others require a few months to a year of experience.

Related Occupations Other workers who deal with customers and perform delicate work include jewelers and precious stone and metal workers, locksmiths and safe repairers, orthotists and prosthetists, and precision instrument and equipment repairers.

Dispensing opticians may apply to the American Board of Opticianry (ABO) and the National Contact Lens Examiners (NCLE) for certification of their skills. Certification must be renewed every 3 years through continuing education. Those licensed in states where licensing renewal requirements include continuing education credits may use proof of their renewed state license to meet the recertification requirements of the ABO. Likewise, the NCLE will accept proof of renewal from any state that has contact lens requirements.

Sources of Additional Information For general information about opticians and a list of homestudy programs, seminars, and review materials, contact: ●

For a list of accredited programs in opticianry, contact: ●

Many experienced dispensing opticians open their own optical stores. Others become managers of optical stores or sales representatives for wholesalers or manufacturers of eyeglasses or lenses.

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Employment of dispensing opticians is expected to increase about as fast as the average for all occupations through 2012 as demand grows for corrective lenses. The number of middleaged and elderly persons is projected to increase rapidly. Middle age is a time when many individuals use corrective lenses for the first time, and elderly persons generally require more vision care than others.

American Board of Opticianry, 6506 Loisdale Rd., Suite 209, Springfield, VA 22150. Internet: http://www.abo.org

For information on voluntary certification for dispensing opticians who fit contact lenses, contact: ●

Fashion, too, influences demand. Frames come in a growing variety of styles and colors—encouraging people to buy more than one pair. Demand also is expected to grow in response to the availability of new technologies that improve the quality and look of corrective lenses, such as antireflective coatings and bifocal lenses without the line that is visible in old-style bifocals. Improvements in bifocal, extended-wear, and disposable contact lenses also will spur demand.

National Contact Lens Examiners, 6506 Loisdale Rd., Suite 209, Springfield, VA 22150. Internet: http://www.abo.org

Painters and Paperhangers (O*NET 47-2141.00 and 47-2142.00)

Significant Points

The need to replace those who leave the occupation will result in additional job openings. Nevertheless, the number of job openings will be limited because the occupation is small. Dispensing opticians are vulnerable to changes in the business cycle, because eyewear purchases often can be deferred for a time.

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Largely due to worker turnover, employment prospects should be good.

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Most workers learn informally on the job as helpers; however, training authorities recommend completion of an apprenticeship program.

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Two in five painters and paperhangers are self-employed, compared with one in five of all construction trades workers.

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Working conditions can be hazardous.

Earnings Median annual earnings of dispensing opticians were $25,600 in 2002. The middle 50 percent earned between $19,960 and

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Commission on Opticianry Accreditation, P.O. Box 3073, Merrifield, VA 22116-3073.

To learn about voluntary certification for opticians who fit eyeglasses, as well as a list of state licensing boards for opticians, contact:

Job Outlook

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National Academy of Opticianry, 8401 Corporate Dr., Suite 605, Landover, MD 20785. Telephone (tollfree): 800-229-4828. Internet: http://www.nao.org

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Nature of the Work

Working Conditions

Paint and wall coverings make surfaces clean, attractive, and bright. In addition, paints and other sealers protect exterior surfaces from wear caused by exposure to the weather. Apprentices learn both painting and paperhanging, even though each requires different skills.

Most painters and paperhangers work 40 hours a week or less; about one-quarter have variable schedules or work part time. Painters and paperhangers must stand for long periods. Their jobs also require a considerable amount of climbing and bending. These workers must have stamina, because much of the work is done with their arms raised overhead. Painters often work outdoors but seldom in wet, cold, or inclement weather.

Painters apply paint, stain, varnish, and other finishes to buildings and other structures. They choose the right paint or finish for the surface to be covered, taking into account durability, ease of handling, method of application, and customers’ wishes. Painters first prepare the surfaces to be covered, so that the paint will adhere properly. This may require removing the old coat of paint by stripping, sanding, wire brushing, burning, or water and abrasive blasting. Painters also wash walls and trim to remove dirt and grease, fill nail holes and cracks, sandpaper rough spots, and brush off dust. On new surfaces, they apply a primer or sealer to prepare the surface for the finish coat. Painters also mix paints and match colors, relying on knowledge of paint composition and color harmony. In large paint shops or hardware stores, these functions are automated.

Painters and paperhangers risk injury from slips or falls off ladders and scaffolds. They sometimes may work with materials that can be hazardous if masks are not worn or if ventilation is poor. Some painting jobs can leave a worker covered with paint. In some cases, painters may work in a sealed selfcontained suit to prevent inhalation of or contact with hazardous materials.

Employment Painters and paperhangers held about 468,000 jobs in 2002; most were painters. Around 42 percent of painters and paperhangers work for contractors engaged in new construction, repair, restoration, or remodeling work. In addition, organizations that own or manage large buildings—such as apartment complexes—employ maintenance painters, as do some schools, hospitals, factories, and government agencies.

There are several ways to apply paint and similar coverings. Painters must be able to choose the right paint applicator for each job, depending on the surface to be covered, the characteristics of the finish, and other factors. Some jobs need only a good bristle brush with a soft, tapered edge; others require a dip or fountain pressure roller; still others can best be done using a paint sprayer. Many jobs need several types of applicators. The right tools for each job not only expedite the painter’s work but also produce the most attractive surface.

Self-employed independent painting contractors accounted for two in five of all painters and paperhangers, significantly greater than the one in five of construction trades workers in general.

When working on tall buildings, painters erect scaffolding, including “swing stages,” scaffolds suspended by ropes, or cables attached to roof hooks. When painting steeples and other conical structures, they use a bosun’s chair, a swing-like device.

Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Painting and paperhanging are learned through apprenticeship or informal, on-the-job instruction. Although training authorities recommend completion of an apprenticeship program as the best way to become a painter or paperhanger, most painters learn the trade informally on the job as a helper to an experienced painter. Limited opportunities for informal training exist for paperhangers because few paperhangers need helpers.

Paperhangers cover walls and ceilings with decorative wall coverings made of paper, vinyl, or fabric. They first prepare the surface to be covered by applying “sizing,” which seals the surface and makes the covering stick better. When redecorating, they may first remove the old covering by soaking, steaming, or applying solvents. When necessary, they patch holes and take care of other imperfections before hanging the new wall covering.

The apprenticeship for painters and paperhangers consists of 2 to 4 years of on-the-job training, in addition to 144 hours of related classroom instruction each year. Apprentices receive instruction in color harmony, use and care of tools and equipment, surface preparation, application techniques, paint mixing and matching, characteristics of different finishes, blueprint reading, wood finishing, and safety.

After the surface has been prepared, paperhangers must prepare the paste or other adhesive. Then, they measure the area to be covered, check the covering for flaws, cut the covering into strips of the proper size, and closely examine the pattern in order to match it when the strips are hung. Much of this process can now be handled by specialized equipment.

Whether a painter learns the trade through a formal apprenticeship or informally as a helper, on-the-job instruction covers similar skill areas. Under the direction of experienced workers, trainees carry supplies, erect scaffolds, and do simple painting and surface preparation tasks while they learn about paint and painting equipment. As they gain experience, trainees learn to prepare surfaces for painting and paperhanging, to mix paints, and to apply paint and wall coverings effi-

The next step is to brush or roll the adhesive onto the back of the covering and to then place the strips on the wall or ceiling, making sure the pattern is matched, the strips are hung straight, and the edges are butted together to make tight, closed seams. Finally, paperhangers smooth the strips to remove bubbles and wrinkles, trim the top and bottom with a razor knife, and wipe off any excess adhesive.

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America’s Top 101 Jobs for People Without a Four-Year Degree In 2002, median earnings for paperhangers were $15.22. The middle 50 percent earned between $11.52 and $20.38. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $9.04, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $25.64.

ciently and neatly. Near the end of their training, they may learn decorating concepts, color coordination, and costestimating techniques. In addition to learning craft skills, painters must become familiar with safety and health regulations so that their work complies with the law.

Earnings for painters may be reduced on occasion because of bad weather and the short-term nature of many construction jobs. Hourly wage rates for apprentices usually start at 40 to 50 percent of the rate for experienced workers and increase periodically.

Apprentices or helpers generally must be at least 18 years old and in good physical condition. A high school education or its equivalent, with courses in mathematics, usually is required to enter an apprenticeship program. Applicants should have good manual dexterity and color sense.

Some painters and paperhangers are members of the International Brotherhood of Painters and Allied Trades. Some maintenance painters are members of other unions.

Painters and paperhangers may advance to supervisory or estimating jobs with painting and decorating contractors. Many establish their own painting and decorating businesses.

Related Occupations

Job Outlook

Painters and paperhangers apply various coverings to decorate and protect wood, drywall, metal, and other surfaces. Other construction occupations in which workers do finishing work include carpenters; carpet, floor, and tile installers and finishers; drywall installers, ceiling tile installers, and tapers; painting and coating workers, except construction and maintenance; and plasterers and stucco masons.

Job prospects should be good, as thousands of painters and paperhangers transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force each year. Because there are no strict training requirements for entry, many people with limited skills work as painters or paperhangers for a short time and then move on to other types of work. Many fewer openings will arise for paperhangers because the number of these jobs is comparatively small.

Sources of Additional Information

In addition to the need to replace experienced workers, new jobs will be created. Employment of painters and paperhangers is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2012, reflecting increases in the level of new construction and in the stock of buildings and other structures that require maintenance and renovation. Painting is very labor-intensive and not susceptible to technological changes that might make workers more productive and, thus, restrict employment growth.

For details about painting and paperhanging apprenticeships or work opportunities, contact local painting and decorating contractors, a local of the International Union of Painters and Allied Trades, a local joint union-management apprenticeship committee, or an office of the state apprenticeship agency or employment service. For information about the work of painters and paperhangers and training opportunities, contact:

Jobseekers considering these occupations should expect some periods of unemployment, especially until they gain experience. Many construction projects are of short duration, and construction activity is cyclical and seasonal in nature. Remodeling, restoration, and maintenance projects, however, often provide many jobs for painters and paperhangers even when new construction activity declines. The most versatile painters and skilled paperhangers generally are best able to keep working steadily during downturns in the economy.

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International Union of Painters and Allied Trades, 1750 New York Ave. NW, Washington, DC 20006. Internet: http://www.iupat.org

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Associated Builders and Contractors, Workforce Development Department, 4250 North Fairfax Dr., 9th Floor, Arlington, VA 22203.

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Painting and Decorating Contractors of America, 3913 Old Lee Hwy., Fairfax, VA, 22030. Internet: http://www.pdca.org

There are more than 500 occupations registered by the U.S. Department of Labor’s National Apprenticeship system. For more information on the Labor Department’s registered apprenticeship system and links to state apprenticeship programs, check their Web site: http://www.doleta.gov.

Earnings In 2002, median hourly earnings of painters, construction and maintenance, were $13.98. The middle 50 percent earned between $11.08 and $18.00. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $9.10, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $23.90. Median hourly earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of painters in 2002 are shown below:

Paralegals and Legal Assistants

Local government........................................................$17.46 Residential building construction ................................14.01

(O*NET 23-2011.00)

Building finishing contractors ......................................14.00 Lessors of real estate ......................................................11.62 Employment services ....................................................10.21

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Significant Points

paralegals specializing in labor law may deal exclusively with employee benefits.

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While some paralegals train on the job, employers increasingly prefer graduates of postsecondary paralegal education programs; college graduates who have taken some paralegal courses are especially in demand in some markets.

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Paralegals are projected to grow faster than average, as law offices try to reduce costs by assigning them tasks formerly carried out by lawyers.

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Paralegals are employed by law firms, corporate legal departments, and various government offices and they may specialize in many different areas of the law.

The duties of paralegals also differ widely based on the type of organization in which they are employed. Paralegals who work for corporations often assist attorneys with employee contracts, shareholder agreements, stock-option plans, and employee benefit plans. They also may help prepare and file annual financial reports, maintain corporate minute books and record resolutions, and prepare forms to secure loans for the corporation. Paralegals often monitor and review government regulations to ensure that the corporation is aware of new requirements and it operates within the law. The duties of paralegals who work in the public sector usually vary within each agency. In general, they analyze legal material for internal use, maintain reference files, conduct research for attorneys, and collect and analyze evidence for agency hearings. They may then prepare informative or explanatory material on laws, agency regulations, and agency policy for general use by the agency and the public. Paralegals employed in community legal-service projects help the poor, the aged, and others in need of legal assistance. They file forms, conduct research, prepare documents, and when authorized by law, may represent clients at administrative hearings.

Nature of the Work While lawyers assume ultimate responsibility for legal work, they often delegate many of their tasks to paralegals. In fact, paralegals—also called legal assistants—continue to assume a growing range of tasks in the nation’s legal offices and perform many of the same tasks as lawyers. Nevertheless, they are still explicitly prohibited from carrying out duties which are considered to be the practice of law, such as setting legal fees, giving legal advice, and presenting cases in court.

Paralegals in small and medium-sized law firms usually perform a variety of duties that require a general knowledge of the law. For example, they may research judicial decisions on improper police arrests or help prepare a mortgage contract. Paralegals employed by large law firms, government agencies, and corporations, however, are more likely to specialize in one aspect of the law.

One of a paralegal’s most important tasks is helping lawyers prepare for closings, hearings, trials, and corporate meetings. Paralegals investigate the facts of cases and ensure that all relevant information is considered. They also identify appropriate laws, judicial decisions, legal articles, and other materials that are relevant to assigned cases. After they analyze and organize the information, paralegals may prepare written reports that attorneys use in determining how cases should be handled. Should attorneys decide to file lawsuits on behalf of clients, paralegals may help prepare the legal arguments, draft pleadings and motions to be filed with the court, obtain affidavits, and assist attorneys during trials. Paralegals also organize and track files of all important case documents and make them available and easily accessible to attorneys.

Computer use and technical knowledge has become essential to paralegal work. Computer software packages and the Internet are increasingly used to search legal literature stored in computer databases and on CD-ROM. In litigation involving many supporting documents, paralegals may use computer databases to retrieve, organize, and index various materials. Imaging software allows paralegals to scan documents directly into a database, while billing programs help them to track hours billed to clients. Computer software packages also may be used to perform tax computations and explore the consequences of possible tax strategies for clients.

In addition to this preparatory work, paralegals also perform a number of other vital functions. For example, they help draft contracts, mortgages, separation agreements, and trust instruments. They also may assist in preparing tax returns and planning estates. Some paralegals coordinate the activities of other law office employees and maintain financial office records. Various additional tasks may differ, depending on the employer.

Working Conditions Paralegals employed by corporations and government usually work a standard 40-hour week. Although most paralegals work year round, some are temporarily employed during busy times of the year, then released when the workload diminishes. Paralegals who work for law firms sometimes work very long hours when they are under pressure to meet deadlines. Some law firms reward such loyalty with bonuses and additional time off.

Paralegals are found in all types of organizations, but most are employed by law firms, corporate legal departments, and various government offices. In these organizations, they can work in many different areas of the law, including litigation, personal injury, corporate law, criminal law, employee benefits, intellectual property, labor law, bankruptcy, immigration, family law, and real estate. As the law has become more complex, paralegals have responded by becoming more specialized. Within specialties, functions often are broken down further so that paralegals may deal with a specific area. For example,

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These workers handle many routine assignments, particularly when they are inexperienced. As they gain experience, paralegals usually assume more varied tasks with additional responsibility. Paralegals do most of their work at desks in offices and law libraries. Occasionally, they travel to gather information and perform other duties.

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Employment

Prospective students should examine the experiences of recent graduates before enrolling in those programs.

Paralegals and legal assistants held about 200,000 jobs in 2002. Private law firms employed 7 out of 10 paralegals and legal assistants; most of the remainder worked for corporate legal departments and various levels of government. Within the federal government, the U.S. Department of Justice is the largest employer, followed by the Social Security Administration and the U.S. Department of Treasury. A small number of paralegals own their own businesses and work as freelance legal assistants, contracting their services to attorneys or corporate legal departments.

Although most employers do not require certification, earning a voluntary certificate from a professional society may offer advantages in the labor market. The National Association of Legal Assistants, for example, has established standards for certification requiring various combinations of education and experience. Paralegals who meet these standards are eligible to take a 2-day examination, given three times each year at several regional testing centers. Those who pass this examination may use the designation Certified Legal Assistant (CLA). In addition, the Paralegal Advanced Competency Exam, established in 1996 and administered through the National Federation of Paralegal Associations, offers professional recognition to paralegals with a bachelor’s degree and at least 2 years of experience. Those who pass this examination may use the designation Registered Paralegal (RP).

Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement There are several ways to become a paralegal. The most common is through a community college paralegal program that leads to an associate’s degree. The other common method of entry, mainly for those who have a college degree, is through a certification program that leads to a certification in paralegal studies. A small number of schools also offer bachelor’s and master’s degrees in paralegal studies. Some employers train paralegals on the job, hiring college graduates with no legal experience or promoting experienced legal secretaries. Other entrants have experience in a technical field that is useful to law firms, such as a background in tax preparation for tax and estate practice, criminal justice, or nursing or health administration for personal injury practice.

Paralegals must be able to document and present their findings and opinions to their supervising attorney. They need to understand legal terminology and have good research and investigative skills. Familiarity with the operation and applications of computers in legal research and litigation support also is increasingly important. Paralegals should stay informed of new developments in the laws that affect their area of practice. Participation in continuing legal education seminars allows paralegals to maintain and expand their legal knowledge. Because paralegals frequently deal with the public, they should be courteous and uphold the ethical standards of the legal profession. The National Association of Legal Assistants, the National Federation of Paralegal Associations, and a few states have established ethical guidelines for paralegals to follow.

Formal paralegal training programs are offered by an estimated 600 colleges and universities, law schools, and proprietary schools. Approximately 250 paralegal programs are approved by the American Bar Association (ABA). Although this approval is neither required nor sought by many programs, graduation from an ABA-approved program can enhance one’s employment opportunities. The requirements for admission to these programs vary. Some require certain college courses or a bachelor’s degree; others accept high school graduates or those with legal experience; and a few schools require standardized tests and personal interviews.

Paralegals usually are given more responsibilities and less supervision as they gain work experience. Experienced paralegals who work in large law firms, corporate legal departments, and government agencies may supervise and delegate assignments to other paralegals and clerical staff. Advancement opportunities also include promotion to managerial and other law-related positions within the firm or corporate legal department. However, some paralegals find it easier to move to another law firm when seeking increased responsibility or advancement.

Paralegal programs include 2-year associate’s degree programs, 4-year bachelor’s degree programs, and certificate programs that can take only a few months to complete. Most certificate programs provide intensive paralegal training for individuals who already hold college degrees, while associate’s and bachelor’s degree programs usually combine paralegal training with courses in other academic subjects. The quality of paralegal training programs varies; the better programs usually include job placement. Programs increasingly include courses introducing students to the legal applications of computers, including how to perform legal research using the Internet. Many paralegal training programs include an internship in which students gain practical experience by working for several months in a private law firm, office of a public defender or attorney general, bank, corporate legal department, legal-aid organization, or government agency. Experience gained in internships is an asset when seeking a job after graduation.

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Job Outlook Paralegals and legal assistants are projected to grow faster than the average for all occupations through 2012. Some employment growth stems from law firms and other employers with legal staffs increasingly hiring paralegals to lower the cost and increase the availability and efficiency of legal services. The majority of job openings for paralegals in the future will be new jobs created by employment growth, but additional job openings will arise as people leave the occupation. Despite projections of fast employment growth, competition for jobs should continue as many people seek to go into this profession; however, highly skilled, formally trained paralegals have excellent employment potential.

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Related Occupations

Private law firms will continue to be the largest employers of paralegals, but a growing array of other organizations, such as corporate legal departments, insurance companies, real estate and title insurance firms, and banks hire paralegals. Corporations, in particular, are boosting their in-house legal departments to cut costs. Demand for paralegals also is expected to grow as an increasing population requires legal services, especially in areas such as intellectual property, healthcare, international, elder issues, criminal, and environmental law. The growth of prepaid legal plans also should contribute to the demand for legal services. Paralegal employment is expected to increase as organizations presently employing paralegals assign them a growing range of tasks, and as paralegals are increasingly employed in small and medium-sized establishments. A growing number of experienced paralegals are expected to establish their own businesses.

Several other occupations call for a specialized understanding of the law and the legal system, but do not require the extensive training of a lawyer. These include law clerks; title examiners, abstractors, and searchers; claims adjusters, appraisers, examiners, and investigators; and occupational health and safety specialists and technicians.

Sources of Additional Information General information on a career as a paralegal can be obtained from: ●

For information on the Certified Legal Assistant exam, schools that offer training programs in a specific state, and standards and guidelines for paralegals, contact:

Job opportunities for paralegals will expand in the public sector as well. Community legal-service programs, which provide assistance to the poor, aged, minorities, and middle-income families, will employ additional paralegals to minimize expenses and serve the most people. federal, state, and local government agencies, consumer organizations, and the courts also should continue to hire paralegals in increasing numbers.

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National Association of Legal Assistants, Inc., 1516 South Boston St., Suite 200, Tulsa, OK 74119. Internet: http://www.nala.org

Information on a career as a paralegal, schools that offer training programs, job postings for paralegals, the Paralegal Advanced Competency Exam, and local paralegal associations can be obtained from:

To a limited extent, paralegal jobs are affected by the business cycle. During recessions, demand declines for some discretionary legal services, such as planning estates, drafting wills, and handling real estate transactions. Corporations are less inclined to initiate certain types of litigation when falling sales and profits lead to fiscal belt tightening. As a result, full-time paralegals employed in offices adversely affected by a recession may be laid off or have their work hours reduced. On the other hand, during recessions, corporations and individuals are more likely to face other problems that require legal assistance, such as bankruptcies, foreclosures, and divorces. Paralegals, who provide many of the same legal services as lawyers at a lower cost, tend to fare relatively better in difficult economic conditions.

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National Federation of Paralegal Associations, P.O. Box 33108, Kansas City, MO 64114. Internet: http://www.paralegals.org

Information on paralegal training programs, including the pamphlet “How to Choose a Paralegal Education Program,” may be obtained from: ●

American Association for Paralegal Education, 407 Wekiva Springs Road, Suite 241, Longwood, FL 32779. Internet: http://www.aafpe.org

Information on obtaining a position as a paralegal specialist with the federal government is available from the Office of Personnel Management (OPM) through a telephone-based system. Consult your telephone directory under U.S. Government for a local number or call (703) 724-1850; Federal Relay Service: (800) 877-8339. The first number is not tollfree, and charges may result. Information also is available from the OPM Internet site: http://www.usajobs.opm.gov.

Earnings Earnings of paralegals and legal assistants vary greatly. Salaries depend on education, training, experience, type and size of employer, and geographic location of the job. In general, paralegals who work for large law firms or in large metropolitan areas earn more than those who work for smaller firms or in less populated regions. In addition to a salary, many paralegals receive bonuses. In 2002, full-time, wage and salary paralegals and legal assistants had median annual earnings, including bonuses, of $37,950. The middle 50 percent earned between $30,020 and $48,760. The top 10 percent earned more than $61,150, while the bottom 10 percent earned less than $24,470. Median annual earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of paralegals in 2002 were as follows:

Personal and Home Care Aides (O*NET 39-9021.00)

Significant Points ●

Federal government ..................................................$53,770 Legal services................................................................36,780 Local government........................................................36,030 State government ........................................................34,750

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Standing Committee on Legal Assistants, American Bar Association, 541 N. Fairbanks Ct., Chicago, IL 60611. Internet: http://www.abanet.org

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Excellent job opportunities are expected, due to rapid employment growth and high replacement needs. Almost a third of personal and home care aides work part time; most aides work with a number of different clients, each job lasting a few hours, days, or weeks.

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dom available in patients’ homes, aides must be careful to avoid overexertion or injury when they assist clients.

Occupational characteristics include low skill requirements, low pay, and high emotional demands.

Nature of the Work

Employment

Personal and home care aides help elderly, disabled, and ill persons live in their own homes or in residential care facilities instead of in a health facility. Most personal and home care aides work with elderly or disabled clients who need more extensive personal and home care than family or friends can provide. Some aides work with families in which a parent is incapacitated and small children need care. Others help discharged hospital patients who have relatively short-term needs.

Personal and home care aides held about 608,000 jobs in 2002. The majority of jobs were in home healthcare services, individual and family services, private households, and residential mental retardation, mental health, and substance abuse facilities. Self-employed aides have no agency affiliation or supervision and accept clients, set fees, and arrange work schedules on their own.

Personal and home care aides—also called homemakers, caregivers, companions, and personal attendants—provide housekeeping and routine personal care services. They clean clients’ houses, do laundry, and change bed linens. Aides may plan meals (including special diets), shop for food, and cook. Aides also may help clients move from bed, bathe, dress, and groom. Some accompany clients outside the home, serving as a guide and companion.

Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement In some states, this occupation is open to individuals who have no formal training. On-the-job training is then generally provided. Other states may require formal training. The National Association for Home Care offers national certification for personal and home care aides. Certification is a voluntary demonstration that the individual has met industry standards.

Personal and home care aides provide instruction and psychological support to their patients. They may advise families and patients on such things as nutrition, cleanliness, and household tasks. Aides also may assist in toilet training a severely mentally handicapped child, or they may just listen to clients talk about their problems.

Successful personal and home care aides like to help people and do not mind hard work. They should be responsible, compassionate, emotionally stable, and cheerful. In addition, aides should be tactful, honest, and discreet, because they work in private homes. Aides also must be in good health. A physical examination, including state-mandated tests, such as those for tuberculosis, may be required.

In home healthcare agencies, a registered nurse, physical therapist, or social worker assigns specific duties and supervises personal and home care aides. Aides keep records of services performed and of clients’ condition and progress. They report changes in the client’s condition to the supervisor or case manager. In carrying out their work, aides cooperate with other healthcare professionals, including registered nurses, therapists, and other medical staff.

Advancement for personal and home care aides is limited. In some agencies, workers start out performing homemaker duties, such as cleaning. With experience and training, they may take on personal care duties.

Job Outlook

Working Conditions

Excellent job opportunities are expected for this occupation, as rapid employment growth and high replacement needs produce a large number of job openings.

The personal and home care aide’s daily routine may vary. Aides may go to the same home every day for months or even years. However, most aides work with a number of different clients, each job lasting a few hours, days, or weeks. Aides often visit four or five clients on the same day.

Employment of personal and home care aides is projected to grow much faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2012. The number of elderly people, an age group characterized by mounting health problems and requiring some assistance, is projected to rise substantially. In addition to the elderly, however, patients in other age groups will increasingly rely on home care, a trend that reflects several developments, including efforts to contain costs by moving patients out of hospitals and nursing care facilities as quickly as possible, the realization that treatment can be more effective in familiar rather than clinical surroundings, and the development and improvement of medical technologies for in-home treatment.

Surroundings differ from case to case. Some homes are neat and pleasant, whereas others are untidy or depressing. Some clients are pleasant and cooperative; others are angry, abusive, depressed, or otherwise difficult. Personal and home care aides generally work on their own, with periodic visits by their supervisor. They receive detailed instructions explaining when to visit clients and what services to perform for them. Almost a third of aides work part time, and some work weekends or evenings to suit the needs of their clients.

In addition to job openings created by the increase in demand for these workers, replacement needs are expected to produce numerous openings. The relatively low skill requirements, low pay, and high emotional demands of the work result in high replacement needs. For these same reasons, many people are

Aides are individually responsible for getting to the client’s home. They may spend a good portion of the working day traveling from one client to another. Because mechanical lifting devices that are available in institutional settings are sel-

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Section One: Descriptions of 101 Top Jobs for People Without a Four-Year Degree reluctant to seek jobs in the occupation. Therefore, persons who are interested in and suited for this work—particularly those with experience or training as personal care, home health, or nursing aides—should have excellent job opportunities.

Job opportunities are expected to be good, especially for those with related work experience.

Pharmacy aides help licensed pharmacists with administrative duties in running a pharmacy. Aides often are clerks or cashiers who primarily answer telephones, handle money, stock shelves, and perform other clerical duties. They work closely with pharmacy technicians. Pharmacy technicians usually perform more complex tasks than do aides, although, in some states, the duties and titles of the jobs overlap. Aides refer any questions regarding prescriptions, drug information, or health matters to a pharmacist.

Median hourly earnings of personal and home care aides were $7.81 in 2002. The middle 50 percent earned between $6.65 and $9.06 an hour. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $5.90, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $10.67 an hour. Median hourly earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of personal and home care aides in 2002 were as follows: Residential mental retardation, mental health and substance abuse facilities ....................................$8.63

Aides have several important duties that help the pharmacy to function smoothly. They may establish and maintain patient profiles, prepare insurance claim forms, and stock and take inventory of prescription and over-the-counter medications. Accurate recordkeeping is necessary to help avert a potentially dangerous drug interaction. Because many people have medical insurance to help pay for the prescription, it is essential that pharmacy aides efficiently and correctly correspond with the third-party insurance providers to obtain payment. Pharmacy aides also maintain the inventory and inform the supervisor of stock needs so that the pharmacy has the vital medications for those who need them. Some also clean pharmacy equipment, help with the maintenance of equipment and supplies, and manage the cash register.

Vocational rehabilitation services ..................................8.40 Community care facilities for the elderly ......................8.14 Individual and family services ........................................8.12 Home health care services ..............................................6.72 Most employers give slight pay increases with experience and added responsibility. Aides usually are paid only for the time they work in the home and normally are not paid for travel time between jobs. Employers often hire on-call hourly workers and provide no benefits.

Related Occupations

Working Conditions

Personal and home care aide is a service occupation combining the duties of caregivers and social service workers. Workers in related occupations that involve personal contact to help others include childcare workers; nursing, psychiatric, and home health aides; occupational therapist assistants and aides; and physical therapist assistants and aides.

Pharmacy aides work in clean, organized, well-lighted, and well-ventilated areas. Most of their workday is spent on their feet. They may be required to lift heavy boxes or to use stepladders to retrieve supplies from high shelves. Aides work the same hours that pharmacists work. These include evenings, nights, weekends, and some holidays. Because some hospital and retail pharmacies are open 24 hours a day, aides may work varying shifts. There are many opportunities for part-time work in both retail and hospital settings.

Sources of Additional Information General information about training, referrals to state and local agencies about job opportunities, a list of relevant publications, and information on certification for personal and home care aides are available from:

Employment

National Association for Home Care, 228 7th St. SE, Washington, DC 20003. Internet: http://www.nahc.org

Pharmacy aides held about 60,000 jobs in 2002. About 80 percent work in retail pharmacies either independently owned or part of a drug store chain, grocery store, department store, or mass retailer; the vast majority of these are in drug stores. About 1 in 10 work in hospitals, and the rest work in mailorder pharmacies, clinics, and pharmaceutical wholesalers.

Pharmacy Aides

Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement

(O*NET 31-9095.00)

Significant Points ●

Eighty percent of jobs are in retail pharmacies.

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Nature of the Work

Earnings

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Most pharmacy aides receive informal on-the-job training, but employers favor those with at least a high school diploma. Prospective pharmacy aides with experience working as a

Many pharmacy aides work evenings, weekends, and holidays.

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cashier may have an advantage when applying for jobs. Employers also prefer applicants with strong customer service and communication skills and experience managing inventories and using a computer. Aides entering the field need strong spelling, reading, and mathematics skills.

Earnings

Successful pharmacy aides are organized, dedicated, friendly, and responsible. They should be willing and able to take directions. Candidates interested in becoming pharmacy aides cannot have prior records of drug or substance abuse. Strong interpersonal and communication skills are needed because there is a lot of interaction with patients, coworkers, and healthcare professionals. Teamwork is very important because aides are often required to work with technicians and pharmacists.

Median hourly wage and salary earnings of pharmacy aides were $8.86 in 2002. The middle 50 percent earned between $7.41 and $11.00; the lowest 10 percent earned less than $6.36, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $13.71. Median hourly earnings of pharmacy aides were $8.33 in health and personal care stores, $11.77 in general medical and surgical hospitals, and $9.08 in grocery stores in 2002.

Related Occupations

Pharmacy aides almost always are trained on the job. They may begin by observing a more experienced worker. After they become familiar with the store’s equipment, policies, and procedures, they begin to work on their own. Once they become experienced workers, they are not likely to receive additional training, except when new equipment is introduced or when policies or procedures change.

The work of pharmacy aides is closely related to that of pharmacy technicians, cashiers, and stock clerks and order fillers. Workers in other medical support occupations include dental assistants, licensed practical and licensed vocational nurses, medical transcriptionists, medical records and health information technicians, occupational therapist assistants and aides, physical therapist assistants and aides, and surgical technologists.

To become a pharmacy aide, one should be able to perform repetitious work accurately. Aides need good basic mathematics skills and good manual dexterity. Because they deal constantly with the public, pharmacy aides should be neat in appearance and able to deal pleasantly and tactfully with customers. Some employers may prefer people with experience typing, handling money, or operating specialized equipment, including computers.

Sources of Additional Information For information on employment opportunities, contact local employers or local offices of the state employment service.

Advancement usually is limited, although some aides may decide to become pharmacy technicians or to enroll in pharmacy school to become pharmacists.

Pharmacy Technicians

Job Outlook

(O*NET 29-2052.00)

Job opportunities for full-time and part-time work are expected to be good, especially for aides with related work experience in pharmacies, or as cashiers or stock clerks in other retail settings. Job openings will be created by employment growth and by the need to replace workers who transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force.

Significant Points

Employment of pharmacy aides is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through 2012 due to the increased use of medication in treating patients. In addition, a greater number of middle-aged and elderly people—who, on average, use more prescription drugs than do younger people—will spur demand for aides in all practice settings.

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Job opportunities are expected to be good, especially for those with certification or previous work experience.

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Many technicians work evenings, weekends, and holidays.

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Two-thirds of all jobs are in retail pharmacies.

Nature of the Work Pharmacy technicians help licensed pharmacists provide medication and other healthcare products to patients. Technicians usually perform routine tasks to help prepare prescribed medication for patients, such as counting tablets and labeling bottles. Technicians refer any questions regarding prescriptions, drug information, or health matters to a pharmacist.

Cost-conscious insurers, pharmacies, and health systems will continue to employ aides. As a result, pharmacy aides will assume some responsibility for routine tasks previously performed by pharmacists and pharmacy technicians, thereby giving pharmacists more time to interact with patients and affording technicians more time to prepare medications. The number of pharmacy aides will not grow as fast as those of pharmacists and pharmacy technicians, however, because of

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Pharmacy aides work closely with pharmacy technicians. They are often clerks or cashiers who primarily answer telephones,

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Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement

handle money, stock shelves, and perform other clerical duties. (Pharmacy technicians usually perform more complex tasks than do pharmacy aides, although, in some states, their duties and job titles overlap.)

Although most pharmacy technicians receive informal on-thejob training, employers favor those who have completed formal training and certification. However, there are currently few state and no federal requirements for formal training or certification of pharmacy technicians. Employers who have neither the time nor money to give on-the-job training often seek formally educated pharmacy technicians. Formal education programs and certification emphasize the technician’s interest in and dedication to the work. In addition to the military, some hospitals, proprietary schools, vocational or technical colleges, and community colleges offer formal education programs.

Pharmacy technicians who work in retail or mail-order pharmacies have varying responsibilities, depending on state rules and regulations. Technicians receive written prescriptions or requests for prescription refills from patients. They also may receive prescriptions sent electronically from the doctor’s office. They must verify that the information on the prescription is complete and accurate. To prepare the prescription, technicians must retrieve, count, pour, weigh, measure, and sometimes mix the medication. Then, they prepare the prescription labels, select the type of prescription container, and affix the prescription and auxiliary labels to the container. Once the prescription is filled, technicians price and file the prescription, which must be checked by a pharmacist before it is given to a patient. Technicians may establish and maintain patient profiles, prepare insurance claim forms, and stock and take inventory of prescription and over-the-counter medications.

Formal pharmacy technician education programs require classroom and laboratory work in a variety of areas, including medical and pharmaceutical terminology, pharmaceutical calculations, pharmacy recordkeeping, pharmaceutical techniques, and pharmacy law and ethics. Technicians also are required to learn medication names, actions, uses, and doses. Many training programs include internships, in which students gain hands-on experience in actual pharmacies. Students receive a diploma, a certificate, or an associate degree, depending on the program.

In hospitals, nursing homes, and assisted-living facilities, technicians have added responsibilities. They read patient charts and prepare and deliver the medicine to patients. The pharmacist must check the order before it is delivered to the patient. The technician then copies the information about the prescribed medication onto the patient’s profile. Technicians also may assemble a 24-hour supply of medicine for every patient. They package and label each dose separately. The package is then placed in the medicine cabinet of each patient until the supervising pharmacist checks it for accuracy. It is then given to the patient.

Prospective pharmacy technicians with experience working as an aide in a community pharmacy or volunteering in a hospital may have an advantage. Employers also prefer applicants with strong customer service and communication skills and with experience managing inventories, counting, measuring, and using computers. Technicians entering the field need strong mathematics, spelling, and reading skills. A background in chemistry, English, and health education also may be beneficial. Some technicians are hired without formal training, but under the condition that they obtain certification within a specified period to retain employment.

Working Conditions Pharmacy technicians work in clean, organized, well-lighted, and well-ventilated areas. Most of their workday is spent on their feet. They may be required to lift heavy boxes or to use stepladders to retrieve supplies from high shelves.

The Pharmacy Technician Certification Board administers the National Pharmacy Technician Certification Examination. This exam is voluntary in most states and displays the competency of the individual to act as a pharmacy technician. However, more states and employers are requiring certification as reliance on pharmacy technicians grows. Eligible candidates must have a high school diploma or GED and no felony convictions, and those who pass the exam earn the title of Certified Pharmacy Technician (CPhT). The exam is offered several times per year at various locations nationally. Employers, often pharmacists, know that individuals who pass the exam have a standardized body of knowledge and skills. Many employers will also reimburse the costs of the exam as an incentive for certification.

Technicians work the same hours that pharmacists work. These may include evenings, nights, weekends, and holidays. Because some hospital and retail pharmacies are open 24 hours a day, technicians may work varying shifts. As their seniority increases, technicians often have increased control over the hours they work. There are many opportunities for part-time work in both retail and hospital settings.

Employment Pharmacy technicians held about 211,000 jobs in 2002. Twothirds of all jobs were in retail pharmacies, either independently owned or part of a drugstore chain, grocery store, department store, or mass retailer. About 22 percent of jobs were in hospitals and a small proportion was in mail-order and Internet pharmacies, clinics, pharmaceutical wholesalers, and the federal government.

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Certified technicians must be recertified every 2 years. Technicians must complete 20 contact hours of pharmacy-related topics within the 2-year certification period to become eligible for recertification. Contact hours are awarded for on-the-job training, attending lectures, and college coursework. At least 1 contact hour must be in pharmacy law. Contact hours can be

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Earnings

earned from several different sources, including pharmacy associations, pharmacy colleges, and pharmacy technician training programs. Up to 10 contact hours can be earned when the technician is employed under the direct supervision and instruction of a pharmacist.

Median hourly earnings of wage and salary pharmacy technicians in 2002 were $10.70. The middle 50 percent earned between $8.74 and $13.19; the lowest 10 percent earned less than $7.44, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $15.82. Median hourly earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of pharmacy technicians in 2002 were as follows:

Successful pharmacy technicians are alert, observant, organized, dedicated, and responsible. They should be willing and able to take directions. They must enjoy precise work—details are sometimes a matter of life and death. Although a pharmacist must check and approve all their work, they should be able to work on their own without constant instruction from the pharmacist. Candidates interested in becoming pharmacy technicians cannot have prior records of drug or substance abuse.

General medical and surgical hospitals......................$12.32 Grocery stores ................................................................11.34 Drugs and druggists’ sundries merchant wholesalers ..................................................................10.60 Health and personal care stores......................................9.70

Strong interpersonal and communication skills are needed because there is a lot of interaction with patients, coworkers, and healthcare professionals. Teamwork is very important because technicians are often required to work with pharmacists, aides, and other technicians.

Department stores............................................................9.69 Certified technicians may earn more. Shift differentials for working evenings or weekends also can increase earnings. Some technicians belong to unions representing hospital or grocery store workers.

Job Outlook

Related Occupations

Good job opportunities are expected for full-time and parttime work, especially for technicians with formal training or previous experience. Job openings for pharmacy technicians will result from the expansion of retail pharmacies and other employment settings, and from the need to replace workers who transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force.

This occupation is most closely related to pharmacists and pharmacy aides. Workers in other medical support occupations include dental assistants, licensed practical and licensed vocational nurses, medical transcriptionists, medical records and health information technicians, occupational therapist assistants and aides, physical therapist assistants and aides, and surgical technologists.

Employment of pharmacy technicians is expected to grow faster than the average for all occupations through 2012 due to the increased pharmaceutical needs of a larger and older population, and to the greater use of medication. The increased number of middle-aged and elderly people—who, on average, use more prescription drugs than do younger people—will spur demand for technicians in all practice settings. With advances in science, more medications are becoming available to treat more conditions.

Sources of Additional Information For information on the Certified Pharmacy Technician designation, contact: ●

Cost-conscious insurers, pharmacies, and health systems will continue to emphasize the role of technicians. As a result, pharmacy technicians will assume responsibility for more routine tasks previously performed by pharmacists. Pharmacy technicians also will need to learn and master new pharmacy technology as it surfaces. For example, robotic machines are used to dispense medicine into containers; technicians must oversee the machines, stock the bins, and label the containers. Thus, while automation is increasingly incorporated into the job, it will not necessarily reduce the need for technicians.

For a list of accredited pharmacy technician training programs, contact: ●

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American Society of Health-System Pharmacists, 7272 Wisconsin Ave., Bethesda, MD 20814. Internet: http://www.ashp.org

Photographers

Almost all states have legislated the maximum number of technicians who can safely work under a pharmacist at one time. In some states, technicians have assumed more medication dispensing duties as pharmacists have become more involved in patient care, resulting in more technicians per pharmacist. Changes in these laws could directly affect employment.

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Pharmacy Technician Certification Board, 2215 Constitution Ave. NW, Washington DC 20037. Internet: http://www.ptcb.org

(O*NET 27-4021.01 and 27-4021.02)

Significant Points ●

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Competition for jobs is expected to be keen because the work is attractive to many people.

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Technical expertise, a “good eye,” imagination, and creativity are essential.

nology, photographers must have hands-on knowledge of computer editing software.

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More than half of all photographers are self-employed; the most successful are able to adapt to rapidly changing technologies and are adept at operating a business.

Some photographers specialize in areas such as portrait, commercial and industrial, scientific, news, or fine arts photography. Portrait photographers take pictures of individuals or groups of people and often work in their own studios. Some specialize in weddings, religious ceremonies, or school photographs and may work on location. Portrait photographers who are business owners arrange for advertising, schedule appointments, set and adjust equipment, develop and retouch negatives, and mount and frame pictures. They also purchase supplies, keep records, bill customers, and may hire and train employees.

Nature of the Work Photographers produce and preserve images that paint a picture, tell a story, or record an event. To create commercial quality photographs, photographers need both technical expertise and creativity. Producing a successful picture requires choosing and presenting a subject to achieve a particular effect, and selecting the appropriate equipment. For example, photographers may enhance the subject’s appearance with natural or artificial light, use a particular lens depending on the desired range or level of detail, or draw attention to a particular aspect of the subject by blurring the background.

Commercial and industrial photographers take pictures of various subjects, such as buildings, models, merchandise, artifacts, and landscapes. These photographs are used in a variety of media, including books, reports, advertisements, and catalogs. Industrial photographers often take pictures of equipment, machinery, products, workers, and company officials. The pictures are used for various purposes—for example, analysis of engineering projects, publicity, or records of equipment development or deployment, such as placement of an offshore rig. This photography frequently is done on location.

Today, many cameras adjust settings such as shutter speed and aperture automatically. They also let the photographer adjust these settings manually, allowing greater creative and technical control over the picture-taking process. In addition to automatic and manual cameras, photographers use an array of film, lenses, and equipment—from filters, tripods, and flash attachments to specially constructed lighting equipment.

Scientific photographers take images of a variety of subjects to illustrate or record scientific or medical data or phenomena, using knowledge of scientific procedures. They typically possess additional knowledge in areas such as engineering, medicine, biology, or chemistry.

Photographers use either a traditional camera that records images on silver halide film that is developed into prints or a digital camera that electronically records images. Some photographers send their film to laboratories for processing. Color film requires expensive equipment and exacting conditions for correct processing and printing. Other photographers, especially those who use black and white film or who require special effects, prefer to develop and print their own photographs. Photographers who do their own film developing must have the technical skill to operate a fully equipped darkroom or the appropriate computer software to process prints digitally.

News photographers, also called photojournalists, photograph newsworthy people, places, and sporting, political, and community events for newspapers, journals, magazines, or television. Some news photographers are salaried staff; others are self-employed and are known as freelance photographers. Fine arts photographers sell their photographs as fine artwork. In addition to technical proficiency, fine arts photographers need artistic talent and creativity. Self-employed, or freelance, photographers may license the use of their photographs through stock photo agencies or contract with clients or agencies to provide photographs as necessary. Stock agencies grant magazines and other customers the right to purchase the use of photographs, and, in turn, pay the photographer on a commission basis. Stock photo agencies require an application from the photographer and a sizable portfolio. Once accepted, a large number of new submissions usually is required from the photographer each year.

Recent advances in electronic technology now make it possible for the professional photographer to develop and scan standard 35mm or other types of film, and use flatbed scanners and photofinishing laboratories to produce computerreadable digital images from film. After converting the film to a digital image, photographers can edit and electronically transmit images using a method as simple as e-mail or as advanced as a satellite phone. This makes it easier and faster to shoot, develop, and transmit pictures from remote locations. Using computers and specialized software, photographers also can manipulate and enhance the scanned or digital image to create a desired effect. Images can be stored on portable memory devices, including compact discs (CDs), or on new types of smaller “mini pocket” storage devices such as flash disks, which are small memory cards used in digital cameras. Digital technology also allows the production of larger, more colorful, and more accurate prints or images for use in advertising, photographic art, and scientific research. Some photographers use this technology to create electronic portfolios as well. Because much photography now involves the use of computer tech-

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Working Conditions Working conditions for photographers vary considerably. Photographers employed in government and advertising agencies usually work a 5-day, 40-hour week. On the other hand, news photographers often work long, irregular hours and must be available to work on short notice. Many photographers work part-time or variable schedules. Portrait photographers usually work in their own studios but also may travel to take photographs at the client’s location,

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America’s Top 101 Jobs for People Without a Four-Year Degree run a portrait or commercial photography business. Freelance photographers also should develop an individual style of photography in order to differentiate themselves from the competition. Some photographers enter the field by submitting unsolicited photographs to magazines and to art directors at advertising agencies. For freelance photographers, a good portfolio of their work is critical.

such as a school, a company office, or a private home. News and commercial photographers frequently travel locally, stay overnight on assignments, or travel to distant places for long periods. Some photographers work in uncomfortable or even dangerous surroundings, especially news photographers covering accidents, natural disasters, civil unrest, or military conflicts. Many photographers must wait long hours in all kinds of weather for an event to take place and stand or walk for long periods while carrying heavy equipment. News photographers often work under strict deadlines.

Photographers need good eyesight, artistic ability, and good hand-eye coordination. They should be patient, accurate, and detail-oriented. Photographers should be able to work well with others, as they frequently deal with clients, graphic designers, or advertising and publishing specialists. Increasingly, photographers need to know how to use computer software programs and applications that allow them to prepare and edit images.

Self-employment allows for greater autonomy, freedom of expression, and flexible scheduling. However, income can be uncertain and the continuous, time-consuming search for new clients can be stressful. Some self-employed photographers hire assistants who help seek out new business.

Portrait photographers need the ability to help people relax in front of the camera. Commercial and fine arts photographers must be imaginative and original. News photographers not only must be good with a camera, but also must understand the story behind an event so that their pictures match the story. They must be decisive in recognizing a potentially good photograph and act quickly to capture it.

Employment Photographers held about 130,000 jobs in 2002. More than half were self-employed, a much higher proportion than the average for all occupations. Some self-employed photographers have contracts with advertising agencies, magazines, or others to do individual projects at a predetermined fee, while others operate portrait studios or provide photographs to stock photo agencies.

Photographers who operate their own businesses, or freelance, need business skills as well as talent. These individuals must know how to prepare a business plan; submit bids; write contracts; market their work; hire models, if needed; get permission to shoot on locations that normally are not open to the public; obtain releases to use photographs of people; license and price photographs; secure copyright protection for their work; and keep financial records. Knowledge of licensing and copyright laws as well as contract negotiation procedures is especially important for self-employed photographers, in order to protect their rights and their work.

Most salaried photographers work in portrait or commercial photography studios. Newspapers, magazines, television broadcasters, and advertising agencies employ most of the others. Most photographers work in metropolitan areas.

Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement

After several years of experience, magazine and news photographers may advance to photography or picture editor positions. Some photographers teach at technical schools, film schools, or universities.

Employers usually seek applicants with a “good eye,” imagination, and creativity, as well as a good technical understanding of photography. Entry-level positions in photojournalism or in industrial or scientific photography generally require a college degree in journalism or photography. Freelance and portrait photographers need technical proficiency, whether gained through a degree program, vocational training, or extensive work experience.

Job Outlook Photographers can expect keen competition for job openings because the work is attractive to many people. The number of individuals interested in positions as commercial and news photographers usually is much greater than the number of openings. Those who succeed in landing a salaried job or attracting enough work to earn a living by freelancing are likely to be the most creative, able to adapt to rapidly changing technologies, and adept at operating a business. Related work experience, job-related training, or some unique skill or talent—such as a background in computers or electronics— also are beneficial to prospective photographers.

Many universities, community and junior colleges, vocationaltechnical institutes, and private trade and technical schools offer photography courses. Basic courses in photography cover equipment, processes, and techniques. Bachelor’s degree programs, especially those including business courses, provide a well-rounded education. Art schools offer useful training in design and composition. Individuals interested in photography should subscribe to photographic newsletters and magazines, join camera clubs, and seek summer or part-time employment in camera stores, newspapers, or photo studios.

Employment of photographers is expected to increase about as fast as the average for all occupations through 2012. Demand for portrait photographers should increase as the population grows. As the number of electronic versions of magazines, journals, and newspapers increases on the Internet, commercial photographers will be needed to provide digital images.

Photographers may start out as assistants to experienced photographers. Assistants learn to mix chemicals, develop film, and print photographs and acquire the other skills necessary to

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Section One: Descriptions of 101 Top Jobs for People Without a Four-Year Degree ber of individuals with disabilities or limited function and the increasing use of physical therapist assistants to reduce the cost of therapeutic services.

Job growth, however, will be constrained somewhat by the widespread use of digital photography and the falling price of digital equipment. Besides increasing photographers’ productivity, improvements in digital technology reduce barriers of entry into this profession and allow more individual consumers and businesses to produce, store, and access photographic images on their own. Declines in the newspaper industry also will reduce demand for photographers to provide still images for print.

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Physical therapist assistants generally have an associate degree, but physical therapist aides usually learn skills on the job.

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Almost three-fourths of all jobs were in hospitals or offices of physical therapists.

Earnings

Nature of the Work

Median annual earnings of salaried photographers were $24,040 in 2002. The middle 50 percent earned between $17,740 and $34,910. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $14,640, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $49,920. Median annual earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of salaried photographers were $15.12 for newspapers and periodicals and $10.51 for other professional or scientific services.

Physical therapist assistants and aides perform components of physical therapy procedures and related tasks selected by a supervising physical therapist. These workers assist physical therapists in providing services that help improve mobility, relieve pain, and prevent or limit permanent physical disabilities of patients suffering from injuries or disease. Patients include accident victims and individuals with disabling conditions such as low-back pain, arthritis, heart disease, fractures, head injuries, and cerebral palsy.

Salaried photographers—more of whom work full time—tend to earn more than those who are self-employed. Because most freelance and portrait photographers purchase their own equipment, they incur considerable expense acquiring and maintaining cameras and accessories. Unlike news and commercial photographers, few fine arts photographers are successful enough to support themselves solely through their art.

Physical therapist assistants perform a variety of tasks. Components of treatment procedures performed by these workers, under the direction and supervision of physical therapists, involve exercises, massages, electrical stimulation, paraffin baths, hot and cold packs, traction, and ultrasound. Physical therapist assistants record the patient’s responses to treatment and report the outcome of each treatment to the physical therapist.

Related Occupations

Physical therapist aides help make therapy sessions productive, under the direct supervision of a physical therapist or physical therapist assistant. They usually are responsible for keeping the treatment area clean and organized and for preparing for each patient’s therapy. When patients need assistance moving to or from a treatment area, aides push them in a wheelchair or provide them with a shoulder to lean on. Because they are not licensed, aides do not perform the clinical tasks of a physical therapist assistant.

Other occupations requiring artistic talent and creativity include architects, except landscape and naval; artists and related workers; designers; news analysts, reporters, and correspondents; and television, video, and motion picture camera operators and editors.

Sources of Additional Information Career information on photography is available from: ●

Professional Photographers of America, Inc., 229 Peachtree St. NE, Suite 2200, Atlanta, GA 30303.

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National Press Photographers Association, Inc., 3200 Croasdaile Dr., Suite 306, Durham, NC 27705. Internet: http://www.nppa.org

The duties of aides include some clerical tasks, such as ordering depleted supplies, answering the phone, and filling out insurance forms and other paperwork. The extent to which an aide or an assistant performs clerical tasks depends on the size and location of the facility.

Working Conditions The hours and days that physical therapist assistants and aides work vary with the facility and with whether they are full- or part-time employees. Many outpatient physical therapy offices and clinics have evening and weekend hours to help coincide with patients’ personal schedules.

Physical Therapist Assistants and Aides (O*NET 31-2021.00 and 31-2022.00)

Physical therapist assistants and aides need a moderate degree of strength because of the physical exertion required in assisting patients with their treatment. In some cases, assistants and aides need to lift patients. Constant kneeling, stooping, and standing for long periods also are part of the job.

Significant Points ●

Employment in the occupation is projected to increase much faster than the average, reflecting the growing num-

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that require therapeutic services. These patients often need additional assistance in their treatment, making the roles of assistants and aides vital. The large baby-boom generation is entering the prime age for heart attacks and strokes, further increasing the demand for cardiac and physical rehabilitation. In addition, future medical developments should permit an increased percentage of trauma victims to survive, creating added demand for therapy services.

Physical therapist assistants and aides held about 87,000 jobs in 2002. Physical therapist assistants held about 50,000 jobs, physical therapist aides approximately 37,000. Both work alongside physical therapists in a variety of settings. Almost three-fourths of all jobs were in hospitals or in offices of other health practitioners (which includes offices of physical therapists). Others worked primarily in nursing care facilities, offices of physicians, home healthcare services, and outpatient care centers.

Physical therapists are expected to increasingly utilize assistants to reduce the cost of physical therapy services. Once a patient is evaluated and a treatment plan is designed by the physical therapist, the physical therapist assistant can provide many aspects of treatment, as prescribed by the therapist.

Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement

Earnings

Physical therapist aides are trained on the job, but physical therapist assistants typically earn an associate degree from an accredited physical therapist assistant program. Not all states require licensure or registration in order for the physical therapist assistant to practice. The states that require licensure stipulate specific educational and examination criteria. Complete information on practice acts and regulations can be obtained from the state licensing boards. Additional requirements may include certification in cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) and other first aid and a minimum number of hours of clinical experience.

Median annual earnings of physical therapist assistants were $36,080 in 2002. The middle 50 percent earned between $30,260 and $42,780. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $23,530, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $48,910. Median annual earnings of physical therapist assistants in 2002 were $35,870 in general medical and surgical hospitals and $35,750 in offices of other health practitioners. Median annual earnings of physical therapist aides were $20,670 in 2002. The middle 50 percent earned between $17,430 and $24,560. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $15,290, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $29,990. Median annual earnings of physical therapist aides in 2002 were $20,690 in general medical and surgical hospitals and $19,840 in offices of other health practitioners.

According to the American Physical Therapy Association, there were 245 accredited physical therapist assistant programs in the United States as of 2003. Accredited physical therapist assistant programs are designed to last 2 years, or 4 semesters, and culminate in an associate degree. Programs are divided into academic study and hands-on clinical experience. Academic course work includes algebra, anatomy and physiology, biology, chemistry, and psychology. Many programs require that students complete a semester of anatomy and physiology and have certifications in CPR and other first aid even before they begin their clinical field experience. Both educators and prospective employers view clinical experience as integral to ensuring that students understand the responsibilities of a physical therapist assistant.

Related Occupations Physical therapist assistants and aides work under the supervision of physical therapists. Other workers in the healthcare field who work under similar supervision include dental assistants, medical assistants, occupational therapist assistants and aides, pharmacy aides, and pharmacy technicians.

Sources of Additional Information

Employers typically require physical therapist aides to have a high school diploma, strong interpersonal skills, and a desire to assist people in need. Most employers provide clinical onthe-job training.

Career information on physical therapist assistants and a list of schools offering accredited programs can be obtained from: ●

Job Outlook Employment of physical therapist assistants and aides is expected to grow much faster than the average through the year 2012. The impact of proposed federal legislation imposing limits on reimbursement for therapy services may adversely affect the short-term job outlook for physical therapist assistants and aides. However, over the long run, demand for physical therapist assistants and aides will continue to rise, in accordance with growth in the number of individuals with disabilities or limited function. The growing elderly population is particularly vulnerable to chronic and debilitating conditions

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The American Physical Therapy Association, 1111 North Fairfax St., Alexandria, VA 22314-1488. Internet: http://www.apta.org

Pipelayers, Plumbers, Pipefitters, and Steamfitters (O*NET 47-2151.00, 47-2152.01, 47-2152.02, and 47-2152.03)

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Significant Points ●

Job opportunities should be excellent because not enough people are seeking training.

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Most workers learn the trade through 4 or 5 years of formal apprenticeship training.

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Pipelayers, plumbers, pipefitters, and steamfitters make up one of the largest and highest paid construction occupations.

When construction plumbers install piping in a house, for example, they work from blueprints or drawings that show the planned location of pipes, plumbing fixtures, and appliances. Recently, plumbers have become more involved in the design process. Their knowledge of codes and the operation of plumbing systems can cut costs. They first lay out the job to fit the piping into the structure of the house with the least waste of material. Then they measure and mark areas in which pipes will be installed and connected. Construction plumbers also check for obstructions such as electrical wiring and, if necessary, plan the pipe installation around the problem.

Nature of the Work

Sometimes, plumbers have to cut holes in walls, ceilings, and floors of a house. For some systems, they may hang steel supports from ceiling joists to hold the pipe in place. To assemble a system, plumbers—using saws, pipe cutters, and pipebending machines—cut and bend lengths of pipe. They connect lengths of pipe with fittings, using methods that depend on the type of pipe used. For plastic pipe, plumbers connect the sections and fittings with adhesives. For copper pipe, they slide a fitting over the end of the pipe and solder it in place with a torch.

Most people are familiar with plumbers, who come to their home to unclog a drain or install an appliance. In addition to these activities, however, pipelayers, plumbers, pipefitters, and steamfitters install, maintain, and repair many different types of pipe systems. For example, some systems move water to a municipal water treatment plant and then to residential, commercial, and public buildings. Other systems dispose of waste, provide gas to stoves and furnaces, or supply air-conditioning. Pipe systems in powerplants carry the steam that powers huge turbines. Pipes also are used in manufacturing plants to move material through the production process. Specialized piping systems are very important in both pharmaceutical and computer-chip manufacturing.

After the piping is in place in the house, plumbers install the fixtures and appliances and connect the system to the outside water or sewer lines. Finally, using pressure gauges, they check the system to ensure that the plumbing works properly.

Although pipelaying, plumbing, pipefitting, and steamfitting sometimes are considered a single trade, workers generally specialize in one of the four areas. Pipelayers lay clay, concrete, plastic, or cast-iron pipe for drains, sewers, water mains, and oil or gas lines. Before laying the pipe, pipelayers prepare and grade the trenches either manually or with machines. Plumbers install and repair the water, waste disposal, drainage, and gas systems in homes and commercial and industrial buildings. Plumbers also install plumbing fixtures—bathtubs, showers, sinks, and toilets—and appliances such as dishwashers and water heaters. Pipefitters install and repair both high- and lowpressure pipe systems used in manufacturing, in the generation of electricity, and in heating and cooling buildings. They also install automatic controls that are increasingly being used to regulate these systems. Some pipefitters specialize in only one type of system. Steamfitters, for example, install pipe systems that move liquids or gases under high pressure. Sprinklerfitters install automatic fire sprinkler systems in buildings.

Working Conditions Because pipelayers, plumbers, pipefitters, and steamfitters frequently must lift heavy pipes, stand for long periods, and sometimes work in uncomfortable or cramped positions, they need physical strength as well as stamina. They also may have to work outdoors in inclement weather. In addition, they are subject to possible falls from ladders, cuts from sharp tools, and burns from hot pipes or soldering equipment. Pipelayers, plumbers, pipefitters, and steamfitters engaged in construction generally work a standard 40-hour week; those involved in maintaining pipe systems, including those who provide maintenance services under contract, may have to work evening or weekend shifts, as well as be on call. These maintenance workers may spend quite a bit of time traveling to and from worksites.

Employment

Pipelayers, plumbers, pipefitters, and steamfitters use many different materials and construction techniques, depending on the type of project. Residential water systems, for example, incorporate copper, steel, and plastic pipe that can be handled and installed by one or two workers. Municipal sewerage systems, on the other hand, are made of large cast-iron pipes; installation normally requires crews of pipefitters. Despite these differences, all pipelayers, plumbers, pipefitters, and steamfitters must be able to follow building plans or blueprints and instructions from supervisors, lay out the job, and work efficiently with the materials and tools of the trade. Computers often are used to create blueprints and plan layouts.

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Pipelayers, plumbers, pipefitters, and steamfitters constitute one of the largest construction occupations, holding about 550,000 jobs in 2002. About 7 in 10 worked for plumbing, heating, and air-conditioning contractors engaged in new construction, repair, modernization, or maintenance work. Others did maintenance work for a variety of industrial, commercial, and government employers. For example, pipefitters were employed as maintenance personnel in the petroleum and chemical industries, in which manufacturing operations require the moving of liquids and gases through pipes. About 1 of every 10 pipelayers, plumbers, pipefitters, and steamfitters was self-employed. One in three pipelayers, plumbers, pipefitters, and steamfitters belong to a union.

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Jobs for pipelayers, plumbers, pipefitters, and steamfitters are distributed across the country in about the same proportion as the general population.

Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement

Job Outlook

Virtually all pipelayers, plumbers, pipefitters, and steamfitters undergo some type of apprenticeship training. Many apprenticeship programs are administered by local union-management committees made up of members of the United Association of Journeymen and Apprentices of the Plumbing and Pipefitting Industry of the United States and Canada, and local employers who are members of either the Mechanical Contractors Association of America, the National Association of Plumbing-Heating-Cooling Contractors, or the National Fire Sprinkler Association.

Job opportunities are expected to be excellent, as demand for skilled pipelayers, plumbers, pipefitters, and steamfitters is expected to outpace the supply of workers trained in this craft. Many potential workers may prefer work that is less strenuous and has more comfortable working conditions. Employment of pipelayers, plumbers, pipefitters, and steamfitters is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2012. Demand for plumbers will stem from building renovation, including the increasing installation of sprinkler systems; repair and maintenance of existing residential systems; and maintenance activities for places having extensive systems of pipes, such as powerplants, water and wastewater treatment plants, pipelines, office buildings, and factories. The enforcement of laws pertaining to the certification requirements of workers on jobsites will create additional opportunities and demand for skilled workers. However, the number of new jobs will be limited by the growing use of plastic pipe and fittings, which are much easier to install and repair than other types, and by increasingly efficient sprinkler systems. In addition to new positions resulting from employment growth, many jobs will become available each year because of the need to replace experienced workers who retire or leave the occupation for other reasons.

Nonunion training and apprenticeship programs are administered by local chapters of the Associated Builders and Contractors, the National Association of Plumbing-Heating-Cooling Contractors, the American Fire Sprinkler Association, or the Home Builders Institute of the National Association of Home Builders. Apprenticeships—both union and nonunion—consist of 4 or 5 years of on-the-job training, in addition to at least 144 hours per year of related classroom instruction. Classroom subjects include drafting and blueprint reading, mathematics, applied physics and chemistry, safety, and local plumbing codes and regulations. On the job, apprentices first learn basic skills, such as identifying grades and types of pipe, using the tools of the trade, and safely unloading materials. As apprentices gain experience, they learn how to work with various types of pipe and how to install different piping systems and plumbing fixtures. Apprenticeship gives trainees a thorough knowledge of all aspects of the trade. Although most pipelayers, plumbers, pipefitters, and steamfitters are trained through apprenticeship, some still learn their skills informally on the job.

Traditionally, many organizations with extensive pipe systems have employed their own plumbers or pipefitters to maintain equipment and keep systems running smoothly. But, to reduce labor costs, many of these firms no longer employ a full-time, in-house plumber or pipefitter. Instead, when they need a plumber, they rely on workers provided under service contracts by plumbing and pipefitting contractors.

Applicants for union or nonunion apprentice jobs must be at least 18 years old and in good physical condition. Apprenticeship committees may require applicants to have a high school diploma or its equivalent. Armed Forces training in pipelaying, plumbing, and pipefitting is considered very good preparation. In fact, persons with this background may be given credit for previous experience when entering a civilian apprenticeship program. Secondary or postsecondary courses in shop, plumbing, general mathematics, drafting, blueprint reading, computers, and physics also are good preparation.

Construction projects provide only temporary employment. So, when a project ends, pipelayers, plumbers, pipefitters, and steamfitters working on the project may experience bouts of unemployment. Because construction activity varies from area to area, job openings, as well as apprenticeship opportunities, fluctuate with local economic conditions. However, employment of pipelayers, plumbers, pipefitters, and steamfitters generally is less sensitive to changes in economic conditions than is employment of some other construction trades. Even when construction activity declines, maintenance, rehabilitation, and replacement of existing piping systems, as well as the increasing installation of fire sprinkler systems, provide many jobs for pipelayers, plumbers, pipefitters, and steamfitters.

Although there are no uniform national licensing requirements, most communities require plumbers to be licensed. Licensing requirements vary from area to area, but most localities require workers to pass an examination that tests their knowledge of the trade and of local plumbing codes.

Earnings

With additional training, some pipelayers, plumbers, pipefitters, and steamfitters become supervisors for mechanical and plumbing contractors. Others, especially plumbers, go into business for themselves, often starting as a self-employed

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Pipelayers, plumbers, pipefitters, and steamfitters are among the highest paid construction occupations. In 2002, median hourly earnings of pipelayers were $13.70. The middle 50 percent earned between $10.96 and $18.43. The lowest 10 percent

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Section One: Descriptions of 101 Top Jobs for People Without a Four-Year Degree earned less than $9.20, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $24.31. Also in 2002, median hourly earnings of plumbers, pipefitters, and steamfitters were $19.31. The middle 50 percent earned between $14.68 and $25.87. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $11.23, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $32.27. Median hourly earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of plumbers, pipefitters, and steamfitters in 2002 are shown below.

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Associated Builders and Contractors, Workforce Development Department, 4250 North Fairfax Dr., 9th Floor, Arlington, VA 22203.

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National Association of Home Builders, 1201 15th St. NW, Washington, DC 20005. Internet: http://www.nahb.org

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Home Builders Institute, 1201 15th St., NW, Washington, DC 20005. Internet: http://www.hbi.org

For general information about the work of pipelayers, plumbers, and pipefitters, contact:

Nonresidential building construction ........................$19.65 Building equipment contractors ..................................19.52 Utility system construction ..........................................17.81

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Mechanical Contractors Association of America, 1385 Piccard Dr., Rockville, MD 20850. Internet: http://www.mcaa.org

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National Association of Plumbing-Heating-Cooling Contractors, 180 S. Washington St., Falls Church, VA 22040. Internet: http://www.phccweb.org

Ship and boat building..................................................16.62 Local government ..........................................................16.21

For general information about the work of sprinklerfitters, contact:

Apprentices usually begin at about 50 percent of the wage rate paid to experienced pipelayers, plumbers, pipefitters, and steamfitters. Wages increase periodically as skills improve. After an initial waiting period, apprentices receive the same benefits as experienced pipelayers, plumbers, pipefitters, and steamfitters.

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American Fire Sprinkler Association, Inc., 9696 Skillman St. Suite 300, Dallas, TX 75243-8264. Internet: http://www.firesprinkler.org

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National Fire Sprinkler Association, P.O. Box 1000, Patterson, NY 12563. Internet: http://www.nfsa.org

There are more than 500 occupations registered by the U.S. Department of Labor’s National Apprenticeship system. For more information on the Labor Department’s registered apprenticeship system and links to state apprenticeship programs, check their Web site: http://www.doleta.gov.

Many pipelayers, plumbers, pipefitters, and steamfitters are members of the United Association of Journeymen and Apprentices of the Plumbing and Pipefitting Industry of the United States and Canada.

Related Occupations Other occupations in which workers install and repair mechanical systems in buildings are boilermakers; electricians; elevator installers and repairers; heating, air-conditioning, and refrigeration mechanics and installers; industrial machinery installation, repair, and maintenance workers, except millwrights; millwrights; sheet metal workers; and stationary engineers and boiler operators. Other related occupations include construction managers and construction and building inspectors.

Plasterers and Stucco Masons (O*NET 47-2161.00)

Significant Points

Sources of Additional Information For information about apprenticeships or work opportunities in pipelaying, plumbing, pipefitting, and steamfitting, contact local plumbing, heating, and air-conditioning contractors; a local or state chapter of the National Association of Plumbing, Heating, and Cooling Contractors; a local chapter of the Mechanical Contractors Association; a local chapter of the United Association of Journeymen and Apprentices of the Plumbing and Pipefitting Industry of the United States and Canada; or the nearest office of your state employment service or apprenticeship agency.

Plastering is learned on the job, either through a formal apprenticeship program or by working as a helper.

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Job opportunities are expected to be good, particularly in the South and Southwest.

Plastering—one of the oldest crafts in the building trades—is enjoying a resurgence in popularity because of the introduction of newer, less costly materials and techniques. Plasterers apply plaster to interior walls and ceilings to form fire-resistant and relatively soundproof surfaces. They also apply plaster veneer over drywall to create smooth or textured abrasionresistant finishes. In addition, plasterers install prefabricated exterior insulation systems over existing walls—for good insulation and interesting architectural effects—and cast ornamental designs in plaster. Stucco masons apply durable plasters, such as polymer-based acrylic finishes and stucco, to exterior

United Association of Journeymen and Apprentices of the Plumbing and Pipefitting Industry, 901 Massachusetts Ave. NW, Washington, DC 20001. Internet: http://www.ua.org

For more information about training programs for pipelayers, plumbers, pipefitters, and steamfitters, contact:

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Plastering is physically demanding.

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Nature of the Work

For information about apprenticeship opportunities for pipelayers, plumbers, pipefitters, and steamfitters, contact: ●

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Working Conditions

surfaces. Plasterers and stucco masons should not be confused with drywall installers, ceiling tile installers, and tapers, who use drywall instead of plaster when erecting interior walls and ceilings.

Most plastering jobs are indoors; however, plasterers and stucco masons work outside when applying stucco or exterior wall insulation and decorative finish systems. Sometimes, plasterers work on scaffolds high above the ground.

Plasterers can plaster either solid surfaces, such as concrete block, or supportive wire mesh called lath. When plasterers work with interior surfaces, such as concrete block and concrete, they first apply a brown coat of gypsum plaster that provides a base, which is followed by a second, or finish, coat—also called “white coat”—made of a lime-based plaster. When plastering metal lath foundations, they apply a preparatory, or “scratch,” coat with a trowel. They spread this rich plaster mixture into and over the metal lath. Before the plaster sets, plasterers scratch its surface with a rake-like tool to produce ridges so that the subsequent brown coat will bond tightly.

Plastering is physically demanding, requiring considerable standing, bending, lifting, and reaching overhead. The work can be dusty and dirty, soiling shoes and clothing, and can irritate the skin and eyes.

Employment Plasterers and stucco masons held about 59,000 jobs in 2002. Most plasterers and stucco masons work on new construction sites, particularly where special architectural and lighting effects are required. Some repair and renovate older buildings. Many plasterers and stucco masons are employed in Florida, California, and the Southwest, where exterior stucco with decorative finishes is very popular.

Laborers prepare a thick, smooth plaster for the brown coat. Plasterers spray or trowel this mixture onto the surface and then finish by smoothing it to an even, level surface. For the finish coat, plasterers prepare a mixture of lime, plaster of paris, and water. They quickly apply this to the brown coat using a “hawk”—a light, metal plate with a handle—trowel, brush, and water. This mixture, which sets very quickly, produces a very smooth, durable finish.

Most plasterers and stucco masons work for independent contractors. About 1out of every 10 plasterers and stucco masons is self-employed.

Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement

Plasterers also work with a plaster material that can be finished in a single coat. This “thin-coat” or gypsum veneer plaster is made of lime and plaster of paris and is mixed with water at the jobsite. This plaster provides a smooth, durable, abrasionresistant finish on interior masonry surfaces, special gypsum baseboard, or drywall prepared with a bonding agent.

Although most employers recommend apprenticeship as the best way to learn plastering, many people learn the trade by working as helpers for experienced plasterers and stucco masons. Those who learn the trade informally as helpers usually start by carrying materials, setting up scaffolds, and mixing plaster. Later, they learn to apply the scratch, brown, and finish coats.

Plasterers create decorative interior surfaces as well. They do this by pressing a brush or trowel firmly against a wet plaster surface and using a circular hand motion to create decorative swirls.

Apprenticeship programs, sponsored by local joint committees of contractors and unions, generally consist of 2 or 3 years of on-the-job training, in addition to at least 144 hours annually of classroom instruction in drafting, blueprint reading, and mathematics for layout work.

For exterior work, stucco masons usually apply stucco—a mixture of Portland cement, lime, and sand—over cement, concrete, masonry, or lath. Stucco may also be applied directly to a wire lath with a scratch coat, followed by a brown coat and then a finish coat. Stucco masons may also embed marble or gravel chips into the finish coat to achieve a pebblelike, decorative finish.

In the classroom, apprentices start with a history of the trade and the industry. They also learn about the uses of plaster, estimating materials and costs, and casting ornamental plaster designs. On the job, they learn about lath bases, plaster mixes, methods of plastering, blueprint reading, and safety. They also learn how to use various tools, such as hand and powered trowels, floats, brushes, straightedges, power tools, plastermixing machines, and piston-type pumps. Some apprenticeship programs allow individuals to obtain training in related occupations, such as cement masonry and bricklaying.

Increasingly, plasterers apply insulation to the exteriors of new and old buildings. They cover the outer wall with rigid foam insulation board and reinforcing mesh and then trowel on a polymer-based or polymer-modified base coat. They may apply an additional coat of this material with a decorative finish. Plasterers sometimes do complex decorative and ornamental work that requires special skill and creativity. For example, they may mold intricate wall and ceiling designs. Following an architect’s blueprint, plasterers pour or spray a special plaster into a mold and allow it to set. Workers then remove the molded plaster and put it in place according to the plan.

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Applicants for apprentice or helper jobs normally must be at least 18 years old, in good physical condition, and have good manual dexterity. Applicants who have a high school education are preferred. Courses in general mathematics, mechanical drawing, and shop provide a useful background.

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Section One: Descriptions of 101 Top Jobs for People Without a Four-Year Degree Apprentice wage rates start at about half the rate paid to experienced plasterers and stucco masons. Annual earnings for plasterers and stucco masons and apprentices can be less than the hourly rate would indicate, because poor weather and periodic declines in construction activity can limit work hours.

With additional training and experience, plasterers and stucco masons may advance to positions as supervisors, superintendents, or estimators for plastering contractors. Many become self-employed contractors. Others become building inspectors.

Job Outlook

Related Occupations

Job opportunities for plasterers and stucco masons are expected to be good through 2012. Many potential workers may choose not to enter this occupation because they prefer work that is less strenuous and has more comfortable working conditions. The best employment opportunities should continue to be in Florida, California, and the Southwest, where exterior plaster and decorative finishes are expected to remain popular.

Other construction workers who use a trowel as their primary tool include brickmasons, blockmasons, and stonemasons; cement masons, concrete finishers, segmental pavers, and terrazzo workers; and drywall installers, ceiling tile installers, and tapers.

Sources of Additional Information

Employment of plasterers and stucco masons is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2012. Jobs will become available as plasterers and stucco masons transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force.

For information about apprenticeships or other work opportunities, contact local plastering contractors, locals of the unions mentioned below, a local joint union-management apprenticeship committee, or the nearest office of your state apprenticeship agency or employment service.

In past years, employment of plasterers declined as more builders switched to drywall construction. This decline has halted, however, and employment of plasterers is expected to continue growing as a result of the appreciation for the durability and attractiveness that troweled finishes provide. Thincoat plastering—or veneering—in particular is gaining wide acceptance as more builders recognize its ease of application, durability, quality of finish, and sound-proofing and fireretarding qualities, although the increased use of fire sprinklers will reduce the demand for fire-resistant plaster work. Prefabricated wall systems and new polymer-based or polymermodified acrylic exterior insulating finishes also are gaining popularity, particularly in the South and Southwest regions of the country. This is not only because of their durability, attractiveness, and insulating properties, but also because of their relatively low cost. In addition, plasterers will be needed to renovate plasterwork in old structures and to create special architectural effects, such as curved surfaces, which are not practical with drywall materials.

For general information about the work of plasterers and stucco masons, contact: ●

International Union of Bricklayers and Allied Craftworkers, 1776 I St. NW, Washington, DC 20006.

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Association of Wall and Ceiling Industries International, 803 West Broad St., Falls Church, VA 22046. Internet: http://www.awci.org

For information about plasterers, contact: ●

Operative Plasterers’ and Cement Masons’ International Association of the United States and Canada, 14405 Laurel Place, Suite 300, Laurel, MD 20707.

For information on the training of plasterers and stucco masons, contact: ●

International Masonry Institute, The James Brice House, 42 East St., Annapolis, MD 21401. Internet: http://www.imiweb.org

There are more than 500 occupations registered by the U.S. Department of Labor’s National Apprenticeship system. For more information on the Labor Department’s registered apprenticeship system and links to state apprenticeship programs, check their Web site: http://www.doleta.gov.

Most plasterers and stucco masons work in construction, where prospects fluctuate from year to year due to changing economic conditions. Bad weather affects plastering less than other construction trades because most work is indoors. On exterior surfacing jobs, however, plasterers and stucco masons may lose time because plastering materials cannot be applied under wet or freezing conditions.

Police and Detectives

Earnings

(O*NET 33-1012.00, 33-3021.01, 33-3021.02, 33-3021.03, 33-3021.04, 33-3021.05, 33-3031.00, 33-3051.01, and 33-3051.02)

In 2002, median hourly earnings of plasterers and stucco masons were $15.91. The middle 50 percent earned between $12.33 and $20.67. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $9.94, and the top 10 percent earned more than $26.81.

Significant Points

The median hourly earnings in the largest industries employing plasterers and stucco masons in 2002 were $15.99 in building finishing contractors and $14.94 in foundation, structure, and building exterior contractors.

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Police work can be dangerous and stressful.

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Civil service regulations govern the appointment of police and detectives.

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America’s Top 101 Jobs for People Without a Four-Year Degree ●

Competition should remain keen for higher paying jobs with state and federal agencies and police departments in affluent areas; opportunities will be better in local and special police departments that offer relatively low salaries or in urban communities where the crime rate is relatively high.

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Applicants with college training in police science or military police experience should have the best opportunities.

Sheriffs and deputy sheriffs enforce the law on the county level. Sheriffs are usually elected to their posts and perform duties similar to those of a local or county police chief. Sheriffs’ departments tend to be relatively small, most having fewer than 25 sworn officers. A deputy sheriff in a large agency will have law enforcement duties similar to those of officers in urban police departments. Police and sheriffs’ deputies who provide security in city and county courts are sometimes called bailiffs. State police officers (sometimes called state troopers or highway patrol officers) arrest criminals statewide and patrol highways to enforce motor vehicle laws and regulations. Uniformed officers are best known for issuing traffic citations to motorists who violate the law. At the scene of accidents, they may direct traffic, give first aid, and call for emergency equipment. They also write reports used to determine the cause of the accident. State police officers are frequently called upon to render assistance to other law enforcement agencies, especially those in rural areas or small towns.

Nature of the Work People depend on police officers and detectives to protect their lives and property. Law enforcement officers, some of whom are state or federal special agents or inspectors, perform these duties in a variety of ways, depending on the size and type of their organization. In most jurisdictions, they are expected to exercise authority when necessary, whether on or off duty. Uniformed police officers who work in municipal police departments of various sizes, small communities, and rural areas have general law enforcement duties including maintaining regular patrols and responding to calls for service. They may direct traffic at the scene of a fire, investigate a burglary, or give first aid to an accident victim. In large police departments, officers usually are assigned to a specific type of duty. Many urban police agencies are becoming more involved in community policing—a practice in which an officer builds relationships with the citizens of local neighborhoods and mobilizes the public to help fight crime.

State law enforcement agencies operate in every state except Hawaii. Most full-time sworn personnel are uniformed officers who regularly patrol and respond to calls for service. Others are investigators, perform court-related duties, or work in administrative or other assignments. Detectives are plainclothes investigators who gather facts and collect evidence for criminal cases. Some are assigned to interagency task forces to combat specific types of crime. They conduct interviews, examine records, observe the activities of suspects, and participate in raids or arrests. Detectives and state and federal agents and inspectors usually specialize in one of a wide variety of violations such as homicide or fraud. They are assigned cases on a rotating basis and work on them until an arrest and conviction occurs or the case is dropped.

Police agencies are usually organized into geographic districts, with uniformed officers assigned to patrol a specific area, such as part of the business district or outlying residential neighborhoods. Officers may work alone, but in large agencies they often patrol with a partner. While on patrol, officers attempt to become thoroughly familiar with their patrol area and remain alert for anything unusual. Suspicious circumstances and hazards to public safety are investigated or noted, and officers are dispatched to individual calls for assistance within their district. During their shift, they may identify, pursue, and arrest suspected criminals, resolve problems within the community, and enforce traffic laws.

The federal government maintains a high profile in many areas of law enforcement. Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) agents are the government’s principal investigators, responsible for investigating violations of more than 260 statutes and conducting sensitive national security investigations. Agents may conduct surveillance, monitor court-authorized wiretaps, examine business records, investigate white-collar crime, track the interstate movement of stolen property, collect evidence of espionage activities, or participate in sensitive undercover assignments. The FBI investigates organized crime, public corruption, financial crime, fraud against the government, bribery, copyright infringement, civil rights violations, bank robbery, extortion, kidnapping, air piracy, terrorism, espionage, interstate criminal activity, drug trafficking, and other violations of federal statutes.

Public college and university police forces, public school district police, and agencies serving transportation systems and facilities are examples of special police agencies. These agencies have special geographic jurisdictions or enforcement responsibilities in the United States. Most sworn personnel in special agencies are uniformed officers, a smaller number are investigators. Some police officers specialize in such diverse fields as chemical and microscopic analysis, training and firearms instruction, or handwriting and fingerprint identification. Others work with special units such as horseback, bicycle, motorcycle or harbor patrol, canine corps, or special weapons and tactics (SWAT) or emergency response teams. A few local and special law enforcement officers primarily perform jail-related duties or work in courts. Regardless of job duties or location, police officers and detectives at all levels must write reports and maintain meticulous records that will be needed if they testify in court.

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U.S. Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) agents enforce laws and regulations relating to illegal drugs. Not only is the DEA the lead agency for domestic enforcement of federal drug laws, it also has sole responsibility for coordinating and pursuing U.S. drug investigations abroad. Agents may conduct complex criminal investigations, carry out surveillance of criminals, and infiltrate illicit drug organizations using undercover techniques.

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Section One: Descriptions of 101 Top Jobs for People Without a Four-Year Degree tions, issue security clearances, and protect the Secretary of State and a number of foreign dignitaries. They also train foreign civilian police and administer a counter-terrorism reward program.

U.S. marshals and deputy marshals protect the federal courts and ensure the effective operation of the judicial system. They provide protection for the federal judiciary, transport federal prisoners, protect federal witnesses, and manage assets seized from criminal enterprises. They enjoy the widest jurisdiction of any federal law enforcement agency and are involved to some degree in nearly all federal law enforcement efforts. In addition, U.S. marshals pursue and arrest federal fugitives.

Other federal agencies employ police and special agents with sworn arrest powers and the authority to carry firearms. These agencies include the Postal Service, the Bureau of Indian Affairs Office of Law Enforcement, the Forest Service, the National Park Service, and the Federal Air Marshals.

U.S. Immigration and Naturalization Service (INS) agents and inspectors facilitate the entry of legal visitors and immigrants to the U.S. and detain and deport those arriving illegally. They consist of border patrol agents, immigration inspectors, criminal investigators and immigration agents, and detention and deportation officers. U.S. Border Patrol agents protect more than 8,000 miles of international land and water boundaries. Their missions are to detect and prevent the smuggling and unlawful entry of undocumented foreign nationals into the U.S., apprehend those persons found in violation of the immigration laws, and interdict contraband, such as narcotics. Immigration inspectors interview and examine people seeking entrance to the U.S. and its territories. They inspect passports to determine whether people are legally eligible to enter the United States. Immigration inspectors also prepare reports, maintain records, and process applications and petitions for immigration or temporary residence in the United States.

Working Conditions Police work can be very dangerous and stressful. In addition to the obvious dangers of confrontations with criminals, officers need to be constantly alert and ready to deal appropriately with a number of other threatening situations. Many law enforcement officers witness death and suffering resulting from accidents and criminal behavior. A career in law enforcement may take a toll on officers’ private lives. Uniformed officers, detectives, agents, and inspectors are usually scheduled to work 40-hour weeks, but paid overtime is common. Shift work is necessary because protection must be provided around the clock. Junior officers frequently work weekends, holidays, and nights. Police officers and detectives are required to work at any time their services are needed and may work long hours during investigations. In most jurisdictions, whether on or off duty, officers are expected to be armed and to exercise their arrest authority whenever necessary.

Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, and Firearms (ATF) agents regulate and investigate violations of federal firearms and explosives laws, as well as federal alcohol and tobacco tax regulations. Customs agents investigate violations of narcotics smuggling, money laundering, child pornography, customs fraud, and enforcement of the Arms Export Control Act. Domestic and foreign investigations involve the development and use of informants, physical and electronic surveillance, and examination of records from importers/exporters, banks, couriers, and manufacturers. They conduct interviews, serve on joint task forces with other agencies, and get and execute search warrants.

The jobs of some federal agents such as U.S. Secret Service and DEA special agents require extensive travel, often on very short notice. They may relocate a number of times over the course of their careers. Some special agents in agencies such as the U.S. Border Patrol work outdoors in rugged terrain for long periods and in all kinds of weather.

Employment

Customs inspectors inspect cargo, baggage, and articles worn or carried by people and carriers including vessels, vehicles, trains and aircraft entering or leaving the U.S. to enforce laws governing imports and exports. These inspectors examine, count, weigh, gauge, measure, and sample commercial and noncommercial cargoes entering and leaving the United States. Customs inspectors seize prohibited or smuggled articles, intercept contraband, and apprehend, search, detain, and arrest violators of U.S. laws.

Police and detectives held about 840,000 jobs in 2002. About 81 percent were employed by local governments. State police agencies employed about 11 percent and various federal agencies employed about 6 percent. A small proportion worked for educational services, rail transportation, and contract investigation and security services. According to the U.S. Bureau of Justice Statistics, police and detectives employed by local governments primarily worked in cities with more than 25,000 inhabitants. Some cities have very large police forces, while thousands of small communities employ fewer than 25 officers each.

U.S. Secret Service special agents protect the President, Vice President, and their immediate families; Presidential candidates; former Presidents; and foreign dignitaries visiting the United States. Secret Service agents also investigate counterfeiting, forgery of government checks or bonds, and fraudulent use of credit cards.

Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement

The U.S. Department of State Bureau of Diplomatic Security special agents are engaged in the battle against terrorism. Overseas, they advise ambassadors on all security matters and manage a complex range of security programs designed to protect personnel, facilities, and information. In the U.S., they investigate passport and visa fraud, conduct personnel security investiga-

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Civil service regulations govern the appointment of police and detectives in practically all states, large municipalities, and special police agencies, as well as in many smaller ones. Candidates must be U.S. citizens, usually at least 20 years of age, and must meet rigorous physical and personal qualifications. In

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America’s Top 101 Jobs for People Without a Four-Year Degree Applicants for special agent jobs with the U.S. Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) must have a college degree and either 1 year of experience conducting criminal investigations, 1 year of graduate school, or have achieved at least a 2.95 grade point average while in college. DEA special agents undergo 14 weeks of specialized training at the FBI Academy in Quantico, Virginia.

the federal government, candidates must be at least 21 years of age but less than 37 years of age at the time of appointment. Physical examinations for entrance into law enforcement often include tests of vision, hearing, strength, and agility. Eligibility for appointment usually depends on performance in competitive written examinations and previous education and experience. In larger departments, where the majority of law enforcement jobs are found, applicants usually must have at least a high school education. Federal and state agencies typically require a college degree. Candidates should enjoy working with people and meeting the public.

U.S. Border Patrol agents must be U.S. citizens, younger than 37 years of age at the time of appointment, possess a valid driver’s license, and pass a three-part examination on reasoning and language skills. A bachelor’s degree or previous work experience that demonstrates the ability to handle stressful situations, make decisions, and take charge is required for a position as a Border Patrol agent. Applicants may qualify through a combination of education and work experience.

Because personal characteristics such as honesty, sound judgment, integrity, and a sense of responsibility are especially important in law enforcement, candidates are interviewed by senior officers, and their character traits and backgrounds are investigated. In some agencies, candidates are interviewed by a psychiatrist or a psychologist or given a personality test. Most applicants are subjected to lie detector examinations or drug testing. Some agencies subject sworn personnel to random drug testing as a condition of continuing employment.

Postal inspectors must have a bachelor’s degree and 1 year of related work experience. It is desirable that they have one of several professional certifications, such as that of certified public accountant. They also must pass a background suitability investigation, meet certain health requirements, undergo a drug screening test, possess a valid state driver’s license, and be a U.S. citizen between 21 and 36 years of age when hired.

Before their first assignments, officers usually go through a period of training. In state and large local departments, recruits get training in their agency’s police academy, often for 12 to 14 weeks. In small agencies, recruits often attend a regional or state academy. Training includes classroom instruction in constitutional law and civil rights, state laws and local ordinances, and accident investigation. Recruits also receive training and supervised experience in patrol, traffic control, use of firearms, self-defense, first aid, and emergency response. Police departments in some large cities hire high school graduates who are still in their teens as police cadets or trainees. They do clerical work and attend classes, usually for 1 to 2 years, at which point they reach the minimum age requirement and may be appointed to the regular force.

Law enforcement agencies are encouraging applicants to take postsecondary school training in law enforcement-related subjects. Many entry-level applicants for police jobs have completed some formal postsecondary education and a significant number are college graduates. Many junior colleges, colleges, and universities offer programs in law enforcement or administration of justice. Other courses helpful in preparing for a career in law enforcement include accounting, finance, electrical engineering, computer science, and foreign languages. Physical education and sports are helpful in developing the competitiveness, stamina, and agility needed for many law enforcement positions. Knowledge of a foreign language is an asset in many federal agencies and urban departments.

Police officers usually become eligible for promotion after a probationary period ranging from 6 months to 3 years. In a large department, promotion may enable an officer to become a detective or specialize in one type of police work, such as working with juveniles. Promotions to corporal, sergeant, lieutenant, and captain usually are made according to a candidate’s position on a promotion list, as determined by scores on a written examination and on-the-job performance.

Continuing training helps police officers, detectives, and special agents improve their job performance. Through police department academies, regional centers for public safety employees established by the states, and federal agency training centers, instructors provide annual training in self-defense tactics, firearms, use-of-force policies, sensitivity and communications skills, crowd-control techniques, relevant legal developments, and advances in law enforcement equipment. Many agencies pay all or part of the tuition for officers to work toward degrees in criminal justice, police science, administration of justice, or public administration, and pay higher salaries to those who earn such a degree.

To be considered for appointment as an FBI agent, an applicant either must be a graduate of an accredited law school or a college graduate with a major in accounting, fluency in a foreign language, or 3 years of related full-time work experience. All new agents undergo 16 weeks of training at the FBI academy on the U.S. Marine Corps base in Quantico, Virginia.

Job Outlook

Applicants for special agent jobs with the U.S. Secret Service and the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, and Firearms must have a bachelor’s degree or a minimum of 3 years’ related work experience. Prospective special agents undergo 10 weeks of initial criminal investigation training at the Federal Law Enforcement Training Center in Glynco, Georgia, and another 17 weeks of specialized training with their particular agencies.

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The opportunity for public service through law enforcement work is attractive to many because the job is challenging and involves much personal responsibility. Furthermore, law enforcement officers in many agencies may retire with a pension after 20 or 25 years of service, allowing them to pursue a second career while still in their 40s. Because of relatively

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Section One: Descriptions of 101 Top Jobs for People Without a Four-Year Degree agents are expected to work. For example, in 2003 FBI agents enter federal service as GS-10 employees on the pay scale at a base salary of $39,115, yet earned about $48,890 a year with availability pay. They can advance to the GS-13 grade level in field nonsupervisory assignments at a base salary of $61,251, which is worth $76,560 with availability pay. FBI supervisory, management, and executive positions in grades GS-14 and GS15 pay a base salary of about $72,381 or $85,140 a year, respectively, and equaled $90,480 or $106,430 per year including availability pay. Salaries were slightly higher in selected areas where the prevailing local pay level was higher. Because federal agents may be eligible for a special law enforcement benefits package, applicants should ask their recruiter for more information.

attractive salaries and benefits, the number of qualified candidates exceeds the number of job openings in federal law enforcement agencies and in most state police departments— resulting in increased hiring standards and selectivity by employers. Competition should remain keen for higherpaying jobs with state and federal agencies and police departments in more affluent areas. Opportunities will be better in local and special police departments, especially in departments that offer relatively low salaries, or in urban communities where the crime rate is relatively high. Applicants with college training in police science, military police experience, or both should have the best opportunities. Employment of police and detectives is expected to grow faster than the average for all occupations through 2012. A more security-conscious society and concern about drug-related crimes should contribute to the increasing demand for police services.

According to the International City-County Management Association’s annual Police and Fire Personnel, Salaries, and Expenditures Survey, average salaries for sworn full-time positions in 2002 were as follows:

The level of government spending determines the level of employment for police and detectives. The number of job opportunities, therefore, can vary from year to year and from place to place. Layoffs, on the other hand, are rare because retirements enable most staffing cuts to be handled through attrition. Trained law enforcement officers who lose their jobs because of budget cuts usually have little difficulty finding jobs with other agencies. The need to replace workers who retire, transfer to other occupations, or stop working for other reasons will be the source of many job openings.

Earnings Police and sheriff’s patrol officers had median annual earnings of $42,270 in 2002. The middle 50 percent earned between $32,300 and $53,500. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $25,270, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $65,330. Median annual earnings were $47,090 in state government, $42,020 in local government, and $41,600 in federal government.

Maximum annual base salary

Police chief ................................

$68,337

$87,037

Deputy chief ..............................

59,790

75,266

Police captain ............................

56,499

70,177

Police lieutenant ........................

52,446

63,059

Police sergeant............................

46,805

55,661

Police corporal ............................

39,899

49,299

Total earnings for local, state, and special police and detectives frequently exceed the stated salary because of payments for overtime, which can be significant. In addition to the common benefits—paid vacation, sick leave, and medical and life insurance—most police and sheriffs’ departments provide officers with special allowances for uniforms. Because police officers usually are covered by liberal pension plans, many retire at half pay after 20 or 25 years of service.

In 2002, median annual earnings of police and detective supervisors were $61,010. The middle 50 percent earned between $47,210 and $74,610. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $36,340, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $90,070. Median annual earnings were $78,230 in federal government, $64,410 in state government, and $59,830 in local government.

Related Occupations Police and detectives maintain law and order, collect evidence and information, and conduct investigations and surveillance. Workers in related occupations include correctional officers, private detectives and investigators, and security guards and gaming surveillance officers.

In 2002, median annual earnings of detectives and criminal investigators were $51,410. The middle 50 percent earned between $39,010 and $65,980. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $31,010, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $80,380. Median annual earnings were $66,500 in federal government, $47,700 in local government, and $46,600 in state government.

Sources of Additional Information Information about entrance requirements may be obtained from federal, state, and local law enforcement agencies.

Federal law provides special salary rates to federal employees who serve in law enforcement. Additionally, federal special agents and inspectors receive law enforcement availability pay (LEAP)—equal to 25 percent of the agent’s grade and step— awarded because of the large amount of overtime that these

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Minimum annual base salary

Further information about qualifications for employment as a FBI Special Agent is available from the nearest state FBI office. The address and phone number are listed in the local telephone directory. Internet: http://www.fbi.gov.

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America’s Top 101 Jobs for People Without a Four-Year Degree Postal service clerks, also known as window clerks, sell stamps, money orders, postal stationary, and mailing envelopes and boxes. They also weigh packages to determine postage and check that packages are in satisfactory condition for mailing. These clerks register, certify, and insure mail and answer questions about postage rates, post office boxes, mailing restrictions, and other postal matters. Window clerks also help customers file claims for damaged packages.

Information on career opportunities, qualifications, and training for U.S. Secret Service Special Agents is available from the Secret Service Personnel Division at (202) 406-5800, (888) 8138777 or (888) 813-USSS. Internet: http://www.treas.gov/usss. Information about qualifications for employment as a DEA Special Agent is available from the nearest DEA office, or call (800) DEA-4288. Internet: http://www.usdoj.gov/dea. Information about career opportunities, qualifications, and training to become a deputy marshal is available from: ●

Postal service mail sorters, processors, and processing machine operators prepare incoming and outgoing mail for distribution. These workers are commonly referred to as mail handlers, distribution clerks, mail processors, or mail processing clerks. They load and unload postal trucks and move mail around a mail processing center with forklifts, small electric tractors, or hand-pushed carts. They also load and operate mail processing, sorting, and canceling machinery.

U.S. Marshals Service, Human Resources Division—Law Enforcement Recruiting, Washington, DC 20530-1000. Internet: http://www.usdoj.gov/marshals

For information on operations and career opportunities in the U.S. Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco and Firearms operations, contact: ●

U.S. Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco and Firearms, Personnel Division, 650 Massachusetts Ave. NW, Room 4100, Washington, DC 20226. Internet: http://www.atf.treas.gov

Postal service mail carriers deliver mail, once it has been processed and sorted. Although carriers are classified by their type of route—either city or rural—duties of city and rural carriers are similar. Most travel established routes, delivering and collecting mail. Mail carriers start work at the post office early in the morning, when they arrange the mail in delivery sequence. Automated equipment has reduced the time that carriers need to sort the mail, allowing them to spend more time delivering it.

Information about careers in U.S. Customs and Border Protection is available from: ●

U.S. Customs and Border Protection, 1300 Pennsylvania Ave., NW, Washington, DC 20229. Internet: http://www.cbp.gov

Mail carriers cover their routes on foot, by vehicle, or a combination of both. On foot, they carry a heavy load of mail in a satchel or push it on a cart. In most urban and rural areas, they use a car or small truck. Although the Postal Service provides vehicles to city carriers, most rural carriers must use their own automobiles. Deliveries are made house-to-house, to roadside mailboxes, and to large buildings such as offices or apartments, which generally have all of their tenants’ mailboxes in one location.

Postal Service Workers (O*NET 43-5051.00, 43-5052.00, and 43-5053.00)

Significant Points ●

Qualification is based on an examination.

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Overall employment within the U.S. Postal Service is expected to shrink due to declining mail volume and increasing automation.

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Keen competition is expected because the number of qualified applicants should continue to exceed the number of job openings.

Besides delivering and collecting mail, carriers collect money for postage-due and COD (cash-on-delivery) fees and obtain signed receipts for registered, certified, and insured mail. If a customer is not home, the carrier leaves a notice that tells where special mail is being held. After completing their routes, carriers return to the post office with mail gathered from street collection boxes, homes, and businesses and turn in the mail, receipts, and money collected during the day.

Nature of the Work

Some city carriers may have specialized duties such as delivering only parcels or picking up mail from mail collection boxes. In contrast to city carriers, rural carriers provide a wider range of postal services, in addition to delivering and picking up mail. For example, rural carriers may sell stamps and money orders and register, certify, and insure parcels and letters. All carriers, however, must be able to answer customers’ questions about postal regulations and services and provide change-ofaddress cards and other postal forms when requested.

Each week, the U.S. Postal Service delivers billions of pieces of mail, including letters, bills, advertisements, and packages. To do this in an efficient and timely manner, the Postal Service employs about 845,000 individuals. Most Postal Service workers are clerks, mail carriers, or mail sorters, processors, and processing machine operators. Postal clerks wait on customers at post offices, whereas mail sorters, processors, and processing machine operators sort incoming and outgoing mail at post offices and mail processing centers. Mail carriers deliver mail to urban and rural residences and businesses throughout the United States.

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Working Conditions Window clerks usually work in the public portion of clean, well-ventilated, and well-lit buildings. They have a variety of duties and frequent contact with the public, but they rarely

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Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement

work at night. However, they may have to deal with upset customers, stand for long periods, and be held accountable for an assigned stock of stamps and funds. Depending on the size of the post office in which they work, they also may be required to sort mail.

Postal Service workers must be at least 18 years old. They must be U.S. citizens or have been granted permanent resident-alien status in the United States, and males must have registered with the Selective Service upon reaching age 18. Applicants should have a basic competency of English. Qualification is based on a written examination that measures speed and accuracy at checking names and numbers and the ability to memorize mail distribution procedures. Applicants must pass a physical examination and drug test and may be asked to show that they can lift and handle mail sacks weighing 70 pounds. Applicants for mail carrier positions must have a driver’s license and a good driving record and must receive a passing grade on a road test.

Despite the use of automated equipment, the work of mail sorters, processors, and processing machine operators can be physically demanding. Workers may have to move heavy sacks of mail around a mail processing center. These workers usually are on their feet, reaching for sacks and trays of mail or placing packages and bundles into sacks and trays. Processing mail can be tiring and boring. Many sorters, processors, and machine operators work at night or on weekends, because most large post offices process mail around the clock, and the largest volume of mail is sorted during the evening and night shifts. Workers can experience stress as they process ever-larger quantities of mail under tight production deadlines and quotas.

Jobseekers should contact the post office or mail processing center where they wish to work to determine when an exam will be given. Applicants’ names are listed in order of their examination scores. Five points are added to the score of an honorably discharged veteran and 10 points are added to the score of a veteran who was wounded in combat or is disabled. When a vacancy occurs, the appointing officer chooses one of the top three applicants; the rest of the names remain on the list to be considered for future openings until their eligibility expires—usually 2 years after the examination date.

Most carriers begin work early in the morning—those with routes in a business district can start as early as 4 a.m. Overtime hours are frequently required for urban carriers. A carrier’s schedule has its advantages, however. Carriers who begin work early in the morning are through by early afternoon and spend most of the day on their own, relatively free from direct supervision. Carriers spend most of their time outdoors, delivering mail in all kinds of weather. Even those who drive often must walk periodically when making deliveries and must lift heavy sacks of parcel post items when loading their vehicles. In addition, carriers must be cautious of potential hazards on their routes. Wet and icy roads and sidewalks can be treacherous, and each year dogs attack numerous carriers.

Relatively few people become postal clerks or mail carriers on their first job because of keen competition and the customary waiting period of 1 to 2 years or more after passing the examination. It is not surprising, therefore, that most entrants transfer from other occupations. New Postal Service workers are trained on the job by experienced workers. Many post offices offer classroom instruction on safety and defensive driving. Workers receive additional instruction when new equipment or procedures are introduced. In these cases, workers usually are trained by another postal employee or a training specialist.

Employment The U.S. Postal Service employed 77,000 clerks; 334,000 mail carriers; and 253,000 mail sorters, processors, and processing machine operators in 2002. Most of them worked full time. Most postal clerks provided window service at post office branches. Many mail sorters, processors, and processing machine operators sorted mail at major metropolitan post offices; others worked at mail processing centers. The majority of mail carriers worked in cities and suburbs, while the rest worked in rural areas.

Postal clerks and mail carriers should be courteous and tactful when dealing with the public, especially when answering questions or receiving complaints. A good memory and the ability to read rapidly and accurately are important. Good interpersonal skills also are vital, because mail distribution clerks work closely with other postal workers, frequently under the tension and strain of meeting dispatch or transportation deadlines and quotas.

Postal Service workers are classified as casual, part-time flexible, part-time regular, or full time. Casuals are hired for 90 days at a time to help process and deliver mail during peak mailing or vacation periods. Part-time flexible workers do not have a regular work schedule or weekly guarantee of hours but are called as the need arises. Part-time regulars have a set work schedule of fewer than 40 hours per week, often replacing regular full-time workers on their scheduled day off. Full-time postal employees work a 40-hour week over a 5-day period.

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Postal Service workers often begin on a part-time, flexible basis and become regular or full time in order of seniority, as vacancies occur. Full-time workers may bid for preferred assignments, such as the day shift or a high-level nonsupervisory position. Carriers can look forward to obtaining preferred routes as their seniority increases. Postal Service workers can advance to supervisory positions on a competitive basis.

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Job Outlook

mail carriers are reimbursed for mileage put on their own vehicles while delivering mail.

Employment of Postal Service workers is expected to decline through 2012. Still, many jobs will become available because of the need to replace those who retire or leave the occupation. Those seeking jobs as Postal Service workers can expect to encounter keen competition. The number of applicants should continue to exceed the number of job openings due to low entry requirements and attractive wages and benefits.

Median annual earnings of Postal Service clerks were $39,700 in 2002. The middle 50 percent earned between $37,160 and $42,230. The lowest 10 percent had earnings of less than $35,640, while the top 10 percent earned more than $43,750. Median annual earnings of mail sorters, processors, and processing machine operators were $38,150 in 2002. The middle 50 percent earned between $30,140 and $41,450. The lowest 10 percent had earnings of less than $21,680, while the top 10 percent earned more than $43,430.

A small decline in employment is expected among window clerks over the 2002–12 projection period. Efforts by the Postal Service to provide better service may somewhat increase the demand for window clerks, but the demand for such clerks will be offset by the use of electronic communications technologies and private delivery companies. Employment of mail sorters, processors, and processing machine operators is expected to decline because of the increasing use of automated materials handling equipment and optical character readers, barcode sorters, and other automated sorting equipment.

Postal Service workers enjoy a variety of employer-provided benefits similar to those enjoyed by federal government workers. The American Postal Workers Union, the National Association of Letter Carriers, the National Postal Mail Handlers Union, and the National Rural Letter Carriers Association together represent most of these workers.

Related Occupations

Several factors are expected to influence demand for mail carriers. The competition from alternative delivery systems and new forms of electronic communication could decrease the total volume of mail handled. Most of the decrease is expected to consist of first-class mail. The Postal Service expects an increase in package deliveries due to the rising number of purchases made through the Internet. Although total mail volume may decrease, the number of addresses to which mail must be delivered will continue to grow. However, increased use of the “delivery point sequencing” system, which allows machines to sort mail directly by the order of delivery, should reduce the amount of time that carriers spend sorting their mail, allowing them more time to handle longer routes. In addition, the Postal Service is moving toward more centralized mail delivery, such as the use of cluster boxes, to cut down on the number of door-to-door deliveries. These trends are expected to increase carrier productivity, resulting in a small decline in employment among mail carriers over the projection period. The increasing number of delivery points may result in greater demand for rural mail carriers than for city mail carriers, as much of the increase in delivery points will be seen in less urbanized areas.

Other occupations with duties similar to those of postal clerks include cashiers; counter and rental clerks; file clerks; and shipping, receiving, and traffic clerks. Others with duties related to those of mail carriers include couriers and messengers, and truck drivers and driver/sales workers. Occupations whose duties are related to those of mail sorters, processors, and processing machine operators include inspectors, testers, sorters, samplers, and weighers, and material moving occupations.

Sources of Additional Information Local post offices and state employment service offices can supply details about entrance examinations and specific employment opportunities for Postal Service workers.

Prepress Technicians and Workers

Currently, the role of the Postal Service as a governmentapproved monopoly is a topic of debate. Any legislative changes that would privatize or deregulate the Postal Service might affect employment of all its workers. Employment and schedules in the Postal Service fluctuate with the demand for its services. When mail volume is high, full-time workers work overtime, part-time workers get additional hours, and casual workers may be hired. When mail volume is low, overtime is curtailed, part-timers work fewer hours, and casual workers are discharged.

(O*NET 51-5022.01, 51-5022.02, 51-5022.03, 51-5022.04, 51-5022.05, 51-5022.06, 51-5022.07, 51-5022.08, and 51-5022.09)

Significant Points ●

Most workers train on the job; some complete formal graphics arts programs or other postsecondary programs in printing technology.

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Most employers prefer to hire workers with experience in the printing industry.

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Employment is projected to decline as the increased use of computers in typesetting and page layout eliminates many prepress jobs.

Earnings Median annual earnings of postal mail carriers were $39,530 in 2002. The middle 50 percent earned between $36,020 and $43,040. The lowest 10 percent had earnings of less than $31,180, while the top 10 percent earned over $47,500. Rural

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Nature of the Work

“phototypesetting” to prepare text and pictures for printing. Although this method has many variations, all use photography to create images on paper. The images are assembled into page format and rephotographed to create film negatives from which the actual printing plates are made.

The printing process has three stages—prepress, press, and binding or postpress. In small print shops, job printers may be responsible for all three stages. They do the composition and page layout of the material received from the customer, check proofs for errors and print clarity and correct mistakes, print the job, and attach each copy’s pages together. In most printing firms, however, each of the stages is the responsibility of a specialized group of workers. Prepress technicians and workers are responsible for the first stage, preparing the material for printing presses. They perform a variety of tasks involved with transforming text and pictures into finished pages and making printing plates of the pages.

In one common form of phototypesetting, printed text received from the customer must first be entered into a computer programmed to hyphenate, space, and create columns of text. Typesetters or data entry clerks may do the keyboarding of text at the printing establishment. The coded text then is transferred to a typesetting machine, which uses photography, a cathode-ray tube, or a laser to create an image on typesetting paper or film. Once it has been developed, the paper or film is sent to a lithographer who makes the actual printing plate.

Typesetting and page layout have been greatly affected by technological changes over the years and, today, advances in computer software and printing technology continue to change prepress work. The old “hot type” method of text composition—in which molten lead was used to create individual letters, which were placed in frames to produce paragraphs and full pages of text—has become rare. Its successor, phototypesetting or “cold type” technology, is still used for some composition work, but it, in turn, is being rapidly replaced by computerized digital imaging technology. Customers today are able to provide printers with pages of material that look like the desired finished product they want printed and bound in volume. Using a process called “desktop publishing,” customers are increasingly using their own computers to do much of the typesetting and page layout work formerly done by prepress technicians. Many regular customers employ workers called desktop publishers to do this work. Other customers employ in-house graphic designers who do desktop publishing as part of their work, or send the work out to freelance graphic designers. It is increasingly common for prepress technicians or other printing workers to receive files from the customer on a computer disk or submitted by e-mail that contain typeset material already laid out in pages.

With traditional photolithographic processes, the material to be printed is arranged and typeset, and then passed on to workers who further prepare it for the presses. Camera operators start the process of making a lithographic plate by photographing and developing film negatives or positives of the material to be printed. They adjust light and expose film for a specified length of time, and then develop the film in a series of chemical baths. They may load exposed film in machines that automatically develop and fix the image. The lithographic printing process requires that images be made up of tiny dots coming together to form a picture. Photographs cannot be printed without them. When normal “continuous-tone” photographs need to be reproduced, camera operators use halftone cameras to separate the photograph into an image containing the dots of varying sizes corresponding to the values of the original photograph. Color separation photography is more complex. In this process, camera operators produce four-color separation negatives from a continuous-tone color print or transparency. Because this is a complicated and time-consuming process, most of this separation work is instead being done electronically on scanners. Scanner operators use computerized equipment to capture photographs or art as digital data, or to create film negatives or positives of photographs or art. The computer controls the color separation of the scanning process and, with the help of the operator, corrects for mistakes or compensates for deficiencies in the original color print or transparency. Each scan produces a dotted image, or halftone, of the original in 1 of 4 primary printing colors—yellow, magenta, cyan, and black. The images are used to produce printing plates that print each of these colors, with transparent colored inks, one at a time. Superimposition of the images on the photos produces “secondary” color combinations of red, green, blue, and black that approximate the colors and hues of the original photograph.

The printing industry is doing more prepress work using complete “digital imaging.” Using this technology, prepress technicians called “preflight technicians” take material received on computer disks from customers, check it for completeness, and format it into pages using electronic page layout systems; even though the pages may already be laid out, they still may have to be formatted to fit the dimensions of the paper stock to be used. When color printing is required, the technicians use digital color page-makeup systems to electronically produce an image of the printed pages, then use off-press color proofing systems to print a copy, or “proof,” of the pages as they will appear when printed. The technician then has the proofs delivered or mailed to the customer for a final check. Once the customer gives the “OK to print,” technicians use laser “imagesetters” to expose digital images of the pages directly onto thin aluminum printing plates.

Where this process is still being used, film strippers cut the film of text and images to the required size and arrange and tape the negatives onto “flats”—or layout sheets used by platemakers to make press plates. When completed, flats resemble large film negatives of the text in its final form. Platemakers use a photographic process to make printing plates. The flat is placed on top of a thin metal plate coated with a light-sensitive resin. Exposure to ultraviolet light activates the chemical in parts of the plate not protected by the film’s dark areas. The plate then

Some customers continue to provide material to printers that is more suitable for cold type prepress technology. Cold type processing, which describes any of a variety of methods to create a printing plate without molten lead, has traditionally used

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is developed in a solution that removes the unexposed nonimage area, exposing bare metal. The chemical on areas of the plate exposed to the light hardens and becomes water repellent. The hardened parts of the plate form the text and images to be printed.

Postsecondary graphic communications programs are available from a variety of sources. For beginners, 2-year associate degree programs offered by community and junior colleges and technical schools, and some 4-year bachelor’s degree programs in graphic design colleges teach the latest prepress skills and allow students to practice applying them. However, bachelor’s programs usually are intended for students who may eventually move into management positions in printing or design jobs. Community and junior colleges, 4-year colleges and universities, vocational-technical institutes, industrysponsored update and retraining programs, and private trade and technical schools all also offer prepress-related courses for workers who do not wish to enroll in a degree program. Many workers with experience in other printing jobs take a few college graphic communications courses to upgrade their skills and qualify for prepress jobs. Prepress training designed to train skilled workers already employed in the printing industry also is offered through unions in the printing industry. Many employers view individuals with a combination of experience in the printing industry and formal training in the new digital technology as the best candidates for prepress jobs. The experience of these applicants in printing press operator or other jobs provides them with an understanding of how printing plants operate, familiarizes them with basic prepress functions, and demonstrates their reliability and interest in advancing in the industry.

During the printing process, the plate is first covered with a thin coat of water. The water adheres only to the bare metal nonimage areas, and is repelled by the hardened areas that were exposed to light. Next, the plate comes in contact with a rubber roller covered with oil-based ink. Because oil and water do not mix, the ink is repelled by the water-coated area and sticks to the hardened areas. The ink covering the hardened text is transferred to paper.

Working Conditions Prepress technicians and workers usually work in clean, airconditioned areas with little noise. Some workers may develop eyestrain from working in front of a video display terminal or musculoskeletal problems such as backaches. Platemakers, who still work with toxic chemicals, face the hazard of skin irritations. Workers often are subject to stress and the pressures of short deadlines and tight work schedules. Prepress employees usually work an 8-hour day. Some workers—particularly those employed by newspapers—work night shifts, weekends, and holidays.

Employment

Employers prefer workers with good communication skills, both oral and written, for prepress jobs. Prepress technicians and workers should be able to deal courteously with people because, when prepress problems arise, they sometimes have to contact the customer to resolve them. Also, in small shops, they may take customer orders. Persons interested in working for firms using advanced printing technology need to know the basics of electronics and computers. Mathematical skills also are essential for operating many of the software packages used to run modern, computerized prepress equipment. At times, prepress personnel may have to perform computations in order to estimate job costs.

Prepress technicians and workers overall held about 148,000 jobs in 2002. Of these, approximately 56,000 were employed as job printers; the remainder was employed as prepress technicians and other prepress workers. Most prepress jobs are found in the printing industry, while newspaper publishing employs the second largest number of prepress technicians and workers. The printing and publishing industries are two of the most geographically dispersed in the United States, and prepress jobs are found throughout the country. However, jobs are concentrated in large metropolitan cities such as New York; Chicago; Los Angeles; Philadelphia; Washington, DC; and Dallas.

Prepress technicians and workers need good manual dexterity, and they must be able to pay attention to detail and work independently. Good eyesight, including visual acuity, depth perception, field of view, color vision, and the ability to focus quickly, also are assets. Artistic ability is often a plus. Employers also seek persons who possess an even temperament and an ability to adapt, important qualities for workers who often must meet deadlines and learn how to use new software or operate new equipment.

Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Traditionally, prepress technicians and workers started as helpers and were trained on the job, the length of training varying by occupation. Some jobs required years of experience performing the detailed handwork to become skillful enough to perform even difficult tasks quickly. Instead of painstakingly taping pieces of photographic negatives to flats, today’s prepress technicians increasingly use computer software skills to electronically modify and lay out the material; in some cases, the first time the material appears on paper is when the final product rolls off the printing press. As this digital imaging technology increasingly replaces cold type print technology, persons seeking to enter prepress technician jobs will require

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Job Outlook Overall employment of prepress technicians and workers is expected to decline through 2012. The number of job printers, however, is expected to grow, though at a rate slower than average. Demand for printed material should continue to grow, spurred by rising levels of personal income, increasing school enrollments, higher levels of educational attainment,

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Section One: Descriptions of 101 Top Jobs for People Without a Four-Year Degree Median hourly earnings in commercial printing, the industry employing the largest number of prepress technicians and workers, were $16.05 in 2002, while the figure for these workers in the newspaper, periodical, and book publishing industry was $13.07 an hour. For job printers, median hourly earnings in commercial printing in 2002 were $14.84, while in the newspaper, periodical, and book publishing industry median hourly earnings were $13.98.

and expanding markets. But increased use of computers in desktop publishing will contribute to the elimination of many jobs for prepress technicians. Technological advances will have a varying effect on employment among the prepress occupations. This reflects the increasing proportion of page layout and design that will be performed using computers. Thus, the need for preflight technicians will remain strong. However, most prepress technicians and workers such as pasteup, composition and typesetting, photoengraving, platemaking, film stripping, and camera operator occupations are expected to experience declines as handwork becomes automated. Computer software that allows office workers to specify text typeface and style, and to format pages at a desktop computer terminal, already has eliminated most typesetting and composition jobs; more jobs will disappear in the years ahead.

Wage rates for prepress technicians and workers vary according to occupation, level of experience, training, location, size of firm, and union membership status.

Related Occupations Prepress technicians and workers use artistic skills in their work. These skills also are essential for artists and related workers, graphic designers, and desktop publishers. Moreover, many of the skills used in Web site design also are employed in prepress technology.

Job prospects also will vary by industry. Changes in technology have shifted many prepress functions away from the traditional printing plants into advertising and public relations agencies, graphic design firms, and large corporations. Many companies are turning to in-house desktop publishing as page layout and graphic design capabilities of computer software have improved and become less expensive and more userfriendly. Some firms are finding it more profitable to prepare their own newsletters and other reports than to send them out to trade shops. At newspapers, writers and editors also are doing more composition using publishing software.

In addition to typesetters, other workers who operate machines equipped with keyboards include data entry and information processing workers. Prepress technicians’ work also is tied in closely with that of printing machine operators, including job printers.

Sources of Additional Information Details about training programs may be obtained from local employers such as newspapers and printing shops, or from local offices of the state employment service.

Some new jobs for prepress technicians and workers are expected to emerge in commercial printing establishments. New equipment should reduce the time needed to complete a printing job, and allow commercial printers to make inroads into new markets that require fast turnaround. Because small establishments predominate, commercial printing should provide the best opportunities for inexperienced workers who want to gain a good background in all facets of printing.

For information on careers and training in printing and the graphic arts, write to:

Employers in the printing industry prefer to hire workers experienced in all facets of printing. Among persons without experience, however, opportunities should be best for those with computer backgrounds who have completed postsecondary programs in printing technology or graphic communications. Many employers prefer graduates of these programs because the comprehensive training that they receive helps them to learn the printing process and to adapt more rapidly to new processes and techniques.

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Printing Industries of America, 100 Daingerfield Rd., Alexandria, VA 22314. Internet: http://www.gain.net

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Graphic Communications Council, 1899 Preston White Dr., Reston, VA 20191. Internet: http://www.teched.vt.edu/gcc

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Graphic Communications International Union, 1900 L St. NW, Washington, DC 20036. Internet: http://www.gciu.org

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Graphic Arts Technical Foundation, 200 Deer Run Rd., Sewickley, PA 15143. Internet: http://www.gatf.org

Probation Officers and Correctional Treatment Specialists

Earnings Median hourly earnings of prepress technicians and workers were $14.98 in 2002. The middle 50 percent earned between $11.25 and $19.68 an hour. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $8.68, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $24.36 an hour.

(O*NET 21-1092.00)

For job printers, median hourly earnings were $14.47 in 2002. The middle 50 percent earned between $10.98 and $18.91 an hour. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $8.59, while the highest 10 percent earned more than $23.06 an hour.

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Significant Points ●

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State and local governments employ most workers.

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A bachelor’s degree in social work, criminal justice, or a related field usually is required.

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Employment growth, which is projected to be about as fast as average, depends on government funding.

jails and prisons, they evaluate the progress of inmates. They also work with inmates, probation officers, and other agencies to develop parole and release plans. Their case reports are provided to the appropriate parole board when their clients are eligible for release. In addition, they plan education and training programs to improve offenders’ job skills and provide them with coping, anger management, and drug or sexual abuse counseling, either individually or in groups. They usually write treatment plans and summaries for each client. Correctional treatment specialists working in parole and probation agencies perform many of the same duties as their counterparts who work in correctional institutions.

Nature of the Work Many people who are convicted of crimes are placed on probation instead of being sent to prison. During probation, offenders must stay out of trouble and meet various other requirements. Probation officers, who are called community supervision officers in some states, supervise people who have been placed on probation. Correctional treatment specialists, who may also be known as case managers, counsel prison inmates and help them plan for their release from incarceration.

The number of cases a probation officer or correctional treatment specialist handles at one time depends on the needs of offenders and the risks they pose. Higher-risk offenders and those who need more counseling usually command more of the officer’s time and resources. Caseload size also varies by agency jurisdiction. Consequently, officers may handle from 20 to more than 100 active cases at a time.

Parole officers and pretrial services officers perform many of the same duties that probation officers perform. However, parole officers supervise offenders who have been released from prison on parole to ensure that they comply with the conditions of their parole. In some states, the job of parole and probation officer is combined. Pretrial services officers conduct pretrial investigations of criminal suspects when they are arrested by police. Their findings help to determine whether a suspect should be released before their trial. When suspects are released before their trial, pretrial services officers have the responsibility of supervising them to make sure they adhere to the terms of their release and that they show up for their trial. Occasionally, in the federal courts system, probation officers perform the functions of pretrial services officers.

Computers, telephones, and fax machines enable the officers to handle the caseload. Probation officers may telecommute from their own homes. Other technological advancements, such as electronic monitoring devices and drug screening, also have assisted probation officers and correctional treatment specialists in supervising and counseling offenders.

Working Conditions Probation officers and correctional treatment specialists work with criminal offenders, some of whom may be dangerous. In the course of supervising offenders, they usually interact with many other individuals, such as family members and friends of their clients, who may be angry, upset, or difficult to work with. Workers may be assigned to fieldwork in high crime areas or in institutions where there is a risk of violence or communicable disease. Probation officers and correctional treatment specialists are required to meet many deadlines, most of which are imposed by courts, which contributes to their heavy workloads.

Probation officers supervise offenders on probation or parole through personal contact with the offenders and their families. Instead of requiring offenders to meet officers in their offices, many officers meet offenders in their homes and at their places of employment or therapy. Probation and parole agencies also seek the assistance of community organizations, such as religious institutions, neighborhood groups, and local residents, to monitor the behavior of many offenders. Some offenders are required to wear an electronic device so that probation officers can monitor their location and movements. Officers may arrange for offenders to get substance abuse rehabilitation or job training. Probation officers usually work with either adults or juveniles exclusively. Only in small, usually rural, jurisdictions do probation officers counsel both adults and juveniles.

In addition, extensive travel and fieldwork may be required to meet with offenders who are on probation or parole. Workers may be required to carry a firearm or other weapon for protection. They generally work a 40-hour workweek, but some may work longer. They may be on call 24 hours a day to supervise and assist offenders at any time. They also may be required to collect and transport urine samples of offenders for drug testing. All of these factors make for a stressful work environment. Although the high stress levels can make these jobs very difficult at times, this work also can be very rewarding. Many workers obtain personal satisfaction from counseling members of their community and helping them become productive citizens.

Probation officers also spend much of their time working for the courts. They investigate the background of offenders brought before the court, write presentence reports, and make sentencing recommendations for each offender. Officers review sentencing recommendations with offenders and their families before submitting them to the court. Officers may be required to testify in court as to their findings and recommendations. They also attend court hearings to update the court on the offender’s compliance with the terms of his or her sentence and on the offender’s efforts at rehabilitation.

Employment

Correctional treatment specialists work in correctional institutions (jails and prisons) or in parole or probation agencies. In

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Probation officers and correctional treatment specialists held about 84,000 jobs in 2002. Most jobs are found in state or local

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Section One: Descriptions of 101 Top Jobs for People Without a Four-Year Degree Vigorous law enforcement is expected to result in a continuing increase in the prison population. Overcrowding in prisons also has increased the probation population, as judges and prosecutors search for alternate forms of punishment, such as electronic monitoring and day reporting centers. The number of offenders released on parole also is expected to increase to create room in prison for other offenders. The increasing prison, parole, and probation populations should spur demand for probation and parole officers and correctional treatment specialists. However, the job outlook depends primarily on the amount of government funding that is allocated to corrections, and especially to probation systems. Although community supervision is far less expensive than keeping offenders in prison, a change in political trends toward more imprisonment and away from community supervision could result in reduced employment opportunities.

governments. In some states, the state government employs all probation officers and correctional treatment specialists; in other states, local governments are the only employers. In still other states, both levels of government employ these workers. Jobs are more plentiful in urban areas. Probation officers and correctional treatment specialists who work for the federal government are employed by the U.S. courts and the U.S. Department of Justice’s Bureau of Prisons.

Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Background qualifications for probation officers and correctional treatment specialists vary by state, but a bachelor’s degree in social work, criminal justice, or a related field from a 4-year college or university is usually required. Some employers require previous experience or a master’s degree in criminal justice, social work, psychology, or a related field.

Earnings

Applicants usually are administered written, oral, psychological, and physical examinations. Most probation officers and some correctional treatment specialists are required to complete a training program sponsored by their state government or the federal government, after which a certification test may be required.

Median annual earnings of probation officers and correctional treatment specialists in 2002 were $38,360. The middle 50 percent earned between $30,770 and $50,550. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $25,810, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $62,520. In 2002, median annual earnings for probation officers and correctional treatment specialists employed in state government were $38,720; those employed in local government earned $39,450. Higher wages tend to be found in urban areas.

Prospective probation officers or correctional treatment specialists should be in good physical and emotional condition. Most agencies require applicants to be at least 21 years old and, for federal employment, not older than 37. Those convicted of felonies may not be eligible for employment in this occupation. Familiarity with the use of computers often is required due to the increasing use of computer technology in probation and parole work. Candidates also should be knowledgeable about laws and regulations pertaining to corrections. Probation officers and correctional treatment specialists should possess strong writing skills due to the large numbers of reports they are required to prepare.

Related Occupations Probation officers and correctional treatment specialists counsel criminal offenders as they reenter society. Other occupations that involve similar responsibilities include social workers, social and human service assistants, and counselors. Probation officers and correctional treatment also play a major role in maintaining public safety. Other occupations related to corrections and law enforcement include police and detectives, correctional officers, and firefighting occupations.

Most probation officers and correctional treatment specialists work as trainees or on a probationary period for up to a year. After successfully completing the training period, workers obtain a permanent position. A typical agency has several levels of probation and parole officers and correctional treatment specialists, as well as supervisors. A graduate degree, such as a master’s degree in criminal justice, social work, or psychology, may be helpful for advancement.

Sources of Additional Information For information about criminal justice job opportunities in your area, contact your state’s Department of Corrections, Criminal Justice, or Probation. Further information about probation officers and correctional treatment specialists is available from:

Job Outlook Employment of probation officers and correctional treatment specialists is projected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through 2012. In addition to openings due to growth, many openings will be created by replacement needs, especially openings due to the large number of these workers who are expected to retire over the 2002–12 projection period. This occupation is not attractive to some potential entrants due to relatively low earnings, heavy workloads, and high stress.

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American Probation and Parole Association, P.O. Box 11910, Lexington, KY 40578. Internet: http://www.appa-net.org

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American Correctional Association, 4380 Forbes Blvd., Lanham, MD 20706. Internet: http://www.aca.org

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America’s Top 101 Jobs for People Without a Four-Year Degree Often, property managers negotiate contracts for janitorial, security, groundskeeping, trash removal, and other services. When contracts are awarded competitively, managers solicit bids from several contractors and recommend to the owners which bid to accept. They monitor the performance of contractors and investigate and resolve complaints from residents and tenants when services are not properly provided. Managers also purchase supplies and equipment for the property and make arrangements with specialists for repairs that cannot be handled by regular property maintenance staff.

Property, Real Estate, and Community Association Managers (O*NET 11-9141.00)

In addition to these duties, property managers must understand and comply with provisions of legislation, such as the Americans with Disabilities Act and the Federal Fair Housing Amendment Act, as well as local fair housing laws. They must ensure that their renting and advertising practices are not discriminatory and that the property itself complies with all of the local, state, and federal regulations and building codes.

Significant Points ●

Many enter the occupation as onsite managers of apartment buildings, office complexes, or community associations, or as employees of property management firms or community association management companies.

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Forty-six percent of property, real estate, and community association managers are self-employed.

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Opportunities should be best for those with college degrees in business administration or related fields, as well as professional designations.

Onsite property managers are responsible for day-to-day operations for one piece of property, such as an office building, shopping center, community association, or apartment complex. To ensure that the property is safe and properly maintained, onsite managers routinely inspect the grounds, facilities, and equipment to determine if repairs or maintenance are needed. They meet not only with current residents when handling requests for repairs or trying to resolve complaints, but also with prospective residents or tenants to show vacant apartments or office space. Onsite managers also are responsible for enforcing the terms of rental or lease agreements, such as rent collection, parking and pet restrictions, and termination-of-lease procedures. Other important duties of onsite managers include keeping accurate, up-to-date records of income and expenditures from property operations and submitting regular expense reports to the asset property manager or owners.

Nature of the Work Buildings can be homes, stores, or offices to those who use them. To businesses and investors, properly managed real estate is a potential source of income and profits, and, to homeowners, it is a way to preserve and enhance resale values. Property, real estate, and community association managers maintain and increase the value of real estate investments. Property and real estate managers oversee the performance of income-producing commercial or residential properties, and ensure that real estate investments achieve their expected revenues. Community association managers manage the common property and services of condominiums, cooperatives, and planned communities through their homeowners’ or community associations.

Property managers who do not work onsite act as a liaison between the onsite manager and the owner. They also market vacant space to prospective tenants through the use of a leasing agent or by advertising or other means, and establish rental rates in accordance with prevailing local economic conditions.

When owners of apartments, office buildings, or retail or industrial properties lack the time or expertise needed for dayto-day management of their real estate investments or homeowners’ associations, they often hire a property or real estate manager, or community association manager. The manager is employed either directly by the owner or indirectly through a contract with a property management firm.

Some property and real estate managers, often called real estate asset managers, act as the property owners’ agent and adviser for the property. They plan and direct the purchase, development, and disposition of real estate on behalf of the business and investors. These managers focus on long-term strategic financial planning rather than on day-to-day operations of the property.

Generally, property and real estate managers handle the financial operations of the property, ensuring that rent is collected and that mortgages, taxes, insurance premiums, payroll, and maintenance bills are paid on time. In community associations, although homeowners pay no rent and pay their own real estate taxes and mortgages, community association managers must collect association dues. Some property managers, called asset property managers, supervise the preparation of financial statements and periodically report to the owners on the status of the property, occupancy rates, dates of lease expirations, and other matters.

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When deciding to acquire property, real estate asset managers take several factors into consideration, such as property values, taxes, zoning, population growth, transportation, and traffic volume and patterns. Once a site is selected, they negotiate contracts for the purchase or lease of the property, securing the most beneficial terms. Real estate asset managers periodically review their company’s real estate holdings and identify properties that are no longer financially profitable. They then negotiate the sale of or terminate the lease on such properties.

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Section One: Descriptions of 101 Top Jobs for People Without a Four-Year Degree Property, real estate, and community association managers often must attend evening meetings with residents, property owners, community association boards of directors, or civic groups. Not surprisingly, many managers put in long workweeks, especially before financial and tax reports are due. Some apartment managers are required to live in the apartment complexes where they work so that they are available to handle any emergency that occurs, even when they are off duty. They usually receive compensatory time off for working nights or weekends. Many apartment managers receive time off during the week so that they are available on weekends to show apartments to prospective residents.

Property and real estate managers who work for homebuilders, real estate developers, and land development companies acquire land and plan construction of shopping centers, houses, apartments, office buildings, or industrial parks. They negotiate with representatives of local governments, other businesses, community and public interest groups, and public utilities to eliminate obstacles to the development of land and to gain support for a planned project. It sometimes takes years to win approval for a project and, in the process, managers may have to modify plans for the project many times. Once cleared to proceed with a project, managers may help to negotiate short-term loans to finance the construction of the project, and later negotiate long-term permanent mortgage loans. They then help to choose, assist, and advise the architectural firms that draw up detailed plans and the construction companies that build the project.

Employment Property, real estate, and community association managers held about 293,000 jobs in 2002. Forty percent worked for real estate agents and brokers, lessors of real estate, or property management firms. Others worked for real estate development companies, government agencies that manage public buildings, and corporations with extensive holdings of commercial properties. Forty-six percent of property, real estate, and community association managers were self-employed.

In many respects, the work of community association managers parallels that of property managers. They collect monthly assessments, prepare financial statements and budgets, negotiate with contractors, and help to resolve complaints. In other respects, however, the work of these managers differs from that of other residential property and real estate managers. Community association managers interact on a daily basis with homeowners and other residents, rather than with renters. Hired by the volunteer board of directors of the association, they administer the daily affairs, and oversee the maintenance of property and facilities that the homeowners own and use jointly through the association. They also assist the board and owners in complying with association and government rules and regulations.

Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most employers prefer to hire college graduates for property management positions. Entrants with degrees in business administration, accounting, finance, real estate, public administration, or related fields are preferred, but those with degrees in the liberal arts also may qualify. Good speaking, writing, computer, and financial skills, as well as an ability to tactfully deal with people, are essential in all areas of property management.

Some associations encompass thousands of homes and employ their own onsite staff and managers. In addition to administering the associations’ financial records and budget, managers may be responsible for the operation of community pools, golf courses, and community centers, and for the maintenance of landscaping and parking areas. Community association managers also may meet with the elected boards of directors to discuss and resolve legal issues or disputes that may affect the owners, as well as to review any proposed changes or improvements by homeowners to their properties, to make sure that they comply with community guidelines.

Many people enter property management as onsite managers of apartment buildings, office complexes, or community associations, or as employees of property management firms or community association management companies. As they acquire experience working under the direction of a property manager, they may advance to positions with greater responsibility at larger properties. Those who excel as onsite managers often transfer to assistant property manager positions in which they can acquire experience handling a broad range of property management responsibilities.

Working Conditions Offices of most property, real estate, and community association managers are clean, modern, and well lighted. However, many managers spend a major portion of their time away from their desks. Onsite managers, in particular, may spend a large portion of their workday away from their office, visiting the building engineer, showing apartments, checking on the janitorial and maintenance staff, or investigating problems reported by tenants. Property and real estate managers frequently visit the properties they oversee, sometimes on a daily basis when contractors are doing major repair or renovation work. Real estate asset managers may spend time away from home while traveling to company real estate holdings or searching for properties to acquire.

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Previous employment as a real estate sales agent may be an asset to onsite managers because it provides experience useful in showing apartments or office space. In the past, those with backgrounds in building maintenance have advanced to onsite manager positions on the strength of their knowledge of building mechanical systems, but this is becoming less common as employers place greater emphasis on administrative, financial, and communication abilities for managerial jobs. Although many people entering jobs such as assistant property manager do so by having previously gained onsite management experience, employers increasingly hire inexperienced college graduates with bachelor’s or master’s degrees in busi-

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Job Outlook

ness administration, accounting, finance, or real estate for these positions. Assistants work closely with a property manager and learn how to prepare budgets, analyze insurance coverage and risk options, market property to prospective tenants, and collect overdue rent payments. In time, many assistants advance to property manager positions.

Employment of property, real estate, and community association managers is projected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2012. Additional job openings are expected to occur as managers transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. Opportunities should be best for those with a college degree in business administration, real estate, or a related field, and for those who attain a professional designation.

The responsibilities and compensation of property, real estate, and community association managers increase as they manage more and larger properties. Most property managers are responsible for several properties at a time. As their careers advance, they gradually are entrusted with larger properties that are more complex to manage. Many specialize in the management of one type of property, such as apartments, office buildings, condominiums, cooperatives, homeowner associations, or retail properties. Managers who excel at marketing properties to tenants may specialize in managing new properties, while those who are particularly knowledgeable about buildings and their mechanical systems might specialize in the management of older properties requiring renovation or more frequent repairs. Some experienced managers open their own property management firms.

Job growth among onsite property managers in commercial real estate is expected to accompany the projected expansion of the real estate and rental and leasing industry. An increase in the Nation’s stock of apartments, houses, and offices also should require more property managers. Developments of new homes increasingly are being organized with community or homeowner associations that provide community services and oversee jointly owned common areas, requiring professional management. To help properties become more profitable or to enhance the resale values of homes, more commercial and residential property owners are expected to place their investments in the hands of professional managers.

Persons most commonly enter real estate asset manager jobs by transferring from positions as property managers or real estate brokers. Real estate asset managers must be good negotiators, adept at persuading and handling people, and good at analyzing data in order to assess the fair market value of property or its development potential. Resourcefulness and creativity in arranging financing are essential for managers who specialize in land development.

The changing demographic composition of the population also should create more jobs for property, real estate, and community association managers. The number of older people will grow during the 2000–12 projection period, increasing the need for various types of suitable housing, such as assistedliving facilities and retirement communities. Accordingly, there will be demand for property and real estate managers to operate these facilities, and especially for those who have a background in the operation and administrative aspects of running a health unit.

Many employers encourage attendance at short-term formal training programs conducted by various professional and trade associations active in the real estate field. Employers send managers to these programs to improve their management skills and expand their knowledge of specialized subjects, such as the operation and maintenance of building mechanical systems, enhancement of property values, insurance and risk management, personnel management, business and real estate law, community association risks and liabilities, tenant relations, communications, and accounting and financial concepts. Managers also participate in these programs to prepare themselves for positions of greater responsibility in property management. Completion of these programs, related job experience, and a satisfactory score on a written examination lead to certification, or the formal award of a professional designation, by the sponsoring association. (Some organizations offering such programs are listed as sources of additional information at the end of this statement.) In addition to these qualifications, some associations require their members to adhere to a specific code of ethics. In some states, community association managers must be licensed.

Earnings Median annual earnings of salaried property, real estate, and community association managers were $36,880 in 2002. The middle 50 percent earned between $25,470 and $56,000 a year. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $17,450, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $86,650 a year. Median annual earnings of salaried property, real estate, and community association managers in the largest employing industries in 2002 were as follows: Local government......................................................$50,340 Offices of real estate agents and brokers ....................37,820 Activities related to real estate ....................................35,750 Lessors of real estate ....................................................31,190 Many resident apartment managers and onsite association managers receive the use of an apartment as part of their compensation package. Managers often are reimbursed for the use of their personal vehicles, and managers employed in land development often receive a small percentage of ownership in the projects that they develop.

Managers of public housing subsidized by the federal government are required to be certified, but many property, real estate, and community association managers, who work with all types of property, choose to earn a professional designation voluntarily because it represents formal recognition of their achievements and status in the occupation. Real estate asset managers who buy or sell property are required to be licensed by the state in which they practice.

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Related Occupations

phone calls within a single location or organization. Radio transmitters and receivers relay signals from wireless phones and radios to their destinations. Newer telecommunications equipment is computerized and can communicate a variety of information, including data, graphics, and video. The workers who set up and maintain this sophisticated equipment are radio and telecommunications equipment installers and repairers.

Property, real estate, and community association managers plan, organize, staff, and manage the real estate operations of businesses. Workers who perform similar functions in other fields include administrative services managers, education administrators, food service managers, lodging managers, medical and health services managers, real estate brokers and sales agents, and urban and regional planners.

Central office installers set up switches, cables, and other equipment in central offices. These locations are the hubs of a telecommunications network—they contain the switches and routers that direct packets of information to their destinations. Although most telephone lines connecting houses to central offices and switching stations are still copper, the lines connecting these central hubs are fiber optic. Fiber optic lines have led to a revolution in switching equipment. The greatly increased transmission capacity of each line has allowed a few fiber optic lines to replace many copper lines. Packet switching equipment is evolving rapidly, ever increasing the amount of information that a single fiber optic line can carry. These switches and routers have the ability to transmit, process, amplify, and direct a massive amount of information. Installing and maintaining this equipment requires a high level of technical knowledge.

Sources of Additional Information General information about education and careers in property management is available from: ●

Institute of Real Estate Management, 430 N. Michigan Ave., Chicago, IL 60611. Internet: http://www.irem.org

For information on careers and certification programs in commercial property management, contact: ●

Building Owners and Managers Institute, 1521 Ritchie Hwy., Arnold, MD 21012.

For information on careers and professional designation and certification programs in residential property management and community association management, contact: ●

Community Associations Institute, 225 Reinekers Ln., Suite 300, Alexandria, VA 22314. Internet: http://www.caionline.org

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National Board of Certification for Community Association Managers, P.O. Box 25037, Alexandria, VA 22313. Internet: http://www.nbccam.org

The increasing reliability of telephone switches and routers has simplified maintenance. New telephone switches are selfmonitoring and alert repairers to malfunctions. Some switches allow repairers to diagnose and correct problems from remote locations. When faced with a malfunction, the repairer may refer to manufacturers’ manuals that provide maintenance instructions. When problems with telecommunications equipment arise, telecommunications equipment repairers diagnose the source of the problem by testing each of the different parts of the equipment, which requires an understanding of how the software and hardware interact. Repairers often use spectrum and/or network analyzers to locate the problem. A network analyzer sends a signal through the equipment to detect any distortion in the signal. The nature of the signal distortion often directs the repairer to the source of the problem. To fix the equipment, repairers may use small handtools, including pliers and screwdrivers, to remove and replace defective components such as circuit boards or wiring. Newer equipment is easier to repair because whole boards and parts are designed to be quickly removed and replaced. Repairers also may install updated software or programs that maintain existing software.

Radio and Telecommunications Equipment Installers and Repairers (O*NET 49-2021.00, 49-2022.01, 49-2022.02, 49-2022.03, 49-2022.04, and 49-2022.05)

Significant Points ●

Employment is projected to decline.

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Applicants with electronics training and computer skills should have the best opportunities.

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Weekend and holiday hours are common; repairers may be on call around the clock in case of emergencies.

PBX installers and repairers set up private branch exchange (PBX) switchboards, which relay incoming, outgoing, and interoffice calls within a single location or organization. To install switches and switchboards, installers first connect the equipment to power lines and communications cables and install frames and supports. They test the connections to ensure that adequate power is available and that the communication links function. They also install equipment such as power systems, alarms, and telephone sets. New switches and switchboards are computerized; workers install software or program the equipment to provide specific features. For example, as a cost-cutting feature, an installer may program a PBX switchboard to route calls over dif-

Nature of the Work Telephones and radios depend on a variety of equipment to transmit communications signals. Electronic switches route telephone signals to their destinations. Switchboards direct tele-

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America’s Top 101 Jobs for People Without a Four-Year Degree ers. While working outdoors, these workers are subject to a variety of weather conditions.

ferent lines at different times of the day. However, other workers, such as computer support specialists generally handle complex programming. Finally, the installer performs tests to verify that the newly installed equipment functions properly. If a problem arises, PBX repairers determine whether it is located within the PBX system or originates in the telephone lines maintained by the local phone company.

Nearly all radio and telecommunications equipment installers and repairers work full time. Many work regular business hours to meet the demand for repair services during the workday. Schedules are more irregular at companies that need repair services 24 hours a day or where installation and maintenance must take place after business hours. At these locations, mechanics work a variety of shifts, including weekend and holiday hours. Repairers may be on call around the clock, in case of emergencies, and may have to work overtime.

Due to rapidly developing technologies, PBX installers must adapt and learn new technologies. Instead of installing PBX systems, many companies are choosing to install voice-over Internet protocol (VoIP) systems. VoIP systems operate like a PBX system, but they use a company’s computer wiring to run Internet access, network applications, and telephone communications. Specialized phones have their own Internet protocol (IP) addresses. The phones can be plugged into any port in the system and still use the same number.

The work of most repairers involves lifting, reaching, stooping, crouching, and crawling. Adherence to safety precautions is important in order to guard against work hazards. These hazards include falls, minor burns, electrical shock, and contact with hazardous materials.

Station installers and repairers, telephone—commonly known as telephone installers and repairers or telecommunications service technicians—install and repair telephone wiring and equipment on customers’ premises. They install telephone or digital subscriber line (DSL) service by connecting customers’ telephone wires to outside service lines. These lines run on telephone poles or in underground conduits. The installer may climb poles or ladders to make the connections. Once the connection is made, the line is tested. When a maintenance problem occurs, repairers test the customers’ lines to determine if the problem is located in the customers’ premises or in the outside service lines. When onsite procedures fail to resolve installation or maintenance problems, repairers may request support from their technical service center. Line installers and repairers install the wires and cables that connect customers with central offices.

Employment Radio and telecommunications equipment installers and repairers held about 226,000 jobs in 2002. About 219,000 were telecommunications equipment installers and repairers, except line installers, mostly working in the telecommunications industry, and the rest were radio mechanics. Radio mechanics worked in electronic and precision equipment repair and maintenance, telecommunications, electronics and appliance stores, and many other industries.

Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most employers seek applicants with postsecondary training in electronics and a familiarity with computers. Training sources include 2- and 4-year college programs in electronics or communications, trade schools, and equipment and software manufacturers. Military experience with communications equipment is valued by many employers. Many equipment repairers begin working in telecommunications companies as line-installers or telephone installers, before moving up to the job of central office installer and other more complex work.

Radio mechanics install and maintain radio transmitting and receiving equipment. This includes stationary equipment mounted on transmission towers and mobile equipment, such as radio communications systems in service and emergency vehicles. Radio mechanics do not work on cellular communications towers and equipment. Newer radio equipment is selfmonitoring and may alert mechanics to potential malfunctions. When malfunctions occur, these mechanics examine equipment for damaged components and loose or broken wires. They use electrical measuring instruments to monitor signal strength, transmission capacity, interference, and signal delay, as well as handtools to replace defective components and parts and to adjust equipment so that it performs within required specifications.

Newly hired repairers usually receive some training from their employers. This may include formal classroom training in electronics, communications systems, or software and informal hands-on training assisting an experienced repairer. Large companies may send repairers to outside training sessions to keep them informed about new equipment and service procedures. As networks have become more sophisticated—often including equipment from a variety of companies—the knowledge needed for installation and maintenance also has increased.

Working Conditions Radio and telecommunications equipment installers and repairers generally work in clean, well-lighted, air-conditioned surroundings, such as a telephone company’s central office, a customer’s PBX location, or an electronic repair shop or service center. Telephone installers and repairers work on rooftops, ladders, and telephone poles. Telephone and PBX installers must travel to a customer’s location. Radio mechanics may maintain equipment located on the tops of transmissions tow-

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Telecommunications equipment companies provide much of the training on specific equipment. With the rapid advances in switches, routers, and other equipment, repairers need to continually take courses and work to obtain manufacturers’ certifications on the latest technology.

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Section One: Descriptions of 101 Top Jobs for People Without a Four-Year Degree nance of customers’ telephones. Upgrading internal lines in businesses and the wiring of new homes and businesses with fiber optic lines should offset some of these losses. As cellular telephones have increased in popularity, the number of pay phones is declining, which also will adversely affect employment of station installers and repairers as pay phone installation and maintenance is one of their major functions.

Repairers must be able to distinguish colors, because wires are color-coded, and they must be able to hear distinctions in the various tones on a telephone system. For positions that require climbing poles and towers, workers must be in good physical shape. Repairers who handle assignments alone at a customer’s site must be able to work without close supervision. For workers who frequently contact customers, a pleasant personality, neat appearance, and good communications skills also are important.

Earnings

Experienced repairers with advanced training may become specialists or troubleshooters who help other repairers diagnose difficult problems, or may work with engineers in designing equipment and developing maintenance procedures. Because of their familiarity with equipment, repairers are particularly well qualified to become manufacturers’ sales workers. Workers with leadership ability also may become maintenance supervisors or service managers. Some experienced workers open their own repair services or shops, or become wholesalers or retailers of electronic equipment.

In 2002, median hourly earnings of telecommunications equipment installers and repairers, except line installers were $22.78. The middle 50 percent earned between $18.07 and $26.38. The bottom 10 percent earned less than $13.27, whereas the top 10 percent earned more than $29.09. Median hourly earnings in the wired telecommunications carriers (telephone) industry were $24.07 in 2002. Median hourly earnings of radio mechanics in 2002 were $17.42. The middle 50 percent earned between $13.17 and $22.78. The bottom 10 percent earned less than $10.34, whereas the top 10 percent earned more than $28.38.

Job Outlook Employment of radio and telecommunications equipment installers and repairers is expected to decline through 2012. Although the need for installation work will remain as companies seek to upgrade their telecommunications networks, there will be a declining need for maintenance work—performed by telecommunications equipment installers and repairers, except line installers—because of increasingly reliable self-monitoring and self-diagnosing equipment and because installation of higher capacity equipment will reduce the amount of equipment needed. The replacement of twoway radio systems with wireless systems, especially in service vehicles, will eliminate the need in many companies for onsite radio mechanics. The increased reliability of wireless equipment and the use of self-monitoring systems also will continue to lessen the need for radio mechanics. Applicants with electronics training and computer skills should have the best opportunities for radio and telecommunications equipment installer and repairer jobs.

Related Occupations Related occupations that involve work with electronic equipment include broadcast and sound engineering technicians and radio operators; computer, automated teller, and office machine repairers; electronic home entertainment equipment installers and repairers; and electrical and electronics installers and repairers. Line installers and repairers also set up and install telecommunications equipment. Engineering technicians also may repair electronic equipment as part of their duties.

Sources of Additional Information For information on career and training opportunities, contact:

Job opportunities will vary by specialty. For example, opportunities should be available for central office and PBX installers and repairers experienced in current technology, as the growing popularity of VoIP, expanded multimedia offerings such as video on demand, and other telecommunications services continue to place additional demand on telecommunications networks. These new services require high data transfer rates, which can be achieved only by installing new optical switching and routing equipment. Extending high-speed communications from central offices to customers also will require the installation of more advanced switching and routing equipment. Whereas increased reliability and automation of switching equipment will limit opportunities, these effects will be somewhat offset by the demand for installation and upgrading of switching equipment.

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International Brotherhood of Electrical Workers, Telecommunications Department, 1125 15th St. NW, Room 807, Washington, DC 20005. Internet: http://www.ibew.org

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Communications Workers of America, 501 3rd St. NW, Washington, DC 20001.

For information on careers and schools, contact: ●

Electronics Technicians Association International, 5 Depot St., Greencastle, IN 46135.

For information on training and professional certifications for those already employed by cable telecommunications firms, contact: ●

Society of Cable Telecommunications Engineers, Certification Department, 140 Phillips Rd., Exton, PA 19341-1318. Internet: http://www.scte.org

Station installers and repairers can expect keen competition. Prewired buildings and the increasing reliability of telephone equipment will reduce the need for installation and mainte-

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America’s Top 101 Jobs for People Without a Four-Year Degree patients. Radiographers who operate machines that use strong magnets and radio waves, rather than radiation, to create an image are called MRI technologists.

Radiologic Technologists and Technicians

Radiologic technologists and technicians must follow physicians’ orders precisely and conform to regulations concerning the use of radiation to protect themselves, their patients, and their coworkers from unnecessary exposure.

(O*NET 29-2034.01)

In addition to preparing patients and operating equipment, radiologic technologists and technicians keep patient records and adjust and maintain equipment. They also may prepare work schedules, evaluate equipment purchases, or manage a radiology department.

Significant Points ●

Formal training programs in radiography range in length from 1 to 4 years and lead to a certificate, associate degree, or bachelor’s degree.

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Although hospitals will remain the primary employer, a greater number of new jobs will be found in physicians’ offices and diagnostic imaging centers.

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Working Conditions Most full-time radiologic technologists and technicians work about 40 hours a week; they may have evening, weekend, or on-call hours. Opportunities for part-time and shift work also are available.

Job opportunities are expected to be favorable; some employers report difficulty hiring sufficient numbers of radiologic technologists and technicians.

Because technologists and technicians are on their feet for long periods and may lift or turn disabled patients, physical stamina is important. Technologists and technicians work at diagnostic machines, but may also perform some procedures at patients’ bedsides. Some travel to patients in large vans equipped with sophisticated diagnostic equipment.

Nature of the Work Radiologic technologists and technicians take X rays and administer nonradioactive materials into patients’ bloodstreams for diagnostic purposes. Some specialize in diagnostic imaging technologies, such as computerized tomography (CT) and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI).

Although radiation hazards exist in this occupation, they are minimized by the use of lead aprons, gloves, and other shielding devices, as well as by instruments monitoring radiation exposure. Technologists and technicians wear badges measuring radiation levels in the radiation area, and detailed records are kept on their cumulative lifetime dose.

In addition to radiologic technologists and technicians, others who conduct diagnostic imaging procedures include cardiovascular technologists and technicians, diagnostic medical sonographers, and nuclear medicine technologists. Radiologic technologists and technicians, also referred to as radiographers, produce X-ray films (radiographs) of parts of the human body for use in diagnosing medical problems. They prepare patients for radiologic examinations by explaining the procedure, removing articles such as jewelry, through which X rays cannot pass, and positioning patients so that the parts of the body can be appropriately radiographed. To prevent unnecessary radiation exposure, these workers surround the exposed area with radiation protection devices, such as lead shields, or limit the size of the X-ray beam. Radiographers position radiographic equipment at the correct angle and height over the appropriate area of a patient’s body. Using instruments similar to a measuring tape, they may measure the thickness of the section to be radiographed and set controls on the X-ray machine to produce radiographs of the appropriate density, detail, and contrast. They place the X-ray film under the part of the patient’s body to be examined and make the exposure. They then remove the film and develop it.

Employment Radiologic technologists and technicians held about 174,100 jobs in 2002. Almost 1 in 5 worked part time. About half of all jobs were in hospitals. Most of the rest were in offices of physicians; medical and diagnostic laboratories, including diagnostic imaging centers; and outpatient care centers.

Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Preparation for this profession is offered in hospitals, colleges and universities, vocational-technical institutes, and the U.S. Armed Forces. Hospitals, which employ most radiologic technologists and technicians, prefer to hire those with formal training. Formal training programs in radiography range in length from 1 to 4 years and lead to a certificate, associate degree, or bachelor’s degree. Two-year associate degree programs are most prevalent.

Experienced radiographers may perform more complex imaging procedures. For fluoroscopies, radiographers prepare a solution of contrast medium for the patient to drink, allowing the radiologist (a physician who interprets radiographs) to see soft tissues in the body. Some radiographers, called CT technologists, operate CT scanners to produce cross-sectional images of

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Some 1-year certificate programs are available for experienced radiographers or individuals from other health occupations, such as medical technologists and registered nurses, who want

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Section One: Descriptions of 101 Top Jobs for People Without a Four-Year Degree to change fields or specialize in CT or MRI. A bachelor’s or master’s degree in one of the radiologic technologies is desirable for supervisory, administrative, or teaching positions. The Joint Review Committee on Education in Radiologic Technology accredits most formal training programs for the field. The committee accredited 587 radiography programs in 2003. Radiography programs require, at a minimum, a high school diploma or the equivalent. High school courses in mathematics, physics, chemistry, and biology are helpful. The programs provide both classroom and clinical instruction in anatomy and physiology, patient care procedures, radiation physics, radiation protection, principles of imaging, medical terminology, positioning of patients, medical ethics, radiobiology, and pathology. Federal legislation protects the public from the hazards of unnecessary exposure to medical and dental radiation by ensuring operators of radiologic equipment are properly trained. Under this legislation, the federal government sets voluntary standards that the states, in turn, may use for accrediting training programs and certifying individuals who engage in medical or dental radiography. In 2003, about 38 states licensed radiologic technologists and technicians. Voluntary registration is offered by the American Registry of Radiologic Technologists. To be eligible for registration, technologists generally must have graduated from an accredited program and pass an examination. Many employers prefer to hire registered radiographers. To be recertified, radiographers must complete 24 hours of continuing education every other year. Radiologic technologists and technicians should be sensitive to patients’ physical and psychological needs. They must pay attention to detail, follow instructions, and work as part of a team. In addition, operating complicated equipment requires mechanical ability and manual dexterity. With experience and additional training, staff technologists may become specialists, performing CT scanning, angiography, and magnetic resonance imaging. Experienced technologists also may be promoted to supervisor, chief radiologic technologist, and, ultimately, department administrator or director. Depending on the institution, courses or a master’s degree in business or health administration may be necessary for the director’s position. Some technologists progress by leaving the occupation to become instructors or directors in radiologic technology programs; others take jobs as sales representatives or instructors with equipment manufacturers.

Job Outlook Job opportunities are expected to be favorable. Some employers report difficulty hiring sufficient numbers of radiologic technologists and technicians. Imbalances between the demand for, and supply of, qualified workers should spur efforts to attract and retain qualified radiologic technologists and technicians. As an example of such efforts, employers may provide more flexible training programs or improve compensation and working conditions.

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Radiologic technologists who also are experienced in more complex diagnostic imaging procedures, such as CT or MRI, will have better employment opportunities, as employers seek to control costs by using multiskilled employees. Employment of radiologic technologists and technicians is expected to grow faster than the average for all occupations through 2012, as the population grows and ages, increasing the demand for diagnostic imaging. Although healthcare providers are enthusiastic about the clinical benefits of new technologies, the extent to which they are adopted depends largely on cost and reimbursement considerations. For example, digital imaging technology can improve quality and efficiency, but remains expensive. Some promising new technologies may not come into widespread use because they are too expensive and third-party payers may not be willing to pay for their use. Hospitals will remain the principal employer of radiologic technologists and technicians. However, a greater number of new jobs will be found in offices of physicians and diagnostic imaging centers. Health facilities such as these are expected to grow rapidly through 2012, due to the strong shift toward outpatient care, encouraged by third-party payers and made possible by technological advances that permit more procedures to be performed outside the hospital. Some job openings also will arise from the need to replace technologists and technicians who leave the occupation.

Earnings Median annual earnings of radiologic technologists and technicians were $38,970 in 2002. The middle 50 percent earned between $32,370 and $46,510. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $27,190, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $55,430. Median annual earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of radiologic technologists and technicians in 2002 were as follows: Medical and diagnostic laboratories ........................$42,470 General medical and surgical hospitals......................39,580 Offices of physicians....................................................36,490

Related Occupations Radiologic technologists and technicians operate sophisticated equipment to help physicians, dentists, and other health practitioners diagnose and treat patients. Workers in related occupations include cardiovascular technologists and technicians, clinical laboratory technologists and technicians, diagnostic medical sonographers, nuclear medicine technologists, radiation therapists, and respiratory therapists.

Sources of Additional Information For career information, send a stamped, self-addressed business-size envelope with your request to:

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American Society of Radiologic Technologists, 15000 Central Ave. SE, Albuquerque, NM 87123-3917. Telephone (tollfree): 800-444-2778. Internet: http://www.asrt.org

session of the property. A broker may help to arrange favorable financing from a lender for the prospective buyer; often, this makes the difference between success and failure in closing a sale. In some cases, brokers and agents assume primary responsibility for closing sales; in others, lawyers or lenders do so. Brokers supervise agents who may have many of the same job duties. Brokers also manage their own offices, advertise properties, and handle other business matters. Some combine other types of work, such as selling insurance or practicing law, with their real estate business.

For the current list of accredited education programs in radiography, write to: ●

Joint Review Committee on Education in Radiologic Technology, 20 N. Wacker Dr., Suite 900, Chicago, IL 60606-2901. Internet: http://www.jrcert.org

For information on certification, contact: ●

American Registry of Radiologic Technologists, 1255 Northland Dr., St. Paul, MN 55120-1155. Internet: http://www.arrt.org

Besides making sales, agents and brokers must have properties to sell. Consequently, they spend a significant amount of time obtaining listings—agreements by owners to place properties for sale with the firm. When listing a property for sale, agents and brokers compare the listed property with similar properties that recently sold, in order to determine a competitive market price for the property. Once the property is sold, the agent who sold it and the agent who obtained the listing both receive a portion of the commission. Thus, agents who sell a property that they themselves have listed can increase their commission.

Real Estate Brokers and Sales Agents (O*NET 41-9021.00 and 41-9022.00)

Most real estate brokers and sales agents sell residential property. A small number, usually employed in large or specialized firms, sell commercial, industrial, agricultural, or other types of real estate. Every specialty requires knowledge of that particular type of property and clientele. Selling or leasing business property requires an understanding of leasing practices, business trends, and the location of the property. Agents who sell or lease industrial properties must know about the region’s transportation, utilities, and labor supply. Whatever the type of property, the agent or broker must know how to meet the client’s particular requirements.

Significant Points ●

Real estate brokers and sales agents often work evenings and weekends and usually are on call to suit the needs of clients.

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A license is required in every state and the District of Columbia.

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Although gaining a job as a real estate agent or broker may be relatively easy, beginning agents and brokers may face competition from well-established, more experienced agents and brokers in obtaining listings and in closing a sufficient number of sales.

Before showing residential properties to potential buyers, agents meet with them to get a feeling for the type of home the buyers would like. In this prequalifying phase, the agent determines how much the buyers can afford to spend. In addition, the agent and the buyer usually sign a loyalty contract which states the agent will be the only one to show houses to the buyers. An agent or broker uses a computer to generate lists of properties for sale, their location and description, and available sources of financing. In some cases, agents and brokers use computers to give buyers a virtual tour of properties in which they are interested. With a computer, buyers can view interior and exterior images or floor plans without leaving the real estate office.

Nature of the Work One of the most complex and important financial events in peoples’ lives is the purchase or sale of a home or investment property. Because of this complexity and importance, people usually seek the help of real estate brokers and sales agents when buying or selling real estate. Real estate brokers and sales agents have a thorough knowledge of the real estate market in their community. They know which neighborhoods will best fit clients’ needs and budgets. They are familiar with local zoning and tax laws and know where to obtain financing. Agents and brokers also act as intermediaries in price negotiations between buyers and sellers.

Agents may meet several times with prospective buyers to discuss and visit available properties. Agents identify and emphasize the most pertinent selling points. To a young family looking for a house, they may emphasize the convenient floor plan, the area’s low crime rate, and the proximity to schools and shopping centers. To a potential investor, they may point out the tax advantages of owning a rental property and the ease of finding a renter. If bargaining over price becomes necessary, agents must follow their client’s instructions carefully and may have to present counteroffers in order to get the best possible price.

Real estate agents usually are independent sales workers who provide their services to a licensed real estate broker on a contract basis. In return, the broker pays the agent a portion of the commission earned from the agent’s sale of the property. Brokers are independent businesspeople who sell real estate owned by others; they also may rent or manage properties for a fee. When selling real estate, brokers arrange for title searches and for meetings between buyers and sellers wherein details of the transactions are agreed upon and the new owners take pos-

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Section One: Descriptions of 101 Top Jobs for People Without a Four-Year Degree Recently, however, the attractiveness of part-time real estate work has declined, as increasingly complex legal and technological requirements are raising startup costs associated with becoming an agent.

Once both parties have signed the contract, the real estate broker or agent must make sure that all special terms of the contract are met before the closing date. For example, the agent must make sure that the mandated and agreed-upon inspections, including that of the home and termite and radon inspections, take place. Also, if the seller agrees to any repairs, the broker or agent must see that they are made. Increasingly, brokers and agents are handling environmental problems as well, by making sure that the properties they sell meet environmental regulations. For example, they may be responsible for dealing with lead paint on the walls. While loan officers, attorneys, or other persons handle many details, the agent must ensure that they are completed.

Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement In every state and the District of Columbia, real estate brokers and sales agents must be licensed. Prospective agents must be high school graduates, at least 18 years old, and pass a written test. The examination—more comprehensive for brokers than for agents—includes questions on basic real estate transactions and laws affecting the sale of property. Most states require candidates for the general sales license to complete between 30 and 90 hours of classroom instruction. Those seeking a broker’s license need between 60 and 90 hours of formal training and a specific amount of experience selling real estate, usually 1 to 3 years. Some states waive the experience requirements for the broker’s license for applicants who have a bachelor’s degree in real estate.

Working Conditions Advances in telecommunications and the ability to retrieve data about properties over the Internet allow many real estate brokers and sales agents to work out of their homes instead of real estate offices. Even with this convenience, much of the time of these workers is spent away from their desks—showing properties to customers, analyzing properties for sale, meeting with prospective clients, or researching the state of the market.

State licenses typically must be renewed every 1 or 2 years, usually without having to take an examination. However, many states require continuing education for license renewals. Prospective agents and brokers should contact the real estate licensing commission of the state in which they wish to work in order to verify exact licensing requirements.

Agents and brokers often work more than a standard 40-hour week. They usually work evenings and weekends and are always on call to suit the needs of clients. Business usually is slower during the winter season. Although the hours are long and frequently irregular, most agents and brokers have the freedom to determine their own schedule. Consequently, they can arrange their work so that they can have time off when they want it.

As real estate transactions have become more legally complex, many firms have turned to college graduates to fill positions. A large number of agents and brokers have some college training. College courses in real estate, finance, business administration, statistics, economics, law, and English are helpful. For those who intend to start their own company, business courses such as marketing and accounting are as important as those in real estate or finance.

Employment In 2002, real estate brokers held about 99,000 jobs; real estate sales agents held 308,000. Many worked part time, combining their real estate activities with other careers. Almost 6 out of 10 real estate agents and brokers were self-employed. Real estate is sold in all areas, but employment is concentrated in large urban areas and in smaller, but rapidly growing communities.

Personality traits are equally as important as academic background. Brokers look for applicants who possess a pleasant personality, are honest, and present a neat appearance. Maturity, tact, trustworthiness, and enthusiasm for the job are required in order to motivate prospective customers in this highly competitive field. Agents should be well organized, be detail oriented, and have a good memory for names, faces, and business particulars.

Most real estate firms are relatively small; indeed, some are one-person businesses. By contrast, some large real estate firms have several hundred agents operating out of numerous branch offices. Many brokers have franchise agreements with national or regional real estate organizations. Under this type of arrangement, the broker pays a fee in exchange for the privilege of using the more widely known name of the parent organization. Although franchised brokers often receive help in training sales staff and running their offices, they bear the ultimate responsibility for the success or failure of their firms.

Those interested in jobs as real estate agents often begin in their own communities. Their knowledge of local neighborhoods is a clear advantage. Under the direction of an experienced agent, beginners learn the practical aspects of the job, including the use of computers to locate or list available properties and identify sources of financing.

Real estate brokers and sales agents are older, on average, than most other workers. Historically, many homemakers and retired persons were attracted to real estate sales by the flexible and part-time work schedules characteristic of the field. These individuals could enter, leave, and later reenter the occupation, depending on the strength of the real estate market, their family responsibilities, or other personal circumstances.

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Many firms offer formal training programs for both beginners and experienced agents. Larger firms usually offer more extensive programs than smaller firms. More than a thousand universities, colleges, and junior colleges offer courses in real estate. At some, a student can earn an associate’s or bachelor’s degree with a major in real estate; several offer advanced degrees. Many local real estate associations that are members

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America’s Top 101 Jobs for People Without a Four-Year Degree of the National Association of Realtors sponsor courses covering the fundamentals and legal aspects of the field. Advanced courses in mortgage financing, property development and management, and other subjects also are available through various affiliates of the National Association of Realtors.

well-established, more experienced agents and brokers in obtaining listings and in closing a sufficient number of sales. Well-trained, ambitious people who enjoy selling, especially those with extensive social and business connections in their communities, should have the best chance for success.

Advancement opportunities for agents may take the form of higher rates of commission. As agents gain knowledge and expertise, they become more efficient in closing a greater number of transactions and increase their earnings. In many large firms, experienced agents can advance to sales manager or general manager. Persons who have received their broker’s license may open their own offices. Others with experience and training in estimating property value may become real estate appraisers, and people familiar with operating and maintaining rental properties may become property managers. Experienced agents and brokers with a thorough knowledge of business conditions and property values in their localities may enter mortgage financing or real estate investment counseling.

Employment of real estate brokers and sales agents often is sensitive to swings in the economy, especially interest rates. During periods of declining economic activity and increasing interest rates, the volume of sales and the resulting demand for sales workers falls. As a result, the earnings of agents and brokers decline, and many work fewer hours or leave the occupation altogether.

Earnings The median annual earnings of salaried real estate agents, including commissions, were $30,930 in 2002. The middle 50 percent earned between $21,010 and $52,860 a year. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $15,480, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $83,780.

Job Outlook

Median annual earnings of salaried real estate brokers, including commission, were $50,330 in 2002. The middle 50 percent earned between $29,240 and $90,170 a year. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $17,920, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $145,600 a year.

Employment of real estate brokers and sales agents is expected to grow more slowly than the average for all occupations through the year 2012. Increasing use of information technology will continue to raise the productivity of agents and brokers, limiting the potential for job growth to a certain extent. Prospective customers often can conduct their own searches for properties that meet their criteria by accessing real estate information on the Internet. Real estate companies often use computer-generated images to show houses to customers without leaving the office. In addition, cellular phones can send and receive large amounts of data, allowing agents and brokers to become more efficient and to serve a greater number of customers. However, technology should have only a limited effect on job growth because most people still want and need the services of real estate agents and brokers to handle the actual sale. Instead, the use of technology may eliminate some marginal agents, such as those practicing real estate part time or temporarily between jobs. Such workers generally are not able to compete with full-time agents who have invested in the technology. Changing legal requirements, such as disclosure laws, may also dissuade some who are not serious about practicing full time from continuing to work part time.

Commissions on sales are the main source of earnings of real estate agents and brokers. The rate of commission varies according to whatever the agent and broker agree on, the type of property, and its value. The percentage paid on the sale of farm and commercial properties or unimproved land usually is higher than the percentage paid for selling a home. Commissions may be divided among several agents and brokers. The broker or agent who obtained the listing usually shares their commission when the property is sold with the broker or agent who made the sale, and also with the firm that employs them. Although an agent’s share varies greatly from one firm to another, often it is about half of the total amount received by the firm. Agents who both list and sell a property maximize their commission. Income usually increases as an agent gains experience, but individual ability, economic conditions, and the type and location of the property also affect earnings. Sales workers who are active in community organizations and in local real estate associations can broaden their contacts and increase their earnings. A beginner’s earnings often are irregular, because a few weeks or even months may go by without a sale. Although some brokers allow an agent to draw against future earnings from a special account, the practice is not usual with new employees. The beginner, therefore, should have enough money to live for about 6 months or until commissions increase.

Real estate agents and brokers will continue to experience moderate employment growth due to the increasing housing needs of a growing population, as well as the perception that real estate is a good investment Low interest rates should continue to stimulate sales of real estate, resulting in the need for more agents and brokers. In addition, a large number of job openings will arise each year from the need to replace workers who transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. This occupation is relatively easy to enter and is attractive due to the flexible working conditions; the high interest in, and knowledge of, local real estate markets that entrants often have; and the potential for high earnings. Therefore, although gaining a job as a real estate agent or broker may be relatively easy, beginning agents and brokers may face competition from

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Related Occupations Selling expensive items such as homes requires maturity, tact, and a sense of responsibility. Other sales workers who find

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Section One: Descriptions of 101 Top Jobs for People Without a Four-Year Degree example, receptionists in hospitals and in doctors’ offices may gather patients’ personal and financial information and direct them to the proper waiting rooms. In beauty or hair salons, by contrast, receptionists arrange appointments, direct customers to the hairstylist, and may serve as cashiers. In factories, large corporations, and government offices, they may provide identification cards and arrange for escorts to take visitors to the proper office. Those working for bus and train companies respond to inquiries about departures, arrivals, stops, and other related matters.

these character traits important in their work include insurance sales agents; retail salespersons; sales representatives, wholesale and manufacturing; and securities, commodities, and financial services sales agents. The work of property, real estate, and community association managers, although not involving sales, requires a knowledge of real estate.

Sources of Additional Information Information on license requirements for real estate brokers and sales agents is available from most local real estate organizations or from the state real estate commission or board.

Increasingly, receptionists are using multiline telephone systems, personal computers, and fax machines. Despite the widespread use of automated answering systems or voice mail, many receptionists still take messages and inform other employees of visitors’ arrivals or cancellation of an appointment. When they are not busy with callers, most receptionists are expected to perform a variety of office duties, including opening and sorting mail, collecting and distributing parcels, transmitting and delivering facsimiles, updating appointment calendars, preparing travel vouchers, and performing basic bookkeeping, word processing, and filing.

More information about opportunities in real estate is available on the Internet site of the following organization: ●

National Association of Realtors. Internet: http://www.realtor.org

Receptionists and Information Clerks

Working Conditions

(O*NET 43-4171.00)

Most receptionists and information clerks work in areas that are clean, well lit, and relatively quiet. This is especially true for receptionists who greet customers and visitors; they usually work in highly visible areas that are furnished to make a good impression.

Significant Points ●

Numerous job openings should arise for receptionists and information clerks due to employment growth and the need to replace workers who leave these occupations.

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A high school diploma or its equivalent is the most common educational requirement.

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Because receptionists and information clerks deal directly with the public, a professional appearance and a pleasant personality are imperative.

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These occupations are well suited to flexible work schedules.

Although most receptionists and information clerks work a standard 40-hour week, about 3 out of 10 work part time. The work performed by receptionists and information clerks may be repetitious and stressful. For example, many receptionists spend all day answering telephones while performing additional clerical or secretarial tasks. Additional stress is caused by technology that enables management to electronically monitor employees’ use of computer systems, tape-record telephone calls, or limit the time spent on each call. Prolonged exposure to a video display terminal may lead to eyestrain for the many information clerks who work with computers.

Nature of the Work

Employment

Receptionists and information clerks are charged with a responsibility that may have a lasting impact on the success of an organization: making a good first impression. These workers often are the first representatives of an organization a visitor encounters, so they need to be courteous, professional, and helpful. Receptionists answer telephones, route calls, greet visitors, respond to inquiries from the public, and provide information about the organization. Some receptionists are responsible for the coordination of all mail into and out of the office. In addition, receptionists contribute to the security of an organization by helping to monitor the access of visitors—a function that has become increasingly important in recent years.

Receptionists and information clerks held about 1.1 million jobs in 2002. Almost 90 percent worked in service-providing industries. Among service-providing industries, health care and social assistance industries—including doctors’ and dentists’ offices, hospitals, nursing homes, urgent-care centers, surgical centers, and clinics—employed one-third of all receptionists and information clerks. Manufacturing, wholesale and retail trade, government, and real-estate industries also employed large numbers of receptionists and information clerks. About 3 of every 10 receptionists and information clerks worked part time.

Whereas some tasks are common to most receptionists and information clerks, the specific responsibilities of receptionists vary with the type of establishment in which they work. For

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Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement

clerks may perform a wide variety of clerical tasks, they should continue to be in demand. Further, they perform many tasks that are interpersonal in nature and are not easily automated, ensuring continued demand for their services in a variety of establishments.

Despite the fact that hiring requirements for receptionists and information clerks vary, a high school diploma or its equivalent is the most common educational requirement. Increasingly, familiarity or experience with computers and good interpersonal skills are becoming equally important as the diploma to employers.

Earnings In 2002, median annual earnings for all receptionists and information clerks were $21,150.

Many receptionists and information clerks deal directly with the public, so a professional appearance and a pleasant personality are important. A clear speaking voice and fluency in the English language also are essential because these employees frequently use the telephone or public-address systems. Good spelling and computer literacy often are needed, particularly because most work involves considerable use of the computer.

In 2003, the federal government typically paid salaries ranging from $19,898 to $23,555 a year to beginning receptionists with a high school diploma or 6 months of experience. The average annual salary for all receptionists employed by the federal government was about $25,704 in 2003.

Related Occupations

Receptionists and information clerks often learn the skills they need in high schools, business schools, and community colleges. Business education programs offered by these institutions typically include courses in typing, word processing, shorthand, business communications, records management, and office systems and procedures.

A number of other workers deal with the public, receive and provide information, or direct people to others who can assist them. Among these workers are customer service representatives, dispatchers, security guards and gaming surveillance workers, tellers, and counter and rental clerks.

Receptionists usually receive on-the-job training that may include procedures for greeting visitors, for operating telephone and computer systems, and for distributing mail, fax, and parcel deliveries. Some employers look for applicants who already possess certain skills, such as computer and wordprocessing experience, or those who have previous formal education.

Sources of Additional Information State employment offices can provide information on job openings for receptionists.

Receptionists and information clerks with word-processing or other clerical skills may advance to a better-paying job as a secretary or administrative assistant.

Retail Salespersons (O*NET 41-2031.00)

Job Outlook

Significant Points

Employment of receptionists and information clerks is expected to grow faster than the average for all occupations through 2012. This increase will result from rapid growth in services industries—including physicians’ offices, law firms, temporary-help agencies, and consulting firms—where most are employed. In addition, turnover in this large occupation will create numerous openings as receptionists and information clerks transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force altogether. Opportunities should be best for persons with a wide range of clerical and technical skills, particularly those with related work experience. Technology should have conflicting effects on the demand for receptionists and information clerks. The increasing use of voice mail and other telephone automation reduces the need for receptionists by allowing one receptionist to perform work that formerly required several. However, the increasing use of other technology has caused a consolidation of clerical responsibilities and growing demand for workers with diverse clerical and technical skills. Because receptionists and information

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Good employment opportunities are expected because of the need to replace the large number of workers who leave the occupation each year.

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Many salespersons work evenings, weekends, and long hours from Thanksgiving through the beginning of January, during sales, and in other peak retail periods.

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Opportunities for part-time and temporary work are plentiful, attracting people looking to supplement their income; however, most of those selling high-priced items work full time and have substantial experience.

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There are no formal education requirements, although a high school diploma is preferred; employers look for people who enjoy working with others and who have tact, patience, an interest in sales work, a neat appearance, and the ability to communicate clearly.

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Nature of the Work

Employment

Whether selling shoes, computer equipment, or automobiles, retail salespersons assist customers in finding what they are looking for and try to interest them in buying the merchandise. They describe a product’s features, demonstrate its use, or show various models and colors. For some sales jobs, particularly those involving expensive and complex items, retail salespersons need special knowledge or skills. For example, salespersons who sell automobiles must be able to explain the features of various models, information about warranties, the meaning of manufacturers’ specifications, and the types of options and financing available.

Retail salespersons held about 4.1 million wage and salary jobs in 2002. They worked in stores ranging from small specialty shops employing a few workers to giant department stores with hundreds of salespersons. In addition, some were selfemployed representatives of direct-sales companies and mailorder houses. The largest employers of retail salespersons are department stores, clothing and accessories stores, building material and garden equipment and supplies dealers, and motor vehicle dealers. This occupation offers many opportunities for part-time work and is especially appealing to students, retirees, and others seeking to supplement their income. However, most of those selling “big-ticket” items, such as cars, jewelry, furniture, and electronic equipment, work full time and have substantial experience.

Consumers spend millions of dollars every day on merchandise and often form their impression of a store by evaluating its sales force. Therefore, retailers stress the importance of providing courteous and efficient service in order to remain competitive. When, for example, a customer wants an item that is not on the sales floor, the salesperson may check the stock room, place a special order, or call another store to locate the item.

Because retail stores are found in every city and town, employment is distributed geographically in much the same way as the population.

In addition to selling, most retail salespersons—especially those who work in department and apparel stores—make out sales checks; receive cash, checks, and charge payments; bag or package purchases; and give out change and receipts. Depending on the hours they work, retail salespersons may have to open or close cash registers. This work may include counting the money in the register; separating charge slips, coupons, and exchange vouchers; and making deposits at the cash office. Salespersons often are held responsible for the contents of their registers, and repeated shortages are cause for dismissal in many organizations.

Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement There usually are no formal education requirements for this type of work, although a high school diploma or equivalent is preferred. Employers look for people who enjoy working with others and who have the tact and patience to deal with difficult customers. Among other desirable characteristics are an interest in sales work, a neat appearance, and the ability to communicate clearly and effectively. The ability to speak more than one language may be helpful for employment in communities where people from various cultures tend to live and shop. Before hiring a salesperson, some employers may conduct a background check, especially for a job selling highpriced items.

Salespersons also may handle returns and exchanges of merchandise, wrap gifts, and keep their work areas neat. In addition, they may help stock shelves or racks, arrange for mailing or delivery of purchases, mark price tags, take inventory, and prepare displays.

In most small stores, an experienced employee or the proprietor instructs newly hired sales personnel in making out sales checks and operating cash registers. In large stores, training programs are more formal and are usually conducted over several days. Topics generally discussed are customer service, security, the store’s policies and procedures, and how to work a cash register. Depending on the type of product they are selling, employees may be given additional specialized training by manufacturers’ representatives. For example, those working in cosmetics receive instruction on the types of products the store has available and for whom the cosmetics would be most beneficial. Likewise, salespersons employed by motor vehicle dealers may be required to participate in training programs designed to provide information on the technical details of standard and optional equipment available on new models. Because providing the best service to customers is a high priority for many employers, employees often are given periodic training to update and refine their skills.

Frequently, salespersons must be aware of special sales and promotions. They also must recognize security risks and thefts and know how to handle or prevent such situations.

Working Conditions Most salespersons in retail trade work in clean, comfortable, well-lighted stores. However, they often stand for long periods and may need supervisory approval to leave the sales floor. The Monday-through-Friday, 9-to-5 workweek is the exception rather than the rule in retail trade. Most salespersons work evenings and weekends, particularly during sales and other peak retail periods. Because the holiday season is the busiest time for most retailers, many employers restrict the use of vacation time to some period other than Thanksgiving through the beginning of January. The job can be rewarding for those who enjoy working with people. Patience and courtesy are required, especially when the work is repetitious and the customers are demanding.

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As salespersons gain experience and seniority, they usually move to positions of greater responsibility and may be given

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America’s Top 101 Jobs for People Without a Four-Year Degree their choice of departments in which to work. This often means moving to areas with potentially higher earnings and commissions. The highest earnings potential usually is found in selling big-ticket items, although such a position often requires the most knowledge of the product and the greatest talent for persuasion.

Earnings

Opportunities for advancement vary in small stores. In some establishments, advancement is limited because one person— often the owner—does most of the managerial work. In others, some salespersons are promoted to assistant managers.

Median hourly earnings of retail salespersons, including commission, were $8.51 in 2002. The middle 50 percent earned between $7.08 and $11.30 an hour. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $6.18, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $16.96 an hour. Median hourly earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of retail salespersons in 2002 were as follows:

The starting wage for many retail sales positions is the federal minimum wage, which was $5.15 an hour in 2002. In areas where employers have difficulty attracting and retaining workers, wages tend to be higher than the legislated minimum.

Traditionally, capable salespersons without college degrees could advance to management positions. Today, however, large retail businesses usually prefer to hire college graduates as management trainees, making a college education increasingly important. Despite this trend, motivated and capable employees without college degrees still may advance to administrative or supervisory positions in large establishments.

Automobile dealers......................................................$18.25 Building material and supplies dealers ........................10.41 Department stores............................................................8.12 Other general merchandise stores ..................................7.84

Retail selling experience may be an asset when one is applying for sales positions with larger retailers or in other industries, such as financial services, wholesale trade, or manufacturing.

Clothing stores ................................................................7.77 Compensation systems vary by type of establishment and merchandise sold. Salespersons receive hourly wages, commissions, or a combination of wages and commissions. Under a commission system, salespersons receive a percentage of the sales that they make. This system offers sales workers the opportunity to increase their earnings considerably, but they may find that their earnings strongly depend on their ability to sell their product and on the ups and downs of the economy. Employers may use incentive programs such as awards, banquets, bonuses, and profit-sharing plans to promote teamwork among the sales staff.

Job Outlook As in the past, employment opportunities for retail salespersons are expected to be good because of the need to replace the large number of workers who transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force each year. In addition, many new jobs will be created for retail salespersons. Employment is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2012, reflecting rising retail sales stemming from a growing population. Opportunities for part-time work should be abundant, and demand will be strong for temporary workers during peak selling periods, such as the end-of-year holiday season. The availability of part-time and temporary work attracts many people seeking to supplement their income.

Benefits may be limited in smaller stores, but benefits in large establishments usually are comparable to those offered by other employers. In addition, nearly all salespersons are able to buy their store’s merchandise at a discount, with the savings depending upon the type of merchandise.

During economic downturns, sales volumes and the resulting demand for sales workers usually decline. Purchases of costly items, such as cars, appliances, and furniture, tend to be postponed during difficult economic times. In areas of high unemployment, sales of many types of goods decline. However, because turnover among retail salespersons is high, employers often can adjust employment levels simply by not replacing all those who leave.

Related Occupations Salespersons use sales techniques, coupled with their knowledge of merchandise, to assist customers and encourage purchases. Workers in a number of other occupations who use these same skills include sales representatives, wholesale and manufacturing; securities, commodities, and financial services sales agents; counter and rental clerks; real estate brokers and sales agents; purchasing managers, buyers, and purchasing agents; insurance sales agents; sales engineers; and cashiers.

Despite the growing popularity of electronic commerce, Internet sales have not decreased the need for retail salespersons. Retail stores commonly use an online presence just to complement their in-store sales—there are very few Internet-only apparel and specialty stores. Retail salespersons will remain important in assuring customers that they will receive specialized service and in improving customer satisfaction, something Internet services cannot do. Therefore, the impact of electronic commerce on employment of retail salespersons will be minimal.

Sources of Additional Information Information on careers in retail sales may be obtained from the personnel offices of local stores or from state merchants’ associations. General information about retailing is available from: ●

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Section One: Descriptions of 101 Top Jobs for People Without a Four-Year Degree Sales representatives spend much of their time traveling to and visiting with prospective buyers and current clients. During a sales call, they discuss the client’s needs and suggest how their merchandise or services can meet those needs. They may show samples or catalogs that describe items their company stocks and inform customers about prices, availability, and ways in which their products can save money and improve productivity. Because a vast number of manufacturers and wholesalers sell similar products, sales representatives must emphasize any unique qualities of their products and services. Manufacturers’ agents or manufacturers’ representatives might sell several complimentary products made by different manufacturers and, thus, take a broad approach to their customers’ business. Sales representatives may help install new equipment and train employees. They also take orders and resolve any problems with or complaints about the merchandise.

Information about retail sales employment opportunities is available from: ●

Retail, Wholesale, and Department Store Union, 30 East 29th St., 4th Floor, New York, NY 10016. Internet: http://www.rwdsu.org

Information about training for a career in automobile sales is available from: ●

National Automobile Dealers Association, Public Relations Department, 8400 Westpark Dr., McLean, VA 22102-3591. Internet: http://www.nada.org

Sales Representatives, Wholesale and Manufacturing

Obtaining new accounts is an important part of the job. Sales representatives follow leads from other clients, track advertisements in trade journals, participate in trade shows and conferences, and may visit potential clients unannounced. In addition, they may spend time meeting with and entertaining prospective clients during evenings and weekends.

(O*NET 41-4011.01, 41-4011.02, 41-4011.03, 41-4011.04, 41-4011.05, 41-4011.06, and 41-4012.00)

In a process that can take several months, sales representatives present their product and negotiate the sale. Aided by a laptop computer connected to the Internet, they often can answer technical and nontechnical questions immediately.

Significant Points ●

Earnings of sales representatives usually are based on a combination of salary and commission.

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Many individuals with previous sales experience enter the occupation without a college degree; however, a bachelor’s degree increasingly is required.

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Prospects will be best for those with the appropriate knowledge or technical expertise, and the personal traits necessary for successful selling.

Frequently, sales representatives who lack technical expertise work as a team with a technical expert. In this arrangement, the technical expert—sometimes a sales engineer—will attend the sales presentation to explain the product and answer questions or concerns. The sales representative makes the preliminary contact with customers, introduces the company’s product, and closes the sale. The representative is then able to spend more time maintaining and soliciting accounts and less time acquiring technical knowledge. After the sale, representatives may make followup visits to ensure that the equipment is functioning properly and may even help train customers’ employees to operate and maintain new equipment. Those selling consumer goods often suggest how and where merchandise should be displayed. Working with retailers, they may help arrange promotional programs, store displays, and advertising.

Nature of the Work Sales representatives are an important part of manufacturers’ and wholesalers’ success. Regardless of the type of product they sell, their primary duties are to interest wholesale and retail buyers and purchasing agents in their merchandise, and to address any of the client’s questions or concerns. Sales representatives represent one or several manufacturers or wholesale distributors by selling one product or a complimentary line of products. Sales representatives also advise clients on methods to reduce costs, use their products, and increase sales. They market their company’s products to manufacturers, wholesale and retail establishments, construction contractors, government agencies, and other institutions.

Sales representatives have several duties beyond selling products. They also analyze sales statistics; prepare reports; and handle administrative duties, such as filing their expense account reports, scheduling appointments, and making travel plans. They study literature about new and existing products and monitor the sales, prices, and products of their competitors.

Depending on where they work, sales representatives have different job titles. Those employed directly by a manufacturer or wholesaler often are called sales representatives. Manufacturers’ agents or manufacturers’ representatives are self-employed sales workers or independent firms who contract their services to all types of manufacturing companies. However, many of these titles are used interchangeably.

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Manufacturers’ agents who operate a sales agency must also manage their business. This requires organizational and general business skills, as well as knowledge of accounting, marketing, and administration.

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Working Conditions

nology as computers are increasingly used in the workplace to place and track orders and to monitor inventory levels.

Some sales representatives have large territories and travel considerably. A sales region may cover several states, so they may be away from home for several days or weeks at a time. Others work near their “home base” and travel mostly by automobile. Due to the nature of the work and the amount of travel, sales representatives may work more than 40 hours per week.

Many companies have formal training programs for beginning sales representatives lasting up to 2 years. However, most businesses are accelerating these programs to reduce costs and expedite the returns from training. In some programs, trainees rotate among jobs in plants and offices to learn all phases of production, installation, and distribution of the product. In others, trainees take formal classroom instruction at the plant, followed by on-the-job training under the supervision of a field sales manager.

Although the hours are long and often irregular, most sales representatives have the freedom to determine their own schedule. Sales representatives often are on their feet for long periods and may carry heavy sample products, which necessitates some physical stamina.

New workers may get training by accompanying experienced workers on their sales calls. As they gain familiarity with the firm’s products and clients, these workers are given increasing responsibility until they are eventually assigned their own territory. As businesses experience greater competition, increased pressure is placed upon sales representatives to produce sales.

Dealing with different types of people can be stimulating but demanding. Sales representatives often face competition from representatives of other companies. Companies usually set goals or quotas that representatives are expected to meet. Because their earnings depend on commissions, manufacturers’ agents are also under the added pressure to maintain and expand their clientele.

Sales representatives stay abreast of new products and the changing needs of their customers in a variety of ways. They attend trade shows at which new products and technologies are showcased. They also attend conferences and conventions to meet other sales representatives and clients and discuss new product developments. In addition, the entire sales force may participate in company-sponsored meetings to review sales performance, product development, sales goals, and profitability.

Employment Manufacturers’ and wholesale sales representatives held about 1.9 million jobs in 2002. About half of all salaried representatives worked in wholesale trade. Others were employed in manufacturing and mining. Due to the diversity of products and services sold, employment opportunities are available in every part of the country in a wide range of industries.

Those who want to become sales representatives should be goal-oriented and persuasive, and work well both independently and as part of a team. A pleasant personality and appearance, the ability to communicate well with people, and problem-solving skills are highly valued. Furthermore, completing a sale can take several months and thus requires patience and perseverance.

In addition to those working directly for a firm, many sales representatives are self-employed manufacturers’ agents. They often form small sales firms and work for a straight commission based on the value of their own sales. However, manufacturers’ agents usually gain experience and recognition with a manufacturer or wholesaler before becoming self-employed.

Frequently, promotion takes the form of an assignment to a larger account or territory where commissions are likely to be greater. Experienced sales representatives may move into jobs as sales trainers, who instruct new employees on selling techniques and company policies and procedures. Those who have good sales records and leadership ability may advance to higher-level positions such as sales supervisor, district manager, or vice president of sales. In addition to advancement opportunities within a firm, some manufacturers’ agents go into business for themselves. Others find opportunities in purchasing, advertising, or marketing research.

Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement The background needed for sales jobs varies by product line and market. Many employers hire individuals with previous sales experience who do not have a college degree, but often prefer those with some college education. Increasingly employers prefer or require a bachelor’s degree as the job requirements have become more technical and analytical. Nevertheless, for some consumer products, factors such as sales ability, personality, and familiarity with brands are more important than educational background. On the other hand, firms selling complex, technical products may require a technical degree in addition to some sales experience. Many sales representatives attend seminars in sales techniques or take courses in marketing, economics, communication, or even a foreign language to provide the extra edge needed to make sales. In general, companies are looking for the best and brightest individuals who have the personality and desire to sell. Sales representatives need to be familiar with computer tech-

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Job Outlook Employment of sales representatives, wholesale and manufacturing, is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2012 due to continued growth in the variety and number of goods to be sold. Also, many job openings will result from the need to replace workers who transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. Prospective customers will still require sales workers to demonstrate or illustrate the particulars of a good or service. However, computer technology makes sales representatives more effec-

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Section One: Descriptions of 101 Top Jobs for People Without a Four-Year Degree Drugs and druggists’ sundries merchant wholesalers ................................................................57,890

tive and productive, for example, by allowing them to provide accurate and current information to customers during sales presentations.

Machinery, equipment, and supplies merchant wholesalers ................................................................53,140

Job prospects for wholesale sales representatives will be better than those for manufacturing sales representatives because manufacturers are expected to continue contracting out sales duties to independent agents rather than using in-house or direct selling personnel. Agents are paid only if they sell, which reduces the overhead cost to their clients. Also, by using an agent who usually contracts his or her services to more than one company, companies can share costs with the other companies involved with that agent. As their customers and manufacturers continue to merge with other companies, independent agents and other wholesale trade firms will, in response, also merge with each other to better serve their clients. Although the demand for independent sales agents will increase over the 2002–12 projection period, the supply is expected to remain stable or decline because of the difficulties associated with self-employment. This factor could lead to many opportunities for sales representatives to start their own independent sales agencies.

Electrical and electronic goods merchant wholesalers ................................................................50,550 Median annual earnings of sales representatives, wholesale and manufacturing, except technical and scientific products, were $42,730, including commission, in 2002. The middle 50 percent earned between $30,660 and $60,970 a year. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $22,610, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $88,990 a year. Median annual earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of sales representatives, except technical and scientific products, in 2002 were as follows: Wholesale electronic markets and agents and brokers ..............................................................$48,320 Machinery, equipment, and supplies merchant wholesalers ................................................................44,030 Professional and commercial equipment and supplies merchant wholesalers ................................43,880

Those interested in this occupation should keep in mind that direct selling opportunities in manufacturing are likely to be best for products for which there is strong demand. Furthermore, jobs will be most plentiful in small wholesale and manufacturing firms because a growing number of these companies will rely on agents to market their products as a way to control their costs and expand their customer base.

Grocery and related product wholesalers ..................41,840 Miscellaneous nondurable goods merchant wholesalers ................................................................37,940 In addition to their earnings, sales representatives usually are reimbursed for expenses such as transportation costs, meals, hotels, and entertaining customers. They often receive benefits such as health and life insurance, pension plan, vacation and sick leave, personal use of a company car, and frequent flyer mileage. Some companies offer incentives such as free vacation trips or gifts for outstanding sales workers.

Employment opportunities and earnings may fluctuate from year to year because sales are affected by changing economic conditions, legislative issues, and consumer preferences. Job prospects will be best for persons with the appropriate knowledge or technical expertise as well as the personal traits necessary for successful selling.

Unlike those working directly for a manufacturer or wholesaler, manufacturers’ agents are paid strictly on commission and usually are not reimbursed for expenses. Depending on the type of product or products they are selling, their experience in the field, and the number of clients, their earnings can be significantly higher or lower than those working in direct sales.

Earnings Compensation methods vary significantly by the type of firm and product sold. Most employers use a combination of salary and commission or salary plus bonus. Commissions usually are based on the amount of sales, whereas bonuses may depend on individual performance, on the performance of all sales workers in the group or district, or on the company’s performance.

Related Occupations Sales representatives, wholesale and manufacturing, must have sales ability and knowledge of the products they sell. Other occupations that require similar skills include advertising, marketing, promotions, and public relations, and sales managers; insurance sales agents; purchasing managers, buyers, and purchasing agents; real estate brokers and sales agents; retail salespersons; sales engineers; and securities, commodities, and financial services sales agents.

Median annual earnings of sales representatives, wholesale and manufacturing, technical and scientific products, were $55,740, including commission, in 2002. The middle 50 percent earned between $39,480 and $79,380 a year. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $28,770, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $108,010 a year. Median annual earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of sales representatives, technical and scientific products, in 2002 were as follows:

Sources of Additional Information

Wholesale electronic markets and agents and brokers ..............................................................$64,070

Information on careers for manufacturers’ representatives and agents is available from:

Professional and commercial equipment and supplies merchant wholesalers ................................60,890

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Manufacturers’ Agents National Association, P.O. Box 3467, Laguna Hills, CA 92654-3467. Internet: http://www.manaonline.org

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Manufacturers’ Representatives Educational Research Foundation, P.O. Box 247, Geneva, IL 60134. Internet: http://www.mrerf.org

sales promotions. In addition, they may greet and assist customers and promote sales and good public relations. Sales worker supervisors in nonretail establishments supervise and coordinate the activities of sales workers who sell industrial products, automobiles, or services such as advertising or Internet services. They may prepare budgets, make personnel decisions, devise sales-incentive programs, assign sales territories, or approve sales contracts.

Sales Worker Supervisors (O*NET 41-1011.00 and 41-1012.00)

In small or independent companies and retail stores, sales worker supervisors not only directly supervise sales associates, but also are responsible for the operation of the entire company or store. Some are self-employed business or store owners.

Significant Points ●

Applicants with retail experience should have the best job opportunities in this occupation.

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Overall employment is projected to grow more slowly than average; the number of self-employed sales worker supervisors is expected to decline.

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Long, irregular hours, including evenings and weekends, are common.

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In many retail establishments, managers are promoted from within the company; a postsecondary degree may speed a sales worker supervisor’s advancement into management.

Working Conditions Most sales worker supervisors have offices. In retail trade, their offices are within the stores, usually close to the areas they oversee. Although they spend some time in the office completing merchandise orders or arranging work schedules, a large portion of their workday is spent on the sales floor, supervising employees or selling. Work hours of supervisors vary greatly among establishments, because work schedules usually depend on customers’ needs. Supervisors generally work at least 40 hours a week. Long, irregular hours are common, particularly during sales, holidays, busy shopping hours, and times when inventory is taken. Supervisors are expected to work evenings and weekends, but usually are compensated with a day off during the week. Hours can change weekly, and managers sometimes must report to work on short notice, especially when employees are absent. Independent owners can often set their own schedules, but hours must be convenient to customers.

Nature of the Work Sales worker supervisors oversee the work of sales and related workers, such as retail salespersons, cashiers, customer service representatives, stock clerks and order fillers, sales engineers, and wholesale and manufacturing sales representatives. Sales worker supervisors are responsible for interviewing, hiring, and training employees, as well as for preparing work schedules and assigning workers to specific duties. In retail establishments, sales worker supervisors ensure that customers receive satisfactory service and quality goods. They also answer customers’ inquiries, deal with complaints, and sometimes handle purchasing, budgeting, and accounting. Their responsibilities vary with the size and type of establishment. As the size of retail stores and the types of goods and services increase, these workers tend to specialize in one department or one aspect of merchandising.

Employment Sales worker supervisors held about 2.4 million jobs in 2002. Approximately 36 percent were self-employed, most of whom were store owners. Additionally, 43 percent of wage and salary sales worker supervisors are employed in the retail sector. Some of the largest employers are grocery stores, department stores, motor vehicle dealerships, and clothing and accessory stores. The remainder works in nonretail establishments.

Sales worker supervisors in large retail establishments, often referred to as department managers, provide day-to-day oversight of individual departments, such as shoes, cosmetics, or housewares in large department stores; produce and meat in grocery stores; and sales in automotive dealerships. These workers establish and implement policies, goals, objectives, and procedures for their specific departments; coordinate activities with other department heads; and strive for smooth operations within their departments. They supervise employees who price and ticket goods and place them on display; clean and organize shelves, displays, and inventories in stockrooms; and inspect merchandise to ensure that nothing is outdated. Sales worker supervisors also review inventory and sales records, develop merchandising techniques, and coordinate

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Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Sales worker supervisors usually acquire knowledge of management principles and practices—an essential requirement for a supervisory or managerial position in retail trade—through work experience. Many supervisors begin their careers on the sales floor as salespersons, cashiers, or customer service representatives. In these positions, they learn merchandising, customer service, and the basic policies and procedures of the company.

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Section One: Descriptions of 101 Top Jobs for People Without a Four-Year Degree and propose advertisements and promotions) or purchasing managers, buyers, or purchasing agents (workers who purchase goods and supplies for their organization or for resale.

The educational backgrounds of sales worker supervisors vary widely. Regardless of the education they receive, recommended courses include accounting, marketing, management, and sales, as well as psychology, sociology, and communication. Supervisors also must be computer literate, because almost all cash registers, inventory control systems, and sales quotes and contracts are computerized.

Some supervisors who have worked in their industry for a long time open their own stores or sales firms. However, retail trade and sales occupations are highly competitive, and although many independent owners succeed, some fail to cover expenses and eventually go out of business. To prosper, owners usually need good business sense and strong customer service and public relations skills.

Supervisors who have postsecondary education often hold associate’s or bachelor’s degrees in liberal arts, social sciences, business, or management. To gain experience, many college students participate in internship programs that usually are developed jointly by individual schools and firms.

Job Outlook

The type and amount of training available to supervisors varies from company to company. Many national retail chains and companies have formal training programs for management trainees that include both classroom and on-site training. Training time may be as brief as 1 week, but may also last up to 1 year or more, because many organizations require that trainees gain experience during all sales seasons.

Candidates who have retail experience—as a retail salesperson, cashier, or customer service representative, for example—will have the best opportunities for jobs as sales worker supervisors. As in other fields, competition is expected for supervisory jobs, particularly those with the most attractive earnings and working conditions. Employment of sales worker supervisors is expected to grow more slowly than the average for all occupations through the year 2012. Growth in the occupation will be restrained somewhat as retail companies hire more sales staff and increase the responsibilities of sales worker supervisors. Many job openings will occur as experienced supervisors move into higher levels of management, transfer to other occupations, or leave the labor force. However, as with other supervisory and managerial occupations, job turnover is relatively low.

Ordinarily, classroom training includes topics such as interviewing and customer service skills, employee and inventory management, and scheduling. Management trainees may work in one specific department while training on the job, or they may rotate through several departments to gain a wellrounded knowledge of the company’s operation. Training programs for retail franchises are generally extensive, covering all functions of the company’s operation, including budgeting, marketing, management, finance, purchasing, product preparation, human resource management, and compensation. College graduates usually can enter management training programs directly.

The Internet and electronic commerce are creating new opportunities to reach and communicate with potential customers. Some firms are hiring Internet sales managers, who are in charge of maintaining an Internet site and answering inquiries relating to the product, to prices, and to the terms of delivery—a trend that will increase demand for these supervisors. Overall, Internet sales and electronic commerce may reduce the number of additional sales workers needed, thus reducing the number of additional supervisors required. However, the impact of electronic commerce on employment of sales worker supervisors should be minimal.

Sales worker supervisors must get along with all types of people. They need initiative, self-discipline, good judgment, and decisiveness. Patience and a mild temperament are necessary when dealing with demanding customers. Sales worker supervisors also must be able to motivate, organize, and direct the work of subordinates and communicate clearly and persuasively with customers and other supervisors. Individuals who display leadership and team-building skills, self-confidence, motivation, and decisiveness become candidates for promotion to assistant manager or manager. A postsecondary degree may speed a sales worker supervisor’s advancement into management, because it is viewed by employers as a sign of motivation and maturity—qualities deemed important for promotion to more responsible positions. In many retail establishments, managers are promoted from within the company. In small retail establishments, where the number of positions is limited, advancement to a higher management position may come slowly. Large establishments often have extensive career ladder programs and may offer supervisors the opportunity to transfer to another store in the chain or to the central office if an opening occurs. Although promotions may occur more quickly in large establishments, some managers may need to relocate every several years in order to advance. Supervisors also can become advertising, marketing, promotions, public relations, and sales managers (workers who coordinate marketing plans, monitor sales,

© 2005

Projected employment growth of sales worker supervisors will mirror, in part, the patterns of employment growth in the industries in which they work. For example, faster-thanaverage employment growth is expected in many of the rapidly growing services industries. The number of self-employed sales worker supervisors is expected to decline as independent retailers face increasing competition from national chains. Unlike middle- and upper-level managers, store-level retail supervisors generally will not be affected by the restructuring and consolidation taking place at the corporate and headquarters levels of many retail chains.

Earnings Salaries of sales worker supervisors vary substantially, depending upon the level of responsibility the individual has; the person’s length of service; and the type, size, and location of the firm.

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America’s Top 101 Jobs for People Without a Four-Year Degree General information on management careers in retail establishments is available from:

In 2002, median annual earnings of salaried sales worker supervisors of retail sales workers, including commissions, were $29,700. The middle 50 percent earned between $22,790 and $40,100 a year. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $18,380, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $55,810 a year. Median annual earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of salaried supervisors of retail sales workers in 2002 were as follows:

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Information on management careers in grocery stores and on schools offering related programs is available from: ●

Building material and supplies dealers ....................$32,780 Clothing stores ............................................................28,060

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Department stores ......................................................27,390 Gasoline stations..........................................................25,000

National Automobile Dealers Association, Public Relations Dept., 8400 Westpark Dr., McLean, VA 22102-3591. Internet: http://www.nada.org

Information about management careers in convenience stores is available from:

In 2002, median annual earnings of salaried sales worker supervisors of nonretail sales workers, including commission, were $53,020. The middle 50 percent earned between $37,680 and $77,690 a year. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $26,780, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $114,210 a year. Median annual earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of salaried supervisors of nonretail sales workers in 2002 were as follows:

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National Association of Convenience Stores, 1600 Duke St., Alexandria, VA 22314-3436.

Science Technicians

Wholesale electronic markets and agents and brokers ..............................................................$74,000

(O*NET 19-4011.01, 19-4011.02, 19-4021.00, 19-4031.00, 19-4041.01, 19-4041.02, 19-4051.01, 19-4051.02, and 19-4091.00)

Professional and commercial equipment and supplies merchant wholesalers ................................72,970

Significant Points

Insurance carriers ........................................................63,220 Machinery, equipment, and supplies merchant wholesalers ................................................................60,450 Federal government ....................................................50,570 Compensation systems vary by type of establishment and merchandise sold. Many supervisors receive a commission or a combination of salary and commission. Under a commission system, supervisors receive a percentage of department or store sales. Thus, supervisors have the opportunity to increase their earnings considerably, but they may find that their earnings depend on their ability to sell their product and the condition of the economy. Those who sell large amounts of merchandise or exceed sales goals often receive bonuses or other awards.

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Science technicians in production jobs can be employed on day, evening, or night shifts.

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Many employers prefer applicants who have at least 2 years of specialized training or an associate degree.

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Job opportunities are expected to be best for graduates of applied science technology programs.

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Job growth will be concentrated in pharmaceutical manufacturing, chemical manufacturing, and biotechnological research and development firms.

Nature of the Work Science technicians use the principles and theories of science and mathematics to solve problems in research and development and to help invent and improve products and processes. However, their jobs are more practically oriented than those of scientists. Technicians set up, operate, and maintain laboratory instruments, monitor experiments, make observations, calculate and record results, and often develop conclusions. They must keep detailed logs of all of their work-related activities. Those who work in production monitor manufacturing processes and may be involved in ensuring quality by testing products for proper proportions of ingredients, for purity, or for strength and durability.

Related Occupations Sales worker supervisors serve customers, supervise workers, and direct and coordinate the operations of an establishment. Others with similar responsibilities include financial managers, food service managers, lodging managers, and medical and health services managers.

Sources of Additional Information Information on employment opportunities for sales worker supervisors may be obtained from the employment offices of various retail establishments or state employment service offices.

© 2005

International Food Service Distributors Association, 201 Park Washington Ct., Falls Church, VA 22046-4521.

Information about management careers and training programs in the motor vehicle dealers industry is available from:

Grocery stores ..............................................................29,940

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As laboratory instrumentation and procedures have become more complex in recent years, the role of science technicians in research and development has expanded. In addition to per-

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Section One: Descriptions of 101 Top Jobs for People Without a Four-Year Degree plants also focus on quality assurance: there, they monitor product quality or production processes and develop new production techniques. A few work in shipping to provide technical support and expertise for these functions.

forming routine tasks, many technicians also develop and adapt laboratory procedures to achieve the best results, interpret data, and devise solutions to problems, under the direction of scientists. Moreover, technicians must master the laboratory equipment so that they can adjust settings when necessary and recognize when equipment is malfunctioning.

Environmental science and protection technicians perform laboratory and field tests to monitor environmental resources and determine the contaminants and sources of pollution. They may collect samples for testing or be involved in abating, controlling, or remediating sources of environmental pollutants. Some are responsible for waste management operations, control and management of hazardous materials inventory, or general activities involving regulatory compliance.

The increasing use of robotics to perform many routine tasks has freed technicians to operate more sophisticated laboratory equipment. Science technicians make extensive use of computers, computer-interfaced equipment, robotics, and hightechnology industrial applications, such as biological engineering.

Forensic science technicians investigate crimes by collecting and analyzing physical evidence. Often, they specialize in areas such as DNA analysis or firearm examination, performing tests on weapons or substances such as fiber, hair, tissue, or body fluids to determine significance to the investigation. They also prepare reports to document their findings and the laboratory techniques used, and may provide information and expert opinion to investigators. When criminal cases come to trial, forensic science technicians often provide testimony, as expert witnesses, on specific laboratory findings by identifying and classifying substances, materials, and other evidence collected at the crime scene.

Most science technicians specialize, learning skills and working in the same disciplines in which scientists work. Occupational titles, therefore, tend to follow the same structure as those for scientists. Agricultural technicians work with agricultural scientists in food, fiber, and animal research, production, and processing. Some conduct tests and experiments to improve the yield and quality of crops or to increase the resistance of plants and animals to disease, insects, or other hazards. Other agricultural technicians do animal breeding and nutrition work. Food science technicians assist food scientists and technologists in research and development, production technology, and quality control. For example, food science technicians may conduct tests on food additives and preservatives to ensure FDA compliance on factors such as color, texture, and nutrients. They analyze, record, and compile test results; order supplies to maintain laboratory inventory; and clean and sterilize laboratory equipment.

Forest and conservation technicians compile data on the size, content, and condition of forest land tracts. These workers usually work in a forest under the supervision of a forester, conducting specific tasks such as measuring timber, supervising harvesting operations, assisting in roadbuilding operations, and locating property lines and features. They also may gather basic information, such as species and population of trees, disease and insect damage, tree seedling mortality, and conditions that may cause fire danger. Forest and conservation technicians also train and lead forest and conservation workers in seasonal activities, such as planting tree seedlings, putting out forest fires, and maintaining recreational facilities.

Biological technicians work with biologists studying living organisms. Many assist scientists who conduct medical research—helping to find a cure for cancer or AIDS, for example. Those who work in pharmaceutical companies help develop and manufacture medicinal and pharmaceutical preparations. Those working in the field of microbiology generally work as lab assistants, studying living organisms and infectious agents. Biological technicians also analyze organic substances, such as blood, food, and drugs, and some examine evidence in a forensic science laboratory. Biological technicians working in biotechnology labs use the knowledge and techniques gained from basic research by scientists, including gene splicing and recombinant DNA, and apply them in product development.

Geological and petroleum technicians measure and record physical and geologic conditions in oil or gas wells, using advanced instruments lowered into wells or by analysis of the mud from wells. In oil and gas exploration, these technicians collect and examine geological data or test geological samples to determine petroleum and mineral and element composition using scanning electron microscopes. Some petroleum technicians, called scouts, collect information about oil and gas well drilling operations, geological and geophysical prospecting, and land or lease contracts.

Chemical technicians work with chemists and chemical engineers, developing and using chemicals and related products and equipment. Generally, there are two types of chemical technicians—research and development technicians who work in experimental laboratories, and process control technicians who work in manufacturing or other industrial plants. Many research and development chemical technicians conduct a variety of laboratory procedures, from routine process control to complex research projects. For example, they may collect and analyze samples of air and water to monitor pollution levels or produce compounds through complex organic synthesis. Most process technicians work in manufacturing, where they test packaging for design, integrity of materials, and environmental acceptability. Often, process technicians who work in

© 2005

Nuclear technicians operate nuclear test and research equipment, monitor radiation, and assist nuclear engineers and physicists in research. Some also operate remote control equipment to manipulate radioactive materials or materials to be exposed to radioactivity. Other science technicians collect weather information or assist oceanographers.

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Working Conditions

extraction companies, and forensic science technicians worked primarily for state and local governments.

Science technicians work under a wide variety of conditions. Most work indoors, usually in laboratories, and have regular hours. Some occasionally work irregular hours to monitor experiments that cannot be completed during regular working hours. Production technicians often work in 8-hour shifts around the clock. Others, such as agricultural, forest and conservation, geological and petroleum, and environmental science and protection technicians, perform much of their work outdoors, sometimes in remote locations.

Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement There are several ways to qualify for a job as a science technician. Many employers prefer applicants who have at least 2 years of specialized training or an associate degree in applied science or science-related technology. Because employers’ preferences vary, however, some science technicians have a bachelor’s degree in chemistry, biology, or forensic science, or have taken several science and math courses at 4-year colleges.

Some science technicians may be exposed to hazards from equipment, chemicals, or toxic materials. Chemical technicians sometimes work with toxic chemicals or radioactive isotopes, nuclear technicians may be exposed to radiation, and biological technicians sometimes work with disease-causing organisms or radioactive agents. Forensic science technicians often are exposed to human body fluids and firearms. However, these working conditions pose little risk, if proper safety procedures are followed. For forensic science technicians, collecting evidence from crime scenes can be distressing and unpleasant.

Many technical and community colleges offer associate degrees in a specific technology or a more general education in science and mathematics. A number of 2-year associate degree programs are designed to provide easy transfer to a 4-year college or university, if desired. Technical institutes usually offer technician training, but provide less theory and general education than do technical or community colleges. The length of programs at technical institutes varies, although 1-year certificate programs and 2-year associate degree programs are common.

Employment

More than 20 colleges or universities offer a bachelor’s degree program in forensic science; more than 10 additional schools offer a bachelor’s of science in chemistry, biochemistry, or genetic engineering with an emphasis on forensic science; a few additional schools offer a bachelor’s of science degree with an emphasis in a specialty area, such as criminalistics, pathology, jurisprudence, odontology, toxicology, or forensic accounting. In contrast to some other science technician positions that require only a 2-year degree, a 4-year degree in forensics science is usually necessary to work in the field. Knowledge and understanding of legal procedures also can be helpful. Forestry and conservation technicians can choose from more than 20 associate degree programs in forest technology accredited by the Society of American Foresters.

Science technicians held about 208,000 jobs in 2002. As indicated by the following tabulation, chemical and biological technicians accounted for over half of all jobs: Chemical technicians ..................................................69,000 Biological technicians..................................................48,000 Environmental science and protection technicians, including health ..................................28,000 Agricultural and food science technicians ................20,000 Forest and conservation technicians..........................19,000 Geological and petroleum technicians ......................11,000 Forensic science technicians ........................................8,400

Most chemical process technicians have a 2-year degree, usually an associate degree in process technology, although in some cases a high school diploma is sufficient. They usually receive additional on-the- job training. Entry-level workers whose college training encompasses extensive hands-on experience with a variety of diagnostic laboratory equipment usually require less on-the-job training. Those with a high school diploma typically begin work as trainees under the direct supervision of a more experienced process technician. Many with only a high school diploma eventually earn a 2-year degree in process technology, often paid for by their employer.

Nuclear technicians ......................................................5,700 Chemical technicians held jobs in a wide range of manufacturing and service industries, but were concentrated in chemical manufacturing, where they held 26,000 jobs. About 17,000 worked in professional, scientific, or technical services firms; about 17,000 biological technicians also worked in professional, scientific, or technical services firms. Most other biological technicians worked in pharmaceutical and medicine manufacturing or for federal, state, or local governments. Significant numbers of environmental science and protection technicians also worked for state and local governments and professional, scientific, and technical services firms. Almost two-thirds of forest and conservation technicians held jobs in the federal government; another 20 percent worked for state governments. Around 22 percent of agricultural and food science technicians worked for food processing companies; most of the rest worked for scientific research and development services firms and state governments. Over one-fifth of all geological and petroleum technicians worked for oil and gas

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Some schools offer cooperative-education or internship programs, allowing students the opportunity to work at a local company or other workplace while attending classes in alternate terms. Participation in such programs can significantly enhance a student’s employment prospects. Persons interested in careers as science technicians should take as many high school science and math courses as possible. Science courses taken beyond high school, in an associate or bachelor’s degree program, should be laboratory oriented, with

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Section One: Descriptions of 101 Top Jobs for People Without a Four-Year Degree Job growth for chemical technicians is projected to grow more slowly than average. The chemical manufacturing industry, the major employer of chemical technicians, will experience a decline in overall employment as companies downsize and turn to outside contractors to provide specialized services. Job opportunities are expected to be more plentiful in pharmaceutical and medicine manufacturing as the public continues to demand newer and better pharmaceuticals. To meet this demand, pharmaceutical manufacturing firms are expected to continue to devote money to research and development, either through in-house teams, or, increasingly, by contracting to scientific research and development services firms, spurring employment growth of chemical technicians in that industry. An increasing focus on quality assurance will require a greater number of process technicians, further stimulating demand for these workers.

an emphasis on bench skills. A solid background in applied basic chemistry, physics, and math is vital. Because computers often are used in research and development laboratories, technicians should have strong computer skills. Communication skills also are important; technicians often are required to report their findings both orally and in writing. Additionally, technicians should be able to work well with others, because teamwork is common. Organizational ability, an eye for detail, and skill in interpreting scientific results also are important. High mechanical aptitude, attention to detail, and analytical thinking are all important characteristics of science technicians. Prospective science technicians can acquire good career preparation through 2-year formal training programs that combine the teaching of scientific principles and theory with practical hands-on application in a laboratory setting with up-to-date equipment. Graduates of 4-year bachelor’s degree programs in science who have considerable experience in laboratory-based courses, have completed internships, or have held summer jobs in laboratories also are well qualified for science technician positions and are preferred by some employers. However, those with a bachelor’s degree who accept technician jobs generally cannot find employment that uses their advanced academic education.

Employment of environmental science and protection technicians should grow much faster than average to help regulate waste products; to collect air, water, and soil samples for measuring levels of pollutants; to monitor compliance with environmental regulations; and to clean up contaminated sites. There will be limited demand for forest and conservation technicians at the federal and state government levels, leading to slower-than-average growth, due to general downsizing and reductions in timber harvesting on federal lands. However, increased emphasis on specific conservation issues, such as environmental protection, water resources preservation, and control of exotic and invasive pests, may provide some employment opportunities.

Technicians usually begin work as trainees in routine positions, under the direct supervision of a scientist or a more experienced technician. Job candidates whose training or educational background encompasses extensive hands-on experience with a variety of laboratory equipment, including computers and related equipment, usually require a short period of on-the-job training. As they gain experience, technicians take on more responsibility and carry out assignments under only general supervision, and some eventually become supervisors. However, technicians employed at universities often have their fortunes tied to those of particular professors; when professors retire or leave, these technicians face uncertain employment prospects.

Employment of agricultural and food science technicians should grow more slowly than average, mainly due to limited growth in agriculture and the food processing industry. However, research will still be necessary, particularly biotechnological research in the private sector, as it becomes increasingly important to balance greater agricultural output with protection and preservation of soil, water, and the ecosystem. Specifically, research will be needed to combat insects and diseases as they continue to adapt to pesticides and as soil fertility and water quality continue to need improvement.

Job Outlook

Jobs for forensic science technicians are expected to increase about as fast as average. Crime scene technicians who work for state public safety departments may experience favorable employment prospects if the number of qualified applicants remains low.

Overall employment of science technicians is expected to increase about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2012. Continued growth of scientific and medical research, particularly research related to biotechnology, as well as the development and production of technical products, should stimulate demand for science technicians in many industries. The increase in the number of biological technicians will be about as fast as average, as the growing number of agricultural and medicinal products developed using biotechnology techniques will boost demand for these workers. Also, stronger competition among pharmaceutical companies and an aging population are expected to contribute to the need for innovative and improved drugs, further spurring demand for biological technicians. Fastest employment growth of biological technicians should occur in the pharmaceutical and medicine manufacturing industry and in scientific research and development services firms.

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Little or no growth in employment of geological and petroleum technicians is expected because employment in the oil and gas extraction and mining industries, among the largest employers of geological and petroleum technicians, is expected to decline. Job opportunities will be more favorable in professional, scientific, and technical services firms, as geological and petroleum technicians will be needed to consult companies regarding environmental policy and federal government mandates, such as those requiring lower sulfur emissions. Job opportunities are expected to be best for graduates of applied science technology programs who are well trained on

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America’s Top 101 Jobs for People Without a Four-Year Degree equipment used in industrial and government laboratories and production facilities. As the instrumentation and techniques used in industrial research, development, and production become increasingly more complex, employers are seeking individuals with highly developed technical and communication skills.

For general education information on forestry technicians and lists of schools offering education in forestry, send a selfaddressed, stamped business envelope to: ●

Along with opportunities created by growth, many job openings should arise from the need to replace technicians who retire or leave the labor force for other reasons. During periods of economic recession, layoffs of science technicians may occur.

Secretaries and Administrative Assistants

Earnings

(O*NET 43-6011.00, 43-6012.00, 43-6013.00, and 43-6014.00)

Median hourly earnings of science technicians in 2002 were as follows:

Significant Points

Nuclear technicians ....................................................$28.84 Forensic science technicians ........................................19.73

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Increasing office automation and organizational restructuring will lead to slow growth in overall employment of secretaries and administrative assistants.

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Numerous job openings will result from the need to replace workers who leave this very large occupation each year.

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Opportunities should be best for applicants with extensive knowledge of software applications.

Geological and petroleum technicians ........................18.96 Chemical technicians ....................................................18.00 Environmental science and protection technicians, including health ....................................16.98 Biological technicians....................................................15.73 Forest and conservation technicians ............................14.90 Agricultural and food science technicians ..................13.74

Nature of the Work

In 2003, the average annual salary in nonsupervisory, supervisory, and managerial positions in the federal government was $30,440 for biological science technicians; $44,068 for physical science technicians; $55,374 for geodetic technicians; $40,781 for hydrologic technicians; and $52,585 for meteorological technicians.

As the reliance on technology continues to expand in offices across the nation, the role of the office professional has greatly evolved. Office automation and organizational restructuring have led secretaries and administrative assistants to assume a wider range of new responsibilities once reserved for managerial and professional staff. Many secretaries and administrative assistants now provide training and orientation for new staff, conduct research on the Internet, and operate and troubleshoot new office technologies. In the midst of these changes, however, their core responsibilities have remained much the same—performing and coordinating an office’s administrative activities, and storing, retrieving, and integrating information for dissemination to staff and clients.

Related Occupations Other technicians who apply scientific principles at a level usually acquired in 2-year associate degree programs include engineering technicians, broadcast and sound engineering technicians and radio operators, drafters, and health technologists and technicians, especially clinical laboratory technologists and technicians, diagnostic medical sonographers, and radiologic technologists and technicians.

Secretaries and administrative assistants are responsible for a variety of administrative and clerical duties necessary to run an organization efficiently. They serve as an information manager for an office, plan and schedule meetings and appointments, organize and maintain paper and electronic files, manage projects, conduct research, and provide information by using the telephone, postal mail, and e-mail. They also may handle travel arrangements.

Sources of Additional Information For information about a career as a chemical technician, contact: ●

American Chemical Society, Education Division, Career Publications, 1155 16th St. NW, Washington, DC 20036. Internet: http://www.acs.org

Secretaries and administrative assistants are aided in these tasks by a variety of office equipment, such as facsimile machines, photocopiers, and telephone systems. In addition, secretaries and administrative assistants use personal computers to create spreadsheets, compose correspondence, manage databases, and create presentations, reports, and documents by

For career information and a list of undergraduate, graduate, and doctoral programs in forensic sciences, contact: ●

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American Academy of Forensic Sciences, P.O. Box 669, Colorado Springs, CO, 80901. Internet: http://www.aafs.org

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Society of American Foresters, 5400 Grosvenor Ln., Bethesda, MD 20814. Internet: http://www.safnet.org

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Section One: Descriptions of 101 Top Jobs for People Without a Four-Year Degree using desktop publishing software and digital graphics—all tasks previously handled by managers and professionals. At the same time, these other office workers have assumed many tasks traditionally assigned to secretaries and administrative assistants, such as word processing and answering the telephone. Because secretaries and administrative assistants often are not responsible for dictation and typing, they have time to support more members of the executive staff. In a number of organizations, secretaries and administrative assistants work in teams in order to work flexibly and share their expertise.

U.S. economy. The following tabulation shows the distribution of employment by secretarial specialty.

Specific job duties vary with experience and titles. Executive secretaries and administrative assistants, for example, perform fewer clerical tasks than do other secretaries. In addition to arranging conference calls and scheduling meetings, they may handle more complex responsibilities such as conducting research, preparing statistical reports, training employees, and supervising other clerical staff.

Secretaries and administrative assistants are employed in organizations of every type. Around 9 out of 10 secretaries and administrative assistants are employed in service-providing industries, ranging from education and health to government and retail trade. Most of the rest work for firms engaged in manufacturing or construction.

Secretaries, except legal, medical, and executive ..............................................................1,975,000 Executive secretaries and administrative assistants ..............................................................1,526,000 Medical secretaries ....................................................339,000 Legal secretaries..........................................................264,000

Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement

Some secretaries and administrative assistants, such as legal and medical secretaries, perform highly specialized work requiring knowledge of technical terminology and procedures. For instance, legal secretaries prepare correspondence and legal papers such as summonses, complaints, motions, responses, and subpoenas under the supervision of an attorney or paralegal. They also may review legal journals and assist in other ways with legal research, as by verifying quotes and citations in legal briefs. Medical secretaries transcribe dictation, prepare correspondence, and assist physicians or medical scientists with reports, speeches, articles, and conference proceedings. They also record simple medical histories, arrange for patients to be hospitalized, and order supplies. Most medical secretaries need to be familiar with insurance rules, billing practices, and hospital or laboratory procedures. Other technical secretaries who assist engineers or scientists may prepare correspondence, maintain the technical library, and gather and edit materials for scientific papers.

High school graduates who have basic office skills may qualify for entry-level secretarial positions. However, employers increasingly require extensive knowledge of software applications, such as word processing, spreadsheets, and database management. secretaries and administrative assistants should be proficient in keyboarding and good at spelling, punctuation, grammar, and oral communication. Because secretaries and administrative assistants must be tactful in their dealings with people, employers also look for good customer service and interpersonal skills. Discretion, good judgment, organizational or management ability, initiative, and the ability to work independently are especially important for higher level administrative positions. As office automation continues to evolve, retraining and continuing education will remain an integral part of secretarial jobs. Changes in the office environment have increased the demand for secretaries and administrative assistants who are adaptable and versatile. secretaries and administrative assistants may have to attend classes or participate in online education in order to learn how to operate new office technologies, such as information storage systems, scanners, the Internet, or new updated software packages. They may also get involved in selecting and maintaining equipment.

Working Conditions Secretaries and administrative assistants usually work in schools, hospitals, corporate settings, or legal and medical offices. Their jobs often involve sitting for long periods. If they spend a lot of time typing, particularly at a video display terminal, they may encounter problems of eyestrain, stress, and repetitive motion, such as carpal tunnel syndrome.

Secretaries and administrative assistants acquire skills in various ways. Training ranges from high school vocational education programs that teach office skills and keyboarding to 1- and 2-year programs in office administration offered by business schools, vocational-technical institutes, and community colleges. Many temporary placement agencies also provide formal training in computer and office skills. However, many skills tend to be acquired through on-the-job instruction by other employees or by equipment and software vendors. Specialized training programs are available for students planning to become medical or legal secretaries or administrative technology specialists. Bachelor’s degrees and professional certifications are becoming increasingly important as business continues to become more global.

Office work can lend itself to alternative or flexible working arrangements, such as part-time work or telecommuting— especially if the job requires extensive computer use. About 1 secretary in 6 works part time and many others work in temporary positions. A few participate in job-sharing arrangements in which two people divide responsibility for a single job. The majority of secretaries, however, are full-time employees who work a standard 40-hour week.

Employment Secretaries and administrative assistants held about 4.1 million jobs in 2002, ranking among the largest occupations in the

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America’s Top 101 Jobs for People Without a Four-Year Degree continue to generate most new job opportunities. A decline in employment is expected for all other secretaries, except legal, medical, or executive. They account for almost half of all secretaries and administrative assistants.

Testing and certification for proficiency in entry-level office skills is available through organizations such as the International Association of Administrative Professionals; NALS, Inc.; and Legal Secretaries International, Inc. As secretaries and administrative assistants gain experience, they can earn several different designations. Prominent designations include the Certified Professional Secretary (CPS) or the Certified Administrative Professional (CAP) designations, which can be earned by meeting certain experience and/or educational requirements and passing an examination. Similarly, those with 1 year of experience in the legal field, or those who have concluded an approved training course and who want to be certified as a legal support professional, can acquire the Accredited Legal Secretary (ALS) designation through a testing process administered by NALS. NALS also offers two additional designations: an examination to confer the Professional Legal Secretary (PLS) designation, considered an advanced certification for legal support professionals, as well as a paralegal examination and designation for proficiency as a paralegal. Legal Secretaries International confers the Certified Legal Secretary Specialist (CLSS) designation in areas such as intellectual property, criminal law, civil litigation, probate, and business law to those who have 5 years of law-related experience and pass an examination. In some instances, certain requirements may be waived.

Increasing office automation and organizational restructuring will continue to make secretaries and administrative assistants more productive in coming years. Personal computers, e-mail, scanners, and voice message systems will allow secretaries to accomplish more in the same amount of time. The use of automated equipment is also changing the distribution of work in many offices. In some cases, such traditional secretarial duties as keyboarding, filing, photocopying, and bookkeeping are being assigned to workers in other units or departments. Professionals and managers increasingly do their own word processing and data entry, and handle much of their own correspondence rather than submit the work to secretaries and other support staff. Also, in some law and medical offices, paralegals and medical assistants are assuming some tasks formerly done by secretaries. As other workers assume more of these duties, there is a trend in many offices for professionals and managers to “share” secretaries and administrative assistants. The traditional arrangement of one secretary per manager is becoming less prevalent; instead, secretaries and administrative assistants increasingly support systems, departments, or units. This approach often means that secretaries and administrative assistants assume added responsibilities and are seen as valuable members of a team, but it also contributes to the projected decline in the overall number of secretaries and administrative assistants.

Secretaries generally advance by being promoted to other administrative positions with more responsibilities. Qualified secretaries who broaden their knowledge of a company’s operations and enhance their skills may be promoted to other positions such as senior or executive secretary, clerical supervisor, or office manager. Secretaries with word processing or data entry experience can advance to jobs as word processing or data entry trainers, supervisors, or managers within their own firms or in a secretarial, word processing, or data entry service bureau. Secretarial experience can also lead to jobs such as instructor or sales representative with manufacturers of software or computer equipment. With additional training, many legal secretaries become paralegals.

Developments in office technology are certain to continue, and they will bring about further changes in the work of secretaries and administrative assistants. However, many secretarial and administrative duties are of a personal, interactive nature and, therefore, not easily automated. Responsibilities such as planning conferences, working with clients, and instructing staff require tact and communication skills. Because technology cannot substitute for these personal skills, secretaries and administrative assistants will continue to play a key role in most organizations.

Job Outlook Overall employment of secretaries and administrative assistants is expected to grow more slowly than the average for all occupations over the 2002–12 period. In addition to those resulting from growth, numerous job openings will result from the need to replace workers who transfer to other occupations or leave this very large occupation for other reasons each year. Opportunities should be best for applicants, particularly experienced secretaries, with extensive knowledge of software applications.

Earnings Median annual earnings of executive secretaries and administrative assistants were $33,410 in 2002. The middle 50 percent earned between $26,980 and $41,350. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $22,270, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $50,420. Median annual earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of executive secretaries and administrative assistants in 2002 were:

Projected employment of secretaries will vary by occupational specialty. Employment growth in the health care and social assistance and legal services industries should lead to average growth for medical and legal secretaries. Employment of executive secretaries and administrative assistants is projected to grow more slowly than the average for all occupations. Rapidly growing industries—such as administrative and support services, health care and social assistance, educational services (private), and professional, scientific, and technical services—will

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Management of companies and enterprises ............$36,770 Local government........................................................34,600 Colleges, universities, and professional schools ........32,210 State government ........................................................31,220 Employment services ..................................................29,700

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Section One: Descriptions of 101 Top Jobs for People Without a Four-Year Degree Median annual earnings of legal secretaries were $35,020 in 2002. The middle 50 percent earned between $27,540 and $44,720. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $21,990, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $54,810. Medical secretaries earned a median annual salary of $25,430 in 2002. The middle 50 percent earned between $21,090 and $31,070. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $18,310, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $37,550. Median annual earnings of secretaries, except legal, medical, and executive, were about $25,290 in 2002.

Securities, Commodities, and Financial Services Sales Agents (O*NET 41-3031.01 and 41-3031.02)

Salaries vary a great deal, however, reflecting differences in skill, experience, and level of responsibility. Salaries also vary in different parts of the country; earnings are usually lowest in southern cities, and highest in northern and western cities. Certification in this field usually is rewarded by a higher salary.

Significant Points ●

Employment is expected to grow as fast as the average, and competition for entry-level jobs is expected to be keen because sales agents who succeed often have high earnings.

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A college degree, sales ability, good interpersonal and communication skills, and a strong desire to succeed are important qualifications for this profession.

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Beginning securities and commodities sales agents must pass a licensing exam to sell securities and commodities.

Related Occupations A number of other workers type, record information, and process paperwork. Among them are bookkeeping, accounting, and auditing clerks; receptionists and information clerks; court reporters; human resources assistants, except payroll and timekeeping; computer operators; data entry and information processing workers; paralegals and legal assistants; medical assistants; and medical records and health information technicians. A growing number of secretaries share in managerial and human resource responsibilities. Occupations requiring these skills include office and administrative support supervisors and managers, computer and information systems managers, administrative services managers, and human resources, training, and labor relations managers and specialists.

Nature of the Work Most investors, whether they are individuals with a few hundred dollars to invest or large institutions with millions, use securities, commodities, and financial services sales agents when buying or selling stocks, bonds, shares in mutual funds, insurance annuities, or other financial products. In addition, many clients seek out these agents for advice on investments, estate planning, and other financial matters.

Sources of Additional Information

Securities and commodities sales agents, also called brokers, stockbrokers, registered representatives, account executives, or financial consultants, perform a variety of tasks, depending on their specific job duties. When an investor wishes to buy or sell a security, for example, sales agents may relay the order through their firm’s computers to the floor of a securities exchange, such as the New York Stock Exchange. There, securities and commodities sales agents known as floor brokers negotiate the price with other floor brokers, make the sale, and forward the purchase price to the sales agents. If a security is not traded on an exchange, as in the case of bonds and overthe-counter stocks, the broker sends the order to the firm’s trading department. Here, using their own funds or those of the firm, other securities sales agents, known as dealers, buy and sell securities directly from other dealers, with the intention of reselling the security to customers at a profit. After the transaction has been completed, the broker notifies the customer of the final price.

State employment offices provide information about job openings for secretaries. For information on the Certified Professional Secretary or Certified Administrative Professional designations, contact: ●

International Association of Administrative Professionals, 10502 NW Ambassador Dr., P.O. Box 20404, Kansas City, MO 64195-0404. Internet: http://www.iaap-hq.org

Information on the Certified Legal Secretary Specialist (CLSS) designation can be obtained from: ●

Legal Secretaries International Inc. Internet: http://www.legalsecretaries.org

Information on the Accredited Legal Secretary (ALS), Professional Legal Secretary (PLS), and Paralegal certifications is available from: ●

NALS, Inc., 314 East 3rd St., Suite 210, Tulsa, OK 74120. Internet: http://www.nals.org

Securities and commodities sales agents also provide many related services for their customers. They may explain stock market terms and trading practices, offer financial counseling or advice on the purchase or sale of particular securities, and design an individual client’s financial portfolio, which could

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include securities, life insurance, corporate and municipal bonds, mutual funds, certificates of deposit, annuities, and other investments.

Established securities and commodities sales agents usually work a standard 40-hour week. Beginners who are seeking customers usually work longer hours. New brokers spend a great deal of time learning the firm’s products and services and studying for exams in order to qualify to sell other products, such as insurance and commodities. Most securities and commodities sales agents accommodate customers by meeting with them in the evenings or on weekends.

Not all customers have the same investment goals. Some individuals prefer long-term investments, for capital growth or to provide income over a number of years; others might want to invest in speculative securities, which they hope will quickly rise in price. On the basis of each customer’s objectives, securities and commodities sales agents furnish information about the advantages and disadvantages of an investment. They also supply the latest price quotes on any securities, as well as information on the activities and financial positions of the corporations issuing the securities.

A growing number of securities sales agents, employed mostly by discount or online brokerage firms, work in call-center environments. In these centers, hundreds of agents spend much of the day on the telephone taking orders from clients or offering advice and information on different securities. Often, such call centers operate 24 hours a day, requiring agents to work in shifts.

Most securities and commodities sales agents serve individual investors; others specialize in institutional investors, such as banks and pension funds. In institutional investing, sales agents usually concentrate on a specific financial product, such as stocks, bonds, options, annuities, or commodity futures. At other times, they may also handle the sale of new issues, such as corporate securities issued to finance the expansion of a plant.

Financial services sales agents normally work 40 hours a week in a comfortable, less stressful office environment. They may spend considerable time outside the office, meeting with current and prospective clients, attending civic functions, and participating in trade association meetings. Some financial services sales agents work exclusively inside banks, providing service to walk-in customers.

The most important part of a sales representative’s job is finding clients and building a customer base. Thus, beginning securities and commodities sales agents spend much of their time searching for customers—relying heavily on telephone solicitation. They also may meet clients through business and social contacts. Many sales agents find it useful to contact potential clients by teaching adult education investment courses or by giving lectures at libraries or social clubs. Brokerage firms may give sales agents lists of people with whom the firm has done business in the past. Some agents inherit the clients of agents who have retired. After an agent is established, referrals from satisfied clients are an important source of new business.

Employment Securities, commodities, and financial services sales agents held about 300,000 jobs in 2002. More than half of jobs were found in securities, commodity contracts, and other financial investments and related activities. One in 5 worked in depository and nondepository credit intermediation, including commercial banks, savings institutions, and credit unions. Although securities and commodities sales agents are employed by firms in all parts of the country, many work for a small number of large securities and investment banking firms headquartered in New York City. About 1 securities, commodities, and financial services sales agent in 8 was self-employed.

Financial services sales agents sell a wide variety of banking and related services. They contact potential customers to explain their services and to ascertain customers’ banking and other financial needs. In doing so, they discuss services such as loans, deposit accounts, lines of credit, sales or inventory financing, certificates of deposit, cash management, mutual funds, or investment services. They also may solicit businesses to participate in consumer credit card programs. Financial services sales agents who serve all the financial needs of a single affluent individual or a business often are called private bankers or relationship managers.

Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Because securities and commodities sales agents must be knowledgeable about economic conditions and trends, a college education is important, especially in larger securities firms. In fact, the overwhelming majority of workers in this occupation are college graduates. Although employers seldom require specialized academic training, courses in business administration, economics, and finance are helpful.

With deregulation of the financial services industry, the distinctions among sales agents are becoming less clear as securities firms, banks, and insurance companies venture further and further into each other’s products and services. The agents’ jobs also are becoming more important as competition between the firms intensifies.

Many employers consider personal qualities and skills more important than academic training. Employers seek applicants who have considerable sales ability, good interpersonal and communication skills, and a strong desire to succeed. Some employers also make sure that applicants have a good credit history and a clean record. Self-confidence and an ability to handle frequent rejections are important ingredients for success.

Working Conditions Most securities and commodities sales agents work in offices under fairly stressful conditions. They have access to “quote boards” or computer terminals that continually provide information on the prices of securities. When sales activity

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Section One: Descriptions of 101 Top Jobs for People Without a Four-Year Degree become portfolio managers and have greater authority to make investment decisions regarding an account. Some experienced sales agents become branch office managers and supervise other sales agents while continuing to provide services for their own customers. A few agents advance to top management positions or become partners in their firms.

Because maturity and the ability to work independently are important, many employers prefer to hire those who have achieved success in other jobs. Some firms prefer candidates with sales experience, particularly those who have worked on commission in areas such as real estate or insurance. Therefore, most entrants to this occupation transfer from other jobs. Some begin working as securities and commodities sales agents following retirement from other fields.

Banks and other credit institutions prefer to hire college graduates for financial services sales jobs. A business administration degree with a specialization in finance or a liberal arts degree that includes courses in accounting, economics, and marketing serves as excellent preparation for this job. Often, financial services sales agents learn their jobs through on-the-job training under the supervision of bank officers. However, those who wish to sell mutual funds and insurance products may need to undergo formal training and pass some of the same exams required of securities sales agents.

Securities and commodities sales agents must meet state licensing requirements, which usually include passing an examination and, in some cases, furnishing a personal bond. In addition, sales agents must register as representatives of their firm with the National Association of Securities Dealers, Inc. (NASD). Before beginners can qualify as registered representatives, they must pass the General Securities Registered Representative Examination (Series 7 exam), administered by the NASD, and be an employee of a registered firm for at least 4 months.

Job Outlook

Most states require a second examination: the Uniform Securities Agents State Law Examination. This test measures the prospective representative’s knowledge of the securities business in general, of customer protection requirements, and of recordkeeping procedures. Many take correspondence courses in preparation for the securities examinations. Within 2 years, brokers are encouraged to take additional licensing exams in order to sell mutual funds, insurance, and commodities.

Employment of securities, commodities, and financial services sales agents is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through 2012. As people’s incomes continue to climb, they will increasingly seek the advice and services of securities, commodities, and financial services sales agents to realize their financial goals. Growth in the volume of trade in stocks over the Internet will reduce the need for brokers for many transactions. Nevertheless, the overall increase in investment is expected to spur employment growth among these workers, with a majority of transactions still requiring the advice and services of securities, commodities, and financial services sales agents.

Most employers provide on-the-job training to help securities and commodities sales agents meet the registration requirements for certification. In most firms, the training period takes about 4 months. Trainees in large firms may receive classroom instruction in securities analysis, effective speaking, and the finer points of selling, may take courses offered by business schools and associations, and may undergo a period of on-the-job training lasting up to 2 years. Many firms like to rotate their trainees among various departments, to give them a broad perspective of the securities business. In small firms, sales agents often receive training in outside institutions and on the job.

Baby boomers in their peak savings years will fuel much of this increase in investment. Saving for retirement has been made much easier by the government, which continues to offer a number of tax-favorable pension plans, such as the 401(k) and the Roth IRA. The participation of more women in the workforce also means higher household incomes and more women qualifying for pensions. Many of these pensions are selfdirected, meaning that the recipient has the responsibility for investing the money. With such large amounts of money to invest, sales agents, in their role as financial advisors, will be in great demand.

Securities and commodities sales agents must understand the basic characteristics of the wide variety of financial products offered by brokerage firms. Brokers periodically take training through their firms or outside institutions in order to keep abreast of new financial products and improve their sales techniques. Computer training also is important, because the securities sales business is highly automated. Since 1995, it has become mandatory for all registered securities and commodities sales agents to attend periodic continuing education classes to maintain their licenses. Courses consist of computerbased training in regulatory matters and company training on new products and services.

Other factors that will affect the demand for brokers are the increasing number and complexity of investment products, as well as the effects of globalization. As the public and businesses become more sophisticated about investing, they are venturing into the options and futures markets. Brokers are needed to buy or sell these products, which are not traded online. Also, markets for investment are expanding with the increase in global trading of stocks and bonds. Furthermore, the New York Stock Exchange has extended its trading hours to accommodate trading in foreign stocks and compete with foreign exchanges.

The principal form of advancement for securities and commodities sales agents is an increase in the number and size of the accounts they handle. Although beginners usually service the accounts of individual investors, they may eventually handle very large institutional accounts, such as those of banks and pension funds. After taking a series of tests, some brokers

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Employment of brokers is adversely affected by downturns in the stock market or the economy. Turnover is high for beginning brokers, who often are unable to establish a sizable clientele even in good times. Once established, securities and commodities sales agents have a very strong attachment to

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their occupation because of their high earnings and the considerable investment in training. Competition usually is intense, especially in larger companies with more applicants than jobs. Opportunities for beginning brokers should be better in smaller firms.

For general information on the securities industry, contact: ●

For information about job opportunities for financial services sales agents in various states, contact state bankers’ associations or write directly to a particular bank.

The number of financial services sales agents in banks will increase faster than average as banks expand their product offerings in order to compete directly with other investment firms.

Earnings

Semiconductor Processors

Median annual earnings of securities, commodities, and financial services sales agents were $60,990 in 2002. The middle half earned between $36,180 and $117,050.

(O*NET 51-9141.00)

Median annual earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of securities and financial services sales agents in 2002 were as follows:

Significant Points ●

Employment is expected to decline over the next 10 years because of rising imports of computer chips and increasing automation of fabrication plants in this country.

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An associate degree in a relevant curriculum is increasingly required.

Securities and commodity contracts intermediation and brokerage ................................$78,140 Other financial investment activities ........................75,110 Management of companies and enterprises ..............54,730 Nondepository credit intermediation ........................43,220

Nature of the Work

Depository credit intermediation ..............................39,870

Electronic semiconductors—also known as computer chips, microchips, or integrated circuits—are the miniature but powerful brains of high-technology equipment. Semiconductors are composed of a myriad of tiny aluminum or copper lines and electric switches, which manipulate the flow of electrical current. Semiconductor processors are responsible for many of the steps necessary in the manufacture of each semiconductor that goes into personal computers, missile guidance systems, and a host of other electronic equipment.

Stockbrokers, who provide personalized service and more guidance with respect to a client’s investments, usually are paid a commission based on the amount of stocks, bonds, mutual funds, insurance, and other products they sell. Earnings from commissions are likely to be high when there is much buying and selling, low when there is a slump in market activity. Most firms provide sales agents with a steady income by paying a “draw against commission”—a minimum salary based on commissions they can be expected to earn. Securities and commodities sales agents who can provide their clients with the most thorough financial services should enjoy the greatest income stability. Trainee brokers usually are paid a salary until they develop a client base. The salary gradually decreases in favor of commissions as the broker gains clients. A small, but increasing, number of full-service brokers are paid a percentage of the assets they oversee. This fee often covers a certain number of trades done for free.

Semiconductor processors manufacture semiconductors in disks of varying sizes, generally eight to twelve inches wide. These disks, called wafers, are thin slices of silicon on which the circuitry of the microchips is layered. Each wafer is eventually cut into dozens or scores of individual chips. Semiconductor processors make wafers by means of photolithography, a printing process for creating patterns from photographic images. Operating automated equipment, workers imprint precise microscopic patterns of the circuitry on the wafers, etch out the patterns with acids, and replace the patterns with metals that conduct electricity. Then, the wafers receive a chemical bath to make them smooth, and the imprint process begins again on a new layer with the next pattern. Wafers usually have from 8 to 20 such layers of microscopic, three-dimensional circuitry.

Brokers who work for discount brokerage firms that promote the use of telephone and online trading services usually are paid a salary, sometimes boosted by bonuses that reflect the profitability of the office. Financial services sales agents usually are paid a salary also; however, bonuses or commissions from sales are starting to account for a larger share of their income.

Related Occupations

Semiconductors are produced in semiconductor-fabricating plants, or “fabs.” Within fabs, the manufacture and cutting of wafers to create semiconductors takes place in “cleanrooms”— production areas that must be kept free of any airborne matter, because the least bit of dust can damage a semiconductor. All

Other jobs requiring knowledge of finance and an ability to sell include insurance sales agents, real estate brokers and sales agents, and financial analysts and personal financial advisors.

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Section One: Descriptions of 101 Top Jobs for People Without a Four-Year Degree exposed to such chemicals can be harmed. However, semiconductor fabrication plants are designed with safeguards to ensure that these chemicals are handled, used, and disposed of without exposure to workers or the surrounding environment. Toxic chemicals are applied to wafers by computer-controlled machine tools in sealed chambers and there is normally little risk of workers coming into contact with them.

semiconductor processors working in cleanrooms—both operators and technicians—must wear special lightweight outer garments known as “bunny suits.” These garments fit over clothing to prevent lint and other particles from contaminating semiconductor-processing worksites. Operators, who make up the majority of the workers in cleanrooms, start and monitor the sophisticated equipment that performs the various tasks during the many steps of the semiconductor production sequence. They spend a great deal of time at computer terminals, monitoring the operation of the equipment to ensure that each of the tasks in the production of the wafer is performed correctly. Operators also may transfer wafer carriers from one development station to the next; in newer fabs, the lifting of heavy wafer carriers and the constant monitoring for quality control are increasingly being automated.

Semiconductor-fabricating plants operate around the clock. For this reason, night and weekend work is common. In some plants, workers maintain standard 8-hour shifts, 5 days a week. In other plants, employees are on duty for 12-hour shifts to minimize the disruption of cleanroom operations brought about by changes in shift. In some plants, managers allow workers to alternate schedules, thereby distributing the “graveyard” shift equitably.

Employment

Once begun, the production of semiconductor wafers is continuous. Operators work to the pace of the machinery that has largely automated the production process. Operators are responsible for keeping the automated machinery within proper operating parameters.

Electronic semiconductor processors held approximately 46,000 jobs in 2002. Nearly all of them were employed in facilities that manufacture semiconductors and other electronic components and accessories, though a small percentage worked in plants that primarily manufacture computers and office equipment.

Technicians account for a smaller percentage of the workers in cleanrooms, but they troubleshoot production problems and make equipment adjustments and repairs. They also take the lead in assuring quality control and in maintaining equipment. To keep equipment repairs to a minimum, technicians perform diagnostic analyses and run computations. For example, technicians may determine if a flaw in a chip is due to contamination, and peculiar to that wafer, or if the flaw is inherent in the manufacturing process.

Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement People interested in becoming semiconductor processors— either operators or technicians—need a solid background in mathematics and the physical sciences. In addition to applying these disciplines to the complex manufacturing processes performed in fabs, math and science knowledge are essentials for pursuing higher education in semiconductor technology— and knowledge of both subjects is one of the best ways to advance in the semiconductor fabricating field.

Working Conditions The work pace in cleanrooms is deliberately slow. Limited movement keeps the air in cleanrooms as free as possible of dust and other particles, which can destroy semiconductors during their production. Because the machinery sets operators’ rate of work in the largely automated production process, workers maintain an easygoing pace. Although workers spend some time alone monitoring equipment, operators and technicians spend much of their time working in teams.

Semiconductor processor workers must also be able to think analytically and critically to anticipate problems and avoid costly mistakes. Communication skills also are vital, as workers must be able to convey their thoughts and ideas both orally and in writing.

Technicians are on their feet most of the day, walking through the cleanroom to oversee production activities. Operators spend a great deal of time sitting or standing at workstations, monitoring computer readouts and gauges. Sometimes, they must retrieve wafers from one station and take them to another.

A high school diploma or equivalent is the minimum requirement for entry-level operator jobs in semiconductor fabrication plants. However, employers increasingly prefer persons who have completed associate degree programs for semiconductor processor jobs. While completion of a 1-year certificate program in semiconductor technology offered by some community colleges is an asset for most processor jobs, technicians must have at least an associate degree in electronics technology or a related field.

The temperature in the cleanrooms must be kept within a narrow range: usually, it is set at a comfortable 72 degrees Fahrenheit. Although bunny suits cover virtually the entire body, except perhaps the eyes (over which workers wear protective glasses), their lightweight fabric keeps the temperature inside fairly comfortable as well. Entry and exit of workers in bunny suits from the cleanroom are controlled to minimize contamination, and workers must be reclothed in a clean suit and decontaminated each time they return to the cleanroom.

Degree or certificate candidates who get hands-on training while attending school look even more attractive to prospective employers. Semiconductor technology programs in a growing number of community colleges include an internship at a semiconductor fabricating plant; many students in these programs already hold full- or part-time jobs in the industry and work toward degrees in semiconductor technology in

Several highly toxic chemicals are used at various points in the process of manufacturing semiconductors. Workers who are

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Earnings

their spare time to update their skills or qualify for promotion to technician jobs. In addition, to ensure that operators and technicians keep their skills current, many employers provide 40 hours of formal training annually. Some employers also provide financial assistance to employees who want to earn associate and bachelor’s degrees.

Median hourly earnings of electronic semiconductor processors were $13.14 in 2002. The middle 50 percent earned between $10.76 and $16.39 an hour. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $9.28, and the top 10 percent earned more than $20.35 an hour.

Summer and part-time employment provide another option for getting started in the field for those who live near a semiconductor processing plant. Students often are hired to work during the summer, and some students are allowed to continue working part time during the school year. Students in summer and part-time semiconductor processor jobs learn what education they need to prosper in the field. They also gain valuable experience that may lead to full-time employment after graduation.

Technicians with an associate degree in electronics or semiconductor technology generally start at higher salaries than those with less education. Between a fourth and a half of all electronic semiconductor processors belong to a union, considerably higher than the rate for all occupations.

Related Occupations Electronic semiconductor processors do production work that resembles the work of precision assemblers and fabricators of electrical and electronic equipment. Also, many electronic semiconductor processors have academic training in semiconductor technology, which emphasizes scientific and engineering principles. Other occupations that require some college or postsecondary vocational training emphasizing such principles are engineering technicians, electrical and electronics engineers, and science technicians.

Some semiconductor processing technicians transfer to sales engineer jobs with suppliers of the machines that manufacture the semiconductors or become field support personnel.

Job Outlook Between 2002 and 2012, employment of semiconductor processors is projected to decline. The two main reasons for this reversal are much higher productivity and rising imports. Companies are upgrading many of their older fabs to make larger 12" wafers, which produce twice as many chips as fabs making 8" wafers. These plants also are more automated, allowing them to sharply increase production with the same number of workers. A number of domestic companies also are buildin more fabs overseas, where costs are lower. In addition, imports of semiconductors from non-U.S. companies are on the rise and should continue to increase throughout the decade. Besides the creation of new jobs, additional openings will result from the need to replace workers who leave the occupation.

Sources of Additional Information For more information on semiconductor processor careers, contact:

Despite the expected decline in employment of semiconductor processors, the demand for semiconductor chips remains very high stemming from the many existing and future applications for semiconductors in computers, appliances, machinery, biotechnology, vehicles, cell phones and other telecommunications devices, and other equipment. Moreover, the advent of the new 64-bit microchip is expected to provide the power of computer servers or workstations, onto desktop computers and open up a wealth of new applications, particularly in medical devices.

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Maricopa Advanced Technology Education Center (MATEC), 2323 West 14th St., Suite 540, Tempe, AZ 85281. Internet: http://matec.org/ops/career.shtml

(O*NET 47-2211.00)

Significant Points ●

Nearly two-thirds of the jobs are found in the construction industry; about one quarter are in manufacturing.

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Apprenticeship programs lasting 4 or 5 years are considered the best training.

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Job opportunities in construction should be good.

Nature of the Work Sheet metal workers make, install, and maintain heating, ventilation, and air-conditioning duct systems; roofs; siding; rain gutters; downspouts; skylights; restaurant equipment; outdoor signs; railroad cars; tailgates; customized precision equipment;

Job prospects will be best for people with postsecondary education in electronics or semiconductor technology.

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Semiconductor Industry Association, 181 Metro Dr., Suite 450, San Jose, CA 95110. Internet: http://www.semichips.org

Sheet Metal Workers

Industry development of semiconductors made from better materials means that semiconductors will become even smaller, more powerful, and more durable. For example, the industry has begun producing a new generation of microchips made with copper rather than aluminum wires, which will better conduct electricity. Also, technology to develop chips based on plastic, rather than on silicon, will make computers durable enough to be used in a variety of applications in which they could not easily have been used previously.

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Section One: Descriptions of 101 Top Jobs for People Without a Four-Year Degree and many other products made from metal sheets. They also may work with fiberglass and plastic materials. Although some workers specialize in fabrication, installation, or maintenance, most do all three jobs. Sheet metal workers do both construction-related sheet metal work and mass production of sheet metal products in manufacturing.

scale manufacturing are similar to those used in smaller shops, the work may be highly automated and repetitive. Sheet metal workers doing such work may be responsible for reprogramming the computer control systems of the equipment they operate.

Sheet metal workers first study plans and specifications to determine the kind and quantity of materials they will need. They then measure, cut, bend, shape, and fasten pieces of sheet metal to make ductwork, countertops, and other custom products. In an increasing number of shops, sheet metal workers use computerized metalworking equipment. This enables them to perform their tasks more quickly and to experiment with different layouts to find the one that results in the least waste of material. They cut, drill, and form parts with computer-controlled saws, lasers, shears, and presses.

Working Conditions Sheet metal workers usually work a 40-hour week. Those who fabricate sheet metal products work in shops that are welllighted and well-ventilated. However, they stand for long periods and lift heavy materials and finished pieces. Sheet metal workers must follow safety practices because working around high-speed machines can be dangerous. They also are subject to cuts from sharp metal, burns from soldering and welding, and falls from ladders and scaffolds. They usually wear safety glasses but must not wear jewelry or loose-fitting clothing that could easily be caught in a machine. They may work at a variety of different production stations to reduce the repetitiveness of the work.

In shops without computerized equipment, and for products that cannot be made on such equipment, sheet metal workers use hand calculators to make the required calculations and use tapes, rulers, and other measuring devices for layout work. They then cut or stamp the parts on machine tools.

Those performing installation work do considerable bending, lifting, standing, climbing, and squatting, sometimes in close quarters or in awkward positions. Although duct systems and kitchen equipment are installed indoors, the installation of siding, roofs, and gutters involves much outdoor work, requiring sheet metal workers to be exposed to various kinds of weather.

Before assembling pieces, sheet metal workers check each part for accuracy using measuring instruments such as calipers and micrometers and, if necessary, finish it by using hand, rotary, or squaring shears and hacksaws. After the parts have been inspected, workers fasten seams and joints together with welds, bolts, cement, rivets, solder, specially formed sheet metal drive clips, or other connecting devices. They then take the parts to the construction site, where they further assemble the pieces as they install them. These workers install ducts, pipes, and tubes by joining them end to end and hanging them with metal hangers secured to a ceiling or a wall. They also use shears, hammers, punches, and drills to make parts at the worksite or to alter parts made in the shop.

Employment Sheet metal workers held about 205,000 jobs in 2002. Nearly two-thirds of all sheet metal workers were found in the construction industry. Of those employed in construction, almost half worked for plumbing, heating, and air-conditioning contractors; most of the rest worked for roofing and sheet metal contractors. Some worked for other special trade contractors and for general contractors engaged in residential and commercial building. One-quarter of all sheet metal workers work outside of construction and are found in manufacturing industries, such as the fabricated metal products, machinery, and aerospace products and parts industries. Some work for the federal government.

Some jobs are done completely at the jobsite. When installing a metal roof, for example, sheet metal workers measure and cut the roofing panels that are needed to complete the job. They secure the first panel in place and interlock and fasten the grooved edge of the next panel into the grooved edge of the first. Then, they nail or weld the free edge of the panel to the structure. This two-step process is repeated for each additional panel. Finally, the workers fasten machine-made molding at joints, along corners, and around windows and doors for a neat, finished effect.

Compared with workers in most construction craft occupations, relatively few sheet metal workers are self-employed.

Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement

In addition to installation, some sheet metal workers specialize in testing, balancing, adjusting, and servicing existing airconditioning and ventilation systems to make sure they are functioning properly and to improve their energy efficiency. Properly installed duct systems are a key component to heating, ventilation, and air-conditioning (HVAC) systems, which causes duct installers to sometimes be referred to as HVAC technicians. A duct system allows for even air distribution while minimizing leaks and temperature differentiation that can cause other problems, such as mold.

Apprenticeship generally is considered to be the best way to learn this trade. The apprenticeship program consists of 4 or 5 years of on-the-job training and an average of 200 hours per year of classroom instruction. Apprenticeship programs provide comprehensive instruction in both sheet metal fabrication and installation. They may be administered by local joint committees composed of the Sheet Metal Workers’ International Association and local chapters of the Sheet Metal and Air-Conditioning Contractors National Association.

Sheet metal workers in manufacturing plants make sheet metal parts for products such as aircraft or industrial equipment. Although some of the fabrication techniques used in large-

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On the job, apprentices learn the basics of pattern layout and how to cut, bend, fabricate, and install sheet metal. They begin by learning to install and maintain basic ductwork and gradually advance to more difficult jobs, such as making more complex ducts, commercial kitchens, and decorative pieces. They also use materials such as fiberglass, plastics, and other nonmetallic materials. Some workers may focus on exterior or architectural sheet metal installation.

Job opportunities are expected to be good for sheet metal workers in the construction industry and in constructionrelated sheet metal fabrication, reflecting both employment growth and openings arising each year as experienced sheet metal workers leave the occupation. In addition, many potential workers may prefer work that is less strenuous and that has more comfortable working conditions, thus limiting the number of applicants for sheet metal jobs. Opportunities should be particularly good for individuals who acquire apprenticeship training. Job prospects in manufacturing will not be as good because construction is expected to grow faster than the manufacturing industries that employ sheet metal workers. Because some sheet metal manufacturing is labor-intensive, manufacturers sometimes move production to lower wage areas or countries.

In the classroom, apprentices learn drafting, plan and specification reading, trigonometry and geometry applicable to layout work, the use of computerized equipment, welding, and the principles of heating, air-conditioning, and ventilating systems. Safety is stressed throughout the program. In addition, apprentices learn the relationship between sheet metal work and other construction work. Some persons pick up the trade informally, usually by working as helpers to experienced sheet metal workers. Most begin by carrying metal and cleaning up debris in a metal shop while they learn about materials and tools and their uses. Later, they learn to operate machines that bend or cut metal. In time, helpers go out on the jobsite to learn installation. Those who acquire their skills this way often take vocational school courses in mathematics or sheet metal fabrication to supplement their work experience. To be promoted to the journey level, helpers usually must pass the same written examination as apprentices. Most sheet metal workers in large-scale manufacturing receive on-the-job training, with additional classwork or in-house training when necessary.

Employment of sheet metal workers in construction is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through 2012, reflecting growth in the demand for sheet metal installations as more industrial, commercial, and residential structures are built. The need to install energy-efficient air-conditioning, heating, and ventilation systems in the increasing stock of old buildings and to perform other types of renovation and maintenance work also should boost employment. In addition, the popularity of decorative sheet metal products and increased architectural restoration are expected to add to the demand for sheet metal workers. On the other hand, slower-than-average job growth is projected for sheet metal workers in manufacturing.

Applicants for jobs as apprentices or helpers should be in good physical condition and have mechanical and mathematical aptitude as well as good reading skills. Good eye-hand coordination, spatial and form perception, and manual dexterity also are important. Local apprenticeship committees require a high school education or its equivalent. Courses in algebra, trigonometry, geometry, mechanical drawing, and shop provide a helpful background for learning the trade, as does related work experience obtained in the Armed Services.

Sheet metal workers in construction may experience periods of unemployment, particularly when construction projects end and economic conditions dampen construction activity. Nevertheless, employment of sheet metal workers is less sensitive to declines in new construction than is the employment of some other construction workers, such as carpenters. Maintenance of existing equipment—which is less affected by economic fluctuations than is new construction—makes up a large part of the work done by sheet metal workers. Installation of new air-conditioning and heating systems in existing buildings continues during construction slumps, as individuals and businesses adopt more energy-efficient equipment to cut utility bills. In addition, a large proportion of sheet metal installation and maintenance is done indoors, so sheet metal workers usually lose less worktime due to bad weather than other construction workers do.

It is important for experienced sheet metal workers to keep abreast of new technological developments, such as the growing use of computerized layout and laser-cutting machines. Workers often take additional training, provided by the union or by their employer, to improve existing skills or to acquire new ones. Sheet metal workers in construction may advance to supervisory jobs. Some of these workers take additional training in welding and do more specialized work. Others go into the contracting business for themselves. Because a sheet metal contractor must have a shop with equipment to fabricate products, this type of contracting business is more expensive to start than other types of construction contracting. Sheet metal workers in manufacturing may advance to positions as supervisors or quality inspectors. Some of these workers may move into other management positions.

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Earnings In 2002, median hourly earnings of sheet metal workers were $16.62. The middle 50 percent earned between $12.15 and $23.03. The lowest 10 percent of all sheet metal workers earned less than $9.50, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $29.53. The median hourly earnings of the largest industries employing sheet metal workers in 2002 are shown next.

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Section One: Descriptions of 101 Top Jobs for People Without a Four-Year Degree Federal government ....................................................$19.73 Building equipment contractors ..................................17.47

Shipping, Receiving, and Traffic Clerks

Building finishing contractors ......................................16.77 Foundation, structure, and building exterior contractors ..................................................................15.48 Architectural and structural metals manufacturing ............................................................14.60

(O*NET 43-5071.00)

Apprentices normally start at about 40 to 50 percent of the rate paid to experienced workers. As apprentices acquire more skills throughout the course of their training, they receive periodic increases until their pay approaches that of experienced workers. In addition, union workers in some areas receive supplemental wages from the union when they are on layoff or shortened workweeks.

Significant Points

Related Occupations To fabricate and install sheet metal products, sheet metal workers combine metalworking skills and knowledge of construction materials and techniques. Other occupations in which workers lay out and fabricate metal products include assemblers and fabricators; machinists; machine setters, operators, and tenders—metal and plastic; and tool and die makers. Construction occupations requiring similar skills and knowledge include glaziers and heating, air-conditioning, and refrigeration mechanics and installers.

Sheet Metal and Air-Conditioning Contractors National Association, 4201 Lafayette Center Dr., Chantilly, VA 20151-1209. Internet: http://www.smacna.org

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Sheet Metal Workers International Association, 1750 New York Ave. NW, Washington, DC 20006. Internet: http://www.smwia.org

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Numerous job openings will arise each year from the need to replace workers who leave this very large occupational group.

Receiving clerks perform tasks similar to those of shipping clerks. They determine whether orders have been filled correctly by verifying incoming shipments against the original order and the accompanying bill of lading or invoice. They make a record of the shipment and the condition of its contents. In many firms, receiving clerks either use hand-held scanners to record barcodes on incoming products or enter the information into a computer. These data then can be trans-

There are more than 500 occupations registered by the U.S. Department of Labor’s National Apprenticeship system. For more information on the Labor Department’s registered apprenticeship system and links to state apprenticeship programs, check their Web site: http://www.doleta.gov.

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Workers develop the necessary skills through on-the-job training lasting from several days to a few months.

Shipping clerks keep records of all outgoing shipments. They prepare shipping documents and mailing labels and make sure that orders have been filled correctly. Also, they record items taken from inventory and note when orders were filled. Sometimes they fill the order themselves, obtaining merchandise from the stockroom, noting when inventories run low, and wrapping or packing the goods in shipping containers. They also address and label packages, look up and compute freight or postal rates, and record the weight and cost of each shipment. In addition, shipping clerks may prepare invoices and furnish information about shipments to other parts of the company, such as the accounting department. Once a shipment is checked and ready to go, shipping clerks may move the goods from the plant—sometimes by forklift—to the shipping dock and direct its loading.

For general and training information about sheet metal workers, contact:

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Shipping, receiving, and traffic clerks keep records of all goods shipped and received. Their duties depend on the size of the establishment and the level of automation used. Larger companies typically are better able to finance the purchase of computers and other equipment to handle some or all of a clerk’s responsibilities. In smaller companies, a clerk maintains records, prepares shipments, and accepts deliveries. In both environments, shipping, receiving, and traffic clerks may lift cartons of various sizes.

For more information about apprenticeships or other work opportunities, contact local sheet metal contractors or heating, refrigeration, and air-conditioning contractors; a local of the Sheet Metal Workers International Association; a local of the Sheet Metal and Air-Conditioning Contractors National Association; a local joint union-management apprenticeship committee; or the nearest office of your state employment service or apprenticeship agency.

International Training Institute for the Sheet Metal and Air-Conditioning Industry, 601 N. Fairfax St., Suite 240, Alexandria, VA 22314. Internet: http://www.sheetmetal-iti.org

Many shipping, receiving, and traffic clerk jobs are at the entry level and do not require more than a high school diploma.

Nature of the Work

Sources of Additional Information

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America’s Top 101 Jobs for People Without a Four-Year Degree business, dispatching, or specific job-related experience may be preferred. Because communication with other people is an integral part of these jobs, good oral and written communications skills are essential. Typing, filing, recordkeeping, and other clerical skills also are important.

ferred to the appropriate departments. The shipment is checked for any discrepancies in quantity, price, and discounts. Receiving clerks may route or move shipments to the proper department, warehouse section, or stockroom. They also may arrange for adjustments with shippers whenever merchandise is lost or damaged. Receiving clerks in small businesses may perform some duties similar to those of stock clerks. In larger establishments, receiving clerks may control all receiving-platform operations, such as scheduling of trucks, recording of shipments, and handling of damaged goods.

Shipping, receiving, and traffic clerks usually learn the job by doing routine tasks under close supervision. They learn how to count and mark stock, and then they start keeping records and taking inventory. Strength, stamina, good eyesight, and an ability to work at repetitive tasks, sometimes under pressure, are important characteristics. Shipping, receiving, and traffic clerks who handle jewelry, liquor, or drugs may be bonded.

Traffic clerks maintain records on the destination, weight, and charges on all incoming and outgoing freight. They verify rate charges by comparing the classification of materials with rate charts. In many companies, this work may be automated. Information either is scanned or is entered by hand into a computer for use by the accounting department or other departments within the company. Traffic clerks also keep a file of claims for overcharges and for damage to goods in transit.

Shipping, receiving, and traffic clerks start out by checking items to be shipped and then attaching labels to them and making sure that the addresses are correct. Training in the use of automated equipment usually is done informally, on the job. As these occupations become more automated, however, workers in them may need longer periods of training in order to master the use of the equipment.

Working Conditions

Shipping, receiving, and traffic clerks are often promoted to head clerk, and those with a broad understanding of shipping and receiving may enter a related field, such as industrial traffic management. With additional training, some shipping, receiving, and traffic clerks advance to jobs as warehouse manager or purchasing agent.

Shipping, receiving, and traffic clerks work in a wide variety of businesses, institutions, and industries. Some work in warehouses, stockrooms, or shipping and receiving rooms that may not be temperature controlled. Others may spend time in cold storage rooms or outside on loading platforms, where they are exposed to the weather.

Job Outlook

Most jobs for shipping, receiving, and traffic clerks involve frequent standing, bending, walking, and stretching. Some lifting and carrying of smaller items also may be involved. Although automated devices have lessened the physical demands of this occupation, their use remains somewhat limited. The work still can be strenuous, even though mechanical materialhandling equipment is employed to move heavy items.

Employment of shipping, receiving, and traffic clerks is expected to grow more slowly than the average for all occupations through 2012. Job growth will continue to be limited by automation as all but the smallest firms move to reduce labor costs by using computers to store and retrieve shipping and receiving records.

The typical workweek is Monday through Friday; however, evening and weekend hours are common in some jobs and may be required in other jobs when large shipments are involved or when inventory is taken.

Methods of handling materials have changed significantly in recent years. Large warehouses are increasingly becoming automated, with equipment such as computerized conveyor systems, robots, computer-directed trucks, and automatic data storage and retrieval systems. Automation, coupled with the growing use of hand-held scanners and personal computers in shipping and receiving departments, has increased the productivity of these workers.

Employment Shipping, receiving, and traffic clerks held about 803,000 jobs in 2002. About three-fourths were employed in manufacturing or by wholesale and retail establishments. Although jobs for shipping, receiving, and traffic clerks are found throughout the country, most clerks work in urban areas, where shipping depots in factories and wholesale establishments usually are located.

Despite technology, job openings will continue to arise due to increasing economic and trade activity and because certain tasks cannot be automated. As an example of the latter circumstance, someone needs to check shipments before they go out and when they arrive, to ensure that everything is in order. In addition to those arising from job growth, openings will occur because of the need to replace shipping, receiving, and traffic clerks who leave the occupation. Because this is an entry-level occupation, many vacancies are created by a worker’s normal career progression.

Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Many shipping, receiving, and traffic clerk jobs are at the entry level and do not require more than a high school diploma. Employers, however, prefer to hire those familiar with computers and other electronic office and business equipment. Applicants who have taken business courses or have previous

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Earnings Median hourly earnings in 2002 for shipping, receiving, and traffic clerks were $11.26.

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as food stamps, Medicaid, or welfare, and help to obtain them. They also arrange for transportation and escorts, if necessary, and provide emotional support. Social and human service assistants monitor and keep case records on clients and report progress to supervisors and case managers.

Related Occupations

Social and human service assistants play a variety of roles in a community. They may organize and lead group activities, assist clients in need of counseling or crisis intervention, or administer a food bank or emergency fuel program. In halfway houses, group homes, and government-supported housing programs, they assist adults who need supervision with personal hygiene and daily living skills. They review clients’ records, ensure that they take correct doses of medication, talk with family members, and confer with medical personnel and other caregivers to gain better insight into clients’ backgrounds and needs. Social and human service assistants also provide emotional support and help clients become involved in their own well-being, in community recreation programs, and in other activities.

Shipping, receiving, and traffic clerks record, check, and often store materials that a company receives. They also process and pack goods for shipment. Other workers who perform similar duties are stock clerks and order fillers; production, planning, and expediting clerks; cargo and freight agents; and Postal Service workers.

Sources of Additional Information Information about job opportunities may be obtained from local employers and local offices of the state employment service.

In psychiatric hospitals, rehabilitation programs, and outpatient clinics, social and human service assistants work with professional care providers, such as psychiatrists, psychologists, and social workers, to help clients master everyday living skills, communicate more effectively, and get along better with others. They support the client’s participation in a treatment plan, such as individual or group counseling or occupational therapy.

Social and Human Service Assistants (O*NET 21-1093.00)

Working Conditions

Significant Points ●

While a bachelor’s degree usually is not required, employers increasingly seek individuals with relevant work experience or education beyond high school.

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Employment is projected to grow much faster than average.

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Job opportunities should be excellent, particularly for applicants with appropriate postsecondary education, but pay is low.

Working conditions of social and human service assistants vary. Some work in offices, clinics, and hospitals, while others work in group homes, shelters, sheltered workshops, and day programs. Many spend their time in the field visiting clients. Most work a 40-hour week, although some work in the evening and on weekends. The work, while satisfying, can be emotionally draining. Understaffing and relatively low pay may add to the pressure. Turnover is reported to be high, especially among workers without academic preparation for this field.

Nature of the Work

Employment

Social and human service assistant is a generic term for people with a wide array of job titles, including human service worker, case management aide, social work assistant, community support worker, mental health aide, community outreach worker, life skill counselor, or gerontology aide. They usually work under the direction of professionals from a variety of fields, such as nursing, psychiatry, psychology, rehabilitative or physical therapy, or social work. The amount of responsibility and supervision they are given varies a great deal. Some have little direct supervision; others work under close direction.

Social and human service assistants held about 305,000 jobs in 2002. More than half worked in the health care and social assistance industries. Almost one third were employed by state and local governments, primarily in public welfare agencies and facilities for mentally disabled and developmentally challenged individuals.

Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement

Social and human service assistants provide direct and indirect client services to ensure that individuals in their care reach their maximum level of functioning. They assess clients’ needs, establish their eligibility for benefits and services such

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While a bachelor’s degree usually is not required for entry into this occupation, employers increasingly seek individuals with relevant work experience or education beyond high school. Certificates or associate degrees in subjects such as social work,

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human services, gerontology, or one of the social or behavioral sciences meet most employers’ requirements. Some jobs may require a bachelor’s or master’s degree in human services or a related field such as counseling, rehabilitation, or social work.

Opportunities are expected to be good in private social service agencies, which provide such services as adult daycare and meal delivery programs. Employment in private agencies will grow as state and local governments continue to contract out services to the private sector in an effort to cut costs. Demand for social services will expand with the growing elderly population, who are more likely to need these services. In addition, more social and human service assistants will be needed to provide services to pregnant teenagers, the homeless, the mentally disabled and developmentally challenged, and substance abusers. Some private agencies have been employing more social and human service assistants in place of social workers, who are more educated and, thus, more highly paid.

Human services degree programs have a core curriculum that trains students to observe patients and record information, conduct patient interviews, implement treatment plans, employ problem-solving techniques, handle crisis intervention matters, and use proper case management and referral procedures. General education courses in liberal arts, sciences, and the humanities also are part of the curriculum. Many degree programs require completion of a supervised internship. Educational attainment often influences the kind of work employees may be assigned and the degree of responsibility that may be entrusted to them. For example, workers with no more than a high school education are likely to receive extensive on-the-job training to work in direct-care services, while employees with a college degree might be assigned to do supportive counseling, coordinate program activities, or manage a group home. Social and human service assistants with proven leadership ability, either from previous experience or as a volunteer in the field, often have greater autonomy in their work. Regardless of the academic or work background of employees, most employers provide some form of inservice training, such as seminars and workshops, to their employees.

Job training programs also are expected to require additional social and human service assistants. As social welfare policies shift focus from benefit-based programs to work-based initiatives, there will be more demand for people to teach job skills to the people who are new to, or returning to, the workforce. Residential care establishments should face increased pressures to respond to the needs of the mentally and physically disabled. Many of these patients have been deinstitutionalized and lack the knowledge or the ability to care for themselves. Also, more community-based programs, supported independent-living sites, and group residences are expected to be established to house and assist the homeless and the mentally and physically disabled. As substance abusers are increasingly being sent to treatment programs instead of prison, employment of social and human service assistants in substance abuse treatment programs also will grow.

There may be additional hiring requirements in group homes. For example, employers may require employees to have a valid driver’s license or to submit to a criminal background investigation. Employers try to select applicants who have effective communication skills, a strong sense of responsibility, and the ability to manage time effectively. Many human services jobs involve direct contact with people who are vulnerable to exploitation or mistreatment; therefore, patience, understanding, and a strong desire to help others are highly valued characteristics.

The number of jobs for social and human service assistants in state and local governments will grow but not as fast as employment for social and human service assistants in other industries. Employment in the public sector may fluctuate with the level of funding provided by state and local governments. Also, some state and local governments are contracting out selected social services to private agencies in order to save money.

Formal education almost always is necessary for advancement. In general, advancement requires a bachelor’s or master’s degree in human services, counseling, rehabilitation, social work, or a related field.

Earnings Median annual earnings of social and human service assistants were $23,370 in 2002. The middle 50 percent earned between $18,670 and $29,520. The top 10 percent earned more than $37,550, while the lowest 10 percent earned less than $15,420.

Job Outlook Job opportunities for social and human service assistants are expected to be excellent, particularly for applicants with appropriate postsecondary education. The number of social and human service assistants is projected to grow much faster than the average for all occupations between 2002 and 2012— ranking the occupation among the most rapidly growing. Many additional job opportunities will arise from the need to replace workers who advance into new positions, retire, or leave the workforce for other reasons. There will be more competition for jobs in urban areas than in rural areas, but qualified applicants should have little difficulty finding employment. Faced with rapid growth in the demand for social and human services many employers increasingly rely

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Median annual earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of social and human service assistants in 2002 were: State government ......................................................$31,280 Local government........................................................26,570 Individual and family services....................................22,210 Community food and housing, and emergency and other relief services ............................................21,840 Residential mental retardation, mental health and substance abuse facilities ..................................20,010

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Related Occupations

In many firms, stock clerks and order fillers use hand-held scanners connected to computers to keep inventories up to date. In retail stores, stock clerks bring merchandise to the sales floor and stock shelves and racks. In stockrooms and warehouses, stock clerks store materials in bins, on floors, or on shelves. Instead of putting the merchandise on the sales floor or on shelves, order fillers take customers’ orders and either hold the merchandise until the customers can pick it up or send it to them.

Workers in other occupations that require skills similar to those of social and human service assistants include social workers; clergy; counselors; childcare workers; occupational therapist assistants and aides; physical therapist assistants and aides; and nursing, psychiatric, and home health aides.

Sources of Additional Information Information on academic programs in human services may be found in most directories of 2- and 4-year colleges, available at libraries or career counseling centers.

Working Conditions Stock clerks and order fillers work in a wide variety of businesses, institutions, and industries. Some work in warehouses, stockrooms, or shipping and receiving rooms that may not be temperature controlled. Others may spend time in cold storage rooms or outside on loading platforms, where they are exposed to the weather.

For information on programs and careers in human services, contact: ●

National Organization for Human Service Education, 375 Myrtle Ave., Brooklyn, NY 11205. Internet: http://www.nohse.org

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Council for Standards in Human Services Education, Harrisburg Area Community College, Human Services Program, One HACC Dr., Harrisburg, PA 17110-2999. Internet: http://www.cshse.org

Most jobs for stock clerks and order fillers involve frequent standing, bending, walking, and stretching. Some lifting and carrying of smaller items also may be involved. Although automated devices have lessened the physical demands of this occupation, their use remains somewhat limited. The work still can be strenuous, even though mechanical material-handling equipment is employed to move heavy items.

Information on job openings may be available from state employment service offices or directly from city, county, or state departments of health, mental health and mental retardation, and human resources.

The typical workweek is Monday through Friday; however, evening and weekend hours are common in some jobs, such as stock clerks and order fillers in retail trade, and may be required in other jobs when large shipments are involved or when inventory is taken.

Stock Clerks and Order Fillers

Employment

(O*NET 43-5081.01, 43-5081.02, 43-5081.03, and 43-5081.04)

Stock clerks and order fillers held about 1.6 million jobs in 2002; they were, by far, the largest material recording, scheduling, dispatching, and distributing occupation. About 75 percent work in wholesale and retail trade. The greatest numbers are found in grocery stores, followed by department stores. Jobs for stock clerks are found in all parts of the country, but most work in large urban areas that have many large suburban shopping centers, warehouses, and factories.

Significant Points ●

Many stock clerk and order filler jobs are at the entry level and do not require more than a high school diploma.

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Workers develop the necessary skills through on-the-job training lasting from several days to a few months.

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Numerous job openings will arise each year from the need to replace workers who leave this very large occupational group.

Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Many stock clerk and order filler jobs are at the entry level and do not require more than a high school diploma. Employers, however, prefer to hire those familiar with computers and other electronic office and business equipment. Applicants who have taken business courses or have previous business, dispatching, or specific job-related experience may be preferred. Because communication with other people is an integral part of these jobs, good oral and written communications skills are essential. Typing, filing, recordkeeping, and other clerical skills also are important.

Nature of the Work Stock clerks and order fillers receive, unpack, check, store, and track merchandise or materials. They keep records of items entering or leaving the stockroom and inspect damaged or spoiled goods. They sort, organize, and mark items with identifying codes, such as price, stock, or inventory control codes, so that inventories can be located quickly and easily. They also may be required to lift cartons of various sizes. In larger establishments, where they may be responsible for only one task, they may be called stock-control clerks, merchandise distributors, or property custodians. In smaller firms, they also may perform tasks usually handled by shipping and receiving clerks.

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Stock clerks and order fillers usually learn the job by doing routine tasks under close supervision. They learn how to count and mark stock, and then they start keeping records and tak-

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America’s Top 101 Jobs for People Without a Four-Year Degree ing inventory. Strength, stamina, good eyesight, and an ability to work at repetitive tasks, sometimes under pressure, are important characteristics. Stock clerks, whose sole responsibility is to bring merchandise to the sales floor to stock shelves and racks, need little training. Stock clerks and order fillers who handle jewelry, liquor, or drugs may be bonded.

Teacher Assistants (O*NET 25-9041.00)

In large firms, stock clerks can advance to invoice clerk, stock control clerk, or procurement clerk. With additional training, some stock clerks and order fillers advance to jobs as warehouse manager or purchasing agent.

Significant Points ●

About 4 in 10 teacher assistants work part time.

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Educational requirements range from a high school diploma to some college training.

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Workers with experience in special education, or who can speak a foreign language, will be especially in demand.

Job Outlook Employment of stock clerks and order fillers is projected to decline through 2012, due to the use of automation in factories and stores. Because the occupation is very large and many jobs are entry level, however, numerous job openings will occur each year to replace those who transfer to other jobs or leave the labor force.

Nature of the Work Teacher assistants provide instructional and clerical support for classroom teachers, allowing teachers more time for lesson planning and teaching. Teacher assistants tutor and assist children in learning class material using the teacher’s lesson plans, providing students with individualized attention. Teacher assistants also supervise students in the cafeteria, schoolyard, and hallways, or on field trips. They record grades, set up equipment, and help prepare materials for instruction. Teacher assistants also are called teacher aides or instructional aides. Some assistants refer to themselves as paraeducators or paraprofessionals.

The growing use of computers for inventory control and the installation of new, automated equipment are expected to inhibit growth in demand for stock clerks and order fillers, especially in manufacturing and wholesale trade industries whose operations are most easily automated. In addition to utilizing computerized inventory control systems, firms in these industries are relying more on sophisticated conveyor belts and automatic high stackers to store and retrieve goods. Also, expanded use of battery-powered, driverless, automatically guided vehicles can be expected.

Some teacher assistants perform exclusively noninstructional or clerical tasks, such as monitoring nonacademic settings. Playground and lunchroom attendants are examples of such assistants. Most teacher assistants, however, perform a combination of instructional and clerical duties. They generally provide instructional reinforcement to children, under the direction and guidance of teachers. They work with students individually or in small groups—listening while students read, reviewing or reinforcing class lessons, or helping them find information for reports. At the secondary school level, teacher assistants often specialize in a certain subject, such as math or science. Teacher assistants often take charge of special projects and prepare equipment or exhibits, such as for a science demonstration. Some assistants work in computer laboratories, helping students using computers and educational software programs.

Employment of stock clerks and order fillers who work in grocery, general merchandise, department, apparel, and accessories stores is expected to be somewhat less affected by automation, because much of their work is done manually and is difficult to automate. In addition, the increasing role of large retail outlets and warehouses, as well as catalogue, mail, telephone, and Internet shopping services, should bolster employment of stock clerks and order fillers in these sectors of retail trade.

Earnings Median hourly earnings in 2002 for stock clerks and order fillers were $9.26. Stock clerks and order fillers usually receive the same benefits as most other workers. If uniforms are required, employers generally provide them or offer an allowance to purchase them.

In addition to instructing, assisting, and supervising students, teacher assistants grade tests and papers, check homework, keep health and attendance records, do typing and filing, and duplicate materials. They also stock supplies, operate audiovisual equipment, and keep classroom equipment in order.

Related Occupations Workers who also handle, move, organize, store, and keep records of materials include shipping, receiving, and traffic clerks; production, planning, and expediting clerks; cargo and freight agents; and procurement clerks.

Many teacher assistants work extensively with special education students. As schools become more inclusive, integrating special education students into general education classrooms, teacher assistants in general education and special education classrooms increasingly assist students with disabilities. Teacher assistants attend to a disabled student’s physical needs, including feeding, teaching good grooming habits, or assisting students riding the schoolbus. They also provide personal

Sources of Additional Information State employment service offices can provide information about job openings for stock clerks and order fillers.

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Section One: Descriptions of 101 Top Jobs for People Without a Four-Year Degree rience in working with children and a valid driver’s license. Some schools may require the applicant to pass a background check.

attention to students with other special needs, such as those from disadvantaged families, those who speak English as a second language, or those who need remedial education. Teacher assistants help assess a student’s progress by observing performance and recording relevant data.

A number of 2-year and community colleges offer associate degree programs that prepare graduates to work as teacher assistants. However, most teacher assistants receive on-the-job training. Those who tutor and review lessons with students must have a thorough understanding of class materials and instructional methods, and should be familiar with the organization and operation of a school. Teacher assistants also must know how to operate audiovisual equipment, keep records, and prepare instructional materials, as well as have adequate computer skills.

Teacher assistants also work with infants and toddlers who have developmental delays or other disabilities. Under the guidance of a teacher or therapist, teacher assistants perform exercises or play games to help the child develop physically and behaviorally. Some teacher assistants work with young adults to help them obtain a job or to apply for community services for the disabled.

Working Conditions

Teacher assistants should enjoy working with children from a wide range of cultural backgrounds, and be able to handle classroom situations with fairness and patience. Teacher assistants also must demonstrate initiative and a willingness to follow a teacher’s directions. They must have good writing skills and be able to communicate effectively with students and teachers. Teacher assistants who speak a second language, especially Spanish, are in great demand for communicating with growing numbers of students and parents whose primary language is not English.

Approximately 4 in 10 teacher assistants work part time. However, even among full-time workers, nearly 40 percent work less than 8 hours per day. Most assistants who provide educational instruction work the traditional 9- to 10-month school year. Teacher assistants work in a variety of settings—including private homes and preschools, and local government offices, where they would deal with young adults—but most work in classrooms in elementary, middle, and secondary schools. They also work outdoors supervising recess when weather allows, and they spend much of their time standing, walking, or kneeling.

Advancement for teacher assistants—usually in the form of higher earnings or increased responsibility—comes primarily with experience or additional education. Some school districts provide time away from the job or tuition reimbursement so that teacher assistants can earn their bachelor’s degrees and pursue licensed teaching positions. In return for tuition reimbursement, assistants are often required to teach a certain length of time for the school district.

Seeing students develop and gain appreciation of the joy of learning can be very rewarding. However, working closely with students can be both physically and emotionally tiring. Teacher assistants who work with special education students often perform more strenuous tasks, including lifting, as they help students with their daily routine. Those who perform clerical work may tire of administrative duties, such as copying materials or typing.

Job Outlook Employment of teacher assistants is expected to grow somewhat faster than the average for all occupations through 2012. Although school enrollments are projected to increase only slowly over the next decade, the student population for which teacher assistants are most needed—special education students and students for whom English is not their first language—is expected to increase more rapidly than the general school-age population. Legislation that requires students with disabilities and non-native English speakers to receive an education “equal” to that of other students, will generate jobs for teacher assistants to accommodate these students’ special needs. Children with special needs require much personal attention, and special education teachers, as well as general education teachers with special education students, rely heavily on teacher assistants.

Employment Teacher assistants held almost 1.3 million jobs in 2002. Nearly 3 in 4 work for state and local government education institutions; mostly at the preschool and elementary school level. Private schools, daycare centers, and religious organizations hire most of the rest.

Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Educational requirements for teacher assistants vary by state or school district and range from a high school diploma to some college training, although employers increasingly prefer applicants with some college training. Teacher assistants with instructional responsibilities usually require more training than do those who do not perform teaching tasks. In addition, as a result of the No Child Left Behind Act of 2001, teacher assistants in Title 1 schools—those with a large proportion of students from low-income households—will be required to meet one of three requirements: have a minimum of 2 years of college, hold a 2-year or higher degree, or pass a rigorous state and local assessment. Many schools also require previous expe-

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Additionally, a greater focus on educational quality and accountability, as required by the No Child Left Behind Act, is likely to lead to an increased demand for teacher assistants. Growing numbers of teacher assistants will be needed to help teachers prepare students for standardized testing and to provide extra assistance to students who perform poorly on standardized tests. An increasing number of afterschool programs and summer programs also will create new opportunities for teacher assistants. In addition to those stemming from

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America’s Top 101 Jobs for People Without a Four-Year Degree employment growth, numerous job openings will arise as assistants transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force to assume family responsibilities, to return to school, or for other reasons characteristic of occupations that require limited formal education and offer relatively low pay.

Human resource departments of school systems, school administrators, and state departments of education also can provide details about employment opportunities and required qualifications for teacher assistant jobs.

Opportunities for teacher assistant jobs are expected to be best for persons with at least 2 years of formal education after high school. Persons who can speak a foreign language should be in particular demand in school systems with large numbers of students whose families do not speak English at home. Demand is expected to vary by region of the country. Areas in which the population and school enrollments are expanding rapidly, such as many communities in the South and West, should have rapid growth in the demand for teacher assistants.

Television, Video, and Motion Picture Camera Operators and Editors (O*NET 27-4031.00 and 27-4032.00)

Earnings

Significant Points

Median annual earnings of teacher assistants in 2002 were $18,660. The middle 50 percent earned between $14,880 and $23,600. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $12,900, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $29,050. Teacher assistants who work part time ordinarily do not receive benefits. Full-time workers usually receive health coverage and other benefits. In 2002, about 3 out of 10 teacher assistants belonged to unions—mainly the American Federation of Teachers and the National Education Association—which bargain with school systems over wages, hours, and the terms and conditions of employment.

For information on a career as a teacher assistant, contact: ●

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Keen competition for job openings is expected, because many talented peopled are attracted to the field.

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About one in five camera operators are self-employed.

Camera operators use television, video, or motion picture cameras to shoot a wide range of material, including television series, studio programs, news and sporting events, music videos, motion pictures, documentaries, and training sessions. Some camera operators film or videotape private ceremonies and special events. Those who record images on videotape are often called videographers. Many are employed by independent television stations, local affiliates, large cable and television networks, or smaller, independent production companies. Studio camera operators work in a broadcast studio and usually videotape their subjects from a fixed position. News camera operators, also called electronic news gathering (ENG) operators, work as part of a reporting team, following newsworthy events as they unfold. To capture live events, they must anticipate the action and act quickly. ENG operators may need to edit raw footage on the spot for relay to a television affiliate for broadcast.

For information on teacher assistants, including training and certification, contact:

National Education Association, Educational Support Personnel division, 1201 16th Street NW, Washington, DC 20036.

Technical expertise, a “good eye,” imagination, and creativity are essential.

Making commercial-quality movies and video programs requires technical expertise and creativity. Producing successful images requires choosing and presenting interesting material, selecting appropriate equipment, and applying a good eye and steady hand to assure smooth, natural movement of the camera.

Sources of Additional Information

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Television, video, and motion picture camera operators produce images that tell a story, inform or entertain an audience, or record an event. Film and video editors edit soundtracks, film, and video for the motion picture, cable, and broadcast television industries. Some camera operators do their own editing.

Teacher assistants who instruct children have duties similar to those of preschool, kindergarten, elementary, middle, and secondary school teachers, special education teachers, and school librarians. However, teacher assistants do not have the same level of responsibility or training. The support activities of teacher assistants and their educational backgrounds are similar to those of childcare workers, library technicians, and library assistants. Teacher assistants who work with children with disabilities perform many of the same functions as occupational therapy assistants and aides.

American Federation of Teachers, Paraprofessional and School Related Personnel Division, 555 New Jersey Ave. NW, Washington, DC 20001.

Workers acquire their skills through on-the-job or formal postsecondary training.

Nature of the Work

Related Occupations

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Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement

Camera operators employed in the entertainment field use motion picture cameras to film movies, television programs, and commercials. Those who film motion pictures are also known as cinematographers. Some specialize in filming cartoons or special effects. They may be an integral part of the action, using cameras in any of several different mounts. For example, the camera operator can be stationary and shoot whatever passes in front of the lens, or the camera can be mounted on a track, with the camera operator responsible for shooting the scene from different angles or directions. More recently, the introduction of digital cameras has enhanced the number of angles and the clarity that a camera operator can provide. Other camera operators sit on cranes and follow the action while crane operators move them into position. Steadicam operators mount a harness and carry the camera on their shoulders to provide a clear picture while they move about the action. Camera operators who work in the entertainment field often meet with directors, actors, editors, and camera assistants to discuss ways of filming, editing, and improving scenes.

Employers usually seek applicants with a “good eye,” imagination, and creativity, as well as a good technical understanding of how the camera operates. Television, video, and motion picture camera operators and editors usually acquire their skills through on-the-job training or formal postsecondary training at vocational schools, colleges, universities, or photographic institutes. Formal education may be required for some positions. Many universities, community and junior colleges, vocationaltechnical institutes, and private trade and technical schools offer courses in camera operation and videography. Basic courses cover equipment, processes, and techniques. Bachelor’s degree programs, especially those including business courses, provide a well-rounded education. Individuals interested in camera operations should subscribe to videographic newsletters and magazines, join clubs, and seek summer or part-time employment in cable and television networks, motion picture studios, or camera and video stores.

Working Conditions Working conditions for camera operators and editors vary considerably. Those employed in government, television and cable networks, and advertising agencies usually work a 5-day, 40hour week. By contrast, ENG operators often work long, irregular hours and must be available to work on short notice. Camera operators and editors working in motion picture production also may work long, irregular hours.

Camera operators in entry-level jobs learn to set up lights, cameras, and other equipment. They may receive routine assignments requiring adjustments to their cameras or decisions on what subject matter to capture. Camera operators in the film and television industries usually are hired for a project on the basis of recommendations from individuals such as producers, directors of photography, and camera assistants from previous projects or through interviews with the producer. ENG and studio camera operators who work for television affiliates usually start in small markets to gain experience.

ENG operators and those who cover major events, such as conventions or sporting events, frequently travel locally, stay overnight on assignments, or travel to distant places for longer periods. Camera operators filming television programs or motion pictures may travel to film on location.

Camera operators need good eyesight, artistic ability, and hand-eye coordination. They should be patient, accurate, and detail oriented. Camera operators also should have good communication skills and, if needed, the ability to hold a camera by hand for extended periods.

Some camera operators—especially ENG operators covering accidents, natural disasters, civil unrest, or military conflicts— work in uncomfortable or even dangerous surroundings. Many camera operators must wait long hours in all kinds of weather for an event to take place and must stand or walk for long periods while carrying heavy equipment. ENG operators often work under strict deadlines.

Camera operators who run their own businesses, or freelance, need business skills as well as talent. These individuals must know how to submit bids, write contracts, get permission to shoot on locations that normally are not open to the public, obtain releases to use film or tape of people, price their services, secure copyright protection for their work, and keep financial records.

Employment Television, video, and motion picture camera operators held about 28,000 jobs in 2002, and film and video editors held about 19,000. About 1 in 5 camera operators were selfemployed. Some self-employed camera operators contracted with television networks, documentary or independent filmmakers, advertising agencies, or trade show or convention sponsors to work on individual projects for a predetermined fee, often at a daily rate.

With increased experience, operators may advance to more demanding assignments or to positions with larger or network television stations. Advancement for ENG operators may mean moving to larger media markets. Other camera operators and editors may become directors of photography for movie studios, advertising agencies, or television programs. Some teach at technical schools, film schools, or universities.

Most of the salaried camera operators were employed by television broadcasting stations or motion picture studios. More than half of the salaried film and video editors worked for motion picture studios. Most camera operators and editors worked in large metropolitan areas.

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Job Outlook Television, video, and motion picture camera operators and editors can expect keen competition for job openings because the work is attractive to many people. The number of individ-

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America’s Top 101 Jobs for People Without a Four-Year Degree of the relevant trade unions, and local television and film production companies that employ these workers.

uals interested in positions as videographers and movie camera operators usually is much greater than the number of openings. Those who succeed in landing a salaried job or attracting enough work to earn a living by freelancing are likely to be the most creative, highly motivated, able to adapt to rapidly changing technologies, and adept at operating a business. Related work experience or job-related training also can benefit prospective camera operators.

Tellers

Employment of camera operators and editors is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through 2012. Rapid expansion of the entertainment market, especially motion picture production and distribution, will spur growth of camera operators. In addition, computer and Internet services will provide new outlets for interactive productions. Growth will be tempered, however, by the increased off-shore production of motion pictures. Camera operators will be needed to film made-for-the-Internet broadcasts, such as live music videos, digital movies, sports features, and general information or entertainment programming. These images can be delivered directly into the home either on compact discs or over the Internet. Job growth also is expected in radio and television broadcasting.

(O*NET 43-3071.00)

Significant Points ●

Numerous job opportunities should arise due to high turnover.

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Slower-than-average growth is expected in overall employment, reflecting the spread of computers and other office automation as well as organizational restructuring.

The teller is the person most people associate with a bank. Tellers make up approximately one-fourth of bank employees and conduct most of a bank’s routine transactions. Among the responsibilities of tellers are cashing checks, accepting deposits and loan payments, and processing withdrawals. They also may sell savings bonds, accept payment for customers’ utility bills and charge cards, process necessary paperwork for certificates of deposit, and sell travelers’ checks. Some tellers specialize in handling foreign currencies or commercial or business accounts.

Median annual earnings for television, video, and motion picture camera operators were $32,720 in 2002. The middle 50 percent earned between $20,610 and $51,000. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $14,710, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $65,070. Median annual earnings were $46,540 in the motion picture and video industries and $25,830 in radio and television broadcasting.

Being a teller requires a great deal of attention to detail. Before cashing a check, a teller must verify the date, the name of the bank, the identity of the person who is to receive payment, and the legality of the document. A teller also must make sure that the written and numerical amounts agree and that the account has sufficient funds to cover the check. The teller then must carefully count cash to avoid errors. Sometimes a customer withdraws money in the form of a cashier’s check, which the teller prepares and verifies. When accepting a deposit, tellers must check the accuracy of the deposit slip before processing the transaction.

Median annual earnings for film and video editors were $38,270 in 2002. The middle 50 percent earned between $26,780 and $55,300. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $20,030, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $78,070. Median annual earnings were $41,440 in the motion picture and video industries, which employ the largest numbers of film and video editors. Many camera operators who work in film or video are freelancers whose earnings tend to fluctuate each year. Because most freelance camera operators purchase their own equipment, they incur considerable expense acquiring and maintaining cameras and accessories. Some camera operators belong to unions, including the International Alliance of Theatrical Stage Employees and the National Association of Broadcast Employees and Technicians.

Prior to starting their shifts, tellers receive and count an amount of working cash for their drawers. A supervisor—usually the head teller—verifies this amount. Tellers use this cash for payments during the day and are responsible for its safe and accurate handling. Before leaving, tellers count their cash on hand, list the currency-received tickets on a balance sheet, make sure that the accounts balance, and sort checks and deposit slips. Over the course of a workday, tellers also may process numerous mail transactions. Some tellers replenish their cash drawers and corroborate deposits and payments to automated teller machines (ATMs).

Related Occupations Related arts and media occupations include artists and related workers, broadcast and sound engineering technicians and radio operators, designers, and photographers.

Sources of Additional Information

In most banks, head tellers are responsible for the teller line. They set work schedules, ensure that the proper procedures are adhered to, and act as a mentor to less experienced tellers. In addition, head tellers may perform the typical duties of a teller,

Information about career and employment opportunities for camera operators and film and video editors is available from local offices of state employment service agencies, local offices

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Most teller jobs require only a high school diploma.

Nature of the Work

Earnings

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Section One: Descriptions of 101 Top Jobs for People Without a Four-Year Degree as needed, and may deal with the more difficult customer problems. They may access the vault, ensure that the correct cash balance is in the vault, and oversee large cash transactions. Technology continues to play a large role in the job duties of all tellers. In most banks, for example, tellers use computer terminals to record deposits and withdrawals. These terminals often give tellers quick access to detailed information on customer accounts. Tellers can use this information to tailor the bank’s services to fit a customer’s needs or to recommend an appropriate bank product or service.

Once hired, tellers usually receive on-the-job training. Under the guidance of a supervisor or some other senior worker, new employees learn company procedures. Some formal classroom training also may be necessary, such as training in specific computer software. Tellers must be careful, orderly, and detail oriented in order to avoid making errors and to recognize errors made by others. These workers also should be discreet and trustworthy, because they frequently come in contact with confidential material. In addition, all tellers should have a strong aptitude for numbers.

As banks begin to offer more and increasingly complex financial services, tellers are being trained to identify sales opportunities. This task requires them to learn about the various financial products and services the bank offers so that they can briefly explain them to customers and refer interested customers to appropriate specialized sales personnel. In addition, tellers in many banks are being cross-trained to perform some of the functions of customer service representatives.

Tellers can prepare for better jobs by taking courses offered throughout the country by banking and financial institutes, colleges and universities, and private training institutions. Tellers usually advance by taking on more duties in the same occupation for higher pay or by transferring to a closely related occupation. Most companies fill office and administrative support supervisory and managerial positions by promoting individuals from within the organization, so tellers who acquire additional skills, experience, and training improve their advancement opportunities.

Working Conditions Tellers typically are employed in an office environment.

Job Outlook

Because the majority of tellers use computers on a daily basis, these workers may experience eye and muscle strain, backaches, headaches, and repetitive motion injuries. Also, tellers who review detailed data may have to sit for extended periods.

Employment prospects for tellers have improved of late. Employment is projected to grow, but less than the average for all occupations. Banks are looking at their branch offices as places to attract customers for the increasing number and variety of financial products the banks sell. As recently as a few years ago, to cut costs, banks were closing branch offices and discouraging the use of tellers, but in a turnaround, banks are now opening branch offices in more and more locations. They also are keeping them open longer during the day and on weekends, which is expected to increase opportunities for tellers, particularly those who work part time. Most job openings will arise from replacement needs because turnover is high—a characteristic typical of large occupations that normally require little formal education and offer relatively low pay. Tellers who have excellent customer service skills, are knowledgeable about a variety of financial services, and can sell those services will be in greater demand in the future.

Most tellers work regular business hours, plus some evenings and Saturday mornings.

Employment Tellers held about 530,000 jobs in 2002; approximately 1 out of 3 worked part time. The overwhelming majority worked in commercial banks, savings institutions, or credit unions. The remainder was employed in a variety of other financial service companies.

Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement

Despite the improved outlook, automation and technology will continue to reduce the need for tellers who perform only routine transactions. For example, ATMs and the increased use of direct deposit of paychecks and benefit checks have reduced the need for bank customers to interact with tellers for routine transactions. In addition, electronic banking is spreading rapidly throughout the banking industry. This type of banking, conducted over the telephone or the Internet, also will reduce the number of tellers over the long run.

Most tellers are required to have at least a high school diploma. However, having completed some college is becoming increasingly important. Although a degree is rarely required, many graduates accept entry-level clerical positions to get into a particular company or to enter the finance field with the hope of being promoted to professional or managerial positions. Some companies have a set plan of advancement that tracks college graduates from entry-level clerical jobs into managerial positions. Workers with bachelor’s degrees are likely to start at higher salaries and advance more easily than those without degrees.

Employment of tellers also is being affected by the increasing use of 24-hour telephone centers by many large banks. These centers allow a customer to interact with a bank representative at a distant location, either by telephone or by video terminal. Such centers usually are staffed by customer service representatives, who can handle a wider variety of transactions than tellers can, including applications for loans and credit cards.

Experience in a related job also is recommended. For example, cash-handling experience is important for tellers. Experience working in an office environment or in customer service is always beneficial. Regardless of the type of work, most employers prefer workers with good communication skills who are computer literate; knowledge of word-processing and spreadsheet software is especially valuable.

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Earnings

toms regulations, required papers (passports, visas, and certificates of vaccination), and currency exchange rates.

Salaries of tellers vary considerably. The region of the country, size of the city, and type and size of the establishment all influence salary levels. Also, the level of expertise required and the complexity and uniqueness of a teller’s responsibilities may affect earnings. Median hourly earnings of full-time tellers in 2002 were $9.81.

Travel agents consult a variety of published and computerbased sources for information on departure and arrival times, fares, and hotel ratings and accommodations. They may visit hotels, resorts, and restaurants to evaluate comfort, cleanliness, and quality of food and service so that they can base recommendations on their own travel experiences or those of colleagues or clients.

Related Occupations Tellers enter data into a computer, handle cash, and keep track of business and other financial transactions. Other occupations that perform these duties include brokerage clerks; cashiers; credit authorizers, checkers, and clerks; loan interviewers and clerks; new-accounts clerks; order clerks; and secretaries and administrative assistants.

Travel agents also promote their services, using telemarketing, direct mail, and the Internet. They make presentations to social and special-interest groups, arrange advertising displays, and suggest company-sponsored trips to business managers. Depending on the size of the travel agency, an agent may specialize by type of travel, such as leisure or business, or destination, such as Europe or Africa.

Sources of Additional Information

Working Conditions

Information on employment opportunities for tellers is available from local offices of the state employment service.

Travel agents spend most of their time behind a desk conferring with clients, completing paperwork, contacting airlines and hotels for travel arrangements, and promoting group tours. During vacation seasons and holiday periods, they may be under a great deal of pressure. Many agents, especially those who are self-employed, frequently work long hours. With advanced computer systems and telecommunication networks, some travel agents are able to work at home.

Travel Agents (O*NET 41-3041.00)

Employment

Significant Points ●

Travel benefits, such as reduced rates for transportation and lodging, attract many people to this occupation.

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Training at a postsecondary vocational school, college, or university is increasingly important.

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Industry consolidation and increasing use of the Internet to book travel will result in a decline in the employment of travel agents.

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Travel agents held about 118,000 jobs in 2002 and are found in every part of the country. More than 8 out of 10 agents worked for travel agencies. Nearly 1 in 10 was self-employed.

Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement The minimum requirement for those interested in becoming a travel agent is a high school diploma or equivalent. Technology and computerization are having a profound effect on the work of travel agents, however, and formal or specialized training is increasingly important. Many vocational schools offer full-time travel agent programs that last several months, as well as evening and weekend programs. Travel agent courses also are offered in public adult education programs and in community and 4-year colleges. A few colleges offer bachelor’s or master’s degrees in travel and tourism. Although few college courses relate directly to the travel industry, a college education sometimes is desired by employers to establish a background in fields such as computer science, geography, communication, foreign languages, and world history. Courses in accounting and business management also are important, especially for those who expect to manage or start their own travel agencies.

Keen competition for jobs is expected.

Nature of the Work Constantly changing airfares and schedules, thousands of available vacation packages, and a vast amount of travel information on the Internet can make travel planning frustrating and time-consuming. To sort out the many travel options, tourists and business people often turn to travel agents, who assess their needs and help them make the best possible travel arrangements. Also, many major cruise lines, resorts, and specialty travel groups use travel agents to promote travel packages to millions of people every year. In general, travel agents give advice on destinations and make arrangements for transportation, hotel accommodations, car rentals, tours, and recreation. They also may advise on weather conditions, restaurants, tourist attractions, and recreation. For international travel, agents also provide information on cus-

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The American Society of Travel Agents (ASTA) offers a correspondence course that provides a basic understanding of the travel industry. Travel agencies also provide on-the-job train-

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Section One: Descriptions of 101 Top Jobs for People Without a Four-Year Degree travel agents. The Internet increasingly allows people to access travel information from their personal computers, enabling them to research and plan their own trips, make their own reservations and travel arrangements, and purchase their own tickets. Also, airlines no longer pay commissions to travel agencies, which has reduced revenues and caused some agencies to go out of business. However, many consumers still prefer to use a professional travel agent to ensure reliability, to save time, and, in some cases, to save money.

ing for their employees, a significant part of which consists of computer instruction. All employers require computer skills of workers whose jobs involve the operation of airline and centralized reservation systems. Experienced travel agents can take advanced self-study or group-study courses from the Travel Institute that lead to the Certified Travel Counselor (CTC) designation. The Travel Institute also offers marketing and sales skills development programs and destination specialist programs, which provide a detailed knowledge of regions such as North America, Western Europe, the Caribbean, and the Pacific Rim.

Moderating the employment decline, however, are projections for increased spending on tourism and travel over the next decade. With rising household incomes, smaller families, and an increasing number of older people who are more likely to travel, more people are expected to travel on vacation—and to do so more frequently—than in the past. Business travel also should bounce back from recession and terrorism related lows as business activity expands. Further, as U.S. businesses open more foreign operations, and businesses, in general, increasingly sell their goods and services worldwide, more business travel is anticipated.

Personal travel experience or experience as an airline reservation agent is an asset because knowledge about a city or foreign country often helps to influence a client’s travel plans. Patience and the ability to gain the confidence of clients also are useful qualities. Travel agents must be well-organized, accurate, and meticulous to compile information from various sources and plan and organize their clients’ travel itineraries. As the Internet has become an important tool for making travel arrangements, more travel agencies are using Web sites to provide their services to clients. This trend has increased the importance of computer skills in this occupation. Other desirable qualifications include good writing, interpersonal, and sales skills.

There are other factors spurring demand for travel agents that will moderate any decline. Most notable is the increasing affordability of air travel. Greater competition between airlines, especially from low-cost carriers, has resulted in bringing airfares within the budgets of more people. In addition, American travel agents now organize more tours for the growing number of foreign visitors. Also, travel agents often are able to offer various travel packages at a substantial discount.

Some employees start as reservation clerks or receptionists in travel agencies. With experience and some formal training, they can take on greater responsibilities and eventually assume travel agent duties. In agencies with many offices, travel agents may advance to office manager or to other managerial positions.

The travel business is sensitive to economic downturns and international political crises, when travel plans are likely to be deferred. Therefore, the number of job opportunities for travel agents fluctuates. The best opportunities will be for those travel agents that can utilize the Internet for their own operations to reduce costs and better compete with travel suppliers.

Those who start their own agencies generally have had experience in an established agency. Before they can receive commissions, these agents usually must gain formal approval from suppliers or corporations, such as airlines, ship lines, or rail lines. The Airlines Reporting Corporation and the International Airlines Travel Agency Network, for example, are the approving bodies for airlines. To gain approval, an agency must be financially sound and employ at least one experienced manager or travel agent.

Earnings Experience, sales ability, and the size and location of the agency determine the salary of a travel agent. Median annual earnings of travel agents were $26,630 in 2002. The middle 50 percent earned between $20,800 and $33,580. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $16,530, while the top 10 percent earned more than $41,660.

There are no federal licensing requirements for travel agents. However, nine states—California, Florida, Hawaii, Illinois, Iowa, Ohio, Oregon, Rhode Island, and Washington—require some form of registration or certification of retail sellers of travel services. More information may be obtained by contacting the Office of the Attorney General or Department of Commerce in each state.

Salaried agents usually enjoy standard employer-paid benefits that self-employed agents must provide for themselves. Among agencies, those focusing on corporate sales pay higher salaries and provide more extensive benefits, on average, than do those that focus on leisure sales. When they travel for personal reasons, agents usually get reduced rates for transportation and accommodations. In addition, agents sometimes take “familiarization” trips, at no cost to themselves, to learn about various vacation sites. These benefits attract many people to this occupation.

Job Outlook Employment of travel agents is expected to decline through 2012. Most openings will occur as experienced agents transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. Because of the projected decline and the fact that a number of people are attracted by the travel benefits associated with this occupation, keen competition for jobs is expected.

Earnings of travel agents who own their agencies depend mainly on commissions from travel-related bookings and service fees they charge clients. Often it takes time to acquire a sufficient number of clients to have adequate earnings, so it is not

An increasing reliance on the Internet to book travel, as well as industry consolidation, will continue to reduce the need for

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America’s Top 101 Jobs for People Without a Four-Year Degree Once under way, drivers must be alert to prevent accidents. Drivers can see farther down the road, because large trucks sit higher than most other vehicles. This allows drivers to seek traffic lanes that allow for a steady speed, while keeping sight of varying road conditions.

unusual for new self-employed agents to have low earnings. Established agents may have lower earnings during economic downturns.

Related Occupations

Delivery time varies according to the type of merchandise and its final destination. Local drivers may provide daily service for a specific route, while other drivers make intercity and interstate deliveries that take longer and may vary from job to job. The driver’s responsibilities and assignments change according to the time spent on the road, the type of payloads transported, and vehicle size.

Travel agents organize and schedule business, educational, or recreational travel or activities. Other workers with similar responsibilities include tour and travel guides, and reservation and transportation ticket agents and travel clerks.

Sources of Additional Information

New technologies are changing the way truck drivers work, especially long-distance truck drivers. Satellites and Global Positioning Systems (GPS) link many trucks with company headquarters. Troubleshooting information, directions, weather reports, and other important communications can be delivered to the truck, anywhere, within seconds. Drivers can easily communicate with the dispatcher to discuss delivery schedules and courses of action in the event of mechanical problems. The satellite linkup also allows the dispatcher to track the truck’s location, fuel consumption, and engine performance. Many drivers also work with computerized inventory tracking equipment. It is important for the producer, warehouse, and customer to know the product’s location at all times in order to keep costs low and the quality of service high.

For further information on training opportunities, contact: ●

American Society of Travel Agents, Education Department, 1101 King St., Alexandria, VA 22314.

For information on training and certification qualifications, contact: ●

The Travel Institute, 148 Linden St., Suite 305, Wellesley, MA 02482.

Truck Drivers and Driver/Sales Workers

Heavy truck and tractor-trailer drivers drive trucks or vans with a capacity of at least 26,000 pounds Gross Vehicle Weight (GVW). They transport goods including cars, livestock, and other materials in liquid, loose, or packaged form. Many routes are from city to city and cover long distances. Some companies use two drivers on very long runs—one drives while the other sleeps in a berth behind the cab. “Sleeper” runs may last for days, or even weeks, usually with the truck stopping only for fuel, food, loading, and unloading.

(O*NET 53-3031.00, 53-3032.01, 53-3032.02, and 53-3033.00)

Significant Points ●

Job opportunities should be favorable.

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Competition is expected for jobs offering the highest earnings or most favorable work schedules.

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A commercial driver’s license is required to operate most larger trucks.

Some heavy truck and tractor-trailer drivers who have regular runs transport freight to the same city on a regular basis. Other drivers perform unscheduled runs because shippers request varying service to different cities every day.

Nature of the Work

After these truck drivers reach their destination or complete their operating shift, the U.S. Department of Transportation requires that they complete reports detailing the trip, the condition of the truck, and the circumstances of any accidents. In addition, federal regulations require employers to subject drivers to random alcohol and drug tests while they are on duty.

Truck drivers are a constant presence on the nation’s highways and interstates, delivering everything from automobiles to canned foods. Firms of all kinds rely on trucks for pickup and delivery of goods because no other form of transportation can deliver goods door to door. Even if goods travel in part by ship, train, or airplane, trucks carry nearly all goods at some point in their journey from producer to consumer.

Long-distance heavy truck and tractor-trailer drivers spend most of their working time behind the wheel, but may load or unload their cargo after arriving at the final destination. This is especially common when drivers haul specialty cargo, because they may be the only one at the destination familiar with procedures or certified to handle the materials. Autotransport drivers, for example, position cars on the trailers at the manufacturing plant and remove them at the dealerships. When picking up or delivering furniture, drivers of longdistance moving vans hire local workers to help them load or unload.

Before leaving the terminal or warehouse, truck drivers check the fuel level and oil in their trucks. They also inspect the trucks to make sure the brakes, windshield wipers, and lights are working and that a fire extinguisher, flares, and other safety equipment are aboard and in working order. Drivers make sure their cargo is secure and adjust their mirrors so that both sides of the truck are visible from the driver’s seat. Drivers report equipment that is inoperable, missing, or loaded improperly to the dispatcher.

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Section One: Descriptions of 101 Top Jobs for People Without a Four-Year Degree newer trucks are virtual mini-apartments on wheels, equipped with refrigerators, televisions, and bunks.

Light or delivery services truck drivers drive trucks or vans with a capacity under 26,000 pounds GVW. They deliver or pick up merchandise and packages within a specific area. This may include short “turnarounds” to deliver a shipment to a nearby city, pick up another loaded truck or van, and drive it back to their home base the same day. These services may require use of electronic delivery tracking systems to track the whereabouts of the merchandise or packages. Light or delivery services truck drivers usually load or unload the merchandise at the customer’s place of business. They may have helpers if there are many deliveries to make during the day, or if the load requires heavy moving. Typically, before the driver arrives for work, material handlers load the trucks and arrange items to improve delivery efficiency. Customers must sign receipts for goods and pay drivers the balance due on the merchandise if there is a cash-on-delivery arrangement. At the end of the day, drivers turn in receipts, money, records of deliveries made, and any reports on mechanical problems with their trucks.

The U.S. Department of Transportation governs work hours and other working conditions of truck drivers engaged in interstate commerce. A long-distance driver cannot work more than 60 hours in any 7-day period. federal regulations also require that truckers rest 10 hours for every 11 hours of driving. Many drivers, particularly on long runs, work close to the maximum time permitted because they typically are compensated according to the number of miles or hours they drive. Drivers on long runs may face boredom, loneliness, and fatigue. Drivers frequently travel at night, and on holidays and weekends, to avoid traffic delays and deliver cargo on time. Local truck drivers frequently work 50 or more hours a week. Drivers who handle food for chain grocery stores, produce markets, or bakeries typically work long hours, starting late at night or early in the morning. Although most drivers have regular routes, some have different routes each day. Many local truck drivers, particularly driver/sales workers, load and unload their own trucks. This requires considerable lifting, carrying, and walking each day.

Some local truck drivers have sales and customer service responsibilities. The primary responsibility of driver/sales workers, or route drivers, is to deliver and sell their firm’s products over established routes or within an established territory. They sell goods such as food products, including restaurant takeout items, or pick up and deliver items such as laundry. Their response to customer complaints and requests can make the difference between a large order and a lost customer. Route drivers may also take orders and collect payments.

Employment Truck drivers and driver/sales workers held about 3.2 million jobs in 2002. Of these workers, 431,000 were driver/sales workers and 2.8 million were truck drivers. Most truck drivers find employment in large metropolitan areas along major interstate roadways where major trucking, retail, and wholesale companies have distribution outlets. Some drivers work in rural areas, providing specialized services such as delivering newspapers to customers or coal to a railroad.

The duties of driver/sales workers vary according to their industry, the policies of their particular company, and the emphasis placed on their sales responsibility. Most have wholesale routes that deliver to businesses and stores, rather than to homes. For example, wholesale bakery driver/sales workers deliver and arrange bread, cakes, rolls, and other baked goods on display racks in grocery stores. They estimate how many of each item to stock by paying close attention to what is selling. They may recommend changes in a store’s order or encourage the manager to stock new bakery products. Laundries that rent linens, towels, work clothes, and other items employ driver/sales workers to visit businesses regularly to replace soiled laundry. From time to time, they solicit new orders from businesses along their route.

The truck transportation industry employed almost onequarter of all truck drivers and driver/sales workers in the United States. Another quarter worked for companies engaged in wholesale or retail trade. The remaining truck drivers and driver/sales workers were distributed across many industries, including construction and manufacturing. Over 10 percent of all truck drivers and driver/sales workers were self-employed. Of these, a significant number were owner-operators who either served a variety of businesses independently or leased their services and trucks to a trucking company.

After completing their route, driver/sales workers order items for the next delivery based on product sales trends, weather, and customer requests.

Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement

Working Conditions Truck driving has become less physically demanding because most trucks now have more comfortable seats, better ventilation, and improved, ergonomically-designed cabs. Although these changes make the work environment more attractive, driving for many hours at a stretch, unloading cargo, and making many deliveries can be tiring. Local truck drivers, unlike long-distance drivers, usually return home in the evening. Some self-employed long-distance truck drivers who own and operate their trucks spend most of the year away from home.

State and federal regulations govern the qualifications and standards for truck drivers. All drivers must comply with federal regulations and any state regulations that are stricter than federal requirements. Truck drivers must have a driver’s license issued by the state in which they live, and most employers require a clean driving record. Drivers of trucks designed to carry 26,000 pounds or more—including most tractor-trailers, as well as bigger straight trucks—must obtain a commercial driver’s license (CDL) from the state in which they live. All truck drivers who operate trucks transporting hazardous materials

Design improvements in newer trucks reduce stress and increase the efficiency of long-distance drivers. Many of the

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America’s Top 101 Jobs for People Without a Four-Year Degree inspect trucks and freight for compliance with regulations. Some programs provide only a limited amount of actual driving experience, and completion of a program does not guarantee a job. Persons interested in attending a driving school should check with local trucking companies to make sure the school’s training is acceptable. Some states require prospective drivers to complete a training course in basic truck driving before being issued their CDL. The Professional Truck Driver Institute (PTDI), a nonprofit organization established by the trucking industry, manufacturers, and others, certifies driver training programs at truck driver training schools that meet industry standards and Federal Highway Administration guidelines for training tractor-trailer drivers.

must obtain a CDL, regardless of truck size. Federal regulations governing the CDL exempt certain groups, including farmers, emergency medical technicians, firefighters, some military drivers, and snow and ice removers. In many states, a regular driver’s license is sufficient for driving light trucks and vans. To qualify for a commercial driver’s license, applicants must pass a written test on rules and regulations, and then demonstrate that they can operate a commercial truck safely. A national database permanently records all driving violations incurred by persons who hold commercial licenses. A state will check these records and deny a commercial driver’s license to a driver who already has a license suspended or revoked in another state. Licensed drivers must accompany trainees until the trainees get their own CDL. Information on how to apply for a commercial driver’s license may be obtained from state motor vehicle administrations.

Drivers must get along well with people because they often deal directly with customers. Employers seek driver/sales workers who speak well and have self-confidence, initiative, tact, and a neat appearance. Employers also look for responsible, self-motivated individuals able to work with little supervision.

While many states allow those who are at least 18 years old to drive trucks within their borders, the U.S. Department of Transportation establishes minimum qualifications for truck drivers engaged in interstate commerce. Federal Motor Carrier Safety Regulations require drivers to be at least 21 years old and to pass a physical examination once every 2 years. The main physical requirements include good hearing, at least 20/40 vision with glasses or corrective lenses, and a 70-degree field of vision in each eye. Drivers cannot be colorblind. Drivers must be able to hear a forced whisper in one ear at not less than 5 feet with a hearing aide if needed. Drivers must have normal use of arms and legs and normal blood pressure. Drivers cannot use any controlled substances, unless prescribed by a licensed physician. Persons with epilepsy or diabetes controlled by insulin are not permitted to be interstate truck drivers. Federal regulations also require employers to test their drivers for alcohol and drug use as a condition of employment and require periodic random tests of the drivers while they are on duty. In addition, drivers must have no criminal records such as felonies involving the use of a motor vehicle; any crime involving drugs, including driving under the influence of drugs or alcohol; and any hit-and-run accident that resulted in injury or death. All drivers must be able to read and speak English well enough to read road signs, prepare reports, and communicate with law enforcement officers and the public. Also, drivers must take a written examination on the Motor Carrier Safety Regulations of the U.S. Department of Transportation.

Training given to new drivers by employers is usually informal and may consist of only a few hours of instruction from an experienced driver, sometimes on the new employee’s own time. New drivers may also ride with and observe experienced drivers before assignment of their own runs. Drivers receive additional training to drive special types of trucks or handle hazardous materials. Some companies give 1 to 2 days of classroom instruction covering general duties, the operation and loading of a truck, company policies, and the preparation of delivery forms and company records. Driver/sales workers also receive training on the various types of products the company carries, so that they will be effective sales workers. Although most new truck drivers are assigned immediately to regular driving jobs, some start as extra drivers, substituting for regular drivers who are ill or on vacation. They receive a regular assignment when an opening occurs. New drivers sometimes start on panel trucks or other small straight trucks. As they gain experience and show competent driving skills, they may advance to larger and heavier trucks, and finally to tractor-trailers. Advancement of truck drivers generally is limited to driving runs that provide increased earnings or preferred schedules and working conditions. For the most part, a local truck driver may advance to driving heavy or special types of trucks, or transfer to long-distance truck driving. Working for companies that also employ long-distance drivers is the best way to advance to these positions. A few truck drivers may advance to dispatcher, manager, or traffic work—for example, planning delivery schedules.

Many trucking operations have higher standards than those described. Many firms require that drivers be at least 22 years old, be able to lift heavy objects, and have driven trucks for 3 to 5 years. Many prefer to hire high school graduates and require annual physical examinations. Companies have an economic incentive to hire less risky drivers. Good drivers drive more efficiently, using less fuel and costing less to insure.

Some long-distance truck drivers purchase a truck and go into business for themselves. Although many of these owneroperators are successful, some fail to cover expenses and eventually go out of business. Owner-operators should have good business sense as well as truck driving experience. Courses in accounting, business, and business mathematics are helpful, and knowledge of truck mechanics can enable owneroperators to perform their own routine maintenance and minor repairs.

Taking driver-training courses is a desirable method of preparing for truck driving jobs and for obtaining a commercial driver’s license. High school courses in driver training and automotive mechanics also may be helpful. Many private and public vocational-technical schools offer tractor-trailer driver training programs. Students learn to maneuver large vehicles on crowded streets and in highway traffic. They also learn to

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Median hourly earnings of light or delivery services truck drivers were $11.48 in 2002. The middle 50 percent earned between $8.75 and $15.57 an hour. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $7.03, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $20.68 an hour. Median hourly earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of light or delivery services truck drivers in 2002 were as follows:

Job opportunities should be favorable for truck drivers. In addition to growth in demand for truck drivers, numerous job openings will occur as experienced drivers leave this large occupation to transfer to other fields of work, retire, or leave the labor force for other reasons. Jobs vary greatly in terms of earnings, weekly work hours, number of nights spent on the road, and quality of equipment operated. Because this occupation does not require education beyond high school, competition is expected for jobs with the most attractive earnings and working conditions.

Couriers ........................................................................$17.48 General freight trucking................................................14.92 Grocery and related product wholesalers ....................12.26 Building material and supplies dealers ........................10.83

Overall employment of truck drivers and driver/sales workers is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2012, due to growth in the economy and in the amount of freight carried by truck. The increased use of rail, air, and ship transportation requires truck drivers to pick up and deliver shipments. Demand for long-distance drivers will remain strong because these drivers transport perishable and time-sensitive goods more efficiently than do alternative modes of transportation, such as railroads. Job opportunities for truck drivers with less-than-truckload carriers will be more competitive than those with truckload carriers because of the more desirable working conditions for lessthan-truckload carriers.

Automotive parts, accessories, and tire stores ................7.82 Median hourly earnings of driver/sales workers, including commission, were $9.92 in 2002. The middle 50 percent earned between $6.98 and $14.70 an hour. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $6.07, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $19.60 an hour. Median hourly earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of driver/sales workers in 2002 were as follows: Specialty food stores ....................................................$14.98 Drycleaning and laundry services ................................14.74 Grocery and related product wholesalers ....................12.66 Limited-service eating places ..........................................6.78

Faster than average growth of light and heavy truck driver employment will outweigh relatively slow growth in driver/sales worker jobs. The number of truck drivers with sales responsibilities is expected to increase more slowly than the average for all other occupations as companies increasingly shift sales, ordering, and customer service tasks to sales and office staffs, and use regular truck drivers to make deliveries to customers.

Full-service restaurants ....................................................6.47 As a general rule, local truck drivers receive an hourly wage and extra pay for working overtime, usually after 40 hours. Employers pay long-distance drivers primarily by the mile. Their rate per mile can vary greatly from employer to employer and may even depend on the type of cargo. Typically, earnings increase with mileage driven, seniority, and the size and type of truck driven. Most driver/sales workers receive a commission based on their sales in addition to an hourly wage.

Job opportunities may vary from year to year, because the strength of the economy dictates the amount of freight moved by trucks. Companies tend to hire more drivers when the economy is strong and deliveries are in high demand. Consequently, when the economy slows, employers hire fewer drivers, or even lay off drivers. Independent owner-operators are particularly vulnerable to slowdowns. Industries least likely to be affected by economic fluctuation, such as grocery stores, tend to be the most stable places for employment.

Most self-employed truck drivers are primarily engaged in long-distance hauling. Many truck drivers are members of the International Brotherhood of Teamsters. Some truck drivers employed by companies outside the trucking industry are members of unions representing the plant workers of the companies for which they work.

Earnings

Related Occupations

Median hourly earnings of heavy truck and tractor-trailer drivers were $15.97 in 2002. The middle 50 percent earned between $12.51 and $20.01 an hour. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $10.01, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $23.75 an hour. Median hourly earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of heavy truck and tractor-trailer drivers in 2002 were as follows:

Other driving occupations include ambulance drivers and attendants, except emergency medical technicians; bus drivers; and taxi drivers and chauffeurs.

Sources of Additional Information Information on truck driver employment opportunities is available from local trucking companies and local offices of the state employment service.

General freight trucking..............................................$17.56 Grocery and related product wholesalers ....................16.90

Information on career opportunities in truck driving may be obtained from:

Specialized freight trucking ..........................................15.79 Other specialty trade contractors..................................14.25

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America’s Top 101 Jobs for People Without a Four-Year Degree In addition to working in private clinics and animal hospitals, veterinary technologists and technicians also may work in research facilities. There, they may administer medications orally or topically, prepare samples for laboratory examinations, and record information on genealogy, diet, weight, medications, food intake, and clinical signs of pain and distress. Some may be required to sterilize laboratory and surgical equipment and provide routine postoperative care. At research facilities, veterinary technologists typically work under the guidance of veterinarians, physicians, and other laboratory technicians. Some veterinary technologists vaccinate newly admitted animals and occasionally are required to euthanize seriously ill, severely injured, or unwanted animals.

A list of certified tractor-trailer driver training courses may be obtained from: ●

Professional Truck Driver Institute, 2200 Mill Rd., Alexandria, VA 22314. Internet: http://www.ptdi.org

Veterinary Technologists and Technicians (O*NET 29-2056.00)

While the goal of most veterinary technologists and technicians goal is to promote animal health, some contribute to human health as well. Veterinary technologists occasionally assist veterinarians as they work with other scientists in medical-related fields such as gene therapy and cloning. Some find opportunities in biomedical research, wildlife medicine, the military, livestock management, or pharmaceutical sales.

Significant Points ●

Animal lovers get satisfaction in this occupation, but aspects of the work can sometimes be unpleasant and physically and emotionally demanding.

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Entrants generally complete a 2-year or 4-year veterinary technology program, and must pass a state examination.

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Employment is expected to grow much faster than average.

Working Conditions People who love animals get satisfaction from working with and helping them. However, some of the work may be unpleasant, physically and emotionally demanding, and sometimes dangerous. Veterinary technicians sometimes must clean cages and lift, hold, or restrain animals, risking exposure to bites or scratches. These workers must take precautions when treating animals with germicides or insecticides. The work setting can be noisy.

Nature of the Work Owners of pets and other animals today expect state-of-the-art veterinary care. To provide this service, veterinarians use the skills of veterinary technologists and technicians, who perform many of the same duties for a veterinarian that a nurse would for a physician, including routine laboratory and clinical procedures. Although specific job duties vary by employer, there often is little difference between the tasks done by technicians and by technologists, despite some differences in formal education and training. As a result, most workers in this occupation are called technicians.

Veterinary technologists and technicians who witness abused animals or who euthanize unwanted, aged, or hopelessly injured animals may experience emotional stress. Those working for humane societies and animal shelters often deal with the public, some of whom might react with hostility to any implication that the owners are neglecting or abusing their pets. Such workers must maintain a calm and professional demeanor while they enforce the laws regarding animal care. In some animal hospitals, research facilities, and animal shelters, a veterinary technician is on duty 24 hours a day, which means some may work night shifts. Most full-time veterinary technologists and technicians work about 40 hours a week, while some work 50 or more hours a week.

Veterinary technologists and technicians typically conduct clinical work in a private practice under the supervision of a veterinarian—often performing various medical tests along with treating and diagnosing medical conditions and diseases in animals. For example, they may perform laboratory tests such as urinalysis and blood counts, assist with dental prophylaxis, prepare tissue samples, take blood samples, or assist veterinarians in a variety of tests and analyses in which they often utilize various items of medical equipment, such as test tubes and diagnostic equipment. While most of these duties are performed in a laboratory setting, many tasks are not. For example, some veterinary technicians obtain and record patient case histories, expose and develop X rays, and provide specialized nursing care. Additionally, experienced veterinary technicians may discuss a pet’s condition with its owners and train new clinic personnel. Veterinary technologists and technicians assisting small-animal practitioners usually care for companion animals, such as cats and dogs, but can perform a variety of duties with mice, rats, sheep, pigs, cattle, monkeys, birds, fish, and frogs. Very few veterinary technologists work in mixed animal practices where they care for both small companion animals and larger, nondomestic animals.

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Employment Veterinary technologists and technicians held about 53,000 jobs in 2002. Most worked in veterinary services. The remainder worked in boarding kennels; animal shelters; stables; grooming shops; zoos; and local, state, and federal agencies.

Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement There are primarily two levels of education and training for entry to this occupation—a 2-year program for veterinary technicians and a 4-year program for veterinary technologists.

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Section One: Descriptions of 101 Top Jobs for People Without a Four-Year Degree Technologists and technicians usually begin work as trainees in routine positions under the direct supervision of a veterinarian. Entry-level workers whose training or educational background encompasses extensive hands-on experience with a variety of laboratory equipment, including diagnostic and medical equipment, usually require a shorter period of on-thejob training. As they gain experience, technologists and technicians take on more responsibility and carry out more assignments under only general veterinary supervision, and some eventually may become supervisors.

Most entry-level veterinary technicians have a 2-year degree, usually an associate degree, from an accredited community college program in veterinary technology, in which courses are taught in clinical and laboratory settings using live animals. A few colleges offer veterinary technology programs that are longer and that may culminate in a 4-year bachelor’s degree in veterinary technology. These 4-year colleges, in addition to some vocational schools, also offer 2-year programs in laboratory animal science. In 2003, more than 80 veterinary technology programs in 41 states were accredited by the American Veterinary Medical Association (AVMA). Graduation from an AVMA-accredited veterinary technology program allows students to take the credentialing exam in any state in the country. Each state regulates veterinary technicians and technologists differently; however, all states require them to pass a credentialing exam following coursework. Passing the state exam assures the public that the technician or technologist has sufficient knowledge to work in a veterinary clinic or hospital. Candidates are tested for competency through an examination that includes oral, written, and practical portions. This process is regulated by the State Board of Veterinary Examiners, or the appropriate state agency. Depending on the state, candidates may become registered, licensed, or certified. Most states, however, use the National Veterinary Technician (NVT) exam. Prospects usually can have their passing scores transferred from one state to another, so long as both states utilize the same exam.

Job Outlook Employment of veterinary technologists and technicians is expected to grow much faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2012. Job openings also will stem from the need to replace veterinary technologists and technicians who leave the occupation over the 2002–12 period. Keen competition is expected for veterinary technologist and technician jobs in zoos, due to expected slow growth in zoo capacity, low turnover among workers, the limited number of positions, and the fact that the occupation attracts many candidates. Pet owners are becoming more affluent and more willing to pay for advanced care because many of them consider their pet to be part of the family, spurring employment growth for veterinary technologists and technicians. The number of dogs as pets, which also drives employment growth, is expected to increase more slowly during the projection period than in the previous decade. However, the rapidly growing number of cats as pets is expected to boost the demand for feline medicine, offsetting any reduced demand for veterinary care for dogs. The availability of advanced veterinary services, such as preventive dental care and surgical procedures, may provide opportunities for workers specializing in those areas. Biomedical facilities, diagnostic laboratories, wildlife facilities, humane societies, animal control facilities, drug or food manufacturing companies, and food safety inspection facilities will provide more jobs for veterinary technologists and technicians. Furthermore, demand for these workers will stem from the desire to replace veterinary assistants with more highly skilled technicians and technologists in animal clinics and hospitals, shelters, kennels, and humane societies.

Employers recommend American Association for Laboratory Animal Science (AALAS) certification for those seeking employment in a research facility. AALAS offers certification for three levels of technician competence, with a focus on three principle areas—animal husbandry and welfare, facility administration and management, and animal health. Those who wish to become certified must satisfy a combination of education and experience requirements prior to taking an exam. Work experience must be directly related to the maintenance, health, and well-being of laboratory animals and must be gained in a laboratory animal facility as defined by AALAS. Candidates who meet the necessary criteria can begin pursuing the desired certification, based on their qualifications. The lowest level of certification is Animal Laboratory Assistant Technician (ALAT); the second level is Laboratory Animal Technician (LAT); and the highest level of certification is Laboratory Animal Technologist (LATG). The examination consists of multiple-choice questions and is longer and more difficult for higher levels of certification.

Employment of veterinary technicians and technologists is relatively stable during periods of economic recession. Layoffs are less likely to occur among veterinary technologists and technicians than in some other occupations because animals will continue to require medical care.

Persons interested in careers as veterinary technologists and technicians should take as many high school science, biology, and math courses as possible. Science courses taken beyond high school, in an associate or bachelor’s degree program, should emphasize practical skills in a clinical or laboratory setting. Because veterinary technologists and technicians often deal with pet owners, communication skills are very important. Additionally, technologists and technicians should be able to work well with others, because teamwork with veterinarians is common. Organizational ability and the ability to pay attention to detail also are important.

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Earnings Median annual earnings of veterinary technologists and technicians were $22,950 in 2002. The middle 50 percent earned between $19,210 and $27,890. The bottom 10 percent earned less than $16,170, and the top 10 percent earned more than $33,750.

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structures, and to join pipes in pipelines, power plants, and refineries.

Others who work extensively with animals include animal care and service workers. Like veterinary technologists and technicians, they must have patience and feel comfortable with animals. However, the level of training required for these occupations is less than that needed by veterinary technologists and technicians. Veterinarians also work extensively with animals. They prevent, diagnose, and treat diseases, disorders, and injuries in animals.

Welders use many types of welding equipment set up in a variety of positions, such as flat, vertical, horizontal, and overhead. They may perform manual welding, in which the work is entirely controlled by the welder, or semiautomatic welding, in which the welder uses machinery, such as a wire feeder, to perform welding tasks. Arc welding is the most common type of welding. Standard arc welding involves two large metal alligator clips that carry a strong electrical current. One clip is attached to any part of the workpiece being welded. The second clip is connected to a thin welding rod. When the rod touches the workpiece, a powerful electrical circuit is created. The massive heat created by the electrical current causes both the workpiece and the steel core of the rod to melt together, cooling quickly to form a solid bond. During welding, the flux that surrounds the rod’s core vaporizes, forming an inert gas that serves to protect the weld from atmospheric elements that might weaken it. Welding speed is important. Variations in speed can change the amount of flux applied, weakening the weld, or weakening the surrounding metal by increasing heat exposure.

Sources of Additional Information For information on certification as a laboratory animal technician or technologist, contact: American Association for Laboratory Animal Science, 9190 Crestwyn Hills Dr., Memphis, TN 38125. Internet: http://www.aalas.org

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For information on careers in veterinary medicine and a listing of AVMA-accredited veterinary technology programs, contact: American Veterinary Medical Association, 1931 N. Meacham Rd., Suite 100, Schaumburg, IL 60173-4360. Internet: http://www.avma.org

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For information on veterinary technology programs, contact:

Two common but advanced types of welding are Gas Tungsten Arc (TIG) and Gas Metal Arc (MIG) welding. TIG welding often is used with stainless steel or aluminum. While TIG uses welding rods, MIG uses a spool of continuously fed wire, which allows the welder to join longer stretches of metal without stopping to replace the rod. In TIG welding, the welder holds the welding rod in one hand and an electric torch in the other hand. The torch is used to simultaneously melt the rod and the workpiece. In MIG welding, the welder holds the wire feeder, which functions like the alligator clip in arc welding. Instead of using gas flux surrounding the rod, TIG and MIG protect the initial weld from the environment by blowing inert gas onto the weld.

Association of American Veterinary Medical Colleges, 1101 Vermont Ave. NW, Suite 710, Washington DC 20005. Internet: http://www.aavmc.org

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For information on becoming a veterinary technician, contact: National Association of Veterinary Technicians in America, P.O. Box 224, Battle Ground, IN 47920. Internet: http://www.navta.net

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Welding, Soldering, and Brazing Workers

Like arc welding, soldering and brazing use molten metal to join two pieces of metal. However, the metal added during the process has a melting point lower than that of the workpiece, so only the added metal is melted, not the workpiece. Soldering uses metals with a melting point below 800 degrees Fahrenheit; brazing uses metals with a higher melting point. Because soldering and brazing do not melt the workpiece, these processes normally do not create the distortions or weaknesses in the workpiece that can occur with welding. Soldering commonly is used to join electrical, electronic, and other small metal parts. Brazing produces a stronger joint than does soldering, and often is used to join metals other than steel, such as brass. Brazing can also be used to apply coatings to parts to reduce wear and protect against corrosion.

(O*NET 51-4121.01, 51-4121.02, 51-4121.03, 51-4121.04, 51-4121.05, 51-4122.01, 51-4122.02, and 51-4122.03)

Significant Points ●

Job prospects should be excellent.

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Training ranges from a few weeks of school or on-the-job training for low-skilled positions to several years of combined school and on-the-job training for highly skilled jobs.

Nature of the Work

Skilled welding, soldering, and brazing workers generally plan work from drawings or specifications or use their knowledge of fluxes and base metals to analyze the parts to be joined. These workers then select and set up welding equipment, execute the planned welds, and examine welds to ensure that they meet standards or specifications. Highly skilled welders often are trained to work with a wide variety of materials in addition to steel, such as titanium, aluminum, or plastics. Some welders

Welding is the most common way of permanently joining metal parts. In this process, heat is applied to metal pieces, melting and fusing them to form a permanent bond. Because of its strength, welding is used in shipbuilding, automobile manufacturing and repair, aerospace applications, and thousands of other manufacturing activities. Welding also is used to join beams when constructing buildings, bridges, and other

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Section One: Descriptions of 101 Top Jobs for People Without a Four-Year Degree and structural metals manufacturing. Most jobs for welding, soldering, and brazing machine setters, operators, and tenders were found in the same manufacturing industries as skilled welding, soldering, and brazing workers.

have more limited duties, however. They perform routine jobs that already have been planned and laid out and do not require extensive knowledge of welding techniques. Automated welding is used in an increasing number of production processes. In these instances, a machine or robot performs the welding tasks while monitored by a welding machine operator. Welding, soldering, and brazing machine setters, operators, and tenders follow specified layouts, work orders, or blueprints. Operators must load parts correctly and constantly monitor the machine to ensure that it produces the desired bond.

Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Training for welding, soldering, and brazing workers can range from a few weeks of school or on-the-job training for lowskilled positions to several years of combined school and onthe-job training for highly skilled jobs. Formal training is available in high schools, vocational schools, and postsecondary institutions, such as vocational-technical institutes, community colleges, and private welding schools. The Armed Forces operate welding schools as well. Some employers provide training. Courses in blueprint reading, shop mathematics, mechanical drawing, physics, chemistry, and metallurgy are helpful. Knowledge of computers is gaining importance, especially for welding, soldering, and brazing machine operators, who are becoming responsible for the programming of computer-controlled machines, including robots.

The work of arc, plasma, and oxy-gas cutters is closely related to that of welders. However, instead of joining metals, cutters use the heat from an electric arc, a stream of ionized gas (plasma), or burning gases to cut and trim metal objects to specific dimensions. Cutters also dismantle large objects, such as ships, railroad cars, automobiles, buildings, or aircraft. Some operate and monitor cutting machines similar to those used by welding machine operators. Plasma cutting has been increasing in popularity because, unlike other methods, it can cut a wide variety of metals, including stainless steel, aluminum, and titanium.

Some welders become certified, a process whereby the employer sends a worker to an institution, such as an independent testing lab or technical school, to weld a test specimen according to specific codes and standards required by the employer. Testing procedures are based on the standards and codes set by one of several industry associations with which the employer may be affiliated. If the welding inspector at the examining institution determines that the worker has performed according to the employer’s guidelines, the inspector will then certify the welder being tested as able to work with a particular welding procedure.

Working Conditions Welding, soldering, and brazing workers often are exposed to a number of hazards, including the intense light created by the arc, poisonous fumes, and very hot materials. They wear safety shoes, goggles, hoods with protective lenses, and other devices designed to prevent burns and eye injuries and to protect them from falling objects. They normally work in well-ventilated areas to limit their exposure to fumes. Automated welding, soldering, and brazing machine operators are not exposed to as many dangers, however, and a face shield or goggles usually provide adequate protection for these workers.

Welding, soldering, and brazing workers need good eyesight, hand-eye coordination, and manual dexterity. They should be able to concentrate on detailed work for long periods and be able to bend, stoop, and work in awkward positions. In addition, welders increasingly need to be willing to receive training and perform tasks in other production jobs.

Welders and cutters may work outdoors, often in inclement weather, or indoors, sometimes in a confined area designed to contain sparks and glare. Outdoors, they may work on a scaffold or platform high off the ground. In addition, they may be required to lift heavy objects and work in a variety of awkward positions, while bending, stooping, or standing to perform work overhead.

Welders can advance to more skilled welding jobs with additional training and experience. For example, they may become welding technicians, supervisors, inspectors, or instructors. Some experienced welders open their own repair shops.

Although about 55 percent of welders, solderers, and brazers work a 40-hour week, overtime is common, and some welders work up to 70 hours per week. Welders also may work in shifts as long as 12 hours. Some welders, solderers, brazers, and machine operators work in factories that operate around the clock, necessitating shift work.

Job Outlook Job prospects should be excellent, as many potential entrants who could be welders may prefer to attend college or may prefer work that has more comfortable working conditions. Employment of welding, soldering, and brazing workers is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations over the 2002–12 period. In addition, many openings will arise as workers retire or leave the occupation for other reasons.

Employment Welding, soldering, and brazing workers held about 452,000 jobs in 2002. Of these jobs, about 2 of every 3 were found in manufacturing. Jobs were concentrated in transportation equipment manufacturing (motor vehicle body and parts and ship and boat building), machinery manufacturing (agriculture, construction, and mining machinery), and architectural

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The major factor affecting employment of welders is the health of the industries in which they work. Because almost every manufacturing industry uses welding at some stage of

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manufacturing or in the repair and maintenance of equipment, a strong economy will keep demand for welders high. A downturn affecting industries such as auto manufacturing, construction, or petroleum, however, would have a negative impact on the employment of welders in those areas, and could cause some layoffs. Levels of government funding for shipbuilding as well as for infrastructure repairs and improvements are expected to be another important determinant of the future number of welding jobs.

Commercial and industrial machinery and equipment (except automotive and electronic) repair and maintenance ..............................................13.06 Motor vehicle body and trailer manufacturing ..........12.83 Median hourly earnings of welding, soldering, and brazing machine setters, operators, and tenders were $13.90 in 2002. The middle 50 percent earned between $11.22 and $17.77. The lowest 10 percent had earnings of less than $9.36, while the top 10 percent earned over $24.60. Median hourly earnings in motor vehicle parts manufacturing, the industry employing the largest numbers of welding machine operators in 2002 were $18.29.

Regardless of the state of the economy, the pressures to improve productivity and hold down labor costs are leading many companies to invest more in automation, especially computer-controlled and robotically-controlled welding machinery. This will reduce the demand for some low-skilled welders, solderers, and brazers because these simple, repetitive jobs are being automated. The growing use of automation, however, should increase demand for welding, soldering, and brazing machine setters, operators, and tenders. Welders working on construction projects or in equipment repair will not be affected by technology change to the same extent, because their jobs are not as easily automated.

Many welders belong to unions. Among these are the International Association of Machinists and Aerospace Workers; the International Brotherhood of Boilermakers, Iron Ship Builders, Blacksmiths, Forgers and Helpers; the International Union, United Automobile, Aerospace and Agricultural Implement Workers of America; the United Association of Journeymen and Apprentices of the Plumbing, Pipefitting, Sprinkler Fitting Industry of the United States and Canada; and the United Electrical, Radio, and Machine Workers of America.

Technology is helping to improve welding, creating more uses for welding in the workplace and expanding employment opportunities. For example, new ways are being developed to bond dissimilar materials and nonmetallic materials, such as plastics, composites, and new alloys. Also, laser beam and electron beam welding, new fluxes, and other new technologies and techniques are improving the results of welding, making it useful in a wider assortment of applications. Improvements in technology have also boosted welding productivity, making welding more competitive with other methods of joining materials.

Related Occupations Welding, soldering, and brazing workers are skilled metal workers. Other metal workers include machinists; machine setters, operators, and tenders—metal and plastic; computercontrol programmers and operators; tool and die makers; sheet metal workers; and boilermakers. Assemblers and fabricators of electrical and electronic equipment often assemble parts using soldering.

Earnings Median hourly earnings of welders, cutters, solderers, and brazers were $14.02 in 2002. The middle 50 percent earned between $11.41 and $17.34. The lowest 10 percent had earnings of less than $9.41, while the top 10 percent earned over $21.79. The range of earnings of welders reflects the wide range of skill levels. Median hourly earnings in the industries employing the largest numbers of welders, cutters, solderers, and brazers in 2002 were:

Sources of Additional Information For information on training opportunities and jobs for welding, soldering, and brazing workers, contact local employers, the local office of the state employment service, or schools providing welding, soldering, or brazing training. Information on careers and educational opportunities in welding is available from:

Motor vehicle parts manufacturing............................$16.02

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Agriculture, construction, and mining machinery manufacturing ..........................................13.74

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American Welding Society, 550 N.W. Lejeune Rd., Miami, FL 331265699. Internet: http://www.aws.org

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Section Two

THE QUICK JOB SEARCH Seven Steps to Getting a Good Job in Less Time

The Complete Text of a Results-Oriented Booklet by Michael Farr Millions of job seekers have found better jobs faster using the techniques in The Quick Job Search. So can you! The Quick Job Search covers the essential steps proven to cut job search time in half and is used widely by job search programs throughout North America. Topics include how to identify your key skills, define and research your ideal job, write a great resume quickly, use the most effective job search methods, get more interviews, answer tough interview questions in three steps, and much more. While it is a section in this book, The Quick Job Search is available as a separate booklet and in an expanded form as Seven Steps to Getting a Job Fast.

The Quick Job Search Is Short, But It May Be All You Need While The Quick Job Search is short, it covers the basics on how to explore career options and conduct an effective job search. While these topics can seem complex, I have found some simple truths about job searches: ★

If you are going to work, you might as well define what you really want to do and are good at. If you are looking for a job, you might as well use techniques that will reduce the time it takes to find one—and that help you get a better job than you might otherwise. That’s what I emphasize in this little book. Trust Me—Do the Worksheets. I know you will resist completing the worksheets. But trust me, they are worth your time. Doing them will give you a better sense of what you are good at, what you want to do, and how to go about getting it. You will also most likely get more interviews and present yourself better. Is this worth giving up a night of TV? Yes, I think so. ★

Once you finish this minibook and its activities, you will have spent more time planning your career than most people do. And you will know more than the average job seeker about finding a job. Why Such a Short Book? I’ve taught job seeking skills for many years, and I’ve written longer and more detailed books than this one. Yet I have often been asked to tell someone, in a few minutes or hours, the most important things they should do in their career planning or job search. Instructors and counselors also ask the same question because they have only a short time to spend with folks they’re trying to help. I’ve given this a lot of thought, and the seven topics in this minibook are the ones I think are most important to know. This minibook is short enough to scan in a morning and conduct a more effective job search that afternoon. Doing all the activities would take more time but would prepare you far better. Of course, you can learn more about all of the topics it covers, but this little book may be all you need. 269

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ou can’t just read about getting a job. The best way to get a job is to go out and get interviews! And the best way to get interviews is to make a job out of getting a job.

After many years of experience, I have identified just seven basic things you need to do that make a big difference in your job search. Each will be covered and expanded on in this minibook. 1. Identify your key skills.

Quip

2. Define your ideal job. 3. Learn the two most effective job search methods. 4. Write a superior resume. 5. Organize your time to get two interviews a day. 6. Dramatically improve your interviewing skills.

7. Follow up on all leads.

Step 1

Identify Your Key Skills and Develop a “Skills Language” to Describe Yourself

We all have thousands of skills. Consider the many skills required to do even a simple thing like ride a bike or bake a cake. But, of all the skills you have, employers want to know those key skills you have for the job they need done. You must clearly identify these key skills, and then emphasize them in interviews.

One employer survey found that about 90 percent of the people interviewed by the employers did not present the skills they had to do the job they sought. They could not answer the basic question “Why should I hire you?” Knowing and describing your skills are essential to doing well in interviews. This same knowledge is important in deciding what type of job you will enjoy and do well. For these reasons, I consider identifying your skills a necessary part of a successful career plan or job search.

The Three Types of Skills Most people think of their “skills” as job-related skills, such as using a computer. But we all have other types of skills that are important for success on a job—and that are important to employers. The triangle at right presents skills in three groups, and I think that this is a very useful way to consider skills for our purposes.

The Skills Triad Let’s review these three types of skills—self-management, transferable, and jobrelated—and identify those that are most important to you.

Self-Management Skills Write down three things about yourself that you think make you a good worker.

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YOUR “GOOD WORKER” TRAITS 1. ______________________________________________________________________________ 2. ______________________________________________________________________________ 3. ______________________________________________________________________________

You just wrote down the most important things for an employer to know about you! They describe your basic personality and your ability to adapt to new environments. They are some of the most important skills to emphasize in interviews, yet most job seekers don’t realize their importance—and don’t mention them. Review the Self-Management Skills Checklist that follows and put a check mark beside any skills you have. The key self-management skills listed first cover abilities that employers find particularly important. If one or more of the key self-management skills apply to you, mentioning them in interviews can help you greatly.

SELF-MANAGEMENT SKILLS CHECKLIST Check Your Key Self-Management Skills—Employers Value These Highly ______ accept supervision

______ good attendance

______ productive

______ get along with coworkers

______ hard worker

______ punctual

______ get things done on time

______ honest

Check Your Other Self-Management Skills ______ able to coordinate

______ enthusiastic

______ learn quickly

______ ambitious

______ expressive

______ loyal

______ assertive

______ flexible

______ mature

______ capable

______ formal

______ methodical

______ cheerful

______ friendly

______ modest

______ competent

______ good-natured

______ motivated

______ complete assignments

______ helpful

______ natural

______ conscientious

______ humble

______ open-minded

______ creative

______ imaginative

______ optimistic

______ dependable

______ independent

______ original

______ discreet

______ industrious

______ patient

______ eager

______ informal

______ persistent

______ efficient

______ intelligent

______ physically strong

______ energetic

______ intuitive

______ practice new skills (continued)

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America’s Top 101 Jobs for People Without a Four-Year Degree (continued)

______ reliable

______ solve problems

______ thrifty

______ resourceful

______ spontaneous

______ trustworthy

______ responsible

______ steady

______ versatile

______ self-confident

______ tactful

______ well-organized

______ sense of humor

______ take pride in work

______ sincere

______ tenacious List Your Other Self-Management Skills

___________________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________________

After you are done with the list, circle the five skills you feel are most important and list them in the box that follows.

YOUR TOP FIVE SELF-MANAGEMENT SKILLS 1. ______________________________________________________________________________ 2. ______________________________________________________________________________ 3. ______________________________________________________________________________ 4. ______________________________________________________________________________ 5. ______________________________________________________________________________

When thinking about their skills, some people find it helpful to complete the Essential Job Search Data Worksheet that starts on page 306. It organizes skills and accomplishments from previous jobs and other life experiences. Take a look at it and decide whether to complete it now or later.

Transferable Skills We all have skills that can transfer from one job or career to another. For example, the ability to organize events could be used in a variety of jobs and may be essential for success in certain occupations. Your mission is to find a job that requires the skills you have and enjoy using. In the following list, put a check mark beside the skills you have. You may have used them in a previous job or in some non-work setting.

It’s not bragging if it’s true. Using your new skills language may be uncomfortable at first, but employers need to learn about your skills. So practice saying positive things about the skills you have for the job. If you don’t, who will?

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TRANSFERABLE SKILLS CHECKLIST Check Your Key Transferable Skills—Employers Value These Highly ______ computer skills

______ manage people

______ organize/manage projects

______ negotiate

______ meet deadlines

______ public speaking

______ manage money, budgets

______ meet the public

______ written communication

Check Your Skills for Working with Things ______ assemble things

______ good with hands

______ use complex equipment

______ build things

______ observe/inspect things

______ use computers

______ construct/repair things

______ operate tools, machines

______ drive, operate vehicles

______ repair things

Check Your Skills for Working with Data ______ analyze data

______ compile

______ manage money

______ audit records

______ count

______ observe/inspect

______ budget

______ detail-oriented

______ record facts

______ calculate/compute

______ evaluate

______ research

______ check for accuracy

______ investigate

______ synthesize

______ classify things

______ keep financial records

______ take inventory

______ compare

______ locate information Check Your Skills for Working with People

______ administer

______ instruct others

______ pleasant

______ advise

______ interview people

______ sensitive

______ care for

______ kind

______ sociable

______ coach

______ listen

______ supervise

______ confront others

______ negotiate

______ tactful

______ counsel people

______ outgoing

______ tolerant

______ demonstrate

______ patient

______ tough

______ diplomatic

______ perceptive

______ trusting

______ help others

______ persuade

______ understanding

(continued)

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America’s Top 101 Jobs for People Without a Four-Year Degree (continued)

Check Your Skills for Working with Words/Ideas ______ articulate

______ edit

______ logical

______ communicate verbally

______ ingenious

______ public speaking

______ correspond with others

______ inventive

______ remember information

______ create new ideas

______ library or Internet research

______ write clearly

______ design

Check Your Leadership Skills ______ arrange social functions

______ initiate new tasks

______ results-oriented

______ competitive

______ make decisions

______ risk-taker

______ decisive

______ manage or direct others

______ run meetings

______ delegate

______ mediate problems

______ self-confident

______ direct others

______ motivate people

______ self-motivate

______ explain things to others

______ negotiate agreements

______ solve problems

______ influence others

______ plan events Check Your Creative/Artistic Skills

______ artistic

______ drawing, art

______ perform, act

______ dance, body movement

______ expressive

______ present artistic ideas

List Your Other Transferable Skills ___________________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________________

When you are finished, circle the five transferable skills you feel are most important for you to use in your next job and list them in the box below.

YOUR TOP FIVE TRANSFERABLE SKILLS 1. ______________________________________________________________________________ 2. ______________________________________________________________________________ 3. ______________________________________________________________________________ 4. ______________________________________________________________________________ 5. ______________________________________________________________________________

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Job-Related Skills Job content or job-related skills are those you need to do a particular occupation. A carpenter, for example, needs to know how to use various tools. Before you select job-related skills to emphasize, you must first have a clear idea of the jobs you want. So let’s put off developing your job-related skills list until you have defined the job you want. That topic is covered next.

Quip

Complete the worksheet that follows after you have read “Step 2: Define Your Ideal Job.”

YOUR TOP FIVE JOB-RELATED SKILLS 1. ___________________________________________________ 2. ___________________________________________________ 3. ___________________________________________________ 4. ___________________________________________________

It’s a hassle, but… Completing the Essential Job Search Data Worksheet that starts on page 306 will help you define what you are good at—and remember examples of when you did things well. This information will help you define your ideal job and will be of great value in interviews. Look at the worksheet now, and promise to do it tonight.

Step 2

5. ___________________________________________________

Define Your Ideal Job (You Can Compromise on It Later If Needed) Too many people look for a job without clearly knowing what they are looking for. Before you go out seeking a job, I suggest that you first define exactly what you want—the job. Most people think that a job objective is the same as a job title, but it isn’t. You need to consider other elements of what makes a job satisfying for you. Then, later, you can decide what that job is called and what industry it might be in.

EIGHT FACTORS TO CONSIDER IN DEFINING YOUR IDEAL JOB As you try to define your ideal job, consider the following eight important questions. Once you know what you want, your task then becomes finding a position that is as close to your ideal job as possible. 1. What skills do you want to use? From the skills lists in Step 1, select the top five skills that you enjoy using and most want to use in your next job. ____________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ (continued)

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America’s Top 101 Jobs for People Without a Four-Year Degree (continued)

2. What type of special knowledge do you have? Perhaps you know how to fix radios, keep accounting records, or cook food. Write down the things you know from schooling, training, hobbies, family experiences, and other sources. One or more of these knowledges could make you a very special applicant in the right setting. _________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ 3. With what types of people do you prefer to work? Do you like to work in competition with others, or do you prefer hardworking folks, creative personalities, or some other types? _________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ 4. What type of work environment do you prefer? Do you want to work inside, outside, in a quiet place, a busy place, a clean place, or have a window with a nice view? List the types of things that are most important to you. ____________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ 5. Where do you want your next job to be located—in what city or region? Near a bus line? Close to a childcare center? If you are open to living and working anywhere, what would your ideal community be like? ________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ 6. How much money do you hope to make in your next job? Many people will take less money if they like a job in other ways—or if they quickly need a job to survive. Think about the minimum you would take as well as what you would eventually like to earn. Your next job will probably pay somewhere in between. ________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ 7. How much responsibility are you willing to accept? Usually, the more money you want to make, the more responsibility you must accept. Do you want to work by yourself, be part of a group, or be in charge? If so, at what level? _________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ 8. What things are important or have meaning to you? Do you have important values you would prefer to include as a basis of the work you do? For example, some people want to work to help others, clean up our environment, build things, make machines work, gain power or prestige, or care for animals or plants. Think about what is important to you and how you might include this in your next job. ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________

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Is It Possible to Find Your Ideal Job? Can you find a job that meets all the criteria you just defined? Perhaps. Some people do. The harder you look, the more likely you are to find it. But you will likely need to compromise, so it is useful to know what is most important to include in your next job. Go back over your responses to the eight factors and mark those few things that you would most like to have or include in your ideal job. Then write a brief outline of this ideal job below. Don’t worry about a job title, or whether you have the experience, or other practical matters yet.

MY IDEAL JOB WOULD BE ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________

Explore Specific Job Titles and Industries You might find your ideal job in an occupation you haven’t considered yet. And, even if you are sure of the occupation you want, it may be in an industry that’s not familiar to you. This combination of occupation and industry forms the basis for your job search, and you should consider a variety of options.

REVIEW THE TOP JOBS IN THE WORKFORCE There are thousands of job titles, and many jobs are highly specialized, employing just a few people. While one of these more specialized jobs may be just what you want, most work falls within more general job titles that employ large numbers of people. The list of job titles that follows was developed by the U.S. Department of Labor. It contains approximately 270 major jobs that employ about 88 percent of the U.S. workforce. The job titles are organized within 14 major groupings called interest areas, presented in all capital letters and bold type. These groupings will help you quickly identify fields most likely to interest you. Job titles are presented in regular type within these groupings. (continued)

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America’s Top 101 Jobs for People Without a Four-Year Degree (continued)

Begin with the interest areas that appeal to you most, and underline any job title that interests you. (Don’t worry for now about whether you have the experience or credentials to do these jobs.) Then quickly review the remaining interest areas, underlining any job titles there that interest you. Note that some job titles are listed more than once because they fit into more than one interest area. When you have gone through all 14 interest areas, go back and circle the 5 to 10 job titles that interest you most. These are the ones you will want to research in more detail. 1. ARTS, ENTERTAINMENT, AND MEDIA—Actors, Producers, and Directors; Announcers; Artists and Related Workers; Athletes, Coaches, Umpires, and Related Workers; Barbers, Cosmetologists, and Other Personal Appearance Workers; Broadcast and Sound Engineering Technicians and Radio Operators; Dancers and Choreographers; Demonstrators, Product Promoters, and Models; Designers; Desktop Publishers; Interpreters and Translators; Musicians, Singers, and Related Workers; News Analysts, Reporters, and Correspondents; Photographers; Prepress Technicians and Workers; Public Relations Specialists; Recreation and Fitness Workers; Television, Video, and Motion Picture Camera Operators and Editors; Writers and Editors 2. SCIENCE, MATH, AND ENGINEERING—Actuaries; Aerospace Engineers; Agricultural and Food Scientists; Agricultural Engineers; Architects, Except Landscape and Naval; Atmospheric Scientists; Biological Scientists; Biomedical Engineers; Chemical Engineers; Chemists and Materials Scientists; Civil Engineers; Computer and Information Systems Managers; Computer Hardware Engineers; Computer Programmers; Computer Software Engineers; Computer Support Specialists and Systems Administrators; Computer Systems Analysts, Database Administrators, and Computer Scientists; Computer-Control Programmers and Operators; Conservation Scientists and Foresters; Construction and Building Inspectors; Drafters; Economists; Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Except Computer; Engineering and Natural Sciences Managers; Engineering Technicians; Engineers; Environmental Engineers; Environmental Scientists and Geoscientists; Industrial Engineers, Including Health and Safety; Landscape Architects; Market and Survey Researchers; Materials Engineers; Mathematicians; Mechanical Engineers; Medical Scientists; Mining and Geological Engineers, Including Mining Safety Engineers; Nuclear Engineers; Operations Research Analysts; Petroleum Engineers; Photographers; Physicists and Astronomers; Psychologists; Sales Engineers; Science Technicians; Social Scientists, Other; Surveyors, Cartographers, Photogrammetrists, and Surveying Technicians; Urban and Regional Planners 3. PLANTS AND ANIMALS—Agricultural Workers; Animal Care and Service Workers; Farmers, Ranchers, and Agricultural Managers; Fishers and Fishing Vessel Operators; Forest, Conservation, and Logging Workers; Grounds Maintenance Workers; Pest Control Workers; Science Technicians; Veterinarians; Veterinary Technologists and Technicians 4. LAW, LAW ENFORCEMENT, AND PUBLIC SAFETY—Correctional Officers; Emergency Medical Technicians and Paramedics; Firefighting Occupations; Job Opportunities in the Armed Forces; Judges, Magistrates, and Other Judicial Workers; Lawyers; Occupational Health and Safety Specialists and Technicians; Paralegals and Legal Assistants; Police and Detectives; Private Detectives and Investigators; Science Technicians; Security Guards and Gaming Surveillance Officers 5. MECHANICS, INSTALLERS, AND REPAIRERS—Aircraft and Avionics Equipment Mechanics and Service Technicians; Automotive Body and Related Repairers; Automotive Service Technicians and Mechanics; Coin, Vending, and Amusement Machine Servicers and Repairers; Computer, Automated Teller, and Office Machine Repairers; Diesel Service Technicians and Mechanics; Electrical and Electronics Installers and Repairers; Electronic Home Entertainment Equipment Installers and Repairers; Elevator Installers and Repairers; Heating, Air-Conditioning, and Refrigeration Mechanics and Installers; Heavy Vehicle and Mobile Equipment Service Technicians and Mechanics; Home Appliance Repairers; Industrial Machinery Installation, Repair, and Maintenance Workers, Except Millwrights; Line Installers and Repairers; Maintenance and Repair Workers, General; Millwrights; Ophthalmic Laboratory Technicians; Painting and Coating Workers, Except Construction and Maintenance; Precision Instrument and Equipment Repairers; Radio and Telecommunications Equipment Installers and Repairers; Small Engine Mechanics 6. CONSTRUCTION, MINING, AND DRILLING—Boilermakers; Brickmasons, Blockmasons, and Stonemasons; Carpenters; Carpet, Floor, and Tile Installers and Finishers; Cement Masons, Concrete Finishers, Segmental Pavers, and Terrazzo Workers; Construction Equipment Operators; Construction Laborers; Construction Managers; Drywall Installers, Ceiling Tile Installers, and Tapers; Electricians; Glaziers; Hazardous Materials Removal Workers; Insulation Workers; Material Moving Occupations; Painters and Paperhangers; Pipelayers,

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7.

8.

9.

10.

11.

12.

13.

Plumbers, Pipefitters, and Steamfitters; Plasterers and Stucco Masons; Roofers; Sheet Metal Workers; Structural and Reinforcing Iron and Metal Workers TRANSPORTATION—Air Traffic Controllers; Aircraft Pilots and Flight Engineers; Bus Drivers; Material Moving Occupations; Rail Transportation Occupations; Taxi Drivers and Chauffeurs; Truck Drivers and Driver/Sales Workers; Water Transportation Occupations INDUSTRIAL PRODUCTION—Assemblers and Fabricators; Bookbinders and Bindery Workers; ComputerControl Programmers and Operators; Dental Laboratory Technicians; Food-Processing Occupations; Forest, Conservation, and Logging Workers; Industrial Production Managers; Inspectors, Testers, Sorters, Samplers, and Weighers; Jewelers and Precious Stone and Metal Workers; Machine Setters, Operators, and Tenders—Metal and Plastic; Machinists; Material Moving Occupations; Ophthalmic Laboratory Technicians; Painting and Coating Workers, Except Construction and Maintenance; Photographic Process Workers and Processing Machine Operators; Power Plant Operators, Distributors, and Dispatchers; Prepress Technicians and Workers; Printing Machine Operators; Semiconductor Processors; Stationary Engineers and Boiler Operators; Textile, Apparel, and Furnishings Occupations; Tool and Die Makers; Water and Liquid Waste Treatment Plant and System Operators; Water Transportation Occupations; Welding, Soldering, and Brazing Workers; Woodworkers BUSINESS DETAIL—Administrative Services Managers; Bill and Account Collectors; Billing and Posting Clerks and Machine Operators; Bookkeeping, Accounting, and Auditing Clerks; Brokerage Clerks; Cargo and Freight Agents; Cashiers; Communications Equipment Operators; Computer Operators; Computer, Automated Teller, and Office Machine Repairers; Counter and Rental Clerks; Couriers and Messengers; Court Reporters; Credit Authorizers, Checkers, and Clerks; Customer Service Representatives; Data Entry and Information Processing Workers; Dispatchers; File Clerks; Financial Clerks; Gaming Cage Workers; Human Resources Assistants, Except Payroll and Timekeeping; Information and Record Clerks; Interviewers; Material Recording, Scheduling, Dispatching, and Distributing Occupations; Medical Records and Health Information Technicians; Medical Transcriptionists; Meter Readers, Utilities; Office and Administrative Support Worker Supervisors and Managers; Office Clerks, General; Order Clerks; Payroll and Timekeeping Clerks; Postal Service Workers; Prepress Technicians and Workers; Procurement Clerks; Production, Planning, and Expediting Clerks; Receptionists and Information Clerks; Reservation and Transportation Ticket Agents and Travel Clerks; Secretaries and Administrative Assistants; Shipping, Receiving, and Traffic Clerks; Stock Clerks and Order Fillers; Tellers; Weighers, Measurers, Checkers, and Samplers, Recordkeeping SALES AND MARKETING—Advertising, Marketing, Promotions, Public Relations, and Sales Managers; Demonstrators, Product Promoters, and Models; Insurance Sales Agents; Material Recording, Scheduling, Dispatching, and Distributing Occupations; Real Estate Brokers and Sales Agents; Retail Salespersons; Sales Representatives, Wholesale and Manufacturing; Sales Worker Supervisors; Securities, Commodities, and Financial Services Sales Agents; Stock Clerks and Order Fillers; Travel Agents RECREATION, TRAVEL, AND OTHER PERSONAL SERVICES—Barbers, Cosmetologists, and Other Personal Appearance Workers; Building Cleaning Workers; Chefs, Cooks, and Food Preparation Workers; Flight Attendants; Food and Beverage Serving and Related Workers; Food Service Managers; Food-Processing Occupations; Gaming Services Occupations; Hotel, Motel, and Resort Desk Clerks; Information and Record Clerks; Lodging Managers; Material Moving Occupations; Personal and Home Care Aides; Recreation and Fitness Workers; Reservation and Transportation Ticket Agents and Travel Clerks; Textile, Apparel, and Furnishings Occupations EDUCATION AND SOCIAL SERVICE—Archivists, Curators, and Museum Technicians; Childcare Workers; Clergy; Conservation Scientists and Foresters; Counselors; Education Administrators; Financial Analysts and Personal Financial Advisors; Information and Record Clerks; Instructional Coordinators; Librarians; Library Assistants, Clerical; Library Technicians; Probation Officers and Correctional Treatment Specialists; Protestant Ministers; Psychologists; Rabbis; Roman Catholic Priests; Social and Human Service Assistants; Social Workers; Teacher Assistants GENERAL MANAGEMENT AND SUPPORT—Accountants and Auditors; Advertising, Marketing, Promotions, Public Relations, and Sales Managers; Budget Analysts; Claims Adjusters, Appraisers, Examiners and Investigators; Cost Estimators; Financial Analysts and Personal Financial Advisors; Financial Managers; Funeral Directors; Human Resources, Training, and Labor Relations Managers and Specialists; Insurance Underwriters; (continued)

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Loan Counselors and Officers; Management Analysts; Market and Survey Researchers; Property, Real Estate, and Community Association Managers; Purchasing Managers, Buyers, and Purchasing Agents; Tax Examiners, Collectors, and Revenue Agents; Top Executives 14. MEDICAL AND HEALTH SERVICES—Audiologists; Cardiovascular Technologists and Technicians; Chiropractors; Clinical Laboratory Technologists and Technicians; Dental Assistants; Dental Hygienists; Dentists; Diagnostic Medical Sonographers; Dietitians and Nutritionists; Licensed Practical and Licensed Vocational Nurses; Medical and Health Services Managers; Medical Assistants; Nuclear Medicine Technologists; Nursing, Psychiatric, and Home Health Aides; Occupational Therapist Assistants and Aides; Occupational Therapists; Opticians, Dispensing; Optometrists; Pharmacists; Pharmacy Aides; Pharmacy Technicians; Physical Therapist Assistants and Aides; Physical Therapists; Physician Assistants; Physicians and Surgeons; Podiatrists; Radiologic Technologists and Technicians; Recreational Therapists; Registered Nurses; Respiratory Therapists; Speech-Language Pathologists; Surgical Technologists

Thorough descriptions for the job titles in the preceding list can be found in this book. You can also find these job descriptions on the Internet at http://www.bls.gov/oco/. The Guide for Occupational Exploration, Third Edition, provides more information on the interest areas used in the list. This book is published by JIST Works and also describes about 1,000 major jobs, arranged within groupings of related jobs. Finally, “A Short List of Additional Resources” at the end of this minibook will give you resources for more job information.

CONSIDER MAJOR INDUSTRIES The Career Guide to Industries, another book by the U.S. Department of Labor, gives very helpful reviews for the major industries mentioned in the list below. Organized in groups of related industries, this list covers about 75 percent of the nation’s workforce. Many libraries and bookstores carry the Career Guide to Industries, or you can find the information on the Internet at http://www.bls.gov/oco/cg/. Underline industries that interest you, and then learn more about the opportunities they present. Note that some industries pay more than others, often for the same skills or jobs, so you should explore a variety of industry options. Agriculture, Mining, and Construction: agriculture, forestry, and fishing; construction; mining; oil and gas extraction. Manufacturing: aerospace product and parts manufacturing; apparel manufacturing; chemical manufacturing, except pharmaceutical and medicine manufacturing; computer and electronic product manufacturing; food manufacturing; motor vehicle and parts manufacturing; pharmaceutical and medicine manufacturing; printing; steel manufacturing; textile mills and products. Trade: automobile dealers; clothing, accessory, and general merchandise stores; grocery stores; wholesale trade. Transportation and Utilities: air transportation; truck transportation and warehousing; utilities.

Financial Activities: banking; insurance; securities, commodities, and other investments. Professional and Business Services: advertising and public relations services; computer systems design and related services; employment services; management, scientific, and technical consulting services. Education and Health Services: child daycare services; educational services; health services; social assistance, except child day care. Leisure and Hospitality: arts, entertainment, and recreation; food services and drinking places; hotels and other accommodations. Government: federal government, excluding the postal service; state and local government, except education and health.

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YOUR TOP JOBS AND INDUSTRIES WORKSHEET Go back over the lists of job titles and industries. For items 1 and 2 below, list the jobs that interest you most. Then select the industries that interest you most, and list them below in item 3. These are the jobs and industries you should research most carefully. Your ideal job is likely to be found in some combination of these jobs and industries, or in more specialized but related jobs and industries. 1. The 5 job titles that interest you most _________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ 2. The 5 next most interesting job titles _________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ 3. The industries that interest you most __________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________

And, Now, We Return to Job-Related Skills Back on page 275, I suggested that you should first define the job you want and then identify key job-related skills you have that support your ability to do it. These are the job-related skills to emphasize in interviews. So, now that you have determined your ideal job, you can pinpoint the job-related skills it requires. If you haven’t done so, complete the Essential Job Search Data Worksheet on pages 306–310. It will give you specific skills and accomplishments to highlight. Yes, completing that worksheet requires time, but doing so will help you clearly define key skills to emphasize in interviews, when what you say matters so much. People who complete that worksheet will do better in their interviews than those who don’t. After you complete the Essential Job Search Data Worksheet, go back to page 275 and write in Your Top Five JobRelated Skills. Include there the job-related skills you have that you would most like to use in your next job.

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Step 3

Use the Most Effective Methods to Reduce Your Job Search Time Employer surveys found that most employers don’t advertise their job openings. They hire people they know, people who find out about the jobs through word of mouth, and people who happen to be in the right place at the right time. While luck plays a part, you can increase your “luck” in finding job openings. Let’s look at the job search methods that people use. The U.S. Department of Labor conducts a regular survey of unemployed people actively looking for work. The survey results are presented below. Percentage of Unemployed Using Various Job Search Methods ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆

Contacted employer directly: 64.5% Sent out resumes/filled out applications: 48.3% Contacted public employment agency: 20.4% Placed or answered help wanted ads: 14.5% Contacted friends or relatives: 13.5%

◆ ◆ ◆ ◆

Contacted private employment agency: 6.6% Used other active search methods: 4.4% Contacted school employment center: 2.3% Checked union or professional registers: 1.5%

Source: U.S. Department of Labor, Current Population Survey

This section covers a number of job search methods. Most of the material is presented as information, with a few interactive activities. While each topic is short and reasonably interesting, taking a break now and then will help you absorb it all.

What Job Search Methods Work Best? The survey shows that most people use more than one job search technique. For example, one person might read want ads, fill out applications, and ask friends for job leads. Others might send out resumes, contact everyone they know from professional contacts, and sign up at employment agencies. But the survey covered only nine job search methods and, on those, asked only whether the job seeker did or did not use each method. The survey did not cover the Internet, nor did it ask whether a method worked in getting job offers. Unfortunately, there hasn’t been much recent research on the effectiveness of various job search methods. Most of what we know is based on older research and the observations of people who work with job seekers. I’ll share what we do know about the effectiveness of job search methods in the content that follows.

Getting the Most Out of Less-Effective Job Search Methods The truth is that every job search method works for some people. But experience and research show that some methods are more effective than others are. Your task in the job search is to spend more of your time using more effective methods—and increase the effectiveness of all the methods you use.

Your job search objective. Almost everyone finds a job eventually, so your objective should be to find a good job in less time. The job search methods I emphasize in this minibook will help you do just that.

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So let’s start by looking at some traditional job search methods and how you can increase their effectiveness. Only about one-third of all job seekers get their jobs using one of these methods, but you should consider using them.

Help Wanted Ads Most jobs are never advertised, and only about 15 percent of all people get their jobs through the want ads. Everyone who reads the paper knows about these openings, so competition is fierce. The Internet also lists many job openings. But, as with want ads, enormous numbers of people view these postings. Some people do get jobs this way, so go ahead and apply. Just be sure to spend most of your time using more effective methods.

Filling Out Applications Most employers require job seekers to complete an application form. But applications are designed to collect negative information—and employers use applications to screen people out. If, for example, your training or work history is not the best, you will often never get an interview, even if you can do the job. Completing applications is a more effective approach for young job seekers than for adults. The reason is that there is a shortage of workers for the relatively low-paying and entry-level jobs youth typically seek. As a result, employers are more willing to accept a lack of experience or lack of job skills in youth. Even so, you will get better results by filling out the application if asked to do so and then requesting an interview with the person in charge. When you complete an application, make it neat and error-free, and do not include anything that could get you screened out. If necessary, leave a problem section blank. It can always be explained after you get an interview.

Employment Agencies There are three types of employment agencies. One is operated by the government and is free. The others are run as for-profit businesses and charge a fee to either you or an employer. There are advantages and disadvantages to using each. The government employment service and one-stop centers. Each state has a network of local offices to pay unemployment compensation, provide job leads, and offer other services—at no charge to you or to employers. The service’s name varies by state, and it may be called “Job Service,” “Department of Labor,” “Unemployment Office,” “Workforce Development,” or another name. Many states have “One-Stop Centers” that provide employment counseling, reference books, computerized career information, job listings, and other resources. An Internet site at www.careeronestop.org uses will give you information on the programs provided by the government employment service, plus links to other useful sites. Another Internet site called America’s Job Bank, at www.ajb.dni.us, allows visitors to see all jobs listed with the government employment service and to search for jobs by region and other criteria. The government employment service lists only 5 to 10 percent of the available openings nationally, and only about 6 percent of all job seekers get their jobs there. Even so, visit your local office early in your job search. Find out if you qualify for unemployment compensation and learn more about its services. Look into it—the price is right. Private employment agencies. Private employment agencies are businesses that charge a fee either to you or to the employer who hires you. You will often see their ads in the help wanted section of the newspaper, and many have Web sites. Fees can be from less than one month’s pay to 15 percent or more of your annual salary. Be careful about using fee-based employment agencies. Recent research indicates that more people use and benefit from fee-based agencies than in the past. But realize that relatively few people who register with private agencies get a job through them.

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If you use them, ask for interviews where the employer pays the fee. Do not sign an exclusive agreement or be pressured into accepting a job, and continue to actively look for your own leads. You can find these agencies in the phone book’s yellow pages, and a government-run Web site at www.ajb.dni.us lists many of them as well. Temporary agencies. Temporary agencies offer jobs lasting from several days to many months. They charge the employer a bit more than your salary, and then pay you and keep the difference. You pay no direct fee to the agency. Many private employment agencies now provide temporary jobs as well. Temp agencies have grown rapidly for good reason. They provide employers with short-term help, and employers often use them to find people they may want to hire later. Temp agencies can help you survive between jobs and get experience in different work settings; working for a temp agency may lead to a regular job. They provide a very good option while you look for long-term work, and you may get a job offer while working in a temp job.

School and Employment Services Contacting a school employment center is one of the job search methods included in the survey presented earlier. Only a small percentage of respondents said they used this option. This is probably because few had the service available. If you are a student or graduate, find out about these services. Some schools provide free career counseling, resumewriting help, referrals to job openings, career interest tests, reference materials, and other services. Special career programs work with veterans, people with disabilities, welfare recipients, union members, professional groups, and many others. So check out these services and consider using them.

Mailing Resumes and Posting Them on the Internet Many job search “experts” used to suggest that sending out lots of resumes was a great technique. That advice probably helped sell their resume books, but mailing resumes to people you do not know was never an effective approach. Every so often this would work, but a 95-percent failure rate and few interviews were the more common outcomes, and still are. While mailing your resume to strangers doesn’t make much sense, posting it on the Internet might because 1. It doesn’t take much time. 2. Many employers have the potential of finding your resume. But job searching on the Internet also has its limitations, just like other methods. I’ll cover resumes in more detail later and provide tips on using the Internet throughout this minibook.

The Two Job Search Methods That Work Best The fact is that most jobs are not advertised, so how do you find them? The same way that about two-thirds of all job seekers do: networking with people you know (which I call warm contacts) and making direct contacts with an employer (which I call cold contacts). Both of these methods are based on the most important job search rule of all: THE DON’T

MOST IMPORTANT JOB SEARCH RULE

WAIT UNTIL THE JOB OPENS BEFORE CONTACTING THE EMPLOYER!

Employers fill most jobs with people they have met before jobs formally “open.” So the trick is to meet people who can hire you before a job is available! Instead of saying, “Do you have any jobs open?” say, “I realize you may not have any openings now, but I would still like to talk to you about the possibility of future openings.”

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Method 1: Develop a Network of Contacts in Five Easy Stages One study found that 40 percent of all people located their jobs through a lead provided by a friend, a relative, or an acquaintance. That makes people you know the number one source of job leads—more effective than all the traditional methods combined! Developing and using your contacts is called “networking,” and here’s how it works: 1. Make lists of people you know. Make a thorough list of anyone you are friendly with. Then make a separate list of all your relatives. These two lists alone often add up to 25 to 100 people or more. Next, think of other groups of people that you have something in common with, such as former coworkers or classmates, members of your social or sports groups, members of your professional association, former employers, and members of your religious group. You may not know many of these people personally or well, but most will help you if you ask them. 2. Contact them in a systematic way. Next, contact each of these people. Obviously, some people will be more helpful than others, but any one of them might help you find a job lead. 3. Present yourself well. Begin with your friends and relatives. Call and tell them you are looking for a job and need their help. Be as clear as possible about the type of employment you want and the skills and qualifications you have. Look at the sample JIST Card and phone script later in this minibook for good presentation ideas. 4. Ask them for leads. It is possible that your contacts will know of a job opening that might interest you. If so, get the details and get right on it! More likely, however, they will not, so you should ask each person these three questions: The Three Magic Networking Questions ◆ ◆ ◆

Do you know of any openings for a person with my skills? If the answer is no (which it usually is), then ask… Do you know of someone else who might know of such an opening? If your contact does, get that name and ask for another one. If he or she doesn’t, ask… Do you know of anyone who might know of someone else who might know? Another good way to ask this is “Do you know someone who knows lots of people?” If all else fails, this will usually get you a name.

5. Contact these referrals and ask them the same questions. With each original contact, you can extend your network of acquaintances by hundreds of people. Eventually, one of these people will hire you or refer you to someone who will! If you are persistent in following these five steps, networking may be the only job search method you need. It works.

Method 2: Contact Employers Directly It takes more courage, but making direct contact with employers is a very effective job search technique. I call these “cold contacts” because people you don’t know in advance will need to “warm up” to your inquiries. Two basic techniques for making cold contacts follow. Use the yellow pages to find potential employers. Begin by looking at the index in your phone book’s yellow pages. For each entry, ask yourself, “Would an organization of this kind need a person with my skills?” If you answer yes, then that organization or business type is a possible target. You can also rate “yes” entries based on your interest, writing an A next to those that seem very interesting, a B next to those that you are not sure of, and a C next to those that aren’t interesting at all.

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Next, select a type of organization that got a “yes” response, such as “hotels,” and turn to that section of the yellow pages. Call each hotel listed and ask to speak to the person who is most likely to hire or supervise you. A sample telephone script is included later in this section to give you ideas about what to say. You can easily adapt this approach to the Internet by using sites like www. yellowpages.com to get contacts anywhere in the world. Drop in without an appointment. You can also walk into a business or organization that interests you and ask to speak to the person in charge. Particularly effective in small businesses, dropping in also works surprisingly well in larger ones. Remember to ask for an interview even if there are no openings now. If your timing is inconvenient, ask for a better time to come back for an interview.

Quip The phone book is the most complete, up-to-date source of job search targets. The index for the yellow pages organizes potential employers into categories that are ideal for job seekers. Find a listing that interests you, and then contact employers listed there. All it takes is a 30-second phone call to get the name of the hiring authority!

Most Jobs Are with Small Employers Businesses and organizations with 250 or fewer employees employ about 70 percent of all U.S. workers. They are also the source for as much as 80 percent of the new jobs created each year. They are simply too important to overlook in your job search! Many of them don’t have personnel departments, making direct contacts even easier and more effective.

JIST Cards®—An Effective Mini Resume Look at the sample cards that follow—they are JIST Cards, and they get results. Computer printed or even neatly written on a 3-by-5–inch card, JIST Cards include the essential information employers want to know. JIST Cards have been used by thousands of job search programs and millions of people. Employers like their direct and timesaving format, and they have been proven as an effective tool to get job leads. Attach one to your resume. Give them to friends, relatives, and other contacts and ask them to pass them along to others who might know of an opening. Enclose them in thank-you notes after an interview. Leave one with employers as a business card. However you get them in circulation, you may be surprised at how well they work.

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Jonathan McLaughlin Answering machine: (509) 674-8736 Cell phone: (509) 541-0981 [email protected] Objective: Electronics-installation, maintenance, and sales Skills: Four years of work experience, plus two years advanced training in electronics. AS degree in Electronics Engineering Technology. Managed a $500,000/year business while going to school full time, with grades in the top 25%. Familiar with all major electronics diagnostic and repair equipment. Hands-on experience with medical, consumer,communications, business, and industrial electronics equipment and applications. Good problem-solving and communication skills. Customer service oriented. Willing to do what it takes to get the job done. Self-motivated, dependable, learn quickly.

You can easily create JIST Cards on a computer and print them on card stock you can buy at any office supply store. Or have a few hundred printed cheaply by a local quick print shop. While they are often done as 3-by-5 cards, they can be printed in any size or format.

Quip

Use the Phone to Get Job Leads Once you have created your JIST Card, you can use it as the basis for a phone “script” to make warm or cold calls. Revise your JIST Card content so that it sounds natural when spoken, and then edit it until you can read it out loud in about 30 seconds. Use the sample phone script that follows to help you write your own. “Hello, my name is Pam Nykanen. I am interested in a position in hotel management. I have four years’ experience in sales, catering, and accounting with a 300-room hotel. I also have an associate degree in hotel management, plus one year of experience with the Bradey Culinary Institute. During my employment, I helped double revenues from meetings and conferences and increased bar revenues by 46 percent. I have good problem-solving skills and am good with people. I am also well-organized, hard working, and detail-oriented. When may I come in for an interview?” Once you have your script, make some practice calls to warm or cold contacts. If making cold calls, contact the person most likely to supervise you. Then present your script just as you practiced it, without stopping. While it doesn’t work every time, most people, with practice, can get one or more interviews in an hour by making such calls. While the sample script assumes you are calling someone you don’t know, it can be changed for warm contacts and referrals. Making cold calls takes courage—but works very well for many who are willing to do it.

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Dialing for dollars. The phone can get you more interviews per hour than any other job search tool. But it won’t work unless you use it actively.

Quip Overcome phone phobia! Making cold calls takes guts, but job search programs find that most people can get one or more interviews an hour using cold calls. Start by calling people you know and people they refer you to. Then try calls to businesses that don’t sound very interesting. As you get better, call more desirable targets.

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Using the Internet in Your Job Search I provide Internet-related tips throughout this minibook, but the Internet deserves a separate section, so here it is. The Internet has limitations as a job search tool. While many have used it to get job leads, it has not worked well for far more. Too many assume they can simply add their resume to resume databases, and employers will line up to hire them. Just like the older approach of sending out lots of resumes, good things sometimes happen, but not often. I recommend two points that apply to all job search methods, including using the Internet: ◆

It is unwise to rely on just one or two methods in conducting your job search.

◆

It is essential that you use an active rather than a passive approach in your job search.

Tips to Increase Your Internet Effectiveness I encourage you to use the Internet in your job search but suggest you use it along with other techniques, including direct contacts with employers. The following suggestions can increase the effectiveness of using the Internet in your job search. Be as specific as possible in the job you seek. This is important in using any job search method and even more so in using the Internet. The Internet is enormous, so it is essential to be as focused as possible in what you are looking for. Narrow your job title or titles to be as specific as possible. Limit your search to specific industries or areas of specialization. Have reasonable expectations. Success on the Internet is more likely if you understand its limitations. For example, employers trying to find someone with skills in high demand, such as network engineers or nurses, are more likely to use the Internet to recruit job candidates.

Quip If the Internet is new to you. I recommend a book titled Cyberspace Job Search Kit by Mary Nemnich and Fred Jandt. It covers the basics plus lots of advice on using the Internet for career planning and job seeking.

Limit your geographic options. If you don’t want to move, or would move but only to certain areas, state this preference on your resume and restrict your search to those areas. Many Internet sites allow you to view only those jobs that meet your location criteria. Create an electronic resume. With few exceptions, resumes submitted on the Internet end up as simple text files with no graphic elements. Employers search databases of many resumes for those that include key words or meet other searchable criteria. So create a simple text resume for Internet use and include on it words likely to be used by employers searching for someone with your abilities. See the resume on page 298 for an example. Get your resume into the major resume databases. Most Internet employment sites let you add your resume for free, and then charge employers to advertise openings or to search for candidates. These easy-to-use sites often provide all sorts of useful information for job seekers. Make direct contacts. Visit Web sites of organizations that interest you and learn more about them. Some will post openings, allow you to apply online, or even provide access to staff who can answer your questions. Even if they don’t, you can always e-mail a request for the name of the person in charge of the area that interests you and then communicate with that person directly.

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Network. You can network online, too, to get names and e-mail addresses of potential employer contacts or other people who might know of someone with a job opening. Look at interest groups, professional association sites, alumni sites, chat rooms, and employer sites—just some of the many creative ways to network with and to interact with people via the Internet.

Useful Internet Sites

Step 4

Thousands of Internet sites provide information on careers or education. Many have links to other sites that they recommend. Service providers such as America Online (www.aol.com) and the Microsoft Network (www.msn.com) have career information and job listings plus links to other sites. Larger portal sites offer links to recommended career-related sites—Lycos (www.lycos.com) and Yahoo (www.yahoo.com) are just a couple of these portals. These major career-specific sites can get you started: ◆

The Riley Guide at www.rileyguide.com

◆

Monster.com at www.monster.com

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America’s Job Bank at www.ajb.dni.us

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The JIST site at www.jist.com

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careerbuilder.com at www.careerbuilder.com

Write a Simple Resume Now and a Better One Later Sending out resumes and waiting for responses is not an effective job-seeking technique. But, many employers will ask you for one, and a resume can be a useful tool in your job search. I suggest that you begin with a simple resume you can complete quickly. I’ve seen too many people spend weeks working on their resume when they could have been out getting interviews instead. If you want a “better” resume, you can work on it on weekends and evenings. So let’s begin with the basics.

Tips for Creating a Superior Resume

Quip

The following tips make sense for any resume format: Write it yourself. It’s okay to look at other resumes for ideas, but write yours yourself. It will force you to organize your thoughts and background. Make it error-free. One spelling or grammar error will create a negative impressionist (see what I mean?). Get someone else to review your final draft for any errors. Then review it again because these rascals have a way of slipping in. Make it look good. Poor copy quality, cheap paper, bad type quality, or anything else that creates a poor appearance will turn off employers to even the best resume content. Get professional help with design and printing if necessary. Many professional resume writers and even print shops offer writing and desktop design services if you need help. Be brief, be relevant. Many good resumes fit on one page, and few justify more than two. Include only the most important points. Use short sentences and action words. If it doesn’t relate to and support the job objective, cut it!

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Most jobs are never advertised because employers don’t need to advertise or don’t want to. Employers trust people referred to them by someone they know far more than they trust strangers. And most jobs are filled by referrals and people that the employer knows, eliminating the need to advertise. So, your job search must involve more than looking at ads.

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Be honest. Don’t overstate your qualifications. If you end up getting a job you can’t handle, who does it help? And a lie can result in your being fired later.

Quip

Be positive. Emphasize your accomplishments and results. A resume is no place to be too humble or to display your faults. Be specific. Instead of saying, “I am good with people,” say, “I supervised four people in the warehouse and increased productivity by 30 percent.” Use numbers whenever possible, such as the number of people served, percent sales increase, or dollars saved. You should also know that everyone feels that he or she is a resume expert. Whatever you do, someone will tell you that it’s wrong. Remember that a resume is simply a job search tool. You should never delay or slow down your job search because your resume is not “good enough.” The best approach is to create a simple and acceptable resume as quickly as possible and then use it. As time permits, create a better one if you feel you must.

Avoid the resume pile. Resume experts often suggest that a “dynamite” resume will jump out of the pile. This is old-fashioned advice. It assumes that you are applying to large organizations and for advertised jobs. Today, most jobs are with small employers and are not advertised. My advice is to avoid joining that stack of resumes in the first place by looking for openings that others overlook.

Chronological Resumes Most resumes use a chronological format where the most recent experience is listed first, followed by each previous job. This arrangement works fine for someone with work experience in several similar jobs, but not as well for those with limited experience or for career changers. Look at the two resumes for Judith Jones that follow. Both use the chronological approach. The first resume would work fine for most job search needs—and it could be completed in about an hour. Notice that the second one includes some improvements. The first resume is good, but most employers would like the additional positive information in the improved resume.

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Basic Chronological Resume Example

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Improved Chronological Resume Example

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Tips for Writing a Simple Chronological Resume Follow these tips for writing a basic chronological resume. Name. Use your formal name rather than a nickname if it sounds more professional. Address and contact information. Avoid abbreviations in your address and include your ZIP code. If you may move, use a friend’s address or include a forwarding address. Most employers will not write to you, so you must provide reliable phone numbers and other contact options. Always include your area code in your phone number because you never know where your resume might travel. If you don’t have an answering machine, get one—and leave it on whenever you leave home. Make sure your voice message presents you in a professional way. Include alternative ways to reach you, like a cell phone, beeper, and e-mail address. Job objective. You should almost always have one, even if it is general. In the sample resumes, notice how Judy keeps her options open with her broad job objective. Writing “secretary” or “clerical” might limit her from being considered for jobs she might take. Education and training. Include any training or education you’ve had that supports your job objective. If you did not finish a formal degree or program, list what you did complete and emphasize accomplishments. If your experience is not strong, add details here like related courses and extracurricular activities. In the two examples, Judy puts her business schooling in both the education and experience sections. Doing this fills a job gap and allows her to present her training as equal to work experience. Previous experience. Include the basics like employer name, job title, dates employed, and responsibilities—but emphasize things like specific skills, results, accomplishments, and superior performance. Personal data. Do not include irrelevant details like height, weight, and marital status—doing so is considered very old-fashioned. But you can include information like hobbies or leisure activities in a special section that directly supports your job objective. The first sample includes a “Personal” section in which Judy lists some of her strengths, which are often not included in a resume. References. You do not need to list references since employers will ask for them if they want them. If your references are particularly good, you can mention this somewhere—the last section is often a good place. List your references on a separate page and give it to employers who ask. Ask your references what they will say about you and, if positive, if they would write you a letter of recommendation to give to employers.

Quip

Tips for an Improved Chronological Resume Once you have a simple, errorless, and eye-pleasing resume, get on with your job search. There is no reason to delay! If you want to create a better resume in your spare time (evenings or weekends), try these additional tips. Job objective. A poorly written job objective can limit the jobs an employer might consider you for. Think of the skills you have and the types of jobs you want to do; describe them in general terms. Instead of using a narrow job title like “restaurant manager,” you might write “manage a small to mid-sized business.”

Skip the negatives. Remember that a resume can get you screened out, but it is up to you to get the interview and the job. So, cut out anything negative in your resume!

Education and training. New graduates should emphasize their recent training and education more than those with a few years of related work experience would. A more detailed education and training section might include specific courses you took, and activities or accomplishments that support your job objective or reinforce your key skills. Include other details that reflect how hard you work, such as working your way through school or handling family responsibilities. Skills and accomplishments. Include things that support your ability to do well in the job you seek now. Even small things count. Maybe your attendance was perfect, you met a tight deadline, or you did the work of others during vacations. Be specific and include numbers—even if you have to estimate them. The improved chronological resume

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example features a “Special Skills and Abilities” section and more accomplishments and skills. Notice the impact of the numbers to reinforce results. Job titles. Past job titles may not accurately reflect what you did. For example, your job title may have been “cashier,” but you also opened the store, trained new staff, and covered for the boss on vacations. Perhaps “head cashier and assistant manager” would be more accurate. Check with your previous employer if you are not sure. Promotions. If you were promoted or got good evaluations, say so—“cashier, promoted to assistant manager,” for example. A promotion to a more responsible job can be handled as a separate job if doing so results in a stronger resume. Gaps in employment and other problem areas. Employee turnover is expensive, so few employers want to hire people who won’t stay or who won’t work out. Gaps in employment, jobs held for short periods, or a lack of direction in the jobs you’ve held are all things that concern employers. So consider your situation and try to give an explanation of a problem area. Here are a few examples: 2001—Continued my education at… 2004—Traveled extensively throughout the United States. 2000 to present—Self-employed barn painter and widget maker. 2003—Had first child, took year off before returning to work. Use entire years to avoid displaying an employment gap you can’t explain easily. For example “2002 to 2003” can cover a few months of unemployment at the beginning of 2002.

Skills and Combination Resumes The functional or “skills” resume emphasizes your most important skills, supported by specific examples of how you have used them. This approach allows you to use any part of your life history to support your ability to do the job you want. While a skills resume can be very effective, it requires more work to create one. And some employers don’t like them because they can hide a job seeker’s faults (such as job gaps, lack of formal education, or little related work experience) better than a chronological resume. Still, a skills resume may make sense for you. Look over the sample resumes that follow for ideas. Notice that one resume includes elements of a skills and a chronological resume. This so-called “combination” resume makes sense if your previous job history or education and training are positive.

More Resume Examples

Quip

Find resume layout and presentation ideas in the four samples that follow. The chronological resume sample on page 295 focuses on accomplishments through the use of numbers. While Maria’s resume does not say so, it is obvious that she works hard and that she gets results. The skills resume on page 296 is for a recent high school graduate whose only paid work experience was at a fast-food place! The combination resume on page 297 emphasizes Mary Beth’s relevant education and transferable skills because she has no work experience in the field. The resume was submitted by professional resume writer Janet L. Beckstrom of Flint, Michigan (e-mail [email protected]).

A resume is not the most effective tool for getting interviews. A better approach is to make direct contact with those who hire or supervise people with your skills and ask them for an interview, even if no openings exist now. Then send a resume.

The electronic resume on page 298 is appropriate for scanning or e-mail submission. It has a plain format that is easily read by scanners. It also has lots of key words that increase its chances of being selected when an employer searches a database. The resume is based on one from Cyberspace Resume Kit by Mary Nemnich and Fred Jandt and published by JIST Works. © 2005 ● JIST Works

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Chronological Resume Emphasizes Results

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Skills Resume for Someone with Limited Work Experience

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Combination Resume for a Career Changer

2188 Huron River Drive • Ann Arbor, MI 48104 • 734-555-4912 • e-mail: [email protected]

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Electronic Resume

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Step 5

Use the information from your completed Essential Job Search Data Worksheet to write your resume.

Redefine What Counts As an Interview, Then Get 2 a Day The average job seeker gets about 5 interviews a month—fewer than 2 a week. Yet many job seekers use the methods in this minibook to get 2 interviews a day. Getting 2 interviews a day equals 10 a week and 40 a month. That’s 800 percent more interviews than the average job seeker gets. Who do you think will get a job offer quicker? But getting 2 interviews a day is nearly impossible unless you redefine what counts as an interview. If you define an interview in a different way, getting 2 a day is quite possible. THE AN

NEW DEFINITION OF AN INTERVIEW

INTERVIEW IS ANY FACE-TO-FACE CONTACT WITH SOMEONE

WHO HAS THE AUTHORITY TO HIRE OR SUPERVISE A PERSON WITH YOUR SKILLS—EVEN IF NO OPENING EXISTS AT THE TIME YOU INTERVIEW.

If you use this new definition, it becomes much easier to get interviews. You can now interview with all sorts of potential employers, not just those who have job openings now. While most other job seekers look for advertised or actual openings, you can get interviews before a job opens up or before it is advertised and widely known. You will be considered for jobs that may soon be created but that others will not know about. And, of course, you can also interview for existing openings like everyone else does. Spending as much time as possible on your job search and setting a job search schedule are important parts of this step.

Make Your Search a Full-Time Job Job seekers average fewer than 15 hours a week looking for work. On average, unemployment lasts three or more months, with some people out of work far longer (older workers and higher earners, for example). My many years of experience with job seekers indicate that the more time you spend on your job search each week, the less time you will likely remain unemployed. Of course, using the more effective job search methods presented in this minibook also helps. Many job search programs that teach job seekers my basic approach of using more effective methods and spending more time looking have proven to cut in half the average time needed to find a job. More importantly, many job seekers also find better jobs using these methods. So, if you are unemployed and looking for a full-time job, you should plan to look on a full-time basis. It just makes sense to do so, although many do not, or they start out well but quickly get discouraged. Most job seekers simply don’t have a structured plan—they have no idea what they are going to do next Thursday. The plan that follows will show you how to structure your job search like a job.

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Decide How Much Time You Will Spend Looking for Work Each Week and Day First and most importantly, decide how many hours you are willing to spend each week on your job search. You should spend a minimum of 25 hours a week on hard-core job search activities with no goofing around. Let me walk you through a simple but effective process to set a job search schedule for each week.

PLAN YOUR JOB SEARCH WEEK 1. How many hours are you willing to spend each week looking for a job? _______________________ 2. Which days of the week will you spend looking for a job? __________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ 3. How many hours will you look each day? ______________________________________________ 4. At what times will you begin and end your job search on each of these days?____________________ ______________________________________________________________________________

Create a Specific Daily Job Search Schedule Having a specific daily schedule is essential because most job seekers find it hard to stay productive each day. The sample daily schedule that follows is the result of years of research into what schedule gets the best results. I tested many schedules in job search programs I ran, and this particular schedule worked best. So use the sample daily schedule for ideas on creating your own, but I urge you to consider using one like this. Why? Because it works.

A Sample Daily Schedule That Works Time

Activity

7 a.m.

Get up, shower, dress, eat breakfast.

8–8:15 a.m.

Organize work space, review schedule for today’s interviews and promised follow-ups, check e-mail, update schedule as needed.

8:15–9 a.m.

Review old leads for follow-up needed today; develop new leads from want ads, yellow pages, the Internet, warm contact lists, and other sources; complete daily contact list.

9–10 a.m.

Make phone calls and set up interviews.

10–10:15 a.m.

Take a break.

10:15–11 a.m.

Make more phone calls, set up more interviews.

11 a.m.–Noon

Send follow-up notes and do other “office” activities as needed.

Noon–1 p.m.

Lunch break, relax.

1–3 p.m.

Go on interviews, make cold contacts in the field.

Evening

Read job search books, make calls to warm contacts not reachable during the day, work on a “better” resume, spend time with friends and family, exercise, relax.

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Do It Now: Get a Daily Planner and Write Down Your Job Search Schedule

Step 6

This is important: If you are not accustomed to using a daily schedule book or electronic planner, promise yourself to get a good one tomorrow. Choose one that allows plenty of space for each day’s plan on an hourly basis, plus room for daily to-do listings. Write in your daily schedule in advance; then add interviews as they come. Get used to carrying it with you and use it!

Dramatically Improve Your Interviewing Skills Interviews are where the job search action is. You have to get them; then you have to do well in them. According to surveys of employers, most job seekers do not effectively present the skills they have to do the job. Even worse, most job seekers can’t answer one or more problem questions. This lack of performance in interviews is one reason why employers will often hire a job seeker who does well in the interview over someone with better credentials. The good news is that you can do simple things to dramatically improve your interviewing skills. This section will emphasize interviewing tips and techniques that make the most difference.

Your First Impression May Be the Only One You Make Some research suggests that if the interviewer forms a negative impression in the first five minutes of an interview, your chances of getting a job offer approach zero. But I know from experience that many job seekers can create a lasting negative impression in seconds. Since a positive first impression is so important, here are some suggestions to help you get off to a good start. Dress and groom like the interviewer is likely to be dressed—but cleaner! Employer surveys find that almost half of all people’s dress or grooming creates an initial negative impression. So this is a big problem. If necessary, get advice on your interviewing outfits from someone who dresses well. Pay close attention to your grooming too—little things do count. Be early. Leave in plenty of time to be a few minutes early to an interview. Be friendly and respectful with the receptionist. Doing otherwise will often get back to the interviewer and result in a quick rejection. Follow the interviewer’s lead in the first few minutes. It’s often informal small talk but very important for that person to see how you interact. This is a good time to make a positive comment on the organization or even something you see in the office. Do some homework on the organization before you go. You can often get information on a business and on industry trends from the Internet or a library. Make a good impression before you arrive. Your resume, e-mails, applications, and other written correspondence create an impression before the interview, so make them professional and error-free.

A Traditional Interview Is Not a Friendly Exchange In a traditional interview situation, there is a job opening, and you will be one of several applicants for it. In this setting, the employer’s task is to eliminate all applicants but one. The interviewer’s questions are designed to elicit information that can be used to screen you out. And your objective is to avoid getting screened out. It’s hardly an open and honest interaction, is it?

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This illustrates yet another advantage of setting up interviews before an opening exists. This eliminates the stress of a traditional interview. Employers are not trying to screen you out, and you are not trying to keep them from finding out stuff about you. Having said that, knowing how to answer questions that might be asked in a traditional interview is good preparation for any interview you face.

How to Answer Tough Interview Questions Your answers to a few key problem questions may determine if you get a job offer. There are simply too many possible interview questions to cover one by one. Instead, the 10 basic questions below cover variations of most other interview questions. So, if you can learn to answer these 10 questions well, you will know how to answer most others.

Top 10 Problem Interview Questions 1. Why should I hire you? 2. Why don’t you tell me about yourself? 3. What are your major strengths? 4. What are your major weaknesses? 5. What sort of pay do you expect to receive? 6. How does your previous experience relate to the jobs we have here? 7. What are your plans for the future? 8. What will your former employer (or references) say about you? 9. Why are you looking for this type of position, and why here? 10. Why don’t you tell me about your personal situation?

The Three-Step Process for Answering Interview Questions I know this might seem too simple, but the three-step process is easy to remember and can help you create a good answer to most interview questions. The technique has worked for thousands of people, so consider trying it. The three steps are 1. Understand what is really being asked. 2. Answer the question briefly. 3. Answer the real concern. Step 1. Understand what is really being asked. Most questions are designed to find out about your selfmanagement skills and personality, but interviewers are rarely this blunt. The employer’s real question is often one or more of the following: ◆

Can I depend on you?

◆

Are you easy to get along with?

◆

Are you a good worker?

Do you have the experience and training to do the job if we hire you?

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Are you likely to stay on the job for a reasonable period of time and be productive?

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Ultimately, if you don’t convince the employer that you will stay and be a good worker, it won’t matter if you have the best credentials—he or she won’t hire you. Step 2. Answer the question briefly. Present the facts of your particular work experience, but… ◆

Present them as advantages, not disadvantages.

Many interview questions encourage you to provide negative information. One classic question I included in my list of Top 10 Problem Interview Questions was “What are your major weaknesses?” This is obviously a trick question, and many people are just not prepared for it. A good response is to mention something that is not very damaging, such as “I have been told that I am a perfectionist, sometimes not delegating as effectively as I might.” But your answer is not complete until you continue with Step 3. Step 3. Answer the real concern by presenting your related skills. ◆

Base your answer on the key skills you have that support the job, and give examples to support these skills.

For example, an employer might say to a recent graduate, “We were looking for someone with more experience in this field. Why should we consider you?” Here is one possible answer: “I’m sure there are people who have more experience, but I do have more than six years of work experience, including three years of advanced training and hands-on experience using the latest methods and techniques. Because my training is recent, I am open to new ideas and am used to working hard and learning quickly.” In the previous example (about your need to delegate), a good skills statement might be “I’ve been working on this problem and have learned to let my staff do more, making sure that they have good training and supervision. I’ve found that their performance improves, and it frees me up to do other things.” Whatever your situation, learn to answer questions that present you well. It’s essential to communicate your skills during an interview, and the three-step process can help you answer problem questions and dramatically improve your responses. It works!

The Most Important Interview Question of All: “Why Should I Hire You?” This is the most important question of all to answer well. Do you have a convincing argument why someone should hire you over someone else? If you don’t, you probably won’t get that job you really want. So think carefully about why someone should hire you and practice your response. Then, make sure you communicate this in the interview, even if the interviewer never asks the question in a clear way.

Tips on Negotiating Pay—How to Earn a Thousand Dollars a Minute Remember these few essential ideas when it comes time to negotiate your pay. THE

ONLY TIME TO NEGOTIATE IS AFTER YOU HAVE BEEN OFFERED THE JOB.

Employers want to know how much you want to be paid so that they can eliminate you from consideration. They figure if you want too much, you won’t be happy with their job and won’t stay. And if you will take too little, they may think you don’t have enough experience. So never discuss your salary expectations until an employer offers you the job. IF

PRESSED, SPEAK IN TERMS OF WIDE PAY RANGES.

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If you are pushed to reveal your pay expectations early in an interview, ask the interviewer what the normal pay range is for this job. Interviewers will often tell you, and you can say that you would consider offers in this range. If you are forced to be more specific, speak in terms of a wide pay range. For example, if you figure that the company will likely pay from $20,000 to $25,000 a year, say that you would consider “any fair offer in the low to midtwenties.” This statement covers the employer’s range and goes a bit higher. If all else fails, tell the interviewer that you would consider any reasonable offer. For this to work, you must know in advance what the job is likely to pay. You can get this information by asking people who do similar work, or from a variety of books and Internet sources of career information. SALARY NEGOTIATION RULE THE

ONE WHO NAMES A SPECIFIC NUMBER FIRST, LOSES.

Don’t Say “No” Too Quickly Never, ever turn down a job offer during an interview! Instead, thank the interviewer for the offer and ask to consider the offer overnight. You can turn it down tomorrow, saying how much you appreciate the offer and asking to be considered for other jobs that pay better or whatever. But this is no time to be playing games. If you want the job, you should say so. And it is okay to ask for additional pay or other concessions. But if you simply can’t accept the offer, say why and ask the interviewer to keep you in mind for future opportunities. You just never know.

Step 7

Follow Up on All Contacts It’s a fact: People who follow up with potential employers and with others in their network get jobs faster than those who do not. Here are a few rules to guide you in your job search.

Rules for Effective Follow-Up ◆

Send a thank-you note or e-mail to every person who helps you in your job search.

◆

Send the note within 24 hours after speaking with the person.

◆

Enclose JIST Cards with thank-you notes and all other correspondence.

◆

Develop a system to keep following up with good contacts.

Thank-You Notes Make a Difference While thank-you notes can be e-mailed, most people appreciate and are more impressed by a mailed note. Here are some tips about mailed thank-you notes that you can easily adapt to e-mail use. Thank-you notes can be handwritten or typed on quality paper and matching envelopes. Keep them simple, neat, and error-free. And make sure to include a few copies of your JIST Cards. Here is an example of a simple thank-you note.

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Use Job Lead Cards to Help Organize Follow-Ups If you use contact management software, use it to schedule follow-up activities. But the simple paper system I describe here can work very well or can be adapted for setting up your contact management software. Use a simple 3-by-5–inch card to record essential information about each person in your network. Buy a 3-by-5– inch card file box and tabs for each day of the month. File the cards under the date you want to contact the person, and the rest is easy. I’ve found that staying in touch with a good contact every other week can pay off big. Here’s a sample card to give you ideas about creating your own.

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In Closing You won’t get a job offer because someone knocks on your door and offers one. Job seeking does involve luck, but you are more likely to get lucky if you are out getting interviews. I’ll close this minibook with a few final tips: ◆

Approach your job search as if it were a job itself. Create and stick to a daily schedule, and spend at least 25 hours a week looking.

◆

Follow up on each lead you generate and ask each one for referrals.

◆

Set out each day to schedule at least two interviews, and use the new definition of an interview, which includes talking to businesses that don’t have an opening now.

◆

Send out lots of thank-you notes and JIST Cards.

◆

When you want the job, tell the employer that you want it and why the company should hire you over someone else.

Don’t get discouraged. There are lots of jobs out there, and someone needs an employee with your skills—your job is to find that someone. I wish you luck in your job search and your life.

ESSENTIAL JOB SEARCH DATA WORKSHEET Take some time to complete this worksheet carefully. It will help you write your resume and answer interview questions. You can also photocopy it and take it with you to help complete applications and as a reference throughout your job search. Use an erasable pen or pencil to allow for corrections. Whenever possible, emphasize skills and accomplishments that support your ability to do the job you want. Use extra sheets as needed. Your name __________________________________________________________________________ Date completed ______________________________________________________________________ Job objective ________________________________________________________________________ Key Accomplishments List three accomplishments that best prove your ability to do the kind of job you want. 1. ______________________________________________________________________________ 2. ______________________________________________________________________________ 3. ______________________________________________________________________________

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Education and Training Name of high school(s); years attended _________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________________ Subjects related to job objective __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________________ Related extracurricular activities/hobbies/leisure activities ______________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________________ Accomplishments/things you did well _____________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________________ Specific things you can do as a result ______________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________________ Schools you attended after high school; years attended; degrees/certificates earned _________________ __________________________________________________________________________________ Courses related to job objective __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________________ Related extracurricular activities/hobbies/leisure activities ______________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________________ Accomplishments/things you did well _____________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________________ Specific things you can do as a result ______________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________________ Other Training Include formal or informal learning, workshops, military training, things you learned on the job or from hobbies—anything that will help support your job objective. Include specific dates, certificates earned, or other details as needed. ________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________________ Work and Volunteer History List your most recent job first, followed by each previous job. Military experience, unpaid or volunteer work, and work in a family business should be included here, too. If needed, use additional sheets to cover all significant paid or unpaid work experiences. Emphasize details that will help support your new job objective! Include numbers to support what you did: the number of people served over one or more years, (continued)

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the number of transactions processed, percentage of sales increased, total inventory value you were responsible for, payroll of the staff you supervised, total budget responsible for, and so on. Emphasize results you achieved, using numbers to support them whenever possible. Mentioning these things on your resume and in an interview will help you get the job you want! Job 1 Dates employed ______________________________________________________________________ Name of organization _________________________________________________________________ Supervisor’s name and job title __________________________________________________________ Address ____________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________________ Phone number/e-mail address/Web site ____________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________________ What did you accomplish and do well? ____________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________________ Things you learned, skills you developed or used ____________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________________ Raises, promotions, positive evaluations, awards _____________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________________ Computer software, hardware, and other equipment you used __________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________________ Other details that might support your job objective __________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________________ Job 2 Dates employed ______________________________________________________________________ Name of organization _________________________________________________________________ Supervisor’s name and job title __________________________________________________________ Address ____________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________________ Phone number/e-mail address/Web site ____________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________________ What did you accomplish and do well? ____________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________________

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Things you learned, skills you developed or used ______________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________________ Raises, promotions, positive evaluations, awards _____________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________________ Computer software, hardware, and other equipment you used __________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________________ Other details that might support your job objective __________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________________ Job 3 Dates employed ______________________________________________________________________ Name of organization _________________________________________________________________ Supervisor’s name and job title __________________________________________________________ Address ____________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________________ Phone number/e-mail address/Web site ____________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________________ What did you accomplish and do well? ____________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________________ Things you learned, skills you developed or used ____________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________________ Raises, promotions, positive evaluations, awards _____________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________________ Computer software, hardware, and other equipment you used __________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________________ Other details that might support your job objective __________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________________ References Think of people who know your work well and will say positive things about your work and character. Past supervisors are best. Contact them and tell them what type of job you want and your qualifications, and ask what they will say about you if contacted by a potential employer. Some employers will not provide references by phone, so ask them for a letter of reference for you in advance. If a past employer may say negative things, negotiate what they will say or get written references from others you worked with there. (continued)

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Reference name _______________________________________________________________ Position or title __________________________________________________________________ Relationship to you ___________________________________________________________________ Contact information (complete address, phone number, e-mail address) ___________________________ __________________________________________________________________________________ Reference name _____________________________________________________________________ Position or title ______________________________________________________________________ Relationship to you ___________________________________________________________________ Contact information (complete address, phone number, e-mail address) ___________________________ __________________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________________ Reference name _____________________________________________________________________ Position or title ______________________________________________________________________ Relationship to you ___________________________________________________________________ Contact information (complete address, phone number, e-mail address) ___________________________ __________________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________________

A Short List of Additional Resources Thousands of books and uncounted Internet sites provide information on career subjects. Space limitations do not permit me to describe the many good resources available, so I list here some of the most useful ones. Because this is my list, I’ve included books I’ve written or that JIST publishes. You should be able to find these and many other resources at libraries, bookstores, and Web book-selling sites, such as www.jist.com and www.amazon.com.

Resumes and Cover Letter Books My books. I’m told that The Quick Resume & Cover Letter Book is now one of the top-selling resume books at various large bookstore chains. It is very simple to follow, is inexpensive, has good design, and has good sample resumes written by professional resume writers. America’s Top Resumes for America’s Top Jobs includes a wonderfully diverse collection of resumes covering most major jobs and life situations, plus brief but helpful resume-writing advice. With its helpful worksheets and expert samples, Same-Day Resume can help you write a great resume quickly so you can get on with your job search. Other books published by JIST. The following titles include many sample resumes written by professional resume writers, as well as good advice: Cover Letter Magic, by Enelow and Kursmark; Cyberspace Resume Kit, Nemnich and Jandt; The Edge Resume & Job Search Strategy, Corbin and Wright; Federal Resume Guidebook, Troutman; Expert Resumes for Computer and Web Jobs, Enelow and Kursmark; Expert Resumes for Teachers and Educators, Enelow and Kursmark; Gallery of Best Cover Letters, Noble; Gallery of Best Resumes, Noble; and Resume Magic, Whitcomb.

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Job Search Books My books. The Very Quick Job Search—Get a Better Job in Half the Time is a thorough book with detailed advice and a “quick” section of key tips you can finish in a few hours. The Quick Interview & Salary Negotiation Book also has a section of quick tips likely to make the biggest difference in your job search, as well as sections with more detailed information on problem questions and other topics. Getting the Job You Really Want includes many in-the-book activities and good career decision-making and job search advice. Other books published by JIST. Titles include Career Success Is Color-Blind, Stevenson; Cyberspace Job Search Kit, Nemnich and Jandt; Inside Secrets of Finding a Teaching Job, Warner and Bryan; and Job Search Handbook for People with Disabilities, Ryan.

Books with Information on Jobs Primary references. The Occupational Outlook Handbook is the source of job titles listed in this minibook. Published by the U.S. Department of Labor and updated every other year, the OOH covers about 88 percent of the workforce. A book titled the O*NET Dictionary of Occupational Titles has descriptions for over 1,100 jobs based on the O*NET (for Occupational Information Network) database developed by the Department of Labor. The Enhanced Occupational Outlook Handbook includes the OOH descriptions plus more than 7,000 additional descriptions of related jobs from the O*NET and other sources. The Guide for Occupational Exploration, Third Edition, allows you to explore major jobs based on your interests. All of these books are available from JIST. Other books published by JIST. Here are a few good books that include job descriptions and helpful details on career options: America’s 101 Fastest Growing Jobs; America’s Top 101 Jobs for College Graduates; America’s Top 101 Jobs for People Without a Four-Year Degree; America’s Top 101 Computer and Technical Jobs; America’s Top Medical, Education & Human Services Jobs; America’s Top White-Collar Jobs; Best Jobs for the 21st Century (plus versions for people with and without degrees); Career Guide to America’s Top Industries; and Guide to America’s Federal Jobs.

Internet Resources If the Internet is new to you, I recommend a book titled Cyberspace Job Search Kit by Mary Nemnich and Fred Jandt. It covers the basics plus offers advice on using the Internet for career planning and job seeking. Best Career and Education Web Sites by Rachel Singer Gordon and Anne Wolfinger gives excellent reviews of the most helpful sites and ideas on how to use them. The Occupational Outlook Handbook’s job descriptions also include Internet addresses. And www.jist.com lists recommended sites for career, education, and related topics, along with comments on each. Be aware that some sites provide poor advice, so ask your librarian, instructor, or counselor for suggestions on those best for your needs.

Other Resources Libraries. Most libraries have the books mentioned here, as well as many other resources. Many also provide Internet access so that you can research online information. Ask the librarian for help finding what you need. People. People who hold the jobs that interest you are one of the best career information sources. Ask them what they like and don’t like about their work, how they got started, and the education or training needed. Most people are helpful and will give advice you can’t get any other way. Career counseling. A good vocational counselor can help you explore career options. Take advantage of this service if it is available to you! Also consider a career-planning course or program, which will encourage you to be more thorough in your thinking.

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Sample Resumes for Some of America’s Top Jobs for People Without a Four-Year Degree If you read the previous information in this section, you know that I believe that resumes are an overrated job search tool. Even so, you will probably need one, and you should have a good one. Unlike some career authors, I do not preach that there is only one right way to do a resume. I encourage you to be an individual and to do what you think will work well for you. But I also know that some resumes are clearly better than others. The following pages contain several resumes that you can use as examples when preparing your own resume. The resumes have these points in common: ◆

Each is for an occupation described in this book. The resumes are arranged in alphabetical order by job title.

◆

Each resume is particularly good in some way.

◆

Each resume was written by a professional resume writer who is a member of one or more professional associations, including the Professional Association of Resume Writers (www.parw.com) or the National Resume Writers’ Association (www.nrwa.com). These writers are highly qualified and hold various credentials. Most are willing to provide help (for a fee) and welcome your contacting them (although this is not a personal endorsement).

The resumes are from the following books, which are available from JIST Publishing: ◆

Expert Resumes for Health Care Careers, by Wendy S. Enelow and Louise M. Kursmark

◆

Gallery of Best Resumes for People Without a Four-Year Degree, Third Edition, by David F. Noble

Contact Information for Resume Contributors The following professional resume writers contributed resumes to this section. Their names are listed in alphabetical order. Each entry indicates which resume that person contributed.

Bruce Baxter, CPRW

Carolyn Braden, CPRW

Baxter Communications 4186 Gemini Path Liverpool, NY 13090 Phone: (315) 652-7703 Fax: (315) 652-7758 E-mail: [email protected] Web site: www.baxtercom.com Resume on pages 318–319

President, Braden Resume Solutions 108 La Plaza Dr. Hendersonville, TN 37075 Phone: (615) 822-3317 Fax: (615) 826-9611 E-mail: [email protected] Resumes on pages 317 and 323

Annemarie Cross, CEIP, CPRW, CRW, CCM, CECC

Rosie Bixel A Personal Scribe Résumé Writing & Design (a division of BHH Group) 4800 SW Macadam Ave., Suite 105 Portland, OR 97239 Phone: (503) 254-8262 Fax: (503) 255-3012 E-mail: [email protected] Web site: www.bhhgroup.com/resume.asp Resume on page 326

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Advanced Employment Concepts/AEC Office Services P.O. Box 91 Hallam, Victoria, 3803 Australia Phone: 61 3 9708 6930 Fax: 61 3 9796 4479 E-mail: [email protected] Web site: www.aresumewriter.net Resume on pages 324–325

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MJ Feld, MS, CPRW

Edward Turilli, MA

Careers by Choice, Inc. 205 E. Main St., Ste. 2–4 Huntington, NY 11743 Phone: (631) 673-5432 Fax: (631) 673-5824 E-mail: [email protected] Web site: www.careersbychoice.com Resume on page 316

Director, Career Development Center Salve Regina University 100 Ochre Point Ave. Newport, RI 02840 Anthem Resume & Career Services (ARCS) 918 Lafayette Road North Kingstown, RI 02852 Phone: (401) 268-3020 Fax: (401) 341-2994 E-mail: [email protected] Web site: www.salve.edu/office_careerdev Resume on page 321

Louise Garver, MA, JCTC, CMP, CPRW, MCDP, CEIP Career Directions, LLC 115 Elm St., Suite 203 Enfield, CT 06082 Phone: (860) 623-9476 Toll-free: (888) 222-3731 Fax: (860) 623-9473 E-mail: [email protected] Web site: www.resumeimpact.com Resume on page 322

Vivian Van Lier, CPRW, JCTC, CEIP, CCMC President, Advantage Resume & Career Services 6701 Murietta Ave. Valley Glen (Los Angeles), CA 91405 Phone: (818) 994-6655 Fax: (818) 994-6620 E-mail: [email protected] Web site: www.CuttingEdgeResumes.com Resume on page 315

Eva Locke Lake County Workforce Development 415 Washington St., Suite 104 Waukegan, IL 60085 Phone: (847) 249-2200, ext. 110 Fax: (847) 249-2214 E-mail: [email protected] Web site: www.co.lake.il.us/workforce Resume on page 314

Ross Macpherson, MA, CPRW, CJST, CEIP, JCTC Career Quest 131 Kirby Crescent Whitby, Ontario L1N 7C7 Canada Phone: (905) 438-8548 Toll-free: (877) 426-8548 Fax: (905) 438-4096 E-mail: [email protected] Web site: www.yourcareerquest.com Resume on page 320

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Important Trends in Jobs and Industries I

n putting this section together, my objective was to give you a quick review of major labor market trends. To accomplish that, I included three excellent articles that originally appeared in U.S. Department of Labor publications. The first article is “Tomorrow’s Jobs.” It provides a superb—and short—review of the major trends that will affect your career in the years to come. Read it for ideas on selecting a career path for the long term. The second article is “Employment Trends in Major Industries.” While you may not have thought much about it, the industry you work in is just as important as your occupational choice. This great article will help you learn about the major trends affecting various industries. The third article, “The Changing Role of Community College,” discusses new education and training options available at community colleges, as well as trends in enrollment, cost, and fields of study. The fourth article is called “Associate Degree: Two Years to a Career or a Jump Start to a Bachelor’s Degree.” It covers the types of associate degrees, career options for people with associate degrees, career choices, selecting and preparing for a program, and sources for more information. 327

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Tomorrow’s Jobs

Population Population trends affect employment opportunities in a number of ways. Changes in population influence the demand for goods and services. For example, a growing and aging population has increased the demand for health services. Equally important, population changes produce corresponding changes in the size and demographic composition of the labor force.

Comments This article, with minor changes, comes from the Occupational Outlook Handbook and was written by the U.S. Department of Labor staff. The material provides a good review of major labor market trends, including trends for broad types of occupations and industries.

The U.S. population is expected to increase by 24 million over the 2002–12 period, at a slower rate of growth than during both the 1992–2002 and 1982–92 periods (Chart 1). Continued growth will mean more consumers of goods and services, spurring demand for workers in a wide range of occupations and industries. The effects of population growth on various occupations will differ. The differences are partially accounted for by the age distribution of the future population.

Much of this article uses 2002 data, the most recent available at press time. By the time it is carefully collected and analyzed, the data used by the Department of Labor is typically several years old. Since labor market trends tend to be gradual, this delay does not affect the material’s usefulness. You may notice that some job titles in this article differ from those used elsewhere in America’s Top 101 Jobs for People Without a Four-Year Degree. This is not an error. The material that follows uses a different set of occupations than I used in choosing the jobs this book describes. Making informed career decisions requires reliable information about opportunities in the future. Opportunities result from the relationships between the population, labor force, and the demand for goods and services. Population ultimately limits the size of the labor force—individuals working or looking for work—which constrains how much can be produced. Demand for various goods and services determines employment in the industries providing them. Occupational employment opportunities, in turn, result from demand for skills needed within specific industries. Opportunities for medical assistants and other healthcare occupations, for example, have surged in response to rapid growth in demand for health services.

The youth population, aged 16 to 24, will grow 7 percent over the 2002–12 period. As the baby boomers continue to age, the group aged 55 to 64 will increase by 43.6 percent or 11.5 million persons, more than any other group. Those aged 35 to 44 will decrease in size, reflecting the birth dearth following the baby boom generation. Minorities and immigrants will constitute a larger share of the U.S. population in 2012. The number of Hispanics is projected to continue to grow much faster than those of all other racial and ethnic groups.

Examining the past and projecting changes in these relationships is the foundation of the Occupational Outlook Program. This chapter presents highlights of Bureau of Labor Statistics projections of the labor force and occupational and industry employment that can help guide your career plans.

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Labor Force Population is the single most important factor in determining the size and composition of the labor force—that is, people who are either working or looking for work. The civilian labor force is projected to increase by 17.4 million, or 12 percent, to 162.3 million over the 2002–12 period.

old, is projected to decline from 70.2 percent of the labor force in 2002 to 65.9 percent by 2012. Workers 55 and older, on the other hand, are projected to increase from 14.3 percent to 19.1 percent of the labor force between 2002 and 2012, due to the aging of the baby-boom generation (Chart 3).

The U.S. workforce will become more diverse by 2012. White, non-Hispanic persons will continue to make up a decreasing share of the labor force, falling from 71.3 percent in 2002 to 65.5 percent in 2012 (Chart 2). However, despite relatively slow growth, white, non-Hispanics will remain the largest group in the labor force in 2012. Hispanics are projected to account for an increasing share of the labor force by 2012, growing from 12.4 to 14.7 percent. By 2012, Hispanics will constitute a larger proportion of the labor force than will blacks, whose share will grow from 11.4 percent to 12.2 percent. Asians will continue to be the fastest growing of the four labor force groups.

Employment Total employment is expected to increase from 144 million in 2002 to 165 million in 2012, or by 14.8 percent. The 21 million jobs that will be added by 2012 will not be evenly distributed across major industrial and occupational groups. Changes in consumer demand, technology, and many other factors will contribute to the continually changing employment structure in the U.S. economy.

The numbers of men and women in the labor force will grow, but the number of women will grow at a faster rate than the number of men. The male labor force is projected to grow by 10 percent from 2002 to 2012, compared with 14.3 percent for women. As a result, men’s share of the labor force is expected to decrease from 53.5 to 52.5 percent, while women’s share is expected to increase from 46.5 to 47.5 percent. The youth labor force, aged 16 to 24, is expected to slightly decrease its share of the labor force to 15 percent by 2012. The primary working age group, between 25 and 54 years

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The following two sections examine projected employment change from both industrial and occupational perspectives. The industrial profile is discussed in terms of primary wage and salary employment. Primary employment excludes secondary jobs for those who hold multiple jobs. The exception is employment in agriculture, which includes self-employed and unpaid family workers in addition to wage and salary workers. The occupational profile is viewed in terms of total employment—including primary and secondary jobs for wage and salary, self-employed, and unpaid family workers. Of the nearly 144 million jobs in the U.S. economy in 2002, wage and salary workers accounted for 132 million; self-employed workers accounted for 11.5 million; and unpaid family

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America’s Top 101 Jobs for People Without a Four-Year Degree Private educational services will grow by 28.7 percent and add 759,000 new jobs through 2012. Rising student enrollments at all levels of education will create demand for educational services.

workers accounted for about 140,000. Secondary employment accounted for 1.7 million jobs. Self-employed workers held 9 out of 10 secondary jobs; wage and salary workers held most of the remainder.

Professional and business services. This group will grow by 30.4 percent and add nearly 5 million new jobs. This industry supersector includes some of the fastest growing industries in the U.S. economy.

Industry

Employment in administrative and support and waste management and remediation services will grow by 37 percent and add 2.8 million new jobs to the economy by 2012. The fastest growing industry in this sector will be employment services, which will grow by 54.3 percent and will contribute almost two-thirds of all new jobs in administrative and support and waste management and remediation services. Employment services ranks among the fastest growing industries in the nation and is expected to be among those that provide the most new jobs.

Service-providing industries. The long-term shift from goods-producing to service-providing employment is expected to continue. Service-providing industries are expected to account for approximately 20.8 million of the 21.6 million new wage and salary jobs generated over the 2002–12 period (Chart 4).

Employment in professional, scientific, and technical services will grow by 27.8 percent and add 1.9 million new jobs by 2012. Employment in computer systems design and related services will grow by 54.6 percent and add more than onethird of all new jobs in professional, scientific, and technical services. Employment growth will be driven by the increasing reliance of businesses on information technology and the continuing importance of maintaining system and network security. Management, scientific, and technical consulting services also will grow very rapidly, by 55.4 percent, spurred by the increased use of new technology and computer software and the growing complexity of business. Management of companies and enterprises will grow by 11.4 percent and add 195,000 new jobs. Information. Employment in the information supersector is expected to increase by 18.5 percent, adding 632,000 jobs by 2012. Information contains some of the fast growing computer-related industries such as software publishers; Internet publishing and broadcasting; and Internet service providers, Web search portals, and data processing services. Employment in these industries is expected to grow by 67.9 percent, 41.1 percent, and 48.2 percent, respectively. The information supersector also includes telecommunications; broadcasting; and newspaper, periodical, book, and directory publishers. Increased demand for residential and business land-line and wireless services, cable service, high-speed Internet connections, and software will fuel job growth among these industries.

Education and health services. This industry supersector is projected to grow faster—31.8 percent—and add more jobs than any other industry supersector. About 1 out of every 4 new jobs created in the U.S. economy will be in either the healthcare and social assistance or private educational services sectors.

Leisure and hospitality. Overall employment will grow by 17.8 percent. Arts, entertainment, and recreation will grow by 28 percent and add 497,000 new jobs by 2012. Most of these new job openings will come from the amusement, gambling, and recreation sector. Job growth will stem from public participation in arts, entertainment, and recreation activities—reflecting increasing incomes, leisure time, and awareness of the health benefits of physical fitness.

Healthcare and social assistance—including private hospitals, nursing and residential care facilities, and individual and family services—will grow by 32.4 percent and add 4.4 million new jobs. Employment growth will be driven by increasing demand for healthcare and social assistance because of an aging population and longer life expectancies. Also, as more women enter the labor force, demand for childcare services is expected to grow.

Accommodation and food services is expected to grow by 16.1 percent and add 1.6 million new jobs through 2012.

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Section Three: Important Trends in Jobs and Industries Job growth will be concentrated in food services and drinking places, reflecting increases in population, dual-income families, and dining sophistication. Trade, transportation, and utilities. Overall employment in this industry supersector will grow by 14.1 percent between 2002 and 2012. Transportation and warehousing is expected to increase by 914,000 jobs, or by 21.7 percent, through 2012. Truck transportation will grow by 20.5 percent, adding 275,000 new jobs, while rail and water transportation are both projected to decline. The warehousing and storage and the couriers and messengers industries are projected to grow rapidly at 28.6 percent and 41.7 percent, respectively. Demand for truck transportation and warehousing services will expand as many manufacturers concentrate on their core competencies and contract out their product transportation and storage functions. Employment in retail trade is expected to increase by 13.8 percent, from 15 million to 17.1 million. Increases in population, personal income, and leisure time will contribute to employment growth in this industry, as consumers demand more goods. Wholesale trade is expected to increase by 11.3 percent, growing from 5.6 million to 6.3 million jobs. Employment in utilities is projected to decrease by 5.7 percent through 2012. Despite increased output, employment in electric power generation, transmission, and distribution and natural gas distribution is expected to decline through 2012 due to improved technology that increases worker productivity. However, employment in water, sewage, and other systems is expected to increase 46.4 percent by 2012. Jobs are not easily eliminated by technological gains in this industry because water treatment and waste disposal are very labor-intensive activities. Financial activities. Employment is projected to grow 12.3 percent over the 2002–12 period. Real estate and rental and leasing is expected to grow by 18.4 percent and add 374,000 jobs by 2012. Growth will be due, in part, to increased demand for housing as the population grows. The fastest growing industry in the financial activities supersector will be commercial and industrial machinery and equipment rental and leasing, which will grow by 39.8 percent.

Government. Between 2002 and 2012, government employment, including that in public education and hospitals, is expected to increase by 11.8 percent, from 21.5 million to 24 million jobs. Growth in government employment will be fueled by growth in state and local educational services and the shift of responsibilities from the federal government to the state and local governments. Local government educational services is projected to increase 17.5 percent, adding over 1.3 million jobs. State government educational services also is projected to grow 17.5 percent, adding 388,000 jobs. Federal government employment, including the Postal Service, is expected to increase by less than 1 percent as the federal government continues to contract out many government jobs to private companies. Other services (except government). Employment will grow by 15.7 percent. More than 4 out of 10 new jobs in this supersector will be in religious organizations, which are expected to grow by 24.4 percent. Personal care services will be the fastest growing industry at 27.6 percent. Also included among other services is private household employment, which is expected to decrease 7.2 percent. Goods-producing industries. Employment in the goodsproducing industries has been relatively stagnant since the early 1980s. Overall, this sector is expected to grow 3.3 percent over the 2002–12 period. Although employment is expected to increase more slowly than in the service providing industries, projected growth among goods-producing industries varies considerably (Chart 5). Construction. Employment in construction is expected to increase by 15.1 percent, from 6.7 million to 7.7 million. Demand for new housing and an increase in road, bridge, and tunnel construction will account for the bulk of job growth in this supersector.

Finance and insurance is expected to increase by 590,000 jobs, or 10.2 percent, by 2012. Employment in securities, commodity contracts, and other financial investments and related activities is expected to grow 15.5 percent by 2012, reflecting the increased number of baby boomers in their peak savings years, the growth of tax-favorable retirement plans, and the globalization of the securities markets. Employment in credit intermediation and related services, including banks, will grow by 10.9 percent and add about half of all new jobs within finance and insurance. Insurance carriers and related activities is expected to grow by 7.5 percent and add 168,000 new jobs by 2012. The number of jobs within agencies, brokerages, and other insurance-related activities is expected to grow about 14.5 percent as many insurance carriers downsize their sales staffs and as agents set up their own businesses.

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America’s Top 101 Jobs for People Without a Four-Year Degree Manufacturing. Employment change in manufacturing will vary by individual industry, but overall employment in this supersector will decline by 1 percent, or 157,000 jobs. For example, employment in plastics and rubber products manufacturing and machinery manufacturing is expected to grow by 138,000 and 120,000 jobs, respectively. Due to an aging population and increasing life expectancies, pharmaceutical and medicine manufacturing is expected to grow by 23.2 percent and add 68,000 jobs through 2012. However, productivity gains, job automation, and international competition will adversely affect employment in many other manufacturing industries. Employment in textile mills and apparel manufacturing will decline by 136,000 and 245,000 jobs, respectively. Employment in computer and electronic product manufacturing also will decline by 189,000 jobs through 2012. Agriculture, forestry, fishing, and hunting. Overall employment in agriculture, forestry, fishing, and hunting is expected to decrease by 2 percent. Employment is expected to continue to decline due to advancements in technology. The only industry within this supersector expected to grow is support activities for agriculture and forestry, which includes farm labor contractors and farm management services. This industry is expected to grow by 18.4 percent and add 17,000 new jobs.

Service occupations. Service workers perform services for the public. Employment in service occupations is projected to increase by 5.3 million, or 20.1 percent, the second largest numerical gain and second highest rate of growth among the major occupational groups. Food preparation and serving related occupations are expected to add the most jobs among the service occupations, 1.6 million by 2012. However, healthcare support occupations are expected to grow the fastest, 34.5 percent, adding 1.1 million new jobs.

Mining. Employment in mining is expected to decrease 11.8 percent, or by some 60,000 jobs, by 2012. Employment in coal mining and metal ore mining is expected to decline by 30.2 percent and 38.8 percent, respectively. Employment in oil and gas extraction also is projected to decline by 27.8 percent through 2012. Employment decreases in these industries are attributable mainly to technology gains that boost worker productivity, growing international competition, restricted access to federal lands, and strict environmental regulations that require cleaning of burning fuels.

Management, business, and financial occupations. Workers in management, business, and financial occupations plan and direct the activities of business, government, and other organizations. Their employment is expected to increase by 2.4 million, or 15.4 percent, by 2012. Among managers, the numbers of computer and information systems managers and of preschool and childcare center/program educational administrators will grow the fastest, by 36.1 percent and 32 percent, respectively. General and operations managers will add the most new jobs, 376,000, by 2012. Farmers and ranchers are the only workers in this major occupational group whose numbers are expected to decline, losing 238,000 jobs. Among business and financial occupations, accountants and auditors and management analysts will add the most jobs, 381,000 combined. Management analysts also will be one of the fastest growing occupations in this group, along with personal financial advisors, with job increases of 30.4 percent and 34.6 percent, respectively.

Occupation Expansion of service-providing industries is expected to continue, creating demand for many occupations. However, projected job growth varies among major occupational groups (Chart 6). Professional and related occupations. Professional and related occupations will grow the fastest and add more new jobs than any other major occupational group. Over the 2002–12 period, a 23.3-percent increase in the number of professional and related jobs is projected, a gain of 6.5 million. Professional and related workers perform a wide variety of duties and are employed throughout private industry and government. About three-quarters of the job growth will come from three groups of professional occupations—computer and mathematical occupations, healthcare practitioners and technical occupations, and education, training, and library occupations—which will add 4.9 million jobs combined.

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Construction and extraction occupations. Construction and extraction workers construct new residential and commercial buildings and also work in mines, quarries, and oil and gas fields. Employment of these workers is expected to grow 15 percent, adding 1.1 million new jobs. Construction trades and related workers will account for more than

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Section Three: Important Trends in Jobs and Industries three-fourths of these new jobs, 857,000, by 2012. Many extraction occupations will decline, reflecting overall employment losses in the mining and oil and gas extraction industries. Installation, maintenance, and repair occupations. Workers in installation, maintenance, and repair occupations install new equipment and maintain and repair older equipment. These occupations will add 776,000 jobs by 2012, growing by 13.6 percent. Automotive service technicians and mechanics and general maintenance and repair workers will account for more than 4 in 10 new installation, maintenance, and repair jobs. The fastest growth rate will be among heating, air-conditioning, and refrigeration mechanics and installers, an occupation that is expected to grow 31.8 percent over the 2002–12 period. Transportation and material moving occupations. Transportation and material moving workers transport people and materials by land, sea, or air. The number of these workers should grow 13.1 percent, accounting for 1.3 million additional jobs by 2012. Among transportation occupations, motor vehicle operators will add the most jobs, 760,000. Rail transportation occupations are the only group in which employment is projected to decline, by 5.4 percent, through 2012. Material moving occupations will grow 8.9 percent and will add 422,000 jobs. Sales and related occupations. Sales and related workers transfer goods and services among businesses and consumers. Sales and related occupations are expected to add 2 million new jobs by 2012, growing by 12.9 percent. The majority of these jobs will be among retail salespersons and cashiers, occupations that will add more than 1 million jobs combined. Office and administrative support occupations. Office and administrative support workers perform the day-to-day activities of the office, such as preparing and filing documents, dealing with the public, and distributing information. Employment in these occupations is expected to grow by 6.8 percent, adding 1.6 million new jobs by 2012. Customer service representatives will add the most new jobs, 460,000. Desktop publishers will be among the fastest growing occupations in this group, increasing by 29.2 percent over the decade. Office and administrative support occupations account for 11 of the 20 occupations with the largest employment declines. Farming, fishing, and forestry occupations. Farming, fishing, and forestry workers cultivate plants, breed and raise livestock, and catch animals. These occupations will grow 3.3 percent and add 35,000 new jobs by 2012. Agricultural workers, including farmworkers and laborers, accounted for the overwhelming majority of new jobs in this group. The numbers of both fishing and logging workers are expected to decline, by 26.8 percent and 3.2 percent, respectively. Production occupations. Production workers are employed mainly in manufacturing, where they assemble goods and operate plants. Production occupations will have the slowest job growth among the major occupational groups, 3.2 percent, adding 354,000 jobs by 2012. Jobs will be created

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for many production occupations, including food processing workers; machinists; and welders, cutters, solderers, and brazers. Textile, apparel, and furnishings occupations, as well as assemblers and fabricators, will account for much of the job losses among production occupations. Among all occupations in the economy, computer and healthcare occupations are expected to grow the fastest over the projection period (Chart 7). In fact, healthcare occupations make up 10 of the 20 fastest growing occupations, while computer occupations account for 5 out of the 20 fastest growing occupations in the economy. In addition to high growth rates, these 15 computer and healthcare occupations combined will add more than 1.5 million new jobs. High growth rates among computer and healthcare occupations reflect projected rapid growth in the computer and data processing and health services industries. The 20 occupations listed in Chart 8 will account for more than one-third of all new jobs, 8 million combined, over the 2002–12 period. The occupations with the largest numerical increases cover a wider range of occupational categories than do those occupations with the fastest growth rates.

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America’s Top 101 Jobs for People Without a Four-Year Degree due to the proliferation of personal computers, which allows other workers to perform duties formerly assigned to word processors and typists.

Health occupations will account for some of these increases in employment, as well as occupations in education, sales, transportation, office and administrative support, and food service. Many of these occupations are very large and will create more new jobs than will those with high growth rates. Only 2 out of the 20 fastest growing occupations—home health aides and personal and home care aides—also are projected to be among the 20 occupations with the largest numerical increases in employment.

Education and Training Education is essential in getting a high-paying job. In fact, for all but 1 of the 50 highest-paying occupations, a college degree or higher is the most significant source of education or training. Air traffic controllers is the only occupation of the 50 highest-paying for which this is not the case.

Declining occupational employment stems from declining industry employment, technological advancements, changes in business practices, and other factors. For example, increased productivity and farm consolidations are expected to result in a decline of 238,000 farmers and ranchers over the 2002–12 period (Chart 9). The majority of the 20 occupations with the largest numerical decreases are office and administrative support and production occupations, which are affected by increasing plant and factory automation and the implementation of office technology that reduces the needs for these workers. For example, employment of word processors and typists is expected to decline

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Among the 20 fastest-growing occupations, a bachelor’s or associate degree is the most significant source of education or training for 10 of them—network systems and data communications analysts; physician assistants; medical records and health information technicians; computer software engineers, applications; computer software engineers, systems software; physical therapist assistants; database administrators; veterinary technologists and technicians; dental

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Section Three: Important Trends in Jobs and Industries hygienists; and computer systems analysts. On-the-job training is the most significant source of education or training for another 8 of the 20 fastest-growing occupations— medical assistants, social and human service assistants, home health aides, physical therapist aides, hazardous materials removal workers, occupational therapist aides, dental assistants, and personal and home care aides. In contrast, on-the-job training is the most significant source of education or training for 17 of the 20 occupations with the largest numerical increases; 3 of these 20 occupations—registered nurses, postsecondary teachers, and general and operations managers—have an associate or higher degree as the most significant source of education or training. On-thejob training also is the most significant source of education or training for 19 of the 20 occupations with the largest numerical decreases; one of these 20 occupations—travel agents—has a postsecondary vocational award as the most significant source of education or training.

Service occupations are projected to have the largest number of total job openings, 13 million, reflecting high replacement needs. A large number of replacements will be necessary as young workers leave food preparation and service occupations. Replacement needs generally are greatest in the largest occupations and in those with relatively low pay or limited training requirements. Office automation will significantly affect many individual office and administrative support occupations. Overall, these occupations are projected to grow more slowly than average, while some are projected to decline. Office and administrative support occupations are projected to create 7.5 million job openings over the 2002–12 period, ranking third behind service and professional and related occupations. Farming, fishing, and forestry occupations are projected to have the fewest job openings, approximately 335,000. Because job growth is expected to be slow and levels of retirement and job turnover high, more than 85 percent of these projected job openings are due to replacement needs.

Total Job Openings Job openings stem from both employment growth and replacement needs (Chart 10). Replacement needs arise as workers leave occupations. Some transfer to other occupations while others retire, return to school, or quit to assume household responsibilities. Replacement needs are projected to account for 60 percent of the approximately 56 million job openings between 2002 and 2012. Thus, even occupations projected to experience little or no growth or to decline in employment still may offer many job openings. Professional and related occupations are projected to grow faster and add more jobs than any other major occupational group, with 6.5 million new jobs by 2012. Three-fourths of the job growth in professional and related occupations is expected among computer and mathematical occupations; healthcare practitioners and technical occupations; and education, training, and library occupations. With 5.3 million job openings due to replacement needs, professional and related occupations are the only major group projected to generate more openings from job growth than from replacement needs.

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Employment Trends in Major Industries

Agriculture, Mining, and Construction Agriculture, Forestry, and Fishing Construction Mining Oil and Gas Extraction Manufacturing Aerospace Product and Parts Manufacturing Apparel Manufacturing Chemical Manufacturing, Except Pharmaceutical and Medicine Manufacturing Computer and Electronic Product Manufacturing Food Manufacturing Motor Vehicle and Parts Manufacturing Pharmaceutical and Medicine Manufacturing Printing Steel Manufacturing Textile Mills and Products Trade Automobile Dealers Clothing, Accessory, and General Merchandise Stores Grocery Stores Wholesale Trade Transportation and Utilities Air Transportation Truck Transportation and Warehousing Utilities Information Broadcasting Motion Picture and Video Industries Publishing, Except Software Software Publishers Telecommunications Financial Activities Banking Insurance Securities, Commodities, and Other Investments Professional and Business Services Advertising and Public Relations Services Computer Systems Design and Related Services Employment Services Management, Scientific, and Technical Consulting Services Education and Health Services Child Daycare Services Educational Services Health Services Social Assistance, Except Child Daycare Leisure and Hospitality Arts, Entertainment, and Recreation Food Services and Drinking Places Hotels and Other Accommodations Government Federal Government, Excluding the Postal Service State and Local Government, Excluding Education and Hospitals

Comments While hundreds of specialized industries exist, about 75 percent of all workers are employed in just 42 major ones. Space limitations do not allow us to provide you with detailed information on all industries; however, the following article presents a good overview of trends within industry types. It gives you important facts to consider in making your career plans. The article comes, with minor changes, from a U.S. Department of Labor publication titled Career Guide to Industries. While you may not have thought much about it, the industry you work in will often be as important as the career you choose. For example, some industries pay significantly higher wages than others. So, if you found your way back to this article, read it over carefully and consider the possibilities. For more information on a specific industry, look for the Career Guide to Industries in your library. A more widely available version of the same book is published by JIST under the title Career Guide to America’s Top Industries. It is available through bookstores and many libraries. Here are the industries covered in the Career Guide to Industries:

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Section Three: Important Trends in Jobs and Industries tions is found in utilities, which employs workers in establishments that provide electricity, natural gas, and water.

Overview The U.S. economy is comprised of industries with diverse characteristics. For each industry covered in the Department of Labor’s publication Career Guide to Industries, detailed information is provided about specific characteristics: The nature of the industry, working conditions, employment, occupational composition, training and advancement requirements, earnings, and job outlook. This chapter provides an overview of these characteristics and the outlook for the various industries and economy as a whole.

Nature of the Industry Industries are defined by the processes they use to produce goods and services. Workers in the United States produce and provide a wide variety of products and services and as a result, the types of industries in the U.S. economy range widely—from agriculture, forestry, and fishing to aerospace manufacturing. Although many of these industries are related, each industry has a unique combination of occupations, production techniques, inputs and outputs, and business characteristics. Understanding the nature of the industry is important, because it is this unique combination that determines working conditions, educational requirements, and the job outlook for each of the industries discussed in the Career Guide. Industries consist of many different places of work, called establishments, which range from large factories and office complexes employing thousands of workers to small businesses employing only a few workers. Not to be confused with companies, which are legal entities, establishments are physical locations in which people work, such as the branch office of a bank. Thus, a company may have more than one establishment. Establishments that use the same or similar processes to produce goods or services are organized together into industries. Industries are, in turn, organized together into industry groups. These are further organized into industry subsectors and then ultimately into industry sectors. For the purposes of labor market analysis, the Bureau of Labor Statistics organized industry sectors into industry supersectors and then divided the supersectors into two broad groups: Goods-producing industries (natural resources and mining; construction; and manufacturing) and service-providing industries (trade, transportation, and utilities; information; financial activities; professional and business services; education and health services; leisure and hospitality; other services; and public administration). Each industry subsector is made up of a number of industry groups, which are, as mentioned, determined by differences in production processes. An easily recognized example of these distinctions is in the food manufacturing subsector, which is made up of industry groups that produce meat products, preserved fruits and vegetables, bakery items, and dairy products, among others. Each of these industry groups requires workers with varying skills and employs unique production techniques. Another example of these distinc-

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There were almost 7.8 million private business establishments in the United States in 2002. The average size of these establishments varies widely across industries. Most establishments in the construction, wholesale trade, retail trade, finance and insurance, real estate and rental and leasing, and professional, scientific, and technical services industries are small, averaging fewer than 15 employees per establishment. however, wide differences within industries can exist. Hospitals, for example, employ an average of 712.4 workers, while physicians’ offices employ an average of 9.3. Similarly, although there is an average of 13.3 employees per establishment for all of retail trade, department stores employ an average of 166.5 people. Business establishments in the United States are predominantly small; 59.6 percent of all establishments employed fewer than 5 workers in 2002. However, the medium-sized to large establishments employ a greater proportion of all workers. For example, establishments that employed 50 or more workers accounted for only 4.7 percent of all establishments, yet employed 57.4 percent of all workers. The large establishments—those with more than 500 workers— accounted for only 0.2 percent of all establishments, but employed 18.2 percent of all workers. Table 1 presents the percent distribution of employment according to establishment size.

TABLE 1 Percent distribution of establishments and employment in all private industries by establishment size, March 2002 Establishment size (number of workers)

Establishments

Total .................................. 100.0 1 to 4 ................................ 5 to 9 ................................ 10 to 19 ............................ 20 to 49 ............................ 50 to 99 ............................ 100 to 249 ........................ 250 to 499 ........................ 500 to 999 ........................ 1,000 or more ..................

59.6 16.9 11.1 7.7 2.6 1.5 0.4 0.1 0.1

Employment

100.0 6.6 8.2 10.9 17.0 13.3 16.4 9.5 7.0 11.2

Establishment size can play a role in the characteristics of each job. Large establishments generally offer workers greater occupational mobility and advancement potential, whereas small establishments may provide their employees with broader experience by requiring them to assume a wider range of responsibilities. Also, small establishments are distributed throughout the nation; every locality has a few small businesses. Large establishments, in contrast, employ more workers and are less common, but they play a much more prominent role in the economies of the areas in which they are located.

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America’s Top 101 Jobs for People Without a Four-Year Degree Motion picture and video industries Social assistance, except child day care Educational services

Working Conditions Just as the goods and services produced in each industry are different, working conditions vary significantly among industries. In some industries, the work setting is quiet, temperature-controlled, and virtually hazard free; while other industries are characterized by noisy, uncomfortable, and sometimes dangerous work environments. Some industries require long workweeks and shift work; in many industries, standard 40-hour workweeks are common. Still other industries can be seasonal, requiring long hours during busy periods and abbreviated schedules during slower months. Production processes, establishment size, and the physical location of work usually determine these varying conditions. One of the most telling indicators of working conditions is an industry’s injury and illness rate. Overexertion, being struck by an object, and falls on the same level are among the most common incidents causing work-related injury or illness. In 2002, approximately 4.7 million nonfatal injuries and illnesses were reported throughout private industry. Among major industry divisions, manufacturing had the highest rate of injury and illness—7.2 cases for every 100 full-time workers—while finance, insurance, and real estate had the lowest rate—1.7 cases. About 5,500 work-related fatalities were reported in 2002; the most common events resulting in fatal injuries were transportation incidents, contact with objects and equipment, assaults and violent acts, and falls. Work schedules are another important reflection of working conditions, and the operational requirements of each industry lead to large differences in hours worked and in parttime versus full-time status. In food services and drinking places, for example, 37.9 percent of employees worked part time in 2002 compared with only 1.3 percent in mining. Table 2 presents industries having relatively high and low percentages of part-time workers.

Few part-time workers Chemical manufacturing, except drugs Pharmaceutical and medicine manufacturing Computer and electronic product manufacturing Utilities Aerospace product and parts manufacturing Motor vehicle and parts manufacturing Steel manufacturing Mining

24.8 21.8 21.1

3.1 3.1 2.6 2.5 2.1 1.8 1.8 1.3

The low proportion of part-time workers in some manufacturing industries often reflects the continuous nature of the production processes that makes it difficult to adapt the volume of production to short-term fluctuations in product demand. Once begun, it is costly to halt these processes; machinery must be tended and materials must be moved continuously. For example, the chemical manufacturing industry produces many different chemical products through controlled chemical reactions. These processes require chemical operators to monitor and adjust the flow of materials into and out of the line of production. Because production may continue 24 hours a day, 7 days a week, under the watchful eyes of chemical operators who work in shifts, full-time workers are more likely to be employed. Retail trade and service industries, on the other hand, have seasonal cycles marked by various events that affect the hours worked, such as school openings or important holidays. During busy times of the year, longer hours are common, whereas slack periods lead to cutbacks in work hours and shorter workweeks. Jobs in these industries are generally appealing to students and others who desire flexible, parttime schedules.

TABLE 2

Employment

Part-time workers as a percent of total employment, selected industries, 2002 Industry All industries Many part-time workers Food services and drinking places Grocery stores Clothing, accessory, and general merchandise stores Child day care services Arts, entertainment, and recreation

338

The total number of jobs in the United States in 2002 was 144 million. This included 11.4 million self-employed workers, 140,000 unpaid workers in family businesses, and 132.3 million wage and salary workers—including primary and secondary job holders. The total number of jobs is projected to increase to 165.3 million by 2012, and wage and salary jobs are projected to account for more than 153.8 million of them.

Percent part-time 15.8

37.9 30.1

As shown in Table 3, although wage and salary jobs are the vast majority of all jobs, they are not evenly divided among the various industries. The education and health services industry supersector is the largest source of employment,

29.2 29.1 28.1

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Section Three: Important Trends in Jobs and Industries with about 26 million workers in 2002. The trade, transportation, and utilities supersector is next largest, followed by professional and business services, employing 25.5 million and 16 million workers, respectively. Wage and salary employment ranged from only 122,500 in oil and gas

extraction to 12.5 million in educational services. Three industries—educational services, health services, and food services and drinking places—together accounted for 33.5 million jobs, or one quarter of the nation’s wage and salary employment.

TABLE 3 Wage and salary employment in selected industries, 2002, and projected change, 2002-12 (Employment in thousands)

Industry

2002 2012 Percent Percent Employment distribution Employment distribution

2002-12 Percent Employment change change

All industries ..................................................

132,279

100.0

153,883

100.0

16.3

21,603

Goods-producing industries ........................ Natural resources and mining .................. Agriculture, forestry, fishing, and hunting Oil and gas extraction ................................ Mining ........................................................

23,766 1,728 1,216 123 212

18.0 1.3 0.9 0.1 0.2

24,539 1,644 1,192 88 180

15.9 1.1 0.8 0.1 0.1

3.2 -4.9 -1.9 -27.8 -15.0

772 -84 -24 -34 -32

Construction ................................................

6,732

5.1

7,745

5.0

15.1

1,014

Manufacturing.............................................. Aerospace product and parts manufacturing .......................................... Apparel manufacturing................................ Chemical manufacturing, except drugs ...... Computer and electronic product manufacturing .......................................... Food manufacturing .................................... Motor vehicle and parts manufacturing .... Pharmaceutical and medicine manufacturing .......................................... Printing ........................................................ Steel manufacturing .................................... Textile mills and products ..........................

15,307

11.6

15,149

9.8

-1.0

-157

468 358 636

0.4 0.3 0.5

386 112 530

0.3 0.1 0.3

-17.6 -68.6 -16.7

-83 -245 -106

1,521 1,525 1,152

1.1 1.2 0.9

1,333 1,597 1,181

0.9 1.0 0.8

-12.4 4.7 2.6

-189 72 29

293 710 170 489

0.2 0.5 0.1 0.4

361 734 136 338

0.2 0.5 0.1 0.2

23.2 3.3 -20.0 -31.0

68 24 -34 -152

Service-providing industries.......................... Trade, transportation, and utilities ............ Automobile dealers ...................................... Clothing, accessory, and general merchandise stores .................................... Grocery stores .............................................. Wholesale trade .......................................... Air transportation ........................................ Truck transportation and warehousing ...... Utilities ........................................................

108,513 25,493 1,250

82.0 19.3 0.9

129,344 29,093 1,408

84.1 18.9 0.9

19.2 14.1 12.6

20,831 3,600 158

4,129 2,478 5,641 559 1,853 600

3.1 1.9 4.3 0.4 1.4 0.5

4,473 2,611 6,279 626 2,274 565

2.9 1.7 4.1 0.4 1.5 0.4

8.3 5.4 11.3 12.0 22.7 -5.7

344 133 638 67 422 -34

Information .................................................. Broadcasting ................................................ Motion picture and video industries .......... Publishing, except software ........................ Software publishers...................................... Telecommunications....................................

3,420 334 360 714 256 1,201

2.6 0.3 0.3 0.5 0.2 0.9

4,052 362 472 703 430 1,281

2.6 0.2 0.3 0.5 0.3 0.8

18.5 8.5 31.1 -1.5 67.9 6.7

632 28 112 -11 174 80 (continued)

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America’s Top 101 Jobs for People Without a Four-Year Degree

TABLE 3

(CONTINUED)

Wage and salary employment in selected industries, 2002, and projected change, 2002-12 (Employment in thousands)

Industry

Financial activities ...................................... Banking ........................................................ Insurance...................................................... Securities, commodities, and other investments ..............................................

2002 2012 Percent Percent Employment distribution Employment distribution

2002-12 Percent Employment change change

5,815 1,761 2,223

4.4 1.3 1.7

6,405 1,873 2,391

4.2 1.2 1.6

10.1 6.4 7.5

590 112 168

801

0.6

925

0.6

15.5

124

16,010

12.1

20,876

13.6

30.4

4,866

442

0.3

525

0.3

18.9

84

1,163 3,249

0.9 2.5

1,798 5,012

1.2 3.3

54.6 54.3

635 1,764

732

0.6

1,137

0.7

55.4

406

Education and health services.................... Child day care services ................................ Educational services .................................... Health services ............................................ Social assistance, except child day care ......

26,060 734 12,527 12,524 1,269

19.7 0.6 9.5 9.5 1.0

32,935 1,050 15,016 16,025 1,867

21.4 0.7 9.8 10.4 1.2

26.4 43.1 19.9 28.0 47.1

6,875 316 2,489 3,501 597

Leisure and hospitality ................................ Arts, entertainment, and recreation............ Food services and drinking places .............. Hotels and other accommodations ............

11,969 1,778 8,412 1,780

9.0 1.3 6.4 1.3

14,104 2,275 9,749 2,080

9.2 1.5 6.3 1.4

17.8 28.0 15.9 16.9

2,135 497 1,337 301

Public administration.................................. Federal government, excluding the postal service ............................................ State and local government, except education and health ................................

9,774

7.4

10,582

6.9

8.3

808

1,922

1.5

1,972

1.3

2.6

50

7,851

5.9

8,610

5.6

9.7

759

Professional and business services ........................................................ Advertising and public relations services ...................................................... Computer systems design and related services ...................................................... Employment services .................................. Management, scientific, and technical consulting services ....................................

NOTE: May not add to totals due to omission of industries not covered in the Career Guide.

Employment in some industries is concentrated in one region of the country. Such industries often are located near a source of raw or unfinished materials upon which the industry relies. For example, oil and gas extraction jobs are concentrated in Texas, Louisiana, and Oklahoma; many textile mills and products manufacturing jobs are found in North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia; and a significant proportion of motor vehicle manufacturing jobs are located in Michigan and Ohio. On the other hand, some industries—such as grocery stores and educational services— have jobs distributed throughout the nation, reflecting the general population density.

Although workers of all ages are employed in each industry, certain industries tend to possess workers of distinct age groups. For the previously mentioned reasons, retail trade employs a relatively high proportion of younger workers to fill part-time and temporary positions. The manufacturing sector, on the other hand, has a relatively high median age because many jobs in the sector require a number of years to learn and perfect specialized skills that do not easily transfer to other firms. Also, manufacturing employment has been declining, providing fewer opportunities for younger workers to get jobs. As a result, one-fourth of the workers in retail trade were 24 years of age or younger in 2002, compared with only 8.4 percent of workers in manufacturing. Table 4 contrasts the age distribution of workers in all industries with the distributions in five very different industries.

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TABLE 4 Percent distribution of wage and salary workers by age group, selected industries, 2002

Industry

16 to 24

Age group 25 45 to 44 to 64

Occupations in the Industry

65 and older

All industries ................

15

48

34

3

Computer systems design and related services ........................

7

68

25

1

Educational services ......

10

43

44

3

Food services and drinking places ............

45

39

15

2

Telecommunications ....

10

58

32

1

Utilities ..........................

6

47

45

2

The occupations found in each industry depend on the types of services provided or goods produced. For example, because construction companies require skilled trades workers to build and renovate buildings, these companies employ large numbers of carpenters, electricians, plumbers, painters, and sheet metal workers. Other occupations common to construction include construction equipment operators and mechanics, installers, and repairers. Retail trade, on the other hand, displays and sells manufactured goods to consumers. As a result, retail trade employs numerous sales clerks and other workers, including more than three-fourths of all cashiers. Table 5 shows the industry sectors and the occupational groups that predominate in each.

TABLE 5 Industry sectors and their largest occupational group, 2002

Industry sector

Largest occupational group

Agriculture, forestry, fishing, and hunting .................. Farming, fishing, and forestry occupations ................

Percent of industry wage and salary jobs 61.1

Mining............................................................................ Construction and extraction occupations ..................

33.3

Construction .................................................................. Construction and extraction occupations ..................

66.2

Manufacturing .............................................................. Production occupations ..............................................

52.1

Wholesale trade ............................................................ Sales and related occupations......................................

24.7

Retail trade .................................................................... Sales and related occupations......................................

52.5

Transportation and warehousing .................................. Transportation and material moving occupations ....

56.0

Utilities .......................................................................... Installation, maintenance, and repair occupations ....

25.6

Information.................................................................... Professional and related occupations ..........................

29.1

Finance and insurance .................................................. Office and administrative support occupations..........

51.4

Real estate and rental and leasing ................................ Sales and related occupations......................................

22.7

Professional, scientific, and technical services.............. Professional and related occupations ..........................

42.6

Management of companies and enterprises ................ Office and administrative support occupations..........

33.6

Administrative and support and waste management and remediation services ............................................ Office and administrative support occupations..........

23.2

Educational services, private ........................................ Professional and related occupations ..........................

59.6

Health care and social assistance .................................. Professional and related occupations ..........................

42.6

Arts, entertainment, and recreation .............................. Service occupations ....................................................

57.2

Accommodation and food services .............................. Service occupations ....................................................

84.0

Government .................................................................. Professional and related occupations ..........................

43.7

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America’s Top 101 Jobs for People Without a Four-Year Degree training include formal company-provided training, apprenticeships, informal on-the-job training, correspondence courses, the Armed Forces vocational training, and nonwork-related training.

The nation’s occupational distribution clearly is influenced by its industrial structure, yet there are many occupations, such as general manager or secretary, that are found in all industries. In fact, some of the largest occupations in the U.S. economy are dispersed across many industries. For example, the office and administrative support occupational group is among the largest in the nation since nearly every industry relies on administrative support workers. (See Table 6.) Other large occupational groups include professional and related occupations, service occupations, management, business, and financial occupations, and sales and related occupations.

The unique combination of training required to succeed in each industry is determined largely by the industry’s production process and the mix of occupations it requires. For example, manufacturing employs many machine operators who generally need little formal education after high school, but sometimes complete considerable on-the-job training. In contrast, educational services employs many types of teachers, most of whom require a bachelor’s or higher degree. Training requirements by industry sector are shown in Table 7.

TABLE 6 Total employment and projected change by broad occupational group, 2002-12

Persons with no more than a high school diploma accounted for about 65.4 percent of all workers in agriculture, forestry, fishing, and hunting; 64.7 percent in construction; 63.3 percent in accommodation and food services; 56.9

(Employment in thousands)

Occupational group

Total, all occupations .................... Professional and related occupations ................................ Service occupations ...................... Office and administrative support occupations .................... Management, business, and financial occupations .................. Sales and related occupations ...... Production occupations ................ Transportation and material moving occupations.................... Construction and extraction occupations ................................ Installation, maintenance, and repair occupations ...................... Farming, fishing, and forestry occupations..................................

Employment, 2002

Percent change, 2002-12

144,014

14.8

27,687 26,569

23.3 20.1

23,851

6.8

15,501 15,260 11,258

15.4 12.9 3.2

9,828

13.1

7,292

15.0

5,696

13.6

1,072

3.3

TABLE 7 Percent distribution of workers by highest grade completed or degree received, by industry sector, 2002

Industry sector

All industries .......................... Agriculture, forestry, fishing, and hunting.......................... Mining .................................... Construction .......................... Manufacturing ........................ Wholesale trade ...................... Retail trade .............................. Transportation and warehousing.......................... Utilities.................................... Information ............................ Finance and insurance............ Real estate and rental and leasing .................................. Professional, scientific, and technical services .................. Administrative and support and waste management and remediation services ............ Educational services, private .. Health care and social assistance .............................. Arts, entertainment, and recreation .............................. Accommodation and food services .................................. Government............................

Training and Advancement Workers prepare for employment in many ways, but the most fundamental form of job training in the United States is a high school education. Fully 88 percent of the nation’s workforce possessed a high school diploma or its equivalent in 2002. However, many occupations require more training, so growing numbers of workers pursue additional training or education after high school. In 2002, 28.7 percent of the nation’s workforce reported having completed some college or an associate’s degree as their highest level of education, while an additional 28.7 percent continued in their studies and attained a bachelor’s or higher degree. In addition to these types of formal education, other sources of qualifying

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High Some school college or Bachelor’s diploma associate’s or higher or less degree degree

42.5

28.7

28.7

65.4 57.0 64.7 52.9 44.8 52.7

21.2 23.5 25.1 25.7 27.9 31.1

13.4 19.5 10.2 21.4 27.3 16.1

52.9 39.8 27.6 26.1

32.1 35.3 33.0 32.0

15.1 25.0 39.3 41.9

38.9

31.5

29.6

15.3

24.3

60.4

54.9 18.9

27.3 19.5

17.9 61.6

31.9

34.4

33.7

41.4

30.7

27.8

63.3 25.6

26.4 36.7

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Section Three: Important Trends in Jobs and Industries percent in mining; 52.9 percent in manufacturing; and 52.7 in retail trade. On the other hand, those who had acquired a bachelor’s or higher degree accounted for 61.6 percent of all workers in educational services, private; 60.4 percent in professional, scientific, and technical services; 41.9 percent in finance and insurance; 39.3 percent in information; and 37.8 percent in government. Education and training also are important factors in the variety of advancement paths found in different industries. Each industry has some unique advancement paths, but workers who complete additional on-the-job training or education generally help their chances of being promoted. In much of the manufacturing sector, for example, production workers who receive training in management and computer skills increase their likelihood of being promoted to supervisory positions. Other factors that impact advancement include the size of the establishments, institutionalized career tracks, and the mix of occupations. As a result, persons who seek jobs in particular industries should be aware of how these advancement paths and other factors may later shape their careers.

Earnings Like other characteristics, earnings differ by industry, the result of a highly complicated process that reflects a number of factors. For example, earnings may vary due to the nature of occupations in the industry, average hours worked, geographical location, workers’ average age, educational requirements, industry profits, and union penetration of the workforce. In general, wages are highest in metropolitan areas to compensate for the higher cost of living. Also, as would be expected, industries that employ a large proportion of unskilled minimum-wage or part time workers tend to have lower earnings. The difference in earnings of all wage and salary workers in computer systems design and related services, which averaged $1,112 a week in 2002, and those in food service and drinking places, where the weekly average was $359, provide a good illustration of how various factors can affect earnings. The difference is so large primarily because computer systems design and related services establishments employ more highly skilled full-time workers, while food service and drinking places employ many lower-skilled parttime workers. In addition, many workers in food service and drinking places are able to supplement their low wages with money they receive as tips, which is not included in the industry wages data. Table 8 highlights the industries with the highest and lowest average weekly earnings. Employee benefits, once a minor addition to wages and salaries, continue to grow in diversity and cost. In addition to traditional benefits—including paid vacations, life and health insurance, and pensions—many employers now offer various benefits to accommodate the needs of a changing

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labor force. Such benefits include childcare, employee assistance programs that provide counseling for personal problems, and wellness programs that encourage exercise, stress management, and self-improvement. Benefits vary among occupational groups, full- and part-time workers, public and private sector workers, regions, unionized and nonunionized workers, and small and large establishments. Data indicate that full-time workers and those in medium-sized and large establishments—those with 100 or more workers— receive better benefits than do part-time workers and those in smaller establishments.

TABLE 8 Average weekly earnings of production or nonsupervisory workers on private nonfarm payrolls, selected industries, 2002 Industry All industries .................................................... Industries with high earnings Computer systems design and related services .......................................................... Management, scientific, and technical consulting services ........................................ Securities, commodities, and other investments .................................................... Aerospace product and parts manufacturing .............................................. Pharmaceutical and medicine manufacturing .............................................. Software publishers .......................................... Computer and electronic product manufacturing .............................................. Telecommunications ........................................ Industries with low earnings Textile mills and products................................ Grocery stores .................................................. Clothing, accessory, and general merchandise stores ........................................ Hotels and other accommodations ................ Agriculture, forestry, fishing, and hunting...... Food services and drinking places .................. Apparel manufacturing .................................... Child day care services ....................................

Earnings $610

1,112 992 971 952 940 921 859 836 446 424 418 410 376 359 348 348

Union penetration of the workforce varies widely by industry, and it also may play a role in earnings and benefits. In 2002, about 14.5 percent of workers throughout the nation were union members or covered by union contracts. As Table 9 demonstrates, union affiliation of workers varies widely by industry. Almost 45 percent of the workers in air transportation were union members, the highest rate of all the industries, followed by 38.5 percent in educational services and

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America’s Top 101 Jobs for People Without a Four-Year Degree Employment growth is determined largely by changes in the demand for the goods and services provided by an industry, worker productivity, and foreign competition. Each industry is affected by a different set of variables that determines the number and composition of jobs that will be available. Even within an industry, employment may grow at different rates in different occupations. For example, changes in technology, production methods, and business practices in an industry might eliminate some jobs while creating others. Some industries may be growing rapidly overall, yet opportunities for workers in occupations that are adversely affected by technological change could be stagnant or even declining. Similarly, employment of some occupations may be declining in the economy as a whole, yet may be increasing in a rapidly growing industry.

36.9 percent in steel manufacturing. Industries with the lowest unionization rate include software publishers, 0 percent; food services and drinking places, 1.8 percent; and computer systems design and related services, 1.9 percent.

TABLE 9 Union members and other workers covered by union contracts as a percent of total employment, selected industries, 2002 Percent union members or covered by union contract

Industry

All industries ..................................................

14.5

Industries with high unionization rates Air transportation .......................................... Educational services ...................................... Steel manufacturing ...................................... Government .................................................. Motor vehicle and parts manufacturing ......

44.8 38.5 36.9 35.2 32.3

Industries with low unionization rates Banking .......................................................... Advertising and public relations services ...... Computer systems design and related services .......................................................... Food services and drinking places ................ Software publishers ........................................

As shown in Table 3, employment growth rates over the next decade will vary widely among industries. Employment in goods-producing industries is expected to increase as growth in construction is partially offset by declining employment in agriculture, forestry, fishing, and hunting; mining; and manufacturing. Growth in construction employment will stem from new factory construction as existing facilities are modernized; from new school construction, reflecting growth in the school-age population; and from infrastructure improvements, such as road and bridge construction. Employment in mining is expected to decline due to labor-saving technology and continued reliance on foreign sources of energy.

2.1 2.0 1.9 1.8 0.0

Manufacturing employment will decrease slightly—employment declines in apparel manufacturing, computer and electronic product manufacturing, and textile mills and products manufacturing will be partially offset by employment gains in food manufacturing and pharmaceutical and medicine manufacturing. Apparel manufacturing is projected to lose about 245,000 jobs over the 2002–12 period— more than any other manufacturing industry—due primarily to increasing imports replacing domestic products. Employment growth in food manufacturing is expected, as a growing and ever-more-diverse population increase the demand for manufactured food products. Employment growth in pharmaceutical and medicine manufacturing is expected as sales of pharmaceuticals increase with growth in the population, particularly among the elderly, and with the introduction of new medicines to the market. Both food and pharmaceutical and medicine manufacturing also have growing export markets.

Outlook Total employment in the United States is projected to increase by about 15 percent over the 2002–12 period. Employment growth, however, is only one source of job openings. The total number of openings in any industry also depends on the industry’s current employment level and its need to replace workers who leave their jobs. Throughout the economy, in fact, replacement needs will create more job openings than will employment growth. Employment size is a major determinant of job openings—larger industries generally have larger numbers of workers who must be replaced and provide more openings. The occupational composition of an industry is another factor. Industries with high concentrations of professional, technical, and other jobs that require more formal education—occupations in which workers tend to leave their jobs less frequently—generally have fewer openings resulting from replacement needs. On the other hand, more replacement openings generally occur in industries with high concentrations of service, laborer, and other jobs that require little formal education and have lower wages because workers in these jobs are more likely to leave their occupations.

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Growth in overall employment will result primarily from growth in service-providing industries over the 2002–12 period, almost all of which are expected to have increasing employment. Rising employment in service-providing industries is expected to occur predominately in health services and educational services—the two largest industries— as well as in employment services, food services and drinking places, state and local government, and wholesale trade. When combined, these sectors will account for almost half of all new wage and salary jobs across the nation.

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Section Three: Important Trends in Jobs and Industries Health services will account for the most new wage and salary jobs, about 3.5 million over the 2002–12 period. Population growth, advances in medical technologies that increase the number of treatable diseases, and a growing share of the population in older age groups will drive employment growth. Offices of physicians, the largest health services industry group, is expected to account for about 770,000 of these new jobs as patients seek more healthcare outside of the traditional inpatient hospital setting. Educational services is expected to grow by nearly 20 percent over the 2002–12 period, adding about 2.5 million new jobs. A growing emphasis on improving education and making it available to more children and young adults will be the primary factors contributing to employment growth. Employment growth at all levels of education is expected, particularly at the postsecondary level, as children of the baby boomers continue to reach college age and as more adults pursue continuing education to enhance or update their skills. Employment in one of the nation’s fastest-growing industries—employment services—is expected to increase by more than 50 percent, adding another 1.8 million jobs over the 2002–12 period. Employment will increase, particularly in temporary help services and professional employer organizations, as businesses seek new ways to make their workforces more specialized and responsive to changes in demand. The food services and drinking places industry is expected to add more than 1.3 million new jobs over the 2002–12 projection period. Increases in population, dual-income

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families, and dining sophistication will contribute to job growth. In addition, the increasing diversity of the population will contribute to job growth in food service and drinking places that offer a wider variety of ethnic foods and drinks. Almost 760,000 new jobs are expected to arise in state and local government, adding almost 10 percent over the 2002–12 period. Job growth will result primarily from growth in the population and its demand for public services. Additional job growth will result as state and local governments continue to receive greater responsibility for administering federally funded programs from the federal government. Wholesale trade is expected to add almost 640,000 new jobs over the coming decade, reflecting growth both in trade and in the overall economy. Most new jobs will be in durable goods merchant wholesalers, such as professional and commercial equipment and supplies; electrical and electronic goods; and furniture and home furnishing. However, industry consolidation and the growth of electronic commerce using the Internet are expected to limit job growth to 11 percent over the 2002–12 period, less than the 15 percent projected for all industries. Continual changes in the economy have far-reaching and complex effects on employment. Jobseekers should be aware of these changes, keeping alert for developments that can affect job opportunities in industries and the variety of occupations that are found in each industry. For more detailed information on specific occupations, consult the 2004–05 edition of the Occupational Outlook Handbook, which provides information on more than 275 occupations.

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The Changing Role of Community College

Community College 101: An Overview During their early years, community colleges were an extension of high schools: In 1901, Joliet Community College in Illinois—the nation’s first junior college—added a fifth and sixth year of courses to a high school curriculum. In the 1920s, enrollments were low, and the few community colleges in existence offered general liberal arts programs.

During the past century, community colleges have grown tremendously in number and have changed with the times. No other segment of postsecondary education has been more responsive to its community’s workforce needs. At community colleges, students can learn at any point in their lives while taking advantage of low tuition, convenient campus locations, open admissions, and comprehensive course offerings.

During the Great Depression of the 1930s, however, community colleges began to provide job training programs as a way to ease widespread unemployment. This trend toward job training continued through the 1940s and 1950s. In the 1960s, baby boomers began reaching college age, and the number of community colleges and enrollments soared. Many new public community colleges were built during the decade. This growth coincided with a large increase in student enrollment—from about 1 million students in 1965 to about 2.2 million by 1970.

Community colleges have long granted associate degrees that typically take about 2 years of full-time study to complete. These programs offer students the traditional collegelevel courses that lead to an associate degree and prepare students for further study toward a bachelor’s degree. Community colleges also offer vocationally oriented associate degrees that prepare students for careers.

During the 1970s, community colleges became a major part of the American educational system, with enrollments almost doubling again from 2.2 million in 1970 to 4.3 million by 1980. The enrollment increase resulted from three factors: Baby boomers continued to come of age, more parents desired a postsecondary education for their children, and students sought draft deferment during the Vietnam War.

Increasingly, however, community colleges provide another option: career training through vocationally oriented courses that leads to a certificate. This type of career training previously was offered mainly by proprietary schools and vocational institutions, but community colleges now have similar programs to better serve the needs of local businesses and communities. This service has increased the importance of community colleges, especially in rural areas where career training is difficult to obtain. Offering vocational preparation and academically oriented education, community colleges have seen a surge in enrollments that outpaces the enrollment growth of educational institutions offering bachelor’s degrees. Enrollment at public 4-year colleges and universities roughly doubled from 1965 to 1999, while enrollment at public community colleges increased about fivefold.

The community college boom slowed in the latter part of the century, with enrollment growing only 23 percent between 1980 and 1999. Total enrollments were about 5.3 million in 1999. As of the 2000–01 academic year, there were 1,076 community colleges.

Gateway to a Bachelor’s Degree

Today’s comprehensive community college is both a principal provider of academic instruction and a major provider of vocational preparation and workforce development through stand-alone adult training programs. Using data from the U.S. Department of Education’s National Center for Education Statistics, this article reviews the history of community colleges, highlights their continuing role in academic preparation, describes their partnerships with employers in support of vocationally oriented learning, reviews the types of certificates and degrees community colleges offer, and examines trends in enrollment and cost. A concluding section looks to the future.

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Historically, community colleges have provided a gateway to opportunity for many young people who otherwise would have been denied access to higher education. These community colleges offer associate degrees that may serve as a low-cost platform from which students might then pursue traditional academic programs in baccalaureate colleges and universities. Baccalaureate colleges and universities, sometimes called 4year colleges, offer bachelor’s degrees that typically require about 4 years of full-time study to complete. Public community colleges, which serve most of the students attending socalled 2-year schools, confer most associate degrees. Private ●

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Section Three: Important Trends in Jobs and Industries 2-year schools are not covered in this article because they educate a tiny fraction of all students attending 2-year schools. Many community colleges have transfer agreements with 4year baccalaureate colleges and universities. Under these agreements, the 4-year institutions accept community college credits toward bachelor’s degree requirements. These transfer agreements allow students to complete the first 2 years of their coursework at a community college, thus reducing the cost of obtaining a 4-year bachelor’s degree. As admittance to baccalaureate colleges and universities becomes more competitive, many high school students increasingly rely on educational supplements. An example of this practice is a new program called “dual enrollment.” It allows high school students to take community college courses and improve their chances of admittance to a baccalaureate college or university. Currently, about 5 percent of the nation’s high school students take community college courses, but the figure varies dramatically by community. For example, as many as 20 percent of high school students in Utah take community college courses, mainly because of a state educational initiative.

Employer Partnerships and Vocational Training In 1988, the Nationwide Commission on the Future of Community Colleges recommended that these colleges help build communities by creating partnerships with employers and making facilities available for workforce training. Today, community colleges supply vocational training programs that terminate in certificates; coursework leading to associate degrees; remedial educational services; and customized, or “contract,” courses designed to meet the needs of local employers. Customized courses provide job-specific skill training or remedial training and are delivered to employers on-site.

Examples of employer partnerships with community colleges are abundant. Lawson State Community College in Birmingham, Alabama, has forged alliances with Microsoft Corporation and Novell Incorporated, offering a host of information technology certificates accredited by the Association of Collegiate Business Schools and Programs. Likewise, the Virginia Community College System and Cisco Systems are working together on high-tech training centers at 27 campuses. Another partnership is being created between the Maricopa Community College District in Arizona and the International Genomics Consortium, a nonprofit genetic research group in Maryland. Arizona colleges recently committed $2.5 million to local community colleges, hoping to convince the nonprofit to relocate to Phoenix. The funds will be used to train students from the district’s 10 community colleges. State and city officials, educational institutions, healthcare organizations, foundations, and businesses are putting forth a major effort to raise $98 million to support the nonprofit’s pending arrival. Such partnerships play several roles: They allow community colleges to develop specific programs and career fields to introduce to high school students, offer a support system for the corporation involved in the partnership, provide workforce training for the local community, and enable companies to beef up employee skills through short-term training offered at the local community college. As a result of such partnerships, many community colleges have molded themselves into more comprehensive educational institutions as they increasingly cater to the workforce needs of local businesses and communities. The development of partnerships involving online learning is opening another way for academic institutions to provide corporate training. Although both online and other linkages bring corporate and college partners closer, community colleges increasingly face competition from a growing number of organizations that provide “e-learning” services to meet corporate training needs. All types of postsecondary educational institutions are discovering that education is business, spurring them to think about entrepreneurship and to create more alliances with corporate clients.

The role of community colleges in preparing students for occupational licensure and certification requires careful attention to the interests of the local public, the occupation, consumers, and employers. Many corporations, particularly in rural America, rely heavily on a locally trained workforce. Alliances between local companies and community colleges not only serve local businesses but also ease the financial burdens that community colleges may bear. Community college workplace training programs often are designed to attract new employers to a location while retaining existing ones, making these programs important for local economic development. To achieve this goal, community colleges often design and implement critical training programs for consortiums of small- and medium-sized employers. Typically, the firms are too small to be able to provide formal training on their own.

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Certificates and Degrees Awarded The variety of certificates and degrees now granted by community colleges is evidence of the comprehensive role these schools have assumed. Certificates requiring varying durations of study have added options for vocational training. Chart 1, which combines information on short-term and longer-term certificates, shows the 15 most popular fields of study for all certificates awarded by community colleges in 1999–2000. Associate degrees prepare students on both

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America’s Top 101 Jobs for People Without a Four-Year Degree vocational and academic tracks; Chart 2 shows the 15 most popular fields of study for which community colleges conferred associate degrees in 1999–2000.

The growth of certificate programs is an important trend, even though the number of certificates earned remains smaller than the number of associate degrees conferred. Most certificates involve specific work-related training. Many community college students—especially older and part-time students who hold full-time jobs—neither want nor need to pursue lengthy educational programs. A growing number of experienced workers who have a bachelor’s degree attend community colleges for computer classes and other instruction to keep current with new workplace technologies. The certificate programs appeal to those who want to upgrade their current skills or acquire new ones, increasing their job opportunities in the marketplace. Short-term certificates. These certificates require less than 1 year to complete. From academic year 1989–90 to academic year 1999–2000, the number of short-term certificates awarded by community colleges rose from 46,447 to 85,941, an increase of 85 percent. This increase over a decade reflects

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a trend toward programs that offer specific information or skills in a shorter time. Short-term certificate programs allow students to train quickly to enter the workforce or to pursue career advancement.

Within the category of short-term certificate programs, growing fields greatly outnumbered declining fields. During the decade from 1989–90 to 1999–2000, certificates awarded in computer-related fields were among those that had the largest percentage growth. For example, certificates granted in computer and information sciences grew 631 percent, increasing from 435 to 3,180. Other fields that saw major gains in certificates conferred during the same period were vocational home economics (179 percent), precision production (152 percent), construction trades (142 percent), mechanics and repairers (121 percent), business management and administrative services (118 percent), and protective services (101 percent). Although awards of certificates in health professions and related sciences increased a comparatively small 62 percent, the healthcare field accounted for 23,818 short-term certificates in 1999–2000—more than any other.

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Section Three: Important Trends in Jobs and Industries Longer-term certificates. Longer-term certificates take at least 1 year but less than 4 years to complete. Just as awards of short-term certificates grew significantly between 1989–90 and 1999–2000, the number of longer-term certificates awarded also grew. But awards of longer-term certificates increased at a more modest pace of 22 percent, from 78,327 to 95,463. The number of certificates conferred grew in more than half the fields of study. During the same decade, awards of certificates in computer and information sciences grew from 1,128 to 2,637, a 134percent increase. Other fields experiencing gains in certificates granted were construction trades, increasing from 2,942 to 4,216 (43 percent), and precision production trades, growing from 6,000 to 7,029 (17 percent). In addition, certificates conferred under health professions and related services grew 37 percent. Within this category, medical assisting increased 79 percent, from 1,158 to 2,071. Among the largest numeric gains were those for certificates awarded in health professions and related services: The increase of 8,378 certificates gave this field 31,001 longerterm certificates in 1999–2000. Of these, slightly more than half were for licensed practical nurses.

Enrollment Trends In 1965, 74 percent of all students in public degreegranting institutions attended 4-year schools, while 26 percent attended 2-year community colleges. By 1992, however, the percentage of all public college students enrolled in community colleges had nearly doubled, to 48 percent. Enrollments at community colleges leaped 413 percent from 1965 to 1999, increasing from about 1 million to about 5.3 million, while those at public 4-year institutions increased 104 percent, from about 2.9 million to about 6 million during the same period. Much of the increase in community college enrollment occurred between 1965 and 1975. (See Chart 3.)

There were decreases during the decade in awards of longer term certificates in engineering-related technologies, which fell from 4,995 to 3,996 (20 percent), and in marketing and distribution, which declined from 1,216 to 746 (39 percent). Associate degrees. Between 1989–1990 and 1999–2000, the number of associate degrees awarded by community colleges increased 21 percent, rising from 340,091 to 411,633. This compares with a total of 181,404 short-term and longerterm certificates awarded in 1999–2000—less than half the number of associate degrees. About 41 percent of the associate degrees granted in 1999–2000 were in liberal/general studies and humanities, accounting for a larger share of associate degrees than any other field. The academically oriented associate degrees in liberal/general studies and humanities were intended mainly as a foundation for further study toward bachelor’s degrees. Of all the associate degrees conferred, many in other fields may have been vocationally oriented and prepared students for specific careers, although some of those also may have served as a first step toward a bachelor’s degree. After liberal/general studies and humanities, the next two largest fields for awards of associate degrees were health professions and related sciences and business management and administrative services. However, during the decade from 1989–90 to 1999–2000, the number of associate degrees conferred in health professions and related sciences increased by 22 percent, while degrees in business management and administrative services declined by 11 percent. One fast growing field of study for associate degrees was computer and information science: It increased 93 percent—from 5,169 to 9,970—over the decade.

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The growth of community college enrollments is expected to continue outpacing increases in enrollments at public 4year baccalaureate colleges and universities. This is because many 4-year colleges are becoming increasingly selective in an effort to improve the academic quality of their incoming students. Furthermore, growth in certification programs and workforce training classes will continue to boost enrollments in community colleges. The data reveal enrollment trends by gender; part-time versus full-time attendance; age; and race, ethnicity, and national origin.

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America’s Top 101 Jobs for People Without a Four-Year Degree Gender. A reversal of the gender gap among community college students emerged in the late 1970s. (See Chart 4.) In 1970, 60 percent of all community college students were men. By 1980, the enrollment of women had overtaken that of men, with women accounting for 55 percent of community college students. Women’s enrollment has exceeded that of men ever since. During the 1990s, the share of women held steady at about 57 percent.

and delivery of programs designed to meet the needs of local communities. As a result, community colleges have made education more available to students from varied backgrounds, including immigrants. Community college also may appeal to students who seek remedial education and to students whose primary language is not English. During the period from 1976 to 1999, racial and ethnic minorities made up an increasing proportion of all students enrolled at community colleges. (See Chart 5.) Minorities

Part-time versus full-time attendance and age. From 1970 to 1999, the percentage of all students attending community college part time rose from 49 percent to 64 percent. Parttime enrollments in community college rose from about 1.1 million in 1970 to more than 3.4 million in 1999, an increase of more than 200 percent. The growth in full-time enrollment over the same period was not as dramatic: from more than 1.1 million in 1970 to more than 1.9 million in 1999, an increase of over 70 percent. Part-time students at community colleges typically are older than their full-time counterparts. Community colleges have tried to accommodate the needs of older, part-time students who work full time by offering courses at night and on weekends. In recent years, however, a new trend in the enrollment of students of traditional college age has emerged: Both part-time and full-time community college students aged 18 to 21 have increased their share of total enrollments between 1993 and 1999. Among full-timers, students aged 18 to 21 increased their share from 56 percent to 61 percent of the total. Among part-timers, the share of 18- to 21-year-olds rose from 20 percent to 23 percent. Race, ethnicity, and national origin. Community colleges emphasize access through open admissions, affordable cost,

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Section Three: Important Trends in Jobs and Industries made up 20 percent of community college enrollments nationally in 1976. By 1999, total minority enrollment reached 33 percent. Within this group, enrollment of Asians and Pacific Islanders increased the fastest, growing 340 percent despite being only about 6 percent of total community college enrollments in 1999. Hispanics were the secondfastest-growing group during the same period, but they composed a larger share of enrollments. Hispanic enrollment increased 240 percent from 1976 to 1999, and Hispanic students accounted for 13 percent of total community college enrollments in 1999.

Keeping community college affordable has been a challenge. From the 1970s through the mid-1990s, budgetary pressures at the federal, state, and local levels often made it difficult for community colleges to keep up with rapidly changing and expensive technology. Community colleges sometimes were forced to slash programs and services. However, a stronger economy in the 1990s, an increase in government funding, the hiring of more part-time faculty, the growth of private funding, and the proliferation of partnerships between local corporations and community colleges have helped ease some of the financial burden.

In the 1989–90 academic year, community colleges conferred 340,091 associate degrees. Of these, 283,651 were awarded to whites, 23,108 to blacks, 16,341 to Hispanics, and 10,502 to Asians and Pacific Islanders. By the 1999–2000 academic year, however, of the total degrees conferred, the greatest proportional growth was in those awarded to Hispanics: a 130-percent increase, to 37,548. Over the same period, awards to Asian and Pacific Islanders grew 104 percent, to 21,413, and those to blacks rose 73 percent, to 39,872. Although whites experienced the slowest growth rate (6 percent), they continued to account for the largest proportion (73 percent) of associate degrees conferred.

Some community colleges have resorted to fundraising, especially for scholarships, to preserve access to postsecondary education. The federal government also has helped, becoming the primary source of financial aid for community college students in the past 20 years.

Cost of Community College The cost of education at a community college has risen over the years, but the average cost per year is still lower than that of public 4-year baccalaureate colleges and universities. Community colleges are a cost-effective alternative for many students, especially for those living in rural areas that do not have access to a 4-year institution. Although average community college tuition and fees have increased faster than inflation, they have increased at a slower pace than have tuition and fees at public 4-year colleges. Average annual tuition and fees at community colleges for students living in-state during the academic year of 1976–77 totaled $283 in current dollars. By 2000–01, that total was $1,359, an increase of 380 percent. During the same period, however, average annual tuition and fees at public 4-year colleges for students living in-state rose from $617 to $3,506, an increase of 468 percent.

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Future Challenges A constant for community colleges has been their ability to quickly adapt to demands of the times. Today, technology is a factor affecting most of the demographic, economic, and academic challenges that community colleges face. Innovations in the workplace have forced employees to upgrade their skills or seek advanced training. New entrants to the labor force also have an increasing need to add to their skills through postsecondary instruction. As higher education evolves, it increasingly emphasizes the value of credentialed and noncredentialed knowledge and skill. Community colleges have taken note. Reacting to technological and other changes, community colleges continue to test their flexibility as they strive to address changing educational and training needs. From the Occupational Outlook Quarterly by the U.S. Department of Labor. Written by Henry T. Kasper, an economist in the Office of Occupational Statistics and Employment Projections, BLS.

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Associate Degree: Two Years to a Career or a Jump Start to a Bachelor’s Degree

as sports, clubs, and volunteer groups—as well as academics. Nonprofit schools, such as private and community colleges, are most likely to offer these extras. Keep reading to learn what types of associate degrees are available, which occupations they prepare students for, what to consider when choosing a career, how to select and prepare for a college program, and where to find more information about associate degree programs and careers.

Types of Degrees All associate degree programs require that students successfully complete about 60 college credits. That translates into roughly 20 courses. Associate degrees are of two types: occupationally focused degrees, which prepare students to work immediately after graduation, and transfer degrees, which prepare students to move into bachelor’s degree programs.

In two years, you can train for some of the fastest-growing jobs in the economy, increase your earnings, and pave the way for further education.

Occupational degrees. These associate degrees train students for specific careers. In addition to taking general education classes—such as mathematics, writing, and speech— students take courses specific to an occupational major. To earn an associate of applied science in biotechnology degree at Montgomery College in Rockville, Maryland, for example, students are required to take classes in biology, chemistry, immunology, and drug production, among others. The courses teach basic principles but focus on applying those principles to the workplace. So, instead of learning to isolate a few proteins or DNA strands in a petri dish, students learn to use machines that isolate hundreds at a time. Graduates should be able to move directly from school to jobs in laboratories or production facilities.

How? Earn an associate degree. An associate degree is a college degree awarded after the completion of about 20 classes. It either prepares students for a career following graduation or allows them to transfer into a bachelor’s degree program. Compared with workers whose highest level of educational attainment was a high school diploma, workers with an associate degree averaged an extra $128 a week in 2001, according to the Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS). People with associate degrees also are more likely to find jobs: The unemployment rate in 2001 was more than 30 percent lower for associate degree holders compared with high school graduates. And, according to several academic studies, advantages in the job market might be even greater for those just starting their careers and for those who work in a career related to their degree.

Similarly, a course in the international business program at Florida Community College in Jacksonville teaches students how to complete and file import and export forms and comply with regulations. Graduates of the program can apply those skills as commerce clerks when they leave school.

But for most people, the best part about earning an associate degree is the opportunity to enter interesting professions. Training is available for those with nearly any interest, from technical fields like electronics and health care to liberal arts areas, such as design and social work. And according to the BLS, occupations in which workers often are required to have an associate degree are growing faster than occupations that require other types of training.

The best programs tailor courses to industry standards. Schools ask local employers what skills workers need to perform specific occupations. Then, the schools create classes that teach those skills. With the help of advisors from local businesses, curriculums are updated regularly. The focus on occupations means that classes are more hands-on than are those in bachelor’s degree programs. According to surveys by the U.S. Department of Education, teachers in associate degree programs spend more time conducting demonstrations and leading practical exercises. And many of the faculty work in the field in which they teach, so they are able to relate first-hand stories of life on the job.

The hallmark of associate degrees is flexibility, both in what to study and how to study it. Degrees are available from public community colleges, private two-year colleges, for-profit technical institutes, and many four-year colleges and universities. Taking classes from home is more common in associate degree programs than in any other type of educational credentials program, with more than 9 percent of associate degree students using distance learning in 1998, according to the U.S. Department of Education. Other students have a more traditional college experience, living at one of the onefifth of schools that offer on-campus housing and meals. And nearly all schools offer extracurricular activities—such

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The opportunity to work on real-life issues is common. Students majoring in industrial design at the Art Institute of Pittsburgh had this chance when they helped to design a bike for scientists in Antarctica. The bike needed to work in harsh conditions over ice and snow, so the students created ●

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Section Three: Important Trends in Jobs and Industries blueprints for an especially stable, durable contraption. The chance to participate in projects like these in the first year of college draws many students to associate degree programs. Most students also spend at least some of their class time in facilities that mirror the workplace. Health technicians, for example, use medical devices they will find at jobsites. In the same way, childcare students often train at on-site daycare centers. Formal cooperative, or co-op, and internship opportunities are an essential part of many associate degree programs. During a co-op, a student works full time for a limited period in a job related to his or her studies and then returns to school. During an internship, a student works full time or part time while enrolled in school. Often, students receive classroom credit for work on the job. They create journals and portfolios to summarize their experiences and the ways in which they relate to class. At many schools, students receive certificates after one year or less of study and then continue studying toward an associate degree. This gives them an immediate credential to use in the workplace while continuing their studies. Students also can continue their studies after earning their degree. Although occupational degrees prepare students for a career immediately after graduation, some occupational degree classes can often be transferred to a bachelor’s program. Occupational degrees have different titles. The titles include associate of applied science, associate of applied arts, associate of applied technology, and associate of occupational studies. Transfer degrees. Another type of associate degree is designed to be a first step toward a bachelor’s degree. With a little planning, all of the coursework completed in this degree will transfer to a four-year school. Students take the introductory classes of a bachelor’s degree program, graduating with an associate of arts or an associate of science degree and about half of the credits they need for a bachelor’s degree. Courses include writing, literature, science, and mathematics. Most degree candidates study broad fields like liberal arts or general studies, but some declare majors and earn their degrees in specific areas, such as an associate of arts in literature or an associate of science in chemistry. Often, classes correspond directly to those offered at local four-year schools. In fact, most two-year colleges have agreements with universities stating that their associate degree fulfills all of the general education requirements of a bachelor’s degree. A few transfer programs look beyond the bachelor’s to a master’s or professional degree. Oklahoma Community College’s prepharmacy program, for instance, is the first stage of a six-year Pharm.D. program. Starting college in an associate degree program has several advantages, including the one most often cited: saving money. For example, in the 2000–01 academic year, average annual in-state tuition and fees were $1,359 at public twoyear community colleges, compared with $3,506 at public four-year colleges—a savings of more than $2,000. Because

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many associate degree programs are offered at community colleges, students live nearby—thus avoiding the added expenses of room and board often needed for relocating to a four-year college or university. And the cost of an associate degree is rising more slowly than that of a bachelor’s. Taking grants into account, the cost of an associate degree has not risen in the last decade. But the advantages of pursuing an associate degree reach beyond cost. Students often receive more personal attention at two-year schools than they do at four-year schools, in part because class sizes are smaller in most associate degree programs. And according to the National Center for Education Statistics, associate degree faculty spend a greater proportion of their time teaching. When applying to a four-year program, students who earned an associate degree are often given preference over students who completed a semester or two of college credits but did not earn a degree. Associate degree graduates also are more likely than other transfer students to complete their bachelor’s degree successfully, according to U.S. Department of Education studies. For students who have low high school grades or test scores, associate degree programs offer a chance to catch up. Programs at many community colleges are open to anyone with a high school diploma or a passing score on the high school equivalency exam. And nearly all two-year colleges offer noncredit classes to prepare students for college courses. Students in transfer programs also benefit from the career focus of two-year schools. By taking a few occupationally focused courses and participating in career exploration programs, students have an advantage in choosing a major when they start a bachelor’s degree program.

Associate Degree Careers To be career-ready in two years, students need to choose an occupational major early in their school career. And there are plenty of options. An associate degree is the most significant source of training for several occupations, including ●

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Having an associate degree is not required of workers for every available job in any single occupation, but many employers prefer to hire workers who have one. Earning an associate degree can affect the amount of responsibility workers have in an occupation. For example, science technicians with associate degrees often help to set up experiments and interpret results, a greater level of responsibility than

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America’s Top 101 Jobs for People Without a Four-Year Degree the routine tasks assigned to those whose highest level of educational attainment is a high school diploma. Following are some of the career areas available to workers with an associate degree. Agriculture and landscaping. Farmwork has gone high tech. Farmers and farm managers use complex technology and marketing practices. To learn such skills, managers often earn bachelor’s or master’s degrees, but some earn associate degrees. These graduates commonly start work as farm management assistants. Many groundskeeping jobs are also highly skilled. Often, those in supervisory roles and those in complicated specialties, such as golf course maintenance and greenhouse work, have associate or bachelor’s degrees. They study landscape design, horticulture, and pest control. Arts and design. For artistic types, there are several degrees available. Desktop publishing, multimedia, and graphic arts are the fastest-growing art-related degrees. Graduates work as artists, Webmasters, and animators. Interior design is another popular artistic major, as many states require that interior designers have college training. Entry-level positions in industrial design, fashion design, and set design are also sometimes available to workers with related associate degrees, but competition is keen. Prospects are best for students who take courses in drafting and computer-aided design. Industrial designers often need engineering courses, too. Business administration. Business is a popular subject for occupational associate degrees. Business occupations for people with associate degrees include accounting technicians, who collect and prepare financial information; human resources assistants, who help specialists recruit and train employees, keep records, and deal with other personnel issues; and import-export clerks, who major in international business while in school. Those who concentrate in the study of management learn marketing, employee oversight, and financial controls, which often helps them to become supervisors, enter management training programs, or run their own businesses. Another business concentration, medical office programs, trains students to work in doctors’ offices and other medical facilities. Graduates become medical record technicians, medical secretaries, and medical transcriptionists, among other occupations. Communications. If working behind the scenes in a television or radio station sounds appealing, training to become a radio or television broadcast technician is a good choice. These workers run soundboards, editing machinery, and other broadcast equipment, and they often learn how by earning an associate degree. Cellular, satellite, radio frequency technicians, and other telecommunications technicians also often train this way. Students take courses in electronics, mathematics, and physics. Computers. Associate degrees are available in general computing, computer networking, programming, and computer support. In addition to general training, these degrees often include work experience programs and preparation for computer industry certifications. Although they are one of

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several ways to train for computer occupations, associate degrees often provide students with more well-rounded preparation than other training programs do. Associate degree holders also have a foundation for more advanced study. Construction and metal trades. Many people start careers as electricians, metal workers, or construction tradesworkers by earning associate degrees. Often, they earn these degrees before or during apprenticeships. In some companies, having a degree makes it easier to become a supervisor. Although apprenticeships are the best known way to train for these occupations, associate degrees offer the advantages of speed—they can be completed in two years instead of the average four years for an apprenticeship—and availability, as classroom openings are easy to find and students need not wait for a job opening with a local employer. Drafting. Making accurate drawings and plans is the task of drafters, and many drafters need an associate degree to get a job. Some degree programs are general, training students for many types of drafting. More often, students specialize in one type of drafting, such as architectural or electrical. Classes include computer-aided design, mathematics, and precision drawing. Education and childcare. For people whose interest is helping others to learn, these degrees can start and advance a career. Many states require that teacher aides, preschool teachers, and childcare workers or their supervisors have a degree. And new federal laws require that teacher aides in elementary, middle, and high schools have college training. Associate degree students study child development, emergency medical care, activity preparation, and more. Schools also prepare students to take national and state certification exams. Electronics. Repairers of electrical equipment and robotics, industrial machinery, and vehicles all can receive their training through associate degree programs. Included in their coursework is ample hands-on experience. Engineering technicians. For those who like science or mathematics, an engineering associate degree is one option—and there are several types. Electromechanical degree students learn to design and test robots and robotic equipment. Electrical engineering students design and test radio frequency equipment, fiber optics, computers, or laboratory equipment, depending on the degree program. Chemical engineering students prepare to work in laboratories or chemical plants. Environmental science students learn to perform and interpret environmental tests, such as those for soil, air, and water quality, and to test pollution control and recycling equipment. Health care. This is one of the largest—and most lucrative— career fields for those with an associate degree. Associate degrees are a significant source of training for several health occupations. For example, more than half of all registered nurses and dental hygienists have this degree. Physical and occupational therapy assistants usually need an associate degree to be certified. Radiation therapists; respiratory therapists; diagnostic workers, such as radiologic technicians,

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Section Three: Important Trends in Jobs and Industries diagnostic medical sonographers, and EKG technicians; and many technicians, including orthotists and clinical laboratory technicians, also often earn associate degrees. Many schools have additional requirements for admission to healthcare programs, including a minimum grade point average and completion of high school science classes. Law enforcement and fire safety. Many schools offer twoyear degrees in criminal justice, corrections, or security. Some police departments and correctional institutions require these degrees in addition to on-the-job training. Students with these degrees also may qualify for positions in private security and inventory protection in stores and other businesses. In addition to state and local laws, students learn about criminal behavior patterns and causes, law enforcement technology and procedures, and other security-related subjects. Legal. Paralegals, who conduct legal research and help to investigate cases, usually are required to have at least an associate degree. Legal assistants and secretaries, who track and prepare legal paperwork and help to conduct research, often have degrees, too. Courses in legal studies include research and writing methods, witness interviewing, recordkeeping, office and library technology, office procedures and confidentiality, and, of course, law. Library science. Library technicians often earn an associate degree, and some libraries require it for entry-level workers. Technicians with degrees often take on responsibilities, such as complex book cataloging or maintaining library computer systems, that are more complicated than those handled by high school graduates. Precision production. Semiconductor processing, automation management, plastics molding, and almost any skilled production technique can be learned at a two-year college. Many of these programs maintain close ties with local employers. Sciences. An associate degree in the natural sciences, such as biology, chemistry, or physics, prepares students for work as science technicians. Many graduates find work in laboratories, helping scientists conduct research by setting up experiments, taking measurements, and writing reports. Others work in chemical, medical, or electronics production plants, performing work such as checking products for quality and troubleshooting plant machinery. Forensic science technicians also can train with an associate degree, although bachelor’s degree holders predominate in many states. Although a degree is not always required for science technicians, it gives students more opportunities and the chance to do more challenging entry-level work. Social work. An associate degree program in social work or human services trains students to become human service workers. Workers with degrees often are given greater responsibility. Opportunities for graduates include work as child abuse case aides; resident assistants in youth homes, halfway houses, and assisted-living facilities; substance abuse counselors; and youth counselors. And many programs prepare students to become certified in their occupations.

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Veterinary technicians. Veterinary technicians nurse animals, assist during surgery, prepare medicines, and perform laboratory tests. Many technicians have an associate degree; in fact, most states now require veterinary technicians to have one, and technicians need a degree before the American College of Veterinary Medicine can certify them. Veterinary technician students study anatomy, biology, medicines and chemistry, and medical procedures.

Choosing a Career As the previous section shows, there is an associate degree to match nearly any interest. And interests are a good place to start when choosing a career. But there are additional considerations. Earnings and job prospects are two of the most important. Earnings. Overall, those with an associate degree earn more than do those whose highest level of educational attainment is a high school diploma. One reason is that many employers believe degree holders have demonstrated good communication and organization skills and the ability to commit to longterm projects—like the project of getting a degree. Another reason an associate degree boosts earnings is that employers value the specialized career training graduates have. It’s also part of the reason that workers with an occupationally specific degree often earn more than those with general, transferable degrees. But earnings vary by occupation. Accounting technicians tend to earn more than human service workers do, for example. Chart 1 shows the occupations of the top-earning associate degree holders, and the table later in this article shows the earnings of workers in various occupations at different levels of educational attainment. Starting salaries are another consideration. Employers of workers in some occupations offer higher earnings to recent graduates than they do in other occupations. The National Association of Colleges and Employers gathers statistics on starting salaries for associate degree holders. Among the occupations for which associate degree training is available, the Association survey reported the following 2001 starting salaries: Engineering technicians, electrical ........................$35,762 Engineering technicians, general ............................33,065 Computer science ....................................................32,897 Business administration ..........................................27,371 Available jobs. Job prospects also vary significantly by occupation. BLS projects that, between 2000 and 2010, among the fastest-growing occupations and occupations with plentiful job openings are those often requiring workers with an associate degree. Chart 2 shows which occupations among those in which at least 15 percent of workers have an associate degree are expected to have the most job openings between 2000 and 2010.

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America’s Top 101 Jobs for People Without a Four-Year Degree Professional and industry associations also accredit schools that train workers for their occupations. These associations evaluate school curriculums to decide if they adequately train workers for the field. The American College of Veterinary Medicine, for example, accredits veterinary technician training programs.

Choosing a School After making decisions about the type and subject of degree desired, it is time to choose a school. There are more than 1,600 schools that primarily offer associate degrees, so finding the best fit may require some detective work. Check schools’ accreditation, job placement rate, transfer rate, and course offerings. School brochures and Web sites supply information about details such as faculty qualifications, available majors, and extracurricular clubs. Basic accreditation. Several government-approved organizations evaluate and accredit schools. The approval of these organizations signals that a school meets basic academic and financial standards. There are seven accrediting organizations approved by the U.S. Department of Education, one for each of seven regions.

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Curriculum. Students can also check a school’s quality themselves, starting with the type and quality of classes offered. Look for schools that have several classes related to an occupation, including intermediate and advanced levels. Also important is the way in which courses are developed. Schools that update course materials often and ask local businesses for advice when creating curriculum often produce more marketable graduates. Schools should be able to explain how they make curriculum decisions, including what committees and advisory boards they have.

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Section Three: Important Trends in Jobs and Industries If students plan to transfer to a four-year program, they should concentrate on schools that have transfer agreements with four-year schools. Schools should be able to provide data on the number of students who have transferred— and where they have transferred. Increasingly, two-year schools are developing honors programs for students looking for additional academic challenges or the chance to participate in advanced seminars and enrichment activities. Faculty. Schools should be able to provide information about their teachers. Students seeking to earn an occupational degree might look for teachers who have relevant work experience, giving them insight into what skills are needed in the workplace. Academic credentials and other information, such as whether instructors have completed coursework and earned degrees in the subjects they teach, also can be checked. Finally, many instructors may have Web sites that provide clues to their teaching styles, such as class syllabuses. Academic facilities. The more up to date a school’s equipment is, the more up to date its students’ skills will be. In occupational programs, look for modern machinery and laboratory equipment. Library resources and access to computers and the Internet are also essential. Career services. Check into how schools help students choose and find jobs. Most schools offer job placement services and employ career guidance counselors. Some offer seminars and classes on job searching, resume writing, and interviewing. Other schools have longstanding relationships with employers who prefer to hire their graduates. A few have even more aggressive marketing campaigns: calling employers, sending student resumes to employers, and maintaining databases of student resumes for employers to search. Career services may start at the beginning of a student’s career with career interest counseling but may also include establishing internships and co-ops. Studies show that associate degree students who participate in formal work programs like these are more likely to be satisfied with their school, to be employed in a job related to their training after graduation, and to earn more money. When evaluating a school’s career services, look for measurable results. Many schools have statistics showing how many of their graduates are employed and in what types of jobs and how long it took them to find work. Schools also can provide names of employers who have hired their graduates. Academic support services. Schools also vary in the extent to which they help students succeed academically. More than 80 percent of community colleges offer remedial help to students, preparing them for college-level work. Check to see if schools offer special classes or tutoring for students seeking academic help. Schools can also offer assistance at walk-in writing centers and mathematics clinics. Consider visiting these facilities when choosing among schools.

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Contacting employers and graduates is one of the best ways to evaluate the skills a school teaches. Students with physical and learning disabilities should also ask about disability support services. These often include special test-taking arrangements, note-taking and laboratory assistance, recorded textbooks, transportation between classes, and counseling about adaptive techniques. Results. One way to judge a school is by the success of its students. How many students graduate with a degree? How many are employed? How long did it take them to find a job, and is the job related to their degree? How many are accepted to four-year schools after graduation? Most schools gather statistics like these and can show them to prospective students. Student life. College is more than classes and books. Among the elements of student life to consider are the following: ●

Housing and meals. About 20 percent of schools that offer associate degrees also offer on-campus housing for their students. The remaining 80 percent usually help students find housing by maintaining a list of available apartments and rooms for rent. Many associate degree students live with their families.

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Commuting and parking. The time it takes to get from home to class can be a major factor in a student’s success.

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Activities. Most schools offer sports, either divisional or intramural or both. They also offer students opportunities to participate in extracurricular activities such as student clubs, publications, and government.

Getting Ready Preparing for an associate degree starts in high school. More than sixty percent of two-year colleges have open admissions policies, meaning they are available to anyone with a high school diploma or a passing score on the high school equivalency exam. But good high school preparation gives students the skills they need to complete an associate degree program. The best way to get ready is to take collegepreparatory courses, including English, mathematics through algebra or higher, science, history, and social studies. For those interested in an occupational program, related vocational training classes that may be available at their high school can help to confirm an interest and teach basic skills. Some high schools offer dual enrollment programs. Through these programs, students can earn college credit toward an associate degree for work they do in high school. Tech-prep is one example. In addition to the standard curriculum, tech-prep students take occupationally focused courses during their final two years of high school. If they choose, they can continue studies in community college to build on those courses and earn a degree at an accelerated pace.

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Section Three: Important Trends in Jobs and Industries Getting in. To apply for admissions to an associate degree program, prospective students must complete an application and provide copies of their high school transcripts. Some schools require students to include an essay or statement of intent describing what they want to study and why. Schools without open admissions may require scores from the Scholastic Aptitude Test or subject-specific College Achievement Test. Even at schools that have open admissions, some types of programs have special entry requirements. Certain technical degrees, for example, require applicants to have completed advanced algebra or pre-calculus or specific science courses. Applicants to early childhood education degree programs sometimes must have experience working with children, submit to background checks, and provide references. Regardless of the subject they hope to study, almost all students must take standard assessment tests before they can register for classes. These tests measure English and mathematics skills and, sometimes, science knowledge. Based on the results, students are placed in classes that fit their skill levels. Some students begin immediately with college-level classes; others start noncredit classes to sharpen their skills. Getting credit. Students usually can take exams to get college credit for what they know, shortening the time it takes to get a degree. Just like four-year colleges and universities, two-year schools offer credit to students who take advanced placement tests, International Baccalaureate exams, and College Level Examination Program tests. Many colleges also give credit for some types of military training and experience and for portfolios that demonstrate skills learned on the job.

Learn More Reading this article is a step toward learning about associate degrees. To help make the best decisions about your career and how to train for it, continue researching at local libraries and career centers. Directories of associate degree programs, course catalogs, and career guidance materials are good sources of information. Available at most libraries and career centers are the Encyclopedia of Associations and the Occupational Outlook Handbook, both of which provide information about occupational associations. The Handbook also describes hundreds of occupations and how to train for them. Counselors at high schools and career centers have information about local associate degree programs, labor market conditions, and sources of financial aid. The U.S. Department of Education offers forms for applying for financial aid, information about accreditation, and a searchable database of available programs.

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Section Three: Important Trends in Jobs and Industries The American Association of Community Colleges has a database of community colleges, each of which grants associate degrees. The Association also publishes articles about new degree programs. Finally, the easiest way to learn about specific degree programs is to request information from the schools that offer them. Nearly every school provides free publications, and many maintain Web sites describing programs and facilities. And for more details, consider calling, writing, or visiting prospective teachers. Faculty and counselors usually are happy to speak with would-be students about courses and careers. From the Occupational Outlook Quarterly by the U.S. Department of Labor. Written by Olivia Crosby, a contributing editor to the OOQ.

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